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For those unfamiliar with Cornish, it is classed as a p-Celtic member of the family of Celtic languages, which was once spoken across much of Europe, and is now restricted to the insular world and Brittany: the only surviving languages being Cornish, Welsh and Breton (all p-Celtic), and Manx, Scots Gaelic and Irish (all q-Celtic). The relationship between these two branches is illustrated by p-Celtic words such as peduar W and their q-Celtic equivalents: cethar [Ir]. The etymology, morphology, syntax and phonology of Cornish and the other Celtic languages ultimately derive from a putative proto-Indo European or proto-Celtic language or family of languages spoken in Britain in pre-history. Cornish Onomastics is the study of onomastics (personal name data) and toponymics (place name data) in relation to Cornwall in the Early Medieval Period (350 CE to 1000 CE). These names are almost completely in the Cornish language (the Brittonic used in Cornwall and a relative of Welsh and Breton. Sometime before C6 the closely related South-western British and Western British languages started to look less like Gaulish and more like the modern p-Celtic languages, and Cornish, Welsh, Breton and Cumbric (extinct) began taking shape as modern European languages. Cornish and Breton (from South-western British) eventually diverged from each other during the last part of the Early Medieval Period. There will have been dialectic differences in these regions of Brittonic usage as well as differences in naming practice between them, but the structure and many name elements of Early Cornish personal names broadly follows that of early names found in Britain, Ireland, Gaul and Celt-Iberia. It is these names that have come down (with modification) to Cornish today including well known names such as Arthur, Gerent and Winwaloe. Cornish is one of the oldest indigenous languages of Britain, with its roots stretching back thousands of years and to the first settlements of Britain (believed to be the Late Neolithic, when farming was established).

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Rhetorical analysis is not for the faint of heart. It’s for teachers and instructors who don’t mind students feeling uncomfortable enough to take a risk. Rhetorical analysis has changed everything for me since I’ve brought these concepts into the classroom. The activity below is used to simply introduce the concept to students using a news article or a simple short text. Once we begin this conversation, their work gets better, they have more passion for analyzing literature, and they have the words to discuss this in-depth conversation. If you like this activity, check out more of the assignments on Teacher Pay Teacher and see what else might work for your students. Description of Rhetorical Appeals Activity: This worksheet is meant to give you a beginner’s knowledge of how to discuss and identify rhetorical appeals in an expository text. Expository texts are any text that is non-fiction: newspaper articles, informational journals, blogs, magazine articles are just the beginning. Note: At a later time, we can discuss how any types of videos or audio recordings can also be analyzed for rhetoric. Analyze a newspaper article for rhetoric. - Students will begin to see that any text can be analyzed for rhetoric. - Students will have a beginning knowledge of the meaning of ethos, pathos, and logos. - Print out or find a newspaper article that you are interested in. - Use the printable to discuss or write the answers to each question one by one. Know that each question will have an answer and each answer might be challenging to find. Look beyond the obvious!! - Skip any questions that you are really struggling with and come back to them later. - After you have completed as many questions as possible, go back to the ones you skipped. One that you might struggle with is this: What does the author want you to do with the information? Most likely, he/she wants you to change your opinion on a subject, describe. - Think about some additional questions about the author: What opinion does the author have about the subject? Who is the audience of the article? - Now respond to the article with your opinion: Do you agree or disagree with the author? Explain. Would you recommend or mention this article to someone you know? Who and why? Leave a comment if you downloaded this and completed the activity. Let me know which question you struggled with the most. I do plan to do a short video tutorial on this soon, so any confusion can be answered there if you let me know. Check out my most popular lesson on writing a Rhetorical Precis on Teacher Pay Teacher Here! Good luck and blessings to you!!

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The Ebola virus outbreak of 2014 in West Africa caused more than 11,000 deaths. At the time, scientists were working on several experimental vaccines and treatments but none were licensed for use in humans. Antibodies, which are special defence proteins made by our body in response to infection or vaccination, are one of the treatments that were investigated. Once the best antibodies for fighting a disease have been identified, they can be made in bulk and used as a treatment. Our latest research, published in Cell Reports, shows that antibodies isolated from volunteers who had been given an experimental Ebola vaccine were effective at defeating the virus in six guinea pigs. In all, 82 antibodies were derived from the blood cells of eleven people given the vaccine. These were combined into three separate groups, with each group containing three or four antibodies with different properties. One combination of antibodies successfully cured all six animals infected with the Ebola virus when it was administered three days after the start of the infection. Perfect combination of antibodies Vaccines can have side effects, so for people with immune system disorders, older people and pregnant women, antibodies are a safer form of treatment. Antibodies can be isolated from human blood by selecting individual B cells – the specialised immune cells that secrete antibodies. The genetic code for making an antibody is inside the B cells, which is extracted using advanced molecular techniques. Once this code is known, huge quantities of the antibody can be made in a lab. Antibodies attach to viruses and prevent them from entering cells. Each antibody has different properties, such as how and where it binds to the virus and if it can block the virus from infecting the cells. These properties were examined for the 82 antibodies. The antibodies isolated in this study from vaccinated donors had the same characteristics as antibodies isolated from immunised animals and people who have survived Ebola. Those Ebola antibodies are already well-studied and available for clinical trials in humans. There is an advantage for developing antibody treatments from healthy people who have been vaccinated – it resolves the difficult issue of handling unscreened blood samples from human survivors in remote areas, where donors may potentially harbour Ebola or other infectious viruses such as hepatitis B or HIV. Even if the particular combination of antibodies fails to treat these viruses, all is not lost. Antibodies from this study, combined with antibodies from other research groups which react to all species may provide a better treatment. Antibodies are also useful tools for studying the Ebola virus and human immune responses towards it. By tracking how antibodies attack cells, it’s possible to identify the vulnerable parts of the virus. This study shows that a human vaccine trial is a golden opportunity to isolate antibodies that can effectively be used as a treatment. This may be important for tackling emerging infections like bird flu, MERS, SARS and Chikungunya viruses, for which we have no established drugs or therapeutic antibodies. Pramila Rijal, Postdoctoral Researcher in the MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford and Alain Townsend, Professor of Molecular Immunology, University of Oxford This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license.

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Thomas Watson Hunster (1851-1929) was an accomplished artist and innovative art educator in Washington, DC. He taught art and served as Director of Drawing for African American public schools in the city's then-segregated system. Over his forty-eight year tenure, he became known as the "Father of Art" for developing—and constantly refining—an interdisciplinary art curriculum for every grade level, from kindergarten through Miner Normal School’s teacher training program. Generations of students learned to draw, a skill that he considered fundamental for understanding both one's self and the world. As Professor Hunster wrote in his 1899 annual report, "I deem it unnecessary to discuss the benefits derived from the study of drawing; the general correlation of drawing with other studies all over the country testifies to its value in education.”1 Professor Hunster's visionary leadership included introducing industrial and manual arts classes eight years earlier than offered in the city's white public schools. Further, he created a museum within Miner Normal School because most art galleries and museum barred Black visitors. He displayed the work of pupils and peers alike in well-received annual art shows. Professor Hunster primarily painted landscapes. However, he took up portraiture for a period to become more adept at detail before returning to still life paintings and his beloved landscapes.2 Hunster remained a practicing artist throughout his life, active not only in Washington, DC's art community, but also on national and international stages. He collaborated with Armstrong High School students to create nine dioramas depicting African American history for the Paris Exposition in 1900. He was also an architect of the Washington Public Schools display at the Jamestown Ter-Centennial in 1907. Student-made items and his own oil paintings showcased African American accomplishment in the arts, education, and vocational training. In both expositions, Professor Hunster used art to advance civil rights in settings where segregated displays paralleled social and legislative practice. As Professor Hunster neared retirement, he designed a house and studio in nearby Ardwick, Maryland, a community created by African American professionals in Prince Georges County. Its wooded surroundings likely inspired many paintings, and the house's unique architecture lent itself to doubling as a gallery. Upon retiring in 1922, Professor Hunster was succeeded by Hilda Wilkinson Brown (1894-1981), a notable educator and artist in her own right.4 The prolific painter continued to create and exhibit artwork until his death on August 24, 1929. A decade later, the Thomas W. Hunster Art Gallery was dedicated at the renowned Dunbar High School (formerly M Street School). A solo show at Howard University's Gallery of Art memorialized Professor Hunster with a centennial exhibition in 1951. Professor Hunster's paintings, along with paintings and marionettes made by his students, were on display at the Anacostia Community Museum's exhibition on M Street School principal Anna J. Cooper in 1981-82. Hutchinson, Louise Daniel. Anna J. Cooper: A Voice from the South. 1981, 1982. Smithsonian Institution. See page 114. Lawton, Pamela Harris. "Hunting for Hunster: A Portrait of Thomas Watson Hunster, Art Education Pioneer in the District of Columbia." Studies in Art Education, Volume 58, No. 2 (April 2017): 100-114. DOI: 10.1080/00393541.2017.1292385 Report of the Board of Trustees of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, 1870-1900. Full-view access via HathiTrust. Thomas Hunster's paintings in the Howard University Art Gallery eMuseum, https://howard.emuseum.com/people/1001/thomas-w-hunster/objects Wormley, G. Smith. “Educators of the First Half Century of Public Schools of the District of Columbia.” The Journal of Negro History 17, no. 2 (1932): 124–40. DOI: 10.2307/2714463. 1. Report of the Board of Trustees of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, 1899. Full-view access via HathiTrust. 2. As noted in a biographical sketch by Howard University professor (and later, president) Stanton L. Wormley in a 1951 catalogue for a centennial exhibition of the artist’s works at Howard University’s Gallery of Art. 3. "Ardwick" in African-American Historic and Cultural Resources in Prince George's County, Maryland National Capital Park and Planning Commission, February 2012, 90-96. 4. The film, Kindred Spirits: Artists Hilda Wilkinson Brown and Lilian Thomas Burwell, chronicles the artistic legacy of Hilda Wilkinson Brown and her niece, Lilian Thomas Burwell, who became an artist with her aunt's support and encouragement.

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Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder in which the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words or phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the person who stutters is unable to produce sounds. The term stuttering is most commonly associated with involuntary sound repetition, but it also encompasses the abnormal hesitation or pausing before speech, referred to by people who stutter as blocks, and the prolongation of certain sounds, usually vowels or semivowels. For many people who stutter, repetition is the primary problem. Blocks and prolongations are learned mechanisms to mask repetition, as the fear of repetitive speaking in public is often the main cause of psychological unease. The term “stuttering” covers a wide range of severity, encompassing barely perceptible impediments that are largely cosmetic to severe symptoms that effectively prevent oral communication.

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We can explore the farthest reaches of the Universe, but can’t even complete our own cosmic backyard. The history of astronomy has been a history of receding horizons. The invention of the telescope took us beyond our naked-eye capabilities, to millions (and later billions) of stars within our own Milky Way. The application of photography and multi-wavelength astronomy to telescopes brought us beyond our own galaxy, to the distant “island Universes” populating all the space we can access. Yet, for all we know about the distant Universe, there still may be undiscovered worlds in our own Solar System. Why is that? Joseph Cummens wants to know, asking: If scientists can use telescopes to hunt planets, galaxies, exoplanets, etc., then why can’t we scan our solar system for the elusive Planet X or other celestial bodies within our home system? As far as we’ve peered into the Universe, we still have a long way to go, even in our own backyard. There’s a key word you need to understand that puts the entire question into perspective: magnitude. From an astronomical perspective, every object has an intrinsic brightness to it, defined by the amount of light it gives off. For an object like our Sun, this is due to its own luminance, since the Sun creates its own energy and emits it in all directions. For an object like our Moon, this is due to its reflected luminance, since it only reflects the light from other objects. The Moon has no self-luminance of its own. If you look at the Moon during its crescent phase, you can actually make out the signal from the lunar surface that isn’t illuminated by the Sun. This isn’t some trick of the Moon’s atmosphere (since it has virtually none), but rather is due to Earthshine: sunlight reflected off of the Earth and onto the Moon. The difference in brightness between these examples showcases how extreme the difference between reflected luminance and self-luminance are. But there’s another thing that’s exemplified by the extreme brightness differences between the Sun and Moon, and the Moon and everything else in the night sky. The Moon has no right to appear brighter than every star, planet, or galaxy in the sky based on its own pitiful magnitude. Intrinsically, the Moon is the faintest object visible with the naked eye from anywhere on Earth. Yet it appears brighter than everything except the Sun! The reason for this is that the Moon is so close, and that intrinsic brightness isn’t the same as observed — or apparent — brightness. The farther away an object is, the less bright it appears. But this isn’t just some general rule we apply, there’s a quantitative relationship that allows us to determine how bright-or-faint an object appears based on its distance. Put simply, brightness falls off as the inverse of the distance squared, or b ~ 1/r². Place an object twice as far away, and it will appear one-fourth as bright. Place it ten times as distant, and it appears just one-hundredth as bright. And place it a thousand times as far from you as it started, and it will appear just one-millionth as bright as it was initially. For any object that emits its own light, these two factors determine an object’s apparent brightness: the intrinsic brightness and the distance it is from the observer. These two factors are, arguably, the two biggest ones to consider when we determine what type of telescope to build. Want to see something fainter? You’ll need to collect more light, which either means building a bigger telescope or observing the same portion of the sky for longer. If money and engineering were no consideration, you’d opt for the bigger telescope every time. Build your telescope twice as large, and you not only gather four times as much light, but you double your resolution. To gather four times as much light by observing longer, you need to spend four times the amount of time, and gain no such advantage in resolution. The biggest telescopes we have are capable of viewing objects to the greatest resolution possible, and resolving their details in the shortest possible time. There’s also the consideration of field-of-view. What’s your goal? Is it to see the faintest object possible? Or is it to view the greatest possible amount of the Universe? There’s a trade-off to make. Your telescope can gather a certain amount of light, and it can either do that by viewing a small region to great precision, or a large region to lesser precision. Just as a microscope can double its magnification by halving the diameter of its field-of-view, a telescope can see deeper into a region of the Universe by narrowing its field-of-view. Different telescopes are optimized for different purposes. The trade-off is severe, however. If we want to go as deep as possible, we can only do it in one small region of the sky. This is the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field. A tiny region of space was imaged, in a variety of wavelengths, for a total of 23 days. The amount of information that was revealed is breathtaking: we found 5,500 galaxies in this small patch of sky. The faintest objects in this patch are literally a factor of 10,000,000,000 (ten billion) times fainter than what you can see at the limit of your naked eye. Due to its large-diameter mirror, its observations at a variety of wavelengths, its location in space, as well as its high magnification and small field-of-view, Hubble can reveal the faintest galaxies ever discovered. But there’s a cost: this image, which took 23 days of data to create, spans only 1/32,000,000th of the sky. On the other hand, you can take a view like this. This was created with the Pan-STARRS telescope, which views the entire visible sky multiple times every night from its location here on Earth. It’s comparable in size to the Hubble Space Telescope, but it’s optimized for wide-field imaging, choosing to value sky-coverage over magnification. As a result, it can reveal objects located practically anywhere on the sky; only the extreme south pole region is cut off due to the telescope’s location in the northern hemisphere. Pan-STARRS, which stands for Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System, grabs some 75% of the sky, and is great for detecting changes between points of light. It can find comets, asteroids, Kuiper belt objects and more like no other. But it can only find objects that are thousands of times brighter than the faintest ones Hubble can detect. As much as we’d like to, we cannot simply survey the entire outer Solar System at the required magnitude to discover everything that’s out there. A super-deep, super-faint, all-sky survey will likely never be a possibility due to technological limitations; we can go faint-and-narrow or bright-and-wide, but not both, simultaneously. There’s also one more limiting factor that goes way back to the beginning: these objects are only reflecting sunlight. If you look to the outer Solar System at two identical objects, but one’s twice as distant as the other, it’s actually only one-sixteenth as bright. This is because by time the sunlight hits the farther object, it’s only one-quarter as bright, but then that reflected light has to travel double the distance back to our eyes, making the overall apparent brightness fall off as b~ 1/r⁴. Even if we had a Jupiter-sized world located in the Oort Cloud, we wouldn’t have found it yet. We have plenty of telescopes capable of seeing incredibly faint objects, but we need to know where to point them. We have plenty of telescopes capable of surveying huge areas of the sky, but they can only see the brighter objects; faint ones are out of reach. And for objects in our own Solar System, because they reflect sunlight rather than emit their own, self-generated light, they cannot be seen by any modern telescope if they’re located beyond a certain distance. As with all things, the scanning we can do is powerful, interesting, and educational. It has revealed thousands upon thousands of objects within our own Solar System, from planets to moons to asteroids to Kuiper belt objects and more. But as telescope technology and sky coverage improve, we only see smaller, fainter, and more distant objects. We push the limits, but we never remove them. The science of astronomy is a story of receding horizons. But no matter how deep we go, there will always be a limit to what we can observe. Send in your Ask Ethan questions to startswithabang at gmail dot com!Ethan Siegel is the author of Beyond the Galaxy and Treknology. You can pre-order his third book, currently in development: the Encyclopaedia Cosmologica.

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Date: Jan. 29, 2014 at 6:30 p.m. EST Audience: Educators of students in grades 6-8 This 90-minute Web seminar features two activities from NASA’s On the Moon Educator Guide: “On Target” and “Feel the Heat.” In this Web seminar participants will receive an overview of both activities and learn strategies for implementing them in the classroom. In “On Target,” students design and test a method of consistently delivering a payload to a designated target. In “Feel the Heat,” students use the engineering design process to build, test and improve a solar hot water heater. Register today! NASA space scientist Jared Espley talks about the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission, or MAVEN, why it’s important to study the Martian atmosphere and what we hope to learn from the mission. NASA Now Minutes are excerpts from a weekly current events program available for classroom use at the NASA Explorer Schools Virtual Campus. The full-length classroom video will be available on the Virtual Campus beginning Jan. 22, 2014.

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By Gwendolyn Hawks-Blue Diversity and Inclusion Team co-chair Millions of lives have been affected by the actions and work of Black people of African descent. Many people know little of this history. When we become aware of it, we see more accurately the important part Black people played in developing modern society. The individuals in this article made Responsible Choices that brought good into the world. They initiated or created processes and inventions that saved lives, established opportunities for ethnicities to work together, labored to build God’s shalom and unity among ethnic groups, and helped eliminate discrimination. I am so pleased we are acknowledging and celebrating a few of their actions. Enslaved Onesimus was a gift to Puritan minister Cotton Mather from his congregation in 1706. Onesimus told Mather about the centuries-old tradition of inoculation practiced in Africa. Mather persuaded Zabdiel Boylston to experiment with the procedure when smallpox hit Boston in 1721. Onesimus’s traditional African practice was used to inoculate American soldiers during the Revolutionary War, introducing the concept of inoculation to the USA. (See www.pbs.org/video/benjamin-franklins-tragic-association-with-inoculation-ldjsc.) Dr. Daniel Hale Williams practiced at a time when Black people could not receive care at White hospitals, and Black doctors and nurses could not practice at them. Columbia University Irving Medical Center reports: Determined that Chicago should have a hospital where both [B]lack and [W]hite doctors could study and where [B]lack nurses could receive training, Williams rallied for a hospital open to all races. After several months of hard work, he opened Provident Hospital and Training School for Nurses on May 4, 1891, the country’s first interracial hospital and nursing school. Provident also was the first Black-owned and operated hospital in the USA. George Graves and William Fuller, appointees of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, succeeded in creating congregations made of White and Black people in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Although challenged by racial prejudices and the mindsets of the day that cautioned against interracial engagements, both men expressed the desire to take the gospel to all and to engage with other religious groups. Graves wrote: In the name of Jesus Christ, let all Christians unite, and let us as ministers of Christ gather people together, high and low, rich and poor, to the glory of Christ and the benefit of humanity. Harry Passman was among the White converts William Fuller baptized into the church. Because of his Jewish heritage, Passman represented the Reorganized Church in Palestine throughout the 1920s. Garrett Morgan in 1912 invented the “Safety Hood and Breathing Device,” which came to be known as the gas mask. Also, after seeing an automobile collide with a horse and carriage, he invented an automatic traffic signal and sold the device to General Electric. Today’s modern traffic signal lights are based on his design. Dr. Charles Drew in 1939 developed a technique that dramatically increased the shelf life of blood and plasma. His development of the blood plasma bank has given a second chance of life to millions. Pauli Murray’s vision was for a society that valued diversity and rallied around common human virtues. A graduate of Yale Law School, Murray’s written works profoundly challenged the legal foundation of racial discrimination and contributed immensely to the dismantling of segregation and discrimination. The first Black woman ordained as an Episcopal priest, Murray also co-founded the National Organization for Women. This minuscule bit of history helps dispel myths, inaccuracies, and damaging omissions that distort perceptions about Black people. Individuals recognized in this article focused beyond themselves and demonstrated courage, perseverance, and commitment to live their unique callings. Facing tremendous challenges, they each made Responsible Choices that were for the good of all. Their accomplishments show how all of society benefits when individuals are able to develop their talents and have their gifts received. Hopefully, awareness of these stories will expand our appreciation and celebration of the rich diversity of history and inspire us to make choices for the good of all, even when challenged.

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- Scientists have detected phosphine in the clouds of Venus. - Phosphine is a gas that can be produced by both biological and non-biological processes, but it is considered to be a potential biomarker for life. - The researchers considered all possible explanations for the presence of phosphine on Venus, including both biological and non-biological sources. - Biological processes are the most likely explanation for the presence of phosphine on Venus, but more research is needed to confirm. - The discovery of phosphine on Venus is a significant step forward in the search for life beyond Earth. Venus is the second planet from the Sun, and it is often called Earth’s twin because of its similar size and composition. However, Venus is a very different place from Earth. It has a dense atmosphere that is mostly made up of carbon dioxide, and the surface temperature is hot enough to melt lead. Because of its harsh environment, Venus has long been considered to be an unlikely place for life to exist. However, a new study published in the journal Nature Astronomy suggests that Venus may be home to aerial lifeforms that float in a thin slice of habitable atmosphere, surrounded by otherwise hellish conditions. The study was led by Clara Sousa-Silva, a researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Sousa-Silva and her team used two different telescopes to detect phosphine in the clouds of Venus. Phosphine is a colorless, flammable gas that has a garlic-like odor. It is produced by a variety of industrial processes, but it is also a byproduct of certain biological processes. On Earth, phosphine is produced by anaerobic bacteria, which are organisms that can live without oxygen. Because of its association with life, phosphine is considered to be a potential biomarker for extraterrestrial life. A biomarker is a substance or characteristic that can be used to indicate the presence of life. Sousa-Silva and her team considered all possible explanations for the presence of phosphine on Venus, including both biological and non-biological sources. One non-biological source of phosphine is lightning. Lightning can produce phosphine through the interaction of nitrogen and phosphorus in the air. However, the researchers calculated that lightning could not produce enough phosphine to explain the amount that has been detected on Venus. Another possible non-biological source of phosphine is volcanoes. Volcanoes can release phosphine into the atmosphere through the interaction of lava and water. However, the researchers found that there were not enough active volcanoes on Venus to produce the amount of phosphine that has been detected. This leaves biological processes as the most likely explanation for the presence of phosphine on Venus. However, it is important to note that the detection of phosphine is not definitive proof of life. More research is needed to confirm that the phosphine on Venus is indeed produced by living organisms. - Biological processes: Phosphine is produced by anaerobic bacteria on Earth, and it is possible that similar organisms exist in the clouds of Venus. - Non-biological processes: Lightning and volcanoes can produce phosphine, but the researchers calculated that these processes could not produce enough phosphine to explain the amount that has been detected on Venus. The discovery of phosphine on Venus is a significant step forward in the search for life beyond Earth. It suggests that life may be more common in the universe than we thought, and it raises the possibility that life can exist in even the most extreme environments. More research is needed to confirm the source of the phosphine on Venus and to determine whether or not it is produced by living organisms. However, this discovery is a reminder that we are still so much we don’t know about our universe, and it gives us hope that we may not be alone.

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i. People obtain groundwater through tube wells and handpumps. ii. Three forms of water are solid, liquid and gas. iii. The water bearing layer of the earth is aquifer. iv. The process of water seepage into the ground is called infiltration. v. The amount of water recommended by the United Nations for drinking, washing, cooking and maintaining proper hygiene is a minimum of 50 litres per person per day. i. The freshwater stored in the ground is much more than that present in the rivers and lakes of the world. True ii. Water shortage is a problem faced only by people living in rural areas. False iii. Water from rivers is the only source for irrigation in the fields. False iv. Rain is the ultimate source of water. True v. Bawri was the traditional way of collecting water. True Ans. 22 March is celebrated as the world water day. Ans. The water found below the water table is called groundwater. Ans. The process of seeping of water into the ground is called infiltration. Ans. We celebrate water day every year to attract the attention of everybody towards the importance of conserving water. Ans. At places the groundwater is stored between layers of hard rock below the water table. This is known as an aquifer. Ans. The main processes involved in the water cycle are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, runoff, and percolation. Ans. The water cycle is important because its process provides Earth with the natural, continual water supply all living things need in order to survive. Ans. The rainwater and water from other sources such as rivers and ponds seeps through the soil and fills the empty spaces and cracks deep below the ground. Ans. Most towns and cities have water supply system maintained by the civic bodies. The water is drawn from nearby lakes, rivers, ponds or wells. The water is supplied through a network of pipes. Ans. Most of the water that we get as rainfall just flows away. This is a waste of precious natural resource. The rainwater can be used to recharge the groundwater. This is referred to as water harvesting or rainwater harvesting. Ans. We can use drip irrigation to minimise the use of water. Drip irrigation is a technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubings which deliver water directly at the base of the plant. Ans. The water table does not get affected as long as we draw as much water as is replenished by natural processes. However, water table may go down if the water is not sufficiently replenished. Ans. A farmer using water in the field can also use water economically by using drip irrigation technique. Drip irrigation is a technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubings which deliver water directly at the base of the plant. Download to practice offline.

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The ability of 10-11-year -old children to identify basic tastes and their liking towards unfamiliar foods The involvement of children in sensory evaluation and consumer research continues to increase and has become crucial in the food industry, as children sensory perceptions differ from adults. Research on basic taste sensitivity in children provides contradictory results, with most of the studies not considering the familiarity aspect of the food samples. Familiarity can lead children to memories of the food which are able to influence their taste perception and liking. This study aims to investigate the ability of 10 to 11-year old children in identifying sweetness, saltiness, sourness, and bitterness in unfamiliar food samples. The taste identification data was collected from 98 children using 19 food samples representing the four basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. For each food sample, the children evaluated their familiarity, the basic taste(s) they perceived using the check-all-that-apply (CATA) method and scored their liking. Their basic taste identification ability was investigated by comparing their results to trained panellists as a reference. The food samples were unfamiliar to most of the children (never tasted by 85% of the children on average). Correspondence Analysis (CA) showed that children were able to identify the basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter in the unfamiliar foods, with a high congruency to the trained panellists. However, children’s identification ability was lower when combinations of dominant basic tastes occurred. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated a positive correlation between the presence of sweet taste and the children’s liking while sour and bitter tastes showed the opposite.

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Broccoli is a tough vegetable that thrives in the cooler months of the year. In most sections of the country, two crops per year (spring and fall) are conceivable, thanks to ongoing improvements in quick maturity and heat tolerance, which extends the life of broccoli through all except the warmest periods of the season. Broccoli is a nutrient-dense vegetable that can be prepared in numerous ways. It can be eaten raw, mildly sautéed, or added to stir fries, soups, pasta, and rice-based dishes. Growing broccoli is also not difficult if you follow a few simple guidelines. When To Plant Broccoli Broccoli is a cool-season crop, so plant it in the early to mid-spring for an early summer yield, or in the mid to late summer for a fall crop. Because high temperatures will impair the development of the broccoli plant, the goal is to have broccoli mature before or after the projected high temperatures. Broccoli seeds can germinate in soil temperatures as low as 40°F, but warmer soil is preferable and will hasten development. Broccoli can be started indoors or outdoors a few weeks before the final spring frost date for spring planting. When planting broccoli seeds, it is best to: - Start seeds indoors 6 to 8 weeks before your last frost date. - Sow seeds outdoors 2 to 3 weeks before your last frost date, or as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring. - Sow seeds outside 85 to 100 days before the first fall frost, when soil and ambient temperatures are high, for fall plantings. Planting Broccoli - Soil, Sunlight, and Water Broccoli thrives in cool weather, ample sun, plenty of water, and nutrient-rich soil. Plant your broccoli in a location that receives at least 6 hours of direct sunlight each day and has healthy, well-drained, moist soil rich with organic content. For optimal growth and to avoid clubroot disease, the soil pH should be between 6.0 and 7.0. Follow these steps to set your broccoli plants up for success: - Sow seeds 1/2 inch deep and 3 inches apart if beginning seeds outside. - Thin seedlings when they reach a height of 2 to 3 inches, spacing them 12 to 20 inches apart. - Plant transplants that are 4 to 6 weeks old outside in holes somewhat deeper than their container depth, 12 to 20 inches apart, if you began seeds indoors. - Space rows of broccoli 3 feet apart to allow for ample growth. - After planting, water your broccoli seeds and bed very well to promote growth. Broccoli Pests, Diseases, and Solutions You may encounter various pests and plants diseases that can harm your broccoli plant from growing. The following is a list of common problems and solutions: - Aphids - Symptons of aphid pests include curled yellow leaves, distorted flowers, and black mold. To combat aphids, simply put banana or orange peels around the plant and gently spray your broccoli plant with water to knock them off. - Cabbage Loopers - You may have a cabbage looper infestation if you notice large holes in leaves, defoliation, or stunted growth. Cabbage loopers can be handpicked off your broccoli plant or spray with a natural pesticide. - Cabbageworms - Cabbageworms leave large holes and you may also notice yellowish eggs laid on leaves. Cabbageworms need to be handpicked off of your broccoli plant to get rid of them. - Clubroot - Clubroot is a common problem in broccoli plants. Your plants leave's will appear yellow and the roots will be swollen. Unfortunately, you will need to dig up and destroy the affected plants. Ensure that your soil maintains a PH of about 7.2 to combat and prevent clubroot. - Nitrogren Deficiency - If your broccoli plant is nitrogen deficient, the bottom leaves will turn yellow and slowly continue towards the top of your plant. Supplement your broccoli plant with a high nitrogen fertilizer to combat this. There are more plant diseases and pests that can negatively affect your broccoli plant, but these are the most common issues. It is important to inspect your broccoli plant daily to ensure that these problems are not present. Keep any dogs or pets away from your broccoli. Broccoli Growing Tips If you're growing broccoli seedlings inside, make sure they get plenty of light to avoid getting lanky. If the seedlings develop lengthy stems, repot them deeper and then supply additional light. If the seedlings develop lengthy stems, repot them deeper and then supply additional light. Before planting spring seedlings in the garden, wait until the weather is frost-free. Make sure to harden off broccoli seedlings by gradually exposing them to direct sunshine and wind. Broccoli thrives under direct sunlight. Select a garden location that receives at least 6 to 8 hours of direct sunshine every day. To promote consistent development, cultivate broccoli in organic, rich soil and nourish seedlings and early transplants. Too much nitrogen stimulates excessive leaf growth, so use a balanced fertilizer. Because broccoli grows best in damp, but not soggy soil, water it frequently. Mulch to keep weeds at bay and soil moisture levels stable. Plant broccoli in an area of the garden where you haven't cultivated cabbage crops for four years to avoid disease and pests. Harvesting and Storing Your Broccoli Plant The unopened bloom of the broccoli plant is the portion that can be eaten. Harvest the center head when it's completely matured but before the individual buds emerge into little golden flowers. A 4 to 7 inch tight head with big, packed blossom buds is a sign that broccoli is ready to harvest. Harvest as soon as the buds begin to open. It's too late to pluck a plant that has flowered. Remove the center flower head with a sharp knife to harvest. Leaving the broccoli plant in the ground fosters the development of side flower heads. These lateral flower heads, albeit smaller than the core head, allow gardeners to gather broccoli for extended periods of time. Fresh-picked broccoli heads should be harvested in the cool morning hours and refrigerated as soon as possible to protect their freshness. Broccoli heads that have not been washed can be kept in the refrigerator for 3 to 5 days. Frozen broccoli can last for up to 1 year. And there you have it! A complete guide on how to grow broccoli. Simply follow the steps & advice listed above and you will be on the way to your first broccoli harvest. Growing your own vegetables can be a rewarding and nutritious experience. Knowing that your broccoli is free of pesticides and herbicides can give you peace of mind knowing that you aren't eating anything unhealthy. Good luck and have fun growing!

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Global population is about to tick over the 8 billion mark in November, and reach 9 billion by 2050. And while the population is growing, so is food insecurity. About 2.3 billion people were moderately or severely food insecure last year—350 million more than in 2019. Food insecurity and hunger are partly a supply problem. The COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, and conflicts have combined to disrupt supply chains and drive up food and fertilizer prices. The Ukraine conflict in particular impacted food security by interrupting grain and cooking oil supplies, and is largely responsible for food prices rising 30 percent since 2021. Lower production and export of fertilizers from Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus undermine food production around the world, with low- and middle-income countries hardest hit, especially in Africa, where one third of all those who experienced food insecurity last year live. To solve these problems, we’re focusing primarily on boosting food production through procedural and technological advances. Yet food supply is just one dimension of the problem. The other major ones are unequal access to what food is produced, and population growth, which continuously drives up food demand. Food insecurity and inequality are strongly connected. Not only does food insecurity affect certain regions disproportionately, it manifests differently in different countries. In upper-middle and high-income economies, malnutrition is likely to cause obesity. In low- and lower-middle income economies, it’s likely to result in stunting or wasting. Global frameworks like the Sustainable Development Goals address the root causes of inequality, for example by working to eradicate extreme poverty. But the other variable, population size, is not adequately addressed, and needs greater representation on the food security agenda. Reproductive autonomy, the power to decide and control contraceptive use, pregnancy, and childbearing, could have a powerful influence on food security. Countries with the highest fertility rates have higher food insecurity, and conversely, those with lower fertility rates have lower food insecurity. Half of all pregnancies worldwide—120 million—are unintended. If every person had full reproductive autonomy, that number would dwindle. High fertility rates would decline, and so would food insecurity. Today some 257 million women around the world who want to avoid pregnancy lack access to safe, modern methods of contraception. Among the obstacles in the way are supply challenges, fear of side effects, and opposition from family members. There are also structural barriers, such the low priority given to sexual and reproductive health across by government policies and services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, sexual and reproductive health services were classified as non-essential in many countries, contributing to more unintended pregnancies. Nigeria, for example, with a population of over 200 million, is the seventh largest country in the world. It is growing so fast, with a fertility rate of 5.3 children per woman, that it is set to become the third largest country by 2050. Only 12 percent of married women in the country use a modern method of contraception. Close to 60 percent of the population faces moderate to severe food insecurity. Absent new efforts to bend the growth curve, population-driven food insecurity will get worse. Between 2017 and 2050, populations of 26 African countries are expected to at least double their current size. In addition to supply-side solutions, efforts to improve food security need to focus on the demand side by working on population dynamics. That includes incorporating demographic projections into plans for boosting agricultural production, especially around rapidly expanding urban areas. It should also include boosting family planning and contraceptive use. Countries with the lower uptake of modern contraceptives tend to have high fertility rates and higher food insecurity. Compared to other continents, Africa has the lowest prevalence of contraceptive use, the highest fertility rates, and the highest food insecurity. Rapid population growth strongly correlates with poverty, hunger, and malnutrition. The inter-connections between population dynamics, fertility levels, contraceptive uptake, and food security can’t be ignored any longer. In fact, they should be harnessed to reduce food insecurity, improve reproductive autonomy, and help build to a more just and equitable future. Articles like the one you just read are made possible through the generosity of Food Tank members. Can we please count on you to be part of our growing movement? Become a member today by clicking here. Photo courtesy of Annie Spratt, Unsplash

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In a striking visualization, NASA has transformed thirty years of complex data into a chilling illustration of the world’s rising sea levels. The animated graphic, masterfully crafted by Andrew J. Christensen of the NASA Scientific Visualization Studio, showcases the growing severity of our climate crisis. Between 1993 and 2022, sea levels have risen by over 9 centimeters, or roughly 3.5 inches. This might not seem substantial, yet when represented as water encroaching a ship’s window, the danger becomes palpable. These tangible visualizations help us understand the profound, albeit silent, impacts of climate change on our planet. Despite their seeming stillness, our oceans are warming, absorbing a staggering 90% of the heat added to the planet’s system. Coastal communities worldwide are experiencing these rising sea levels, with saltwater lapping on their doorsteps. An alarming future awaits millions more, as coastlines are expected to ‘disappear’ unless greenhouse gas emissions are dramatically reduced. Satellites have routinely measured sea levels since 1993 by bouncing microwave signals off the ocean’s surface. This data, coupled with measurements from coastal tide gauges, ice masses information, and greenhouse gas emissions records, allows scientists to make more accurate predictions about future sea levels. However, the challenge lies not only in gathering this data but also in communicating the implications of these findings to the world’s populace. It’s a sobering reality that the communities contributing the least to global warming will suffer the most. The planet’s atmosphere, once a comforting blanket, now weighs heavy with carbon dioxide emissions, causing Earth to swelter. As seawater heats and expands, sea levels rise, further exacerbated by melting ice sheets and storm surges. These visualizations provide an essential tool in raising awareness and underlining the urgency of our predicament. As the planet’s ‘vital signs’ show increasing strain, the time to act is now. Scientists are imploring us to understand and confront the imminent threat of climate change, lest we watch our world change irreversibly from the window of our sinking ship.

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Computing technology continues to advance at an astounding rate, with new breakthroughs and innovations regularly emerging from the field of computer science. From artificial intelligence (AI) to quantum computing, cutting-edge technologies are shaping the future of how we process information, solve complex problems, and interact with machines. In this article, we will explore some of the latest advancements in computer science that are revolutionizing various industries and opening up new possibilities. One of the most fascinating areas of computer science currently making waves is artificial intelligence. AI is no longer just a concept limited to sci-fi movies; it has become an integral part of our daily lives. Machine learning, a subset of AI, enables computers to learn and make predictions or decisions without explicit programming. This cutting-edge technology has been successfully applied in various fields, including healthcare, finance, and transportation. In healthcare, AI algorithms have demonstrated exceptional capabilities, surpassing human accuracy in diagnosing diseases and predicting treatment outcomes. By feeding massive amounts of medical data to AI systems, researchers and doctors can identify patterns and correlations that may go unnoticed by human eyes. AI-driven tools can detect early signs of diseases like cancer or heart conditions, allowing for more timely interventions and potentially saving countless lives. Machine learning is also transforming the financial sector by enhancing fraud detection, risk assessment, and investment strategies. AI-powered algorithms can analyze enormous quantities of financial data, identify fraudulent patterns, and make predictions on market behaviors with higher accuracy. This technology is helping banks and financial institutions prevent frauds, minimize risks, and make informed investment decisions. Another cutting-edge technology in computer science that holds immense promise is quantum computing. Quantum computers harness the bizarre principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computations at speeds exponentially faster than classical computers. While still in its early stages, quantum computing has the potential to revolutionize fields like cryptography, drug discovery, and optimization problems. Cryptography, the science of secure communication, relies on complex mathematical algorithms that can take classical computers years or even centuries to break. However, quantum computers have the potential to crack these cryptographic codes with astonishing speed, raising concerns regarding data security. Nevertheless, researchers are working on developing new encryption techniques that can resist quantum attacks, ensuring data security in the post-quantum era. In the field of drug discovery, quantum computing can significantly accelerate the process of identifying new molecules with desired properties for developing new medications. Quantum simulators can model and simulate complex molecular structures, allowing researchers to understand the behavior of atoms and molecules at the quantum level. This innovation holds promise for designing new drugs more quickly and accurately, potentially revolutionizing the pharmaceutical industry. Moreover, quantum computing offers powerful optimization capabilities. Optimization problems, such as route planning, scheduling, or resource allocation, often involve a vast number of possibilities that classical computers struggle to efficiently explore. Quantum computers, on the other hand, can process and analyze large sets of possibilities simultaneously, enabling faster and more efficient solutions to complex optimization problems. The advancements in computer science are not limited to AI and quantum computing. Innovations in computer vision, robotics, data analytics, and cybersecurity are also transforming industries and opening up new avenues for research and development. From autonomous vehicles and drones to smart homes and cities, computers equipped with vision and sensing capabilities are fast becoming our eyes and hands in the digital world. In conclusion, the latest advancements in computer science are reshaping the way we live, work, and interact with technology. Artificial intelligence is revolutionizing numerous industries, enabling machines to learn from data and make informed decisions, while quantum computing holds the potential to solve complex problems that are beyond the reach of classical computers. As technology continues to advance, the possibilities are endless, and the future of computer science holds tremendous promise.

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Oak forests are valuable ecosystems that provide numerous ecological benefits. To preserve them, sustainable logging practices, effective forest fire management, wildlife conservation measures, and invasive species management must be implemented. Supporting local conservation organizations, participating in volunteer programs, and spreading awareness also contribute to preservation efforts. Oak forests are found in various regions and offer clean air, water, recreational opportunities, and contribute to local economies. Preventing illegal logging requires global cooperation, stricter regulations, and increased law enforcement. Preserving oak forests is crucial for future generations and requires the collective responsibility of protecting these valuable ecosystems. Preserving Oak Forests Oak forests are not only visually stunning but also provide numerous ecological benefits. They support diverse plant and animal species, contribute to carbon sequestration, improve air and water quality, and offer recreational opportunities. However, these vital ecosystems are facing numerous threats that need urgent attention. In this article, we will discuss strategies for protecting oak forests and preserving this invaluable resource for future generations. 1. Sustainable Logging Practices One of the key strategies for preserving oak forests is implementing sustainable logging practices. This involves maintaining a balance between harvesting trees for timber and ensuring the long-term health of the forest. Selective logging, where only mature trees are harvested and efforts are made to minimize the environmental impact, helps sustain the forest ecosystem while meeting economic needs. 2. Forest Fire Management Forest fires can have a devastating impact on oak forests. Developing and implementing effective forest fire management strategies is crucial for their preservation. Regular controlled burns can help reduce the accumulation of flammable materials, decrease the likelihood of intense wildfires, and promote the growth of oak seedlings and understory vegetation. 3. Wildlife Conservation Preserving oak forests also involves protecting the diverse wildlife species that depend on them. Implementing measures to conserve and enhance habitat quality, such as creating wildlife corridors and preserving old-growth trees, can help support a healthy ecosystem. Additionally, promoting public awareness and involvement in wildlife conservation efforts is essential. 4. Invasive Species Management Invasive species pose a significant threat to oak forests, as they outcompete native vegetation and disrupt the ecosystem balance. Implementing invasive species management plans that include early detection, rapid response, and public education can help prevent the spread of harmful plants and animals, preserving the integrity of oak forests. Q: How can I contribute to oak forest preservation? A: There are several ways you can contribute to oak forest preservation. You can support local conservation organizations, participate in volunteer programs focused on forest restoration, or simply spread awareness about the importance of oak forests and the need for their protection. Q: Are oak forests only found in specific regions? A: While oak forests are most abundant in temperate regions, they can be found in various parts of the world, including North America, Europe, and parts of Asia. Oak species have adapted to different climates and are essential components of many ecosystems globally. Q: How does preserving oak forests benefit local communities? A: Preserving oak forests brings numerous benefits to local communities. These forests provide clean air, clean water, recreational opportunities, and contribute to local economies by supporting timber and tourism industries. They also provide cultural and historical significance. Q: What can be done to prevent illegal logging in oak forests? A: Preventing illegal logging requires a combination of global cooperation, stricter regulations, and increased law enforcement efforts. Implementing monitoring systems, promoting sustainable logging practices, and educating local communities on the environmental and economic impacts of illegal logging are crucial steps. Preserving oak forests is critical for the well-being of our planet and future generations. By implementing sustainable logging practices, managing forest fires, conserving wildlife, and effectively dealing with invasive species, we can protect these valuable ecosystems. It is our responsibility to ensure the longevity of oak forests and secure the multitude of benefits they provide for both nature and humankind.

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Warmer oceans lead to more intense hurricanes and more moisture, which brings more intense rain and flooding The world’s oceans had the hottest temperatures ever recorded in 2022, demonstrating the profound changes that gas emissions have brought to the climate. More than 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions is absorbed into the oceans. The data, starting in 1958, show an inexorable rise in ocean temperatures, with warming accelerating after 1990. Sea surface temperatures significantly affect the weather. Warmer oceans lead to more intense hurricanes and more moisture, which brings more intense rain and flooding. Warmer waters also expand, raising sea levels and endangering coastal cities. Ocean temperature is much less affected by natural climate variability than atmospheric temperature, making the oceans an unmistakable indicator of global warming. Last year was the fourth or fifth warmest for surface air temperatures. During 2022, the third consecutive La Niña event occurred, which is the coldest phase of an irregular climate cycle centered in the Pacific that affects global weather patterns. When El Niño returns, global air temperatures will rise even more. The international team of scientists who produced the new ocean heat analysis concluded: “Earth’s energy and water cycles have been profoundly altered by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, leading to pervasive changes in the Earth’s climate system.” Professor John Abraham, at the University of St Thomas in Minnesota and a member of the study team, said: “If you want to measure global warming, you have to measure where the warming is going and over 90% is going to the oceans. “Measuring ocean temperatures is the most accurate way to determine how out of balance our planet is. We have more extreme weather due to warming oceans and this has huge consequences around the world.” Read the News today and get the latest news. Follow Skai.gr on Google News and be the first to know all the news. I have worked as a journalist for over 10 years, and my work has been featured on many different news websites. I am also an author, and my work has been published in several books. I specialize in opinion writing, and I often write about current events and controversial topics. I am a very well-rounded writer, and I have a lot of experience in different areas of journalism. I am a very hard worker, and I am always willing to put in the extra effort to get the job done.

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en

Scientific evidence highlights that a poorly managed environment is a recipe for increased disease burden in the world. When sanitation is poor, water-borne diseases are a common occurrence. In recognition of the interplay between health and the environment, experts in these sectors have been working to promote the one health concept, an integrated and unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimise the health of people, animals and ecosystems amid the climate crisis. The concept recognises that the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the wider environment, including ecosystems, are closely linked and interdependent. Collaboration across the sectors is expected to accelerate health protection by addressing health challenges such as the emergence of infectious diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and food safety and promote the health and integrity of ecosystems. Due to poor environmental management, climate change has emerged as a major threat to global health, with the most vulnerable populations facing the greatest impact. Unfortunately, those who contribute least to the climate crisis often suffer the severe consequences. It is estimated that about 824 million people globally are malnourished; out of that number, 58.7 million children are in Africa. Additionally, millions in Africa lack basic water and sanitation, leading to significant child mortality from diarrhoea. It is further estimated that 58 per cent of infectious diseases globally have been intensified by changes in climate. This has ripple effects on public health, the economy, the environment, and education. The situation is predicted to worsen with rising global temperatures, threatening progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Universal Health Coverage. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment report warns that climate change affects both physical and mental health and can exacerbate humanitarian crises and recognises the need for action. Reads the report: “Deep, rapid and sustained mitigation and accelerated implementation of adaptation actions in this decade would reduce projected losses and damages for humans and ecosystems, and deliver many co-benefits, especially for air quality and health.” In recognising the importance of health and for the 28th Conference of Parties (CoP28) on climate change to recognise the already severe and growing impacts of climate change on human health, the CoP28 Presidency, working with the World Health Organisation (WHO) and other partners, organised the first ever health day in the history of CoPs at the ongoing CoP28 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Ministers of Health and senior health delegates from over 100 countries mobilized support for the CoP28 Climate and Health Agenda. Speaking during a side event, CoP28 director-general Al Suwaidi said it is high time to also focus on protecting and promoting people’s health while enhancing the climate-resilience of healthcare systems and reducing climate health risks. He said: “This is one of the four central pillars in the CoP28 Presidency’s Action Agenda, which focuses on people, nature, lives and livelihoods.” Amref Health Africa group chief executive officer Githinji Gitahi called for the active involvement of health ministers in the climate change discourse. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change executive secretary Simon Stiell emphasised the importance of recognising the interplay between climate change and health. “Health is the human face of climate change. The air we breathe should be free of harmful pollution. Our communities should be safe from the devastating effects of floods, droughts and heat waves. Transitioning away from fossil fuels can help us get there.” Malawi’s Minister of Health Khumbize Kandodo Chiponda said wealthy nations should invest in the least developed countries’ health sectors. “The One Health concept is crucial, but there is a need for investments in most countries in the global south, like Malawi, to strengthen the resilience of the health sector and well-being of people,” she said. According to the Malawi 2023 Tropical Cyclone Freddy post-disaster needs assessment, total damages caused in the health and nutrition sectors across the 16 affected districts are estimated at $4.14 million. n *This story has been produced with support from Media for Environment, Science, Health and Agriculture and International Development Research Centre Article first published on https://mwnation.com/incorporating-health-in-climate-change-discourse/

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Bio-resin is a type of resin that is made from renewable or biodegradable materials, such as plant-based sources like corn starch, soybeans, sugarcane, and vegetable oils. Unlike traditional petroleum-based resins, bio-resins are considered to be more environmentally friendly because they are made from renewable resources and can biodegrade under certain conditions. Bio-resins are used in various applications such as packaging, adhesives, coatings, and composites, among others. They are often used as a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based resins in industries that are looking to reduce their carbon footprint and environmental impact. Bio-resins have a variety of properties that make them suitable for different applications. Some of the common properties of bio-resins are: - Biodegradability: One of the main properties of bio-resins is their ability to biodegrade naturally without causing harm to the environment. This is due to the fact that bio-resins are made from renewable resources such as starch, cellulose, and plant oils. - Low toxicity: Bio-resins are non-toxic and do not release harmful chemicals when they degrade. This makes them a safer alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics that can leach harmful chemicals into the environment. - Strength and durability: Bio-resins can be engineered to have comparable strength and durability to traditional plastics, making them suitable for a variety of applications. - Thermal stability: Many bio-resins have good thermal stability, meaning they can withstand high temperatures without degrading or melting. This makes them suitable for use in applications that require high-temperature resistance. - Water resistance: Some bio-resins have good water resistance, which makes them suitable for use in applications that require protection from moisture. - Versatility: Bio-resins can be modified and engineered to have a variety of properties, making them suitable for a wide range of applications. The properties of bio-resins make them a promising alternative to traditional plastics, as they offer a sustainable and eco-friendly solution to the growing problem of plastic waste. Bio-resins can be made from a variety of renewable resources such as: - Plant-based materials: Bio-resins can be made from plant-based materials such as corn, sugarcane, potatoes, and cassava. These materials are rich in carbohydrates that can be extracted and converted into bio-resins through various processes. - Wood-based materials: Wood-based materials such as cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose can be used to produce bio-resins. These materials are derived from sustainable sources and can be processed to produce bio-based polymers. - Algae and seaweed: Algae and seaweed are rich in polysaccharides that can be converted into bio-resins. These materials are abundant and can be grown sustainably, making them an attractive resource for bio-resin production. - Animal-based materials: Bio-resins can also be produced from animal-based materials such as chitin and chitosan. These materials are derived from the shells of crustaceans and can be processed to produce bio-based polymers. - Waste materials: Waste materials such as food waste, agricultural waste, and industrial waste can be used to produce bio-resins. These materials are abundant and can be processed to produce bio-based polymers, which can help reduce waste and promote sustainability. The choice of bio-resin resource depends on various factors such as availability, cost, and performance requirements. Bio-resins can be produced from various natural resources such as plants, trees, and agricultural waste. The production process of bio-resins usually involves the extraction of the raw material and the conversion of its components into polymers. One of the most common sources of bio-resins is plant-based materials such as corn, sugarcane, and soybeans. Corn-based bio-resins, for example, are produced by extracting the starch from corn kernels and then processing it into a polymer. Sugarcane-based bio-resins, on the other hand, are produced by fermenting sugarcane juice to obtain ethanol, which is then processed into a polymer. Another source of bio-resins is trees. Trees contain a substance called lignin, which can be extracted and processed into a polymer. Lignin-based bio-resins are commonly used in the production of adhesives and coatings. Agricultural waste such as wheat straw, rice husks, and bagasse can also be used as a source of bio-resins. The waste is first processed to extract its components, which are then converted into polymers through various chemical and biological processes. In general, the production of bio-resins involves several steps, including extraction, purification, and polymerization. The specific process varies depending on the raw material and the desired properties of the final product. The production of bio-resins offers a promising alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics, as it utilizes renewable resources and reduces environmental impact. Bio-resins are gaining popularity in a wide range of applications, from packaging materials to construction and automotive industries. Here are some of the most common applications of bio-resins: - Packaging Materials: Bio-resins can be used as an alternative to traditional plastic packaging materials, reducing the environmental impact of packaging waste. They can be molded into various shapes and sizes to meet specific packaging needs. - Biodegradable Products: Bio-resins can be used to produce biodegradable products, including disposable cutlery, food containers, and shopping bags. These products break down more quickly in the environment than traditional plastics, reducing their impact on the ecosystem. - Textile Industry: Bio-resins can be used to create eco-friendly textiles, replacing synthetic fibers that are derived from petroleum-based plastics. These materials can be used to make clothing, upholstery, and other fabric-based products. - Building Materials: Bio-resins can be used in the construction industry to produce biodegradable materials, such as insulation, floor coverings, and wall panels. These materials can help to reduce the environmental impact of construction and provide a more sustainable alternative to traditional building materials. - Automotive Industry: Bio-resins can be used in the automotive industry to create interior and exterior components, including dashboards, door panels, and body parts. These materials can help to reduce the weight of vehicles, improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions. - Medical Industry: Bio-resins can be used in the medical industry to produce biodegradable implants and other medical devices. These materials can help to reduce the risk of infection and other complications associated with traditional plastic implants. Overall, bio-resins offer a more sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastics, reducing the environmental impact of various industries and applications.

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Advanced Android Development Expand the user experience This unit covers how to extend your apps to improve the user experience. Learn how to use fragments, widgets, and sensors. Each lesson in Unit 1 is independent of the other lessons in this unit. For example, you can do the sensors lesson without completing the fragments and widgets lessons. Lesson 1: Fragments This lesson explains when, why, and how to use fragments. You learn how to include a fragment in your activity's UI, either by including it statically or dynamically. You also learn how an activity communicates with fragments. You implement a typical scenario for fragments by building an app that has a master/detail layout. Lesson 2: App widgets Learn about app widgets, which are miniature app views that appear on the Android home screen. Discover how to add widgets to your project, handle update requests, and make widgets interactive. Lesson 3: Sensors Learn how to use the Android sensor framework to get data from device sensors such as the accelerometer and geomagnetic field sensor. Build an app that responds to tilting the device.

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Genetics is a fascinating field of study that explores the heredity and variation of living organisms. It focuses on how traits are passed down from one generation to the next and how genetic information is encoded in the DNA of an individual. In class 10, students are introduced to the basic concepts of genetics, which lay the foundation for more advanced studies in this field. One of the fundamental principles of genetics is that each individual possesses a unique set of genes that determine their physical characteristics and biological functions. These genes are inherited from our parents and can be traced back through generations. Understanding how genes work and interact with each other allows scientists to unravel the mysteries of life and diseases. In class 10 genetics, students learn about the structure and function of DNA, the molecule that carries genetic information. They explore how DNA is organized into chromosomes and how genes are located on these chromosomes. This knowledge helps students understand how traits are inherited and how genetic disorders can occur. Genetics class 10 also covers the principles of Mendelian inheritance, which describe how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. Students learn about dominant and recessive traits, Punnett squares, and how to predict the probability of inheriting specific traits. They also study genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia, and how they are inherited. Overall, class 10 genetics provides students with a solid foundation in the study of heredity and variation. It is a fascinating subject that can open doors to further exploration in the fields of biology, medicine, and genetic engineering. Understanding genetics can also help us gain insight into our own traits and better appreciate the incredible diversity of life on Earth. Genetics: A Definition and Overview Genetics is a fascinating field of science that studies how traits are passed on from one generation to the next. In Class 10, students are introduced to the basic concepts of genetics, which form a foundational understanding of this complex subject. At its core, genetics explores the genetic material and processes that shape the characteristics of living organisms. This genetic material, known as DNA, contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism’s cells and tissues. Through the study of genetics, scientists seek to unravel the mysteries of inheritance and understand how genetic traits are inherited and expressed. In Class 10 genetics, students learn about the structure and function of DNA, which is composed of a double helix of nucleotides. They also learn about genes, which are segments of DNA that code for specific traits, and alleles, which are different forms of a gene that can produce variations in traits. One of the key topics in genetics is the process of inheritance. Students learn about the principles of Mendelian inheritance, which describe how traits are passed from parents to offspring. They also explore the concepts of dominant and recessive traits, as well as the inheritance patterns of sex-linked traits. In addition to inheritance, Class 10 genetics covers other important topics such as genetic disorders, genetic engineering, and biotechnology. Students learn about how mutations in DNA can lead to genetic disorders, and they also explore the ethical implications of genetic engineering and the application of genetic technologies in various fields. |Overall, genetics is an exciting and rapidly advancing field of study that has profound implications for our understanding of life and its diversity. In Class 10, students are introduced to the fundamental concepts and principles of genetics, laying the groundwork for further exploration in higher levels of education. Importance of Genetics in Biological Sciences Genetics plays a crucial role in the field of biological sciences. It is the branch of science that studies genes, heredity, and genetic variation. Here, we will discuss why genetics is important in this field. Genetics helps us understand how organisms evolve and adapt to their environments. By studying genetic traits and variations, scientists can trace the evolutionary history of species and determine how populations change over time. Genetics has revolutionized the field of medicine. With advancements in genetic testing and sequencing, we can now diagnose and treat genetic disorders more effectively. Genetic research has also helped in developing targeted therapies for certain diseases, leading to better patient outcomes. Furthermore, genetics plays a crucial role in personalized medicine, as it allows doctors to tailor treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup. This not only improves the effectiveness of treatment but also reduces the risk of adverse reactions. Agriculture and Food Security Genetics is vital in agriculture and plays a significant role in improving crop yield and quality. With the knowledge of genetic traits, scientists can develop genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that exhibit desirable characteristics such as disease resistance, increased nutrient content, and higher productivity. Genetics also helps in breeding programs to develop new plant varieties that are better suited for specific climates and environmental conditions. This contributes to food security by ensuring stable and abundant food production. |Benefits of Genetics in Biological Sciences: |Medical advances and personalized medicine |Improving crop yield and food security Genetic Variation: Understanding the Basics In the field of genetics, understanding genetic variation is crucial. Genetic variation refers to the diversity in the DNA sequence that exists within a population. This variation is the foundation for the differences we see in traits, such as eye color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases. In this article, we will explore the basics of genetic variation and how it contributes to the overall diversity of life on Earth. What Causes Genetic Variation? Genetic variation is caused by a combination of different factors. One major source of genetic variation is mutation – a change in the DNA sequence. Mutations can occur spontaneously or can be induced by exposure to certain environmental factors, such as radiation or chemicals. Mutations can range from small-scale changes, such as a single nucleotide substitution, to larger-scale changes, such as the insertion or deletion of entire sections of DNA. Another source of genetic variation is genetic recombination, which occurs during the process of sexual reproduction. During sexual reproduction, genetic material from two parents combines to form a unique offspring. The exchange and shuffling of genetic material during this process result in new combinations of genes, creating genetic variation. Importance of Genetic Variation Genetic variation plays a crucial role in evolution and natural selection. It allows populations to adapt to changing environments and ensures the survival of a species. If all individuals in a population have the exact same genetic makeup, they would be equally susceptible to diseases, environmental changes, and other challenges. However, with genetic variation, some individuals may have certain genetic traits that make them more resistant to diseases or better suited to their specific environment, increasing their chances of survival and reproductive success. Genetic variation also provides the raw material for natural selection to act upon. Natural selection favors individuals with genetic traits that provide a reproductive advantage in a given environment. Over time, these advantageous traits become more common in the population, while less advantageous traits may decrease in frequency or disappear altogether. This ongoing process of natural selection allows populations to evolve and adapt to their surroundings. - Genetic variation is crucial for evolution and adaptation. - It is caused by mutations and genetic recombination. - Genetic variation leads to differences in traits and enhances a species’ chances of survival. - Natural selection acts upon genetic variation to shape the characteristics of populations over time. In conclusion, genetic variation is a fundamental concept in genetics. It is the basis for the diversity we observe in living organisms. Understanding genetic variation is essential for unraveling the complexities of genetics and its role in evolution. Principles Governing Inheritance The principles governing inheritance are an essential concept in genetics class 10. It involves the study of how traits are passed down from one generation to another. One of the fundamental principles of inheritance is the Mendelian laws. These laws were established by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk and scientist, in the 19th century. Mendel’s laws define the patterns of inheritance for specific traits and are based on his experiments with pea plants. The first law, known as the law of segregation, states that each individual possesses two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. During the formation of gametes (reproductive cells), these genes separate and only one copy is passed on to the offspring. The second law, known as the law of independent assortment, states that different traits are inherited independently of each other. This means that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait. Mendel’s experiments with pea plants showed that the inheritance of flower color, for example, is unrelated to the inheritance of seed shape. Another principle of inheritance that is important to understand in class 10 genetics is sex-linked inheritance. Certain traits are determined by genes located on the sex chromosomes, particularly the X chromosome. Since males have one X and one Y chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes, sex-linked traits are often more common in males. Examples of sex-linked traits include color blindness and hemophilia. These traits are carried on the X chromosome and can be passed from carrier females to their sons. However, since females have two X chromosomes, they are more likely to be carriers of sex-linked traits without exhibiting the phenotype. Understanding the principles governing inheritance is crucial in the study of genetics. It allows scientists to predict and explain how traits are passed down through generations and provides a foundation for further research and study in the field. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance In the field of genetics, one of the most groundbreaking contributors was Gregor Mendel. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance form the foundation for our understanding of how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants and meticulously recorded his observations, which led to the formulation of three fundamental laws: - Law of Segregation: This law states that for any trait, such as eye color or height, an individual’s two alleles (or alternative forms of a gene) segregate during gamete formation. As a result, each gamete receives only one allele, and the two alleles pair back up during fertilization. - Law of Independent Assortment: According to this law, different pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other during the formation of gametes. This means that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait, as long as they are located on separate chromosomes. - Law of Dominance: The law of dominance explains that in a pair of alleles for a specific trait, one allele is dominant over the other. As a result, the dominant allele determines the appearance of the trait in the offspring, while the recessive allele remains hidden. Mendel’s laws not only provided insights into how traits are inherited, but they also laid the groundwork for modern genetics. His work was revolutionary at the time and continues to be a cornerstone in the study of genetics today. Non-Mendelian Inheritance Patterns In genetics class, Mendelian inheritance patterns are often discussed as the fundamental principles of inheritance. However, there are certain cases where inheritance does not follow the simple Mendelian patterns, and this is referred to as non-Mendelian inheritance. One example of non-Mendelian inheritance is polygenic inheritance. Instead of a single gene controlling a trait, multiple genes can contribute to the expression of a trait. This means that the phenotype of the offspring is determined by the combined effect of many genes. Traits that are controlled by polygenic inheritance include height, skin color, and intelligence. Another non-Mendelian inheritance pattern is incomplete dominance. In this pattern, neither allele is dominant over the other, and the phenotype of the offspring is a blend or intermediate of the phenotypes of the two parents. For example, in a cross between red flowered and white flowered plants with incomplete dominance, the offspring may have pink flowers. Co-dominance is a non-Mendelian inheritance pattern where both alleles for a gene are expressed equally in the phenotype of the offspring. This means that both traits are fully noticeable and not blended. A classic example of co-dominance is seen in human blood types. - Type A blood has the A antigen on the surface of red blood cells - Type B blood has the B antigen on the surface of red blood cells - Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells - Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens on the surface of red blood cells In conclusion, while Mendelian inheritance patterns are the foundation of genetics, there are instances where inheritance does not follow these patterns. Polygenic inheritance, incomplete dominance, and co-dominance are some examples of non-Mendelian inheritance patterns that demonstrate the complexity of genetic inheritance. Genetic Crosses and Punnett Squares In genetics, a genetic cross is a method used to study the inheritance of traits in offspring. It involves crossing two individuals with different genotypes to determine the probability of their offspring inheriting specific traits. A Punnett square is a diagram used to predict the possible genetic outcomes of a cross between two individuals. It is named after the British geneticist Reginald Punnett. The Punnett square is a visual representation of all the possible combinations of alleles that can occur in the offspring. To create a Punnett square, you need to know the genotypes of both the parents. The genotypes consist of the alleles inherited from each parent. The alleles can be either dominant or recessive, and they determine the traits expressed in the offspring. In a Punnett square, the alleles from one parent are written on the top and the alleles from the other parent are written on the left side. Each box in the Punnett square represents a possible combination of alleles in the offspring. Using Punnett Squares to Determine Genotypes and Phenotypes By using Punnett squares, geneticists can determine the probability of different genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring. The genotypes are the combination of alleles inherited from both parents, while the phenotypes are the physical expressions of those alleles. For example, if one parent has the genotype AA (dominant) and the other parent has the genotype aa (recessive), the Punnett square would show that there is a 100% chance of the offspring having the genotype Aa (heterozygous dominant). In terms of phenotype, the offspring would exhibit the dominant trait. In some cases, the Punnett square can also be used to determine the likelihood of certain genetic disorders or diseases being passed on to the offspring. By understanding the inheritance patterns and using Punnett squares, geneticists can make predictions about the genetic traits and diseases in future generations. In conclusion, genetic crosses and Punnett squares are important tools in genetics to study the inheritance of traits in offspring. They allow geneticists to determine the probability of different genotypes and phenotypes and make predictions about the inheritance of genetic disorders or diseases. Genetic Disorders: Causes and Types In the field of genetics, genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities or mutations in an individual’s genetic material. These disorders can be inherited from one or both parents or can occur spontaneously due to mutations in the egg or sperm cells. Causes of Genetic Disorders Genetic disorders can be caused by various factors, including: - Inherited Mutations: Some genetic disorders are caused by inherited mutations that are passed down from parents to their offspring. These mutations can be present in the genes or chromosomes. - Spontaneous Mutations: Spontaneous mutations can occur during the formation of egg or sperm cells, or during early development of the embryo. These mutations can lead to genetic disorders. - Environmental Factors: Certain environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or toxins, can increase the risk of developing genetic disorders. Types of Genetic Disorders There are several types of genetic disorders, including: |A disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system, causing breathing difficulties and problems with nutrient absorption. |A chromosomal disorder characterized by intellectual disabilities, distinctive facial features, and other physical abnormalities. |A blood clotting disorder that causes excessive bleeding and can lead to serious complications. |Sickle Cell Anemia |A genetic condition that affects the production of red blood cells, causing them to become misshapen and break down easily. |A group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass. These are just a few examples of genetic disorders, and there are many more that can affect different parts of the body or have varying degrees of severity. Role of DNA in Genetics DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, plays a crucial role in genetics. It is often referred to as the “blueprint of life” because it contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. DNA carries genetic information in the form of genes, which are segments of DNA that encode specific traits or characteristics. Genes determine everything from physical traits like eye color and height to susceptibility to certain diseases. Each gene is made up of a specific sequence of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA. The order of these nucleotides determines the specific instructions or code contained within the gene. One of the key functions of DNA is inheritance. DNA is passed down from parents to their offspring and carries the genetic information that determines the traits and characteristics of the offspring. During reproduction, DNA is replicated so that each new cell or organism has a complete set of genetic information. This ensures that the offspring inherit the genetic traits of their parents. Another important role of DNA is protein synthesis. DNA provides the instructions for the production of proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells. The process of protein synthesis occurs in two main steps: transcription and translation. During transcription, the DNA molecule is used as a template to produce mRNA (messenger RNA). The mRNA molecule then carries the genetic instructions from the DNA to the ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place. Ultimately, the role of DNA in genetics is to carry and transmit genetic information from one generation to the next, determining the traits and characteristics of organisms. Its significance in the study of genetics is evident in class 10, where students learn about the fundamental principles of heredity and genetic variation. Structure and Function of DNA In a genetics class, students learn about the structure and function of DNA. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all living organisms. It is made up of nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The structure of DNA is often described as a double helix, which resembles a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating sugar and phosphate groups, while the rungs are formed by pairs of nitrogenous bases. There are four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The bases in DNA always pair in a specific way: adenine with thymine, and cytosine with guanine. This pairing is known as complementary base pairing. It is this specific base pairing that allows DNA to replicate, or make copies of itself. The function of DNA is to store and transmit genetic information. It carries the instructions for making proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells. DNA is transcribed into a similar molecule called RNA, which is then translated into proteins through a process called protein synthesis. Understanding the structure and function of DNA is fundamental in the field of genetics. It allows scientists to study and manipulate genes, leading to advancements in medicine, agriculture, and other areas of science. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology In Class 10 Genetics, students learn about genetic engineering and biotechnology. Genetic engineering involves manipulating an organism’s genetic material to produce desired traits or to remove unwanted traits. Biotechnology, on the other hand, refers to the use of living organisms or their components to develop or create useful products. Genetic engineering has revolutionized various fields, including medicine and agriculture. In medicine, it has allowed scientists to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to produce useful substances, such as insulin. GMOs can also be used to study diseases and develop new treatments. In agriculture, genetic engineering has enabled the development of genetically modified crops that are resistant to pests, diseases, or herbicides. These modified crops can help increase food production and reduce the use of chemical pesticides. Biotechnology plays a crucial role in modern society. It has applications in medicine, agriculture, environmental science, and industry. In medicine, biotechnology is used to develop vaccines, produce antibiotics, and create synthetic hormones. In agriculture, it aids in the development of high-yield crops, disease-resistant plants, and biofuels. In environmental science, biotechnology plays a role in waste management and pollution control. In industry, it is used to produce enzymes, chemicals, and biofuels. Genetic engineering and biotechnology raise ethical and safety concerns. There are debates about the impact of genetically modified organisms on the environment and human health. Critics argue that genetically modified crops may have long-term effects on biodiversity and could potentially harm human health. It is important to carefully evaluate the risks and benefits of genetic engineering and biotechnology and to regulate their use to ensure their safe and responsible implementation. In conclusion, genetic engineering and biotechnology are important aspects of Class 10 Genetics. They have revolutionized various fields and have the potential to solve many challenges facing society. However, their use must be carefully regulated to ensure safety, ethical considerations, and responsible implementation. Genetic Modification of Organisms: Pros and Cons The field of genetics plays a crucial role in understanding the heredity and variation of organisms. With advancements in technology, scientists have been able to manipulate the genetic makeup of organisms through a process called genetic modification. This technique involves altering an organism’s DNA to introduce new traits or remove undesirable ones. While genetic modification holds great potential in various fields, it also presents several pros and cons. |1. Improved Crop Yield: Genetic modification allows scientists to enhance the growth and productivity of crops. They can introduce genes that make plants resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors, resulting in higher crop yields. |1. Ecological Impact: Modifying organisms can have unintended consequences on the environment. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) may crossbreed with wild species, leading to the loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystems. |2. Disease Resistance: Genetic modification can help develop organisms with increased resistance to diseases. Scientists can introduce genes that enhance an organism’s immune system, making it less susceptible to various infections and illnesses. |2. Unintended Health Effects: There are concerns about the long-term health effects of consuming genetically modified foods. Although extensive testing is done, some people worry about the potential risks associated with these modified organisms. |3. Nutritional Enhancement: Genetic modification allows for the enhancement of nutritional content in organisms. Scientists can introduce genes that increase the levels of essential nutrients, such as vitamins or minerals, making the organism more nutritious. |3. Ethics and Morality: Genetic modification raises ethical and moral questions. Some individuals believe it is unnatural to manipulate the genetic makeup of organisms and question the consequences it may have on the natural order and balance of life. |4. Medical Advancements: Genetic modification has the potential to revolutionize medical treatments. Scientists can modify organisms to produce important pharmaceutical drugs, vaccines, or therapies, leading to breakthroughs in the field of medicine. |4. Lack of Regulation: Genetic modification is a rapidly evolving field, and there is concern about the lack of strict regulations governing its use. The potential for misuse or unintended consequences is a significant concern. In conclusion, genetic modification of organisms offers both advantages and disadvantages. While it can lead to improved crop yield, disease resistance, nutritional enhancement, and medical advancements, it also raises concerns about ecological impact, unintended health effects, ethics, and lack of regulation. It is essential to carefully consider the pros and cons before embracing genetic modification in various applications. Genetic Diversity and Adaptation Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes and traits within a population, and it plays a crucial role in the process of adaptation. In class 10 genetics, students learn that genetic diversity is important for the survival and evolution of species. Genetic diversity allows populations to better adapt to changes in their environment. It provides the necessary raw material for natural selection to act upon. When the environment changes, individuals with certain genetic traits may have an advantage over others in terms of survival and reproduction. These individuals are then more likely to pass on their advantageous traits to the next generation, leading to the adaptation of the population. The Importance of Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity is essential for the health and resilience of a population. It allows species to respond to environmental changes, such as climate change or the emergence of new diseases. A genetically diverse population is more likely to have individuals with traits that can withstand these challenges, increasing the chances of survival and successful reproduction. In agriculture, genetic diversity is also crucial for the production of crops and livestock. A diverse gene pool enables the development of new varieties that are resistant to diseases, pests, and adverse environmental conditions. It helps maintain productivity and ensures food security in the face of changing environmental conditions. Factors Influencing Genetic Diversity Several factors influence genetic diversity within a population. These include mutation, genetic recombination through sexual reproduction, migration, and natural selection. Mutations introduce genetic variations into populations, while genetic recombination shuffles existing genetic material to create new combinations. Migration allows for the exchange of genes between populations, increasing genetic diversity. Natural selection acts upon this diversity, favoring individuals with advantageous traits. Human activities, such as habitat destruction and fragmentation, overexploitation, and pollution, can also negatively impact genetic diversity. These activities can lead to the loss of certain alleles or even entire populations, reducing the overall genetic diversity of a species. In conclusion, genetic diversity is important for species’ survival and adaptation. It allows populations to respond to environmental changes and plays a vital role in maintaining their health and resilience. Understanding and preserving genetic diversity is crucial for the long-term sustainability of both natural ecosystems and agricultural practices. Genetics and Evolution: Natural Selection Genetics, the study of heredity and variation in living organisms, plays a crucial role in the process of evolution. One of the key mechanisms driving evolution is natural selection, which was proposed by Charles Darwin. Natural Selection Defined Natural selection is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over time, based on their fitness or ability to survive and reproduce. This mechanism results in the adaptation of organisms to their environment, as those with advantageous traits are more likely to pass them on to the next generation. The Principles of Natural Selection Natural selection operates on several principles: - Variation: Genetic variation exists within populations, providing the raw material for natural selection to act upon. - Heritability: Traits that are genetically determined can be passed on from one generation to the next. - Differential reproductive success: Individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous traits. Examples of Natural Selection Natural selection can be observed in various examples: - The peppered moth: In England during the Industrial Revolution, the dark-colored peppered moths became more prevalent as they were better camouflaged on soot-darkened trees. This shift in moth coloration was driven by natural selection. - Antibiotic resistance: Bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics survive and reproduce, leading to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant strains. - Giraffe necks: Giraffes with longer necks can reach more food, giving them a survival advantage and increasing the likelihood of passing on genes for longer neck length. Overall, natural selection is a fundamental mechanism that shapes the genetic makeup of populations, leading to evolutionary change over time. Genetic Testing: Techniques and Applications In genetics class, students learn about the various techniques and applications of genetic testing. Genetic testing involves analyzing an individual’s DNA to determine their genetic makeup and identify any potential genetic disorders or predispositions. It is an important tool in modern medicine and has numerous applications in both clinical and research settings. Techniques of Genetic Testing There are several techniques used in genetic testing: - PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to amplify specific regions of DNA for analysis. It allows for the identification of specific genetic mutations or alterations. - Sequencing: DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. This technique helps to identify variations in DNA sequences and detect genetic abnormalities. - Microarray: Microarray analysis involves comparing the DNA of an individual to a reference DNA sample. It can be used to detect genetic variations and identify disease-associated genes. Applications of Genetic Testing Genetic testing has various applications, including: - Diagnostic Testing: Genetic testing can help diagnose genetic disorders and identify the specific genetic mutations responsible for the condition. - Carrier Testing: This type of testing is performed to identify individuals who carry a gene mutation for a specific genetic disorder. It helps determine the risk of passing on the disorder to their children. - Prenatal Testing: Genetic testing during pregnancy can detect genetic disorders or chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus. It helps parents make informed decisions about their pregnancy. - Pharmacogenomics: This field utilizes genetic testing to determine an individual’s response to certain medications. It helps personalize treatment plans and reduce adverse drug reactions. - Forensic Testing: Genetic testing can be used in forensic investigations to identify suspects or victims based on their DNA profiles. Genetic testing plays a crucial role in understanding the genetic basis of diseases, identifying potential risks, and developing personalized treatment plans. It is an evolving field that continues to advance our knowledge of genetics and improve patient care. Genomics: Understanding the Human Genome Class 10 genetics introduces students to the fascinating world of genomics, the study of an organism’s entire genetic information, known as the genome. The human genome is particularly intriguing as it encompasses all the DNA sequences present in a human being. Understanding the human genome is essential as it holds the key to unraveling the mysteries of human development, evolution, and diseases. Scientists have been mapping the human genome for decades, aiming to identify and analyze the approximately 3 billion base pairs that make up our DNA. Through genomics, researchers can identify genetic variations and mutations that may predispose individuals to certain diseases or conditions. This knowledge allows for more accurate diagnoses, personalized medicine, and the development of targeted therapies. Genomics also plays a crucial role in the field of pharmacogenomics, which focuses on how an individual’s genetic makeup affects their response to drugs. By analyzing an individual’s genome, doctors can determine the most effective and safe medications for their patients. Genomics not only helps us understand human health and disease, but it also provides insights into human evolution and population genetics. By comparing the genomes of different individuals and populations, scientists can trace our ancestral origins, migration patterns, and genetic diversity. In the field of agriculture, genomics has revolutionized crop improvement by identifying genes responsible for desirable traits and enabling the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This has led to increased crop yields, resistance to diseases, and improved nutritional content. As our understanding of the human genome continues to expand, it opens up new possibilities for advancements in medicine, agriculture, and many other areas. Class 10 genetics serves as a foundation for students to explore these exciting fields of genomics and contribute to future scientific breakthroughs. Genetic Counseling: Exploring Ethical Considerations Genetic counseling is a vital part of the field of genetics, especially when it comes to Class 10. It involves providing individuals and families with information about genetic conditions and their risks, as well as guidance on how to make informed decisions about their health and family planning. When discussing genetic counseling, it is important to explore the ethical considerations that come into play. Here are some key points to consider: Confidentiality and Privacy One of the most important ethical considerations in genetic counseling is maintaining confidentiality and privacy. Genetic counselors must ensure that the information shared by individuals and families remains confidential, unless there is a legal obligation to disclose it. Informed consent is another crucial ethical consideration in genetic counseling. Individuals and families must fully understand the nature of the genetic testing or counseling being offered, the potential risks and benefits, and any alternative options available. They should have the opportunity to ask questions and make an informed decision about whether or not to proceed. Genetic counselors are ethically bound to provide non-directive counseling, meaning they should not influence or pressure individuals or families into making a particular decision regarding genetic testing or reproductive options. Instead, they should present all relevant information and support individuals in making their own choices based on their personal values and beliefs. Overall, genetic counseling is a complex process that requires careful consideration of ethical principles. By maintaining confidentiality and privacy, obtaining informed consent, and providing non-directive counseling, genetic counselors can help individuals and families navigate the complexities of genetics and make informed decisions about their health. Genetic Manipulation in Plants and Animals Genetic manipulation refers to the deliberate alteration of an organism’s genetic material using biotechnology techniques. This process allows scientists to modify the DNA of plants and animals in order to introduce new traits or improve existing ones. In plants, genetic manipulation has played a significant role in improving crop yield, disease resistance, and tolerance to environmental conditions. By introducing genes from other organisms, scientists have developed genetically modified (GM) crops that are resistant to pests, herbicides, and diseases. This has led to increased agricultural productivity and reduced the need for chemical pesticides. Genetic manipulation in animals has been used to produce livestock with desirable traits, such as increased growth rate or disease resistance. For example, scientists have successfully created genetically modified pigs that are more resistant to a specific viral infection. This has the potential to improve animal welfare and reduce the use of antibiotics in livestock farming. However, genetic manipulation also raises ethical and environmental concerns. Critics argue that the long-term effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) on human health and the environment are not fully understood. Some countries have imposed strict regulations on the cultivation and sale of GMOs, while others have banned them altogether. Overall, genetic manipulation offers both promising opportunities and challenging dilemmas in the field of genetics. It has the potential to revolutionize agriculture and animal husbandry, but careful consideration must be given to its implications for human health, biodiversity, and ethical concerns. Genetics and Cancer: Linking the Dots In the study of genetics, one area that has garnered significant attention is the link between genetics and cancer. Cancer, a complex disease that results from the uncontrolled growth and division of abnormal cells, is influenced by various factors, including genetic mutations. Understanding Genetic Mutations: Genetic mutations occur when there are changes in the DNA sequence. These mutations can be inherited or acquired during a person’s lifetime. When specific genes responsible for regulating cell growth and division are mutated, it can lead to the development of cancer. These mutations can be caused by various factors such as exposure to carcinogens like tobacco smoke, certain chemicals, ionizing radiation, or through errors that occur during DNA replication. Inherited Genetic Mutations: Some individuals may have inherited genetic mutations that increase their risk of developing certain types of cancer. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are known to increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Individuals with a family history of these mutations may undergo genetic testing to determine their risk and take preventive measures such as increased surveillance or prophylactic surgeries. Acquired Genetic Mutations: Acquired genetic mutations, also known as somatic mutations, occur during a person’s lifetime due to environmental factors or errors during DNA replication. These mutations are not present in germ cells and cannot be passed on to offspring. Certain risk factors such as exposure to carcinogens or chronic inflammation can increase the likelihood of acquiring these mutations. Understanding the specific mutations present in a cancerous tumor can help doctors determine targeted treatments or therapies that might be more effective based on the genetic profile of the tumor. Genetic Testing and Precision Medicine: Advances in genetic testing have revolutionized cancer diagnosis and treatment. Genetic tests can identify specific mutations in genes that contribute to the development and progression of cancer. This information can help doctors personalize treatment plans and medications based on an individual’s genetic makeup. This approach, known as precision medicine, aims to improve outcomes by targeting the specific genetic alterations driving a person’s cancer. - Targeted therapies: By identifying specific genetic mutations, doctors can prescribe targeted therapies that specifically address the molecular changes driving cancer growth. - Immunotherapies: Some cancers can escape the immune system’s detection by suppressing the body’s natural defense mechanisms. Genetic testing can help identify specific immune checkpoints that may be targeted with immunotherapies to enhance the body’s response against cancer cells. - Early detection: Genetic testing can also help identify individuals at high risk of developing certain types of cancer. Increased surveillance and early detection measures can then be implemented to catch any potential cancerous growths at an early, more treatable stage. The study of genetics has provided valuable insights into the link between genetics and cancer. Understanding genetic mutations, both inherited and acquired, is crucial in determining an individual’s risk of developing cancer and tailoring personalized treatment plans. Genetic testing plays a key role in precision medicine, allowing for targeted therapies and early detection strategies that can improve outcomes and ultimately reduce the burden of cancer. Genetic Basis of Behavior and Personality Traits Class 10 biology explores various aspects of genetics, including the genetic basis of behavior and personality traits. Our behavior and personality are influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors play a significant role in determining certain behavioral and personality traits. Genes and Behavior Genes, which are segments of DNA, carry the instructions for making proteins that are essential for the development and functioning of our bodies. Some of these proteins are involved in the regulation of our behavior. For example, genes can influence neurotransmitter production and receptor activity, which in turn affects our mood, cognition, and behavior. Specific gene variants, known as alleles, can impact behavior in various ways. For instance, certain alleles may enhance the risk of developing mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia. On the other hand, other alleles may contribute to positive traits, such as intelligence or resilience in the face of adversity. Genes and Personality Traits Personality traits, such as extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and conscientiousness, are also influenced by genetics. Twin and family studies have provided evidence for the heritability of these traits. Researchers have identified specific genes that are associated with certain personality traits. For example, the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) has been linked to extraversion and neuroticism. Another gene, BDNF, is involved in the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which is associated with mood regulation and cognitive function. Genes and the Nature vs. Nurture Debate The genetic basis of behavior and personality traits has sparked the age-old debate of nature vs. nurture. While our genes can predispose us to certain traits, the environment also plays a crucial role in shaping our behavior and personality. It is important to understand that genes do not dictate our behavior or personality. Rather, they contribute to our predispositions and tendencies. The interaction between our genes and the environment is complex and dynamic, with both factors influencing each other. Overall, class 10 biology provides a foundation for understanding the genetic basis of behavior and personality traits. By exploring the intricate relationship between our genes and the environment, we gain insights into the complexity of human behavior. Genetic Engineering in Agriculture: Benefits and Risks Genetic engineering has revolutionized the field of agriculture by allowing scientists to manipulate the genetic makeup of plants and animals. This technology has brought about numerous benefits and risks that need to be carefully considered. Benefits of Genetic Engineering in Agriculture One of the major benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture is the ability to improve crop yields. By introducing genes that enhance resistance to pests, diseases, and adverse environmental conditions, scientists can create crops that are more resilient and productive. This can help farmers increase their harvests and reduce losses, leading to enhanced food production and food security. Genetic engineering also enables the production of crops with improved nutritional value. Scientists can introduce genes that enhance the levels of vitamins, minerals, and essential nutrients in crops, making them more nutritious and beneficial for human consumption. This can be particularly relevant in developing countries where nutritional deficiencies are common. Risks of Genetic Engineering in Agriculture Despite the potential benefits, genetic engineering in agriculture also poses several risks that need to be carefully evaluated. One of the concerns is the potential for unintended effects on ecosystems and biodiversity. Introducing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) into the environment may lead to the spread of modified genes to wild species, potentially disrupting natural ecosystems. Another risk is the potential for the development of resistance in pests and diseases. The widespread adoption of genetically engineered crops that produce toxins harmful to pests may eventually result in the evolution of resistance among these organisms. This can lead to the emergence of superbugs or superweeds that are resistant to conventional methods of control, posing challenges to agricultural sustainability. Additionally, there are concerns about the long-term health effects of consuming genetically engineered foods. While extensive safety testing is conducted before these products reach the market, some studies have raised concerns about the potential allergenicity and toxicity of genetically modified crops. Overall, genetic engineering in agriculture offers promising opportunities for improving crop productivity and nutrition. However, the risks associated with this technology should not be ignored, and careful regulation and monitoring are essential to ensure its safe and responsible use. Genetic Mapping and Genome Sequencing In class 10 genetics, one important aspect that is studied is genetic mapping and genome sequencing. Genetic mapping involves the process of determining the position of genes on a chromosome and their relative distances from each other. This information is essential for understanding the inheritance patterns of traits and for studying the relationship between genes and genetic disorders. Genome sequencing, on the other hand, involves determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome. This process allows scientists to identify and study the specific genes and sequences that make up an organism’s DNA. Genome sequencing has revolutionized the field of genetics, enabling researchers to map out the genetic information of entire organisms, including humans. Advancements in technology have played a crucial role in the development of genetic mapping and genome sequencing. High-throughput sequencing techniques and bioinformatics tools have made it easier and faster to analyze large amounts of genetic data. These tools have also allowed scientists to compare and analyze the genomes of different species, leading to a better understanding of evolutionary relationships and the genetic basis of various traits and diseases. Genetic mapping and genome sequencing have numerous applications in various fields, including agriculture, medicine, and forensic science. In agriculture, genetic mapping helps breeders in selecting plants or animals with desired traits and developing new varieties or breeds. In medicine, genome sequencing is used for diagnosing genetic disorders, predicting disease susceptibility, and developing personalized treatments. In forensic science, genetic mapping and sequencing are used in DNA profiling for identifying individuals or determining genetic relationships between individuals. Overall, genetic mapping and genome sequencing play a crucial role in understanding the intricacies of genetics and have wide-ranging applications in different fields. Human Genetics and Hereditary Diseases In class 10, we learn about human genetics and hereditary diseases. Genetics is the study of genes and heredity, which involves the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Genes: Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms. They determine the traits and characteristics of an individual. Heredity: Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to their offspring. It is responsible for similarities between parents and their children. Types of Hereditary Diseases: 1. Autosomal Dominant Disorders: These disorders occur when a mutated gene on one of the non-sex chromosomes is inherited from one parent. Some examples include Huntington’s disease and Marfan syndrome. 2. Autosomal Recessive Disorders: These disorders occur when both parents carry a mutated gene and pass it on to their child. Examples include cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. 3. X-Linked Disorders: These disorders occur when a mutated gene is located on the X chromosome. They are more common in males because they only have one X chromosome. Examples include hemophilia and color blindness. Genetic testing is a process that determines if an individual has a certain genetic condition or is at risk of developing one. It can be used to diagnose hereditary diseases, predict the likelihood of passing on a genetic disorder, and guide treatment options. In conclusion, understanding human genetics and hereditary diseases is important for class 10 students as it helps them comprehend the inheritance of traits and the risk factors associated with certain genetic disorders. It provides a foundation for further studies in genetics and can contribute to advancements in medical treatments and therapies. Genetics in Forensic Science: Solving Crimes Forensic science is a field that encompasses various scientific disciplines to assist in solving crimes. One crucial aspect of forensic science is the use of genetics to aid in the investigation. Class 10 students can explore how genetics plays a vital role in solving crimes. Genetics in forensic science primarily focuses on DNA analysis. Every individual’s DNA is unique, with the exception of identical twins, making DNA a valuable tool in criminal investigations. Class 10 students can learn how DNA samples collected from crime scenes are analyzed to identify suspects or link them to the crime. DNA analysis involves comparing the DNA extracted from the crime scene to samples collected from potential suspects. The techniques used in DNA analysis include polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis. The class 10 students can understand these processes and their significance in forensic investigations. Genetic databases play a critical role in solving crimes. These databases contain DNA profiles of individuals, including convicted criminals and volunteers. Class 10 students can learn how these databases are used to match the DNA found at a crime scene to potential suspects. By comparing the DNA profiles, forensic scientists can narrow down the pool of potential suspects, leading to successful identification and conviction. It is fascinating for class 10 students to understand how genetic databases work in conjunction with other forensic techniques to solve complex criminal cases. Furthermore, class 10 students can delve into the ethical considerations surrounding the use of genetic databases in forensic science. They can examine the balance between privacy rights and the need for justice in criminal investigations. Advancements in Genetic Analysis Advancements in genetic analysis have revolutionized forensic science. Techniques such as next-generation sequencing have made it possible to analyze complex DNA samples more efficiently and accurately. Class 10 students can explore these advancements and their impact on solving crimes. Additionally, the emerging field of forensic genetics includes the analysis of other genetic markers, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mitochondrial DNA. Class 10 students can learn how these markers are used to enhance the identification and profiling of individuals involved in criminal activities. Overall, the integration of genetics into forensic science has greatly improved the investigation and resolution of crimes. Class 10 students can grasp the significance of genetics in solving crimes and gain a better understanding of how science contributes to the field of law and justice. Ethics and Regulations in Genetic Research As genetics continues to advance, ethical considerations and regulations in genetic research become increasingly important. This is especially relevant in the context of Class 10 students who are beginning to explore this field. Importance of Ethics Genetic research has the potential to uncover and manipulate sensitive information about individuals and populations. Therefore, it is essential to have strict ethical guidelines to ensure the well-being and privacy of those involved. When conducting genetic research, scientists must obtain informed consent from individuals participating in the study. This ensures that individuals understand the purpose and potential risks of the research before giving their consent. Regulations in Genetic Research To ensure ethical practices, many countries have established regulations and laws pertaining to genetic research. These regulations govern various aspects of genetic research, including the handling of genetic samples and the protection of privacy and confidentiality. In addition to national regulations, international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have also developed guidelines and recommendations for genetic research. A key aspect of regulations in genetic research is the protection of privacy and confidentiality. Researchers must take measures to safeguard the identities and genetic information of participants to prevent potential harm or discrimination. Another important consideration is the fair and equitable distribution of the benefits and risks that arise from genetic research. This ensures that vulnerable populations are not exploited and that the benefits of research are shared for the greater good. |– Genetic research requires adherence to strict ethical guidelines. |– Informed consent is crucial in obtaining permission from individuals participating in the research. |– Regulations and laws govern various aspects of genetic research, including privacy and confidentiality. |– International organizations provide guidelines and recommendations. |– Fair and equitable distribution of benefits and risks is important. Future Directions in Genetics and Biotechnology As the field of genetics continues to advance, there are many exciting future directions that hold the potential to revolutionize various aspects of our lives. From improving human health to agriculture and environmental sustainability, the applications of genetics are vast and promising. 1. Precision Medicine One of the most promising areas of future research in genetics is precision medicine. This field aims to customize medical treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup. By understanding the specific genetic variations that contribute to different diseases, doctors can develop targeted therapies that are more effective and have fewer side effects. This approach has the potential to transform the way we treat diseases like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. 2. Genetic Engineering Advances in genetic engineering hold great potential for agriculture and food production. Scientists are developing genetically modified crops that can withstand harsh environmental conditions, resist pests and diseases, and have improved nutritional content. These modified crops have the potential to increase food production, improve crop yield, and enhance the nutritional value of the food we consume. Genetic engineering is also being explored as a means to develop new drugs and therapies. By manipulating genes in bacteria and other organisms, scientists can produce complex compounds that are difficult to synthesize in a laboratory. This opens up avenues for the development of new antibiotics and other life-saving drugs. 3. Gene Editing and Gene Therapy Gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 have revolutionized the field of genetics and hold tremendous promise for the future. These tools allow scientists to precisely edit the DNA sequence of an organism, offering incredible possibilities for treating genetic disorders and diseases. Gene therapy, which involves introducing or altering genes in a person’s cells to treat or prevent diseases, is another area of research that holds great promise. While there is still much work to be done, gene therapy has already shown success in treating certain genetic disorders, and ongoing research aims to expand its applications. The future of genetics and biotechnology holds immense potential to improve the human condition, both in terms of health and overall well-being. The advances in precision medicine, genetic engineering, gene editing, and gene therapy will likely impact various fields, from medicine to agriculture and beyond. As we continue to unravel the complexities of the genetic code, the possibilities for a better and healthier future are truly exciting. What is genetics? Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. What are genes? Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for building proteins, which are responsible for the traits and characteristics of living organisms. What is the role of genetics in Class 10? In Class 10, genetics helps students understand how traits are inherited from parents to offspring, and how variations occur within a population. What are the different types of traits? There are two types of traits: dominant traits, which are expressed even if only one copy of the gene is present, and recessive traits, which are expressed only if two copies of the gene are present. How is genetics related to evolution? Genetics plays a crucial role in evolution as it allows for variation within a population, which is the raw material for natural selection to act upon, leading to the development of new species over time. What is genetics? Genetics is the branch of biology that studies how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. It involves the study of genes, heredity, and variation. What is a gene? A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a particular protein. Genes are the basic units of heredity and determine the traits we inherit from our parents. How are traits inherited? Traits are inherited through genes, which are passed down from parents to offspring. Each parent contributes one copy of each gene, and the combination of genes determines the traits the offspring will have. What is DNA? DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all living organisms. It is composed of two long strands twisted together in the shape of a double helix. What are some examples of genetic disorders? Some examples of genetic disorders include Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Huntington’s disease, and hemophilia. These disorders are caused by mutations or changes in the genes.

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Extratropical Water Level Guidance What is a datum? In the context of this site, datum refers to a vertical tidal datum. The four datums used by this site are defined as follows. For more on tidal datums, please see NOAA's National Ocean Service (NOS) tidal datum definition page. Highest Astronomical Tide | "The [height] of the highest predicted astronomical tide expected to occur ... over the National Tidal Datum Epoch (NTDE). The present NTDE is 1983 through 2001." HAT is an estimate of the highest tide predictable strictly from the effects of gravity. Mean Higher High Water | "The average of the higher high water height of each tidal day observed over the NTDE." Mean Sea Level | "The arithmetic mean of the hourly water heights observed over the NTDE." Mean Lower Low Water | "The average of the lower low water height of each tidal day observed over the NTDE." What do the Datum buttons do? The buttons allow the graphs or text to be displayed in other datums. provides an estimate of where the "grass line" is. Crossing HAT is an indication that flooding will occur as people tend to build to the grass is an estimate of how high water gets each day; however it is exceeded by the tidal cycle alone for approximately half the month. This site uses it as a warning that waters are likely to be high, so please pay attention. In addition, NOS and NHC consider this to be the threshold for flooding. Please see their Memo as .pdf. is the average water surface and the most familiar to the general public. Deviations from MSL provide a precise description of unexpected amounts of water, but it is difficult to directly tie it to human impacts due to the variability of the tide range centered on MSL. is an estimate of how low water gets each day and is the standard datum used by NOS tide stations (and earlier versions of this site). It is useful for mariners concerned with running aground. NOTE: "Surge Guidance" and "Anomaly" values are changes in water level, so are "datumless". This means that while they appear to move on the graph when toggling datums, they actually continue to be centered on 0.

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Welcome to Swastik Classes! In this comprehensive NCERT Solution series, we present to you the detailed solutions for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants.” This chapter explores the fascinating world of plant respiration, which is essential for their survival and energy production. In this chapter, we delve into the various aspects of respiration in plants, including the different pathways, the role of mitochondria, and the factors affecting plant respiration. Understanding these concepts is crucial for comprehending how plants obtain energy from organic compounds and carry out their metabolic activities. Our team of experienced educators has meticulously analyzed and broken down each concept, ensuring clarity and simplicity in explanations. These solutions are designed to help you grasp the intricate details of plant respiration, enabling you to confidently tackle any question related to this topic. By using our NCERT solutions, you will not only enhance your conceptual understanding but also develop problem-solving skills to excel in examinations. Our solutions include insightful explanations, diagrams, and examples, allowing you to connect theoretical knowledge with real-life applications. This approach nurtures a holistic understanding of plant respiration and its significance in plant growth and survival. At Swastik Classes, we are committed to providing you with the best educational resources. Our NCERT Solution series for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants” is a valuable tool to help you navigate through the complexities of this chapter. We believe that a solid foundation in plant biology will enable you to appreciate the remarkable processes that drive plant respiration. Embark on this learning journey with us, and let’s unravel the wonders of respiration in plants together! NCERT Solution for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS – Exercises 1. Give the schematic representation of an overall view of Krebs’ cycle. 2. Differentiate between (a) Respiration and Combustion (b) Glycolysis and Krebs’cycle (c) Aerobic respiration and Fermentation Sol. (a) Differences between respiration and combustion are as follows : (b) Differences between glycolysis and Krebs’ cycle are as follows: (C)Differences between aerobic respiration and fermentation are as follows: 3. What are respiratory substrates? Name the most common respiratory substrate. Sol. Respiratory substrates are those organic substances which are oxidised during respiration to liberate energy inside the living cells. The common respiratory substrates are carbohydrates, proteins, fats and organic acids. The most common respiratory substrate is glucose. It is a hexose monosaccharide. 4. Give the schematic representation of glycolysis. 5. Explain ETS. Sol. An electron transport chain or system (ETS) is a series of coenzymes and cytochromes that take part in the passage of electrons from a chemical to its ultimate acceptor. Reduced coenzymes participate in electron transport chain. Electron transport takes place on cristae of mitochondria [oxysomes ( F0 -F1 , particles) found on the inner surface of the membrane of mitochondria]. NADH formed in glycolysis and citric acid cycle are oxidised by NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) and the electrons are transferred to ubiquinone. Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents via FADH2 through the activity of succinate dehydrogenase (complex II). The reduced ubiquinone is then oxidised by transfer of electrons of cytochrome c via cytochrome Fc, complex (complex III). Cytochrome c acts as a mobile carrier between complex III and complex IV. Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochromes a and a3and two copper centres. When the electrons are shunted over the carriers via complex I to IV in the electron transport chain, they are coupled to ATP synthetase (complex V) for the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi. Oxygen functions as the terminal acceptor of electrons and is reduced to water along with the hydrogen atoms. Reduced coenzymes (coenzyme I, II and FAD) do not combine directly with the molecular O2. Only their hydrogen or electrons are transferred through various substances and finally reach O2. The substances useful for the transfer of electron are called electron carriers. Only electrons are transferred through cytochromes (Cyt F1 Cyt c,,C2, a, a3) and finally reach molecular O2. Both cytochrome a and a3 form a system called cytochrome oxidase. Copper is also present in Cyt a3 in addition to iron. The molecular oxygen that has accepted electrons now receives the protons that were liberated into the surrounding medium to give rise to a molecule of water. The liberated energy is utilised for the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi. 6. What are the main steps in aerobic respiration? Where does it take place? Sol. Aerobic respiration is an enzymatically controlled release of energy in a stepwise catabolic process of complete oxidation of organic food into carbon dioxide and water with oxygen acting as terminal oxidant. It occurs by two methods, common pathway and pentose phosphate pathway. Common pathway is known so because its first step, called glycolysis, is common to both aerobic and anaerobic modes of respiration. The common pathway of aerobic respiration consists of three steps – glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle and terminal oxidation. Aerobic respiration takes place within mitochondria. The final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. 7. What are the assumptions made during the calculation of net gain of ATP? Sol. It is possible to make calculations of the net gain of ATP for every glucose molecule oxidised; but in reality this can remain only a theoretical exercise. These calculations can be made only on certain assumptions that: There is a sequential, orderly pathway functioning, with one substrate forming the next and with glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway following one after another. transferred into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative phosphorylation. None of the intermediates in the pathway are utilised to synthesise any other compound. Only glucose is being respired – no other alternative substrates are entering in the pathway at any of the intermediary stages. But these kind of assumptions are not really valid in a living system; all pathway work simultaneously and do not take place one after another; substrates enter the pathways and are withdrawn from it as and when necessary; ATP is utilised as and when needed; enzymatic rates are controlled by multiple means. Hence, there can be a net gain of 36 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one molecule of glucose. 8. Distinguish between the following: (a) Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respira¬tion. (b) Glycolysis and Fermentation. (c) Glycolysis and Citric acid cycle. Sol. (a) Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration are as follows: (b) Differences between glycolysis and fermentation are as follows: 9. Discuss The respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway”. Sol. Amphibolic pathway is the one which is used for both breakdown (catabolism) and build-up (anabolism) reactions. Respiratory pathway is mainly a catabolic process which serves to run the living system by providing energy. The pathway produces a number of intermediates. Many of them are raw materials for building up both primary and secondary metabolites. Acetyl CoA is helpful not only in Krebs’ cycle but is also raw material for synthesis of fatty acids, steroids, terpenes, aromatic compounds and carotenoids, a-ketoglutarate is organic acid which forms glutamate (an important amino acid) on amination. OAA (Oxaloacetic acid) on amination produces asparate. Both aspartate and glutamate are components of proteins. Pyrimidines and alkaloids are other products. Succinyl CoA forms cytochromes and chlorophyll. Hence, fatty acids would be broken down to acetyl CoA before entering the respiratory pathway when it is used as a substrate. But when the organism needs to synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA would be withdrawn from the respiratory pathway for it. Hence, the respiratory pathway comes into the picture both during breakdown and synthesis of fatty acids. Similarly, during breakdown and synthesis of proteins too, respiratory intermediates form the link. Breaking down processes within the living organism is catabolism, and synthesis is anabolism. Because the respiratory pathway is involved in both anabolism and catabolism, it would hence be better to consider the respiratory pathway as an amphibolic pathway rather than as a catabolic one. 10. Define RQ. What is its value for fats? Sol. Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen consumed in respiration over a period of time. Its value can be one, zero, more than 1 or less than one. Volume of C02 evolved Volume of 02 consumed RQ is less than one when the respiratory substrate is either fat or protein. C57 H104O6 + 80 O2-» 57 CO2+ 52H2O RQ = 57CO2/80O2 = 0.71 RQ is about 0.7 for most of the common fats. 11. What is oxidative phosphorylation? Sol. Oxidative phosphorylation is the synthesis of energy rich ATP molecules with the help of energy liberated during oxidation of reduced co-enzymes (NADH, FADH2) produced in respiration. The enzyme required for this synthesis is called ATP synthase. It is considered to be the fifth complex of electron transport chain. ATP synthase is located in FT or head piece of F0 -F1 or elementary particles. The particles are present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase becomes active in ATP formation only where there is a proton gradient having higher concentration of H+ or protons on the F0 side as compared to F x side (chemiosmotic hypothesis of Peter Mitchell). Increased proton concentration is produced in the outer chamber or outer surface of inner mitochondrial membrane by the pushing of proton with the help of energy liberated by passage of electrons from one carrier to another. Transport of the electrons from NADH over ETC helps in pushing three pairs of protons to the outer chamber while two pairs of protons are sent outwardly during electron flow from FADH2. The flow of protons through the F0 channel induces F1 particle to function as ATP-synthase. The energy of the proton gradient is used in attaching a phosphate radical to ADP by high energy bond. This produces ATP. Oxidation of one molecule of NADH2 produces 3 ATP molecules while a similar oxidation of FADH2 forms 2 ATP molecules. 12. What is the significance of step-wise release of energy in respiration? Sol. The utility of step-wise release of energy in respiration are given as follows : (i) There is a step-wise release of chemical bond energy which is very easily trapped in forming ATP molecules. (ii) Cellular temperature is not allowed to rise. (iii) Wastage of energy is reduced. (iv) There are several intermediates which can be used in production of a number of biochemicals. (v) Through their metabolic intermediates different substances can undergo respiratory catabolism. (vi) Each step of respiration is controlled by its own enzyme. The activity of different enzymes can be enhanced or inhibited by specific compounds. This helps in controlling the rate of respiration and the amount of energy liberated by it. Conclusions for NCERT Solution for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS the NCERT Solution series for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants” by Swastik Classes provides comprehensive and insightful solutions to help you understand the intricate processes involved in plant respiration. Throughout this chapter, we have explored various aspects of plant respiration, including the different pathways, the role of mitochondria, and the factors affecting plant respiration. By delving into these concepts, we gain a deeper understanding of how plants obtain energy from organic compounds and carry out their metabolic activities. Our solutions are meticulously crafted to simplify complex concepts, ensuring clarity and ease of understanding. The explanations, diagrams, and examples provided in our solutions enable you to connect theoretical knowledge with practical applications, fostering a holistic approach to learning. By using our NCERT solutions, you will not only enhance your conceptual understanding but also develop problem-solving skills to excel in examinations. We believe that a strong foundation in plant respiration is essential for comprehending the fundamental processes that drive plant growth and survival. At Swastik Classes, we are committed to providing you with the best educational resources. Our NCERT Solution series for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants” is designed to support your learning journey and help you succeed academically. We hope that our solutions have equipped you with the necessary tools to confidently tackle any question related to this chapter. By mastering the concepts covered in this chapter, you will have a solid understanding of the processes that drive plant respiration and the vital role it plays in plant growth and survival. Thank you for choosing Swastik Classes as your trusted learning companion. We wish you success in your biology studies and encourage you to explore the fascinating world of plant respiration further! - Q: What is respiration in plants, and why is it essential? A: Respiration in plants is the process through which plants convert stored energy in organic compounds into usable forms, such as ATP. It involves the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen, releasing energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Respiration is essential for plant growth, as it provides the energy needed for metabolic activities, nutrient uptake, and synthesis of new molecules. - Q: How does respiration in plants differ from respiration in animals? A: Respiration in plants and animals share the same overall process of converting glucose into energy. However, there are some differences. Plants primarily respire aerobically, but they can also respire anaerobically under certain conditions. Animals, on the other hand, rely mostly on aerobic respiration. Additionally, plants have specialized structures called mitochondria that carry out respiration, while animals have specialized respiratory organs like lungs. - Q: What are the different pathways of respiration in plants? A: Plants can undergo aerobic respiration, which occurs in the presence of oxygen, and anaerobic respiration, which occurs in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria and involves the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. Anaerobic respiration in plants can occur through processes like alcoholic fermentation or lactic acid fermentation. - Q: What factors can affect the rate of respiration in plants? A: Several factors can influence the rate of respiration in plants. Temperature plays a crucial role, as respiration rates increase with higher temperatures. Oxygen availability, light intensity, and the availability of carbohydrates also impact respiration rates. Additionally, the age and physiological state of the plant can influence the rate of respiration. - Q: How do plants respire in the absence of light during the night? A: During the night, when there is no light for photosynthesis, plants rely on stored carbohydrates for energy through respiration. In the absence of light, plants switch to aerobic respiration, breaking down stored sugars to release energy. This process allows plants to continue metabolic activities, growth, and maintenance even in the absence of photosynthesis.

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Pure numbers are very useful in many situations. They can tell us about various important properties. Examples might include the temperature in a room (measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit), the speed at which we are travelling in a moving vehicle (measured in miles or kilometres per hour), or the weight of an object (measured in pounds or kilogrammes). These numbers are often an indication of where a value lies on some scale (for example the graduated glass tube in a thermometer, the speed dial in a speedometer, or the range of outputs that can be displayed by a set of digital scales). In cases such as this, the number represents one possible value in a finite range of values. Numbers used in this way are referred to as scalar values, and the number alone is sufficient to provide us with the information we require. Quantities such as speed and temperature can be represented by scalar values There are other situations where a scalar value alone does not give us all of the information we need. The pilot of an aircraft, for example, obviously needs to know how fast they are going. Unlike the driver of a motor vehicle, however, the pilot does not have a road to follow, and therefore needs to know in which direction they are flying. Indeed, things get even more complicated for a pilot. There are many other factors to consider, such as the aircraft's current altitude (i.e. the height above the ground) and the aircraft's attitude (the combination of yaw, roll and pitch). Indeed, think about any object moving across a planar surface, or through some three-dimensional space. A scalar value can give us the relative speed of the object, but what about its direction? Airspeed is just one of several factors important to a pilot The combination of a moving object's speed and direction at any given moment in time is called its velocity. Let's assume for argument's sake that we know an object's velocity. Let's also assume that we know where that object currently is in terms of its x and y coordinates in a plane, or its x, y and z coordinates in some three-dimensional space. Armed with this information, and providing the object's velocity remains constant, we can work out where it will be at some later point in time. An object's velocity can be stored as a set of numbers that tell us how far it will travel in a given period of time (e.g. one second, or one hour) relative to each axis of a two-dimensional plane or three-dimensional space. This set of numbers is referred to as a vector. The use of vectors is not limited to describing velocity. Vectors can also be used to describe the magnitude and direction of a force, or of acceleration (i.e. the change in velocity over time). For the moment, let's keep things relatively simple by concentrating on two-dimensional vectors. We will confine ourselves to thinking about how we get from point A to point B (assume that points A and B are two distinct points on a plane). Any movement from A to B requires some degree of displacement relative to each of the plane's x and y axes (even if the displacement relative to one of the axes has a value of zero). An example may help to clarify matters. The graphic below shows a vector represented by a grey arrow connecting points A and B. The direction of the arrow indicates that the movement takes place in the direction from A to B (as opposed to the opposite direction, from B to A). Point A has the coordinates x=1, y=1, while point B has coordinates x=6, y=4. A movement from point A to point B is represented by the vector (5, 3) The displacement along the x-axis is represented by the red arrow, which has a length of five (5) units. The displacement along the y-axis is represented by the blue arrow, which has a length of three (3) units. The vector can be written as an ordered pair, representing the displacement along the x and y axes respectively, as (5, 3). The term ordered pair simply reflects the convention of always writing the x displacement first, followed by the y displacement. You should be able to see from the above that the vector's ordered pair can be derived by subtracting the x and y start point coordinates from the x and y end point coordinates, i.e. 6 - 1 = 5, 4 - 1 = 3. Conversely, given a starting point of (1, 1) and a vector (5, 3), we can find the end point coordinates by adding the vector's ordered pair to the start point coordinates, i.e. 1 + 5 = 6, 1 + 3 = 4. Although you may have already grasped the point, we would emphasise here that a vector is often an independent entity. In other words, it simply represents movement in a given direction and of a given magnitude. As such, it can be applied to any starting point. To demonstrate this, consider the graphic below in which the same vector is applied to two different starting points. In both cases, applying the vector (3, 2) increases the x-coordinate by three, and the y-coordinate by two. Note that the magnitude of a vector is represented by its length. Note also that while drawing vectors makes it very easy for us to visualise them, we will at some point need to start working with a non-visual form of vector notation in order to be able to carry out vector arithmetic more efficiently. The vector (3, 2) is applied to points A and C Two vectors are equal (i.e. they are effectively the same vector) if, and only if, they have the same magnitude and direction. In other words, the arrows representing the vectors must point the same way, and be of the same length (the length represents the magnitude of the vector). Looking at the above figure, you may well conclude that the red and blue arrows representing the displacement in the x and y directions respectively can themselves be considered to be vectors. This is indeed the case. In fact, the vector (3, 2) is the result of adding these two vectors - (3, 0) and (0, 2) - together. Vector addition is dealt with elsewhere, but for now it is useful to know that any two dimensional vector that is not perpendicular to either axis is the result of adding two additional vectors - one that acts in the x direction, and one that acts in the y direction. These two vectors can be regarded as the legs of a right-angled triangle for which the resultant vector forms the hypotenuse. Various forms of notation are used for vectors. We have already seen one of the simplest forms of notation for a two-dimensional vector using brackets. Both of the vectors shown in the above illustration, for example, can be written simply as (3, 2). This simply gives an ordered pair of x and y values that gives us the horizontal and vertical distances between the tail of the arrow and its head. Bear in mind that a vector such as (3, 2) is not tied to a specific starting point. It is what we call a free vector, because it can be applied to any given point of origin. If we wish to denote a vector that specifically indicates movement from one known fixed point to another, we use a somewhat different notation. The directed line segment between points A and B in the above illustration, for example, is the visual representation of a vector. A vector that has a fixed point of origin is not a free vector. It is usually referred to as a position vector. We can refer to the position vector that describes the movement from point A to point B using the notation AB→. The arrow above the characters AB denotes the direction of movement (i.e. from point A to point B, and not the other way round). Of course, this notation does not give us the information we need in order to work out how far we must move in each of the x and y directions in order to get to point B from point A. We would therefore probably write something like the following, which expresses the vector in row vector form: AB→ = (3, 2) This tells us that in order to get from our point of origin (point A) to our designated end point (point B), we need to increase the value of our x-coordinate by three, and increase the value of our y-coordinate by two. Note that this form of notation is also used in a three-dimensional space. The only difference is that a third vector value is added to represent the required increase (or decrease) in the value of the z-coordinate. Position vectors are used in navigational systems, where they are used to describe the distance and direction of an object (an aircraft or a ship, for example) from a fixed reference point. They can also be found in many other situations, including the study of mechanics and astrodynamics, and in computer games and simulations. Note that an ordered pair of x and y coordinates for any point in a Cartesian coordinate system also represents a vector. The same can be said of an ordered triple of x, y and z coordinates for any point in a three-dimensional coordinate system. These vectors give the magnitude and direction of a point's displacement from the origin (essentially, they are position vectors). Free vectors can be named using lower-case characters. In the illustration below, the free vector c appears twice (note that vector names are often printed in bold type). A second free vector, -c, is also shown. This vector has the same magnitude as vector c, but acts in the opposite direction. A minus sign ("-") in front of a vector name usually indicates that a vector with the same name, and having the same magnitude, already exists. The minus sign simply indicates that the new vector works in the opposite direction to the original vector. We could of course simply give the new vector a completely different name, but it is sometimes convenient to be able to refer to two vectors in a way that makes it obvious that one vector negates (i.e. cancels out) the other. Note that for the left-most instance of vector c in the illustration, we have also shown its component vectors (vectors a and b). Vector c is a free vector Using row vector form, we can define the different vectors in the above illustration as follows: a = (3, 0) b = (0, 2) c = (3, 2) -c = (-3, -2) When we start to look at vector arithmetic, we will find that it is convenient to store vector information in a matrix. We can use matrices to store a significant amount of vector information in a relatively compact form, and can then manipulate that information using matrix arithmetic. If you are unfamiliar with matrix arithmetic, it might be useful to have a look at the relevant pages in the Algebra section of this website. Vector information is stored within matrices as vertical columns, as shown below. You might be able to deduce from the above that vector c is the sum of its component vectors, a and b. Although vector addition is dealt with in more detail elsewhere, it is worth noting here that the result of adding two vectors together is always another vector (called the resultant). The magnitude of the resultant (i.e. its length) can be calculated using Pythagoras' theorem, since the resultant is effectively the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle for which the component vectors form the legs. In order to calculate the length of vector c, for example, we could perform the following calculation: |c| = √|a|2 + |b|2 = √32 + 22 = √13 = 3.606 We have (rather sneakily!) introduced a new form of notation here. For our calculation, what we are interested in using is the magnitude of the vectors, not the vectors themselves. The standard notation for expressing the magnitude of a vector in a mathematical expression is to place vertical bars on either side of the vector's name. The magnitude of vector a is thus be expressed as |a|.

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OXALIS, in botany, a large genus of small herbaceous plants, comprising, with a few small allied genera, the natural order Oxalidaceae. The name is derived from Gr. 6Eus, acid, the plants being acid from presence of acid calcium oxalate. It contains about 220 species, chiefly South African and tropical and South American. It is represented in Britain by the woodsorrel, a small stemless plant with radical trefoil-like leaves growing from a creeping scaly rootstock, and the flowers borne singly on an axillary stalk; the flowers are regular with five sepals, five obovate, white, purple-veined, free petals, ten stamens and a central five-lobed, five-celled ovary with five free styles. The fruit is a capsule, splitting by valves; the seeds have a fleshy coat, which curls back elastically, ejecting the true seed. The leaves, as in the other species of the genus, show a "sleep-movement," becoming pendulous at night. Oxalis crenata, Oca of the South Americans, is a tuberous-rooted half-hardy perennial, native of Peru. Its tubers are comparatively small, and somewhat acid; but if they be exposed in the sun from six to ten days they become sweet and floury. In the climate of England they can only be grown by starting them in heat in March, and planting out in June in a light soil and warm situation. They grow freely enough, but few tubers are formed, and these of small size. The fleshy stalks, which have the acid flavour of the family, may, however, be used in the same way as rhubarb for tarts. The leaves may be eaten in salads. It is easily propagated by cuttings of the stems or by means of sets like the potato. Oxalis Deppei or 0. tetraphylla, a bulbous perennial, native of Mexico, has scaly bulbs, from which are produced fleshy, tapering, white, semi-transparent roots, about 4 in. in length and 3 to 4 in. in diameter. They strike down into the soil, which should therefore be made light and rich: ` with abundance of decayed vegetable matter. The bulbs should be planted about the end of April, 6 in. apart, in rows i ft. asunder, being only just covered with soil and having a situation with a southern aspect. The roots should be dug up before they become affected by frost, but if protected they will continue to increase in size till November. When taken up the bulbs should be stored in a cool dry place for replanting and the roots for use. The roots are gently boiled with salt and water, peeled and eaten like asparagus with melted butter and the yolks of eggs, or served up like salsafy and scorzonera with white sauce. Many other species are known in cultivation for edgings, rockwork or as pot-plants for the greenhouse, the best hardy and half-hardy kinds being 0. arenaria, purple; 0. Bowiei, crimson; 0. enneaphylla, white or pale rose; 0. floribunda, rose; 0. lasiandra, pink; 0. luteola, creamy yellow; 0. variabilis, purple, white, red; and 0. violacea, violet. - Please bookmark this page (add it to your favorites) - If you wish to link to this page, you can do so by referring to the URL address below. This page was last modified 29-SEP-18 Copyright © 2021 ITA all rights reserved.

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Many modern Jews immediately associate Shabbat with a list of “don’ts’, which is often off putting for many. This unit introduces the learner to the distinction between the two main commandments of “remember” and “keep” the Sabbath day, with the emphasis on the positive commands of Shabbat observance. In addition to the study of classical Jewish thinkers such as Rambam and Ramban, and of the great 20th century Jewish philosopher, Abraham Joshua Herschel,the student focuses on three of the“positive” traditional Shabbat practices, candle lighting, Kiddush and Havdalah. An intentional experience of a Shabbat, with implementation of the practices that were discussed in class, is one of the key activities for understanding how the positive commandments of Shabbat can play a powerful role in the creation of sacred time. The learner will: Understand how the “do’s” of Shabbat as commanded in the Torah can create a day of joy and delight. Know that “remember” and “keep” are two commandments in the Torah that give us the code for how to observe the Shabbat, as well as some Rabbinic explanations for what the observance of “remember “ is all about Be able to experience the “do’s” of Shabbat through an actual Shabbat observance, either in the classroom or through a Shabbaton in the community When you click on the Jewish Education by Design resource link featured above, you will find the following educational building blocks for the creation of a lesson plan: Essential questions that get to the “heart” of the learning A hook/s to open the lesson in an engaging fashion and spark the learners’ curiosity In depth discussion questions that are designed to elicit conceptual thinking and personal reflections about the featured source/s Suggested activities that enable the students to both process and apply what was learned in a thought provoking and creative fashion

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This picture is an example of early autotrophs. Click on image for full size Image courtesy of Corel Photography Over a very long time, gradual changes in the earliest cells gave rise to new life forms. These new cells were very different from the earlier heterotrophs because they were able to get their energy from a new source -- the Sun. Organisms that are able to make their own food (in the form of sugars) by using the energy of the Sun are called autotrophs, meaning "self-feeders". Photosynthesis is the name of the process by which these autotrophs use energy from the sun and eat. Because the autotrophic bacteria were able to feed themselves by using the energy of the Sun, they were no longer dependent on the same limited food supply as their ancestors and were able to flourish. Over millions of years of evolution, photosynthetic bacteria eventually gave rise to modern day plants. The appearance of organisms capable of performing photosynthesis was very significant -- if it weren't for the photosynthetic activity of these early bacteria, Earth's atmosphere would still be without oxygen and the appearance of oxygen-dependent animals, including humans, would never have occurred! You might also be interested in: Photosynthesis is the name of the process by which autotrophs (self-feeders) convert water, carbon dioxide, and solar energy into sugars and oxygen. It is a complex chemical process by which plants and...more The first beings were probably much like coacervates. As a group, these bacteria are called heterotrophic anaerobes (ann-air-robes). Because there was virtually no oxygen in the atmosphere at this time,...more Kingdom Plantae contains almost 300,000 different species of plants. It is not the largest kingdom, but it is a very important one! In the process known as "photosynthesis", plants use the energy of the...more The Archean is the name of the age which began with the forming Earth. This period of Earth's history lasted a long time, 2.8 billion years! That is more than half the expected age of the Earth! And no...more Eventually, photosynthesis by the earliest forms of plant life (a form of life capable of feeding itself instead of feeding off of others) began to produce significant amounts of oxygen. One important...more Extreme environments are places where "normal" life finds it hard to survive. That doesn't mean that there isn't any life in extreme environments. Certain creatures can live and grow in extreme environments....more Some environments are not good homes for most "normal" kinds of life. Places like that are called extreme environments. That doesn't mean that there isn't any life in extreme environments. Certain creatures...more

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Return to www.101science.com home page. INTRODUCTION: Radio astronomy is a relatively new science compared to optical astronomy. There are however many sites on the internet with additional detailed information; click LINKS. Many heavenly bodies emit electromagnetic radiation as well as light radiation. The ionosphere which reflects radio waves is a nuisance to radio astronomy. Fortunately there are waves that can penetrate the ionosphere without undue absorption or reflection. The radio frequency range of most importance to radio astronomy therefore is approximately from 1 centimeter to 10 meters. Our sun radiates electromagnetic waves and can be studied during daylight hours. The more distant objects radiating electromagnetic waves are observed during night time hours. This is similar to optical astronomic observation. The radio telescope antennas must be necessarily fairly large. Not long ago, even at one meter it required an antenna of the size of the Jodrell Bank radio telescope to produce a beam width of one degree. Many new advances in technology, antenna design and low noise amplifiers have made smaller antennas a real possibility today. Antennas as small as six feet in diameter to around 20 feet in diameter are possible for the backyard amateur radio astronomer. Important work with smaller and smaller antennas is the new frontier of radio astronomy. You can learn the basics of radio astronomy by downloading this FREE pdf document. DOWNLOAD FREE: RADIO ASTRONOMY LEARNING GUIDE There are ways the amateur can participate in radio astronomy without constructing large dishes. Much of this will consist of researching information in books, magazines and internet resources. William Lonc wrote a book on the subject. Studies of HF propagation and HF noise is also related and of interest. Interception of Jupiter's emissions around 18-22 Mhz are also possible at times with the proper receiving equipment (HF receiver), antennas, and orientation of the antenna toward Jupiter. See the Jupiter's emissions link for details. Be sure to look for and listen to the Jupiter sound files found on that site. RADIO JOVE PROJECT - Don't miss the NASA and JPL Radio Jove project. It includes a complete radio telescope kit with antenna you can easily build. The free software provides computer logging of your Jovian listening projects. Find out more about this exciting radio telescope project you can be involved in by clicking HERE http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/. VLA Images of Outburst from Black Hole Binary Star System Dramatic Outburst Reveals Nearest Black Hole to Earth A dramatic outburst September 1999 showed scientists that a previously-known variable star in the constellation Sagittarius has a hungry black hole as a companion. Only 1,600 light-years away, it is the closest known black hole. Rapidly drawing material from the star, the black hole caused an outburst of X-rays, light and radio waves. The Very Large Array radio telescope observed a "jet" of subatomic particles shot out at nearly the speed of light from this system. The two images at left, made only 30 minutes apart, show significant change; the image at right, made two days later, shows that the outburst quickly faded, leaving only a weakly-emitting core. Note: VLA = Very Large Array Radio Telescope. Astronomy Telescope Project An 5.2-meter amateur radio telescope for 1420 MHz is described. Click; Basics of Radio Astronomy Click; Amateur Radio Astronomy Resources A site specializing in amateur radio astronomy. Lots of free information for students, teachers, and amateur scientists. Click; Radio Astronomy Supplies Your International Supplier of Quality Radio Astronomy Products Click; The University of Calgary Radio Astronomy Laboratory Click; Radio Astronomy and SETI - Big Ear Radio Observatory This Kraus-type radio telescope, larger than three football fields, was famous for the Wow! Signal and for the longest-running SETI project. Click; NRAO - National Radio Astronomy Observatory Click; Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie Max-Planck-Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn, Germany. It is the home institution of the world's largest fully steerable radio telescope, the 100m antenna of Effelsberg, which has been successfully operated since August 1972. Click; Cavendish Astrophysics Homepage Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory. The Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers EME, SETI, Radio Astronomy and DSP for Radio Amateurs (W6/PA0ZN) Radio Astronomy for Scientists Teachers and Students Amateur Radio Astronomy Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers Ham Radio and Radio Astronomy The SETI League, Inc.: Amateur Radio and Radio Astronomy Links UK AMATEUR RADIO ASTRONOMY NETWORK The Stanback Planetarium Amateur Radio Astronomy Webpage and WebRing Why Radio Astronomy? Amateur Radio Astronomy : Operating Modes: Amateur Radio Astronomy Radio Astronomy and Space Science Amateur Radio Astronomy FAQ Information for Amateur Radio Astronomers Amateur radio astronomy with SIMPLE 20 MHz arrays radio-telescope for radio astronomy JAS: Observing Meteors by Radio Directory - Science: Astronomy: Amateur: Radio Astronomy FIRST, SEARCH 101science.com pages: Return to www.101science.com home page.

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MacroeconomicsMacroeconomics refers to the 'big picture' study of economics, so looking at concepts like industry, country, or global economic factors. Macroeconomics includes looking at concepts like a nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), unemployment rates, growth rate, and how all these concepts interact with each other. Studying and applying macroeconomics is incredibly important at the government level as the policy and economic decision and regulations enacted by government can have a major impact on many aspects of the overall economy. To demonstrate macroeconomic theory in practice we'll briefly look at how interest rates fit into macroeconomic policy. Extensive study goes into establishing the appropriate interest rates in an economy, where the government sets a base rate and banks work from there. If interest rates goes up: - People may save more money as they get a better return on their deposits. - Business will invest in less expansion as borrowing money will cost relatively more. - The local currency will go up in value because now deposits in that currency can earn more compared to other currencies. - Inflation will go down, because in general saving is up and spending is down and people are buying less. This gets very complex because 'relatively go up' or 'relatively go down' are very loose relationships and many factors impact decision making also (i.e. taxes & employment rates). Then the impact of the policy decisions of other countries have to be considered also as they impact what happens to a countries economy also. In theory, macroeconomics can be easy because for each change in a relevant figure it can be assumed that if all other factors are constant, this is what would happen. In reality, all of the factors are constantly shifting and enacting macroeconomic policy is very difficult to manage. MicroeconomicsMicroeconomics refers to more individual or company specific studies in economics. How businesses establish prices, how taxes will impact individual decision making, the concept of supply and demand. So Microeconomics looks at all the small economic decisions and interactions that all add up to the big picture concepts that Macroeconomics looks at. The study and application of macroeconomics is most commonly employed by businesses, in establishing how they price their products through understanding the needs of consumers. Central to this is the concept of supply and demand and how both factors influence price setting. Supply: If there is an overabundance of supply for a specific product, the price will naturally be driven down (assuming demand for that product stays constant). People don't want the product any more than they did before, but since there's so much of that product out there people are only willing to pay a limited amount. Alternatively if supply drops, but the demand stays the same, people are willing to pay a more for that same product. Demand: If people want a product more than they previously did, say it's become the 'must have' item of the year, the price for that product will go up if the supply of that product stays the same. People will pay more to obtain the product to make sure they get it. If demand goes down, say something goes out of fashion, there can still be the same amount of it on the market for sale but people don't want it anymore so the price goes down. These relationships are the key focus of microeconomics and how various factors (i.e. taxes) impact the supply and demand model for products in general. Companies also need to be aware of these concepts in order to set an effective price for their products, to ensure they can maximize their profits.

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