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For those unfamiliar with Cornish, it is classed as a p-Celtic member of the family of Celtic languages, which was once spoken across much of Europe, and is now restricted to the insular world and Brittany: the only surviving languages being Cornish, Welsh and Breton (all p-Celtic), and Manx, Scots Gaelic and Irish (all q-Celtic). The relationship between these two branches is illustrated by p-Celtic words such as peduar W and their q-Celtic equivalents: cethar [Ir]. The etymology, morphology, syntax and phonology of Cornish and the other Celtic languages ultimately derive from a putative proto-Indo European or proto-Celtic language or family of languages spoken in Britain in pre-history. Cornish Onomastics is the study of onomastics (personal name data) and toponymics (place name data) in relation to Cornwall in the Early Medieval Period (350 CE to 1000 CE). These names are almost completely in the Cornish language (the Brittonic used in Cornwall and a relative of Welsh and Breton. Sometime before C6 the closely related South-western British and Western British languages started to look less like Gaulish and more like the modern p-Celtic languages, and Cornish, Welsh, Breton and Cumbric (extinct) began taking shape as modern European languages. Cornish and Breton (from South-western British) eventually diverged from each other during the last part of the Early Medieval Period. There will have been dialectic differences in these regions of Brittonic usage as well as differences in naming practice between them, but the structure and many name elements of Early Cornish personal names broadly follows that of early names found in Britain, Ireland, Gaul and Celt-Iberia. It is these names that have come down (with modification) to Cornish today including well known names such as Arthur, Gerent and Winwaloe. Cornish is one of the oldest indigenous languages of Britain, with its roots stretching back thousands of years and to the first settlements of Britain (believed to be the Late Neolithic, when farming was established).

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Rhetorical analysis is not for the faint of heart. It’s for teachers and instructors who don’t mind students feeling uncomfortable enough to take a risk. Rhetorical analysis has changed everything for me since I’ve brought these concepts into the classroom. The activity below is used to simply introduce the concept to students using a news article or a simple short text. Once we begin this conversation, their work gets better, they have more passion for analyzing literature, and they have the words to discuss this in-depth conversation. If you like this activity, check out more of the assignments on Teacher Pay Teacher and see what else might work for your students. Description of Rhetorical Appeals Activity: This worksheet is meant to give you a beginner’s knowledge of how to discuss and identify rhetorical appeals in an expository text. Expository texts are any text that is non-fiction: newspaper articles, informational journals, blogs, magazine articles are just the beginning. Note: At a later time, we can discuss how any types of videos or audio recordings can also be analyzed for rhetoric. Analyze a newspaper article for rhetoric. - Students will begin to see that any text can be analyzed for rhetoric. - Students will have a beginning knowledge of the meaning of ethos, pathos, and logos. - Print out or find a newspaper article that you are interested in. - Use the printable to discuss or write the answers to each question one by one. Know that each question will have an answer and each answer might be challenging to find. Look beyond the obvious!! - Skip any questions that you are really struggling with and come back to them later. - After you have completed as many questions as possible, go back to the ones you skipped. One that you might struggle with is this: What does the author want you to do with the information? Most likely, he/she wants you to change your opinion on a subject, describe. - Think about some additional questions about the author: What opinion does the author have about the subject? Who is the audience of the article? - Now respond to the article with your opinion: Do you agree or disagree with the author? Explain. Would you recommend or mention this article to someone you know? Who and why? Leave a comment if you downloaded this and completed the activity. Let me know which question you struggled with the most. I do plan to do a short video tutorial on this soon, so any confusion can be answered there if you let me know. Check out my most popular lesson on writing a Rhetorical Precis on Teacher Pay Teacher Here! Good luck and blessings to you!!

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The Ebola virus outbreak of 2014 in West Africa caused more than 11,000 deaths. At the time, scientists were working on several experimental vaccines and treatments but none were licensed for use in humans. Antibodies, which are special defence proteins made by our body in response to infection or vaccination, are one of the treatments that were investigated. Once the best antibodies for fighting a disease have been identified, they can be made in bulk and used as a treatment. Our latest research, published in Cell Reports, shows that antibodies isolated from volunteers who had been given an experimental Ebola vaccine were effective at defeating the virus in six guinea pigs. In all, 82 antibodies were derived from the blood cells of eleven people given the vaccine. These were combined into three separate groups, with each group containing three or four antibodies with different properties. One combination of antibodies successfully cured all six animals infected with the Ebola virus when it was administered three days after the start of the infection. Perfect combination of antibodies Vaccines can have side effects, so for people with immune system disorders, older people and pregnant women, antibodies are a safer form of treatment. Antibodies can be isolated from human blood by selecting individual B cells – the specialised immune cells that secrete antibodies. The genetic code for making an antibody is inside the B cells, which is extracted using advanced molecular techniques. Once this code is known, huge quantities of the antibody can be made in a lab. Antibodies attach to viruses and prevent them from entering cells. Each antibody has different properties, such as how and where it binds to the virus and if it can block the virus from infecting the cells. These properties were examined for the 82 antibodies. The antibodies isolated in this study from vaccinated donors had the same characteristics as antibodies isolated from immunised animals and people who have survived Ebola. Those Ebola antibodies are already well-studied and available for clinical trials in humans. There is an advantage for developing antibody treatments from healthy people who have been vaccinated – it resolves the difficult issue of handling unscreened blood samples from human survivors in remote areas, where donors may potentially harbour Ebola or other infectious viruses such as hepatitis B or HIV. Even if the particular combination of antibodies fails to treat these viruses, all is not lost. Antibodies from this study, combined with antibodies from other research groups which react to all species may provide a better treatment. Antibodies are also useful tools for studying the Ebola virus and human immune responses towards it. By tracking how antibodies attack cells, it’s possible to identify the vulnerable parts of the virus. This study shows that a human vaccine trial is a golden opportunity to isolate antibodies that can effectively be used as a treatment. This may be important for tackling emerging infections like bird flu, MERS, SARS and Chikungunya viruses, for which we have no established drugs or therapeutic antibodies. Pramila Rijal, Postdoctoral Researcher in the MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford and Alain Townsend, Professor of Molecular Immunology, University of Oxford This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license.

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Thomas Watson Hunster (1851-1929) was an accomplished artist and innovative art educator in Washington, DC. He taught art and served as Director of Drawing for African American public schools in the city's then-segregated system. Over his forty-eight year tenure, he became known as the "Father of Art" for developing—and constantly refining—an interdisciplinary art curriculum for every grade level, from kindergarten through Miner Normal School’s teacher training program. Generations of students learned to draw, a skill that he considered fundamental for understanding both one's self and the world. As Professor Hunster wrote in his 1899 annual report, "I deem it unnecessary to discuss the benefits derived from the study of drawing; the general correlation of drawing with other studies all over the country testifies to its value in education.”1 Professor Hunster's visionary leadership included introducing industrial and manual arts classes eight years earlier than offered in the city's white public schools. Further, he created a museum within Miner Normal School because most art galleries and museum barred Black visitors. He displayed the work of pupils and peers alike in well-received annual art shows. Professor Hunster primarily painted landscapes. However, he took up portraiture for a period to become more adept at detail before returning to still life paintings and his beloved landscapes.2 Hunster remained a practicing artist throughout his life, active not only in Washington, DC's art community, but also on national and international stages. He collaborated with Armstrong High School students to create nine dioramas depicting African American history for the Paris Exposition in 1900. He was also an architect of the Washington Public Schools display at the Jamestown Ter-Centennial in 1907. Student-made items and his own oil paintings showcased African American accomplishment in the arts, education, and vocational training. In both expositions, Professor Hunster used art to advance civil rights in settings where segregated displays paralleled social and legislative practice. As Professor Hunster neared retirement, he designed a house and studio in nearby Ardwick, Maryland, a community created by African American professionals in Prince Georges County. Its wooded surroundings likely inspired many paintings, and the house's unique architecture lent itself to doubling as a gallery. Upon retiring in 1922, Professor Hunster was succeeded by Hilda Wilkinson Brown (1894-1981), a notable educator and artist in her own right.4 The prolific painter continued to create and exhibit artwork until his death on August 24, 1929. A decade later, the Thomas W. Hunster Art Gallery was dedicated at the renowned Dunbar High School (formerly M Street School). A solo show at Howard University's Gallery of Art memorialized Professor Hunster with a centennial exhibition in 1951. Professor Hunster's paintings, along with paintings and marionettes made by his students, were on display at the Anacostia Community Museum's exhibition on M Street School principal Anna J. Cooper in 1981-82. Hutchinson, Louise Daniel. Anna J. Cooper: A Voice from the South. 1981, 1982. Smithsonian Institution. See page 114. Lawton, Pamela Harris. "Hunting for Hunster: A Portrait of Thomas Watson Hunster, Art Education Pioneer in the District of Columbia." Studies in Art Education, Volume 58, No. 2 (April 2017): 100-114. DOI: 10.1080/00393541.2017.1292385 Report of the Board of Trustees of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, 1870-1900. Full-view access via HathiTrust. Thomas Hunster's paintings in the Howard University Art Gallery eMuseum, https://howard.emuseum.com/people/1001/thomas-w-hunster/objects Wormley, G. Smith. “Educators of the First Half Century of Public Schools of the District of Columbia.” The Journal of Negro History 17, no. 2 (1932): 124–40. DOI: 10.2307/2714463. 1. Report of the Board of Trustees of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, 1899. Full-view access via HathiTrust. 2. As noted in a biographical sketch by Howard University professor (and later, president) Stanton L. Wormley in a 1951 catalogue for a centennial exhibition of the artist’s works at Howard University’s Gallery of Art. 3. "Ardwick" in African-American Historic and Cultural Resources in Prince George's County, Maryland National Capital Park and Planning Commission, February 2012, 90-96. 4. The film, Kindred Spirits: Artists Hilda Wilkinson Brown and Lilian Thomas Burwell, chronicles the artistic legacy of Hilda Wilkinson Brown and her niece, Lilian Thomas Burwell, who became an artist with her aunt's support and encouragement.

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Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder in which the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words or phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the person who stutters is unable to produce sounds. The term stuttering is most commonly associated with involuntary sound repetition, but it also encompasses the abnormal hesitation or pausing before speech, referred to by people who stutter as blocks, and the prolongation of certain sounds, usually vowels or semivowels. For many people who stutter, repetition is the primary problem. Blocks and prolongations are learned mechanisms to mask repetition, as the fear of repetitive speaking in public is often the main cause of psychological unease. The term “stuttering” covers a wide range of severity, encompassing barely perceptible impediments that are largely cosmetic to severe symptoms that effectively prevent oral communication.

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We can explore the farthest reaches of the Universe, but can’t even complete our own cosmic backyard. The history of astronomy has been a history of receding horizons. The invention of the telescope took us beyond our naked-eye capabilities, to millions (and later billions) of stars within our own Milky Way. The application of photography and multi-wavelength astronomy to telescopes brought us beyond our own galaxy, to the distant “island Universes” populating all the space we can access. Yet, for all we know about the distant Universe, there still may be undiscovered worlds in our own Solar System. Why is that? Joseph Cummens wants to know, asking: If scientists can use telescopes to hunt planets, galaxies, exoplanets, etc., then why can’t we scan our solar system for the elusive Planet X or other celestial bodies within our home system? As far as we’ve peered into the Universe, we still have a long way to go, even in our own backyard. There’s a key word you need to understand that puts the entire question into perspective: magnitude. From an astronomical perspective, every object has an intrinsic brightness to it, defined by the amount of light it gives off. For an object like our Sun, this is due to its own luminance, since the Sun creates its own energy and emits it in all directions. For an object like our Moon, this is due to its reflected luminance, since it only reflects the light from other objects. The Moon has no self-luminance of its own. If you look at the Moon during its crescent phase, you can actually make out the signal from the lunar surface that isn’t illuminated by the Sun. This isn’t some trick of the Moon’s atmosphere (since it has virtually none), but rather is due to Earthshine: sunlight reflected off of the Earth and onto the Moon. The difference in brightness between these examples showcases how extreme the difference between reflected luminance and self-luminance are. But there’s another thing that’s exemplified by the extreme brightness differences between the Sun and Moon, and the Moon and everything else in the night sky. The Moon has no right to appear brighter than every star, planet, or galaxy in the sky based on its own pitiful magnitude. Intrinsically, the Moon is the faintest object visible with the naked eye from anywhere on Earth. Yet it appears brighter than everything except the Sun! The reason for this is that the Moon is so close, and that intrinsic brightness isn’t the same as observed — or apparent — brightness. The farther away an object is, the less bright it appears. But this isn’t just some general rule we apply, there’s a quantitative relationship that allows us to determine how bright-or-faint an object appears based on its distance. Put simply, brightness falls off as the inverse of the distance squared, or b ~ 1/r². Place an object twice as far away, and it will appear one-fourth as bright. Place it ten times as distant, and it appears just one-hundredth as bright. And place it a thousand times as far from you as it started, and it will appear just one-millionth as bright as it was initially. For any object that emits its own light, these two factors determine an object’s apparent brightness: the intrinsic brightness and the distance it is from the observer. These two factors are, arguably, the two biggest ones to consider when we determine what type of telescope to build. Want to see something fainter? You’ll need to collect more light, which either means building a bigger telescope or observing the same portion of the sky for longer. If money and engineering were no consideration, you’d opt for the bigger telescope every time. Build your telescope twice as large, and you not only gather four times as much light, but you double your resolution. To gather four times as much light by observing longer, you need to spend four times the amount of time, and gain no such advantage in resolution. The biggest telescopes we have are capable of viewing objects to the greatest resolution possible, and resolving their details in the shortest possible time. There’s also the consideration of field-of-view. What’s your goal? Is it to see the faintest object possible? Or is it to view the greatest possible amount of the Universe? There’s a trade-off to make. Your telescope can gather a certain amount of light, and it can either do that by viewing a small region to great precision, or a large region to lesser precision. Just as a microscope can double its magnification by halving the diameter of its field-of-view, a telescope can see deeper into a region of the Universe by narrowing its field-of-view. Different telescopes are optimized for different purposes. The trade-off is severe, however. If we want to go as deep as possible, we can only do it in one small region of the sky. This is the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field. A tiny region of space was imaged, in a variety of wavelengths, for a total of 23 days. The amount of information that was revealed is breathtaking: we found 5,500 galaxies in this small patch of sky. The faintest objects in this patch are literally a factor of 10,000,000,000 (ten billion) times fainter than what you can see at the limit of your naked eye. Due to its large-diameter mirror, its observations at a variety of wavelengths, its location in space, as well as its high magnification and small field-of-view, Hubble can reveal the faintest galaxies ever discovered. But there’s a cost: this image, which took 23 days of data to create, spans only 1/32,000,000th of the sky. On the other hand, you can take a view like this. This was created with the Pan-STARRS telescope, which views the entire visible sky multiple times every night from its location here on Earth. It’s comparable in size to the Hubble Space Telescope, but it’s optimized for wide-field imaging, choosing to value sky-coverage over magnification. As a result, it can reveal objects located practically anywhere on the sky; only the extreme south pole region is cut off due to the telescope’s location in the northern hemisphere. Pan-STARRS, which stands for Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System, grabs some 75% of the sky, and is great for detecting changes between points of light. It can find comets, asteroids, Kuiper belt objects and more like no other. But it can only find objects that are thousands of times brighter than the faintest ones Hubble can detect. As much as we’d like to, we cannot simply survey the entire outer Solar System at the required magnitude to discover everything that’s out there. A super-deep, super-faint, all-sky survey will likely never be a possibility due to technological limitations; we can go faint-and-narrow or bright-and-wide, but not both, simultaneously. There’s also one more limiting factor that goes way back to the beginning: these objects are only reflecting sunlight. If you look to the outer Solar System at two identical objects, but one’s twice as distant as the other, it’s actually only one-sixteenth as bright. This is because by time the sunlight hits the farther object, it’s only one-quarter as bright, but then that reflected light has to travel double the distance back to our eyes, making the overall apparent brightness fall off as b~ 1/r⁴. Even if we had a Jupiter-sized world located in the Oort Cloud, we wouldn’t have found it yet. We have plenty of telescopes capable of seeing incredibly faint objects, but we need to know where to point them. We have plenty of telescopes capable of surveying huge areas of the sky, but they can only see the brighter objects; faint ones are out of reach. And for objects in our own Solar System, because they reflect sunlight rather than emit their own, self-generated light, they cannot be seen by any modern telescope if they’re located beyond a certain distance. As with all things, the scanning we can do is powerful, interesting, and educational. It has revealed thousands upon thousands of objects within our own Solar System, from planets to moons to asteroids to Kuiper belt objects and more. But as telescope technology and sky coverage improve, we only see smaller, fainter, and more distant objects. We push the limits, but we never remove them. The science of astronomy is a story of receding horizons. But no matter how deep we go, there will always be a limit to what we can observe. Send in your Ask Ethan questions to startswithabang at gmail dot com!Ethan Siegel is the author of Beyond the Galaxy and Treknology. You can pre-order his third book, currently in development: the Encyclopaedia Cosmologica.

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Date: Jan. 29, 2014 at 6:30 p.m. EST Audience: Educators of students in grades 6-8 This 90-minute Web seminar features two activities from NASA’s On the Moon Educator Guide: “On Target” and “Feel the Heat.” In this Web seminar participants will receive an overview of both activities and learn strategies for implementing them in the classroom. In “On Target,” students design and test a method of consistently delivering a payload to a designated target. In “Feel the Heat,” students use the engineering design process to build, test and improve a solar hot water heater. Register today! NASA space scientist Jared Espley talks about the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission, or MAVEN, why it’s important to study the Martian atmosphere and what we hope to learn from the mission. NASA Now Minutes are excerpts from a weekly current events program available for classroom use at the NASA Explorer Schools Virtual Campus. The full-length classroom video will be available on the Virtual Campus beginning Jan. 22, 2014.

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By Gwendolyn Hawks-Blue Diversity and Inclusion Team co-chair Millions of lives have been affected by the actions and work of Black people of African descent. Many people know little of this history. When we become aware of it, we see more accurately the important part Black people played in developing modern society. The individuals in this article made Responsible Choices that brought good into the world. They initiated or created processes and inventions that saved lives, established opportunities for ethnicities to work together, labored to build God’s shalom and unity among ethnic groups, and helped eliminate discrimination. I am so pleased we are acknowledging and celebrating a few of their actions. Enslaved Onesimus was a gift to Puritan minister Cotton Mather from his congregation in 1706. Onesimus told Mather about the centuries-old tradition of inoculation practiced in Africa. Mather persuaded Zabdiel Boylston to experiment with the procedure when smallpox hit Boston in 1721. Onesimus’s traditional African practice was used to inoculate American soldiers during the Revolutionary War, introducing the concept of inoculation to the USA. (See www.pbs.org/video/benjamin-franklins-tragic-association-with-inoculation-ldjsc.) Dr. Daniel Hale Williams practiced at a time when Black people could not receive care at White hospitals, and Black doctors and nurses could not practice at them. Columbia University Irving Medical Center reports: Determined that Chicago should have a hospital where both [B]lack and [W]hite doctors could study and where [B]lack nurses could receive training, Williams rallied for a hospital open to all races. After several months of hard work, he opened Provident Hospital and Training School for Nurses on May 4, 1891, the country’s first interracial hospital and nursing school. Provident also was the first Black-owned and operated hospital in the USA. George Graves and William Fuller, appointees of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, succeeded in creating congregations made of White and Black people in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Although challenged by racial prejudices and the mindsets of the day that cautioned against interracial engagements, both men expressed the desire to take the gospel to all and to engage with other religious groups. Graves wrote: In the name of Jesus Christ, let all Christians unite, and let us as ministers of Christ gather people together, high and low, rich and poor, to the glory of Christ and the benefit of humanity. Harry Passman was among the White converts William Fuller baptized into the church. Because of his Jewish heritage, Passman represented the Reorganized Church in Palestine throughout the 1920s. Garrett Morgan in 1912 invented the “Safety Hood and Breathing Device,” which came to be known as the gas mask. Also, after seeing an automobile collide with a horse and carriage, he invented an automatic traffic signal and sold the device to General Electric. Today’s modern traffic signal lights are based on his design. Dr. Charles Drew in 1939 developed a technique that dramatically increased the shelf life of blood and plasma. His development of the blood plasma bank has given a second chance of life to millions. Pauli Murray’s vision was for a society that valued diversity and rallied around common human virtues. A graduate of Yale Law School, Murray’s written works profoundly challenged the legal foundation of racial discrimination and contributed immensely to the dismantling of segregation and discrimination. The first Black woman ordained as an Episcopal priest, Murray also co-founded the National Organization for Women. This minuscule bit of history helps dispel myths, inaccuracies, and damaging omissions that distort perceptions about Black people. Individuals recognized in this article focused beyond themselves and demonstrated courage, perseverance, and commitment to live their unique callings. Facing tremendous challenges, they each made Responsible Choices that were for the good of all. Their accomplishments show how all of society benefits when individuals are able to develop their talents and have their gifts received. Hopefully, awareness of these stories will expand our appreciation and celebration of the rich diversity of history and inspire us to make choices for the good of all, even when challenged.

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- Scientists have detected phosphine in the clouds of Venus. - Phosphine is a gas that can be produced by both biological and non-biological processes, but it is considered to be a potential biomarker for life. - The researchers considered all possible explanations for the presence of phosphine on Venus, including both biological and non-biological sources. - Biological processes are the most likely explanation for the presence of phosphine on Venus, but more research is needed to confirm. - The discovery of phosphine on Venus is a significant step forward in the search for life beyond Earth. Venus is the second planet from the Sun, and it is often called Earth’s twin because of its similar size and composition. However, Venus is a very different place from Earth. It has a dense atmosphere that is mostly made up of carbon dioxide, and the surface temperature is hot enough to melt lead. Because of its harsh environment, Venus has long been considered to be an unlikely place for life to exist. However, a new study published in the journal Nature Astronomy suggests that Venus may be home to aerial lifeforms that float in a thin slice of habitable atmosphere, surrounded by otherwise hellish conditions. The study was led by Clara Sousa-Silva, a researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Sousa-Silva and her team used two different telescopes to detect phosphine in the clouds of Venus. Phosphine is a colorless, flammable gas that has a garlic-like odor. It is produced by a variety of industrial processes, but it is also a byproduct of certain biological processes. On Earth, phosphine is produced by anaerobic bacteria, which are organisms that can live without oxygen. Because of its association with life, phosphine is considered to be a potential biomarker for extraterrestrial life. A biomarker is a substance or characteristic that can be used to indicate the presence of life. Sousa-Silva and her team considered all possible explanations for the presence of phosphine on Venus, including both biological and non-biological sources. One non-biological source of phosphine is lightning. Lightning can produce phosphine through the interaction of nitrogen and phosphorus in the air. However, the researchers calculated that lightning could not produce enough phosphine to explain the amount that has been detected on Venus. Another possible non-biological source of phosphine is volcanoes. Volcanoes can release phosphine into the atmosphere through the interaction of lava and water. However, the researchers found that there were not enough active volcanoes on Venus to produce the amount of phosphine that has been detected. This leaves biological processes as the most likely explanation for the presence of phosphine on Venus. However, it is important to note that the detection of phosphine is not definitive proof of life. More research is needed to confirm that the phosphine on Venus is indeed produced by living organisms. - Biological processes: Phosphine is produced by anaerobic bacteria on Earth, and it is possible that similar organisms exist in the clouds of Venus. - Non-biological processes: Lightning and volcanoes can produce phosphine, but the researchers calculated that these processes could not produce enough phosphine to explain the amount that has been detected on Venus. The discovery of phosphine on Venus is a significant step forward in the search for life beyond Earth. It suggests that life may be more common in the universe than we thought, and it raises the possibility that life can exist in even the most extreme environments. More research is needed to confirm the source of the phosphine on Venus and to determine whether or not it is produced by living organisms. However, this discovery is a reminder that we are still so much we don’t know about our universe, and it gives us hope that we may not be alone.

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i. People obtain groundwater through tube wells and handpumps. ii. Three forms of water are solid, liquid and gas. iii. The water bearing layer of the earth is aquifer. iv. The process of water seepage into the ground is called infiltration. v. The amount of water recommended by the United Nations for drinking, washing, cooking and maintaining proper hygiene is a minimum of 50 litres per person per day. i. The freshwater stored in the ground is much more than that present in the rivers and lakes of the world. True ii. Water shortage is a problem faced only by people living in rural areas. False iii. Water from rivers is the only source for irrigation in the fields. False iv. Rain is the ultimate source of water. True v. Bawri was the traditional way of collecting water. True Ans. 22 March is celebrated as the world water day. Ans. The water found below the water table is called groundwater. Ans. The process of seeping of water into the ground is called infiltration. Ans. We celebrate water day every year to attract the attention of everybody towards the importance of conserving water. Ans. At places the groundwater is stored between layers of hard rock below the water table. This is known as an aquifer. Ans. The main processes involved in the water cycle are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, runoff, and percolation. Ans. The water cycle is important because its process provides Earth with the natural, continual water supply all living things need in order to survive. Ans. The rainwater and water from other sources such as rivers and ponds seeps through the soil and fills the empty spaces and cracks deep below the ground. Ans. Most towns and cities have water supply system maintained by the civic bodies. The water is drawn from nearby lakes, rivers, ponds or wells. The water is supplied through a network of pipes. Ans. Most of the water that we get as rainfall just flows away. This is a waste of precious natural resource. The rainwater can be used to recharge the groundwater. This is referred to as water harvesting or rainwater harvesting. Ans. We can use drip irrigation to minimise the use of water. Drip irrigation is a technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubings which deliver water directly at the base of the plant. Ans. The water table does not get affected as long as we draw as much water as is replenished by natural processes. However, water table may go down if the water is not sufficiently replenished. Ans. A farmer using water in the field can also use water economically by using drip irrigation technique. Drip irrigation is a technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubings which deliver water directly at the base of the plant. Download to practice offline.

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The ability of 10-11-year -old children to identify basic tastes and their liking towards unfamiliar foods The involvement of children in sensory evaluation and consumer research continues to increase and has become crucial in the food industry, as children sensory perceptions differ from adults. Research on basic taste sensitivity in children provides contradictory results, with most of the studies not considering the familiarity aspect of the food samples. Familiarity can lead children to memories of the food which are able to influence their taste perception and liking. This study aims to investigate the ability of 10 to 11-year old children in identifying sweetness, saltiness, sourness, and bitterness in unfamiliar food samples. The taste identification data was collected from 98 children using 19 food samples representing the four basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. For each food sample, the children evaluated their familiarity, the basic taste(s) they perceived using the check-all-that-apply (CATA) method and scored their liking. Their basic taste identification ability was investigated by comparing their results to trained panellists as a reference. The food samples were unfamiliar to most of the children (never tasted by 85% of the children on average). Correspondence Analysis (CA) showed that children were able to identify the basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter in the unfamiliar foods, with a high congruency to the trained panellists. However, children’s identification ability was lower when combinations of dominant basic tastes occurred. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated a positive correlation between the presence of sweet taste and the children’s liking while sour and bitter tastes showed the opposite.

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Broccoli is a tough vegetable that thrives in the cooler months of the year. In most sections of the country, two crops per year (spring and fall) are conceivable, thanks to ongoing improvements in quick maturity and heat tolerance, which extends the life of broccoli through all except the warmest periods of the season. Broccoli is a nutrient-dense vegetable that can be prepared in numerous ways. It can be eaten raw, mildly sautéed, or added to stir fries, soups, pasta, and rice-based dishes. Growing broccoli is also not difficult if you follow a few simple guidelines. When To Plant Broccoli Broccoli is a cool-season crop, so plant it in the early to mid-spring for an early summer yield, or in the mid to late summer for a fall crop. Because high temperatures will impair the development of the broccoli plant, the goal is to have broccoli mature before or after the projected high temperatures. Broccoli seeds can germinate in soil temperatures as low as 40°F, but warmer soil is preferable and will hasten development. Broccoli can be started indoors or outdoors a few weeks before the final spring frost date for spring planting. When planting broccoli seeds, it is best to: - Start seeds indoors 6 to 8 weeks before your last frost date. - Sow seeds outdoors 2 to 3 weeks before your last frost date, or as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring. - Sow seeds outside 85 to 100 days before the first fall frost, when soil and ambient temperatures are high, for fall plantings. Planting Broccoli - Soil, Sunlight, and Water Broccoli thrives in cool weather, ample sun, plenty of water, and nutrient-rich soil. Plant your broccoli in a location that receives at least 6 hours of direct sunlight each day and has healthy, well-drained, moist soil rich with organic content. For optimal growth and to avoid clubroot disease, the soil pH should be between 6.0 and 7.0. Follow these steps to set your broccoli plants up for success: - Sow seeds 1/2 inch deep and 3 inches apart if beginning seeds outside. - Thin seedlings when they reach a height of 2 to 3 inches, spacing them 12 to 20 inches apart. - Plant transplants that are 4 to 6 weeks old outside in holes somewhat deeper than their container depth, 12 to 20 inches apart, if you began seeds indoors. - Space rows of broccoli 3 feet apart to allow for ample growth. - After planting, water your broccoli seeds and bed very well to promote growth. Broccoli Pests, Diseases, and Solutions You may encounter various pests and plants diseases that can harm your broccoli plant from growing. The following is a list of common problems and solutions: - Aphids - Symptons of aphid pests include curled yellow leaves, distorted flowers, and black mold. To combat aphids, simply put banana or orange peels around the plant and gently spray your broccoli plant with water to knock them off. - Cabbage Loopers - You may have a cabbage looper infestation if you notice large holes in leaves, defoliation, or stunted growth. Cabbage loopers can be handpicked off your broccoli plant or spray with a natural pesticide. - Cabbageworms - Cabbageworms leave large holes and you may also notice yellowish eggs laid on leaves. Cabbageworms need to be handpicked off of your broccoli plant to get rid of them. - Clubroot - Clubroot is a common problem in broccoli plants. Your plants leave's will appear yellow and the roots will be swollen. Unfortunately, you will need to dig up and destroy the affected plants. Ensure that your soil maintains a PH of about 7.2 to combat and prevent clubroot. - Nitrogren Deficiency - If your broccoli plant is nitrogen deficient, the bottom leaves will turn yellow and slowly continue towards the top of your plant. Supplement your broccoli plant with a high nitrogen fertilizer to combat this. There are more plant diseases and pests that can negatively affect your broccoli plant, but these are the most common issues. It is important to inspect your broccoli plant daily to ensure that these problems are not present. Keep any dogs or pets away from your broccoli. Broccoli Growing Tips If you're growing broccoli seedlings inside, make sure they get plenty of light to avoid getting lanky. If the seedlings develop lengthy stems, repot them deeper and then supply additional light. If the seedlings develop lengthy stems, repot them deeper and then supply additional light. Before planting spring seedlings in the garden, wait until the weather is frost-free. Make sure to harden off broccoli seedlings by gradually exposing them to direct sunshine and wind. Broccoli thrives under direct sunlight. Select a garden location that receives at least 6 to 8 hours of direct sunshine every day. To promote consistent development, cultivate broccoli in organic, rich soil and nourish seedlings and early transplants. Too much nitrogen stimulates excessive leaf growth, so use a balanced fertilizer. Because broccoli grows best in damp, but not soggy soil, water it frequently. Mulch to keep weeds at bay and soil moisture levels stable. Plant broccoli in an area of the garden where you haven't cultivated cabbage crops for four years to avoid disease and pests. Harvesting and Storing Your Broccoli Plant The unopened bloom of the broccoli plant is the portion that can be eaten. Harvest the center head when it's completely matured but before the individual buds emerge into little golden flowers. A 4 to 7 inch tight head with big, packed blossom buds is a sign that broccoli is ready to harvest. Harvest as soon as the buds begin to open. It's too late to pluck a plant that has flowered. Remove the center flower head with a sharp knife to harvest. Leaving the broccoli plant in the ground fosters the development of side flower heads. These lateral flower heads, albeit smaller than the core head, allow gardeners to gather broccoli for extended periods of time. Fresh-picked broccoli heads should be harvested in the cool morning hours and refrigerated as soon as possible to protect their freshness. Broccoli heads that have not been washed can be kept in the refrigerator for 3 to 5 days. Frozen broccoli can last for up to 1 year. And there you have it! A complete guide on how to grow broccoli. Simply follow the steps & advice listed above and you will be on the way to your first broccoli harvest. Growing your own vegetables can be a rewarding and nutritious experience. Knowing that your broccoli is free of pesticides and herbicides can give you peace of mind knowing that you aren't eating anything unhealthy. Good luck and have fun growing!

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Global population is about to tick over the 8 billion mark in November, and reach 9 billion by 2050. And while the population is growing, so is food insecurity. About 2.3 billion people were moderately or severely food insecure last year—350 million more than in 2019. Food insecurity and hunger are partly a supply problem. The COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, and conflicts have combined to disrupt supply chains and drive up food and fertilizer prices. The Ukraine conflict in particular impacted food security by interrupting grain and cooking oil supplies, and is largely responsible for food prices rising 30 percent since 2021. Lower production and export of fertilizers from Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus undermine food production around the world, with low- and middle-income countries hardest hit, especially in Africa, where one third of all those who experienced food insecurity last year live. To solve these problems, we’re focusing primarily on boosting food production through procedural and technological advances. Yet food supply is just one dimension of the problem. The other major ones are unequal access to what food is produced, and population growth, which continuously drives up food demand. Food insecurity and inequality are strongly connected. Not only does food insecurity affect certain regions disproportionately, it manifests differently in different countries. In upper-middle and high-income economies, malnutrition is likely to cause obesity. In low- and lower-middle income economies, it’s likely to result in stunting or wasting. Global frameworks like the Sustainable Development Goals address the root causes of inequality, for example by working to eradicate extreme poverty. But the other variable, population size, is not adequately addressed, and needs greater representation on the food security agenda. Reproductive autonomy, the power to decide and control contraceptive use, pregnancy, and childbearing, could have a powerful influence on food security. Countries with the highest fertility rates have higher food insecurity, and conversely, those with lower fertility rates have lower food insecurity. Half of all pregnancies worldwide—120 million—are unintended. If every person had full reproductive autonomy, that number would dwindle. High fertility rates would decline, and so would food insecurity. Today some 257 million women around the world who want to avoid pregnancy lack access to safe, modern methods of contraception. Among the obstacles in the way are supply challenges, fear of side effects, and opposition from family members. There are also structural barriers, such the low priority given to sexual and reproductive health across by government policies and services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, sexual and reproductive health services were classified as non-essential in many countries, contributing to more unintended pregnancies. Nigeria, for example, with a population of over 200 million, is the seventh largest country in the world. It is growing so fast, with a fertility rate of 5.3 children per woman, that it is set to become the third largest country by 2050. Only 12 percent of married women in the country use a modern method of contraception. Close to 60 percent of the population faces moderate to severe food insecurity. Absent new efforts to bend the growth curve, population-driven food insecurity will get worse. Between 2017 and 2050, populations of 26 African countries are expected to at least double their current size. In addition to supply-side solutions, efforts to improve food security need to focus on the demand side by working on population dynamics. That includes incorporating demographic projections into plans for boosting agricultural production, especially around rapidly expanding urban areas. It should also include boosting family planning and contraceptive use. Countries with the lower uptake of modern contraceptives tend to have high fertility rates and higher food insecurity. Compared to other continents, Africa has the lowest prevalence of contraceptive use, the highest fertility rates, and the highest food insecurity. Rapid population growth strongly correlates with poverty, hunger, and malnutrition. The inter-connections between population dynamics, fertility levels, contraceptive uptake, and food security can’t be ignored any longer. In fact, they should be harnessed to reduce food insecurity, improve reproductive autonomy, and help build to a more just and equitable future. Articles like the one you just read are made possible through the generosity of Food Tank members. Can we please count on you to be part of our growing movement? Become a member today by clicking here. Photo courtesy of Annie Spratt, Unsplash

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In a striking visualization, NASA has transformed thirty years of complex data into a chilling illustration of the world’s rising sea levels. The animated graphic, masterfully crafted by Andrew J. Christensen of the NASA Scientific Visualization Studio, showcases the growing severity of our climate crisis. Between 1993 and 2022, sea levels have risen by over 9 centimeters, or roughly 3.5 inches. This might not seem substantial, yet when represented as water encroaching a ship’s window, the danger becomes palpable. These tangible visualizations help us understand the profound, albeit silent, impacts of climate change on our planet. Despite their seeming stillness, our oceans are warming, absorbing a staggering 90% of the heat added to the planet’s system. Coastal communities worldwide are experiencing these rising sea levels, with saltwater lapping on their doorsteps. An alarming future awaits millions more, as coastlines are expected to ‘disappear’ unless greenhouse gas emissions are dramatically reduced. Satellites have routinely measured sea levels since 1993 by bouncing microwave signals off the ocean’s surface. This data, coupled with measurements from coastal tide gauges, ice masses information, and greenhouse gas emissions records, allows scientists to make more accurate predictions about future sea levels. However, the challenge lies not only in gathering this data but also in communicating the implications of these findings to the world’s populace. It’s a sobering reality that the communities contributing the least to global warming will suffer the most. The planet’s atmosphere, once a comforting blanket, now weighs heavy with carbon dioxide emissions, causing Earth to swelter. As seawater heats and expands, sea levels rise, further exacerbated by melting ice sheets and storm surges. These visualizations provide an essential tool in raising awareness and underlining the urgency of our predicament. As the planet’s ‘vital signs’ show increasing strain, the time to act is now. Scientists are imploring us to understand and confront the imminent threat of climate change, lest we watch our world change irreversibly from the window of our sinking ship.

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Computing technology continues to advance at an astounding rate, with new breakthroughs and innovations regularly emerging from the field of computer science. From artificial intelligence (AI) to quantum computing, cutting-edge technologies are shaping the future of how we process information, solve complex problems, and interact with machines. In this article, we will explore some of the latest advancements in computer science that are revolutionizing various industries and opening up new possibilities. One of the most fascinating areas of computer science currently making waves is artificial intelligence. AI is no longer just a concept limited to sci-fi movies; it has become an integral part of our daily lives. Machine learning, a subset of AI, enables computers to learn and make predictions or decisions without explicit programming. This cutting-edge technology has been successfully applied in various fields, including healthcare, finance, and transportation. In healthcare, AI algorithms have demonstrated exceptional capabilities, surpassing human accuracy in diagnosing diseases and predicting treatment outcomes. By feeding massive amounts of medical data to AI systems, researchers and doctors can identify patterns and correlations that may go unnoticed by human eyes. AI-driven tools can detect early signs of diseases like cancer or heart conditions, allowing for more timely interventions and potentially saving countless lives. Machine learning is also transforming the financial sector by enhancing fraud detection, risk assessment, and investment strategies. AI-powered algorithms can analyze enormous quantities of financial data, identify fraudulent patterns, and make predictions on market behaviors with higher accuracy. This technology is helping banks and financial institutions prevent frauds, minimize risks, and make informed investment decisions. Another cutting-edge technology in computer science that holds immense promise is quantum computing. Quantum computers harness the bizarre principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computations at speeds exponentially faster than classical computers. While still in its early stages, quantum computing has the potential to revolutionize fields like cryptography, drug discovery, and optimization problems. Cryptography, the science of secure communication, relies on complex mathematical algorithms that can take classical computers years or even centuries to break. However, quantum computers have the potential to crack these cryptographic codes with astonishing speed, raising concerns regarding data security. Nevertheless, researchers are working on developing new encryption techniques that can resist quantum attacks, ensuring data security in the post-quantum era. In the field of drug discovery, quantum computing can significantly accelerate the process of identifying new molecules with desired properties for developing new medications. Quantum simulators can model and simulate complex molecular structures, allowing researchers to understand the behavior of atoms and molecules at the quantum level. This innovation holds promise for designing new drugs more quickly and accurately, potentially revolutionizing the pharmaceutical industry. Moreover, quantum computing offers powerful optimization capabilities. Optimization problems, such as route planning, scheduling, or resource allocation, often involve a vast number of possibilities that classical computers struggle to efficiently explore. Quantum computers, on the other hand, can process and analyze large sets of possibilities simultaneously, enabling faster and more efficient solutions to complex optimization problems. The advancements in computer science are not limited to AI and quantum computing. Innovations in computer vision, robotics, data analytics, and cybersecurity are also transforming industries and opening up new avenues for research and development. From autonomous vehicles and drones to smart homes and cities, computers equipped with vision and sensing capabilities are fast becoming our eyes and hands in the digital world. In conclusion, the latest advancements in computer science are reshaping the way we live, work, and interact with technology. Artificial intelligence is revolutionizing numerous industries, enabling machines to learn from data and make informed decisions, while quantum computing holds the potential to solve complex problems that are beyond the reach of classical computers. As technology continues to advance, the possibilities are endless, and the future of computer science holds tremendous promise.

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Oak forests are valuable ecosystems that provide numerous ecological benefits. To preserve them, sustainable logging practices, effective forest fire management, wildlife conservation measures, and invasive species management must be implemented. Supporting local conservation organizations, participating in volunteer programs, and spreading awareness also contribute to preservation efforts. Oak forests are found in various regions and offer clean air, water, recreational opportunities, and contribute to local economies. Preventing illegal logging requires global cooperation, stricter regulations, and increased law enforcement. Preserving oak forests is crucial for future generations and requires the collective responsibility of protecting these valuable ecosystems. Preserving Oak Forests Oak forests are not only visually stunning but also provide numerous ecological benefits. They support diverse plant and animal species, contribute to carbon sequestration, improve air and water quality, and offer recreational opportunities. However, these vital ecosystems are facing numerous threats that need urgent attention. In this article, we will discuss strategies for protecting oak forests and preserving this invaluable resource for future generations. 1. Sustainable Logging Practices One of the key strategies for preserving oak forests is implementing sustainable logging practices. This involves maintaining a balance between harvesting trees for timber and ensuring the long-term health of the forest. Selective logging, where only mature trees are harvested and efforts are made to minimize the environmental impact, helps sustain the forest ecosystem while meeting economic needs. 2. Forest Fire Management Forest fires can have a devastating impact on oak forests. Developing and implementing effective forest fire management strategies is crucial for their preservation. Regular controlled burns can help reduce the accumulation of flammable materials, decrease the likelihood of intense wildfires, and promote the growth of oak seedlings and understory vegetation. 3. Wildlife Conservation Preserving oak forests also involves protecting the diverse wildlife species that depend on them. Implementing measures to conserve and enhance habitat quality, such as creating wildlife corridors and preserving old-growth trees, can help support a healthy ecosystem. Additionally, promoting public awareness and involvement in wildlife conservation efforts is essential. 4. Invasive Species Management Invasive species pose a significant threat to oak forests, as they outcompete native vegetation and disrupt the ecosystem balance. Implementing invasive species management plans that include early detection, rapid response, and public education can help prevent the spread of harmful plants and animals, preserving the integrity of oak forests. Q: How can I contribute to oak forest preservation? A: There are several ways you can contribute to oak forest preservation. You can support local conservation organizations, participate in volunteer programs focused on forest restoration, or simply spread awareness about the importance of oak forests and the need for their protection. Q: Are oak forests only found in specific regions? A: While oak forests are most abundant in temperate regions, they can be found in various parts of the world, including North America, Europe, and parts of Asia. Oak species have adapted to different climates and are essential components of many ecosystems globally. Q: How does preserving oak forests benefit local communities? A: Preserving oak forests brings numerous benefits to local communities. These forests provide clean air, clean water, recreational opportunities, and contribute to local economies by supporting timber and tourism industries. They also provide cultural and historical significance. Q: What can be done to prevent illegal logging in oak forests? A: Preventing illegal logging requires a combination of global cooperation, stricter regulations, and increased law enforcement efforts. Implementing monitoring systems, promoting sustainable logging practices, and educating local communities on the environmental and economic impacts of illegal logging are crucial steps. Preserving oak forests is critical for the well-being of our planet and future generations. By implementing sustainable logging practices, managing forest fires, conserving wildlife, and effectively dealing with invasive species, we can protect these valuable ecosystems. It is our responsibility to ensure the longevity of oak forests and secure the multitude of benefits they provide for both nature and humankind.

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Warmer oceans lead to more intense hurricanes and more moisture, which brings more intense rain and flooding The world’s oceans had the hottest temperatures ever recorded in 2022, demonstrating the profound changes that gas emissions have brought to the climate. More than 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions is absorbed into the oceans. The data, starting in 1958, show an inexorable rise in ocean temperatures, with warming accelerating after 1990. Sea surface temperatures significantly affect the weather. Warmer oceans lead to more intense hurricanes and more moisture, which brings more intense rain and flooding. Warmer waters also expand, raising sea levels and endangering coastal cities. Ocean temperature is much less affected by natural climate variability than atmospheric temperature, making the oceans an unmistakable indicator of global warming. Last year was the fourth or fifth warmest for surface air temperatures. During 2022, the third consecutive La Niña event occurred, which is the coldest phase of an irregular climate cycle centered in the Pacific that affects global weather patterns. When El Niño returns, global air temperatures will rise even more. The international team of scientists who produced the new ocean heat analysis concluded: “Earth’s energy and water cycles have been profoundly altered by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, leading to pervasive changes in the Earth’s climate system.” Professor John Abraham, at the University of St Thomas in Minnesota and a member of the study team, said: “If you want to measure global warming, you have to measure where the warming is going and over 90% is going to the oceans. “Measuring ocean temperatures is the most accurate way to determine how out of balance our planet is. We have more extreme weather due to warming oceans and this has huge consequences around the world.” Read the News today and get the latest news. Follow Skai.gr on Google News and be the first to know all the news. I have worked as a journalist for over 10 years, and my work has been featured on many different news websites. I am also an author, and my work has been published in several books. I specialize in opinion writing, and I often write about current events and controversial topics. I am a very well-rounded writer, and I have a lot of experience in different areas of journalism. I am a very hard worker, and I am always willing to put in the extra effort to get the job done.

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en

Scientific evidence highlights that a poorly managed environment is a recipe for increased disease burden in the world. When sanitation is poor, water-borne diseases are a common occurrence. In recognition of the interplay between health and the environment, experts in these sectors have been working to promote the one health concept, an integrated and unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimise the health of people, animals and ecosystems amid the climate crisis. The concept recognises that the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the wider environment, including ecosystems, are closely linked and interdependent. Collaboration across the sectors is expected to accelerate health protection by addressing health challenges such as the emergence of infectious diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and food safety and promote the health and integrity of ecosystems. Due to poor environmental management, climate change has emerged as a major threat to global health, with the most vulnerable populations facing the greatest impact. Unfortunately, those who contribute least to the climate crisis often suffer the severe consequences. It is estimated that about 824 million people globally are malnourished; out of that number, 58.7 million children are in Africa. Additionally, millions in Africa lack basic water and sanitation, leading to significant child mortality from diarrhoea. It is further estimated that 58 per cent of infectious diseases globally have been intensified by changes in climate. This has ripple effects on public health, the economy, the environment, and education. The situation is predicted to worsen with rising global temperatures, threatening progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Universal Health Coverage. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment report warns that climate change affects both physical and mental health and can exacerbate humanitarian crises and recognises the need for action. Reads the report: “Deep, rapid and sustained mitigation and accelerated implementation of adaptation actions in this decade would reduce projected losses and damages for humans and ecosystems, and deliver many co-benefits, especially for air quality and health.” In recognising the importance of health and for the 28th Conference of Parties (CoP28) on climate change to recognise the already severe and growing impacts of climate change on human health, the CoP28 Presidency, working with the World Health Organisation (WHO) and other partners, organised the first ever health day in the history of CoPs at the ongoing CoP28 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Ministers of Health and senior health delegates from over 100 countries mobilized support for the CoP28 Climate and Health Agenda. Speaking during a side event, CoP28 director-general Al Suwaidi said it is high time to also focus on protecting and promoting people’s health while enhancing the climate-resilience of healthcare systems and reducing climate health risks. He said: “This is one of the four central pillars in the CoP28 Presidency’s Action Agenda, which focuses on people, nature, lives and livelihoods.” Amref Health Africa group chief executive officer Githinji Gitahi called for the active involvement of health ministers in the climate change discourse. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change executive secretary Simon Stiell emphasised the importance of recognising the interplay between climate change and health. “Health is the human face of climate change. The air we breathe should be free of harmful pollution. Our communities should be safe from the devastating effects of floods, droughts and heat waves. Transitioning away from fossil fuels can help us get there.” Malawi’s Minister of Health Khumbize Kandodo Chiponda said wealthy nations should invest in the least developed countries’ health sectors. “The One Health concept is crucial, but there is a need for investments in most countries in the global south, like Malawi, to strengthen the resilience of the health sector and well-being of people,” she said. According to the Malawi 2023 Tropical Cyclone Freddy post-disaster needs assessment, total damages caused in the health and nutrition sectors across the 16 affected districts are estimated at $4.14 million. n *This story has been produced with support from Media for Environment, Science, Health and Agriculture and International Development Research Centre Article first published on https://mwnation.com/incorporating-health-in-climate-change-discourse/

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Bio-resin is a type of resin that is made from renewable or biodegradable materials, such as plant-based sources like corn starch, soybeans, sugarcane, and vegetable oils. Unlike traditional petroleum-based resins, bio-resins are considered to be more environmentally friendly because they are made from renewable resources and can biodegrade under certain conditions. Bio-resins are used in various applications such as packaging, adhesives, coatings, and composites, among others. They are often used as a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based resins in industries that are looking to reduce their carbon footprint and environmental impact. Bio-resins have a variety of properties that make them suitable for different applications. Some of the common properties of bio-resins are: - Biodegradability: One of the main properties of bio-resins is their ability to biodegrade naturally without causing harm to the environment. This is due to the fact that bio-resins are made from renewable resources such as starch, cellulose, and plant oils. - Low toxicity: Bio-resins are non-toxic and do not release harmful chemicals when they degrade. This makes them a safer alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics that can leach harmful chemicals into the environment. - Strength and durability: Bio-resins can be engineered to have comparable strength and durability to traditional plastics, making them suitable for a variety of applications. - Thermal stability: Many bio-resins have good thermal stability, meaning they can withstand high temperatures without degrading or melting. This makes them suitable for use in applications that require high-temperature resistance. - Water resistance: Some bio-resins have good water resistance, which makes them suitable for use in applications that require protection from moisture. - Versatility: Bio-resins can be modified and engineered to have a variety of properties, making them suitable for a wide range of applications. The properties of bio-resins make them a promising alternative to traditional plastics, as they offer a sustainable and eco-friendly solution to the growing problem of plastic waste. Bio-resins can be made from a variety of renewable resources such as: - Plant-based materials: Bio-resins can be made from plant-based materials such as corn, sugarcane, potatoes, and cassava. These materials are rich in carbohydrates that can be extracted and converted into bio-resins through various processes. - Wood-based materials: Wood-based materials such as cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose can be used to produce bio-resins. These materials are derived from sustainable sources and can be processed to produce bio-based polymers. - Algae and seaweed: Algae and seaweed are rich in polysaccharides that can be converted into bio-resins. These materials are abundant and can be grown sustainably, making them an attractive resource for bio-resin production. - Animal-based materials: Bio-resins can also be produced from animal-based materials such as chitin and chitosan. These materials are derived from the shells of crustaceans and can be processed to produce bio-based polymers. - Waste materials: Waste materials such as food waste, agricultural waste, and industrial waste can be used to produce bio-resins. These materials are abundant and can be processed to produce bio-based polymers, which can help reduce waste and promote sustainability. The choice of bio-resin resource depends on various factors such as availability, cost, and performance requirements. Bio-resins can be produced from various natural resources such as plants, trees, and agricultural waste. The production process of bio-resins usually involves the extraction of the raw material and the conversion of its components into polymers. One of the most common sources of bio-resins is plant-based materials such as corn, sugarcane, and soybeans. Corn-based bio-resins, for example, are produced by extracting the starch from corn kernels and then processing it into a polymer. Sugarcane-based bio-resins, on the other hand, are produced by fermenting sugarcane juice to obtain ethanol, which is then processed into a polymer. Another source of bio-resins is trees. Trees contain a substance called lignin, which can be extracted and processed into a polymer. Lignin-based bio-resins are commonly used in the production of adhesives and coatings. Agricultural waste such as wheat straw, rice husks, and bagasse can also be used as a source of bio-resins. The waste is first processed to extract its components, which are then converted into polymers through various chemical and biological processes. In general, the production of bio-resins involves several steps, including extraction, purification, and polymerization. The specific process varies depending on the raw material and the desired properties of the final product. The production of bio-resins offers a promising alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics, as it utilizes renewable resources and reduces environmental impact. Bio-resins are gaining popularity in a wide range of applications, from packaging materials to construction and automotive industries. Here are some of the most common applications of bio-resins: - Packaging Materials: Bio-resins can be used as an alternative to traditional plastic packaging materials, reducing the environmental impact of packaging waste. They can be molded into various shapes and sizes to meet specific packaging needs. - Biodegradable Products: Bio-resins can be used to produce biodegradable products, including disposable cutlery, food containers, and shopping bags. These products break down more quickly in the environment than traditional plastics, reducing their impact on the ecosystem. - Textile Industry: Bio-resins can be used to create eco-friendly textiles, replacing synthetic fibers that are derived from petroleum-based plastics. These materials can be used to make clothing, upholstery, and other fabric-based products. - Building Materials: Bio-resins can be used in the construction industry to produce biodegradable materials, such as insulation, floor coverings, and wall panels. These materials can help to reduce the environmental impact of construction and provide a more sustainable alternative to traditional building materials. - Automotive Industry: Bio-resins can be used in the automotive industry to create interior and exterior components, including dashboards, door panels, and body parts. These materials can help to reduce the weight of vehicles, improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions. - Medical Industry: Bio-resins can be used in the medical industry to produce biodegradable implants and other medical devices. These materials can help to reduce the risk of infection and other complications associated with traditional plastic implants. Overall, bio-resins offer a more sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastics, reducing the environmental impact of various industries and applications.

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Advanced Android Development Expand the user experience This unit covers how to extend your apps to improve the user experience. Learn how to use fragments, widgets, and sensors. Each lesson in Unit 1 is independent of the other lessons in this unit. For example, you can do the sensors lesson without completing the fragments and widgets lessons. Lesson 1: Fragments This lesson explains when, why, and how to use fragments. You learn how to include a fragment in your activity's UI, either by including it statically or dynamically. You also learn how an activity communicates with fragments. You implement a typical scenario for fragments by building an app that has a master/detail layout. Lesson 2: App widgets Learn about app widgets, which are miniature app views that appear on the Android home screen. Discover how to add widgets to your project, handle update requests, and make widgets interactive. Lesson 3: Sensors Learn how to use the Android sensor framework to get data from device sensors such as the accelerometer and geomagnetic field sensor. Build an app that responds to tilting the device.

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Genetics is a fascinating field of study that explores the heredity and variation of living organisms. It focuses on how traits are passed down from one generation to the next and how genetic information is encoded in the DNA of an individual. In class 10, students are introduced to the basic concepts of genetics, which lay the foundation for more advanced studies in this field. One of the fundamental principles of genetics is that each individual possesses a unique set of genes that determine their physical characteristics and biological functions. These genes are inherited from our parents and can be traced back through generations. Understanding how genes work and interact with each other allows scientists to unravel the mysteries of life and diseases. In class 10 genetics, students learn about the structure and function of DNA, the molecule that carries genetic information. They explore how DNA is organized into chromosomes and how genes are located on these chromosomes. This knowledge helps students understand how traits are inherited and how genetic disorders can occur. Genetics class 10 also covers the principles of Mendelian inheritance, which describe how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. Students learn about dominant and recessive traits, Punnett squares, and how to predict the probability of inheriting specific traits. They also study genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia, and how they are inherited. Overall, class 10 genetics provides students with a solid foundation in the study of heredity and variation. It is a fascinating subject that can open doors to further exploration in the fields of biology, medicine, and genetic engineering. Understanding genetics can also help us gain insight into our own traits and better appreciate the incredible diversity of life on Earth. Genetics: A Definition and Overview Genetics is a fascinating field of science that studies how traits are passed on from one generation to the next. In Class 10, students are introduced to the basic concepts of genetics, which form a foundational understanding of this complex subject. At its core, genetics explores the genetic material and processes that shape the characteristics of living organisms. This genetic material, known as DNA, contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism’s cells and tissues. Through the study of genetics, scientists seek to unravel the mysteries of inheritance and understand how genetic traits are inherited and expressed. In Class 10 genetics, students learn about the structure and function of DNA, which is composed of a double helix of nucleotides. They also learn about genes, which are segments of DNA that code for specific traits, and alleles, which are different forms of a gene that can produce variations in traits. One of the key topics in genetics is the process of inheritance. Students learn about the principles of Mendelian inheritance, which describe how traits are passed from parents to offspring. They also explore the concepts of dominant and recessive traits, as well as the inheritance patterns of sex-linked traits. In addition to inheritance, Class 10 genetics covers other important topics such as genetic disorders, genetic engineering, and biotechnology. Students learn about how mutations in DNA can lead to genetic disorders, and they also explore the ethical implications of genetic engineering and the application of genetic technologies in various fields. |Overall, genetics is an exciting and rapidly advancing field of study that has profound implications for our understanding of life and its diversity. In Class 10, students are introduced to the fundamental concepts and principles of genetics, laying the groundwork for further exploration in higher levels of education. Importance of Genetics in Biological Sciences Genetics plays a crucial role in the field of biological sciences. It is the branch of science that studies genes, heredity, and genetic variation. Here, we will discuss why genetics is important in this field. Genetics helps us understand how organisms evolve and adapt to their environments. By studying genetic traits and variations, scientists can trace the evolutionary history of species and determine how populations change over time. Genetics has revolutionized the field of medicine. With advancements in genetic testing and sequencing, we can now diagnose and treat genetic disorders more effectively. Genetic research has also helped in developing targeted therapies for certain diseases, leading to better patient outcomes. Furthermore, genetics plays a crucial role in personalized medicine, as it allows doctors to tailor treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup. This not only improves the effectiveness of treatment but also reduces the risk of adverse reactions. Agriculture and Food Security Genetics is vital in agriculture and plays a significant role in improving crop yield and quality. With the knowledge of genetic traits, scientists can develop genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that exhibit desirable characteristics such as disease resistance, increased nutrient content, and higher productivity. Genetics also helps in breeding programs to develop new plant varieties that are better suited for specific climates and environmental conditions. This contributes to food security by ensuring stable and abundant food production. |Benefits of Genetics in Biological Sciences: |Medical advances and personalized medicine |Improving crop yield and food security Genetic Variation: Understanding the Basics In the field of genetics, understanding genetic variation is crucial. Genetic variation refers to the diversity in the DNA sequence that exists within a population. This variation is the foundation for the differences we see in traits, such as eye color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases. In this article, we will explore the basics of genetic variation and how it contributes to the overall diversity of life on Earth. What Causes Genetic Variation? Genetic variation is caused by a combination of different factors. One major source of genetic variation is mutation – a change in the DNA sequence. Mutations can occur spontaneously or can be induced by exposure to certain environmental factors, such as radiation or chemicals. Mutations can range from small-scale changes, such as a single nucleotide substitution, to larger-scale changes, such as the insertion or deletion of entire sections of DNA. Another source of genetic variation is genetic recombination, which occurs during the process of sexual reproduction. During sexual reproduction, genetic material from two parents combines to form a unique offspring. The exchange and shuffling of genetic material during this process result in new combinations of genes, creating genetic variation. Importance of Genetic Variation Genetic variation plays a crucial role in evolution and natural selection. It allows populations to adapt to changing environments and ensures the survival of a species. If all individuals in a population have the exact same genetic makeup, they would be equally susceptible to diseases, environmental changes, and other challenges. However, with genetic variation, some individuals may have certain genetic traits that make them more resistant to diseases or better suited to their specific environment, increasing their chances of survival and reproductive success. Genetic variation also provides the raw material for natural selection to act upon. Natural selection favors individuals with genetic traits that provide a reproductive advantage in a given environment. Over time, these advantageous traits become more common in the population, while less advantageous traits may decrease in frequency or disappear altogether. This ongoing process of natural selection allows populations to evolve and adapt to their surroundings. - Genetic variation is crucial for evolution and adaptation. - It is caused by mutations and genetic recombination. - Genetic variation leads to differences in traits and enhances a species’ chances of survival. - Natural selection acts upon genetic variation to shape the characteristics of populations over time. In conclusion, genetic variation is a fundamental concept in genetics. It is the basis for the diversity we observe in living organisms. Understanding genetic variation is essential for unraveling the complexities of genetics and its role in evolution. Principles Governing Inheritance The principles governing inheritance are an essential concept in genetics class 10. It involves the study of how traits are passed down from one generation to another. One of the fundamental principles of inheritance is the Mendelian laws. These laws were established by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk and scientist, in the 19th century. Mendel’s laws define the patterns of inheritance for specific traits and are based on his experiments with pea plants. The first law, known as the law of segregation, states that each individual possesses two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. During the formation of gametes (reproductive cells), these genes separate and only one copy is passed on to the offspring. The second law, known as the law of independent assortment, states that different traits are inherited independently of each other. This means that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait. Mendel’s experiments with pea plants showed that the inheritance of flower color, for example, is unrelated to the inheritance of seed shape. Another principle of inheritance that is important to understand in class 10 genetics is sex-linked inheritance. Certain traits are determined by genes located on the sex chromosomes, particularly the X chromosome. Since males have one X and one Y chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes, sex-linked traits are often more common in males. Examples of sex-linked traits include color blindness and hemophilia. These traits are carried on the X chromosome and can be passed from carrier females to their sons. However, since females have two X chromosomes, they are more likely to be carriers of sex-linked traits without exhibiting the phenotype. Understanding the principles governing inheritance is crucial in the study of genetics. It allows scientists to predict and explain how traits are passed down through generations and provides a foundation for further research and study in the field. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance In the field of genetics, one of the most groundbreaking contributors was Gregor Mendel. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance form the foundation for our understanding of how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants and meticulously recorded his observations, which led to the formulation of three fundamental laws: - Law of Segregation: This law states that for any trait, such as eye color or height, an individual’s two alleles (or alternative forms of a gene) segregate during gamete formation. As a result, each gamete receives only one allele, and the two alleles pair back up during fertilization. - Law of Independent Assortment: According to this law, different pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other during the formation of gametes. This means that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait, as long as they are located on separate chromosomes. - Law of Dominance: The law of dominance explains that in a pair of alleles for a specific trait, one allele is dominant over the other. As a result, the dominant allele determines the appearance of the trait in the offspring, while the recessive allele remains hidden. Mendel’s laws not only provided insights into how traits are inherited, but they also laid the groundwork for modern genetics. His work was revolutionary at the time and continues to be a cornerstone in the study of genetics today. Non-Mendelian Inheritance Patterns In genetics class, Mendelian inheritance patterns are often discussed as the fundamental principles of inheritance. However, there are certain cases where inheritance does not follow the simple Mendelian patterns, and this is referred to as non-Mendelian inheritance. One example of non-Mendelian inheritance is polygenic inheritance. Instead of a single gene controlling a trait, multiple genes can contribute to the expression of a trait. This means that the phenotype of the offspring is determined by the combined effect of many genes. Traits that are controlled by polygenic inheritance include height, skin color, and intelligence. Another non-Mendelian inheritance pattern is incomplete dominance. In this pattern, neither allele is dominant over the other, and the phenotype of the offspring is a blend or intermediate of the phenotypes of the two parents. For example, in a cross between red flowered and white flowered plants with incomplete dominance, the offspring may have pink flowers. Co-dominance is a non-Mendelian inheritance pattern where both alleles for a gene are expressed equally in the phenotype of the offspring. This means that both traits are fully noticeable and not blended. A classic example of co-dominance is seen in human blood types. - Type A blood has the A antigen on the surface of red blood cells - Type B blood has the B antigen on the surface of red blood cells - Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells - Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens on the surface of red blood cells In conclusion, while Mendelian inheritance patterns are the foundation of genetics, there are instances where inheritance does not follow these patterns. Polygenic inheritance, incomplete dominance, and co-dominance are some examples of non-Mendelian inheritance patterns that demonstrate the complexity of genetic inheritance. Genetic Crosses and Punnett Squares In genetics, a genetic cross is a method used to study the inheritance of traits in offspring. It involves crossing two individuals with different genotypes to determine the probability of their offspring inheriting specific traits. A Punnett square is a diagram used to predict the possible genetic outcomes of a cross between two individuals. It is named after the British geneticist Reginald Punnett. The Punnett square is a visual representation of all the possible combinations of alleles that can occur in the offspring. To create a Punnett square, you need to know the genotypes of both the parents. The genotypes consist of the alleles inherited from each parent. The alleles can be either dominant or recessive, and they determine the traits expressed in the offspring. In a Punnett square, the alleles from one parent are written on the top and the alleles from the other parent are written on the left side. Each box in the Punnett square represents a possible combination of alleles in the offspring. Using Punnett Squares to Determine Genotypes and Phenotypes By using Punnett squares, geneticists can determine the probability of different genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring. The genotypes are the combination of alleles inherited from both parents, while the phenotypes are the physical expressions of those alleles. For example, if one parent has the genotype AA (dominant) and the other parent has the genotype aa (recessive), the Punnett square would show that there is a 100% chance of the offspring having the genotype Aa (heterozygous dominant). In terms of phenotype, the offspring would exhibit the dominant trait. In some cases, the Punnett square can also be used to determine the likelihood of certain genetic disorders or diseases being passed on to the offspring. By understanding the inheritance patterns and using Punnett squares, geneticists can make predictions about the genetic traits and diseases in future generations. In conclusion, genetic crosses and Punnett squares are important tools in genetics to study the inheritance of traits in offspring. They allow geneticists to determine the probability of different genotypes and phenotypes and make predictions about the inheritance of genetic disorders or diseases. Genetic Disorders: Causes and Types In the field of genetics, genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities or mutations in an individual’s genetic material. These disorders can be inherited from one or both parents or can occur spontaneously due to mutations in the egg or sperm cells. Causes of Genetic Disorders Genetic disorders can be caused by various factors, including: - Inherited Mutations: Some genetic disorders are caused by inherited mutations that are passed down from parents to their offspring. These mutations can be present in the genes or chromosomes. - Spontaneous Mutations: Spontaneous mutations can occur during the formation of egg or sperm cells, or during early development of the embryo. These mutations can lead to genetic disorders. - Environmental Factors: Certain environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or toxins, can increase the risk of developing genetic disorders. Types of Genetic Disorders There are several types of genetic disorders, including: |A disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system, causing breathing difficulties and problems with nutrient absorption. |A chromosomal disorder characterized by intellectual disabilities, distinctive facial features, and other physical abnormalities. |A blood clotting disorder that causes excessive bleeding and can lead to serious complications. |Sickle Cell Anemia |A genetic condition that affects the production of red blood cells, causing them to become misshapen and break down easily. |A group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass. These are just a few examples of genetic disorders, and there are many more that can affect different parts of the body or have varying degrees of severity. Role of DNA in Genetics DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, plays a crucial role in genetics. It is often referred to as the “blueprint of life” because it contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. DNA carries genetic information in the form of genes, which are segments of DNA that encode specific traits or characteristics. Genes determine everything from physical traits like eye color and height to susceptibility to certain diseases. Each gene is made up of a specific sequence of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA. The order of these nucleotides determines the specific instructions or code contained within the gene. One of the key functions of DNA is inheritance. DNA is passed down from parents to their offspring and carries the genetic information that determines the traits and characteristics of the offspring. During reproduction, DNA is replicated so that each new cell or organism has a complete set of genetic information. This ensures that the offspring inherit the genetic traits of their parents. Another important role of DNA is protein synthesis. DNA provides the instructions for the production of proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells. The process of protein synthesis occurs in two main steps: transcription and translation. During transcription, the DNA molecule is used as a template to produce mRNA (messenger RNA). The mRNA molecule then carries the genetic instructions from the DNA to the ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place. Ultimately, the role of DNA in genetics is to carry and transmit genetic information from one generation to the next, determining the traits and characteristics of organisms. Its significance in the study of genetics is evident in class 10, where students learn about the fundamental principles of heredity and genetic variation. Structure and Function of DNA In a genetics class, students learn about the structure and function of DNA. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all living organisms. It is made up of nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The structure of DNA is often described as a double helix, which resembles a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating sugar and phosphate groups, while the rungs are formed by pairs of nitrogenous bases. There are four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The bases in DNA always pair in a specific way: adenine with thymine, and cytosine with guanine. This pairing is known as complementary base pairing. It is this specific base pairing that allows DNA to replicate, or make copies of itself. The function of DNA is to store and transmit genetic information. It carries the instructions for making proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells. DNA is transcribed into a similar molecule called RNA, which is then translated into proteins through a process called protein synthesis. Understanding the structure and function of DNA is fundamental in the field of genetics. It allows scientists to study and manipulate genes, leading to advancements in medicine, agriculture, and other areas of science. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology In Class 10 Genetics, students learn about genetic engineering and biotechnology. Genetic engineering involves manipulating an organism’s genetic material to produce desired traits or to remove unwanted traits. Biotechnology, on the other hand, refers to the use of living organisms or their components to develop or create useful products. Genetic engineering has revolutionized various fields, including medicine and agriculture. In medicine, it has allowed scientists to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to produce useful substances, such as insulin. GMOs can also be used to study diseases and develop new treatments. In agriculture, genetic engineering has enabled the development of genetically modified crops that are resistant to pests, diseases, or herbicides. These modified crops can help increase food production and reduce the use of chemical pesticides. Biotechnology plays a crucial role in modern society. It has applications in medicine, agriculture, environmental science, and industry. In medicine, biotechnology is used to develop vaccines, produce antibiotics, and create synthetic hormones. In agriculture, it aids in the development of high-yield crops, disease-resistant plants, and biofuels. In environmental science, biotechnology plays a role in waste management and pollution control. In industry, it is used to produce enzymes, chemicals, and biofuels. Genetic engineering and biotechnology raise ethical and safety concerns. There are debates about the impact of genetically modified organisms on the environment and human health. Critics argue that genetically modified crops may have long-term effects on biodiversity and could potentially harm human health. It is important to carefully evaluate the risks and benefits of genetic engineering and biotechnology and to regulate their use to ensure their safe and responsible implementation. In conclusion, genetic engineering and biotechnology are important aspects of Class 10 Genetics. They have revolutionized various fields and have the potential to solve many challenges facing society. However, their use must be carefully regulated to ensure safety, ethical considerations, and responsible implementation. Genetic Modification of Organisms: Pros and Cons The field of genetics plays a crucial role in understanding the heredity and variation of organisms. With advancements in technology, scientists have been able to manipulate the genetic makeup of organisms through a process called genetic modification. This technique involves altering an organism’s DNA to introduce new traits or remove undesirable ones. While genetic modification holds great potential in various fields, it also presents several pros and cons. |1. Improved Crop Yield: Genetic modification allows scientists to enhance the growth and productivity of crops. They can introduce genes that make plants resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors, resulting in higher crop yields. |1. Ecological Impact: Modifying organisms can have unintended consequences on the environment. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) may crossbreed with wild species, leading to the loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystems. |2. Disease Resistance: Genetic modification can help develop organisms with increased resistance to diseases. Scientists can introduce genes that enhance an organism’s immune system, making it less susceptible to various infections and illnesses. |2. Unintended Health Effects: There are concerns about the long-term health effects of consuming genetically modified foods. Although extensive testing is done, some people worry about the potential risks associated with these modified organisms. |3. Nutritional Enhancement: Genetic modification allows for the enhancement of nutritional content in organisms. Scientists can introduce genes that increase the levels of essential nutrients, such as vitamins or minerals, making the organism more nutritious. |3. Ethics and Morality: Genetic modification raises ethical and moral questions. Some individuals believe it is unnatural to manipulate the genetic makeup of organisms and question the consequences it may have on the natural order and balance of life. |4. Medical Advancements: Genetic modification has the potential to revolutionize medical treatments. Scientists can modify organisms to produce important pharmaceutical drugs, vaccines, or therapies, leading to breakthroughs in the field of medicine. |4. Lack of Regulation: Genetic modification is a rapidly evolving field, and there is concern about the lack of strict regulations governing its use. The potential for misuse or unintended consequences is a significant concern. In conclusion, genetic modification of organisms offers both advantages and disadvantages. While it can lead to improved crop yield, disease resistance, nutritional enhancement, and medical advancements, it also raises concerns about ecological impact, unintended health effects, ethics, and lack of regulation. It is essential to carefully consider the pros and cons before embracing genetic modification in various applications. Genetic Diversity and Adaptation Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes and traits within a population, and it plays a crucial role in the process of adaptation. In class 10 genetics, students learn that genetic diversity is important for the survival and evolution of species. Genetic diversity allows populations to better adapt to changes in their environment. It provides the necessary raw material for natural selection to act upon. When the environment changes, individuals with certain genetic traits may have an advantage over others in terms of survival and reproduction. These individuals are then more likely to pass on their advantageous traits to the next generation, leading to the adaptation of the population. The Importance of Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity is essential for the health and resilience of a population. It allows species to respond to environmental changes, such as climate change or the emergence of new diseases. A genetically diverse population is more likely to have individuals with traits that can withstand these challenges, increasing the chances of survival and successful reproduction. In agriculture, genetic diversity is also crucial for the production of crops and livestock. A diverse gene pool enables the development of new varieties that are resistant to diseases, pests, and adverse environmental conditions. It helps maintain productivity and ensures food security in the face of changing environmental conditions. Factors Influencing Genetic Diversity Several factors influence genetic diversity within a population. These include mutation, genetic recombination through sexual reproduction, migration, and natural selection. Mutations introduce genetic variations into populations, while genetic recombination shuffles existing genetic material to create new combinations. Migration allows for the exchange of genes between populations, increasing genetic diversity. Natural selection acts upon this diversity, favoring individuals with advantageous traits. Human activities, such as habitat destruction and fragmentation, overexploitation, and pollution, can also negatively impact genetic diversity. These activities can lead to the loss of certain alleles or even entire populations, reducing the overall genetic diversity of a species. In conclusion, genetic diversity is important for species’ survival and adaptation. It allows populations to respond to environmental changes and plays a vital role in maintaining their health and resilience. Understanding and preserving genetic diversity is crucial for the long-term sustainability of both natural ecosystems and agricultural practices. Genetics and Evolution: Natural Selection Genetics, the study of heredity and variation in living organisms, plays a crucial role in the process of evolution. One of the key mechanisms driving evolution is natural selection, which was proposed by Charles Darwin. Natural Selection Defined Natural selection is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over time, based on their fitness or ability to survive and reproduce. This mechanism results in the adaptation of organisms to their environment, as those with advantageous traits are more likely to pass them on to the next generation. The Principles of Natural Selection Natural selection operates on several principles: - Variation: Genetic variation exists within populations, providing the raw material for natural selection to act upon. - Heritability: Traits that are genetically determined can be passed on from one generation to the next. - Differential reproductive success: Individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous traits. Examples of Natural Selection Natural selection can be observed in various examples: - The peppered moth: In England during the Industrial Revolution, the dark-colored peppered moths became more prevalent as they were better camouflaged on soot-darkened trees. This shift in moth coloration was driven by natural selection. - Antibiotic resistance: Bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics survive and reproduce, leading to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant strains. - Giraffe necks: Giraffes with longer necks can reach more food, giving them a survival advantage and increasing the likelihood of passing on genes for longer neck length. Overall, natural selection is a fundamental mechanism that shapes the genetic makeup of populations, leading to evolutionary change over time. Genetic Testing: Techniques and Applications In genetics class, students learn about the various techniques and applications of genetic testing. Genetic testing involves analyzing an individual’s DNA to determine their genetic makeup and identify any potential genetic disorders or predispositions. It is an important tool in modern medicine and has numerous applications in both clinical and research settings. Techniques of Genetic Testing There are several techniques used in genetic testing: - PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to amplify specific regions of DNA for analysis. It allows for the identification of specific genetic mutations or alterations. - Sequencing: DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. This technique helps to identify variations in DNA sequences and detect genetic abnormalities. - Microarray: Microarray analysis involves comparing the DNA of an individual to a reference DNA sample. It can be used to detect genetic variations and identify disease-associated genes. Applications of Genetic Testing Genetic testing has various applications, including: - Diagnostic Testing: Genetic testing can help diagnose genetic disorders and identify the specific genetic mutations responsible for the condition. - Carrier Testing: This type of testing is performed to identify individuals who carry a gene mutation for a specific genetic disorder. It helps determine the risk of passing on the disorder to their children. - Prenatal Testing: Genetic testing during pregnancy can detect genetic disorders or chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus. It helps parents make informed decisions about their pregnancy. - Pharmacogenomics: This field utilizes genetic testing to determine an individual’s response to certain medications. It helps personalize treatment plans and reduce adverse drug reactions. - Forensic Testing: Genetic testing can be used in forensic investigations to identify suspects or victims based on their DNA profiles. Genetic testing plays a crucial role in understanding the genetic basis of diseases, identifying potential risks, and developing personalized treatment plans. It is an evolving field that continues to advance our knowledge of genetics and improve patient care. Genomics: Understanding the Human Genome Class 10 genetics introduces students to the fascinating world of genomics, the study of an organism’s entire genetic information, known as the genome. The human genome is particularly intriguing as it encompasses all the DNA sequences present in a human being. Understanding the human genome is essential as it holds the key to unraveling the mysteries of human development, evolution, and diseases. Scientists have been mapping the human genome for decades, aiming to identify and analyze the approximately 3 billion base pairs that make up our DNA. Through genomics, researchers can identify genetic variations and mutations that may predispose individuals to certain diseases or conditions. This knowledge allows for more accurate diagnoses, personalized medicine, and the development of targeted therapies. Genomics also plays a crucial role in the field of pharmacogenomics, which focuses on how an individual’s genetic makeup affects their response to drugs. By analyzing an individual’s genome, doctors can determine the most effective and safe medications for their patients. Genomics not only helps us understand human health and disease, but it also provides insights into human evolution and population genetics. By comparing the genomes of different individuals and populations, scientists can trace our ancestral origins, migration patterns, and genetic diversity. In the field of agriculture, genomics has revolutionized crop improvement by identifying genes responsible for desirable traits and enabling the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This has led to increased crop yields, resistance to diseases, and improved nutritional content. As our understanding of the human genome continues to expand, it opens up new possibilities for advancements in medicine, agriculture, and many other areas. Class 10 genetics serves as a foundation for students to explore these exciting fields of genomics and contribute to future scientific breakthroughs. Genetic Counseling: Exploring Ethical Considerations Genetic counseling is a vital part of the field of genetics, especially when it comes to Class 10. It involves providing individuals and families with information about genetic conditions and their risks, as well as guidance on how to make informed decisions about their health and family planning. When discussing genetic counseling, it is important to explore the ethical considerations that come into play. Here are some key points to consider: Confidentiality and Privacy One of the most important ethical considerations in genetic counseling is maintaining confidentiality and privacy. Genetic counselors must ensure that the information shared by individuals and families remains confidential, unless there is a legal obligation to disclose it. Informed consent is another crucial ethical consideration in genetic counseling. Individuals and families must fully understand the nature of the genetic testing or counseling being offered, the potential risks and benefits, and any alternative options available. They should have the opportunity to ask questions and make an informed decision about whether or not to proceed. Genetic counselors are ethically bound to provide non-directive counseling, meaning they should not influence or pressure individuals or families into making a particular decision regarding genetic testing or reproductive options. Instead, they should present all relevant information and support individuals in making their own choices based on their personal values and beliefs. Overall, genetic counseling is a complex process that requires careful consideration of ethical principles. By maintaining confidentiality and privacy, obtaining informed consent, and providing non-directive counseling, genetic counselors can help individuals and families navigate the complexities of genetics and make informed decisions about their health. Genetic Manipulation in Plants and Animals Genetic manipulation refers to the deliberate alteration of an organism’s genetic material using biotechnology techniques. This process allows scientists to modify the DNA of plants and animals in order to introduce new traits or improve existing ones. In plants, genetic manipulation has played a significant role in improving crop yield, disease resistance, and tolerance to environmental conditions. By introducing genes from other organisms, scientists have developed genetically modified (GM) crops that are resistant to pests, herbicides, and diseases. This has led to increased agricultural productivity and reduced the need for chemical pesticides. Genetic manipulation in animals has been used to produce livestock with desirable traits, such as increased growth rate or disease resistance. For example, scientists have successfully created genetically modified pigs that are more resistant to a specific viral infection. This has the potential to improve animal welfare and reduce the use of antibiotics in livestock farming. However, genetic manipulation also raises ethical and environmental concerns. Critics argue that the long-term effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) on human health and the environment are not fully understood. Some countries have imposed strict regulations on the cultivation and sale of GMOs, while others have banned them altogether. Overall, genetic manipulation offers both promising opportunities and challenging dilemmas in the field of genetics. It has the potential to revolutionize agriculture and animal husbandry, but careful consideration must be given to its implications for human health, biodiversity, and ethical concerns. Genetics and Cancer: Linking the Dots In the study of genetics, one area that has garnered significant attention is the link between genetics and cancer. Cancer, a complex disease that results from the uncontrolled growth and division of abnormal cells, is influenced by various factors, including genetic mutations. Understanding Genetic Mutations: Genetic mutations occur when there are changes in the DNA sequence. These mutations can be inherited or acquired during a person’s lifetime. When specific genes responsible for regulating cell growth and division are mutated, it can lead to the development of cancer. These mutations can be caused by various factors such as exposure to carcinogens like tobacco smoke, certain chemicals, ionizing radiation, or through errors that occur during DNA replication. Inherited Genetic Mutations: Some individuals may have inherited genetic mutations that increase their risk of developing certain types of cancer. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are known to increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Individuals with a family history of these mutations may undergo genetic testing to determine their risk and take preventive measures such as increased surveillance or prophylactic surgeries. Acquired Genetic Mutations: Acquired genetic mutations, also known as somatic mutations, occur during a person’s lifetime due to environmental factors or errors during DNA replication. These mutations are not present in germ cells and cannot be passed on to offspring. Certain risk factors such as exposure to carcinogens or chronic inflammation can increase the likelihood of acquiring these mutations. Understanding the specific mutations present in a cancerous tumor can help doctors determine targeted treatments or therapies that might be more effective based on the genetic profile of the tumor. Genetic Testing and Precision Medicine: Advances in genetic testing have revolutionized cancer diagnosis and treatment. Genetic tests can identify specific mutations in genes that contribute to the development and progression of cancer. This information can help doctors personalize treatment plans and medications based on an individual’s genetic makeup. This approach, known as precision medicine, aims to improve outcomes by targeting the specific genetic alterations driving a person’s cancer. - Targeted therapies: By identifying specific genetic mutations, doctors can prescribe targeted therapies that specifically address the molecular changes driving cancer growth. - Immunotherapies: Some cancers can escape the immune system’s detection by suppressing the body’s natural defense mechanisms. Genetic testing can help identify specific immune checkpoints that may be targeted with immunotherapies to enhance the body’s response against cancer cells. - Early detection: Genetic testing can also help identify individuals at high risk of developing certain types of cancer. Increased surveillance and early detection measures can then be implemented to catch any potential cancerous growths at an early, more treatable stage. The study of genetics has provided valuable insights into the link between genetics and cancer. Understanding genetic mutations, both inherited and acquired, is crucial in determining an individual’s risk of developing cancer and tailoring personalized treatment plans. Genetic testing plays a key role in precision medicine, allowing for targeted therapies and early detection strategies that can improve outcomes and ultimately reduce the burden of cancer. Genetic Basis of Behavior and Personality Traits Class 10 biology explores various aspects of genetics, including the genetic basis of behavior and personality traits. Our behavior and personality are influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors play a significant role in determining certain behavioral and personality traits. Genes and Behavior Genes, which are segments of DNA, carry the instructions for making proteins that are essential for the development and functioning of our bodies. Some of these proteins are involved in the regulation of our behavior. For example, genes can influence neurotransmitter production and receptor activity, which in turn affects our mood, cognition, and behavior. Specific gene variants, known as alleles, can impact behavior in various ways. For instance, certain alleles may enhance the risk of developing mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia. On the other hand, other alleles may contribute to positive traits, such as intelligence or resilience in the face of adversity. Genes and Personality Traits Personality traits, such as extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and conscientiousness, are also influenced by genetics. Twin and family studies have provided evidence for the heritability of these traits. Researchers have identified specific genes that are associated with certain personality traits. For example, the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) has been linked to extraversion and neuroticism. Another gene, BDNF, is involved in the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which is associated with mood regulation and cognitive function. Genes and the Nature vs. Nurture Debate The genetic basis of behavior and personality traits has sparked the age-old debate of nature vs. nurture. While our genes can predispose us to certain traits, the environment also plays a crucial role in shaping our behavior and personality. It is important to understand that genes do not dictate our behavior or personality. Rather, they contribute to our predispositions and tendencies. The interaction between our genes and the environment is complex and dynamic, with both factors influencing each other. Overall, class 10 biology provides a foundation for understanding the genetic basis of behavior and personality traits. By exploring the intricate relationship between our genes and the environment, we gain insights into the complexity of human behavior. Genetic Engineering in Agriculture: Benefits and Risks Genetic engineering has revolutionized the field of agriculture by allowing scientists to manipulate the genetic makeup of plants and animals. This technology has brought about numerous benefits and risks that need to be carefully considered. Benefits of Genetic Engineering in Agriculture One of the major benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture is the ability to improve crop yields. By introducing genes that enhance resistance to pests, diseases, and adverse environmental conditions, scientists can create crops that are more resilient and productive. This can help farmers increase their harvests and reduce losses, leading to enhanced food production and food security. Genetic engineering also enables the production of crops with improved nutritional value. Scientists can introduce genes that enhance the levels of vitamins, minerals, and essential nutrients in crops, making them more nutritious and beneficial for human consumption. This can be particularly relevant in developing countries where nutritional deficiencies are common. Risks of Genetic Engineering in Agriculture Despite the potential benefits, genetic engineering in agriculture also poses several risks that need to be carefully evaluated. One of the concerns is the potential for unintended effects on ecosystems and biodiversity. Introducing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) into the environment may lead to the spread of modified genes to wild species, potentially disrupting natural ecosystems. Another risk is the potential for the development of resistance in pests and diseases. The widespread adoption of genetically engineered crops that produce toxins harmful to pests may eventually result in the evolution of resistance among these organisms. This can lead to the emergence of superbugs or superweeds that are resistant to conventional methods of control, posing challenges to agricultural sustainability. Additionally, there are concerns about the long-term health effects of consuming genetically engineered foods. While extensive safety testing is conducted before these products reach the market, some studies have raised concerns about the potential allergenicity and toxicity of genetically modified crops. Overall, genetic engineering in agriculture offers promising opportunities for improving crop productivity and nutrition. However, the risks associated with this technology should not be ignored, and careful regulation and monitoring are essential to ensure its safe and responsible use. Genetic Mapping and Genome Sequencing In class 10 genetics, one important aspect that is studied is genetic mapping and genome sequencing. Genetic mapping involves the process of determining the position of genes on a chromosome and their relative distances from each other. This information is essential for understanding the inheritance patterns of traits and for studying the relationship between genes and genetic disorders. Genome sequencing, on the other hand, involves determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome. This process allows scientists to identify and study the specific genes and sequences that make up an organism’s DNA. Genome sequencing has revolutionized the field of genetics, enabling researchers to map out the genetic information of entire organisms, including humans. Advancements in technology have played a crucial role in the development of genetic mapping and genome sequencing. High-throughput sequencing techniques and bioinformatics tools have made it easier and faster to analyze large amounts of genetic data. These tools have also allowed scientists to compare and analyze the genomes of different species, leading to a better understanding of evolutionary relationships and the genetic basis of various traits and diseases. Genetic mapping and genome sequencing have numerous applications in various fields, including agriculture, medicine, and forensic science. In agriculture, genetic mapping helps breeders in selecting plants or animals with desired traits and developing new varieties or breeds. In medicine, genome sequencing is used for diagnosing genetic disorders, predicting disease susceptibility, and developing personalized treatments. In forensic science, genetic mapping and sequencing are used in DNA profiling for identifying individuals or determining genetic relationships between individuals. Overall, genetic mapping and genome sequencing play a crucial role in understanding the intricacies of genetics and have wide-ranging applications in different fields. Human Genetics and Hereditary Diseases In class 10, we learn about human genetics and hereditary diseases. Genetics is the study of genes and heredity, which involves the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Genes: Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms. They determine the traits and characteristics of an individual. Heredity: Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to their offspring. It is responsible for similarities between parents and their children. Types of Hereditary Diseases: 1. Autosomal Dominant Disorders: These disorders occur when a mutated gene on one of the non-sex chromosomes is inherited from one parent. Some examples include Huntington’s disease and Marfan syndrome. 2. Autosomal Recessive Disorders: These disorders occur when both parents carry a mutated gene and pass it on to their child. Examples include cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. 3. X-Linked Disorders: These disorders occur when a mutated gene is located on the X chromosome. They are more common in males because they only have one X chromosome. Examples include hemophilia and color blindness. Genetic testing is a process that determines if an individual has a certain genetic condition or is at risk of developing one. It can be used to diagnose hereditary diseases, predict the likelihood of passing on a genetic disorder, and guide treatment options. In conclusion, understanding human genetics and hereditary diseases is important for class 10 students as it helps them comprehend the inheritance of traits and the risk factors associated with certain genetic disorders. It provides a foundation for further studies in genetics and can contribute to advancements in medical treatments and therapies. Genetics in Forensic Science: Solving Crimes Forensic science is a field that encompasses various scientific disciplines to assist in solving crimes. One crucial aspect of forensic science is the use of genetics to aid in the investigation. Class 10 students can explore how genetics plays a vital role in solving crimes. Genetics in forensic science primarily focuses on DNA analysis. Every individual’s DNA is unique, with the exception of identical twins, making DNA a valuable tool in criminal investigations. Class 10 students can learn how DNA samples collected from crime scenes are analyzed to identify suspects or link them to the crime. DNA analysis involves comparing the DNA extracted from the crime scene to samples collected from potential suspects. The techniques used in DNA analysis include polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis. The class 10 students can understand these processes and their significance in forensic investigations. Genetic databases play a critical role in solving crimes. These databases contain DNA profiles of individuals, including convicted criminals and volunteers. Class 10 students can learn how these databases are used to match the DNA found at a crime scene to potential suspects. By comparing the DNA profiles, forensic scientists can narrow down the pool of potential suspects, leading to successful identification and conviction. It is fascinating for class 10 students to understand how genetic databases work in conjunction with other forensic techniques to solve complex criminal cases. Furthermore, class 10 students can delve into the ethical considerations surrounding the use of genetic databases in forensic science. They can examine the balance between privacy rights and the need for justice in criminal investigations. Advancements in Genetic Analysis Advancements in genetic analysis have revolutionized forensic science. Techniques such as next-generation sequencing have made it possible to analyze complex DNA samples more efficiently and accurately. Class 10 students can explore these advancements and their impact on solving crimes. Additionally, the emerging field of forensic genetics includes the analysis of other genetic markers, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mitochondrial DNA. Class 10 students can learn how these markers are used to enhance the identification and profiling of individuals involved in criminal activities. Overall, the integration of genetics into forensic science has greatly improved the investigation and resolution of crimes. Class 10 students can grasp the significance of genetics in solving crimes and gain a better understanding of how science contributes to the field of law and justice. Ethics and Regulations in Genetic Research As genetics continues to advance, ethical considerations and regulations in genetic research become increasingly important. This is especially relevant in the context of Class 10 students who are beginning to explore this field. Importance of Ethics Genetic research has the potential to uncover and manipulate sensitive information about individuals and populations. Therefore, it is essential to have strict ethical guidelines to ensure the well-being and privacy of those involved. When conducting genetic research, scientists must obtain informed consent from individuals participating in the study. This ensures that individuals understand the purpose and potential risks of the research before giving their consent. Regulations in Genetic Research To ensure ethical practices, many countries have established regulations and laws pertaining to genetic research. These regulations govern various aspects of genetic research, including the handling of genetic samples and the protection of privacy and confidentiality. In addition to national regulations, international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have also developed guidelines and recommendations for genetic research. A key aspect of regulations in genetic research is the protection of privacy and confidentiality. Researchers must take measures to safeguard the identities and genetic information of participants to prevent potential harm or discrimination. Another important consideration is the fair and equitable distribution of the benefits and risks that arise from genetic research. This ensures that vulnerable populations are not exploited and that the benefits of research are shared for the greater good. |– Genetic research requires adherence to strict ethical guidelines. |– Informed consent is crucial in obtaining permission from individuals participating in the research. |– Regulations and laws govern various aspects of genetic research, including privacy and confidentiality. |– International organizations provide guidelines and recommendations. |– Fair and equitable distribution of benefits and risks is important. Future Directions in Genetics and Biotechnology As the field of genetics continues to advance, there are many exciting future directions that hold the potential to revolutionize various aspects of our lives. From improving human health to agriculture and environmental sustainability, the applications of genetics are vast and promising. 1. Precision Medicine One of the most promising areas of future research in genetics is precision medicine. This field aims to customize medical treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup. By understanding the specific genetic variations that contribute to different diseases, doctors can develop targeted therapies that are more effective and have fewer side effects. This approach has the potential to transform the way we treat diseases like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. 2. Genetic Engineering Advances in genetic engineering hold great potential for agriculture and food production. Scientists are developing genetically modified crops that can withstand harsh environmental conditions, resist pests and diseases, and have improved nutritional content. These modified crops have the potential to increase food production, improve crop yield, and enhance the nutritional value of the food we consume. Genetic engineering is also being explored as a means to develop new drugs and therapies. By manipulating genes in bacteria and other organisms, scientists can produce complex compounds that are difficult to synthesize in a laboratory. This opens up avenues for the development of new antibiotics and other life-saving drugs. 3. Gene Editing and Gene Therapy Gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 have revolutionized the field of genetics and hold tremendous promise for the future. These tools allow scientists to precisely edit the DNA sequence of an organism, offering incredible possibilities for treating genetic disorders and diseases. Gene therapy, which involves introducing or altering genes in a person’s cells to treat or prevent diseases, is another area of research that holds great promise. While there is still much work to be done, gene therapy has already shown success in treating certain genetic disorders, and ongoing research aims to expand its applications. The future of genetics and biotechnology holds immense potential to improve the human condition, both in terms of health and overall well-being. The advances in precision medicine, genetic engineering, gene editing, and gene therapy will likely impact various fields, from medicine to agriculture and beyond. As we continue to unravel the complexities of the genetic code, the possibilities for a better and healthier future are truly exciting. What is genetics? Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. What are genes? Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for building proteins, which are responsible for the traits and characteristics of living organisms. What is the role of genetics in Class 10? In Class 10, genetics helps students understand how traits are inherited from parents to offspring, and how variations occur within a population. What are the different types of traits? There are two types of traits: dominant traits, which are expressed even if only one copy of the gene is present, and recessive traits, which are expressed only if two copies of the gene are present. How is genetics related to evolution? Genetics plays a crucial role in evolution as it allows for variation within a population, which is the raw material for natural selection to act upon, leading to the development of new species over time. What is genetics? Genetics is the branch of biology that studies how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. It involves the study of genes, heredity, and variation. What is a gene? A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a particular protein. Genes are the basic units of heredity and determine the traits we inherit from our parents. How are traits inherited? Traits are inherited through genes, which are passed down from parents to offspring. Each parent contributes one copy of each gene, and the combination of genes determines the traits the offspring will have. What is DNA? DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all living organisms. It is composed of two long strands twisted together in the shape of a double helix. What are some examples of genetic disorders? Some examples of genetic disorders include Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Huntington’s disease, and hemophilia. These disorders are caused by mutations or changes in the genes.

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Extratropical Water Level Guidance What is a datum? In the context of this site, datum refers to a vertical tidal datum. The four datums used by this site are defined as follows. For more on tidal datums, please see NOAA's National Ocean Service (NOS) tidal datum definition page. Highest Astronomical Tide | "The [height] of the highest predicted astronomical tide expected to occur ... over the National Tidal Datum Epoch (NTDE). The present NTDE is 1983 through 2001." HAT is an estimate of the highest tide predictable strictly from the effects of gravity. Mean Higher High Water | "The average of the higher high water height of each tidal day observed over the NTDE." Mean Sea Level | "The arithmetic mean of the hourly water heights observed over the NTDE." Mean Lower Low Water | "The average of the lower low water height of each tidal day observed over the NTDE." What do the Datum buttons do? The buttons allow the graphs or text to be displayed in other datums. provides an estimate of where the "grass line" is. Crossing HAT is an indication that flooding will occur as people tend to build to the grass is an estimate of how high water gets each day; however it is exceeded by the tidal cycle alone for approximately half the month. This site uses it as a warning that waters are likely to be high, so please pay attention. In addition, NOS and NHC consider this to be the threshold for flooding. Please see their Memo as .pdf. is the average water surface and the most familiar to the general public. Deviations from MSL provide a precise description of unexpected amounts of water, but it is difficult to directly tie it to human impacts due to the variability of the tide range centered on MSL. is an estimate of how low water gets each day and is the standard datum used by NOS tide stations (and earlier versions of this site). It is useful for mariners concerned with running aground. NOTE: "Surge Guidance" and "Anomaly" values are changes in water level, so are "datumless". This means that while they appear to move on the graph when toggling datums, they actually continue to be centered on 0.

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Welcome to Swastik Classes! In this comprehensive NCERT Solution series, we present to you the detailed solutions for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants.” This chapter explores the fascinating world of plant respiration, which is essential for their survival and energy production. In this chapter, we delve into the various aspects of respiration in plants, including the different pathways, the role of mitochondria, and the factors affecting plant respiration. Understanding these concepts is crucial for comprehending how plants obtain energy from organic compounds and carry out their metabolic activities. Our team of experienced educators has meticulously analyzed and broken down each concept, ensuring clarity and simplicity in explanations. These solutions are designed to help you grasp the intricate details of plant respiration, enabling you to confidently tackle any question related to this topic. By using our NCERT solutions, you will not only enhance your conceptual understanding but also develop problem-solving skills to excel in examinations. Our solutions include insightful explanations, diagrams, and examples, allowing you to connect theoretical knowledge with real-life applications. This approach nurtures a holistic understanding of plant respiration and its significance in plant growth and survival. At Swastik Classes, we are committed to providing you with the best educational resources. Our NCERT Solution series for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants” is a valuable tool to help you navigate through the complexities of this chapter. We believe that a solid foundation in plant biology will enable you to appreciate the remarkable processes that drive plant respiration. Embark on this learning journey with us, and let’s unravel the wonders of respiration in plants together! NCERT Solution for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS – Exercises 1. Give the schematic representation of an overall view of Krebs’ cycle. 2. Differentiate between (a) Respiration and Combustion (b) Glycolysis and Krebs’cycle (c) Aerobic respiration and Fermentation Sol. (a) Differences between respiration and combustion are as follows : (b) Differences between glycolysis and Krebs’ cycle are as follows: (C)Differences between aerobic respiration and fermentation are as follows: 3. What are respiratory substrates? Name the most common respiratory substrate. Sol. Respiratory substrates are those organic substances which are oxidised during respiration to liberate energy inside the living cells. The common respiratory substrates are carbohydrates, proteins, fats and organic acids. The most common respiratory substrate is glucose. It is a hexose monosaccharide. 4. Give the schematic representation of glycolysis. 5. Explain ETS. Sol. An electron transport chain or system (ETS) is a series of coenzymes and cytochromes that take part in the passage of electrons from a chemical to its ultimate acceptor. Reduced coenzymes participate in electron transport chain. Electron transport takes place on cristae of mitochondria [oxysomes ( F0 -F1 , particles) found on the inner surface of the membrane of mitochondria]. NADH formed in glycolysis and citric acid cycle are oxidised by NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) and the electrons are transferred to ubiquinone. Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents via FADH2 through the activity of succinate dehydrogenase (complex II). The reduced ubiquinone is then oxidised by transfer of electrons of cytochrome c via cytochrome Fc, complex (complex III). Cytochrome c acts as a mobile carrier between complex III and complex IV. Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochromes a and a3and two copper centres. When the electrons are shunted over the carriers via complex I to IV in the electron transport chain, they are coupled to ATP synthetase (complex V) for the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi. Oxygen functions as the terminal acceptor of electrons and is reduced to water along with the hydrogen atoms. Reduced coenzymes (coenzyme I, II and FAD) do not combine directly with the molecular O2. Only their hydrogen or electrons are transferred through various substances and finally reach O2. The substances useful for the transfer of electron are called electron carriers. Only electrons are transferred through cytochromes (Cyt F1 Cyt c,,C2, a, a3) and finally reach molecular O2. Both cytochrome a and a3 form a system called cytochrome oxidase. Copper is also present in Cyt a3 in addition to iron. The molecular oxygen that has accepted electrons now receives the protons that were liberated into the surrounding medium to give rise to a molecule of water. The liberated energy is utilised for the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi. 6. What are the main steps in aerobic respiration? Where does it take place? Sol. Aerobic respiration is an enzymatically controlled release of energy in a stepwise catabolic process of complete oxidation of organic food into carbon dioxide and water with oxygen acting as terminal oxidant. It occurs by two methods, common pathway and pentose phosphate pathway. Common pathway is known so because its first step, called glycolysis, is common to both aerobic and anaerobic modes of respiration. The common pathway of aerobic respiration consists of three steps – glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle and terminal oxidation. Aerobic respiration takes place within mitochondria. The final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. 7. What are the assumptions made during the calculation of net gain of ATP? Sol. It is possible to make calculations of the net gain of ATP for every glucose molecule oxidised; but in reality this can remain only a theoretical exercise. These calculations can be made only on certain assumptions that: There is a sequential, orderly pathway functioning, with one substrate forming the next and with glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway following one after another. transferred into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative phosphorylation. None of the intermediates in the pathway are utilised to synthesise any other compound. Only glucose is being respired – no other alternative substrates are entering in the pathway at any of the intermediary stages. But these kind of assumptions are not really valid in a living system; all pathway work simultaneously and do not take place one after another; substrates enter the pathways and are withdrawn from it as and when necessary; ATP is utilised as and when needed; enzymatic rates are controlled by multiple means. Hence, there can be a net gain of 36 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one molecule of glucose. 8. Distinguish between the following: (a) Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respira¬tion. (b) Glycolysis and Fermentation. (c) Glycolysis and Citric acid cycle. Sol. (a) Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration are as follows: (b) Differences between glycolysis and fermentation are as follows: 9. Discuss The respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway”. Sol. Amphibolic pathway is the one which is used for both breakdown (catabolism) and build-up (anabolism) reactions. Respiratory pathway is mainly a catabolic process which serves to run the living system by providing energy. The pathway produces a number of intermediates. Many of them are raw materials for building up both primary and secondary metabolites. Acetyl CoA is helpful not only in Krebs’ cycle but is also raw material for synthesis of fatty acids, steroids, terpenes, aromatic compounds and carotenoids, a-ketoglutarate is organic acid which forms glutamate (an important amino acid) on amination. OAA (Oxaloacetic acid) on amination produces asparate. Both aspartate and glutamate are components of proteins. Pyrimidines and alkaloids are other products. Succinyl CoA forms cytochromes and chlorophyll. Hence, fatty acids would be broken down to acetyl CoA before entering the respiratory pathway when it is used as a substrate. But when the organism needs to synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA would be withdrawn from the respiratory pathway for it. Hence, the respiratory pathway comes into the picture both during breakdown and synthesis of fatty acids. Similarly, during breakdown and synthesis of proteins too, respiratory intermediates form the link. Breaking down processes within the living organism is catabolism, and synthesis is anabolism. Because the respiratory pathway is involved in both anabolism and catabolism, it would hence be better to consider the respiratory pathway as an amphibolic pathway rather than as a catabolic one. 10. Define RQ. What is its value for fats? Sol. Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen consumed in respiration over a period of time. Its value can be one, zero, more than 1 or less than one. Volume of C02 evolved Volume of 02 consumed RQ is less than one when the respiratory substrate is either fat or protein. C57 H104O6 + 80 O2-» 57 CO2+ 52H2O RQ = 57CO2/80O2 = 0.71 RQ is about 0.7 for most of the common fats. 11. What is oxidative phosphorylation? Sol. Oxidative phosphorylation is the synthesis of energy rich ATP molecules with the help of energy liberated during oxidation of reduced co-enzymes (NADH, FADH2) produced in respiration. The enzyme required for this synthesis is called ATP synthase. It is considered to be the fifth complex of electron transport chain. ATP synthase is located in FT or head piece of F0 -F1 or elementary particles. The particles are present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase becomes active in ATP formation only where there is a proton gradient having higher concentration of H+ or protons on the F0 side as compared to F x side (chemiosmotic hypothesis of Peter Mitchell). Increased proton concentration is produced in the outer chamber or outer surface of inner mitochondrial membrane by the pushing of proton with the help of energy liberated by passage of electrons from one carrier to another. Transport of the electrons from NADH over ETC helps in pushing three pairs of protons to the outer chamber while two pairs of protons are sent outwardly during electron flow from FADH2. The flow of protons through the F0 channel induces F1 particle to function as ATP-synthase. The energy of the proton gradient is used in attaching a phosphate radical to ADP by high energy bond. This produces ATP. Oxidation of one molecule of NADH2 produces 3 ATP molecules while a similar oxidation of FADH2 forms 2 ATP molecules. 12. What is the significance of step-wise release of energy in respiration? Sol. The utility of step-wise release of energy in respiration are given as follows : (i) There is a step-wise release of chemical bond energy which is very easily trapped in forming ATP molecules. (ii) Cellular temperature is not allowed to rise. (iii) Wastage of energy is reduced. (iv) There are several intermediates which can be used in production of a number of biochemicals. (v) Through their metabolic intermediates different substances can undergo respiratory catabolism. (vi) Each step of respiration is controlled by its own enzyme. The activity of different enzymes can be enhanced or inhibited by specific compounds. This helps in controlling the rate of respiration and the amount of energy liberated by it. Conclusions for NCERT Solution for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS the NCERT Solution series for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants” by Swastik Classes provides comprehensive and insightful solutions to help you understand the intricate processes involved in plant respiration. Throughout this chapter, we have explored various aspects of plant respiration, including the different pathways, the role of mitochondria, and the factors affecting plant respiration. By delving into these concepts, we gain a deeper understanding of how plants obtain energy from organic compounds and carry out their metabolic activities. Our solutions are meticulously crafted to simplify complex concepts, ensuring clarity and ease of understanding. The explanations, diagrams, and examples provided in our solutions enable you to connect theoretical knowledge with practical applications, fostering a holistic approach to learning. By using our NCERT solutions, you will not only enhance your conceptual understanding but also develop problem-solving skills to excel in examinations. We believe that a strong foundation in plant respiration is essential for comprehending the fundamental processes that drive plant growth and survival. At Swastik Classes, we are committed to providing you with the best educational resources. Our NCERT Solution series for Class 11 Biology Chapter 14: “Respiration in Plants” is designed to support your learning journey and help you succeed academically. We hope that our solutions have equipped you with the necessary tools to confidently tackle any question related to this chapter. By mastering the concepts covered in this chapter, you will have a solid understanding of the processes that drive plant respiration and the vital role it plays in plant growth and survival. Thank you for choosing Swastik Classes as your trusted learning companion. We wish you success in your biology studies and encourage you to explore the fascinating world of plant respiration further! - Q: What is respiration in plants, and why is it essential? A: Respiration in plants is the process through which plants convert stored energy in organic compounds into usable forms, such as ATP. It involves the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen, releasing energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Respiration is essential for plant growth, as it provides the energy needed for metabolic activities, nutrient uptake, and synthesis of new molecules. - Q: How does respiration in plants differ from respiration in animals? A: Respiration in plants and animals share the same overall process of converting glucose into energy. However, there are some differences. Plants primarily respire aerobically, but they can also respire anaerobically under certain conditions. Animals, on the other hand, rely mostly on aerobic respiration. Additionally, plants have specialized structures called mitochondria that carry out respiration, while animals have specialized respiratory organs like lungs. - Q: What are the different pathways of respiration in plants? A: Plants can undergo aerobic respiration, which occurs in the presence of oxygen, and anaerobic respiration, which occurs in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria and involves the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. Anaerobic respiration in plants can occur through processes like alcoholic fermentation or lactic acid fermentation. - Q: What factors can affect the rate of respiration in plants? A: Several factors can influence the rate of respiration in plants. Temperature plays a crucial role, as respiration rates increase with higher temperatures. Oxygen availability, light intensity, and the availability of carbohydrates also impact respiration rates. Additionally, the age and physiological state of the plant can influence the rate of respiration. - Q: How do plants respire in the absence of light during the night? A: During the night, when there is no light for photosynthesis, plants rely on stored carbohydrates for energy through respiration. In the absence of light, plants switch to aerobic respiration, breaking down stored sugars to release energy. This process allows plants to continue metabolic activities, growth, and maintenance even in the absence of photosynthesis.

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Pure numbers are very useful in many situations. They can tell us about various important properties. Examples might include the temperature in a room (measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit), the speed at which we are travelling in a moving vehicle (measured in miles or kilometres per hour), or the weight of an object (measured in pounds or kilogrammes). These numbers are often an indication of where a value lies on some scale (for example the graduated glass tube in a thermometer, the speed dial in a speedometer, or the range of outputs that can be displayed by a set of digital scales). In cases such as this, the number represents one possible value in a finite range of values. Numbers used in this way are referred to as scalar values, and the number alone is sufficient to provide us with the information we require. Quantities such as speed and temperature can be represented by scalar values There are other situations where a scalar value alone does not give us all of the information we need. The pilot of an aircraft, for example, obviously needs to know how fast they are going. Unlike the driver of a motor vehicle, however, the pilot does not have a road to follow, and therefore needs to know in which direction they are flying. Indeed, things get even more complicated for a pilot. There are many other factors to consider, such as the aircraft's current altitude (i.e. the height above the ground) and the aircraft's attitude (the combination of yaw, roll and pitch). Indeed, think about any object moving across a planar surface, or through some three-dimensional space. A scalar value can give us the relative speed of the object, but what about its direction? Airspeed is just one of several factors important to a pilot The combination of a moving object's speed and direction at any given moment in time is called its velocity. Let's assume for argument's sake that we know an object's velocity. Let's also assume that we know where that object currently is in terms of its x and y coordinates in a plane, or its x, y and z coordinates in some three-dimensional space. Armed with this information, and providing the object's velocity remains constant, we can work out where it will be at some later point in time. An object's velocity can be stored as a set of numbers that tell us how far it will travel in a given period of time (e.g. one second, or one hour) relative to each axis of a two-dimensional plane or three-dimensional space. This set of numbers is referred to as a vector. The use of vectors is not limited to describing velocity. Vectors can also be used to describe the magnitude and direction of a force, or of acceleration (i.e. the change in velocity over time). For the moment, let's keep things relatively simple by concentrating on two-dimensional vectors. We will confine ourselves to thinking about how we get from point A to point B (assume that points A and B are two distinct points on a plane). Any movement from A to B requires some degree of displacement relative to each of the plane's x and y axes (even if the displacement relative to one of the axes has a value of zero). An example may help to clarify matters. The graphic below shows a vector represented by a grey arrow connecting points A and B. The direction of the arrow indicates that the movement takes place in the direction from A to B (as opposed to the opposite direction, from B to A). Point A has the coordinates x=1, y=1, while point B has coordinates x=6, y=4. A movement from point A to point B is represented by the vector (5, 3) The displacement along the x-axis is represented by the red arrow, which has a length of five (5) units. The displacement along the y-axis is represented by the blue arrow, which has a length of three (3) units. The vector can be written as an ordered pair, representing the displacement along the x and y axes respectively, as (5, 3). The term ordered pair simply reflects the convention of always writing the x displacement first, followed by the y displacement. You should be able to see from the above that the vector's ordered pair can be derived by subtracting the x and y start point coordinates from the x and y end point coordinates, i.e. 6 - 1 = 5, 4 - 1 = 3. Conversely, given a starting point of (1, 1) and a vector (5, 3), we can find the end point coordinates by adding the vector's ordered pair to the start point coordinates, i.e. 1 + 5 = 6, 1 + 3 = 4. Although you may have already grasped the point, we would emphasise here that a vector is often an independent entity. In other words, it simply represents movement in a given direction and of a given magnitude. As such, it can be applied to any starting point. To demonstrate this, consider the graphic below in which the same vector is applied to two different starting points. In both cases, applying the vector (3, 2) increases the x-coordinate by three, and the y-coordinate by two. Note that the magnitude of a vector is represented by its length. Note also that while drawing vectors makes it very easy for us to visualise them, we will at some point need to start working with a non-visual form of vector notation in order to be able to carry out vector arithmetic more efficiently. The vector (3, 2) is applied to points A and C Two vectors are equal (i.e. they are effectively the same vector) if, and only if, they have the same magnitude and direction. In other words, the arrows representing the vectors must point the same way, and be of the same length (the length represents the magnitude of the vector). Looking at the above figure, you may well conclude that the red and blue arrows representing the displacement in the x and y directions respectively can themselves be considered to be vectors. This is indeed the case. In fact, the vector (3, 2) is the result of adding these two vectors - (3, 0) and (0, 2) - together. Vector addition is dealt with elsewhere, but for now it is useful to know that any two dimensional vector that is not perpendicular to either axis is the result of adding two additional vectors - one that acts in the x direction, and one that acts in the y direction. These two vectors can be regarded as the legs of a right-angled triangle for which the resultant vector forms the hypotenuse. Various forms of notation are used for vectors. We have already seen one of the simplest forms of notation for a two-dimensional vector using brackets. Both of the vectors shown in the above illustration, for example, can be written simply as (3, 2). This simply gives an ordered pair of x and y values that gives us the horizontal and vertical distances between the tail of the arrow and its head. Bear in mind that a vector such as (3, 2) is not tied to a specific starting point. It is what we call a free vector, because it can be applied to any given point of origin. If we wish to denote a vector that specifically indicates movement from one known fixed point to another, we use a somewhat different notation. The directed line segment between points A and B in the above illustration, for example, is the visual representation of a vector. A vector that has a fixed point of origin is not a free vector. It is usually referred to as a position vector. We can refer to the position vector that describes the movement from point A to point B using the notation AB→. The arrow above the characters AB denotes the direction of movement (i.e. from point A to point B, and not the other way round). Of course, this notation does not give us the information we need in order to work out how far we must move in each of the x and y directions in order to get to point B from point A. We would therefore probably write something like the following, which expresses the vector in row vector form: AB→ = (3, 2) This tells us that in order to get from our point of origin (point A) to our designated end point (point B), we need to increase the value of our x-coordinate by three, and increase the value of our y-coordinate by two. Note that this form of notation is also used in a three-dimensional space. The only difference is that a third vector value is added to represent the required increase (or decrease) in the value of the z-coordinate. Position vectors are used in navigational systems, where they are used to describe the distance and direction of an object (an aircraft or a ship, for example) from a fixed reference point. They can also be found in many other situations, including the study of mechanics and astrodynamics, and in computer games and simulations. Note that an ordered pair of x and y coordinates for any point in a Cartesian coordinate system also represents a vector. The same can be said of an ordered triple of x, y and z coordinates for any point in a three-dimensional coordinate system. These vectors give the magnitude and direction of a point's displacement from the origin (essentially, they are position vectors). Free vectors can be named using lower-case characters. In the illustration below, the free vector c appears twice (note that vector names are often printed in bold type). A second free vector, -c, is also shown. This vector has the same magnitude as vector c, but acts in the opposite direction. A minus sign ("-") in front of a vector name usually indicates that a vector with the same name, and having the same magnitude, already exists. The minus sign simply indicates that the new vector works in the opposite direction to the original vector. We could of course simply give the new vector a completely different name, but it is sometimes convenient to be able to refer to two vectors in a way that makes it obvious that one vector negates (i.e. cancels out) the other. Note that for the left-most instance of vector c in the illustration, we have also shown its component vectors (vectors a and b). Vector c is a free vector Using row vector form, we can define the different vectors in the above illustration as follows: a = (3, 0) b = (0, 2) c = (3, 2) -c = (-3, -2) When we start to look at vector arithmetic, we will find that it is convenient to store vector information in a matrix. We can use matrices to store a significant amount of vector information in a relatively compact form, and can then manipulate that information using matrix arithmetic. If you are unfamiliar with matrix arithmetic, it might be useful to have a look at the relevant pages in the Algebra section of this website. Vector information is stored within matrices as vertical columns, as shown below. You might be able to deduce from the above that vector c is the sum of its component vectors, a and b. Although vector addition is dealt with in more detail elsewhere, it is worth noting here that the result of adding two vectors together is always another vector (called the resultant). The magnitude of the resultant (i.e. its length) can be calculated using Pythagoras' theorem, since the resultant is effectively the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle for which the component vectors form the legs. In order to calculate the length of vector c, for example, we could perform the following calculation: |c| = √|a|2 + |b|2 = √32 + 22 = √13 = 3.606 We have (rather sneakily!) introduced a new form of notation here. For our calculation, what we are interested in using is the magnitude of the vectors, not the vectors themselves. The standard notation for expressing the magnitude of a vector in a mathematical expression is to place vertical bars on either side of the vector's name. The magnitude of vector a is thus be expressed as |a|.

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OXALIS, in botany, a large genus of small herbaceous plants, comprising, with a few small allied genera, the natural order Oxalidaceae. The name is derived from Gr. 6Eus, acid, the plants being acid from presence of acid calcium oxalate. It contains about 220 species, chiefly South African and tropical and South American. It is represented in Britain by the woodsorrel, a small stemless plant with radical trefoil-like leaves growing from a creeping scaly rootstock, and the flowers borne singly on an axillary stalk; the flowers are regular with five sepals, five obovate, white, purple-veined, free petals, ten stamens and a central five-lobed, five-celled ovary with five free styles. The fruit is a capsule, splitting by valves; the seeds have a fleshy coat, which curls back elastically, ejecting the true seed. The leaves, as in the other species of the genus, show a "sleep-movement," becoming pendulous at night. Oxalis crenata, Oca of the South Americans, is a tuberous-rooted half-hardy perennial, native of Peru. Its tubers are comparatively small, and somewhat acid; but if they be exposed in the sun from six to ten days they become sweet and floury. In the climate of England they can only be grown by starting them in heat in March, and planting out in June in a light soil and warm situation. They grow freely enough, but few tubers are formed, and these of small size. The fleshy stalks, which have the acid flavour of the family, may, however, be used in the same way as rhubarb for tarts. The leaves may be eaten in salads. It is easily propagated by cuttings of the stems or by means of sets like the potato. Oxalis Deppei or 0. tetraphylla, a bulbous perennial, native of Mexico, has scaly bulbs, from which are produced fleshy, tapering, white, semi-transparent roots, about 4 in. in length and 3 to 4 in. in diameter. They strike down into the soil, which should therefore be made light and rich: ` with abundance of decayed vegetable matter. The bulbs should be planted about the end of April, 6 in. apart, in rows i ft. asunder, being only just covered with soil and having a situation with a southern aspect. The roots should be dug up before they become affected by frost, but if protected they will continue to increase in size till November. When taken up the bulbs should be stored in a cool dry place for replanting and the roots for use. The roots are gently boiled with salt and water, peeled and eaten like asparagus with melted butter and the yolks of eggs, or served up like salsafy and scorzonera with white sauce. Many other species are known in cultivation for edgings, rockwork or as pot-plants for the greenhouse, the best hardy and half-hardy kinds being 0. arenaria, purple; 0. Bowiei, crimson; 0. enneaphylla, white or pale rose; 0. floribunda, rose; 0. lasiandra, pink; 0. luteola, creamy yellow; 0. variabilis, purple, white, red; and 0. violacea, violet. - Please bookmark this page (add it to your favorites) - If you wish to link to this page, you can do so by referring to the URL address below. This page was last modified 29-SEP-18 Copyright © 2021 ITA all rights reserved.

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Many modern Jews immediately associate Shabbat with a list of “don’ts’, which is often off putting for many. This unit introduces the learner to the distinction between the two main commandments of “remember” and “keep” the Sabbath day, with the emphasis on the positive commands of Shabbat observance. In addition to the study of classical Jewish thinkers such as Rambam and Ramban, and of the great 20th century Jewish philosopher, Abraham Joshua Herschel,the student focuses on three of the“positive” traditional Shabbat practices, candle lighting, Kiddush and Havdalah. An intentional experience of a Shabbat, with implementation of the practices that were discussed in class, is one of the key activities for understanding how the positive commandments of Shabbat can play a powerful role in the creation of sacred time. The learner will: Understand how the “do’s” of Shabbat as commanded in the Torah can create a day of joy and delight. Know that “remember” and “keep” are two commandments in the Torah that give us the code for how to observe the Shabbat, as well as some Rabbinic explanations for what the observance of “remember “ is all about Be able to experience the “do’s” of Shabbat through an actual Shabbat observance, either in the classroom or through a Shabbaton in the community When you click on the Jewish Education by Design resource link featured above, you will find the following educational building blocks for the creation of a lesson plan: Essential questions that get to the “heart” of the learning A hook/s to open the lesson in an engaging fashion and spark the learners’ curiosity In depth discussion questions that are designed to elicit conceptual thinking and personal reflections about the featured source/s Suggested activities that enable the students to both process and apply what was learned in a thought provoking and creative fashion

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This picture is an example of early autotrophs. Click on image for full size Image courtesy of Corel Photography Over a very long time, gradual changes in the earliest cells gave rise to new life forms. These new cells were very different from the earlier heterotrophs because they were able to get their energy from a new source -- the Sun. Organisms that are able to make their own food (in the form of sugars) by using the energy of the Sun are called autotrophs, meaning "self-feeders". Photosynthesis is the name of the process by which these autotrophs use energy from the sun and eat. Because the autotrophic bacteria were able to feed themselves by using the energy of the Sun, they were no longer dependent on the same limited food supply as their ancestors and were able to flourish. Over millions of years of evolution, photosynthetic bacteria eventually gave rise to modern day plants. The appearance of organisms capable of performing photosynthesis was very significant -- if it weren't for the photosynthetic activity of these early bacteria, Earth's atmosphere would still be without oxygen and the appearance of oxygen-dependent animals, including humans, would never have occurred! You might also be interested in: Photosynthesis is the name of the process by which autotrophs (self-feeders) convert water, carbon dioxide, and solar energy into sugars and oxygen. It is a complex chemical process by which plants and...more The first beings were probably much like coacervates. As a group, these bacteria are called heterotrophic anaerobes (ann-air-robes). Because there was virtually no oxygen in the atmosphere at this time,...more Kingdom Plantae contains almost 300,000 different species of plants. It is not the largest kingdom, but it is a very important one! In the process known as "photosynthesis", plants use the energy of the...more The Archean is the name of the age which began with the forming Earth. This period of Earth's history lasted a long time, 2.8 billion years! That is more than half the expected age of the Earth! And no...more Eventually, photosynthesis by the earliest forms of plant life (a form of life capable of feeding itself instead of feeding off of others) began to produce significant amounts of oxygen. One important...more Extreme environments are places where "normal" life finds it hard to survive. That doesn't mean that there isn't any life in extreme environments. Certain creatures can live and grow in extreme environments....more Some environments are not good homes for most "normal" kinds of life. Places like that are called extreme environments. That doesn't mean that there isn't any life in extreme environments. Certain creatures...more

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Return to www.101science.com home page. INTRODUCTION: Radio astronomy is a relatively new science compared to optical astronomy. There are however many sites on the internet with additional detailed information; click LINKS. Many heavenly bodies emit electromagnetic radiation as well as light radiation. The ionosphere which reflects radio waves is a nuisance to radio astronomy. Fortunately there are waves that can penetrate the ionosphere without undue absorption or reflection. The radio frequency range of most importance to radio astronomy therefore is approximately from 1 centimeter to 10 meters. Our sun radiates electromagnetic waves and can be studied during daylight hours. The more distant objects radiating electromagnetic waves are observed during night time hours. This is similar to optical astronomic observation. The radio telescope antennas must be necessarily fairly large. Not long ago, even at one meter it required an antenna of the size of the Jodrell Bank radio telescope to produce a beam width of one degree. Many new advances in technology, antenna design and low noise amplifiers have made smaller antennas a real possibility today. Antennas as small as six feet in diameter to around 20 feet in diameter are possible for the backyard amateur radio astronomer. Important work with smaller and smaller antennas is the new frontier of radio astronomy. You can learn the basics of radio astronomy by downloading this FREE pdf document. DOWNLOAD FREE: RADIO ASTRONOMY LEARNING GUIDE There are ways the amateur can participate in radio astronomy without constructing large dishes. Much of this will consist of researching information in books, magazines and internet resources. William Lonc wrote a book on the subject. Studies of HF propagation and HF noise is also related and of interest. Interception of Jupiter's emissions around 18-22 Mhz are also possible at times with the proper receiving equipment (HF receiver), antennas, and orientation of the antenna toward Jupiter. See the Jupiter's emissions link for details. Be sure to look for and listen to the Jupiter sound files found on that site. RADIO JOVE PROJECT - Don't miss the NASA and JPL Radio Jove project. It includes a complete radio telescope kit with antenna you can easily build. The free software provides computer logging of your Jovian listening projects. Find out more about this exciting radio telescope project you can be involved in by clicking HERE http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/. VLA Images of Outburst from Black Hole Binary Star System Dramatic Outburst Reveals Nearest Black Hole to Earth A dramatic outburst September 1999 showed scientists that a previously-known variable star in the constellation Sagittarius has a hungry black hole as a companion. Only 1,600 light-years away, it is the closest known black hole. Rapidly drawing material from the star, the black hole caused an outburst of X-rays, light and radio waves. The Very Large Array radio telescope observed a "jet" of subatomic particles shot out at nearly the speed of light from this system. The two images at left, made only 30 minutes apart, show significant change; the image at right, made two days later, shows that the outburst quickly faded, leaving only a weakly-emitting core. Note: VLA = Very Large Array Radio Telescope. Astronomy Telescope Project An 5.2-meter amateur radio telescope for 1420 MHz is described. Click; Basics of Radio Astronomy Click; Amateur Radio Astronomy Resources A site specializing in amateur radio astronomy. Lots of free information for students, teachers, and amateur scientists. Click; Radio Astronomy Supplies Your International Supplier of Quality Radio Astronomy Products Click; The University of Calgary Radio Astronomy Laboratory Click; Radio Astronomy and SETI - Big Ear Radio Observatory This Kraus-type radio telescope, larger than three football fields, was famous for the Wow! Signal and for the longest-running SETI project. Click; NRAO - National Radio Astronomy Observatory Click; Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie Max-Planck-Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn, Germany. It is the home institution of the world's largest fully steerable radio telescope, the 100m antenna of Effelsberg, which has been successfully operated since August 1972. Click; Cavendish Astrophysics Homepage Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory. The Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers EME, SETI, Radio Astronomy and DSP for Radio Amateurs (W6/PA0ZN) Radio Astronomy for Scientists Teachers and Students Amateur Radio Astronomy Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers Ham Radio and Radio Astronomy The SETI League, Inc.: Amateur Radio and Radio Astronomy Links UK AMATEUR RADIO ASTRONOMY NETWORK The Stanback Planetarium Amateur Radio Astronomy Webpage and WebRing Why Radio Astronomy? Amateur Radio Astronomy : Operating Modes: Amateur Radio Astronomy Radio Astronomy and Space Science Amateur Radio Astronomy FAQ Information for Amateur Radio Astronomers Amateur radio astronomy with SIMPLE 20 MHz arrays radio-telescope for radio astronomy JAS: Observing Meteors by Radio Directory - Science: Astronomy: Amateur: Radio Astronomy FIRST, SEARCH 101science.com pages: Return to www.101science.com home page.

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MacroeconomicsMacroeconomics refers to the 'big picture' study of economics, so looking at concepts like industry, country, or global economic factors. Macroeconomics includes looking at concepts like a nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), unemployment rates, growth rate, and how all these concepts interact with each other. Studying and applying macroeconomics is incredibly important at the government level as the policy and economic decision and regulations enacted by government can have a major impact on many aspects of the overall economy. To demonstrate macroeconomic theory in practice we'll briefly look at how interest rates fit into macroeconomic policy. Extensive study goes into establishing the appropriate interest rates in an economy, where the government sets a base rate and banks work from there. If interest rates goes up: - People may save more money as they get a better return on their deposits. - Business will invest in less expansion as borrowing money will cost relatively more. - The local currency will go up in value because now deposits in that currency can earn more compared to other currencies. - Inflation will go down, because in general saving is up and spending is down and people are buying less. This gets very complex because 'relatively go up' or 'relatively go down' are very loose relationships and many factors impact decision making also (i.e. taxes & employment rates). Then the impact of the policy decisions of other countries have to be considered also as they impact what happens to a countries economy also. In theory, macroeconomics can be easy because for each change in a relevant figure it can be assumed that if all other factors are constant, this is what would happen. In reality, all of the factors are constantly shifting and enacting macroeconomic policy is very difficult to manage. MicroeconomicsMicroeconomics refers to more individual or company specific studies in economics. How businesses establish prices, how taxes will impact individual decision making, the concept of supply and demand. So Microeconomics looks at all the small economic decisions and interactions that all add up to the big picture concepts that Macroeconomics looks at. The study and application of macroeconomics is most commonly employed by businesses, in establishing how they price their products through understanding the needs of consumers. Central to this is the concept of supply and demand and how both factors influence price setting. Supply: If there is an overabundance of supply for a specific product, the price will naturally be driven down (assuming demand for that product stays constant). People don't want the product any more than they did before, but since there's so much of that product out there people are only willing to pay a limited amount. Alternatively if supply drops, but the demand stays the same, people are willing to pay a more for that same product. Demand: If people want a product more than they previously did, say it's become the 'must have' item of the year, the price for that product will go up if the supply of that product stays the same. People will pay more to obtain the product to make sure they get it. If demand goes down, say something goes out of fashion, there can still be the same amount of it on the market for sale but people don't want it anymore so the price goes down. These relationships are the key focus of microeconomics and how various factors (i.e. taxes) impact the supply and demand model for products in general. Companies also need to be aware of these concepts in order to set an effective price for their products, to ensure they can maximize their profits.

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(Open thematic poster-Spiders) Print, laminate, and decorate the walls of your daycare with all kinds of posters. (Open educa-decorate-Spiders) Print, laminate, and cut out the various items. Use them to decorate your daycare and set the mood for the theme. (Open educa-numbers-Spiders) Print and laminate the posters. Display them on a wall to decorate your daycare throughout the theme. (Open educa-letters-Spiders) Print and laminate the posters. Display them on a wall to decorate your daycare throughout the theme. This special tool was created in response to a special request received. (Open medicine cabinet inventory) Print. List the contents of your medicine cabinet and display it on the door or nearby. Poni discovers and presents-Spiders (Open Poni discovers and presents-Spiders) Print and laminate. Present the different spider body parts to your group. Use a Poni puppet or another puppet children are familiar with to do so. - Have you ever caught a spider? - How does a spider capture its prey? - What color are spiders? - How many legs do spiders have? How many legs do other insects such as ladybugs or bees have? - Are you afraid of spiders? Are you afraid of other types of insects? - Where in nature can we see spiders? - Have you ever seen a spider in your house? (Open educa circle time-Spiders) Print the questions and the word flashcards. Laminate them. Deposit the questions in a box and encourage children to take turns picking one. Spread the word flashcards out on a table or display them on a wall. Also print the "It's my turn" card. Laminate it and glue a Popsicle stick behind it. It will help children respect the child whose turn it is to speak throughout this activity. The questions will help little ones develop their sense of observation, their vocabulary, and cooperation skills while providing them with the opportunity to practice waiting for their turn. This tool will help you organize a group discussion about the theme. As children arrive in the morning, use a makeup pencil to draw a spider on their cheek. Make a unique spider hat that is sure to attract children's attention in order to introduce your theme. Simply hang plastic spiders all around the rim of an old hat. Let children take turns wearing the hat throughout the theme. (Open picture game-Spiders) Use the pictures to decorate your daycare or to spark a conversation with your group. Print, laminate, and store the pictures in a Ziploc bag or in your thematic bin. (Open activity sheets-Spiders) Print and follow instructions. (Open writing activities-S like spider) Print for each child or laminate for use with a dry-erase marker. (Open stationery-Spiders) Print. Use the stationery to communicate with parents, in your writing corner, or to identify your thematic bins. (Open educa-nuudles-Spiders) Print for each child. Have children color the sheet. Once they are done, they may use Magic Nuudles to turn the coloring pages into three dimensional works of art. Variation: If you do not have Magic Nuudles, ask children to fill the spaces designed for the Magic Nuudles with bingo markers or stickers. To order Magic Nuudles Use the flashcards to spark a conversation with your group, in your reading and writing corner, or to identify your thematic bins. (Open word flashcards-Spiders) (Open giant word flashcards-Spiders) Print. eight, legs, web, to weave, black, Halloween, fly, ant, tarantula, silk, cocoon, egg (Open sequential story-Spiders) Print. Laminate the illustrations and cut them out. Children must place the illustrations in the correct order. - Green Easter straw in a shallow container with plastic insects children can play with. - Offer only green, black, brown, and red blocks and use them to build giant bugs. - Assembly games (K-Nex and Magnetix) will make it possible for children to imagine all kinds of insects. - Drinking straws can be inserted one inside the other to create a very long worm. You may even organize contests to see who can make the longest one. Arts & crafts: - Plastic insects and poster paint. Children will enjoy pressing the insects in the paint and then on a sheet of paper to make prints. - Attach plastic or jelly worms to the end of a fishing rod. Dip them in paint and then on paper to make prints. - Make unique insect crowns. Simply glue antennae on a strip of paper. Use red and black paper to make ladybug crowns and black and yellow paper to make bumblebee crowns. - An empty toilet paper roll, cardboard wings, pipe cleaners (antennae), and a little paint are all you need to create cute butterflies or bees. - Attach a clothespin to the centre of coffee filters to make butterflies or dragonflies. Add a few drops of food coloring for a magical effect. - Provide a butterfly outline and tissue paper children can tear and glue on the wings to create a multicoloured butterfly. - Trace a butterfly or ladybug outline on a transparency sheet. Apply glue liberally and sprinkle with colourful sand to create a fun stained glass effect. - Use two paper plates (one of which is cut in two), a fastener, and red and black paint to create a ladybug. - Two egg carton sections, wiggly eyes, yellow and black poster paint, cardboard or tulle wings, and antennae are all you need to make a bumblebee! - Insect-shaped hole punches (scrapbooking). - Make a beehive by gluing Honeycomb cereal on a box. - Pieces of pink, brown, and black yarn to represent worms. - Use glow-in-the-dark paint to create a firefly. - Glue two empty toilet paper rolls together and add a string and cellophane paper to make binoculars. - Use pieces of string dipped in paint to paint worms or make worm-like impressions. - Use a row of egg carton sections to make a caterpillar. - Pour a small amount of brown or black paint on a sheet of paper and have children blow through a drinking straw to paint a spider. - Flower, insect, or garden stencils. - Insect-themed coloring pages. - Set up a beekeeper area complete with beekeeping veils and helmets, a rain suit, a few plastic bees, a large square box (beehive), and a few tools such as a shovel, a watering can, etc. - Create an insect hunter area that includes butterfly nets, containers for collecting insects, plastic insects, binoculars, index cards, pictures of different types of insects, magnifying glasses, etc. - Offer a gardening corner. Simply provide a variety of accessories such as toy versions of watering cans, flower pots, etc. Add gardening gloves, a sun hat, a hose, and knee protectors. - Fill a bin with insect costumes. Children will love to dress up like bugs! - Homemade or store-bought puzzles related to the theme. - Modeling dough with different types of insects that can be pricked in the dough. You can also offer insect-shaped cookie cutters. - Salt dough that can be used to create insects. - Real insects captured in small plastic containers. - Association game involving insects (insects that bite, insects that crawl, insects that fly, etc.). - Insect illustrations. Children can count how many dots are on each ladybug for example. - Association game with bees that must be associated to flowers of the corresponding color. - Books about insects, flowers. - Pictures of butterflies that can be used to decorate the walls of your area. - Insect outlines children can trace. - Games in which children must find the differences between two insect illustrations. - Hunt and seek games. - Activity sheets related to the theme. - Games with educatall word flashcards. - Pretend you are worms and slither across the floor. - Create an obstacle course that includes chairs children must crawl under as if they were ants. - Simon says... to act like different types of insects. - A treasure hunt. - Set a jump rope on the floor and encourage children to walk on it, pretending it's a worm. - Move a jump rope back and forth on the floor and invite children to jump over it. - Pretend to fly around the room like an insect. - Pin the tail on an insect. - Have children crouch down, one behind the other. Have each child place his/her feet on the shoulders of the child who's next in line to represent a caterpillar. - Have children sit in a circle and toss a ball of yarn back and forth to create a giant web. - Fill a large container with dirt and add a few worms. - Hide plastic worms in your sandbox. - Fill a container with Honeycomb cereal and let children play in it. - Add a few Styrofoam lily pads to your water table along with plastic insects that can be seen on water such as a praying mantis or dragonflies. - Create a vivarium. Use an old aquarium or a clear container. Add dirt, a few blades of grass, and any insects children find outside. Don't forget to set a screen on top! ROUTINES AND TRANSITIONS Game-This is my spot-Spiders (Open game-This is my spot-Spiders) Print two copies of each illustration. Use adhesive paper to stick one copy of each illustration on the table. Place the second copy in a bag. Children take turns picking an illustration to determine where they must sit at the table. You may also use the illustrations to determine children's naptime spots or their place in the task train. My spider path (Open my spider path) Print, laminate, and secure the illustrations on the floor of your daycare to create a path leading to the areas frequently visited by children throughout the day. The path can lead to the bathroom, the cloakroom, etc. If you prefer, use the illustrations to delimit various areas. ACTIVITIES FOR BABIES (Open models-Spiders) Print, cut out, and laminate the items. Use different lengths of fishing wire to hang them from a clothing hanger suspended above your changing table. All things black Fill a large container with black toys to give little ones the opportunity to explore this color. Name the color often throughout the week. I see black! Fill several empty plastic bottles with black items (feathers, marbles, beads, paperclips, etc.). If you wish, you may even fill a bottle with black water (soak an old black marker tip in water). Seal the caps using hot glue. Collect a variety of clear plastic containers (mayonnaise, peanut butter, juice, salad dressing, etc.). Deposit different items found in nature in each bottle along with a few insects. You can have a ladybug container, a fly container, a spider container, etc. Use hot glue to secure the lids. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MOTOR SKILLS (Open lacing-Spiders) Print, trace the shapes on heavy cardboard, and cut them out. Punch holes all the way around each model using a hole-punch. Children will enjoy lacing the shapes with a shoelace or a piece of string. Spiders have eight legs Divide your group into teams of two. One child from each team gets down on his/her hands and knees (four spider legs) and his/her partner must climb on top, resting his/her stomach on the other child's back to represent the four missing spider legs. Encourage children to try to move about. Variation: You may organize races or have children complete an obstacle course in this position. The spider web Give each child a ball of yarn. Attach one end to an object within the daycare (chair, furniture items, etc.). Just like real spiders, children can weave a giant web by moving their ball of yarn in every direction. Red or black Divide your group into teams of two. Give a small stack of playing cards to each pair of children. One child turns one card at a time. The other child must guess, before he/she sees each card, if it is black or red. Children enjoy this simple game which is great for developing fine motor skills and observation skills. Where are the spiders hiding? Hide several plastic spiders throughout the yard. Children hunt for spiders. Each time a child finds one, he/she must run to a basket and deposit it inside. Encourage children to keep hunting until all the spiders have been collected. For this activity, your hands and children's hands become spiders. Have children sit in a line on the floor (one behind the other). Encourage children to move their hands up and down the back of the child sitting in front of them. After a few minutes, everyone changes places. Repeat the activity. This is a great calming activity before naptime. MUSICAL AND RHYTHMIC ACTIVITIES (Open models-colored spiders) Print and laminate the spiders. Set them on the floor of your daycare. To the sound of music, children walk around the daycare. When the music stops, they must quickly step on a spider. Variation: If you wish, you may remove a spider after each round to make the activity more difficult. There can be more than one child on each spider. (Open educ-pairs-Spiders) Print. Children must draw a line between identical illustrations or color them using the same color. For durable, eco-friendly use, laminate for use with dry-erase markers. (Open educ-trace-Spiders) Print for each child. Children must trace the lines using the correct colors. When they reach the end of each line, they may also color the object with the corresponding color. Educ-same and different-Spiders (Open educ-same and different-Spiders) Print and laminate for durable, eco-friendly use. Chidlren must circle the illustration that is different in each row. (Open Sudoku-Spiders) Print the Sudoku grid and the illustrations. Cut the cards and laminate them for durable, eco-friendly use. Children must arrange the cards on the grid according to traditional Sudoku rules. There cannot be two identical illustrations on the same vertical or horizontal row. (Open educa-duo-Spiders) Print and laminate for durable, eco-friendly use. Children must draw a line between items that form a duo using a dry-erase marker. Spider hunt and seek (Open hunt and seek-Spiders) Print and laminate. Children pick cards and must find the items in the scene. Spider web game (Open game-Spider web) Print and laminate. Children stick the spiders on the web, associating them according to their size. MORAL AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES Knitting versus spider webs Invite a mother (or grandmother) to demonstrate knitting for your group. Help children realize how knitting is very similar to the methods used by spiders to weave their webs. Thematic box: Insect hunter Add nets, small containers, tweezers, magnifying glasses, plastic insects, a microscope, binoculars, a vivarium, a beekeeper hat and veil, and an empty bug repellant bottle to a large container. Let children explore the different items. The spider web Fill a sensory bin with white or colourful yarn (several metres). Add plastic spiders in different sizes. Children will enjoy making the spiders crawl on the "webs". Variation: Around Halloween, you can find glow-in-the-dark spiders in big box and dollar stores. Deposit these spiders in your sensory bin and let children play in the dark for a special treat! Searching for spider webs Go for a walk with your group in a nearby park or wooded area. Give each child a magnifying glass and encourage them to search for spider webs (and spiders!). Spider observation lab You will need clear containers, magnifying glasses, tweezers, pieces of tulle or screening, and pictures of spiders in nature. Use these tools to compare the spiders collected by the children in your group during the previous activity. Organize a special workshop in which children attempt to create this color. Encourage them to mix different colors of poster paint or use water and food coloring to test different combinations. Use magnifying glasses, butterfly nets, and tiny containers to search for and capture insects. Explore the bushes, grass, and soil in your yard. My chocolate spider - 6 oz of semi-sweet chocolate - 1 cup of butterscotch chips - 1 cup of miniature marshmallows - 2 cups of dried Chinese noodles - Melt chocolate and butterscotch chips in a double boiler. - Add marshmallows and Chinese noodles and mix well. - Use a spoon to spread the mixture on a cookie sheet layered with waxed paper. - Place cookie sheet in refrigerator. - Serve once preparation is completely set. Bake cupcakes with your group. Once they have cooled, spread dark chocolate icing on them. Add black licorice ribbons to represent eight legs and candy pieces for the eyes. Serve the cupcakes at snack time. Variation: To make colourful spiders, use red, purple, or green licorice for the legs. For each child, you will need an Oreo cookie, 2 chocolate chips, and 8 pretzel sticks. Have children gently insert the pretzel sticks in their cookie to represent a spider's legs. Using a tube of decorative cake gel, add two drops on top of each cookie and have children press the chocolate chips on top (the eyes). Children will be eager to taste their creation. Some may like to take a spider home at the end of the day. For this reason, make sure you have extra ingredients on hand. ARTS & CRAFTS (Open stencils-Spiders) Print and cut out the stencils. Children can use them to trace or paint a variety of items related to the theme. (Open models-Spiders) Print as many copies as you need. Use the models throughout the theme for various activities and projects. My miniature spider (Open miniature spider) Print, cut out, and color. Stick the different parts on an empty toilet paper roll to create a miniature spider. Hang the spiders from the ceiling. (Open puppets-Spiders) Print the models on heavy cardboard. Have children cut them out and decorate them as they wish using different Halloween-coloured items. Glue a Popsicle stick behind each model to create puppets. Have children paint a Styrofoam ball using black poster paint and insert eight pipe cleaners to represent legs. Add wiggly eyes. (Open models-Spiders) Trace a spider model on black paper. Have children cut it out. Let them decorate the spider. When they are done help them curl their spider's legs by wrapping them around a pencil. Create spider webs by cutting slits in a folded paper circle, just as you would do to create paper snowflakes. Tie four pipe cleaners together to create eight spider legs. Attach a long piece of elastic thread in the centre. Hang the spiders from the ceiling. Children will also enjoy bouncing the spiders up and down. You will need paper plates, black poster paint, wiggly eyes, and pipe cleaners. Have children paint a paper plate with the black paint. Let them add eyes, a nose, a mouth, and legs to complete their spider. Jelly bean spider (Open models-Spiders) Print for each child. Encourage children to apply white glue all over their model and press dried black beans on top. You can use two dried (red) kidney beans for the eyes to create a scary spider! (Open creative coloring-Spiders) Print for each child. Invite children to complete the drawing. (Open I am learning to draw-A spider) Print and laminate the model. Invite children to practice their drawing technique on the model sheet. When they are ready, they can try to draw a spider on their own. Complete the drawing-Spiders (Open complete the drawing-Spiders) Print for each child. Children must complete the drawing as they see fit. (Open coloring pages theme-Spiders) Print for each child. SONGS & RHYMES (Open songs & rhymes-The itsy bitsy spider) The itsy bitsy spider The itsy bitsy spider went up the water spout Down came the rain and washed the spider out Out came the sun and dried up all the rain So the itsy bitsy spider went up the spout again The Educatall team

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A simple technique for stamping patterns invisible to the human eye onto a special class of nanomaterials provides a new, cost-effective way to produce novel devices in areas ranging from drug delivery to solar cells. The technique was developed by Vanderbilt University engineers and described in the cover article of the May issue of the journal Nano Letters. The new method works with materials that are riddled with tiny voids that give them unique optical, electrical, chemical and mechanical properties. Imagine a stiff, sponge-like material filled with holes that are too small to see without a special microscope. For a number of years, scientists have been investigating the use of these materials – called porous nanomaterials – for a wide range of applications including drug delivery, chemical and biological sensors, solar cells and battery electrodes. There are nanoporous forms of gold, silicon, alumina, and titanium oxide, among others. A major obstacle to using the materials has been the complexity and expense of the processing required to make them into devices. Now, Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering Sharon M. Weiss and her colleagues have developed a rapid, low-cost imprinting process that can stamp out a variety of nanodevices from these intriguing materials. "It's amazing how easy it is. We made our first imprint using a regular tabletop vise," Weiss said. "And the resolution is surprisingly good." The traditional strategies used for making devices out of nanoporous materials are based on the process used to make computer chips. This must be done in a special clean room and involves painting the surface with a special material called a resist, exposing it to ultraviolet light or scanning the surface with an electron beam to create the desired pattern and then applying a series of chemical treatments to either engrave the surface or lay down new material. The more complicated the pattern, the longer it takes to make. About two years ago, Weiss got the idea of creating pre-mastered stamps using the complex process and then using the stamps to create the devices. Weiss calls the new approach direct imprinting of porous substrates (DIPS). DIPS can create a device in less than a minute, regardless of its complexity. So far, her group reports that it has used master stamps more than 20 times without any signs of deterioration. Process can produce nanoscale patterns The smallest pattern that Weiss and her colleagues have made to date has features of only a few tens of nanometers, which is about the size of a single fatty acid molecule. They have also succeeded in imprinting the smallest pattern yet reported in nanoporous gold, one with 70-nanometer features. The first device the group made is a "diffraction-based" biosensor that can be configured to identify a variety of different organic molecules, including DNA, proteins and viruses. The device consists of a grating made from porous silicon treated so that a target molecule will stick to it. The sensor is exposed to a liquid that may contain the target molecule and then is rinsed off. If the target was present, then some of the molecules stick in the grating and alter the pattern of reflected light produced when the grating is illuminated with a laser. According to the researchers' analysis, when such a biosensor is made from nanoporous silicon it is more sensitive than those made from ordinary silicon. The Weiss group collaborated with colleagues in Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering to use the new technique to make nano-patterned chemical sensors that are ten times more sensitive than another type of commercial chemical sensor called Klarite that is the basis of a multimillion-dollar market. The researchers have also demonstrated that they can use the stamps to make precisely shaped microparticles by a process called "over-stamping" that essentially cuts through the nanoporous layer to free the particles from the substrate. One possible application for microparticles made this way from nanoporous silicon are as anodes in lithium-ion batteries, which could significantly increase their capacity without adding a lot of weight. Vanderbilt University has applied for a patent on the DIPS method. Vanderbilt graduate student Judson D. Ryckman, Marco Liscidini, University of Pavia and John E. Sipe, University of Toronto, contributed to the research, which was supported by grants from the U.S. Army Research Office, INNESCO project, The National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and a Graduate Research Fellowship from the National Science Foundation.

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Sulfur is considered as 4th important macronutrient after Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium. The Sulfur deficiency is caused due to less availability of sulfates in soil. In soil, there will be approximately 1/8 Sulfur to nitrogen ratio. If an organic matter is present in the soil, it has about 80% nitrogen and 10% Sulfur. Just as the nitrogen is absorbed into plants in the form of nitrates, the Sulfur is absorbed in sulfates. But compared to nitrates, sulfates have low mobility from older regions to younger regions in the plants; Therefore, the chances of sulfur deficiency are observed in the younger leaves of the plants. What Causes Sulfur Deficiency in Soil Sulfur levels in the soil are influenced in different ways like 1. Availability of Sulfur Sulfur is a natural component of the soil. However, there can be a deficiency due to either excess microbial activity or low availability. 2. Soil Plowing. Plowing causes mixing up of soil, such that Sulfur moves into the deeper levels. The sulfates are absorbed by only the seminal roots present on the top layer of soil; Hence, if the sulfur is deficient in the upper layers, it decreases the availability of Sulfur near growing regions. So plowing soil should be done with care, avoiding going into deeper layers. 3. Organic matter content. Organic matter present in the soil contains different elements, including sulfur. As per studies, Nitrogen to Sulfur exists in the ratio of 8:1. If the soil organic matter is high, then the sulfur level will also be high. Thus low organic matter can be a cause of low sulfur levels. 4. Microorganism availability The micro-organisms in the soil convert the elemental sulfur into sulfates, which are easily absorbed by roots. However, in low sulfur levels, these microbes use up this sulfur, leading to further sulfur deficiency. The temperature in the soil affects microbial activity. Since microbes convert sulfur to sulfates, the optimum temperature is required for the maximal activity of microorganisms. If the temperature is too high or too low, the microbial activity will be low, leading to sulfur deficiency. 6. Harvesting time This is a general case where the sulfur is removed from the field with corn harvesting. During growth, crops stores some amount of sulfur in them. During harvest, this gets removed from the soil. Thus deficiency arises as those harvested crops taking away some of the sulfur doesn’t reach back to the soil. Like other nutrients, the sulfur content in soil can be determined by examination of the soil profile. But, this soil profile analysis is not preferred for sulfur. Because, for the analysis, the soil up to a depth of 25-30 centimeters is chosen. However, sulfur is available in the top layers of soil for utilization by plants. Besides, there are also chances that the whole plot of land is not sulfur deficient and only some areas are deficient. Hence, plant tissue examination is considered a preferred method for the sulfur profile. In tissue examination, if the results are showing more than 50 indexes, then the sulfur content is said to be high; between 25-50, it is moderate, below 25-10 it’s low and if it is less than 10, it’s very low. But when the index is moderate or high, farmers still add some sulfur while seeding. This is because sulfur lack of sulfur can stunt the growth of plants or roots. It’s a key element for the formation and development of seminal roots to the deeper region for proper absorption and intake of nutrients. When adding sulfur to low soils, farmers wait until the seminal roots grow stronger and deeper for sulfur availability. If that’s not happening and younger plants show deficiency symptoms, then the external addition of sulfur is performed. Adding sulfur should be performed in a specific ratio with nitrogen. For every 8 ratios of nitrogen, 1 ratio of sulfur must be executed for proper soil mixture. Methods to conserve sulfur in the soil. - Organic matter removed during harvesting should be added back to the soil. - Plowing should be minimized to 1 or 2 times per season as mixing up can shift sulfur to deeper layers. - Proper examination of the soil profile and deficiency symptoms should be performed regularly. Sulfur fertilizers are grouped under 4 categories. - Fertilizer containing sulfate - Fertilizer containing elemental sulfur. - Fertilizer containing both sulfate and elemental sulfur - Fertilizer having liquid sulfur Fertilizers containing sulfate. There are various combinations for the supply of sulfur. But this is considered to be the most prominent way as it has an ionic form of sulfate. This is readily absorbed by the plant from the soil. Some forms of sulfates are mentioned below |Potassium magnesium sulfate |Sulfate of micro-nutrients |Ammonium phosphate sulfate Fertilizer containing elemental sulfur. This form of sulfur is mainly used to reclaim soil having greater than 15% of sodium CEC (anion exchange capacity) and mainly used for lowering the soil pH. Some forms of elemental sulfur are |Mono ammonium phosphate |Sulfur coated fertilizers Fertilizer having liquid sulfur. This form of sulfur is available in liquid form.

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The eye is one of the most complex organs in the body. There are many parts that make up the eye, all of which are necessary for the eye to function properly. Light rays enter the eye through the cornea, pupil and lens. These light rays are focused onto the retina, the tissue lining the back of the eye. The retina converts light rays into impulses which are then sent through the optic nerve to the brain, where they are recognised as images. The cornea is the transparent outer layer of the eye that refracts, or redirects, light to a sharp focus at the retina. The lens is a transparent structure inside the eye that works with the cornea to focus. It fine-tunes images and allows us to see at various distances. The iris is the visible outer layer that gives us our eye colour. It adjusts the size of the pupil, determining how much light reaches the retina. The pupil is the hole in the centre of the eye that lets light in. It gets smaller in bright conditions to let less light in and bigger in dark conditions to let more light in. The clear, jelly-like substance found in the middle of the eye that helps to regulate eye pressure and shape. The sclera is the white outer coat of the eye, surrounding the iris. The optic nerve carries information about what you see from the retina to the brain. The retina is a light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye. It consists of rod and cone cells. These cells collect the light signals directed onto them and send them as electrical signals to the optic nerve at the back of our eye. The macula is the central part of the retina that allows us to achieve high-quality vision and accounts for our ability to read, to drive safely and to see the world in detail and colour. The macula is yellow due to the collection of pigment from coloured fruit and vegetables we eat as part of our daily diet. The fovea is the centre of the macula which provides the sharp vision. Rod cells are concentrated around the edge of the retina. They help us to see things that aren’t directly in front of us, giving us a rough idea of what is around us. They help us with our mobility and getting around, by stopping us from bumping into things. They also enable us to see things in dim light and to see movement. Cone cells are concentrated in the centre of our retina where the light is focused by the cornea and lens. This area is called the macula. Cone cells give us our detailed vision which we use when reading and looking at people’s faces. They are also responsible for most of our colour vision. The retinal pigment epithelium is a layer of cells located just outside the retina and is attached to the choroid. The choroid is a layer containing blood vessels that lines the back of the eye; it is located between the retina and the sclera.

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Did you know that picking your nose could have serious consequences for your brain health? Recent research from Western Sydney University has revealed a strong link between chronic nose-picking, medically known as rhinotillexomania, and the development of Alzheimer’s disease. The study suggests that the act of constantly digging for gold in our noses introduces harmful germs into the nasal cavity. These germs can then travel to the brain, leading to inflammation and the accumulation of amyloid beta proteins, a key characteristic of Alzheimer’s. While scientists are still uncertain about what exactly causes Alzheimer’s, they have observed an association between excessive immune responses and the build-up of tau proteins in patients’ brains. This indicates that inflammation caused by frequent invasions from pathogens, like those introduced through nose-picking, may contribute to the disease. To reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s and other related diseases, it is crucial to practice good hand hygiene. By washing our hands regularly and using sanitizers, we can prevent unintentionally exposing our olfactory system and brain to harmful inflammation-causing agents. This research highlights the importance of taking preventive measures against chronic nose-picking. Just as we have learned during the Covid-19 pandemic about the value of hand hygiene, incorporating routine hygienic procedures can help protect our brain health. So for those who find themselves habitually picking their noses, maybe it’s time to quit and prioritise regular handwashing instead.

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Causes Of Hearing Loss In Children Hearing loss can occur at any age, however, hearing loss from birth or that develops during infancy and the toddler years can have serious consequences. Normal hearing is essential to understand and learn spoken language and to learn how to produce clear speech. However, if a child experiences hearing loss during infancy and early childhood, treatment is critical to ensure language development. Even a temporary hearing loss during the infant stages can result in delayed language development for a child. Most children experience mild hearing loss when fluid accumulates in the middle ear from allergies or colds. This hearing loss is usually only temporary (conductive in nature). The normal hearing resumes once the symptoms subside and fluid drains out of the middle ear. For 1 in 10 children, the fluid may stay in the middle ear after the infection clears up. These children don’t hear as well as they should, and sometimes have delays in speech. There are two main types of hearing loss in children: Conductive Hearing Loss When a child has a conductive hearing loss, there may be an abnormality in the structure of the outer ear canal or middle ear, or there may be fluid in the middle ear that interferes with the transfer of sound. Sensorineural Hearing Loss (cochlear hearing loss) This type of hearing impairment is caused by an abnormality of the inner ear or the nerves that carry sound messages from the inner ear to the brain. The loss can be present at birth or occur shortly thereafter. If there is a family history of deafness, the cause is likely to be inherited (genetic). If the mother had rubella (German measles), cytomegalovirus (CMV), or another infectious illness that affects hearing during pregnancy, the fetus could have been infected and may lose hearing as a result. The problem also may be due to a malformation of the inner ear. Most often the cause of severe sensorineural hearing loss is inherited. In most cases of pediatric hearing loss, there is no family history of hearing loss on either side of the family. Hearing loss must be diagnosed as soon as possible so children do not have a delay in learning a language. If your child is under age two or is uncooperative during her hearing examination, she may be given one of two available screening tests, which are the same tests used for newborn screening. These tests are painless and can be performed while your child is sleeping or lying still. These tests include: The Otoacoustic Emission Test measures sound waves produced in the inner ear. A tiny probe is placed just inside the child’s ear canal, which then measures the response when clicks or tones are played into the ear. If these tests indicate that your child may have a hearing problem, you should have a more thorough hearing evaluation done as soon as possible to confirm whether your child’s hearing is impaired. The ABR (Auditory Brainstem Response) which measures how the brain responds to sound. Clicks or tones are played into the baby’s ears through soft earphones, and electrodes placed on the baby’s head to measure the brain’s response. This allows the doctor to test your child’s hearing without having to rely on her cooperation. When To Call An Audiologist Here are the signs and symptoms that should make you suspect that your child has a hearing loss and alert you to call your pediatrician or an audiologist: - Your child doesn’t startle at loud noises by one month or turn to the source of a sound by three to four months of age. - Your child doesn’t notice you until he sees you - Your child concentrates on gargling and other vibrating noises that he can feel, rather than experimenting with a wide variety of vowel sounds and consonants - Your child’s speech is delayed or hard to understand, or he doesn’t say single words such as “dada” or “mama” by twelve to fifteen months of age - Your child doesn’t always respond when called - Your child seems to hear some sounds but not others. (Some hearing loss affects only high-pitched sounds; some children have hearing loss in only one ear.) If you believe your child has a hearing loss, please come to our office in Peoria, Mesa, Scottsdale or Surprise to meet with one of our audiologists. Timely diagnosis and treatment will provide the best possible outcome for your child. Contact one of our offices today to book your appointment

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Human Rights Day is annually observed on 10th December. This day celebrates and promotes the values of human rights and spreads awareness about the importance of having human rights for all humans in our world despite all of the differences. The date was chosen to honor the United Nations General Assembly's adoption and proclamation, on 10 December 1948, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the first global enunciation of human rights and one of the first major achievements of the new United Nations. This day is celebrated every 10 December to create awareness and mobilize political will to promote respect for the rights and freedoms enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. |Human Rights Day |December 10, 2022 |The day celebrates and promotes the values of human rights Human Rights Day History: The belief that everyone, by virtue of her or his humanity, is entitled to certain human rights is fairly new and is something stemming from an evolution of the consideration of human dignity over the last centuries. Its roots lie in earlier tradition and documents of many cultures. The origins of Human Rights are ideally pinpointed to the year 539 BC. When the troops of Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon. Cyrus freed the slaves, declared that all people had the right to choose their own religion, and established racial equality. These and other principles were recorded on a baked-clay cylinder known as the Cyrus Cylinder, whose provisions served as inspiration for the first four Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Another cornerstone in Human Rights History is represented by the promulgation of the Magna Charta in 1215 which introduced a raw concept of "Rule of Law" and the basic idea of defined rights and liberties to all persons, which offers protection from arbitrary prosecution and incarceration. Before the Magna Charta, the rule of law, now considered as a key principle for good governance in any modern democratic society, was perceived as a divine justice, solely distributed by the monarch or the king or, in this case, King John of England. An evolution of the concepts expressed by the Magna Carta is represented by the English Bill of Rights. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in 1789, by France's National Assembly , represents one of the basic charters of human liberties, containing the principles that inspired the French Revolution. The basic value introduced by the Declaration was that all "men are born and remain free and equal in rights", which were specified as the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression. All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly; no one was to be arrested without a judicial order. Freedom of religion and freedom of speech were safeguarded within the bounds of public "order" and "law". The time for a revolution and a deep progress in the protection and promotion of human dignity was ripe. Eventually, it took the catalyst of World War II to propel human rights onto the global stage and into the global conscience. The unprecedented cruelties perpetrated during the conflict and outside it such as the extermination by Nazi Germany of over six million Jews, Sinti and Romani (gypsies), homosexuals, and persons with disabilities horrified the world. The idea of human rights thus emerged even stronger than ever after World War II. Governments then committed themselves to establishing the United Nations, with the primary goal of bolstering international peace and preventing conflict. Human Rights Day is the anniversary of the day in 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The day's popularity is perhaps best demonstrated by the commemorative stamp that was issued by the United Nations Postal Administration in 1952, which received over 200,000 advanced orders. The aim of the Declaration of Human Rights is to establish a common standard of living for all people across the planet that everyone is entitled to, and to in turn encourage all UN member states to strive towards the said standard of living for the people in their nation. Human Rights Day Significance: "Human rights" are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of our nationality, residence, sex, sexual orientation and gender identity, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without any form of discrimination or persecution. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being". They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. Human rights are a set of principles concerned with equality and fairness. They recognise our freedom to make choices about our lives and to develop our potential as human beings. They are about living a life free from fear, harassment or discrimination. Human rights can broadly be defined as a number of basic rights that people from around the world have agreed are essential. These include the right to life, the right to a fair trial, freedom from torture and other cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the rights to health, education and an adequate standard of living. A person's ability to enjoy their human rights depends on other people respecting those rights. This means that human rights involve responsibility and duties towards other people and the community. Individuals have a responsibility to ensure that they exercise their rights with consideration for the rights of others. For example, when someone uses their right to freedom of speech, they should do so without interfering with someone else's right to privacy. Governments have a particular responsibility to ensure that people are able to enjoy their rights. They are required to establish and maintain laws and services that enable people to enjoy a life in which their rights are respected and protected. In the decades since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, human rights have become more recognised and more guaranteed across the globe. It has since served as the foundation for an expanding system of human rights protection that today focuses also on vulnerable groups such as persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and migrants as they it is mostly the minority groups which gets affected with being discriminated and persecuted with their human rights being snatched from them. Hence this day makes people and governments across the world to reaffirm their position and strictly follow guidelines to protect the human rights of every individual in their respective authorities. However, the promise of the UDHR, of dignity and equality in rights, has been under a sustained assault in recent years. As the world faces challenges new and ongoing – pandemics, conflicts, exploding inequalities, morally bankrupt global financial system, racism, climate change – the values, and rights enshrined in the UDHR provide guideposts for our collective actions that do not leave anyone behind. Hence it is very important to take action now and protect the human rights from being violated anywhere else around the world for the betterment, peace and security of our world. So this day urges action towards tackling these issues. Human Rights Day Celebrations: The day is normally marked both by high-level political conferences and meetings and by cultural events and exhibitions dealing with human rights issues. Besides, it is traditionally on 10 December that the five-yearly United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights and Nobel Peace Prize are awarded. Many governmental and non-governmental organizations active in the human rights field also schedule special events to commemorate the day, as do many civil and social-cause organisations. This is done to make the general public aware about the importance of human rights. Human Rights Day has also served as the occasion for protests and other demonstrations to take place on this day for gaining attention in support of human rights, especially in countries that have frequently been beset by allegations of human rights violations. Human Rights Day Theme: The theme of Human Rights Day 2022 is "Dignity, Freedom, and Justice for All". Through this theme the UDHR highlighted the "recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world." The hope is to increase knowledge of the UDHR as a foundational blueprint for taking concrete actions to stand up for human rights and tackle pressing global issues today. Most Searched FAQs on Human Rights Day: 1. When is Human Rights Day celebrated? Human Rights Day is annually celebrated on 10th December. 2. What are the basic human rights? Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination. 3. What is the theme of Human Rights Day 2022? The theme of Human Rights Day 2022 is "Dignity, Freedom and Justice for All".

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Rules and regulations are required in almost everything for the proper functioning of the concerned thing. As disciplinary conventions help humans in following a regulated life similarly POP, IMAP, and SMTP which are TCP/IP protocols assist in modern-day communication through emails. The three are a definite set of rules that govern sending/receiving mail through the Internet between clients and servers. However, they differ from one another in more than one aspect, and advantages as well as disadvantages are associated with them. To understand the differences between them it is essential to know what they are, what they do, and how they function. Yet there is a primary thing that distinguishes both POP and IMAP from SMTP. The basic dissimilarity is that POP as well as IMAP is used for receiving messages while SMTP assists in sending mail through the network. The main difference between SMTP and IMAP/POP |Used to transmit emails |Used to receive messages Description That Also Differentiates the Three SMTP – It is described as a Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It falls in the application layer of the TCP/IP suite i.e. transmission control protocol of the Internet Protocol suite. It has dedicated port numbers as transmission protocols do have and SMTP is a part of TCP. The port numbers vary according to different situations. The default port numbers at different settings are shown in the table below: |Default Port No. |25 or 587 |Secured with TLS (Transport Layer Security) |Protected with SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) Note – TLS and SSL are types of Internet security. Know How Does SMTP Work It works through the usage of some specific commands to carry on the communication between server and client. The session mainly includes three request/reply command pairs and is explained below: - MAIL – This command is used to establish a return address path if emails get bounced. - RCPT – This command is to establish the mail recipients. - DATA – It is used to send text messages consisting of a header and a body. When a client wants to send emails, SMTP establishes a two-way transmission channel to the SMTP server. The responsibility of the client is to deliver messages to one or more servers as the case may be or to report its failure. The servers can either be midway nodes or the final destination. Then the above-mentioned 3 commands i.e. MAIL, RCPT, AND DATA are issued by the client and sent to the server. Thereafter replies are sent from the server to the client in response to the commands to achieve transmission. POP/POP3 – It stands for Post Office Protocol and the number 3 represents its version which is the current one and the latest, whereas POP 1 and 2 are its lower releases. Same as SMTP it also belongs to the application layer of the protocols in the TCP/IP suite. It allows an email client to retrieve emails from the server. It is uncomplicated and does not boast exceptional features except for download (which is its main characteristic) as it is meant to download messages only once from the server and this is one of its disadvantages. Also, it does not permit synchronization which adds to its not being preferred. This can be understood in the next section. Get Familiar with the Working of POP It downloads all mails from the server on the local machine, once the download is over it deletes them and then disconnects. As the emails are deleted from the server, they cannot be downloaded or accessed through any webmail service except on the local system where it is first downloaded. This can be understood from the figure below: Note – Although, there is a provision to leave the messages on the server to do so some changes in the settings have to be made. It also has devoted port numbers whose info is available in the table below: |Default Port No. |Secured with TLS |Protected with SSL IMAP – It stands for Internet Message Access Protocol and belongs to the application layer in the TCP/IP suite. The current version that is being used today is release 4. It is similar to POP in the sense that it is also used to receive emails from mail servers. However, it has many more characteristics as compared to POP3 and is designed to let users continue to access emails from the server. Therefore it needs more drive space on the server and also more CPU resources as compared to POP3. This can be understood in the next section. Be on Familiar Terms with the IMAP Function Here all messages are stored on the server, unlike POP where messages get deleted. Hence, clients can access mail from the server anytime anywhere, and on any device until there is an issue of server downtime. This is because the emails do not get deleted in IMAP communication and this is one of the reasons behind its popularity. Note – However, if required the emails can be deleted from the server manually which depends on the user. The next factor that makes IMAP advantageous is that it has synchronization capability which is lacking in POP. Outgoing mails are saved on the server also and this feature can be proved by the fact that the default sent items folder or any other folder created gets updated once changes have been made, no matter from which device or system you log in to your account. But in POP the outgoing emails are stored locally on the server. Hence, the sent items or any other folder gets updated only on the system on which changes have been made. Note – It is not that problems or bugs do not exist in IMAP. Here, the trouble is that the available space for further data storage decreases as IMAP stores all data on a remote server. The information about the dedicated IMAP port numbers can be availed from the table below: |Default Port No. |With TLS Protection |With SSL Security

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Paper Mechanisms for the Atlanta International School View this post on Instagram The lever is one of the simplest mechanism, It can be used to convert both the direction and speed of a movement. In this case the small left to right movement is converted to a larger right to left movement. Four bar linkages can be used to make all sorts of interesting movements. Try changing the lengths of the different bars to make different effects. A slider can be used to make a character move from side to side. The card strip slides through paper loops taped to the board. One of the most important machines in the history of machines! A circle of card and a split pin makes a simple wheel. Fasten characters around the wheel to make them move. By making a couple of holes in the card it is possible to thread some string in place to make a simple pulley. Pulling the knot back and forth lets you move a character in the opposite direction on the front of the card

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Colin Dundas from the Astrogeology Science Center in Flagstaff, Arizona, and colleagues reported in a recent issue of the journal Science their discovery of huge ice cliffs on Mars. The cliffs seem to consist of nearly pure water ice, which is believed to have been deposited by snowfall during periods in the past when the Martian axis was more tilted toward Earth. Dundas thinks the snow later compacted into the massive layered and fractured ice sheets we see today. Some of the ice cliffs have an astounding thickness of more than 100 meters, and are close to the surface—just one or two meters deep—which makes them, in principle, accessible using today’s lander and rover technology. The European Space Agency’s ExoMars rover, for example, which is scheduled to launch in 2020, has a drill that should be able to reach the deposits. One problem, however: The reported ice cliffs are located at about 55 degrees latitude, which is above the 50-degree line normally set as a limit for NASA or ESA missions that rely on solar power. But the science team led by Dundas thinks there may be other ice-rich deposits at lower-latitude sites, such as Arcadia or Utopia Planitia. Getting a sample from these ice cliffs would have tremendous potential for astrobiology. First, we would get scientific insight into environmental conditions during a time in the Martian past when the climate was more benign and there was relatively frequent precipitation. If life was present during those times at those locations, it should be nicely frozen in place. The handling of such a preserved sample would be easy—you would only have to melt it and analyze the contents in a watery solution, something we do in laboratories on Earth millions of times every day. Ice cliffs would also be a great resource for future human colonists. Easily accessible water was one of the requirements for a suitable landing site as discussed during NASA’s First Human Landing Site Workshop at the Johnson Space Center in 2015. Again, the problem here is that the ice cliffs discovered to date are a bit too far north or south for power arrays to receive sufficient sunlight. Not only that, but night temperatures at these locations are at least 50 degrees below what even the hardiest Alaskans are used to. But finding similar ice cliffs in warmer latitudes on Mars is probably only a matter of time. If so, world space agencies may want to consider sites near these cliffs for future Mars landings, whether for robotic life detection and sample return missions, or human expeditions.

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1.1 A Definition of Whistle-Blowing (a) The official name for whistle-blowing is ‘Making a Disclosure in the Public Interest’, however it is more commonly called ‘Whistle-blowing’. It means that if an employee discovers information in the work place relating to perceived malpractice or wrongdoing, they can disclose the information to their employer or a prescribed person and their employment rights will be protected, provided they follow the correct procedures. 1.2 The Legal Position (a) The Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 gives legal protection to workers against being dismissed by their employers or suffering detriment as a result of disclosing information relating to perceived malpractice or wrongdoing. (b) Under the Act a protected disclosure means a qualifying disclosure which is made by a worker. (c) A ‘qualifying disclosure’ means any disclosure of information which, in the reasonable belief of the worker making the disclosure, indicates that one or more of the following has happened, is happening or is likely to happen: (i) a criminal offence; (ii) a failure to comply with any legal obligation; (iii) a miscarriage of justice; (iv) danger to the health and safety of any individual(s); (v) danger to the environment; (vi) deliberate concealment of any of the above. (d) The worker making a disclosure must have reasonable belief that the information discovered indicates a breach or offence listed above. It is immaterial whether the belief is correct so long as the worker can show that the belief was held and that it was a reasonable belief at the time of disclosure. 1.3 Making a Disclosure to Your Employer or Another Responsible Person (a) If employees discover information in the work place relating to perceived malpractice or wrongdoing they are encouraged to report this information to their employer. (b) A qualifying disclosure will be made where the employee makes the disclosure in good faith: (i) to their employer; or (ii) to another person who the employee believes to be responsible for the malpractice or wrongdoing; or (iii) in accordance with a procedure authorised by their employer. 1.4 Making a Qualifying Disclosure to Prescribed Persons (a) Employees can make a qualifying disclosure relating to malpractice or wrongdoing to a person who has been prescribed by the Secretary of State for the purposes of receiving disclosures. (b) In order to be protected the employee must: (i) make the disclosure in good faith; (ii) reasonably believe; (A) that the information disclosed and any allegation made is substantially true; and (B) that the malpractice or wrongdoing falls within any description of matters in respect of which that person is prescribed. (c) For example, breaches of health and safety regulations can be brought to the attention of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) or the appropriate local authority or breaches of obligations in relation to financial services can be reported to the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA). For a full list of prescribed bodies please refer to The Public Interest Disclosure (Prescribed Persons)(Amendment) Order 2003. 1.5 Making a Qualified Disclosure in Other Cases (a) Wider disclosures can also be made, for example to the police or to non-prescribed regulators such as the Solicitors Regulation Authority. Employees will be protected if they make a qualifying disclosure and they: (i) make it in good faith; (ii) reasonably believe that the information they disclose is substantially true; (iii) do not make the disclosure for purposes of personal gain. (b) The disclosure should also meet one or more of the following conditions: (i) the employee believes that they will be subjected to detriment; (ii) there is no prescribed person in relation to the matter and the employee believes evidence will be concealed or destroyed if it is reported to the employer; (iii) the employee has previously disclosed the information to the employer. 1.6 Spencer Ogden’s Policy (a) Spencer Ogden Group values its reputation for ethical behaviour and recognises that an important aspect of accountability and transparency is a procedure to allow employees to voice in a responsible and effective way, information which they believe indicates malpractice or wrongdoing. (b) Accountability goes to the heart of Spencer Ogden Group values and we will ensure that no members of staff will be disadvantaged for disclosing information which they believe shows malpractice or wrongdoing. All disclosures will be treated consistently and fairly. The Company’s whistle-blowing policy is fundamental to the organisation’s integrity. (b) It should be emphasised that this policy is intended to assist employees who believe they have discovered malpractice or wrongdoing. It is not designed to question financial or business decisions taken by the Company nor should it be used to reconsider any matters which have already been addressed under harassment, complaint, grievance, disciplinary or other procedures. 1.7 Who Does This Policy Apply To? (a) This policy applies to everyone who carries out work for the Spencer Ogden Ltd, including: (i) The owner; (ii) all employees; (iii) contractors and sub-contractors; (v) consultants; and (vi) work experience or other trainees. 1.8 Procedures for Making a Qualified Disclosure (a) Staff should report any information relating to perceived malpractice or wrong doing to Human Resources if that is not suitable then staff should report any information to the Legal Department. (b) If the information relates to the Human Resources then the employee should report to the information to the Legal Department who will then decide whether the information needs to be disclosed externally. (c) If neither option (a) nor (b) are suitable then the employee may consider making a disclosure to a prescribed person (see above) or a wider disclosure may be made to the Police or to non-prescribed regulators. (d) Should you wish to make a disclosure to an independent whistleblowing service, you can contact our Safecall our Whistleblowing hotline provider. The Safecall service is available 24/7 365 days via the number below and allows you to speak to someone in your preferred language (see list below for international freephone numbers) Alternatively Safecall can be contacted via the web at www.safecall.co.uk/report. (e) If employees have any concerns in relation to either Money Laundering or Bribery, these concerns should be referred directly to the Legal Department. (f) Employees are permitted to report any information to the designated person within the Company in any form i.e. verbal, letter, email etc. (g) Anonymous calls or letters will be taken seriously and investigated fully, however employees should be mindful that the effectiveness of the enquiry may be limited where an individual chooses not to be identified. (h) The Company will seek to ensure that the identity of a whistle-blower is protected in so far as procedures allow, the organisation cannot guarantee anonymity if external legal action results from the disclosure. 1.9 Outcomes After Reporting a Concern (a) There will be no adverse consequences for any employee who reports a concern in good faith. However, any individual found responsible for making allegations maliciously or in bad faith may be subject to disciplinary action. (b) The following action may be taken following an investigation into the disclosure: (i) disciplinary action (including dismissal) against the wrongdoer; (ii) disciplinary action (including dismissal) against the whistle-blower where they are found to have acted in bad faith; no action if the allegation proves unfounded. Appendix 1: Safecall International Freephone Numbers USA: 1 866 901 3295 Germany: 00 800 7233 2255 UK: 0800 915 1571 Hong Kong: 3077 5524 Singapore: 800 448 1773 Australia: 1800 312 928

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1. What is sensory processing (or sensory integration)? A basic explanation of “sensory processing” (also referred to as “sensory integration”) is this — the brain’s ability to organize sensory information coming from all parts of the body in order to be able to use it. The human body takes in sensory input from several different sensory systems, organizes it in the brain for functional use, and then sends out signals to the rest of the body to activate the appropriate motor, behavior, or emotional responses (known as an “adaptive response”). In individuals with intact sensory processing, this happens automatically, unconsciously, and nearly instantaneously. A simple example would be when you go to pick up a cup or open a door you think is light (but is actually heavy), you automatically, unconsciously, and nearly instantaneously increase the amount of force you are using in order to actually pick it up or open it. Or if you are walking along a curb and you start to lose your balance, you automatically react to the sensation of being off-balance by either trying to regain your balance or by stepping down off the curb. These are all basic examples of sensory processing in action. 2. What sensory systems are involved with sensory processing? When occupational therapists talk about sensory processing or sensory integration, we are typically referencing seven sensory systems. Most people have heard of the classic five senses but never knew there are two additional “hidden” sensory systems that play a powerful role in our body’s ability to function on a day-to-day basis. (There are actually more “hidden” sensory systems and receptors as well, but we’ll focus on these ones right now for the purpose of this post). Here are the seven sensory systems you’ll typically hear OTs talk about: - Vestibular: Sense of balance and motion, located in the middle ear. At the most basic level, the vestibular system is activated any time we move our head, but it is also continuously being activated by the downward force of gravity to give us a sense of where we are in space. The vestibular system is a very complicated yet powerful sensory system, and there are actually different types of vestibular input depending on what direction or angle your body is moving. Vestibular input can produce a variety of responses. It can be calming, organizing, alerting, or disorganizing depending on the type of movement and the sensitivity of the individual. Occupational therapists with a background in sensory integration are trained to be able to identify what type of vestibular input is needed in different circumstances in order to help produce the desired response needed to improve participation in the task at hand. - Proprioception: Sense of body awareness. Our body senses proprioception through messages sent from sensory receptors in our muscles and joints. The proprioceptive system is activated any time we push or pull on objects (such as closing or opening a car door), as well as any time the joints are compressed together or stretched apart (such as jumping up and down or hanging on monkey bars). This system helps us understand how much force we are using and whether we need to use more or less force in order to successfully complete the task, such as when coloring, cutting our food with a fork and knife, or opening a door. Proprioceptive input tends to have a calming and organizing effect on the body, particularly when feeling overstimulated or overwhelmed. - Tactile: Sense of touch, located in sensory receptors in our skin and mouth. Our tactile system has two main functions – to tell us when we’ve touched something (being able to “sense” it) and what it is we’ve touched (being able to “discriminate” its features, such as texture, size, shape, or temperature). Think about how, when you’re digging through your purse or pocket, you first sense that you’ve touched something and then, as you feel more closely, you are able to interpret (or discriminate) the properties of what it is you’ve touched without even having to look at it, whether it’s a certain coin, key, or pen. In addition to the two main functions (sensation and discrimination), the tactile system is responsible for processing light touch (such as when the cat walks by and grazes you with her tail) as well as deep touch (like with a firm handshake or a massage). Light touch tends to be alerting and, for some, alarming. However, deep touch (also called “deep pressure”) tends to be calming and organizing, especially when feeling overstimulated or overwhelmed. - Visual: Sense of vision, but it’s more than just about being able to see clearly. Our visual system also helps us see what we need to see and filter out what we don’t need to focus on. Visual processing comes into play when tackling tasks such as looking for two matching socks in the laundry pile, scanning a lecture hall or classroom to find an empty seat, or completing a worksheet at school. - Auditory: Sense of hearing but, again, it’s more than just able to hear accurately. When we process auditory information, our brain has to be able to determine what sounds are important and what sounds can be “tuned out”. It also has to be able to locate where sounds are coming from (Are they in front of me? Behind me? To the side? Nearby? Far away?) and what they mean so we can act or react accordingly. The auditory system is a survival system, and when auditory processing is disordered, it can make people feel disoriented, disorganized, and overwhelmed. - Olfactory: Sense of smell, influences sense of taste, and is the only sense that is directly tied to the part of the brain responsible for emotional memories (think of the emotions you feel when you smell a familiar smell, whether a positive one like grandma’s cookies baking in the oven, or a negative one like the smell of cologne/perfume that a previous boyfriend/girlfriend used to wear). - Gustatory: Sense of taste, responsible for detecting all the different flavors that come in the mouth. Click here for full article: http://mamaot.com/sensory-processing-disorder/y/

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A heat shield is a device that is designed to protect from direct exposure to heat. Heat shields have been used to protect aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, and other high-speed vehicles from severe temperature extremes. They are also used in construction of buildings and automobiles to protect those inside from heat of sun. Heat shields work by reflecting majority of heat away from their protected object. This is done by absorbing some of heat and then radiating absorbed heat away in form of infrared radiation. The heat shield acts as a barrier between object and extreme temperatures. Without a heat shield, an object exposed to extreme heat or cold temperatures could be damaged or destroyed. Heat shields typically consist of an internal layer of insulating material such as aluminum, ceramic, or foam. This layer provides primary protection from direct heat and cold. A reflective outer layer is then applied over insulating material. This outer layer can be made of metal, plastic, or a combination of both. The reflection characteristics of this outer layer further reduce temperature on protected object's surface. Heat shields are often used in combination with other protective measures. For example, a shield may be used in conjunction with insulation to decrease overall temperature of an object. This is especially important in construction of buildings and in automotive industry, where extreme temperatures can cause a great deal of damage. In space exploration, heat shields are also used to protect a spacecraft from extreme conditions. These shields usually consist of a ceramic or metallic insulation layer and a highly reflective outer layer. This combination helps to keep spacecraft from becoming overly hot or cold during its journey. Heat shields are an invaluable tool in protecting objects from elements. They are used in a wide range of applications, from automotive industry to space exploration. By reflecting majority of heat away from its protected object, a heat shield helps to ensure that object remains intact.

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Why is nutrition important for older people? Nutrition plays a crucial role in maintaining health, functional independence, and quality of life for older people. People who are aged 65 years and older are particularly at risk of not meeting their nutritional requirements so it is important for them to have a balanced diet. A balanced diet can help: - Maintain muscle mass, so older people can remain active and independent for as long as possible - Maintain energy levels making daily life easier to manage - Reduce the risk of infections and illnesses by keeping the immune system healthy - Reduce the risk of falls - Promote wound healing How can a reduced dietary intake occur in older people? As people get older there are many reasons why they may have a poor appetite and eat and drink less. Reduced activity: Older people tend to be less active which means they use less energy each day, which in turn can lead to a reduced appetite. Spending some time outdoors in fresh air can help stimulate appetite. Mental health: Depression and loneliness can lead to a reduced dietary intake. Eating alone at mealtimes can intensity feelings of loneliness and this may have a negative effect on health and wellbeing. Some illnesses such as dementia are more common in older people and can impact dietary intake as appetite reduces, tastes change and swallowing difficulties may develop. Specialist advice from a dietitian may be required. Dementia can cause reduced, taste changes and swallowing difficulties. Specialist advice from a dietitian or speech and language therapist may be required. Independence: A lack of independence as people get older can impact their dietary intake. Reliance on others for shopping can lead to someone eating the same foods each week. Being able to see what food options are available can stimulate an interest in food. Medication: Many older people take a range of medications. Side effects from these can cause a reduced appetite. It is important not to stop taking a medication that has been prescribed, but GP or pharmacists can review medications if it is felt these are impacting food intake. Specialist diet: As people get older they may develop dental issues such as poor teeth or ill-fitting dentures which can lead to difficulties chewing or swallowing. Management may include restricting certain foods previously enjoyed due to texture and may require a softer diet. Any swallowing difficulties should be discussed with a GP who can refer to a speech and language therapist for a swallowing assessment and specialist advice if required. How to help prevent and/or manage undernutrition in older people? Unplanned weight loss can be a sign of malnutrition/undernutrition. If scales are not available, look out for other signs of weight loss such as clothes becoming loose or rings and jewellery no longer fitting. Many older people have tried to follow a healthy diet throughout their lives, but when malnutrition becomes a concern the normal guidelines for healthy eating don’t apply, and it may be necessary to adapt the diet to make sure energy intake is adequate. Increase energy intake: - Switch to full fat dairy products including milk, yoghurts, cheese and spreads - Try milky drinks such as hot chocolate, milky coffees, milkshakes or malt based drinks - Have a milk based pudding after lunch and evening meal such as custard, rice pudding or semolina - Eat little and often: aim for 3 small meals and 2-3 snacks per day - Fortify foods by adding extra butter, milk, cream and cheese to every-day meals - Make the most of opportunities to eat in a social environment such as at community groups or with family and friends as this can encourage eating and drinking - Help to increase interest in food if an older person is unable to get to the shops, e.g. looking at supermarket websites - Try to base meals and snacks around foods that are preferred and enjoyed rather than aiming for a perfect balance every day. When we are presented with a food we love we are more inclined to eat it! Speak to your GP and ask for a referral to a dietitian if you are worried about malnutrition in yourself or someone you care for. Ways to use Pro-Cal™ powder and/or Pro-Cal shot™ to increase nutritional intake: Pro-Cal shot is a low volume, high energy oral nutritional supplement that can be taken in small amounts throughout the day to increase energy (calorie) and protein intake. One 120ml bottle of Pro-Cal shot contains 400kcals and 8g protein and it can be used in a variety of ways to increase nutritional intake in older people: - Add banana or strawberry flavour Pro-Cal shot to smoothies or milkshakes. Pro-Cal shot neutral flavour can be added to hot chocolate or milky coffees. - Boost the nutritional content of soups and puddings by adding neutral flavour Pro-Cal shot Take Pro-Cal shot via a medicine cup in small doses spread throughout the day Pro-Cal powder is a neutral tasting high energy powder that can be added to foods and drinks to boost their energy and protein content. Pro-Cal powder provides 100kcals and 2g protein in each 15g serving. - Add into yoghurts and puddings Sprinkle over moist meals such as mashed potato, casseroles and soups - Add to breakfast cereals like Weetabix, Ready Brek or Porridge This piece was written in conjunction with a specialist dietitian from the UK. Pro-Cal shot and Pro-Cal powder are Foods for Special Medical Purposes and must be used under medical supervision. Suitable from 3 years of age onwards. Pro-Cal shot contains Milk (Milk Protein, Lactose) and Soya (Soya Lecithin). Pro-Cal powder contains Milk (Milk protein, lactose) Top Tips to aid dietary intake in older people: Eat little and often – small meals and snacks are easier to manage Increase nutritional content of foods by adding extra butter, milk, cream and cheese Take nutritional supplements as prescribed – these should be treated as importantly as medications. Set an alarm to remind you if required

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Beginners often put basic levels of factors, experiment each factor one by one and report effects of each factor. Design of Experiments teaches us that such experiment is not enough because the experiment using a basic levels does not experiment the case that more than two factors are changed togother. Fisher is the pioneer of DE and taught us the points, especially for agriculture. If we take many levels for one factor, we can estimate the size of error. And repetition is not so important. Comparing to agriculture, factories and laboratoris make homogeneous places. So local management is not so important in this case. Three rules of Fisher are considered for the experiment of agriculture. So these are not always important in other fields. NEXT Location ExperimentTweet

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The word ‘deer’ is an irregular noun. It is used for both single and multiple animals. Deer are also crepuscular, active during twilight hours. Of the six subspecies of mule deer living in California, Nevada County is home to two; the California mule deer (west side of Sierra Nevadas to the southern coast) and the Columbia black-tailed deer (Northern California through the Pacific Northwest). Since black-tailed deer are the species roaming through my yard, they are the main subject of this article. History & Range The Columbia black-tailed deer is also known by the names; Pacific buck, Columbian deer, coast black-tailed buck, and black-tailed deer. It is a subspecies of Mule deer and will cross-breed with the California mule deer and Rocky Mountain mule deer where habitats overlap. In 1846, an Oregon Trail traveler noted black-tailed deer as far west as Wyoming. Today their range is smaller. It includes northern California, Oregon, Washington, some parts of coastal and interior BC as well as the Alaskan panhandle. With the 1934 Taylor Grazing Act, the organization that eventually became known as the Bureau of Land Management was tasked with managing public forage lands for cattle and wildlife. It became one of the numerous organizations cooperating across state and county lines to track and manage these wild animals. ( US Forest Service, California Department of Fish and Wildlife and U.S. Department of Agriculture.) - large ears, relaxed - short, stubby tail - loose tail position - winter coat color – silver gray - cap / patch of fur at top of head - thicker stripe of dark fir on tail than Mule deer Except for breeding season (November – December), does and bucks live in separate groups. Female groups of related individuals are led by a dominant (alpha) animal, usually the eldest mother. She chooses foraging and birthing grounds. The alpha female is usually the first to mate during mating season and she generally chooses to stay close to her mother’s territory, leaving it only if forced. Males leave their mothers between a year-and-a-half and eighteen months old to seek bachelor groups. New antlers (bone protrusions) are grown each spring and shed every winter. Antlers are grown out with a ‘velvet’ covering, a living structure with blood vessels. Once it dries and antlers harden, bucks rub them against trees to remove the velvet. A buck’s age is reflected in the number of forks. Antlers are used for sparring and determining social position as well as for mate competition. Communication methods include vocalizations, scent, and pheromones. Glands between the toes, and near the knees (hock) create trail marking and individual recognition signals while glands outside the lower legs produce alarm scents. Large, independently moving, ears enable sensitive hearing. In California, at higher elevations, some herds of black-tailed deer migrate. Locations of forage food and snow levels determine their movements. In Nevada County, below Nevada City, seasonal herd movements do not cover great distances. The black-tailed deer life span is approximately 7 years (in the wild), reaching sexual maturity between 1-2 years. Males are polygynous, they’ll mate with multiple females. Female gestation lasts between six to seven months, with fawns born May – June. For the first week after birth, fawns have no scent. This allows the mother to leave her babies to replenish her body weight and produce adequate amounts of milk for her young. Caution: Mothers with fawns view humans as predators. Like cattle, sheep, giraffe, goats, and antelope, deer are cud-chewing grazers. With teeth and mouthparts specialized for breaking down cellulose as well as a digestive compartment housing bacteria necessary to turn plant material into protein, volatile fatty acids as well as vitamins B and K, deer spend the early morning and dusk hours grazing and afternoon and evening hours, bedded down, regurgitating, and giving food a second chew. Spring and winter diet includes; - California Buckeye - Poison oak - Bark & buds Late spring and fall diet includes; - Fruit (blackberry & apple) - Pearly everlasting - Maple trees Rumination – Chewing Cud Grazer gut bacteria often match soil microbes. Eating and defecating perpetuate healthy regeneration cycles for both plants and animals. Grazing to Heal the Earth – Grasses & Ruminants | 3:14 Chewing Cud - Mountain lion Deer Hunting Industry & Income Generation In California, Deer hunting permit sales generate around $450 million dollars annually, attracting between 165 – 200K hunters. Issues Affecting Deer Habitat & Populations - Habitat loss & fragmentation - Herbicide use on private and public lands - Timber & reforestation practices – biomass, hardwood removal, clear-cutting & thinning - Livestock grazing - Prescribed fire & fire suppression & wildfires - Ski areas, golf courses & agricultural land uses - Changing weather patterns including severe winters and drought - Highways and roads (1.5 million deer and vehicle collisions/year – Insurance Institute for Highway Safety) If you liked this post, you may also like Mountain Lion – Fragmented Power Pouncer. Bay Nature – Are Deer Twins Common? California Department of Fish and Game – Assessment of Mule and Black-tailed Deer Habitats and Populations in California – 1998 [PDF] California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Mule Deer California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Deer Management Documentation California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Deer Population Estimates California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Private Lands Management iNaturalist – Columbian Black-tailed Deer Journal of Wildlife Disease – Hair-Loss Syndrome in Black-tailed Deer of the Pacific Northwest Mule Deer Foundation Mississippi State University | Deer Ecology & Management Lab – Antler Growth Cycle National Park Service – Pacific Coast Science and Learning Center – Black-tailed Deer Researchers, References & Links Sierra Club – Largest Mule Deer Migration Ever Recorded Western Hunter – Black-tailed deer of California Wikipedia – Ruminants Mule Deer Migrations Nevada & Texas Deer Herd Management

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The concept of a car being faster than an airplane may seem far-fetched, as airplanes are designed to travel at high speeds and cover long distances efficiently. However, advancements in technology and the development of high-performance cars have sparked debates on whether a car could potentially surpass an airplane in terms of speed. Cars are constrained by various factors that limit their maximum speed. Firstly, air resistance plays a significant role in reducing a car's top speed. As a car accelerates, the air resistance increases exponentially, making it increasingly difficult to maintain high speeds. Additionally, factors such as road conditions, traffic, and safety regulations further restrict a car's speed potential. Hence, cars are generally not designed to achieve speeds comparable to airplanes. Airplanes, on the other hand, are designed specifically for high-speed travel. Their streamlined shape, powerful engines, and efficient aerodynamics enable them to overcome air resistance and achieve remarkable speeds. Moreover, airplanes operate in a controlled environment, free from obstacles and traffic, allowing them to reach their maximum speeds without significant limitations. Thus, airplanes have a distinct advantage over cars when it comes to speed. Despite the inherent limitations, technological advancements have led to the development of high-performance cars capable of reaching impressive speeds. These advancements include improved engine efficiency, lightweight materials, and advanced aerodynamics. For instance, electric cars with instant torque delivery and advanced battery technologies have shown remarkable acceleration capabilities. However, even the fastest cars in existence today, such as hypercars, fall short of matching the speed of airplanes. Airplanes benefit from the absence of friction, as they operate in the air, minimizing resistance and allowing for efficient propulsion. Additionally, they utilize powerful jet engines or turboprop engines that generate immense thrust, propelling them forward at incredible speeds. These factors, combined with the ability to fly in a direct line, contribute to the overall speed advantage of airplanes over cars. While technological advancements have pushed the speed limits of cars, it remains highly unlikely for a car to surpass the speed of an airplane. The inherent limitations of cars, such as air resistance and road conditions, coupled with the advantages airplanes possess, including streamlined design and powerful jet engines, make it improbable for a car to achieve higher speeds. Nonetheless, continuous advancements in automotive technology may eventually bridge the gap, but for now, airplanes will continue to reign supreme in terms of speed.

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Tooth decay is a common, yet preventable childhood problem. Left untreated, cavities in primary (baby) and permanent (adult) teeth become painful and negatively impact the esthetics and functionality of the teeth. Some children are particularly susceptible to tooth decay, even after receiving regular dental examinations and oral care at home. The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) has recently recognized the benefits of a substance called Xylitol for reducing childhood tooth decay. What is Xylitol? Xylitol is a natural substance that can be found in a variety of fruits and vegetables. Some of the most common Xylitol- rich foods include: berries, mushrooms, corns, and lettuces. Study results indicate that 4-20 grams of Xylitol each day, divided into three or more helpings, can reduce tooth decay and cavities by as much as 70%. As a point of reference, a single cup of berries contains a little less than one gram of Xylitol. It can be difficult to encourage children (especially toddlers) to consistently eat four or more cups of fruit or vegetables each day. For this reason, Xylitol is also available as a sugar substitute, a gum, and as a concentrate in numerous health foods. No other sugar substitute has been shown to benefit young teeth in the same way. It should be noted that excessive Xylitol consumption does not provide “more” tooth protection. Sticking to the recommended daily amount is enough to enhance other cavity-reduction efforts, and the effects will last well into the future. How does Xylitol work? The combination of many factors increases susceptibility to childhood tooth decay and cavities. These factors include: oral care habits, diet, carbohydrate consumption, sucrose consumption, salivary flow rate, and tooth resistance to plaque. More specifically, harmful oral bacteria feed on sugars and carbohydrates, producing acids. When sugary foods are consumed, these acids attack and destroy vulnerable tooth enamel. Xylitol works to neutralize the acids, reducing enamel destruction, and minimizing the threat of cavities in the process. Xylitol also stimulates saliva production, meaning that food particles, plaque and bacteria are continually removed from the teeth. When used in combination with fluoride, Xylitol works to remineralize teeth, protecting tooth enamel and minimizing new cavity formation. When should my child start using Xylitol? Although Xylitol gum is not suitable for very young children, infants actually benefit from maternal chewing! Mothers of children between three months and two years old who used Xylitol gum several times each day, protected their child from tooth decay until the age of five years old. In this case, Xylitol reduced the amount of microorganisms transmitted from mother to child. Once the child reaches toddlerhood, Xylitol can be consumed as a sugar substitute, or as a natural byproduct of eating fruit and vegetables. Older children can reduce the threat of new cavities by chewing Xylitol gum. If you have questions or concerns about Xylitol or tooth decay, please contact our practice.

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What are ATA commands? ATA commands, also referred to as ATA task register commands, are commands issued to ATA or SATA interface storage devices. From now on in this article when we refer to ATA we mean this to include both ATA and SATA devices. ATA commands are used to write and read data from ATA drives, as well as to set various device parameters and to read device health data. Task registers refers to the original hardware interface to these devices which consisted of seven separate registers. These seven registers were loaded with the appropriate values and were then transferred to the drive, where the drive would interpret from the registers what it was being asked to do, and would then (hopefully) complete the command. All aspects of the ATA commands are described in the T13 documents, in particular you should download and study the file http://www.t13.org/Documents/UploadedDocuments/docs2008/D1699r6-ATA8-ACS.pdf Important Issues for dealing with ATA drives! To run the example STB ATA and SATA commands you will need a computer system running Windows operating system. If you need to test 48-bit ATA or SATA commands you need to be sure that the operating system drivers support these operations. The drivers in Windows Server 2003 do support 48-bit operations, other OS’s will need testing to see if they support these commands. You will also need an ATA or SATA controller which the operating system recognizes as a true ATA Task Register type of controller. Most add-in PCI SATA controllers are seen by Windows as if they are a SCSI host bus adapter rather than an ATA controller. You can confirm how your operating system views your controller scheme by using Device Manager as shown below – note that drives that will be able to be issued ATA or SATA commands must be attached to a controller that Windows sees as an IDE ATA/ATAPI controller Note regarding 48-bit commands: Also, be aware that at this time the Windows operating systems that do support 48-bit operations have a bug in ATA PASS THROUGH. After a 48-bit command completes, only the FIRST task file is returned (HOB=0), but not the second one (HOB=1). Thus, READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS EXT can get the low LBA bits 0..23, but not the high LBA bits 24..47. Once you have disk drives attached to the proper controller you can run the example STB ATA/SATA Command Compliance Test It is essential that the user of this test be familiar with the ATA and SATA specifications. Documentation can be found at www.t13.org And in particular Issuing ATA commands using the STB Suite In the top menu of the STB Suite select ATA/SATA->Commands->User Defined Commands to bring up this dialog: Choosing a pre-defined Command Click on the pull-down arrow at the right of the Command window to display and scroll through the pre-defined commands. Double-click on a command to load the task registers with the command bytes Here we see the ATA IDENTIFY command has been loaded into the task registers, the data direction and data transfer length have been specified, we have set the command timeout to abort the command if it is not completed within 5 seconds, we have selected a drive, and we have specified to send the command just once. Look at command results Upon issuing an ATA command the ATA drive will return status information which will be displayed in the Command Results area. The status bytes are displayed along with the broken-out individual status bits. In this case we can see that the Status register contains the value 0x50 which tells us the command was completed successfully. Command Results History All command results details are temporarily stored in a history list which can be viewed by clicking the View Results button. This result history may be saved to a text file If an error occurs If the command you issued does not complete successfully the drive will return status information in the status registers. In the case shown below we have issued a MEDIA EJECT command to a fixed media disk drive. Since this in an illegal command for this drive the command fails and the status may be read. In most cases of failure the command STATUS register will contain 0x51. The specific error bits are decoded – showing a command abort: Looking at returned data Data returned by the drive is viewable by clicking the Buffer button. The STB Suite displays the data as it is returned by the drive, which in the case of ATA devices will be byte-swapped. The File Operations button will allow you to save the contents of the data buffer to a file. You may specify how many bytes to write to the file, and you may specify the data format, either “raw” binary data, or as a text file. Defining a custom command Any byte values may be placed into the task registers, allowing you to issue any command. This capability does not check for any type of validity. This means that you can use the User Defined Command function to issue legal as well as illegal or “broken” commands to a device. Keep in mind that the Windows ATA drivers are not particularly robust – it is easy to hang the system if you issue an illegal command. Example of illegal commands includes task register values which are illegal, as well as data transfer lengths or data direction which is incorrect. As an example, if you issue a command which will return 512 bytes of data but you specify a data transfer length of 1024 bytes the command will probably abort after the specified command timeout has passed. Adding commands to the command list By clicking the Add Command To List button you may store your own custom command into the command file where they can be selected later from the command pulldown. If you make a mistake you can remove a command from the list using the Delete Command from List button.

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Medical Dictionary-Definitions to Medical Terminologies Medical DictionaryIntroduction to medical terminologies |Any group of cells that looks like a berry with multiple lobes is called an acinus. Alveolar sacs in the lungs and the berry-shaped apex of exocrine glands, where the secretion is produced, are examples of acinar structures. |The term “antitumorigenic” refers to actions, elements or agents that counteract or inhibit the formation and development of tumors. These actions or agents can hinder the processes that facilitate the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, and thereby suppress the development of cancer. Antitumorigenic factors can be: 1. Tumor suppressor genes: These are genes that regulate cells and prevent them from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an uncontrolled way. If these genes are functioning correctly, they can stop the development of tumors. TP53 is a well-known example of a tumor suppressor gene. 2. Certain immune cells: Immune cells such as cytotoxic T-cells, and natural killer cells can identify and destroy cancer cells, preventing the formation and growth of tumors. 3. Antitumorigenic drugs: These are drugs designed to inhibit specific pathways that tumors use for their growth and proliferation. Examples include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapies, and targeted therapies like kinase inhibitors or monoclonal antibodies. 4. Healthy lifestyle habits: Regular physical activity, a healthy diet, and the avoidance of tobacco and excessive alcohol can also have antitumorigenic effects by helping maintain a healthy immune system and reducing the risk of certain types of cancers. Understanding antitumorigenic mechanisms and factors is vital for developing strategies to prevent and treat cancer. Researchers are constantly studying these processes to find novel cancer therapies and improve existing treatment strategies. |Barrett’s Esophagus (BE) |Barrett’s Esophagus (BE) is a condition in which the cells lining the lower part of your esophagus (the long tube that carries food from your throat to your stomach) begin to change and resemble cells of the small intestine. This change results from long-term exposure to stomach acid, or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). While Barrett’s Esophagus itself doesn’t usually cause symptoms, GERD often does, with symptoms like frequent heartburn and chest pain. It’s of particular interest because it increases the risk of developing esophageal adenocarcinoma, a serious and often deadly type of esophageal cancer. But only a small fraction of people with Barrett’s Esophagus develop this cancer. Management of Barrett’s Esophagus might include periodic endoscopic examinations with biopsies to monitor the condition and check for dysplasia – abnormal, precancerous cells. If there is dysplasia, doctors might recommend endoscopic procedures, such as radiofrequency ablation, or surgery. The strategies to reduce the risk of Barrett’s esophagus are similar to the strategies to manage GERD and include lifestyle modifications such as maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding food triggers, not eating before bedtime, and raising the head of your bed. Alcohol and tobacco also increase the risk. Barrett’s Esophagus is a relatively common condition, with about 1 in every 20 Americans suffering from it. It’s typically found in people in their 50s or older, and it’s more common in men and in Caucasians. As with many health issues, early detection and management are the best ways to prevent serious complications. |Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) |Prostate enlargement, or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), is a frequent problem for elderly men. Urinary discomfort, such as a decrease in urine output from the bladder, may be distressingly brought on by an overgrown prostate gland. It may also affect the kidneys, bladder, or urinary tract. |Tumors that don’t spread to other body parts are considered benign. They don’t go to other areas of the body or neighboring areas. Benign tumors develop slowly and usually have clear boundaries. A benign tumor is not typically a cause for concern. |Cancer heterogeneity refers to the observation that different cancer cells within the same tumor can demonstrate variability in several characteristics, including their gene expression, metabolism, motility, immunogenicity, and proliferative and metastatic potential. This arises from genetic mutations, epigenetic changes, and influences from the tumor microenvironment. |The CCR7 marker is used in T-cell flow cytometry of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to identify naive and central memory T cells. CCR7 (Chemokine Receptor 7) is a chemokine receptor that is expressed on naive and central memory T cells. T cells express CCR7 use gradient of its ligands CCL21 and CCL19 to migrate towards the lymph nodes, which is where they encounter antigen and get activated. The expression of CCR7 allows for the distinction of naive T cells (CCR7+ CD45RA+) and central memory T cells (CCR7+ CD45RA-) from effector memory T cells (CCR7- CD45RA-) and terminally differentiated effector T cells (CCR7- CD45RA+). Therefore, including this marker in a flow cytometry panel offers valuable information about the proportions of different T cell subsets within the PBMC, which can have important implications for understanding the immune response in different settings, such as immunotherapy, vaccinations, infections, autoimmune diseases, and others. |CD4 T cells |CD4 T cells, also known as T-helper cells, are a type of T cell that play a central role in the adaptive immune system. Role in Immunity: CD4 T cells are primarily responsible for orchestrating the immune response. Once they encounter an antigen presenting cell (APC) such as a dendritic cell or macrophage displaying a specific antigen, CD4 T cells become activated and differentiate into various subsets, each with a specific role: 1. T-helper 1 (Th1) cells: produce interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and are involved in the immune response against intracellular pathogens (like viruses and certain bacteria). They stimulate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages in order to destroy infected cells. 2. T-helper 2 (Th2) cells: produce cytokines like IL-4 and IL-13, and are involved in the immune response against extracellular parasites. Also, they activate eosinophils and stimulate B cells to produce antibodies. 3. T-helper 17 (Th17) cells: produce IL-17 and are essential in the immune response against fungi and extracellular bacteria. They also play a role in inflammation and autoimmunity. 4. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells: facilitate the maturation of B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells, contributing to a strong antibody response. 5. Regulatory T cells (Tregs): maintain immune homeostasis by suppressing excessive immune responses, thus providing protection against autoimmunity; however, they can also suppress anti-tumor immunity. Role in Cancer: In cancer, the role of CD4 T cells can be complex, and they can exert both anti-tumor and pro-tumor effects depending on the type of response they direct. Anti-Tumor Effects: CD4 T cells can enhance anti-tumor immunity by helping cytotoxic T cells recognize and destroy tumor cells, amplifying NK cell responses, and aiding B cells to produce antibodies that can target tumor cells. Pro-Tumor Effects: Regulatory T cells (Tregs), a subset of CD4 T cells, can suppress the immune response against tumors, enabling them to escape immune destruction. Additionally, certain types of CD4 T cells (like Th17 cells or Th2 cells) can contribute to an inflammatory tumor microenvironment, promoting tumor growth and progression. Moreover, during cancer immunotherapy, immune checkpoint blockade treatments aim to enhance the function of both CD4 and CD8 T cells to fight against the tumor. Understanding these interactions and how to optimize the anti-tumor effects of CD4 T cells is a significant focus of cancer immunology research. |Chemokines are a family of small proteins that play crucial roles in cell signaling. The term “chemokine” is derived from “chemotactic cytokine,” which basically signifies their ability to induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells; in other words, they can provoke cells to move toward a higher concentration of the chemokine. Chemokines are primarily involved in the recruitment of leukocyte cells (white blood cells) to sites of infection and inflammation. There are approximately 50 chemokines identified in humans, which are capable of binding to around 20 different cell surface chemokine receptors. The interaction between chemokines and their receptors leads to a range of responses, most notably the migration of immune cells to the site of injury during an inflammatory response. They can also mediate the movement of cells in other biological processes, such as embryogenesis, angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), and lymphocyte trafficking. In addition to their physiological roles, chemokines are also implicated in various pathological conditions, including autoimmunity, cancer, and inflammatory diseases. For example, in the context of cancer, chemokines can either promote or inhibit cancer progression and metastasis. This dual action makes them intriguing targets for therapeutic intervention. In summary, chemokines are essential for the immune response and represent a dynamic area of research in immunology, inflammation, and a broad array of diseases and disorders. |Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 8 (CXCL8) or IL-8 in Cancer |Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 8 (CXCL8), also known as Interleukin-8 (IL-8), is a type of signaling molecule known as a chemokine. CXCL8/IL-8 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells and cancer cells, and it primarily acts to recruit neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to sites of inflammation or injury. In the context of cancer, CXCL8/IL-8 has been found to play a significant role in many types of malignancies, contributing to numerous stages of cancer progression through various mechanisms: 1. Promotion of angiogenesis: Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, is crucial for tumor growth and survival as it provides oxygen and nutrients to the rapidly dividing cells. CXCL8/IL-8 is a potent promoter of angiogenesis. 2. Direct effect on cancer cells: CXCL8/IL-8 can enhance the survival and proliferation of cancer cells. It can also influence the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, a process thought to be important in cancer metastasis. 3. Modulation of the tumor immune environment: CXCL8/IL-8’s role in attracting neutrophils can contribute to an immune-suppressive tumor environment, supporting tumor growth and helping cancer cells avoid detection by the immune system. 4. Metastasis: CXCL8/IL-8 can assist in the migration and invasion of cancer cells, critical stages in the metastatic process where cancer spreads from the original tumor to other sites in the body. Given these roles in cancer progression, CXCL8/IL-8 and its receptors have been proposed as potential therapeutic targets. However, targeting such a common and versatile molecule is challenging, and much remains to be understood about its functions and interactions in cancer. Continued research in this area is crucial to develop novel strategies to prevent or treat cancer. |Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs to kill or stop the growth of cancer cells. It is a systemic therapy, meaning it affects the entire body by going through the bloodstream. Chemotherapy works by targeting rapidly dividing cells, which is a characteristic of cancer cells. However, certain healthy cells in your body also divide and grow quickly (like those in your mouth, intestines, and hair follicles), and chemotherapy can affect these as well, leading to some of the common side effects such as hair loss and nausea. There are more than 100 chemotherapy drugs, and they can be used alone or in combination, depending on the type of cancer, its stage of progression, and the patient’s overall health. Some of the major classes of chemotherapy drugs include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anti-tumor antibiotics, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and corticosteroids. Chemotherapy may aim to: – Cure: completely destroy the cancer in the body. – Control: stop the cancer from spreading and keep it from growing. – Palliation: alleviate symptoms caused by cancer. While chemotherapy can be effective, it can also cause side effects because it can harm healthy cells that divide quickly. Common side effects include fatigue, hair loss, infection, nausea and vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. These side effects often improve or resolve once treatment is completed. There’s ongoing research for developing new chemotherapy drugs and methods to increase their efficiency and reduce side effects. This includes targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and personalized medicine. Always speak to your healthcare provider to understand your treatment options and potential side effects. |Cytokines are a broad category of small proteins that are critically important in cell signaling. Their primary role is in modulating the immune system. These proteins are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells. Cytokines exert various effects on the immune system and regulate the balance between humoral and cell-based immune responses. They are integral in stimulating the production of blood cells from the bone marrow, triggering cells to move to sites of infection, trauma or inflammation, and stimulating or inhibiting the growth and maturation of cells. Different cytokines can also be grouped into functional classes. For instance, “interferons” can activate immune responses to viruses, “interleukins” mediate communication between white blood cells, “tumor necrosis factors” (TNFs) can cause cell death, and “colony stimulating factors” stimulate bone marrow to produce white and red blood cells. It’s crucial to note that cytokine activity is complex, overlapping, and can be pro-inflammatory (supporting the body’s immune response to injury or infection), or anti-inflammatory (minimizing tissue damage from prolonged inflammation), depending on the context. Examples of pro-inflammatory cytokines include TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-1 beta, while IL-10 and TGF-beta are often anti-inflammatory. Moreover, any imbalance in cytokine production, or dysfunction in their interaction, can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including sepsis, cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. These characteristics make cytokines important targets for the development of drugs and therapies engineered to either harness or mitigate their effects. For example, cytokine blocking agents, like anti-TNF drugs, can be used to treat inflammation in diseases like rheumatoid arthritis. On the other hand, drugs such as interferon beta are used in diseases like multiple sclerosis to boost the immune response. |Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs) are immunoassay methods that take advantage of the specific binding that happens between an antibody and an antigen. They are a rapid and efficient technique for measuring the amount or presence of a specific substance in a sample. ELISAs can take several formats or configurations, including: 1. Direct ELISA: This method directly attaches the antibody to an enzyme. The labeled antibody binds directly to the sample antigen. When the substrate is added, the enzyme on the antibody causes a color response signifying the presence of the antigen. This simple setup lacks amplification, so it’s less sensitive than other ELISA methods. 2. Indirect ELISA: The sample antigen is bound to the surface and then is exposed to an unlabeled primary antibody. A labeled secondary antibody specific to the primary antibody is applied, which can bind and induce a color response with the substrate. This method provides signal amplification because several secondary antibodies can bind to a single primary antibody. 3. Sandwich ELISA: This format involves the attachment of “capture” antibodies to the solid phase. The antigen in the sample binds to these antibodies. A second, “detection”, antibody then binds to another site on the antigen, which gives a binding ‘sandwich.’ The detection antibody is linked to an enzyme or a secondary antibody with a conjugated enzyme that creates the color response. This approach is highly sensitive as it has two levels of antibody specificity. 4. Competitive ELISA: Also known as inhibition ELISA. Sample antigen competes with a reference standard antigen for binding to an antibody that has been immobilized in a microtiter plate well. Detection is based on the inverse relationship between the ELISA signal and the antigen concentration because the signal decreases as the antigen concentration increases. Each type of ELISA has its strengths and optimal uses. The choice of method often depends on the sample and the specific needs of the experiment, including considerations of time, cost, complexity, sensitivity, and specificity. |Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) |The Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) is a key developmental process where epithelial cells, which line the body’s surface and cavities, undergo biochemical changes to transform into a mesenchymal cell phenotype. Epithelial cells are usually characterized by their polarity, tightly-packed organization, and attachment to a basal lamina. They have limited migratory capacity and are not invasive. Mesenchymal cells, on the other hand, are multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into various cell types. They’re characterized by their lack of polarity, loosely organized structure, enhanced migratory capacity, invasiveness, enhanced resistance to apoptosis, and greatly increased production of extracellular matrix components. EMT plays a crucial role in numerous developmental processes including mesoderm formation and neural tube formation during embryogenesis. However, EMT is also thought to be involved in wound healing, tissue regeneration, and organ fibrosis. In addition, EMT has been implicated in promoting the progression of diseases such as cancer as it is thought to be a critical mechanism for cancer metastasis, where cancer cells gain the ability to spread to other parts of the body. EMT is triggered by various signaling pathways including TGF-beta, Wnt, Notch, and receptor tyrosine kinases. Various transcription factors such as Snail, Slug, ZEB1, ZEB2, and Twist also play key roles in promoting EMT. Studies into EMT may provide insights into new therapeutic strategies in various diseases, including the development of anti-cancer strategies aimed at preventing metastasis. |Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) |Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is a type of cancer that forms in the lining of the lower part of the esophagus, near the stomach. It is one of the two main types of esophageal cancer, with the other being squamous cell carcinoma. EAC is often associated with a condition called Barrett’s esophagus, which causes the cells in the lower part of the esophagus to become abnormal, often due to chronic acid reflux. However, only a small percentage of people with Barrett’s esophagus develop EAC. Symptoms of EAC may include difficulty swallowing, unintended weight loss, chest pain, heartburn, and indigestion. Treatment options for EAC can include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and endoscopic treatments. The choice of treatment often depends on the stage of the cancer and the general health of the patient. If you or a loved one has been diagnosed with esophageal adenocarcinoma or if you are experiencing symptoms, you should consult with a healthcare professional who can provide you with the most appropriate medical advice. |Vδ2 T cells |The Vδ2 marker is used in T-cell flow cytometry of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to identify the Vδ2 subset of γδ T cells among the total T cell population. γδ T cells are a specialized subset of T cells that are not abundant but play vital role in immune response. They recognize different antigens compared to the more common αβ T cells. The γδ T cells are divided into various subsets based on the type of delta chain they express, and one of the most studied is the Vδ2 subset. Vδ2 T cells are the major gamma-delta T cell subset in human peripheral blood and have unique immunological properties, including their broad reactivity with microbial and tumoral antigens. They play important roles in both protective immunity and immunopathology. Thus, using the Vδ2 marker in flow cytometry allows for the specific and detailed analysis of this unique and important subset of T cells among the PBMC, which can be particularly valuable in immunotherapy, vaccine development, and other areas of immune research. |Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) |Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a cytokine that stimulates the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic progenitor cells and influences immune responses. Role in T cells: GM-CSF is produced by various cells, including activated T cells. It is crucial in modulating T cell responses. It helps in the maturation and proliferation of dendritic cells, influencial in antigen presentation and T cell activation. GM-CSF can also influence the differentiation and functional activation of T cells, serving as a growth factor for cytotoxic T cells. It favors T helper 1 (Th1) and Th17 responses and regulates the homeostasis and function of regulatory T cells (Tregs), balancing immune activation and tolerance. Role in Cancer: Like many other cytokines, GM-CSF can play dual roles in cancer, being either pro-tumorigenic or anti-tumorigenic depending on the context. Pro-tumorigenic: GM-CSF produced in the tumor microenvironment can contribute to immune suppression, stimulating the formation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and M2 type tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), both of which can inhibit anti-tumor immune responses. Anti-tumorigenic: On the other hand, GM-CSF can enhance immune responses against tumor cells. It’s crucial for activating dendritic cells and subsequent T cell responses. It can also stimulate natural killer cells and the function of cytotoxic T cells. In clinical applications, GM-CSF has been used as adjuvant therapy in cancer vaccines to improve the immune response by promoting dendritic cell maturation. However, the use of GM-CSF-based therapies in cancer treatment needs careful evaluation due to its potential to stimulate tumor-associated immune suppression. |High-Grade Dysplasia (HGD) |High-Grade Dysplasia (HGD) refers to a pre-cancerous condition where there is significant abnormal growth and development of cells. This condition is more serious than low-grade dysplasia (LGD) because the cells are more abnormal and a higher percentage of them are affected. High-grade dysplasia is often an indication that cancer may develop if left untreated, although progression to cancer is not guaranteed in every case. High-grade dysplasia can occur in various parts of the body, such as the cervix, esophagus, or colon. The biopsy of suspected areas and subsequent microscopic examination are typically used to diagnose this condition. In most cases, high-grade dysplasia doesn’t cause symptoms. It’s often discovered during regular screenings, such as a Pap test or colonoscopy. However, in cases such as Barrett’s esophagus, a patient might experience gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) symptoms, which can include persistent heartburn and acid reflux. Treatment for HGD depends on the location, size of the affected area, patient’s overall health, and associated risks. In many cases, physicians will recommend the removal of the dysplastic cells or tissue due to the high risk of progression to cancer. This can be done through surgical methods or less invasive techniques, depending on the circumstances. For example, in the case of high-grade dysplasia in Barrett’s esophagus, treatment options can include endoscopic resection (removing abnormal tissues with a scope), radiofrequency ablation (using heat to remove abnormal cells), or even esophagectomy (removal of part of the esophagus) in more severe cases. After treatment, patients usually require regular screenings to ensure the dysplasia does not return. It’s also important to address the underlying risk factors if possible, such as treating GERD in the case of Barrett’s esophagus or encouraging smoking cessation if the dysplasia is in the lung tissue. |Histopathology is a branch of pathology that involves the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestations of disease. The discipline involves studying samples taken from patients during a procedure called a biopsy, and it’s a key tool in diagnosing many conditions, especially cancer. The word histopathology itself is derived from three Greek words: “histos” meaning tissue, “pathos” meaning disease, and “logos” meaning study, which together translate to “the study of diseased tissue.” The process of histopathology often involves several steps: 1. Tissue Collection: Tissues are often collected during surgery or biopsy, and the sample is sent to a pathology laboratory. 2. Fixation and Processing: The sample is preserved (usually in a solution called formalin) to prevent tissue decay. The preserved tissue is then processed and embedded in a block of paraffin wax to provide support for the delicate tissue. 3. Sectioning: Thin slices of the tissue (sections) are cut from the paraffin block using a microtome and then mounted onto microscope slides. 4. Staining: The tissue sections are stained to highlight the different structures and cells. The most common staining technique is Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining, which stains cell nuclei blue and the rest of the cell pink. 5. Microscopic Examination: The stained slides are then examined under a microscope by a pathologist who looks at the architecture of the tissue and the appearance of individual cells to make a diagnosis. Histopathologists don’t just identify diseases; they also provide information about the grade of a cancer, its aggressiveness, and the extent of its spread within the tissue – all crucial details in developing an effective treatment plan. With the advent of new techniques like digital pathology and molecular diagnostics, histopathology continues to play a crucial role in personalized medicine. |To determine the concentration of Pancytokeratin (Panck) in biopsy tissue, a test is run on the sample of tissue. It is done before, during, and after therapy for epithelial carcinomas to confirm the diagnosis. IHC Marker Pan Ck Immunohistochemistry Biopsy Tissue is another name for this analysis. Breast cancer biopsy tissue may be stained using immunohistochemistry (IHC), whether it is fresh or frozen. This step is essential for developing an effective treatment strategy. The IHC-Pan cytokeratin test requires no unique preparation. Before getting an IHC-Pan cytokeratin test done, it’s important to let your doctor know about any sensitivities or drugs you’re taking. The particular instructions you follow from your doctor will depend on your situation. The IHC-Pancytokeratin test is often used to determine whether or not cancer cells inside a tumor express high levels of the HER2 receptor protein. Overproducing HER2 receptors may contribute to cancer progression by sending excessive signals to cells to proliferate and disseminate. Pancytokeratin (Panck) immunohistochemistry on biopsy tissue often yields positive staining in diagnosing epithelial-origin tumors across both sexes and ages. The tissue sample for IHC-Pancytokeratin analysis is taken during surgery. Under local anesthesia, a surgical biopsy may be performed. This evaluation is often carried out in a clinical environment, with the patient sedated with medication. The surgeon makes a one- to two-inch incision in the breast and removes the abnormal lump and, in some cases, a small amount of surrounding normal-appearing tissue called the “margin.” A mammography or ultrasound may be used to locate a lump that is too small to feel; if this is the case, a radiologist may implant a tiny wire to label the suspicious area before the surgeon performs the biopsy. Again, towards the end of the biopsy operation, a marker is often put internally at the biopsy site. For a number of days after the operation is done, you may feel some discomfort. |Interferon-gamma (IFNγ) is a cytokine that is critical for innate and adaptive immunity against viral and intracellular bacterial infections and for tumor control. Role in T cells: IFNγ is produced predominantly by natural killer (NK) and natural killer T (NKT) cells as part of the innate immune response, and by cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and T helper 1 (TH1) cells once antigen-specific immunity develops. In T cells, IFNγ plays a vital role in the polarization of TH1 cells, driving T cell response towards cell-mediated immunity which is particularly important in the defense against intracellular pathogens. It also enhances the cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T cells, enabling their ability to kill infected or malignant cells. Role in Cancer: IFNγ plays a significant role in cancer immune surveillance and has both anti-tumor and pro-tumor activity, making its role in cancer quite complex. Anti-tumor activity: IFNγ is involved in almost all aspects of cancer immunity. It can directly inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis (cell death), and it plays a key role in enhancing antigen presentation by upregulating the expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, improving the ability of immune cells to recognize and kill cancer cells. IFNγ also has anti-angiogenic effects, thereby inhibiting the formation of new blood vessels necessary for tumor growth. Pro-tumor activity: Paradoxically, IFNγ can also contribute to immune evasion by tumors and promote tumor progression in certain contexts. Chronic exposure to IFNγ can lead to the upregulation of immune checkpoint proteins (like PD-L1) on tumor cells, inhibiting the action of cytotoxic T cells and allowing tumor cells to escape immune surveillance. Moreover, it can induce changes in the tumor microenvironment that may favor tumor growth and survival. Given its critical roles in immune responses and the pathogenesis of cancer, IFNγ is considered a potential target for cancer immunotherapies. Understanding the precise mechanisms underpinning its dual effects in cancer could be decisive in improving cancer treatment. |Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a type of cytokine signaling molecule in the immune system and plays crucial roles in the development and functions of T cells. Role in T cells: IL-2 is produced by T cells following antigen recognition and activation. It is fundamental to T cell proliferation, promoting the growth and differentiation of T cells into effectors and memory T cells during an immune response. IL-2 also influences the balance between immune activation and tolerance by aiding the survival and function of regulatory T cells (Tregs), which are essential in preventing autoimmunity by suppressing nonessential or harmful immune responses. Role in Cancer: In the context of cancer, IL-2 has been of particular interest due to its ability to boost the immune system’s anti-tumor response. Its potential was recognized in landmark studies showing that IL-2 could mediate the regression of established tumors in mice, primarily through its ability to enhance the function of cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. Because of this, IL-2 has been utilized clinically as a form of immunotherapy for certain types of cancer like melanoma and renal cell carcinoma (kidney cancer). However, the high doses required often result in severe toxic side effects. Moreover, one of the limitations of IL-2 therapy is its simultaneous stimulation of Tregs, which can quench immune responses against cancer. Continued research aims to manipulate IL-2 or develop IL-2 variants that would better target effector T cells than Tregs to enhance the response against cancer while minimizing side effects. Thus, while IL-2 plays critical roles in T cell biology and harbors potential as an anti-cancer agent, its dual effects on effector T cells and Tregs must be carefully balanced for optimal therapeutic benefit. |Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is an immunomodulatory cytokine produced by several immune cell types, including T helper 2 (Th2) cells, mast cells, and basophils. Role in T cells: IL-4 plays a particularly critical role in the differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells into Th2 cells, which coordinate immune responses against parasites, contribute to allergy symptoms, and help maintain homeostasis in epithelial tissues. IL-4 can also inhibit the differentiation of naive T cells into Th1 cells, which are associated with cell-mediated immunity against intracellular pathogens. Additionally, it can promote the differentiation of B cells into plasma cells, aiding in antibody production. Role in cancer: In the context of cancer, IL-4 can contribute to developing a tumor-promoting microenvironment. It can suppress cell-mediated immunity by inhibiting Th1 cell and cytotoxic T lymphocyte function. This reduces the immune system’s capacity to destroy cancer cells and contributes to immune evasion by tumors. However, certain studies have suggested that IL-4 might have anti-tumor effects by promoting tumor-specific IgE antibody responses or stimulating the activity of Natural Killer cells or eosinophils in certain circumstances. Interestingly, cancer cells can develop mechanisms to exploit IL-4 for their benefit, such as expressing IL-4 receptors to stimulate their growth, survival, and metastasis. Because of its complex roles, IL-4 is an area of active investigation in cancer therapeutics, with endeavors to block its potential tumor-promoting effects or to utilize its potential anti-tumor effects. In summary, IL-4 has essential roles in regulating immune responses among T cells and appears to have dual roles in cancer, potentially promoting or inhibiting cancer depending on the context, which is an ongoing topic of study in cancer research. |Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a multifunctional cytokine produced by a variety of cell types, including T-cells, monocytes, and fibroblasts. IL-6 has been found to have numerous roles in immune regulation and the pathogenesis of certain diseases, including cancer. Role in T cells: IL-6 is crucial in many immune responses, especially T cell activation and differentiation. It has been shown to promote the differentiation of CD4+ T cells into Th17 cells, which play a central role in inflammation and autoimmunity. This is particularly relevant in diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. IL-6 can also be involved in inhibiting regulatory T cells (Tregs) and therefore contribute to immune response activation. Role in Cancer: The role of IL-6 in cancer is quite complex. It is typically elevated in several types of cancer and is associated with a poor prognosis. IL-6 can stimulate tumor growth, adaption, and resistance to therapies. It promotes a chronic inflammatory environment which can aid in tumor development and progression. It can also stimulate angiogenesis, which provides the tumor with nutrients and oxygen for its growth. Moreover, IL-6 can reprogram the metabolic attributes of intact cancer cells to promote their survival advantage. Additionally, IL-6 can have an active role in remodeling the tumor microenvironment (TME) and in the process of metastasis by influencing the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of cancer cells. However, IL-6 has also been found to have potential anti-tumorigenic properties under certain circumstances, making it a multifaceted player in cancer biology. Due to its involvement in cancer pathogenesis, IL-6 is also being studied as a therapeutic target. |Interleukin-13 (IL-13) is a cytokine secreted predominantly by activated Th2 cells, but also by mast cells and natural killer T-cells. Role in T Cells: IL-13 is involved in the regulation of the immune response, specifically the T-Helper 2 (Th2) immune response which is associated with combating extracellular parasite infections and orchestrating allergic inflammation. IL-13, along with IL-4, plays a crucial role in the skewing of naive CD4+ T cells towards a Th2 phenotype. IL-13 also has a major role in the regulation of inflammatory responses, particularly in the lungs, skin, and gastrointestinal tract. For instance, it can promote mucus production and airway hyperreactivity in the lungs, playing a significant role in diseases like asthma. Role in Cancer: IL-13’s role in cancer is complex and can have both anti-tumor and pro-tumor effects, highly dependent on the type of cancer and the tumor microenvironment. On one hand, some studies have shown potential anti-tumor effects of IL-13, including its ability to activate natural killer cells and macrophages, which possess cancer-fighting capabilities. On the other hand, IL-13 can also display tumor-supporting activity. It can promote a Th2-skewed environment conducive to tumor progression. In some cancers, IL-13 can increase the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, help in tumor growth, angiogenesis, tissue remodeling, and metastasis. It may also contribute to the formation of a tumor-promoting inflammatory microenvironment by recruiting eosinophils, mast cells, and alternatively activated macrophages. Therefore, while IL-13 can regulate critical aspects of inflammation and immunity, its role in cancer can be dual-faced, potentially hindering or aiding tumor growth and progression depending upon the context. It is an active area of research in understanding tumor immunology and developing potential immune-based therapies. |Interleukin-17 (IL-17), principally produced by a subtype of T cells known as Th17 cells, plays a significant role in immune responses and inflammation. Role in T cells: IL-17 acts at the interface of adaptive and innate immunity, playing a crucial role in the body’s defense mechanism against pathogens, particularly at mucosal interfaces. This cytokine helps maintain mucosal barriers and activates the production of antimicrobial peptides. IL-17 also promotes neutrophil recruitment and stimulates the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, like IL-6 and TNF-α, contributing to local and systemic inflammation. In addition to defense against pathogens, IL-17 has also been associated with various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases such as psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. This is mainly due to its proinflammatory properties, inducing tissue inflammation, recruiting neutrophils, and triggering the production of other inflammatory mediators. Role in Cancer: The role of IL-17 in cancer is complex and may either promote or inhibit tumor growth, depending on the context. Pro-tumorigenic role: IL-17 can promote inflammation, angiogenesis, and the production of factors that prevent cell death, all of which can assist tumor growth. IL-17 can also attract myeloid-derived suppressor cells into the tumor environment, which can suppress anti-tumor immune responses. Anti-tumorigenic role: On the other hand, under certain conditions, IL-17 can act against tumors, primarily through the recruitment and activation of immune cells such as neutrophils and cytotoxic T cells that can exert anti-tumor effects. The dual role of IL-17 in cancer is influenced by several factors, including the type of cancer, the tumor microenvironment, and the presence of other immune cells and cytokines. Understanding how to influence this balance could have important implications for cancer therapy. IL-17 and Th17 cells have been the focus of interest for potential anti-cancer immunotherapeutic approaches. |Interleukin-21 (IL-21) is a pleiotropic cytokine produced primarily by activated CD4+ T cells and natural killer T cells. Role in T cells: IL-21 serves numerous roles in immune responses. It can stimulate the differentiation, proliferation, and function of many hematopoietic cells, including T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. In T cells, IL-21 is crucial for the differentiation and function of Th17 cells (a subtype of T helper cells that produce IL-17). It also enhances the cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T cells, promotes T follicular helper (Tfh) cell responses (which assist B cell maturation), and may inhibit the function of regulatory T cells (Tregs), thereby enhancing immune responses. Role in Cancer: The role of IL-21 in cancer is multifaceted and is an area of ongoing research. IL-21 possesses several anti-tumor properties due to its immunostimulatory effects on both the innate and adaptive immune system: 1. IL-21 can enhance the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells and natural killer cells, and expand these populations, thereby promoting their ability to target and kill tumor cells. 2. IL-21 has been shown to induce apoptosis (cell death) in certain types of cancer cells. 3. IL-21’s capacity to augment Tfh cell and B cell responses may be beneficial in producing tumor-specific antibodies. Because of these properties, recombinant IL-21 has been explored as a potential treatment in clinical trials for several types of cancer, including metastatic melanoma and renal cell carcinoma, with some promising results. However, like many cytokines, IL-21 can also contribute to inflammation and autoimmunity, which might have indirect implications for tumor progression. It’s also important to note that while it can amplify immune responses, in certain contexts it may also promote the survival and function of Tregs, which could potentially limit anti-tumor immunity. Understanding the precise roles and action mechanisms of IL-21, and how to harness its potential, is under intensive study in the field of cancer immunotherapy. |Immune cells, also known as white blood cells or leukocytes, are vital components of the immune system, which defends the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. They can be broadly classified into two main categories: the innate immune cells and the adaptive immune cells. Innate immune cells: 1. Neutrophils: These are the most abundant type of white blood cell and are among the first to arrive at the site of an infection. 2. Monocytes/Macrophages: Monocytes circulate in the bloodstream, and when they move into tissues, they differentiate into macrophages. They respond to infections and also help with the removal of dead or damaged cells. 3. Dendritic Cells: They are specialized in antigen presentation to help activate T cells. 4. Natural Killer (NK) Cells: These cells have the ability to kill virus-infected cells or tumor cells without prior sensitization. 5. Mast Cells: They play a key role in inflammation and allergy reactions. Adaptive immune cells (also called lymphocytes): 1. T cells (T lymphocytes): They come in several different forms with different functions, including helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, and regulatory T cells. Helper T cells coordinate immune responses by communicating with other cells, while cytotoxic T cells are primarily involved in killing infected cells. 2. B cells (B lymphocytes): B cells are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that can latch onto harmful invaders and mark them for destruction. Effector cells, such as cytotoxic T cells and activated macrophages, actually carry out the attack on the antigen. Meanwhile, memory cells “remember” antigens and respond more aggressively and rapidly during future encounters with these antigens. |The immune microenvironment, also referred to as the tumor microenvironment in the context of cancer, is an incredibly important factor for understanding how diseases such as cancer function and how they can be treated. The immune microenvironment consists of the conditions directly surrounding cells. This includes both physical and biochemical elements, such as the presence of other cells or proteins, the structural support, or matrix for cells, oxygen levels, pH, and nutrient availability. In the context of the immune response to tumors, the immune microenvironment includes both immune cells that body uses to kill tumor cells (such as cytotoxic T cells), and elements that the tumor uses to subvert and resist the immune response (such as regulatory T cells). The immune microenvironment is a current area of active research in cancer biology, as we now understand that the immune system plays a critical role not only in initially preventing the development of cancer (through elimination of pre-cancerous cells) but also in mediating resistance to therapy and potential eradication of established tumors. Harnessing the power of the immune system through manipulating the immune microenvironment is at the forefront of new therapies being developed. This includes a wide range of strategies, from cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, to so-called “adoptive cell transfer” where patient’s immune cells are genetically modified to recognize their tumors. Understanding and investigating these microenvironments can be crucial to developing and implementing effective treatments. It helps us comprehend why certain treatments might work in one scenario but not another, or why a drug that showed promise in the lab doesn’t always have the desired effect in patients. It is a complex field with many variables, and it’s a significant focus in current cancer and immune system research. |Immune modulatory therapy |Immune modulatory therapy, also known as immunomodulatory therapy or immunotherapy, involves using the body’s own immune system to treat disease. Such therapies primarily have been developed to combat cancer, but they can also be used in the treatment of other conditions, like autoimmune diseases, allergies, and infections. The immune system has powerful defensive capabilities, and scientists have found ways to enhance and direct these abilities to fight off diseases more effectively. Immunotherapy works in a variety of ways: 1. Immune checkpoint inhibitors: These drugs block proteins that stop the immune system from attacking cancer cells. Examples include drugs like pembrolizumab (Keytruda) and nivolumab (Opdivo), which block the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway. 2. Cancer vaccines: These are substances that stimulate the immune system to destroy specific cancer cells. They can be used for prevention or treatment. An example is the HPV vaccine, which prevents cancer caused by human papillomavirus. 3. CAR-T therapy: In this treatment, a type of immune cell called a T cell is removed from a patient’s body and genetically altered to produce a special receptor called a Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR). The genetically modified cells are then infused back into the patient where they can recognize and destroy cancer cells. Examples include Kymriah and Yescarta. 4. Cytokines: These are proteins that the immune system uses for communication. Medications that act as or block specific cytokines can stimulate the immune system to attack cancer cells or reduce inflammation. Examples are interferon and interleukin-2. While immune modulatory therapies have shown promise, they can also pose significant risks, including severe and sometimes deadly immune-related side effects, due to the potential overactivation of the immune system. However, ongoing research aims to improve the effectiveness of these therapies while minimizing their side effects. |Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of the immune system in all organisms. The immune system is our defense against infections and diseases. It includes various types of cells (like T cells, B cells, and phagocytes), tissues (like lymphoid tissue), and proteins (like antibodies and cytokines). Immunologists research how the immune system works, how it fights off pathogens (like bacteria, viruses, and parasites), how it can fail and lead to diseases, and how it can be harnessed or modulated to treat diseases. There are several subfields within immunology: 1. Infectious Disease Immunology: The study of the immune response to various pathogens. 2. Cancer Immunology: Focuses on how the immune system interacts with cancer cells. 3. Transplant Immunology: Studies the immune response to transplanted organs or tissues. 4. Autoimmunity and Inflammation: Researches diseases where the immune system improperly attacks the body’s own cells. 5. Vaccine Development: Studies how to stimulate the immune response to prevent infectious diseases. 6. Immunodeficiency: Studies diseases where parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response. The field of immunology is ever-growing and developing. With the advent of new techniques and technologies, our understanding of the immune system continues to expand, leading to novel treatments and therapeutics, such as new vaccines and immunotherapies for cancer. |The immunosuppressive microenvironment refers to the conditions within a specific area in the body, like a tumor, where the immune system’s usual functions are dampened or inhibited. Such environments can prevent the immune system from effectively attacking cancerous cells or other harmful agents. These immunosuppressive regions can be created when cells within the area produce signaling molecules that inhibit the action of immune cells. Tumors, for instance, are known for creating immunosuppressive microenvironments around themselves as a defense mechanism against the body’s immune system. They can release chemicals that attract types of immune cells known as regulatory T cells (Tregs) and Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs), which dampen the immune response. They can also express molecules such as PD-L1, which bind to PD-1 on T cells and inhibit their function. The study of these immunosuppressive microenvironments is a crucial part of cancer research. Understanding how these environments are created and maintained can lead to novel therapies to combat them. For example, immune checkpoint inhibitors, like pembrolizumab and nivolumab, are drugs that essentially “release the brakes” on the immune system by blocking PD-1 or PD-L1, enabling immune cells to attack cancer cells more effectively. It’s also worth noting that the balance of the immune response is delicate and complex, and while overcoming immunosuppression is beneficial in treating diseases like cancer, preventing or managing excessive immune responses is also critical in treating autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding these immune microenvironments not only provides strategies to enhance the immune response when needed, but also to suppress it when necessary. |Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that helps your immune system fight cancer. The immune system helps your body fight infections and other diseases. It is made up of white blood cells and organs and tissues of the lymph system. Immunotherapy works in two ways: 1. Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells 2. Giving you immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins. There are different types of Immunotherapies, including: 1. Monoclonal Antibodies (mAbs): These are laboratory-made molecules that can act as substitute antibodies that can restore, enhance, or mimic the immune system’s attack on cancer cells. They are designed to bind to antigens that are generally more numerous on the surface of cancer cells, compared to healthy cells. 2. Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: These medicines basically take the ‘brakes’ off the immune system, which helps it recognize and attack cancer cells. Examples include drugs such as Nivolumab (Opdivo) and Pembrolizumab (Keytruda), both of which target the PD-1 checkpoint, among others like CTLA-4 checkpoint. 3. Cancer Vaccines: These are substances introduced into the body to cause an immune response against certain diseases. While most people are familiar with vaccines against infectious diseases, there are also vaccines to help prevent or treat cancer. 4. Adoptive Cell Transfer: In this treatment, immune cells are taken from your tumor. These cells are modified in the lab to make them more effective at killing cancer cells, they are then multiplied and given back to you via a blood transfusion. 5. Immune System Modulators: These medications enhance the body’s immune response against cancer. They might affect different parts of an immune response, like boosting the action of certain white blood cells, suppressing the action of regulator cells, or promoting the enhanced action of antibodies. Immunotherapy is increasingly showing promising results across a variety of cancer types. However, not all cancers respond to immunotherapy, and it’s successful only for a subset of patients. Ongoing research is aimed at better understanding which patients are most likely to benefit from this type of treatment, and how to boost its efficacy. |Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) |Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) are a type of pluripotent stem cells that are generated directly from adult cells. Pluripotent means these cells have the ability to differentiate into any cell type of the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm). Therefore, they have the potential to produce any cell or tissue the body might need to repair itself. iPSCs were first generated by Shinya Yamanaka’s team at Kyoto University, Japan, in 2006. They achieved this by introducing four specific genes, known as Yamanaka factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc), into adult mouse fibroblasts using viral vectors. This process reprogrammed these somatic cells back to their embryonic state. iPSC technology has revolutionized field of regenerative medicine. Because iPSCs can be derived directly from adult tissues, they not only bypass the need for embryos, but can also be made in a patient-matched manner, which means that each individual could have their own pluripotent stem cell line. These could then be used to produce transplantation therapies that would be completely immunocompatible. Additionally, they represent a powerful tool for studying the mechanisms of diseases in vitro, testing new drugs, and understanding human development. Despite their potential, we must also acknowledge that there are still multiple challenges to be faced, including the low efficiency and slow kinetics of cell reprogramming, managing the risk of tumor formation, and achieving fully functional and safe cells for transplantation. |Low-Grade Dysplasia (LGD) |Low-Grade Dysplasia (LGD) refers to a condition where there is a mild abnormal growth or development of cells and tissues. This term is often used to describe changes that are seen under the microscope, typically in the context of a biopsy from an organ such as the colon, esophagus, or cervix. Dysplasia is a pre-cancerous condition, part of a spectrum of changes that may eventually lead to cancer. However, it’s important to note that not all dysplasia will progress to cancer. The stages usually progress from low-grade dysplasia (mild abnormalities and fewer altered cells) to high-grade dysplasia (more serious abnormalities and a higher proportion of altered cells) before developing into cancer. Low-grade dysplasia often does not cause any symptoms. In many cases, it is discovered during routine screenings, such as a colonoscopy or a Pap smear. After the identification of dysplasia, physicians typically recommend close monitoring with repeated tests or biopsies to keep track of any progression. In some instances, if the risk of progression is high, they may suggest removing the dysplastic cells or tissue. The strategy depends largely on where the dysplasia is located and the patient’s overall health status. For instance, in Barrett’s Esophagus (a condition where the normal tissue lining the esophagus changes to tissue resembling the lining of the intestine), low-grade dysplasia is closely followed, and any shift towards high-grade dysplasia usually prompts intervention. The goal of managing dysplasia is to intercept any progression towards cancer, and when possible, to revert the tissue back to its normal state. It’s worth noting that lifestyle changes, like quitting smoking or changing diet, can sometimes be beneficial, depending on the dysplasia’s location and cause. |Lymphoid cells (Lymphocytes) |Lymphoid cells, also known as lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body’s immune system. They are primarily involved in the adaptive immune response, which is the body’s targeted fight against specific pathogens or toxins. Lymphoid cells come in several types, each with its own unique function: 1. B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are responsible for the production of antibodies. Each B cell is programmed to make one specific antibody, which will recognize one specific antigen (foreign substance). When a B cell encounters its triggering antigen, it will proliferate and develop into plasma cells which produce the specific antibody that recognises and binds to the antigen. 2. T cells, or T lymphocytes, are involved in killing infected host cells, activating other immune cells, and regulating immune responses. There are several types of T cells. CD4+ T cells, or helper T cells, aid B cells in making antibodies and assist in stimulating CD8+ T cells. CD8+ T cells, also known as cytotoxic T cells, can kill cells that are infected with viruses or that are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. 3. Natural Killer (NK) cells are a component of the innate immune system which do not require activation to kill infected cells. They play a pivotal role in defending against tumors and cells infected by viruses. In addition to these main categories, there are several subtypes of both B and T cells that perform specialized roles within the immune system. Lymphoid cells are produced in the bone marrow, and then migrate to parts of the lymphatic system such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus for maturation and activation. |A malignant tumor, also known as cancer, is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Unlike a benign tumor, which forms a compact mass and stays in one spot, a malignant tumor invades nearby tissues and can detach, move to other locations in the body, and form new tumors, a process known as metastasis. Malignancy is what differentiates benign tumors (which are generally harmless and can be easily removed) from cancerous tumors. Malignant tumors pose more serious health risks because they grow very quickly, invade nearby tissues, can not always be completely removed, and may come back even after being removed. Malignant tumors can occur anywhere in the body and can be of many types, including carcinoma (skin or tissues lining internal organs), sarcoma (bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels or other connective tissue), leukemia (bone marrow and other blood-forming tissues), lymphoma and myeloma (cells of the immune system), and more. The primary treatment for malignant tumors often involves surgery to remove the tumor, with radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapies being used before or after surgery, or as the main treatment in cases where surgery isn’t an option. The treatment will depend on the type and stage of the cancer, as well as the patient’s overall health. |Myeloid-derived cells are a broad category of cells that originate from a common progenitor in the bone marrow, known as a myeloid progenitor cell. Myeloid cells include various types of white blood cells, each with different roles in the immune system: 1. Monocytes are large white blood cells that circulate in the blood. They can migrate to tissues and differentiate into macrophages, performing phagocytosis of pathogens and dead or damaged cells. 2. Macrophages patrol for pathogens and also remove dead or dying cells. They can present antigens to T cells, activating the adaptive immune response. 3. Granulocytes, including neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, are named for the granules they contain, which can be released to kill pathogens. – Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell, and they are often the first responders to microbial infection. – Eosinophils are involved in the response to parasitic infections and play a role in allergic reactions. – Basophils are involved in allergic reactions and can release chemical mediators like histamine. 4. Mast cells also participate in allergic reactions and are important for defense against certain parasites. 5. Dendritic cells act as messengers between the innate and adaptive immune systems. They capture foreign substances, degrade them, and present the fragments to T cells to initiate an adaptive response. 6. Megakaryocytes are responsible for producing platelets, which are critical for blood clotting. 7. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells), though they do not participate in immune defense, are also derived from myeloid precursors. Each type of myeloid cell has a unique function and role to play in a healthy immune response. They are essential for both the innate immune response, which delivers an immediate, nonspecific attack against any invading substance, and in facilitating the adaptive immune response, more specific and tailored to the particular pathogen at hand. |Oncology is a branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It is a vital field in medicine, given the high prevalence and potential fatality of various forms of cancer. Oncologists are medical doctors who specialize in diagnosing, treating, and providing care for patients who have cancer. There are different types of oncologists who specialize in treating certain types of cancer and providing certain types of treatment. They include: 1. Medical Oncologists: They typically lead a patient’s treatment plan and coordinate with other specialists. They’re responsible for systemic therapy such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, or hormone therapy. 2. Surgical Oncologists: They specialize in the removal of tumors and nearby tissue during surgery. They also perform biopsies (taking tissue samples to better diagnose certain types of cancer). 3. Radiation Oncologists: They specialize in treating cancer with radiation therapy. 4. Gynecologic Oncologists: They specialize in diagnosing and treating women’s reproductive cancers, such as ovarian and cervical cancer. 5. Hematologic Oncologists: They specialize in diagnosing and treating blood cancers like leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma. 6. Pediatric Oncologists: They specialize in treating children with cancer. The field of oncology advances continually, and treatment typically involves a multi-disciplinary team approach, often with regular tumor boards and team discussions, to provide the best personalized treatment plan for individual patients. Moreover, clinical research trials are a key aspect of oncology, as this is the way that new treatments are tested and eventually brought into routine clinical practice. From developing pioneering techniques in radiation therapy to utilizing genetically engineered T-cells to kill cancer cells, to personalized medicine & oncogenomics, the field of oncology remains at the cutting edge of medical science. |An orthotopic tumor is a type of tumor that is implanted or transplanted into the organ of origin in an animal model. For instance, if researchers are studying liver cancer, they would implant the tumor cells into the liver of an animal model, replicating the environment of the tumor as closely as possible. This method is considered to reflect the tumor environment in humans more accurately than when the tumor is implanted in an arbitrary location, such as under the skin. As such, orthotopic models are often used when researching cancer because they provide a more relevant setting for studying tumor growth, progression, and response to therapeutics. It’s important to note that these kind of studies should be performed obeying stringent ethical guidelines for handling and care of animals used in research purpose. |Pro-inflammatory vs Anti-inflammatory in immunity and cancer |Pro-inflammatory responses are part of the body’s acute response to injury or infection. The pro-inflammatory part of the immune system is largely responsible for killing pathogens or potentially harmful cells (including cancer cells). Cells such as macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils are involved in the pro-inflammatory response. They secrete substances called cytokines, like tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and Interleukin-1 that promote inflammation. However, if these mechanisms are not properly regulated, they can lead to chronic inflammation, which increases the risk of diseases such as cancer. In some cases, a persistent pro-inflammatory environment can also promote cancer progression. Anti-inflammatory responses, on the other hand, help ensure that the immune system doesn’t overreact, which could cause damage to the body itself. These responses tamp down inflammation once the threat has been eliminated. Cells like regulatory T cells and substances such as interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) are involved in the anti-inflammatory response. However, while they are protecting normal tissues from the side effects of persistent inflammation, they may also inhibit the immune response against cancer cells and thus may help tumor growth. So for immunity and cancer, a delicate balance of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses is required. Too much inflammation can lead to diseases such as cancer, but too little inflammation can allow cancer cells to evade the immune system. Anti-inflammatory drugs like aspirin or steroids can actually increase the risk of certain types of cancer by dampening the immune system too much, whereas certain pro-inflammatory conditions like chronic inflammatory diseases are associated with a higher risk of cancer due to increased cell turnover and potential for DNA damage. |Prostate Cancer (PCa) |Prostate cancer develops in the prostate gland. The prostate, shaped like a little walnut, is a gland in men responsible for making the seminal fluid that carries and nurtures sperm. Among the most frequent cancers in men is cancer of the prostate. Some prostate cancers may not be dangerous because they develop slowly and stay inside the prostate gland. Although some forms of prostate cancer develop gradually and might necessitate no treatment, others may be expanded quickly and are far more dangerous. Timely screening of prostate cancer increases the likelihood of a good treatment outcome because the disease is more likely localized to the prostate gland. |The term “protumorigenic” refers to factors that promote the formation and growth of tumors. These factors can be various types of cells, molecules, or even processes within the body that contribute to the initiation and progression of cancer. Protumorigenic factors can be: 1. Cancer cells themselves: These cells can release signals that promote their own growth, survival, and spread. They can also recruit other cells to their environment that can aid in their growth and survival. 2. Cells in the tumor microenvironment: Certain types of immune cells can become ‘hijacked’ by cancer cells and promote tumor growth instead of fighting it. Additionally, cancer-associated fibroblasts can secrete factors that aid in tumor growth and create a physical scaffold for the tumor. 3. Molecules such as oncoproteins or growth factors: These can be produced by cancer cells or other cells in the tumor environment. They can drive cell proliferation, inhibit cell death, and promote angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels to feed the tumor). 4. Genetic or epigenetic changes: Mutations in certain genes can result in proteins that drive tumor growth. Additionally, changes in the way DNA is packaged and read (epigenetics) can upregulate oncogenes (genes that have the potential to cause cancer) or downregulate tumor suppressor genes. Understanding these protumorigenic factors and how they contribute to cancer progression is a key area of cancer research. This knowledge can be used to develop targeted therapies that specifically inhibit these factors or turn the body’s immune system against the tumor. |Strep test vs Rapid Covid19 test |A strep test is used to diagnose strep throat, which is caused by group A Streptococcus bacteria. The test involves taking a throat swab to detect the presence of these bacteria. There are two types of strep tests: a rapid strep test that gives results in 10 to 20 minutes and a throat culture that takes 1 to 2 days. The rapid COVID-19 test, also known as an antigen test, checks for a protein that is part of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes COVID-19. The test involves taking a sample from the nose or throat using a swab. Results for a rapid COVID-19 test are usually available in 15 to 30 minutes. The key differences between the two are: They detect different diseases: strep throat vs COVID-19. Their testing methods are similar, but they identify different things: strep test identifies group A Streptococcus bacteria while COVID-19 test identifies the SARS-CoV-2 virus. While both have rapid testing options, only the COVID-19 test also has a different type of testing (PCR), which is slower but more accurate. If you suspect you could have either disease, please consult a healthcare professional as timely diagnosis and proper treatment is what’s important. |Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) |Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a proinflammatory cytokine produced by various cells, including T cells, vital in normal immune responses. However, any alteration or dysregulation in its signaling pathway might result in a diverse range of diseases, including cancer. Role in T Cells: In terms of T cells, TNF-α acts as a crucial signaling molecule that aids in T cell activation, differentiation, and survival. It forms part of the network of cytokines that shape the magnitude and quality of the immune response. In an autoimmune setting, excessive or chronic TNF-α production can promote pathological inflammation which might result in diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. Role in Cancer: TNF-α’s role in cancer is multifaceted and can be both anti- and pro-tumorigenic. On one hand, TNF-α can promote tumor cell death and has anti-angiogenic properties, hindering a tumor’s blood supply and thus its growth and survival. However, chronic exposure to TNF-α can foster a tumor-promoting inflammatory environment. TNF-α can induce survival pathways in tumor cells, exacerbate angiogenesis, and stimulate the production of other proinflammatory and pro-survival cytokines, contributing to tumor progression, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. Additionally, TNF-α forms part of the immunoediting process where immune cells, such as T cells, identify and eliminate highly immunogenic tumor cells, leading surviving cells to be less detectable by the immune system. This mechanism might favor tumor growth and metastasis. Therefore, while TNF-α is essential in a normal immune response and shows anti-tumor properties, its uncontrolled and persistent presence can incite deleterious effects, promoting several pathologies, including cancer. |TP53 Tumor Suppressor Gene |TP53 is a gene that provides instructions for making a protein called tumor protein p53 (or p53). This protein acts as a tumor suppressor, which means it regulates cell division by keeping cells from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an uncontrolled way. P53 is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it prevents cancer. When DNA in a cell becomes damaged by agents like toxic chemicals, radiation or ultraviolet (UV) light, this protein plays a critical role in determining whether the DNA will be repaired or the damaged cell should self-destruct (undergo apoptosis). If the DNA can be repaired, p53 activates other genes to fix the damage. If the DNA cannot be repaired, this protein prevents the cell from dividing and signals it to undergo apoptosis. By stopping cells with mutated or damaged DNA from dividing, p53 helps prevent the development of tumors. Mutations in the TP53 gene are associated with a variety of human cancers, including lung, colorectal, breast, ovarian, bladder cancer and many more. These mutations lead to the production of a p53 protein that cannot regulate cell growth and division effectively. As a result, cells with damaged or mutated DNA can continue to divide and may form a tumor. One particular condition related to TP53 mutations is Li-Fraumeni syndrome, an inherited condition that greatly increases the risk of developing several types of cancer. Some specific forms of TP53 mutations that drive cancer growth are being investigated as potential targets for new cancer drugs. Scientists have called TP53 the “guardian of the genome” because of its role in preventing cancer. However, it’s one of the most commonly mutated genes in people with cancer, making the study of this gene and its functions critical to cancer research. |Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) in Cancer |Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine, or signaling protein, that has an important role in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and immune responses. TGF-β has a complex and paradoxical role in cancer, acting as both a tumor suppressor and a tumor promoter depending on the context. In the early stages of tumorigenesis, TGF-β often acts as a tumor suppressor. It can inhibit cell proliferation, induce apoptosis (programmed cell death), and help maintain genomic stability, effectively preventing the formation and growth of tumors. However, as cancers progress, they can become resistant to the growth-inhibitory effects of TGF-β. At this point, the cytokine can start promoting tumor progression through several mechanisms: 1. Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): TGF-β can induce EMT, a process by which epithelial cells gain invasive and migratory capabilities, facilitating cancer metastasis (spread to other parts of the body). 2. Immune Evasion: TGF-β can help cancers evade the immune system, for example, by inhibiting the proliferation and function of immune cells, thereby creating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. 3. Angiogenesis: TGF-β can promote the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis), supplying tumors with crucial nutrients and oxygen. 4. Extracellular Matrix Remodeling: TGF-β can stimulate the remodeling of the tissue around the tumor, facilitating its growth and invasion. Due to its dual role, targeting TGF-β in cancer therapy is complex. However, several approaches are being investigated, including the use of antibodies to neutralize TGF-β, inhibitors of the TGF-β receptors, antisense oligonucleotides, and vaccines. Understanding the precise mechanisms and context-dependent effects of TGF-β in cancer can help develop effective therapeutic strategies. |Tumor Microenvironment (TME) |The Tumor Microenvironment (TME) refers to the surrounding environment where the tumor exists, including the surrounding blood vessels, immune cells, fibroblasts, extracellular matrix, signaling molecules, and other components. It’s a dynamic system that continually interacts with the tumor cells. A variety of cell types are found within the TME: 1. Cancer Cells: The primary component of the tumor, these cells proliferate uncontrollably and have the potential to spread to other parts of the body. 2. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs): These are the most common cells in the TME. They play a major role in generating the structural architecture of the TME and secreting growth factors and cytokines that promote tumor growth. 3. Immune cells: Different immune cells, like T cells, B cells, Natural Killer cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, exist in the TME and can have varying effects on tumor growth. 4. Endothelial Cells: These cells line the inside of blood and lymph vessels and can aid in tumor growth and metastasis. 5. Pericytes: These cells wrap around the endothelial cells of capillaries and venules throughout the body. They play a key role in angiogenesis, a process critical to tumor growth. Signaling molecules, like chemokines and cytokines, are present, creating a complex network of signaling pathways regulating tumor behavior. The extracellular matrix, composed of various proteins and glycans, plays an essential role in cell adhesion, cell-to-cell communication, and differentiation. The TME plays a significant role in tumor progression, metastasis, immune response, and therapeutic resistance. As such, it presents numerous possibilities for therapeutic targets, from modulating immune cell responses to redirecting signaling pathways, making it a key area of study in cancer research. |TCR, or T-Cell Receptor |TCR, or T-Cell Receptor, is a protein complex found on the surface of T cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. The TCR complex recognizes and binds to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) via Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules. Once an antigen is recognized, the T cell activates and carries out functions such as killing infected cells or helping other cells in the immune response. The TCR is unique in its diversity, which is generated through a process called V(D)J recombination. This essentially means that each T cell’s receptor could theoretically recognize a different antigen, allowing the immune system to respond to a wide array of pathogens. This diversity is key to the adaptability and specificity of the adaptive immune response. In summary, TCRs are vital for the immune system’s function, enabling T cells to recognize and respond to a diverse range of antigens. |Vaccines are what? Vaccines may be administered in the form of injections (shots), liquids, tablets, or nasal sprays, and their purpose is to train the immune system to detect and destroy potentially dangerous microorganisms. Vaccines exist, for instance, to stave against illness brought on by: Viruses, such as the influenza and COVID-19 viruses T. diphtheriae, p. pertussis, and other bacteria For what purposes do various immunizations serve? Vaccines can be one of Several Varieties Live-attenuated vaccinations contain a reduced strain of the pathogen. The infectious agent is rendered harmless with inactivated vaccinations. Vaccines of the subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate types only use a small portion of the whole virus or bacteria. Vaccine toxoids that use the bacterium’s own toxic byproduct. Messenger RNA is the active ingredient in mRNA vaccines; it instructs your cells to produce a protein (or fragment of a protein) characteristic of the pathogen. The genetic material used in viral vector vaccines directs your cells to produce a protein mimicking the pathogen. Some vaccinations also include a separate, harmless virus to aid in the delivery of the genetic material to the cells. Vaccines may stimulate an immune response in a variety of ways. The immunological response is the body’s natural defense mechanism against invaders. Germs that might cause illness are among these compounds. The immunological response entails what exactly? The immunological response consists of many stages: When a pathogen invades, your immune system treats it as a foreign invader. The immune system aids the body in its battle against the infection. The infection is stored in the memory of your immune system. If the germ tries infiltrating again, it will be met with force. This “memory” safeguards you against contracting the illness that the germ causes. We name this kind of defense “immunity.” Immunization and vaccination: What are they, and how do they work? Protection from a disease is achieved by immunization. Nonetheless, it may also imply the same thing as vaccination: getting a vaccine to be protected against a disease. What are the advantages of vaccines? Vaccines serve an essential purpose by warding against a wide variety of potentially deadly illnesses. These illnesses have the potential to be fatal. Vaccine immunity is preferable to natural immunity since it is less dangerous. Some vaccinations, in fact, provide a stronger immune response after vaccination than they would after contracting the illness themselves. Vaccines provide more than just immunity, however. Community immunity also benefits from their presence. So, what exactly is herd immunity? Vaccines are often touted for their ability to promote community immunity, often known as herd immunity. Infectious diseases may swiftly spread across a population, affecting many individuals. An epidemic might develop if enough individuals get infected. However, the spread of a disease is slowed when enough individuals have been immunized against it. Having everyone in the community protected in this way reduces the likelihood that the illness will spread. People who are unable to get some immunizations benefit greatly from community immunity. Their compromised immune systems, for instance, may prevent them from receiving a vaccination. Some people may be allergic to the components of the vaccination. Some immunizations should not be given to infants until they are older. All of them may be safer if they have access to community immunity. Can we trust vaccines? Immunizations don’t pose any health risks. Before being sold in the United States, they must pass stringent safety tests. A vaccination schedule is what? A vaccination schedule, often known as an immunization schedule, details which vaccines are recommended for specific demographics of the population. Information about who should be vaccinated, how often, and how much is included. The vaccination schedule in the United States is publicized annually by the CDC. Adults and children alike should adhere to the recommended vaccination regimen. By keeping to the program, they will be able to get protection against illnesses at the optimal period. |What is a tumor? |A tumor is an abnormal mass of tissue that arises when cells proliferate uncontrollably or fail to die off at the appropriate times. Malignant tumors are cancerous, whereas benign ones are not (cancer). Even if they become rather big, benign tumors don’t harm the surrounding tissue or invade other organs.

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Nov 29, 2023Influence of Weather on Insect Pest Abundance and Activity A significant decline in insect pest activity has occurred over the past 2 weeks. These changes are consistent with cooler, seasonal temperatures. We all know that weather influences produce crop growth and ultimately can create wide fluctuations in markets. Similarly, our local weather can significantly impact pest activity on desert produce crops. For insects, their activity and abundance are closely aligned with weather. The reason for this is that temperature is the driving force behind insect development, growth and behavior. Unlike many animals, insects are poikilothermic (“cold-blooded”); that is, they are unable to regulate their body temperature. Their internal temperature varies along with that of the ambient environmental temperature. Consequently, insect pests such as whiteflies, beet armyworms, cabbage loopers, diamondback moths, and leafminers are more active and develop rapidly when temperatures average ~85° F; in contrast, they are less active and develop much slower under cool, winter conditions. That is one of the primary reasons these insect pests can be so abundant on produce crops in Sep-Nov. Behavioral activities such as flight, movement, reproduction, feeding and oviposition are similarly influenced by seasonal temperatures. But temperature requirements for insects vary with species (see table below). For example, the optimal temperature for growth and development of beet armyworms and diamondback moths is the same (86 °F), but diamondback moth can complete a generation quicker and can develop over a much broader range of temperature. Thus, they can be more problematic season long if not adequately controlled. Then you have Bagrada bug which tend to prefer warmer weather for development. Its lower developmental threshold of 62°F is the main reason the pest is generally hard to find during the winter months. In contrast, green peach aphids, which we annually find on winter produce crops, thrive in cooler weather (optimal temperature for growth is 55°F. That’s the main reason we don’t find them on summer crops; it is just too hot for them. In general, extreme hot (> 120°F) or cold temperatures (<32 °F), can be lethal or greatly restrict insect growth and behavior. Consequently, temperature and other weather factor such as rainfall, humidity, sunlight and wind play a major role in determining insect activity and abundance on local desert crops; but they can also suppress insect abundance under extreme conditions. For a more detailed explanation on the impact of weather on insects visit Weather Influences Desert Insect Pests. Optimal Temp.(°F)for Development Green peach aphid To contact John Palumbo go to: jpalumbo@ag.Arizona.edu

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"Demonstration (illustration) is an illustrative teaching method during which the objects, phenomena and processes to be studied are perceived and analyzed." "Real objects, film excerpts, photographs, and sound recordings can contribute to the narrative, making it clear and intelligible." It is the oldest method of education, already appearing in family education. It was later used in public education as well. "Among the pedagogical thinkers, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Diesterweg and Usinsky have a special role to play in illustration." The illustration will appear along with the oral communication. There are two main types: Direct: "means the direct display of objects, phenomena, processes, the presentation of a specific group of facts by the educator" Indirect: can be achieved with an ever-expanding range of educational tools. It can be applied at any stage of learning. It is the starting point for learning activities as there are activities that would be very difficult to learn without demonstration. E.g swimming, metalworking, playing music (musical instrument). It must be related to the previous and following parts and methods. For the students we need to choose a device that they can follow in a way that is clearly visible / audible / perceptible to everyone. "We must resist the temptation to apply too often so that our students are not caught up in the concrete-conceptual level of knowledge acquisition." Highlighting the point is an essential moment of demonstration. Student activity should be maintained: questions should be formulated, tasks should be assigned.

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Pumpkin spice season is around the corner, though unfortunately, flu season is by its side. August is an opportune time for healthcare practitioners to have immunization conversations about the flu shot and other vaccinations and benefits that can protect patients against serious illness. National Immunization Awareness Month is focused on shedding light on the wide range of available vaccines and the impacts of vaccines on patients’ well-being. Dr. Robert M. Califf presented helpful insights and context in his U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) article, sharing that the FDA authorized vaccines based on rigorous evaluation and data analysis to ensure safety and quality. “They help provide protection from an infectious disease and can lessen the severity of illness,” said Dr. Califf. “If you are immune to a disease, you can be exposed to it without becoming sick. Simply put, because of advances in medical science, vaccines can help protect us against more diseases than ever before.” The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services outlines the types of vaccines available and examples of the diseases they treat: - Inactivated vaccines: hepatitis A, flu, polio, rabies - Live-attenuated vaccines: measles, mumps, rubella, rotavirus, smallpox, chickenpox, yellow fever - Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines: COVID-19 - Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines: Hib disease, hepatitis B, HPV, whooping cough, pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, shingles - Toxoid vaccines: diphtheria, tetanus - Viral vector vaccines: COVID-19 Each vaccine was designed to teach immune systems how to combat the germs in different ways based on how immune systems react to specific germs, who needs to be immunized and the best approach to create the vaccine itself. As COVID-19 cases rise and flu season approaches, this month is a key time for vaccine reminders and discussions to be a step ahead of these germs. Resources for Practitioners “Trying to filter fact from fiction can be a challenge, but oh so critical when it comes to public health,” said Dr. Califf. Carefully considering the source of vaccine information and speaking with a healthcare professional directly can be helpful if patients have questions about vaccines, so practitioners have the responsibility to be a trustworthy source of information and support. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) shares, “Healthcare professionals play a key role in educating parents and patients about the importance of vaccination.” To help prepare practitioners to have immunization conversations with their patients, the CDC offers educational resources including the #HowIRecommend video series, CMEs, presentations, immunization schedules and other materials for adult, childhood and adolescent vaccination. It is also important for practitioners to understand potential barriers or vaccine hesitancy among LGBTQ+ and all minority communities facing disparities. Due to distrust or limited access, for example, some patients are less likely than others to ask about vaccines – or to visit the doctor’s office in the first place. These resources share research studies and other insights citing unique challenges facing marginalized populations: - Targeting COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Minority Populations in the US: Implications for Herd Immunity - A Hidden Front in Vaccine Hesitancy: The LGBTQ Community - COVID-19 Vaccine Equity for Ethnic and Racial Minority Groups Equality Healthcare Consulting Group provides education and training opportunities directly to healthcare providers with a unique, care-centered lens. Well-informed and inclusive practitioners and organizations can translate to better patient outcomes. Providers can lean on our services for culturally competent futures — throughout pumpkin spice season and beyond. Califf, Robert M. (2022, August 3). FDA Recognizes National Immunization Awareness Month. Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-voices/fda-recognizes-national-immunization-awareness-month Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, March 9). COVID-19 Vaccine Equity for Ethnic and Racial Minority Groups. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/vaccine-equity.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Educational Resources and CMEs for Healthcare Professionals. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/events/niam/hcp/educational-resources.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). National Immunization Awareness Month. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/events/niam/index.html Cirruzzo, C. (2021, February 25). A Hidden Front in Vaccine Hesitancy: The LGBTQ Community. Retrieved from https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2021-02-25/vaccine-hesitancy-in-the-lgbtq-community-poses-potential-challenge Hildreth, J., & Alcendor, D. J. (2021). Targeting COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Minority Populations in the US: Implications for Herd Immunity. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8151325/ U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (n.d.). Vaccine Types. Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/immunization/basics/types/index.html

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In an increasingly complex financial world, equipping children and teenagers with essential money management skills is an investment that pays lifelong dividends. Welcome to “Empowering Tomorrow’s Savvy Spenders: Instilling Financial Literacy in Kids and Teens.” In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the importance of teaching financial literacy from a young age, exploring key concepts and practical strategies to prepare the next generation for financial success. The Importance of Financial Literacy for Kids and Teens Financial literacy refers to the ability to understand and manage personal finances effectively. Teaching these skills early in life provides numerous benefits: 1. Building Lifelong Habits: Early exposure to financial concepts helps children develop healthy money habits that can last a lifetime. 2. Empowering Independence: Financially literate kids and teens are better equipped to make informed decisions about money and manage their own finances as they grow older. 3. Fostering Confidence: Understanding money matters boosts confidence and reduces anxiety about financial challenges in adulthood. 4. Preventing Debt and Overspending: Financial education can help young individuals avoid common pitfalls like excessive debt and overspending. Teaching Financial Literacy: Key Concepts and Strategies 1. Money Basics - Introduce Currency: Teach kids about different denominations of currency, and explain the value of coins and bills. - Savings Jars: Use clear jars to visually demonstrate saving, spending, and sharing money. Allocate allowances or gifts into these jars to teach allocation. 2. Budgeting and Saving - Needs vs. Wants: Explain the difference between needs (essential items) and wants (desirable but non-essential items). - Allowances and Chores: Tie allowances to completion of age-appropriate chores, encouraging the connection between effort and earnings. - Savings Goals: Help kids set savings goals, whether it’s for a toy, a game, or a future expense. 3. Banking and Interest - Opening Savings Accounts: Visit a bank to open a savings account for your child. This introduces the concept of interest and the importance of saving. - Compound Interest: Teach teenagers about the power of compound interest and how it can help their money grow over time. 4. Earning and Managing Money - Entrepreneurial Spirit: Encourage entrepreneurial ventures like lemonade stands or yard sales to teach kids about earning and managing money. - Financial Decisions: Involve teens in family financial discussions to help them understand real-world decision-making. 5. Credit and Debt - Credit Awareness: Explain the concept of credit, its importance, and how it affects future financial opportunities. - Debt Consequences: Discuss the potential consequences of taking on debt and the importance of responsible borrowing. 6. Investing and Risk - Investment Basics: Introduce the concept of investing and different types of investments. - Risk and Reward: Discuss the relationship between risk and potential returns in investments. 7. Online Financial Skills - Digital Transactions: Teach teens about online banking, mobile payments, and digital security. - Budgeting Apps: Introduce budgeting apps that can help them track expenses and savings on their smartphones. 8. Real-Life Examples - Grocery Shopping: Involve kids in grocery shopping to teach them about comparing prices, using coupons, and budgeting. - Charitable Giving: Encourage giving by involving them in charitable activities or helping them allocate a portion of their allowance to a cause they care about. The Role of Parents and Educators 1. Lead by Example: Children learn by observing. Demonstrating responsible money management practices sets a positive example. 2. Open Communication: Create an open environment where kids and teens can ask questions about money matters without hesitation. 3. Incorporate Education: Use everyday situations, like shopping or paying bills, as teaching opportunities. 4. Use Age-Appropriate Resources: Utilize books, games, and online resources designed to teach financial literacy to kids and teens. 5. Educator Involvement: Encourage schools to incorporate financial literacy into their curriculum and participate in financial literacy programs. Instilling financial literacy in kids and teens is an investment in their future well-being and success. By teaching them essential money management skills and fostering healthy attitudes towards money, you equip them with tools to navigate the complexities of the financial world with confidence. Remember, the lessons you impart today can lay the foundation for a lifetime of financial empowerment and security.

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This visualization of a gravity model was created with data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and shows variations in Earth’s gravity field. Gravity is determined by mass. Earth’s mass is not distributed equally, and it also changes over time. The colors in this image represent the gravity anomalies measured by GRACE. One can define standard gravity as the value of gravity for a perfectly smooth 'idealized' Earth, and the gravity 'anomaly' is a measure of how actual gravity deviates from this standard. Red shows the areas where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue reveals areas where gravity is weaker. GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas, Austin; NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.; the German Space Agency and the German Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. Originally Released July 2003.

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Influenza, commonly known as “the flu”, is an infectious disease caused by the influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: a high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children there may be nausea and vomiting but these are not common in adults. Nausea and vomiting occur more commonly in the unrelated infection gastroenteritis, which is sometimes inaccurately referred to as “stomach flu” or “24-hour flu”. Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure. Usually, the virus is spread through the air from coughs or sneezes.This is believed to occur mostly over relatively short distances. It can also be spread by touching surfaces contaminated by the virus and then touching the mouth or eyes. A person may be infectious to others both before and during the time they are sick. The infection may be confirmed by testing the throat, sputum, or nose for the virus. Influenza spreads around the world in a yearly outbreak, resulting in about three to five million cases of severe illness and about 250,000 to 500,000 deaths. In the Northern and Southern parts of the world outbreaks occur mainly in winter while in areas around the equator outbreaks may occur at any time of the year. Death occurs mostly in the young, the old and those with other health problems. Larger outbreaks known as pandemics are less frequent. In the 20th century three influenza pandemics occurred: Spanish influenza in 1918, Asian influenza in 1958, and Hong Kong influenza in 1968, each resulting in more than a million deaths. The World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new type of influenza A/H1N1 to be a pandemic in June of 2009. Influenza may also affect other animals, including pigs, horses and birds. Frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection because the virus is inactivated by soap. Wearing a surgical mask is also useful. Yearly vaccinations against influenza is recommended by the World Health Organization in those at high risk. The vaccine is usually effective against three or four types of influenza. It is usually well tolerated. A vaccine made for one year may be not be useful in the following year, since the virus evolves rapidly. Antiviral drugs such as the neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir among others have been used to treat influenza. Their benefits in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than their risks. No benefit has been found in those with other health problems.

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Celebrating Earth Day with kids is a wonderful way to teach them the importance of environmental stewardship and conservation. By participating in fun and engaging activities, such as gardening, recycling, and nature walks, children can learn to appreciate and respect the natural world around them. They can also develop a sense of responsibility for taking care of the planet and making a positive impact in their own communities. Earth Day is a day to celebrate planet Earth. The very first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970. Over 20 million people participated in events to support environmental protection. Cities and schools planned educational presentations, recycling events, and cleanups at their local parks, beaches, and other outdoor areas. Today, over 141 nations around the world celebrate Earth Day. Here are 5 quick and creative ways to celebrate Earth Day in the classroom: 1. Go on an Earth Day Scavenger Hunt! Enjoy Earth Day by going on an Earth Day Scavenger Hunt! Have students grab a clipboard and the Earth Day Scavenger Hunt that's part of my FREE Earth Day Activity Pack. Instruct them to be on the lookout for all that Planet Earth has to offer. Use their senses by asking the following questions: - What do they see? Do they see any creepy crawly insects, birds gliding overhead, new buds or leaves on trees, a clear blue sky, or gray rain clouds? Have students draw or sketch and color their findings in the boxes on their sheet. - What do they smell? Have students focus on smelling. Can they smell any sweet fragrant flowers, fresh cut grass, or someone grilling in the distance? - What do they feel? Have students close their eyes and touch the ground. Can they feel the soft grass, or the rough rock, bark on a twig, the warmth of the sun, or even a light breeze? - What do they hear? Listen closely. Do they hear a bird chirping, other children playing outside, zipping cars in the distance, a school bell, or plants swaying in the breeze? - What do they taste? This one will have to wait for a later Earth Day Snack! The other purpose of this Scavenger Hunt is for students pick up any litter or trash they find on our mini field trip. Remember to bring a couple of trash bags. 2. Learn About Ways We Can Save the Earth! In our Earth Day Activity Pack there are three high-interest kid-friendly informational articles and activities to teach about: *What is Earth Day? *Ways to Save Our Earth *The Natural Cycles of the Earth 3. Plant a Flower Sponge Have students bring in one small new clean sponge from home. Purchase some flower seeds. Have students wet the sponge so that it's really damp. Next, they plant their seeds inside the sponge. Have them push the seeds down into the sponge just enough so the seeds won't’ fall off when the sponge is picked up. Place the sponges on a Styrofoam plate that has each student’s name written in permanent marker. Place the plates in a sunny window. Have students water their sponges each day. *Don’t let the sponge dry out completely. Place a clear plastic container over sponges at night to keep it moist. 4. Spring Clean the Classroom Earth Day is also about cleaning up our Earth. So why not have the students do some spring cleaning? Buy some Green Wise disinfectant wipes or make your own solution with Baking Soda, Lemon Juice, and water in a pail. Dip in a paper towel and it’s ready to go. Have students clean bookshelves, cupboards, supply bins, sinks, counters, and door handles. It’s also a perfect time to clean their desks and cubbies inside and out. 5. Explore our Earth Day Doodle Coloring Pages Students will love these Earth Day Doodle Coloring Pages. This pack comes with 12 coloring pages and 4 pages have poems that can be used for National Poetry Month. Coloring activities provide students with time to relax and express themselves creatively. Whether it's planting a tree, spring cleaning, or simply spending time in nature, there are many ways to celebrate Earth Day and inspire kids to become lifelong advocates for the environment. By taking small steps towards sustainability and showing children how to make a difference, we can create a brighter future for our planet and all of its inhabitants.

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The human brain is a remarkable organ in the nervous system, with billions of neurons organized in neural networks to connect the brain's different regions. Part of understanding the ways in which the brain allows us to think, learn, communicate, and coordinate our movements and behaviors, is recognizing the unique functional subdivisions of neural anatomy! 🧠 Image Courtesy of Wikipedia Our brain can be broken down into a variety of structures, the oldest of which is made up of the brainstem, thalamus, and cerebellum. The brainstem is responsible for controlling many of the body's basic functions. It is composed of three main parts, the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata: The midbrain is responsible for managing some of the body's reflexes, such as those involved in eye movement and the pupillary light reflex. The midbrain also plays a role in the control of sleep, wakefulness, and alertness, critical functions of consciousness. A bridge-like structure, the pons connects the brainstem to the cerebellum (the part of the brain responsible for balance) and helps with movement coordination as well as the reflexes used in swallowing and coughing. The medulla oblongata, or medulla for short, is the lower part of the brainstem. It is responsible for regulating vital body functions, including heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing. 🫀 sits on top of the brainstem and receives and sorts all sensory input (except smell) to other parts of the brain. It plays a crucial role in the processing and relay of sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain! Think of the thalamus as a sort of "switchboard operator" for the brain. When you see, hear, taste, or touch something, the information travels to the thalamus first. The thalamus then decides where to send the information next, depending on what the sensory input is. For example, if you see a golden retriever puppy, the thalamus sends the information about the dog to the visual cortex (the part of the brain that processes visual information). If the puppy starts to bark, the thalamus sends the information about the noise to the auditory cortex (the part of the brain that processes sound). 🐾 In this way, the thalamus helps to ensure that the right information is sent to the right part of the brain for processing. Without the thalamus, our senses would be a jumbled mess, and we would have a difficult time interpreting external stimuli in the world around us! Lastly, the cerebellum, often referred to as the "little brain," sits at the rear of our brainstem and also processes sensory input, coordinated movement, balance, nonverbal learning, and implicit memory. The cerebellum also plays a role in learning new movements and adjusting to changes in the environment. For example, if you are learning to ride a bike, the cerebellum helps to coordinate the movements of the muscles in your legs and arms as you pedal and steer. And if you suddenly stumble or run into a curb, the cerebellum helps to adjust your balance and keep you from falling. 🚴♀️ The limbic system is a group of brain structures that are involved in emotions, drives, and long-term memory. Because of this, the limbic system is called the "emotional brain" due to its role in our expression of and experience with feelings. Structures in the limbic system include the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus: As part of the limbic system, the amygdala is the "fear center" of the brain since it is heavily used for emotional processing, particularly aggression and fear. Additionally, the amygdala is associated with the formation of emotionally-charged memories. The amygdala has a direct connection to the hypothalamus, which is a part of the brain that helps regulate the body's stress response, meaning that when the amygdala is activated, it can trigger the release of stress hormones like cortisol to ready the body to respond to danger in an external environment. The hippocampus is a small, seahorse-shaped structure located in the limbic system. Primarily, the hippocampus is known for the role it plays in learning and memory, particularly the consolidation of long-term memories. Additionally, the hippocampus is also linked to processes for spatial navigation! Another important structure in the limbic system is the hypothalamus, which is also in the limbic system and deals with maintaining our body’s homeostasis and reward systems, including the "Four F's": Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, and Mating. The hypothalamus is often referred to as the "control center" of the brain because it helps regulate a wide range of bodily functions, including body temperature, thirst, hunger, and fatigue. With the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus is also responsible for controlling the body's endocrine system, which produces the hormones that regulate mood and energy levels. This further connects the hypothalamus to pleasure and motivation in behavior. The rest of our brain is made up of lobes and higher-level cortices, and the most important is the cerebral cortex—our ultimate control and processing center. The cerebral cortex is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. Each of these lobes is responsible for different functions. - The frontal lobe deals with problem-solving, decision-making, planning, and judgment. - Responsible for processing sensory information, the parietal lobe receives input about touch, temperature, pain, and body position. - The temporal lobe processes auditory information and is involved in memory formation. - Visual information is handled by the occipital lobe. Additional cortices of the brain are association areas. Association areas allow us to have higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, problem-solving, and speaking by integrating information from other brain regions. Our brain is divided into two hemispheres, and in order for those hemispheres to communicate with one another, we need a bundle of nerve fibers known as the corpus callosum to bridge communication. It allows the two hemispheres to exchange information and coordinate their activities. For patients with severe epileptic seizures, the corpus callosum may be severed to reduce neural feedback. This results in a “split brain.” In a split-brain patient, both hemispheres operate independently from one another. For example, a person could be shown a separate image for each of their visual fields. Then, when asked to draw what they have seen, each hand would independently draw a different image, which we can examine in the diagram below: Image Courtesy of Tutor2u; LVF = left visual field. RVF = right visual field The left side of the brain corresponds to your right hand and right visual field and vice versa. Everything is the opposite!! For quick reference and visualization, the following table includes a quick functional review of neuroanatomy: |Part of the Brain |The oldest part of the brain; located near the spinal cord. It is responsible for automatic survival functions and includes the next three parts |The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat, blood pressure, and breathing |Nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus. Plays a part in controlling arousal and consciousness 💭 |Part of the brainstem that controls movement. 🏃 |The brain's sensory control center; receives messages and then directs them to corresponding lobes in the brain. Information about smell is the only sense that doesn't pass through the thalamus! |Processes sensory information, coordinates movement and balance, and enables implicit memories |Similar to the cerebellum—controls movement, balance, implicit memory, and a little bit of emotion |Neural system that includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus; emotions and drives |Processes explicit memory; helps consolidate long-term memories |Linked to emotion and emotional memories! (fear 😨 and aggression 😡) |Helps regulate the endocrine system. Directs maintenance activities that have to do with the "Four F's": Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, Mating |Ultimate control and information center made up of neural cells |Support, nourish, and protect our neurons; help with learning and thinking 🤔 |Deals with speaking, planning, and judgment aka higher-level thinking. ♟️ Motor Cortex is in front of it and Broca's area is in the left frontal lobe |Receives sensory input for movement and touch; contains the somatosensory cortex |Receives information from visual fields (your eyes) 👀 |Deals with hearing; receives information from the opposite ear and contains Wernicke's area |Deals with understanding language |Deals with the production of language and speaking (Think: Broca Spoka) 🗣️ |Controls voluntary movements, such as raising your hand |Processes body touch and movement |Processes visual information |Control higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking - reticular formation - glial cells - occipital lobes - somatosensory cortex - dual processing - frontal lobes - temporal lobes - association areas - limbic system - cerebral cortex - parietal lobes - motor cortex - corpus callosum - cognitive neuroscience Try using a study timer like the one in Fiveable rooms to maximize your efficiency as you study the brain and anatomy!

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On this ID the Future, physician and Evolution News writer Howard Glicksman discusses an exciting new discovery by researchers at the University of Virginia School of Medicine, described at Science Daily as uncovering “the location of natural blood-pressure barometers inside our bodies that have eluded scientists for more than 60 years.” As the article reports, “The existence of a pressure sensor inside renin cells was first proposed back in 1957. It made sense: The cells had to know when to release renin, a hormone that helps regulate blood pressure. But even though scientists suspected this cellular barometer had to exist, they couldn’t tell what it was and whether it was located in renin cells or surrounding cells.” Dr. Glicksman and host Eric Anderson walk through the discovery and explore how these high-tech blood pressure barometers, known as “baroreceptors,” work. The full paper, with color illustrations of the process, is available here. In the first sentence of the introduction, the authors state, “Renin-expressing cells are essential for survival, perfected throughout evolution to maintain blood pressure (BP) and fluid-electrolyte homeostasis.” How so? They don’t say. The mention of evolution appears to function as mere window dressing.

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If you have ever listened closely to different languages, you must have noticed that some are spoken faster than others. Is that just how they are designed, or do faster languages also convey information faster? Surprisingly, regardless of speed, different languages convey a similar amount of information — about 39 bits per second. Researchers define a bit in linguistic terms as the amount of information that reduces uncertainty by half. Since linguistics information is usually calculated per syllable, this means that if a syllable contains enough information to halve the uncertainty of what is being talked about, that syllable is one bit of information. Some languages are more efficient at packing information together like gender and tense, and therefore move more slowly to make up for the density. Other languages spread that information out more loosely, and are able to travel at a much faster rate. So if a language has a low information density, or bits-per syllable, it will take more syllables to express a certain thought. At the same time, since each syllable contains less information, information is spread out over more syllables, and the faster the language can be spoken. But why only 39 bits? The limiting factor is in processing our thoughts and converting them into sounds with proper grammar, tone, and vocabulary. That’s why listening to fast speech is not very difficult (we can listen to podcasts or YouTube videos at 2x speeds with little problem), but it is impossible to ever talk that fast ourselves. Of course, the study mentioned above represents just a drop in the vast ocean of our linguistic knowledge, most of which is concentrated to European languages. With more than 6,000 known languages and thousands more dialects in the world, there is a lot of work to be done to better understand how we communicate, and how our languages developed and evolved. Just for fun, let’s estimate the amount of time it would take to orally convey all of the details of a 3MB photo taken on the average smartphone. At a rate of 39 bits per second, it would take a human (regardless of language), 7 days and nights (168 hours in total) of non-stop speaking to communicate information about each pixel, hues, contrast, focus, and other data about that photo. I guess that gives a new meaning to the saying, a picture is worth a thousand words. "The most important things are the hardest to say, because words diminish them." ~ Stephen King

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Owls belong to the order of Strigiform. This order consists of almost 200 species of owls’ distributed all around the world. Owls are nocturnal birds, therefore they are most active during the night and sleep during day time. They are broad-headed, with feathers adapted for silent flights and have sharp talons to capture their prey. These owls prey on small mammals, insects, and birds. One of the important and mysterious species of owl is Stygian owl. Stygians are distributed all over the earth except for the polar region. This owl is a ghost owl. As it is not seen in the night by researchers and biologist so they call it Ghost owl. Because of this behavior, the stygian owl is the least studied owl. Stygian means “Gloomy and Dark”. It originates from a greet work “River Styx” which means “Souls of Dead”. What will I learn? This blog gathers all the information related to Stygian owl under one article that you will NEED to know. Stygian Owl – Appearance and Characteristics Stygian owls have much resemblance with long-eared owls which are found in America and Eurasia. These owls are well studied and have many minds blowing qualities. Unlike long-eared owls, Stygian owls are quite different from their cousins. Identification of Stygian owl: The Stygian Owl is a medium-sized bird that belongs to the family Strigidae and genus Asio. The scientific name of this owl is Asio stygius. The owl is overall dusky brown with white speckles all over the body. The facial disc is somehow darker than the body. The color of its eyes ranges from yellow to dark orange. It has white eyebrows, greyish brown cere, and dark black beak. It also has long ear tufts that protect the ears. The upper layers of the plumage are dark brown like soot, whereas the forehead and crown are mottled. The area between nape and rump call mantle is almost plain and pale. The outer edges of wings have spots. The underparts of the owl body are pale and dusky with dark shaft-streaks and cross-bars. Size of Stygian Owl: As these owls are medium-sized their length ranges from 36 to 46 cm and weigh up to 675 grams. Their wingspan ranges from 291 to 380mm. it is also observed that females are heavier and larger than males. Range and Habitat of Stygian Owl: This unique owl is present in South America, the Caribbean, and in some areas of Central America. It is distributed in the parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, Isles of pines, Venezuela, Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. This also is present at an elevation of 3100 meters. It usually lives in mountains, dense forests, and vegetation. It prefers deciduous and evergreen forests. The stygian owl is also present in woodlands. But as they are Nocturnal therefore, they are mostly active at night and rest during the day time. Food and Hunting: Stygian owls are birds of prey and hunt a variety of animals. These animals include birds (include passerines and grassquits), reptiles, rodents, insects, and bats. They usually perch to catch their prey at night. These birds of prey are detected by their involuntary sounds when they touch the foliage. Nesting & Breeding: It is observed that stygian owls mostly use the nest of other birds build by sticks. But they can also nest own their own in dense trees as well as on the ground. During the courtship time, males use to flap their wings in times of flight. Females lay only 2 eggs and incubate them all alone. After the eggs are hatch both males and females take part in feeding them. The young ones unlike the parents have blue pupils. Voice and calls: Male Stygians have a deep “Whuof” sound with a plunging rhythm. To this sound of male stygian, the female sometimes replies with a shrill voice “Miah”. Both the sexes sing “wak-wak-wak” when they are excited. Young ones vocalize “Cheet” when they are hungry. These owls are nocturnal and are active during the night and sleep during the day. During alarming situations their ears get erectile and after that, the ear tufts are almost invisible. They usually fly by beating motions of their wings and rarely glide over long distances. Do Stygian Migrate: Unlike their cousins’ long-eared owls, stygian owls are permanent residents. They do not migrate during seasonal variations and remain there in their house for years or a lifetime. As discussed above stygian owls are considered as “ghost owls” in biological terms. Their dark color, long ear tufts, and red eyes make them not less than a devil. In Brazil, it is known as “Coruja-Diabo” which means “devil owls”. These devils owls have a great threat from humans. It was observed that most of the time the death of stygian owl is due to human intervention and not a natural cause. But these threats are not very large to consider such creature endanger. So they are among the list of least concerned animals in the IUCN list. Stygian owl a close relative of long-eared owl is quite different from its cousin. Unlike long-eared owl, it exhibits many unique and exceptional characteristics. One prominent trait is their ghost/Devil like appearance that can make someone afraid at once very easily. But much research has to be conducted to fully understand the behavior of this species. The research must be conducted in such a way that it does not harm these birds and their habitats.

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The Queen's Chain The reservation of land along the margins of waterways had its origins in early legislation governing subdivision and settlement of Crown land in New Zealand. Queen Victoria sent instructions to Governor Hobson on 5 December 1840 to reserve land along water bodies and not to allow these reserved areas to be occupied for private purposes. Instructions issued by the Surveyor-General under Regulations pursuant to the Land Act 1877 required reserves of 100 links (ie, 1 chain) along navigable rivers. By 1886 these provisions had been extended to settlement surveys of Crown land in coastal areas. Section 110 of the Land Act 1892 required a 66-foot (ie, 1 chain) wide strip of land to be reserved along the coast, lakes over 50 acres, rivers over 33 feet wide, and rivers under 33 feet wide at the discretion of the Commissioner. These early statutory requirements relating to survey and subdivision of Crown land gave rise to the colloquial term 'the Queen's Chain' - which is still used today to refer generally to reserved land along the margins of waterways and the coast. Local Government Act 1974 Section 289 of the Local Government Act 1974 (LGA 1974) provided a code for reserves along water. Originally these reserves were deemed under s289(1), to be local purpose reserves “for the purpose of providing access to the sea, lake river or stream as the case may be and to protect the environment" Under the Reserves Amendment Act 1979, these reserves become esplanade reserves. The LGA 1974 required a 20-metre esplanade reserve to be provided at the time of subdivision along rivers over 3 metres wide adjoining allotments less than 4 hectares, the coast, or lakes over 8 hectares. Once created, the reserve was to be vested in the relevant local authority under s306(4). A special case were allotments over 4 hectares adjoining the coast and lakes over 8 hectares: if the land was used for rural purposes and land owners did not intend to sell the land within 5 years, compensation and survey costs relating to the establishment of the esplanade reserve were paid by the Crown (s290). The above sections of the LGA 1974 were repealed by the RMA and have been included to explain how older esplanade reserves were taken.

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This in an excerpt from this book The discipline of science that shades the most light on the structure of the world and also the most advanced one is undoubtedly none other than Physics. Hence, it is much needed to have some basic ideas of not only what the up-to-date development of physics is but also how we came to think in that way and how the whole of modern physics is attached with its history. In fact, the history of this science begins with Galileo, but in order to understand his work it will be well to see what was thought before his time. The ancient scholars whose ideas were mainly taken from that of Aristotle used to believe that different laws for terrestrial bodies and that of celestial bodies persisted side by side at the same time. They even believed the same holds true for living and dead matter as well. The four basic elements according to them were that of air, water, fire and earth – Among them the heaviest ones were the water and earth while air and fire were believed to be lighter. Earth and water had a natural downward motion, fire and air upward motion. There was no idea of one set of laws for different types of things or everything that matters; there was no science of changes in the movements of bodies. Galileo and Descartes, in a bit lesser degree compared to Galileo — introduced the fundamental principles and concepts which formed the foundation stone for physics until as long as the present century we are in. The ancient scholars worked hard to put forward the theory that there exists one set of laws which holds true for living as well as dead matter. Among them, Galileo conceptualized two fundamental principles which actually made the discipline of mathematical physics came into being: Law of parallelogram and that of inertia. This law of inertia is now known as Newton’s first law of motion which is good enough to precisely calculate the motion of different matter with respect to each other, hence using the laws of dynamics. Technically, the principle of inertia puts forward the idea that causal laws of physics should be denoted in terms of acceleration, i.e. a change of velocity in amount or direction or both which was found in Newton’s law of gravitation. From the law of inertia, it is seen that the causal laws of dynamics should be differential equations of the second order, though this form of statement could not be made until Leibnitz and Newton had developed the infinitesimal calculus. The work of majority of the students on the mathematical side of physics can be explained with Newton’s set of principles. The very basic equations of motions or the ideas of dynamics and that of inertia, momentum, mass and acceleration were applied by Newton to large bodies like the Earth and the Moon for explaining their structure and the universe’s motion. Starting from the time when Newton brought in these concepts upto the nineteenth century there had been no further addition of any new principles. One of the first exception to this rule was in that was that of the novelty called Planck, who introduced the Quantum constant for the purpose of explaining the structure and behavior of atoms in 1900. Soon after that in 1905, there was another addition to those old Newtonian concepts through Einstein’s much followed and famous theory of relativity. A decade after Einstein published his theory of relativity, which was mostly a geometrical one involving gravitation proving the expansion of our Universe. If you dig deeper, you can easily see that from the ancient times of Galileo to that of recent most Newton, all the disciplines of science were joined with each other. Anyone single handedly could so a fine research on physics, mathematics or in chemistry simultaneously and even in biology as well. Towards the end of that time the sciences were beginning to separate and after that they continued to separate more and more. Just at this very moment we can see a great convergence of all sciences. Physics is increasingly penetrating deeper into all other disciplines of science and that was evident in the names of the new hybrid subjects. Your information is protected by 256-bit SSL encryption has been added to your cart! have been added to your cart!

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Have you ever come across a rattlesnake and wondered what those buttons on its tail mean? These fascinating creatures are known for their venomous bites and intimidating rattling sound, but there’s so much more to them than meets the eye. Believe it or not, those buttons on the rattlesnake’s tail are actually modified scales that serve a unique purpose. To uncover the mystery behind these intriguing creatures, let’s delve deeper into the world of rattlesnakes and explore what makes them so special. Rattlesnakes have buttons or rattles on their tails that are made of keratin, the same material as our hair and nails. These rattles are used as a warning device to scare off predators or to warn humans to stay away. Each time a rattlesnake sheds its skin, it adds a new button to its rattle. The number of buttons can indicate the snake’s age, with older snakes having more buttons. Understanding the Meaning Behind the Buttons on a Rattlesnake What are Rattlesnake Buttons? Rattlesnakes are known for their unique appearance, particularly their rattles at the end of their tails. However, another distinguishing feature of rattlesnakes are their buttons, which are located on their heads. These buttons are actually modified scales that cover the rattlesnake’s sensory pits, which are part of its specialized heat-sensing system. The buttons on a rattlesnake are used for detecting heat, which allows them to locate their prey even in complete darkness. These pits are incredibly sensitive, allowing the rattlesnake to sense even the slightest changes in temperature. The buttons themselves are small, round, and slightly raised above the surrounding scales on the rattlesnake’s head. To the untrained eye, the buttons on a rattlesnake may seem insignificant, but they play a crucial role in the rattlesnake’s ability to survive and thrive in its environment. What Do the Buttons on a Rattlesnake Mean? The buttons on a rattlesnake can tell us a lot about the species of rattlesnake and their behavior. Some rattlesnake species have large buttons, while others have smaller buttons. This can indicate the size of the rattlesnake’s sensory pits, which in turn can affect its ability to sense prey. In addition to size, the number and arrangement of buttons on a rattlesnake can also provide information. For example, the western diamondback rattlesnake typically has two buttons on either side of its head, while the timber rattlesnake has only one button on each side. This can help identify the species of rattlesnake, which is important for conservation efforts and for determining the best course of action in the event of an encounter with a rattlesnake. Benefits of Rattlesnake Buttons While some people may view rattlesnakes as dangerous and scary, they play an important role in their ecosystem. Rattlesnakes are apex predators, which means they are at the top of their food chain. They help to control the populations of rodents and other small animals, which can have a negative impact on crops and other wildlife. In addition, rattlesnakes have unique adaptations, such as their heat-sensing system and venomous bites, that allow them to survive in harsh environments. Studying the buttons on a rattlesnake can provide valuable insight into how these adaptations work and how they have evolved over time. Rattlesnake Buttons vs Other Snakes While all snakes have scales on their heads, the buttons on a rattlesnake are unique to the species. Other snakes may have scales that are similar in appearance, but they do not have the same heat-sensing capabilities as the rattlesnake’s buttons. In addition, the rattlesnake’s buttons are part of its specialized sensory system, which allows it to locate prey and navigate its environment. Other snakes may have different adaptations, such as specialized teeth or camouflage, that help them survive in their habitats. Overall, the buttons on a rattlesnake may seem small and insignificant, but they play a crucial role in the rattlesnake’s survival and success as a predator. Understanding the meaning behind these buttons can provide valuable insight into the behavior and adaptations of this fascinating species. Frequently Asked Questions What are the buttons on a rattlesnake? Rattlesnakes are famous for the rattle at the end of their tail. However, not many people know that this rattle is made up of several segments, known as buttons. These buttons are made of keratin, the same material as our hair and nails, and are added one by one as the snake sheds its skin. The buttons are hollow and are attached to the end of the snake’s tail. When the snake shakes its tail, the buttons rattle against each other, producing the characteristic sound that warns predators and humans alike to stay away. How do rattlesnakes use their buttons? Rattlesnakes use their buttons as a warning signal to potential predators. When threatened, the snake will coil up and shake its tail, causing the buttons to rattle loudly. This warns the predator that the snake is dangerous and should be avoided. Rattlesnakes also use their buttons to communicate with other snakes. By shaking their tails in a particular way, they can produce different sounds that are understood by other rattlesnakes. This allows them to communicate their location, size, and even their mood. How many buttons do rattlesnakes have? The number of buttons on a rattlesnake can vary depending on its age and how many times it has shed its skin. Typically, a young rattlesnake will have only one button, while an older snake can have up to 12 or more. Each time the snake sheds its skin, it adds a new button to its rattle. Over time, the buttons can become worn or damaged, and the snake may lose some of them. However, as long as the snake is alive, it will continue to add new buttons to its tail with each shed. Why do some rattlesnakes have no buttons? Although most rattlesnakes have buttons on their tails, there are some exceptions. Some species of rattlesnake, such as the Mojave rattlesnake, have a much smaller rattle with only a few buttons. Others, such as the Santa Catalina rattlesnake, have no rattle at all. The reason for this variation is not entirely clear, but it is thought to be related to the snake’s environment and behavior. Rattlesnakes that live in rocky areas or dense vegetation may have smaller rattles or no rattles at all, as the sound would be less effective in these environments. Is it true that you can tell the age of a rattlesnake by counting its buttons? Contrary to popular belief, it is not possible to determine the exact age of a rattlesnake by counting the number of buttons on its tail. However, the number of buttons can give you a rough idea of the snake’s age and size. Each time the snake sheds its skin, it adds a new button to its rattle. So, if you count the number of buttons and divide by the number of times the snake sheds its skin each year, you can get an estimate of its age. However, this method is not entirely accurate, as some snakes may shed their skin more or less frequently than others. What’s inside a Rattlesnake Rattle? In conclusion, the buttons on a rattlesnake are a fascinating aspect of these venomous reptiles. These buttons are made up of keratin and serve as a warning to potential predators or threats. Each time a rattlesnake sheds its skin, it adds a new button to its rattle, making it a useful tool for identifying the snake’s age. Despite their fearsome reputation, rattlesnakes play an important role in the ecosystem. They help to control rodent populations and are also a source of food for many other animals. It’s important to remember that these creatures are not aggressive and will only attack if they feel threatened. In summary, the buttons on a rattlesnake are a unique and important feature that helps to distinguish these fascinating creatures from other snakes. While they may inspire fear in some people, it’s important to respect their role in the natural world and to appreciate the intricate design of these amazing reptiles.

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Summary: Technically, we are apes. Colloquially, we didn't evolve from modern apes: we shared a recent common ancestor with them. From Comparative genomics of higher primates (Max Planck Society): The common chimpanzee and the bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee are our closest living relatives, with whom we share a common ancestor that lived 5–7 million years ago. Humans and chimpanzees share a common ancestor with gorillas — the other major species of African apes — that lived 6–8 million years ago, whereas the common ancestor shared with the Asian orangutans lived 12–16 million years ago. Many species that were more closely-related to humans have lived and become extinct since the time of the chimpanzee- human ancestor. are collectively called hominins. One hominin is the Neandertal, whose lineage diverged from ours 300,000–500,000 years ago. Neandertals lived in western Eurasia, sometimes alongside our ancestors, until they became extinct around 30,000 years ago.

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Purpose of the flight and payload description The so called ROCKOON (Rocket-Balloon) technique allowed small rockets to reach higher altitudes by sending it onboard a stratospheric balloon to an altitude of about 70.000 ft where it was fired either by an onboard timer, a pressure switch or by telecommand. The technique was first used in 1952 by Dr. James Van Allen then working at the State University of Iowa. The main advantage of the rockoon combination was to let the rocket to pass throught the lower and thicker layers of the atmosphere without using its own propulsion power, which then allowed a higher apogee to be reched. The only setback was that once released, the balloons cannot be steered and consequently the rocket's launch direction nor imapct area can be predicted. Thus, for safety reasons, all the Rockoon missions were conducted from small vessels sailing in open waters. This possed an additional advantage as the ships could move with the wind to create a "zero wind condition" ideal to launch the balloons. The rockoon firings during the 1957 campaign used an improved version of the LOKI vector denominated HAWK. It was a sounding rocket developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the Army Ordnance Department, manufactured by Grand Central Rocket Co. and Cooper Development Corp. It was designed to carry a 8.5 pound instrument load to an altitude of about 75 miles. It counted with larger fins than the original LOKI design for stability at high altitudes and had a solid propellant rocket motor with 2.200 lbs of thrust. Its total length was 8.3 ft, diameter 3.5 inches and fin span was 1.1 feet. The Hawk was capable of attaining speeds about 3.000 mph, and altitudes of 70 miles when fired from a balloon floating around 70.000 ft. Details of the balloon flight Balloon launched on: 10/17/1957 Launch site: USCGC Glacier (WAGB-4) navegando en el Oceano Pacifico (Lat. 6.47º N - Lon. 156.92º O) Balloon manufacturer/size/composition: Zero Pressure Balloon 26.000 cuft End of flight (L for landing time, W for last contact, otherwise termination time): 10/17/1957 Landing site: Payload no recoverable

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On June 1 of this year, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints – or the Mormons – will celebrate the 40th anniversary of what they believe to be a revelation from God. This revelation to the then-President of the Church Spencer W. Kimball – which is known as “Official Declaration 2” – reversed longstanding restrictions placed on people of black African descent in the church. As a scholar of American religion and Mormonism, I believe this history illustrates the struggle the Mormon church has had with racial diversity – something that the church leadership still grapples with today. Early history of black priesthood and restrictions In the Mormon church, all men above the age of 12 serve in a priestly office, which Mormons call collectively “the priesthood.” Additionally, all Mormons, men and women alike, are taught that the sacramental rituals most essential to their salvation are performed in Mormon temples. The most important of these rituals is a ceremony called “sealing,” in which family relationships are made eternal. Though Mormons believe that virtually all humanity will enjoy some degree of heaven after death, only those in sealed relationships will enter the highest levels of heaven. In the 1830s and 1840s, the earliest years of the church, under the leadership of founder Joseph Smith, African-American men were ordained to the priesthood and historians have identified at least one black man who participated in some temple rituals. Under Smith’s successors, however, these policies were reversed. These policies affected a small number of black Mormons. A small number of enslaved black people had been brought to Utah in the 1840s and 1850s by white Mormons and some were baptized into the church. Slavery was legalized in Utah in 1852 and remained so until the Civil War. There were also free African-Americans who became Mormon. Most prominent was Elijah Abel, a carpenter who joined the church in 1832 and was ordained to priesthood office. He served several missions before his death in 1884. Jane Manning James was a free black woman who became a Mormon in 1841 and followed Brigham Young to Utah. Historians have found records of both Elijah Abel and Jane Manning James requesting permission to be sealed in Mormon temples. Both requests were denied. More generally, after these restrictions came into place, Mormon missionaries avoided proselytizing people of African descent. Justifications for the restriction Young and other Mormon leaders offered various explanations for these decisions. Young, for example, repeated a long-standing folk belief that black people were descended from Cain, a Biblical figure God cursed for murdering his brother. Historical evidence indicates that Young and his colleagues were distressed when black members of the church sought to marry white women. Young seems to have believed that barring black men from the priesthood and both black men and women from the ritual of sealing would prevent racial intermarriage in the church. In the years that followed, other Mormon leaders offered other explanations for the restriction. Some said that black people possessed less righteous souls than white people did. Other Mormons as recently as 2012 suggested that black people had to mature spiritually before they could be allowed full participation in the church. As a result, Mormonism historically attracted few black converts. Global spread of Mormonism By the mid-20th century, church membership was growing rapidly all over the world, and it became obvious that the restrictions on members of African descent were styming church growth. In the 1940s and 1950s, Christian faiths were attracting many converts in West Africa. In Nigeria, some of these African Christians discovered Mormon publications and began writing letters to Mormon leadership requesting baptism into the church, claiming to be attracted by the church’s temple worship and teachings about heaven. Mormon leaders in Utah were torn. As the church’s racial restrictions made it impossible to ordain African men, there could be no congregations established among black Africans. At the same time, the Nigerian government denied visas to Mormon missionaries. In the end, the church could not send missionaries or official congregations, but did dispatch Mormon literature in an attempt to guide African believers. The racial restrictions caused problems elsewhere in Africa as well. In South Africa, for example, converts had to document their genealogy to demonstrate a lack of African ancestry before they could receive ordination to the priesthood or worship in temples. In 1954, Church President David O. McKay issued a directive that unless converts’ appearance indicated black African ancestry, they would be allowed full participation in the church. By the 1960s and 1970s, church missions were expanding in Latin America, particularly in Brazil. As in South Africa, Mormon missionaries were confronted with the issue of determining the ancestry of their converts in a nation where intermarriage was far more common than it was in the United States. Pressures emerged in the United States as well. As the black freedom movement expanded in the 1960s and 1970s, criticisms of the church mounted. Through the late 1960s and early 1970s, university sports teams around the country protested or boycotted playing teams from church-owned Brigham Young University. But the leadership of the church remained was divided over whether to end the priesthood and temple restriction entirely. It was in 1978 that the conflict was resolved when President Kimball announced he had received a revelation from God. The legacy of the restriction today Although the church has ended the restrictions against blacks, they have had lasting effects. Despite the changes, African-American members say they still face racial discrimination. In 2012, for example, a professor at Brigham Young University suggested that God had put the earlier ban in place because black people lacked spiritual maturity. Today, church leaders have announced a celebration of Kimball’s revelation under the theme “Be One.” They have called for unity against “prejudice, including racism, sexism, and nationalism.” This language presents a vision of Mormonism far more inclusive than language used in the past. To some African-American members of the church, though, such celebrations seem premature given the persistent presence of racist ideas within the church. Nonetheless, at a time when the church’s growth rates in the United States are slowing down and growth rates in the global South – particularly Africa and Latin America – are rising, the celebrations this June indicate a desire on the part of church leadership to acknowledge the value of its diversity. Kimball’s removal of the priesthood and temple restrictions on people of color may have opened the doors to a modern church, but the decision to celebrate his declaration shows how the church is still grappling with its legacy of racial discrimination.

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Effectively managing diabetes means effectively managing many aspects of your health, lifestyle, and diet. This includes regular and vigilant monitoring of blood sugar levels. But it also includes keeping a close and thoughtful eye on one of the most significant factors that impact those levels: your consumption of carbohydrates. Carbs are the sugars, starches, and fibers contained in foods and elevate blood sugar levels faster after meals than proteins or fats. That is why managing your intake of carbs is so critical. Too much, too soon, or with too little attention paid to what else you are eating can send your glucose levels skyrocketing. Managing and counting and carbs allow you to calibrate doses of mealtime rapid-acting insulin to the kinds of foods you eat. This can give you broad dietary flexibility and minimize post-meal highs and lows. If you control your diabetes with exercise and diet, pills, or just one or two insulin injections a day, carbohydrate counting can also help improve your control over blood sugar levels. What Is Carbohydrate Counting? As the name implies, carb counting simply means adding up the total amount of carbohydrate (in grams) you consume from meals and snacks. These carbs include all types of sugars, such as sucrose (table sugar), fructose (fruit sugar), and lactose (milk sugar). They also include starches, which make up most of the carbs found in rice, bread, potatoes, and cereal. When you eat something that contains starch, it breaks down into glucose before entering your bloodstream. That is why you need to include both sugars and starches when counting carbs. How To Accurately Count Carbs Counting carbs is made a lot easier by readily available information about the carb content of various foods. Here are three tips for accurately counting carbs at the grocery store or at a meal. - Check the label. In the United States, labels on packaged food must include lots of information about nutritional content and ingredients. This includes listing the grams of total carbohydrate as well as grams of dietary fiber and sugar in a single serving of the food item. Pay close attention to serving size and the percentage of the recommended daily intake of each category contained in the item. - Use online resources. Fresh fruits and vegetables, baked goods, and the items you order at a restaurant don’t come with labels. This means you’ll have to look elsewhere for carb content information. There are plenty of online sites, such as the popular CalorieKing, that can instantly tell you the amount of carbs in the food you are considering buying or eating. - Portion conversion. This carb counting technique involves estimating the volume of a serving of food by comparing it to a common object such as a soft drink can, a milk carton, or your fist. You then convert the volume into a carbohydrate count based on the usual carb content for a known amount of that kind of food. For example, an average adult’s fist, a half-pint of milk, and a baseball are typically equivalent to one cup, while a soda can is equivalent to 1 ½ cups. Monitoring Glucose Levels As Part Of Your Healthy Lifestyle As noted, regular monitoring of blood sugar levels is an essential complement to managing carbohydrates in controlling diabetes. Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) is a transceiver device that helps those with diabetes monitor their blood sugar levels 24 hours a day without needing to interrupt their day with finger pricking to obtain a sample. CGM has easy-to-use features that can help each person proactively record and track glucose levels—as well as provide valuable insights on data that helps manage exercise, meals, and daily health status. If you have recently received a diagnosis of diabetes, ask your doctor about CGM and contact us today to see if you qualify for CGM and access our guide to continuous glucose monitoring.

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Life’s emergence in a ‘warm little pond‘ some 4.5 billion years ago is a relatively solid foundation of modern biology. In spite of water’s vital role in facilitating early organic reactions on Earth, one of the most basic ingredients won’t form in aqueous surrounds, raising the question of how life initially acquired them. A new experiment reveals how these critical chemical reactions might have taken place. Amide bonds are the links in the chains of amino acids that form the foundation of so many crucial components of life, including peptides (short strings of amino acids) and proteins (longer strings of amino acids that can do work in the form of enzymes). The problem is that amide bonds are actually hindered by water, which is something of a problem on an oceanic world like ancient Earth. Something else must have come into play, scientists think, and the new study suggests it was at the boundary of water and air that the magic happened. “Here, we report a unique reactivity of free amino acids at the air–water interface of micron-sized water droplets that leads to the formation of peptide isomers on the millisecond timescale,” write Purdue University chemist Dylan Holdena and colleagues in their published paper. “This reaction is performed under ambient conditions and does not require additional reagents, acid, catalysts, or radiation.” The team sprayed microdroplets of water containing two amino acids, glycine and L-alanine, towards a mass spectrometer device for detailed chemical analysis. A chain of two amino acids, a dipeptide, was shown to form in the droplets. Since dipeptides are able to build further amino acid chains, the results are taken to imply airborne microdroplets could have sped up the early construction of peptide chains by exposing dissolved amino acids to the air. Billions of years ago, such microdroplets may have been produced in the form of sea spray was whipped up from the ocean, creating the essential chemical bonds for life to develop. What’s more, the reaction observed in these experiments happened without the addition of any other chemical agents, catalysts, or radiation sources, making it more likely that it could have been happening billions of years ago on Earth. “The observed generation of peptides from free amino acids at the air–water interface of pure water droplets, the simplest of all prebiotic systems, suggests that settings such as atmospheric aerosols or sea spray may have provided a unique and ubiquitous environment to overcome the energetic hurdles associated with condensation and polymerization of biomolecules in water,” write the researchers. If the team is right, where microdroplets of water hit the air, at the smallest scales the environment might be dry rather than wet – which means it would be providing conditions where dipeptides can be synthesized. Scientists have been busy looking at all kinds of explanations for how amino acid chains could have been formed in ocean environments. Hydrothermal vents may have played a role, for instance, or perhaps a visiting asteroid. Now, there’s a new option. It’s still a hypothesis for now though, and future studies will be required to work out just how these amino acid chains are being put together – and how these basic chemical building blocks led to the life on Earth that we know today. “This reactivity provides a plausible route for the formation of the first biopolymers in aqueous environments,” write the researchers. The research has been published in PNAS.

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Virtualization is a fundamental technology that has transformed how computer resources are managed and deployed in cloud computing environments. Virtualization increases flexibility, scalability, and efficiency in the deployment and management of IT infrastructure by abstracting actual hardware and generating virtual versions of servers, storage, and networks. In this essay, we will look at the notion of virtualization and its different levels within cloud computing, throwing light on its significance and ramifications for organizations in today’s digital age. Definition of Virtualization Virtualization is fundamentally about creating virtual replicas of actual hardware components like servers, storage devices, and networks. These virtual instances, also known as virtual machines (VMs) or virtualized resources, operate independently of the underlying physical infrastructure and can execute different operating systems and applications at the same time. How Does Virtualization Work? Virtualization is based on hypervisor software, which abstract physical hardware resources and allocate them to virtual computers. Hypervisors allow virtualized resources to be isolated and managed independently on the same physical hardware. Benefits of Virtualization The implementation of virtualisation offers many important benefits to organizations - Resource Consolidation: Virtualization allows several physical servers to be consolidated onto a single hardware platform, saving space and electricity. - Improved Flexibility: Virtualized environments can readily scaled up or down to meet changing workloads and resource needs, resulting in increased agility and responsiveness. - Enhanced Disaster Recovery: Virtualization makes it easier to create virtual backups and snapshots, which allows for speedier recovery times and reduces downtime in the case of hardware failures or disasters. Levels of Virtualization in Cloud Computing There are many layers of virtualization in cloud computing, each with its own set of capabilities and features. Let’s look at these stages in greater detail: Hardware virtualization is the abstraction of physical hardware resources such as servers, storage, and networking components into virtualized instances known as virtual machines (VMs). Each VM is an autonomous entity with its own operating system and programs, allowing numerous VMs to run on the same physical server. Operating System Virtualization Operating system (OS) virtualization, commonly referred to as containerization, is a lightweight alternative to traditional hardware virtualization. Instead of building separate virtual machines, containerization allows you to create isolated user-space instances, or containers, on a single host operating system. Containers share the host OS kernel, resulting in lower overhead and faster deployment times than standard VMs. Application virtualization entails separating individual apps and their dependencies into self-contained pieces known as virtualized application packages. These packages, often known as “virtualized apps” or “app containers,” may be distributed and performed on any suitable machine, eliminating the need for traditional installation procedures. Application virtualization streamlines software deployment, lowers compatibility difficulties, and improves security by separating programs from the underlying operating system. Advantages of Virtualization in Cloud Computing Virtualization is crucial in allowing the delivery of cloud services and resources, delivering various benefits for businesses - Scalability: Virtualized environments may be dynamically scaled to handle changing workloads and demand surges, assuring peak performance and resource utilization. - Resource Efficiency: Virtualization allows enterprises to make the most use of their hardware resources by combining several virtual instances on a single physical server, lowering costs and decreasing waste. - Agility and Flexibility: Virtualization enables organizations to quickly provision, deploy, and transfer computer resources, resulting in a quicker time-to-market and higher response to changing business demands. Challenges and Considerations While virtualization provides various benefits, it also poses some obstacles and issues that enterprises must address - Security Concerns: Virtualized systems provide new security threats, such as hypervisor vulnerabilities and VM escape attacks. To reduce these threats, it is critical to implement strong security mechanisms such as network segmentation, encryption, and access control. - Performance Overheads: The abstraction layer that separates virtual instances from actual hardware might create performance overheads. Resource allocation optimization, hypervisor tuning, and the use of hardware-assisted virtualization technologies can all help to reduce these overheads. - Complexity and Management Overhead: Managing virtualized environments may be challenging, especially at scale. Organizations must invest in effective management tools and procedures to improve administration, monitoring, and maintenance. To summarize, virtualization is a basic technology that supports cloud computing, allowing enterprises to maximize resource efficiency, increase flexibility, and drive innovation. Understanding the various degrees of virtualization and its consequences for cloud settings allows organizations to use virtualization to achieve strategic goals and acquire a competitive advantage in today’s digital economy.

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Fisheries in the Southeast Pacific Region If you like anchovies on your pizza, there is a good chance that the little fish now swimming in tomato sauce was once swimming in the water of the Southeastern Pacific (SEP) Ocean. The deep, cold, and nutrient-rich waters off the coasts of Chile and Peru make this region one of the most productive fisheries in the world. Why are the waters in the SEP so suitable for fish production? The prevailing winds and the upwelling associated with the Humboldt Current bring very cold water from the depths of the ocean bottom to the sea surface. The deep waters are very rich in nutrients including nitrate and phosphate. When these nutrients are brought to the surface, they are utilized by phytoplankton resulting in high primary production. Phytoplankton is at the base of the oceanic food chain and when their numbers are large the result is an ecosystem abundant in zooplankton, fish, and other life. Traditionally, the fishing industry has been important to the economies of Chile and Peru. The most abundant and important species are anchovies, sardines, mackerel, and whiting. In recent years, salmon production has increased to become economically important to the region. It is the world's largest producer of fish-meal, a protein-rich byproduct of the fisheries industry in aquaculture and for cattle feed. In the past few decades, overfishing and El Nino events have led to serious declines in fish populations, which have hurt the economies of both Chile and Peru. Ocean temperatures are important to all types of fish. Anchovies thrive in cooler water so during El Nino events when the water is warmer, their numbers go down. Sardines are more tropical than anchovies and expand their ranges in warmer periods. Increased ocean temperatures resulting from global warming will not be favorable to anchovy; however, sardines may become dominant. One outcome of the VOCALS research will be to learn how changing climates could impact the fishing industry in the SEP. Fish that spend their entire life cycle in the ocean are known as pelagic fish. Anchovies and sardines are types of pelagic fish. Other fish, such as salmon, are called anadromous fish. This type of fish is spawned in freshwater but spends most of its life in the ocean, returning to freshwater to reproduce. The health of the ocean is important to both pelagic and anadromous fish.

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Table of Contents Are coral reefs freshwater or saltwater? Saltwater: Corals need saltwater to survive and require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to water. This is why corals don’t live in areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean (“estuaries”). What is coral water? Minerals contained in natural coral – calcium, magnesium and others, diffuse into water, turning it into delicious drinking water. Removes residual chlorine and other impurities from water. Prevents water from becoming septic. Are coral reefs underwater? Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of colonial marine invertebrates called coral. What is coral reef made of? Coral reefs are made up of colonies of hundreds to thousands of tiny individual corals, called polyps. These marine invertebrate animals have hard exoskeletons made of calcium carbonate, and are sessile, meaning permanently fixed in one place. How deep can coral survive? Corals prefer clear and shallow water, where lots of sunlight filters through to their symbiotic algae. It is possible to find corals at depths of up to 300 feet (91 meters), but reef-building corals grow poorly below 60–90 feet (18–27 meters). How is coral aggressive? Some corals can extend sweeper tentacles up to a foot away. Mesenterial Filaments are the inside guts of a coral that some species can expel onto nearby adversaries. Almost every type of coral is capable of extending mesenterial filaments but some are more aggressive than others in this regard. Do coral reefs live in deep or shallow water? Corals reefs are one of the world’s most diverse and unique underwater organisms. Not only do they grow in the shallow waters near the shores of the tropics but they also thrive in the deep cold waters of the ocean. Shallow coral reefs reside in well lit, shallow, opaque tropical waters. Where are warm water coral reefs? Warm-water coral reef species diversity is concentrated in the central Indo-Pacific (the “Coral Triangle”), and decreases with increasing distance from the Indo-Australian archipelago 2. What is the average temperature in coral reefs? Coral reef temperatures in the wild range from 68 to 97°F (20 to 36°C). The warm, shallow water is essential for photosynthesis of the zooxanthellae algae. Deep-sea corals are capable of living in temperatures as low as 30.2°F (-1°C). How cold can coral reefs get? Deep-water coral. The habitat of deep-water corals, also known as cold-water corals, extends to deeper, darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals, ranging from near the surface to the abyss, beyond 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 °C (39 °F).

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Fencing is a sword sport that originated in France and was later on refined in Spain and Italy. The two most common types of fencing are competitive fencing and Olympic fencing. Classical fencing differs from competitive fencing, which is focused more on a combat or a duel type of arrangement. A nice fencing fact for kids is that competitive fencing is also one of the sports that has been consistently featured in modern Olympics. The main goal and concept of fencing rules is to successfully land touches against your opponent using a blunted fencing sword which is called a foil. Successful touches are made using the tip of the foil in a match. Each match is played within a time limit. Fencing is known to be a good sport that can develop your reflex and speed and will definitely be a fun, yet challenging sport that your kids will enjoy! - Category: Sports - Approximate age to start fencing: 7 - Approximate price: $300 - Gear/equipment needed and approximate price range: Jacket - $80, gloves - $30, helmet - $75, foil - $150 - This activity comprises of: Classes, training - Best period of the year: Anytime - Most appropriate region: Anywhere in Australia - School holiday programs available: YES A video of Fencing for kids Information on Fencing for kids Is fencing for your kids? Every parent wants their kid to try out a sport to develop their discipline and their sense of responsibility. The usual kids activities that parents encourage their youngsters to get into are common ball sports. Every sport has a set of different skills to develop. Thats why it is advisable for parents to gauge their children first and figure out what sport or other activities for kids will fit their skillset or temperament the most. Sword fighting is not for all kids! Fencing for kids will not only develop your children's reflexes, speed, and sportsmanship, but it will be a great sport to get some movement into them. You can't not move when you are fencing, especially when you are playing competitive fencing. To be more educated on the benefits of fencing, we have prepared a list for parents to read through: - A good way to get your children moving and keep them fit. - Fencing encourages an active lifestyle by your childs physical skills - Fencing and observing fencing rules aids in improving concentration and decision making skills. - Activities for kids such as fencing helps in developing a person's responsibility. - Being a part of a group of people who are into fencing will also develop your social skills and learn to value sportsmanship. - Colleges accept scholarships. A child with a good skillset in fencing will be awarded a sports scholarship in college. They might even have an opportunity to get into competetive fencing later! More fencing facts for your children in Australia In order for your children to start fencing, they need to have the proper fencing gear and equipment before starting the sport. Your child needs a fencing jacket, fencing mask, fencing glove, and a foil (i.e. fencing sword). These are all necessary for both casual and competetive fencing, and can be purchased at local sports merchandise shops all over Australia. Maintenance of their jacket and fencing gloves are as easy as washing and drying your childrens clothes. For their mask, as long as they don't drop it and you wash it for them regularly and dry it when it has contact with moisture, it will last for a long time. Foils need extra care as they are the main equipment used for fencing. Foils have to be free from rust and bends. Rusting can be avoided by storing the foil properly and avoiding any prolonged contact to moisture. Store and separate your foil from your other equipment and fencing gear to prevent bends and rusting. Get your kids to start fencing! Are you considering the idea of enrolling your child into fencing lessons? If you are interested in getting your kids into fencing, consider their age and their interest in the sport. The ideal age to start fencing lessons or participation in a fencing club for kids is 7 years old. At this age, your children more or less have an idea of responsibility and they will easily understand the concepts of getting into a sport. Toddlers should skip on fencing as they are too young to be getting into a physical sport involving foils and any sword-like equipment. They can however focus on other kids activities such as learning a new instrument or other arts and crafts activities. Sword fighting for kids is ideally for children ages 7 years old and up. Fencing lessons for kids are available at fencing organizations or gyms that offer fencing lessons for kids in Australia. There are also available fencing clubs for kids that have specialized fencing classes that are segregated by age group. This way, your children will be more comfortable learning how to fence with kids their age. For more information on fencing and other kids activities, check our ActiveActivities directory to search for organizations and clubs that can teach your children how to fence.

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Flow chemistry is a very interesting paradigm in the modern lab. It involves the induction of chemical reactions by pumping solutions through tubing at controlled flow rates. Unlike batch chemistry, where reactions occur in a standard beaker, flask or lab reactor vessel, the reaction occurs in a continuous stream–hence it’s sometimes called ‘continuous flow chemistry’. This poses an interesting question: is flow chemistry set up more of an engineering task than ordinary bench chemistry? Before discussing the ins and outs of setting up flow chemistry apparatus, it’s worth recapping the basics of flow chemistry and why it’s become such a powerhouse from the research lab to the pilot plant and beyond. The main advantage of flow chemistry is that chemists can control specific parameters or reactions, which is much safer than traditional methods. Flow chemistry has become a more prominent method because of its numerous benefits and applications, especially in green chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry. Flow chemistry combines aspects of engineering and chemical synthesis to create a flow reaction. The method involves two or more reactants being pushed through tubes into a single chamber at a controlled flow rate. Once the reaction takes place, the streams continue through the flowing system until it is complete and the required product has been created. Is Flow Chemistry an Engineering Task? The Oxford dictionary defines engineering as the branch of science and technology concerned with the design, building, and use of engines, machines, and structures. The critical question in this blog post is whether or not flow chemistry can be considered an engineering task and to what extent. Flow chemistry is more engineering-based because flow synthesis requires a more in-depth understanding and involvement than batch methods to achieve the desired end product. Flow reactors and flow processes are based on reaction engineering1 to support specific aspects of flow chemistry. These include reactor designs, scale-ups and special devices for bulk chemistry. Additionally, engineering knowledge is used to support automation, high throughput, purification and self-optimization, amongst many other steps. With these processes in mind, flow chemistry can be considered an engineering task. In this way, a chemist can control the parameters of a reaction, which comes with a range of benefits such as better safety conditions, higher productivity, increased control & mixing, automation, telescoping, scale-up, greening and waste reduction. Looking to the future, as chemists and chemical engineers work together, flow chemistry processes will evolve and become more sustainable2. Flow Chemistry with Asynt Asynt was formed to provide world-class technologies to support scientific research worldwide. Flow chemistry is a big part of Asynt, and chemists design the products we supply for chemists to ensure you receive the most suitable solutions. fReactor® Flow Chemistry Platform Our fReactor® was developed as an affordable platform for flow chemistry to support the synthesis of new materials. It is an easy-to-use, modular benchtop solution with the option for additional/alternative reactors and other instruments if expansion or further chemical resistance is needed. With the fReactor, chemists can carry out a range of applications and explore continuous-flow chemistry without needing in-depth expertise. Some of the features of the equipment include a magnetic hotplate stirrer for heating and mixing, five continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) and accessories including PTFE cross stirrer bars. There is also an independent website managed by the scientists who designed the system – this features a wealth of information on how the fReactor works, examples of reactions carried out using fReactor, published papers, and support with information on things such as how to set-up the equipment. For more information on the fReactor or the engineering aspects of flow chemistry, contact us today and let’s get you the answers you need. If you’d like to find out a little more about the platform before talking to us, the short video below provides all the information you need:

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Green, yellow or even red-dominant plants may live on extra-solar planets, according to scientists whose two scientific papers appear in the March issue of the journal, Astrobiology. The scientists studied light absorbed and reflected by organisms on Earth, and determined that if astronomers were to look at the light given off by planets circling distant stars, they might predict that some planets have mostly non-green plants. "We can identify the strongest candidate wavelengths of light for the dominant color of photosynthesis on another planet," said Nancy Kiang, lead author of the study and a biometeorologist at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York. Kiang worked with a team of scientists from the Virtual Planetary Laboratory (VPL) at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif. VPL was formed as part of the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI), based at the NASA Ames Research Center in California's Silicon Valley. "This work broadens our understanding of how life may be detected on Earth-like planets around other stars, while simultaneously improving our understanding of life on Earth," said Carl Pilcher, director of the NAI at NASA Ames. "This approach -- studying Earth life to guide our search for life on other worlds -- is the essence of astrobiology." Kiang and her colleagues calculated what the stellar light would look like at the surface of Earth-like planets whose atmospheric chemistry is consistent with the different types of stars they orbit. By looking at the changes in that light through different atmospheres, researchers identified colors that would be most favorable for photosynthesis on other planets. This new research narrows the range of colors that scientists would expect to see when photosynthesis is occurring on extrasolar planets. Each planet will have different dominant colors for photosynthesis, based on the planet's atmosphere where the most light reaches the planet's surface. The dominant photosynthesis might even be in the infrared. "This work will help guide designs for future space telescopes that will study extrasolar planets, to see if they are habitable, and could have alien plants," said Victoria Meadows, an astronomer who heads the VPL. The VPL team is using a suite of computer models to simulate Earth-size planets and their light spectra as space telescopes would see them. The scientists' goal is to discover the likely range of habitable planets around other stars and to find out how these planets might appear to future planet-finding missions. On Earth, Kiang and colleagues surveyed light absorbed and reflected by plants and some bacteria during photosynthesis, a process by which plants use energy from sunlight to produce sugar. Organisms that live in different light environments absorb the light colors that are most available. For example, there is a type of bacteria that inhabit murky waters where there is little visible light, and so they use infrared radiation during photosynthesis. Scientists have long known that the chlorophyll in most plants on Earth absorbs blue and red light and less green light. Therefore, chlorophyll appears green. Although some green color is absorbed, it is less than the other colors. Previously, scientists thought plants are not efficient as they could be, because they do not use more green light. According to scientists, the Sun has a specific distribution of colors of light, emitting more of some colors than others. Gases in Earth's air also filter sunlight, absorbing different colors. As a result, more red light particles reach Earth's surface than blue or green light particles, so plants use red light for photosynthesis. There is plenty of light for land plants, so they do not need to use extra green light. But not all stars have the same distribution of light colors as our Sun. Study scientists say they now realize that photosynthesis on extrasolar planets will not necessarily look the same as on Earth. "It makes one appreciate how life on Earth is so intimately adapted to the special qualities of our home planet and Sun," said Kiang. This is an illustration of what plants may look like on different planets. (Credit: Caltech illustration by Doug Cummings) source: dost-dongnai.gov.vn (Sciencedaily)

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Garcinia, genus in the family Clusiaceae with about 250 species of trees and shrubs found throughout the tropics but especially in the Paleotropics. Given the extreme diversity of floral structure across the genus, its taxonomy is contentious. A number of species are important in local medicine, and some are cultivated for their fruit or as ornamentals. Best known of these is the mangosteen (G. mangostana), cultivated for its fruit. Imbe, or African mangosteen (G. livingstonei), has stiff leaves and small, thick-skinned, orange fruits with a juicy, acid, fragrant pulp. Rata, or yellow mangosteen (G. tinctorea), produces a peach-sized yellow fruit with a pointed end and acid-flavoured buttery yellow flesh. Bacupari (G. gardneriana) is native to South America and produces an edible aril. Garlic fruit, or bitter garcinia (G. spicata), is planted as an ornamental in tropical salt-spray oceanfront areas. Orange dyes (gamboge) are extracted from the bark of G. xanthochymus and G. cowa. A number of species are listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and at least two, G. cadelliana and G. tanzaniensis, are critically endangered.

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Wave climate classification according to wind climate The different wind climates, which dominate different oceans and regions, cause correspondingly characteristic wave climates. These characteristic wave climates can be classified as follows: Storm wave climate This is related to subtropical, temperate and arctic climates dominated by the passage of many depressions. At an exposed, open coast this climate is characterised by very variable wave conditions, both with respect to height, period and direction distributions. This type of climate often results in a wide littoral zone dominated by a sandy coastal profile with bars and a wide sandy beach backed by dunes. This typically occurs along coastlines near the equator, where the swell is generated by the so-called trade winds. Near the equator the heating of the air masses is particularly high. This causes the air masses to rise, which in turn generates a thermal depression near the surface. This depression induces an atmospheric circulation directed towards the equator. The area where the southern and northern hemisphere circulations meet is called the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The related wind fields are called trade winds. Due to the rotation of the earth, their directions are NE north of the ITCZ and SE south of the ITCZ. Near ITCZ the wind climate is predominantly calm; this area is called the doldrums. The trade winds mainly occur over the oceans as they are overruled by the monsoons near the continents. Trade winds are moderate and persistent. The wave climate generated by the trade winds is also moderate and persistent throughout the year. As it mainly occurs over oceans away from the coastlines, the associated wave climate along adjacent coastlines is mainly in the form of swell characterised by relatively small and long persistent waves travelling in a constant direction. A swell climate normally gives rise to a relatively narrow sandy littoral zone with an abrupt shift to a gently sloping outer part of the littoral zone dominated by finer sediments. Swell climates occur also in other areas. They originate from waves fields produced by extreme wind conditions in areas far from the coast. The longest waves move faster and dissipate less energy in the ocean than the shorter (steeper) waves. Extreme winds therefore produce mainly long-period swell waves at distant coasts. This is, for example, the case on the north-west coast of Mexico and the coast of California, where the swell wave climate dominates during the summer months with swells developing from tropical storms in the south and from waves originating in the southern hemisphere. This is an important wave climate from a coastal point of view since these waves tend to move sand from the shoreface onto the beach. Monsoon wave climate The monsoon climate is characterised by seasonally changing wind directions. During the summer, local depressions over tropical landmasses cause the wind to blow from the sea towards land. The Inter Tropical Convergency Zone intensifies these tropical summer depressions. In Southeast Asia the summer monsoon is referred to as the SW-monsoon. The summer monsoon is warm and humid. The winter monsoon, which is caused by local high pressure over land, blows from the land towards the sea. In Southeast Asia the winter monsoon is referred to as the NE-monsoon. The winter monsoon wind is relatively cold and dry. The monsoon wind climate is thus characterised by winds from the sea during the summer and winds from land during the winter. The above phenomenon holds for major continental landmasses only, whereas minor landmasses within the monsoon area can experience onshore winds during winter. An example of this is the East Coast of the Malaysian Peninsula, which is predominantly exposed during the NE-monsoon. Monsoon winds are relatively moderate and persistent for each monsoon season. This means that the corresponding wave climates are also seasonal and normally characterised by a relatively rough summer climate and a relatively calm winter climate. The summer climate can, in absolute terms, be characterised as moderate and relatively constant in direction and height. The monsoon climate typically results in a fairly narrow sandy inner littoral zone, shifting to a gently sloping outer part of the littoral zone dominated by finer sediments. Tropical cyclone climate Tropical storms are called hurricanes near the American continents, typhoons near SE-Asia and Australia, and cyclones when occurring near India and Africa. Tropical storms are generated over tropical sea areas where the water temperature is higher than 27oC. They are normally generated between 5oN and 15oN and between 5oS and 15oS. From there they progress towards the W–NW in the Northern Hemisphere and towards the W–SW in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones do not penetrate the area between 5oN and 5oS, as wind circulation cannot occur so close to the equator. An average of 60 tropical cyclones is generated every year. Tropical cyclones are characterised by wind speeds exceeding 32 m/s and they give rise to very high waves, storm surge and cloudburst. Tropical cyclones occur as single events, peaking during September in the Northern Hemisphere and similarly peaking during January in the Southern Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones are rare and therefore recording programmes seldom document the resulting waves. A tropical storm will normally have great impact on the coastal morphology when it hits, but the coastal morphology will first and foremost be determined by the normal wave climate, which can be either monsoon or swell climates. Mangor, K., Drønen, N. K., Kaergaard, K.H. and Kristensen, N.E. 2017. Shoreline management guidelines. DHI https://www.dhigroup.com/marine-water/ebook-shoreline-management-guidelines. Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.

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The Tyndall Glacier, one of the largest glaciers in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, is located in the Torres del Paine National Park on its margin and west limit, adjoining the Bernardo O’Higgins National Park. It has a total area of 331 square kilometers and an approximate extension of 30 kilometers, it has two arms, one of them very defined that falls towards Lake Geike, and the eastern arm towards the homonymous Lake, in which, it has already lost direct contact from the ice mass with the lake. Millions of years ago, when Patagonia was covered by the sea and the area where the Tyndall Glacier is today was near the marine coast, today it is in practice a natural museum of paleontology, demarcating in an extraordinary way the southernmost marine dinosaurs of the world, which was never believed, could be found so far south of the planet. This is the case of the Ichthyosaurs (dolphin-shaped “fish lizards”), was a species of marine reptile that lived in the Mesozoic era from the Lower Triassic until its extinction in the Upper Cretaceous, 245 million years ago), whose fossilized marks were captured in different places in the periglacial zone of the Tyndall. As the Glacier retreats from its position, it leaves a trail of once abundant marine fauna visible and, for reasons of geotectonic activity, these species were trapped by great cataclysms and displacements of the Earth’s crust, being captured and deposited on the seabed, covered by the mud and in an oxygen-free environment that allowed their conservation and the opportunity to be observed in the place where they perished. Currently, the entire area of the Tyndall Glacier is closed to tourist activities, except for the procedures that involve scientific activities and the study of the fossils that are preserved in the area. The Tyndall Glacier is today a very important focus of observation and exploration of ichthyosaurs worldwide, and with which it seeks to decipher one of the greatest questions in science, how and why ichthyosaurs evolved.

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Open Source Library Open Source Library Definition In computer science, a library refers to a collection of precompiled, reusable files, functions, scripts, routines, and other resources that can be referenced by computer programmers, often for software development. An open source library is any library with an open source license, which denotes software that is free to reuse, modify, and/or publish without permission. What is an Open Source Library? Open source library software in computer science provides an easier means for programmers to develop dynamic interfaces by storing readily accessible and frequently used routines and resources, such as classes, configuration data, documentation, help data, message templates, pre-written code and subroutines, type specifications, and values. These precompiled modules are stored in object format and organized in such a way that they can be used by multiple, unconnected programs. An open source library uses a General Public License, which guarantees end users the freedom to legally run, study, share and modify the software. Examples of Open Source Libraries Benefits of Open Source Libraries Libraries are very useful for computer programmers as they provide access to reusable, pre-written, frequently used codes, which drastically reduces the workload as programmers can reference this code instead of writing everything from scratch every time. The benefits of open source software include - Community: Open source solutions are driven by a large, diverse, and talented community with a common goal of working together to quickly develop improvements and troubleshoot issues. - Cost: Open source libraries and other open source solutions decrease the overall cost of deploying a solution by eliminating any licensing fees. - Reliability: With a diverse and large group of humans reviewing open source libraries and software, open source output is thoroughly tested and tends to be highly robust and reliable. - Security: Having a large number of participants involved in the development of open source solutions increases the chances of discovering and resolving security vulnerabilities. - Transparency: Full visibility into the code base provides transparency, enabling users to develop an expectation as to what they will be working with. Does HEAVY.AI Offer Open Source Library Solutions?

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An international team, led by archaeologists from Freie Universität Berlin has uncovered an ancient prehistoric fortress in a remote region of Siberia known as Amnya. According to a study, published in the scientific journal “Antiquity”, the fortress is a complex system of defensive structures around an ancient settlement, dating from 8,000 years ago. The fortress is spread across two settlement clusters, Amnya I and Amnya II. Amnya I consists of extant surface features such as banks and ditches, which enclose the tip of a promontory, and 10 house pit depressions. Ten further house pits, located approximately 50m to the east, comprise the open settlement of Amnya II. Excavations have uncovered approximately 45 pottery vessels within the wider complex, including pointed and flat-based forms that reflect two distinct typological traditions. The Amnya settlement complex signifies the start of a distinctive, enduring trend of defensive sites among hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia—an almost continuous tradition that persisted for nearly eight millennia until the Early Modern period. Tanja Schreiber, archaeologist at the Institute of Prehistoric Archaeology in Berlin and co-author of the study, explains, “Through detailed archaeological examinations at Amnya, we collected samples for radiocarbon dating, confirming the prehistoric age of the site and establishing it as the world’s oldest-known fort. “Our new palaeobotanical and stratigraphical examinations reveal that inhabitants of Western Siberia led a sophisticated lifestyle based on the abundant resources of the taiga environment,” added Schrieber. The construction of fortifications by foraging groups has been observed in different parts of the world, primarily in coastal regions during later prehistoric periods. However, the early in inland western Siberia is unparalleled. According to the researchers, the discovery transforms how we perceive ancient human communities, questioning the notion that the establishment of permanent settlements with grand architecture and intricate social systems began solely with the rise of agriculture. Header Image Credit: Nikita Golovanov

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Children's allergies refer to diseases in which children experience allergic reactions after exposure to allergens. As children's immune systems are not fully developed, they are more prone to allergic reactions to allergens. This informational article will discuss the characteristics and common allergens of children's allergies, prevention and management strategies, as well as how to control indoor environments and avoid the impact of allergens on children. Characteristics and Common Allergens of Children's Allergies： - Characteristics of Children's Allergies Children's allergies have some differences compared to allergies in adults. As children's immune systems are not fully developed, they are more susceptible to allergic reactions to allergens. Common symptoms of children's allergies include nasal congestion, runny nose, coughing, and itching skin. Diagnosing and treating children's allergies require consideration of their age and physiological characteristics. Common Allergens in Children Common allergens in children are similar to those in adults, including dust mites, pollen, and pet dander. Additionally, certain foods such as milk, eggs, peanuts, fish, and nuts are also common allergens in children. Understanding common allergens in children helps in early identification and control of allergic symptoms. Prevention and Management Strategies for Children's Allergies： - Avoiding Allergen Exposure Prevention is the key to managing children's allergies. Avoiding allergen exposure is an effective strategy to prevent allergic reactions. Parents can take measures such as avoiding specific foods and regularly cleaning indoor environments based on their children's allergens. Allergy Medications for Treatment For symptoms of children's allergies, doctors may recommend using allergy medications such as antihistamines, nasal sprays, etc., to alleviate symptoms. However, when using medications, it is important to follow the doctor's guidance and pay attention to dosage and timing. Indoor Environmental Control and Allergen Avoidance Strategies for Children's Allergies： - Indoor Environmental Control Maintaining cleanliness and appropriate humidity in children's living environments is crucial for preventing allergies. Regularly cleaning bedding, carpets, and furniture, as well as ensuring indoor ventilation and dryness, can reduce the proliferation of dust mites and mold, minimizing exposure to allergens. Allergen Avoidance Strategies For specific allergens, such as food allergens, parents can implement strict dietary control measures to prevent children from coming into contact with allergenic foods. For pet allergens, it may be helpful to maintain a certain distance from pets, regularly clean them, and reduce their indoor activity. Conclusion: Understanding the characteristics and common allergens of children's allergies is significant for the prevention and management of these conditions. By understanding the characteristics and common allergens of children's allergies, parents can take appropriate preventive measures to reduce exposure to allergens and alleviate symptoms. Controlling indoor environments and avoiding the impact of allergens on children are effective management strategies. Importantly, parents should collaborate with doctors for regular monitoring and management of children's allergies to ensure their health and comfort.

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Hydrocephalus is a condition brought about by disturbances of cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] within the brain and spinal canal. The brain and spinal cord float in this clear, colourless fluid – that is the CSF. CSF is produced deep inside the brain in cavities called ventricles. The CSF flows through a series of channels out from the centre of the brain onto the surface where it is then reabsorbed through structures called arachnoid villi. The CSF is produced at a constant rate and therefore anything that disturbs its flow and/or reabsorption will produce a build-up of this fluid. The build-up of the fluid lead, most commonly, to enlargement of the ventricles of the brain thereby producing hydrocephalus [“literally water on the brain”]. There is a large range of conditions that can cause hydrocephalus including congenital and acquired. Of the acquired conditions these can include a brain haemorrhage, brain tumours and head injuries. Sometimes neurosurgery operations themselves on the brain can lead to a secondary hydrocephalus. As with the range of causes of hydrocephalus there are a range of treatment options. Hydrocephalus can be temporary, for example it may occur after an intracranial operation. In this situation the CSF can be drained either through a lumbar puncture or a temporary tube passed from the ventricle to a sterile collection bag by the bed [an external ventricular drain]. If more permanent CSF drainage is required then the options include a ventriculoperitoneal [VP] shunt and endoscopic third ventriculoscopy [ETV]. A VP shunt is an internalised set of tubing controlled by a valve that drains the fluid from the ventricles of the brain to the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen. An ETV is effectively an internal drainage system that does not require any tubing and effectively is designed to by-pass the obstruction. The decision making as to whether hydrocephalus should be treated with temporary or permanent techniques and the nature of those techniques will be the responsibility of the consultant neurosurgeon. There are two other conditions characterised by disturbance of flow of cerebrospinal fluid, namely idiopathic intracranial hypertension and normal pressure hydrocephalus. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension is again characterised by a disturbance of absorption of CSF in the context of normal production. In this case the symptoms are those of raised intracranial pressure including headache and potential visual problems. For reasons that are not well understood the ventricles do not enlarge and therefore the scan appearances often look formal. The treatment of this rare condition is challenging and is managed by a combination of neurologists and neurosurgeons specialising in the condition. Normal pressure hydrocephalus is again a rare variant of CSF disturbance that is characterised by a set of very unusual clinical features and can be treated by a VP shunt. Again it is emphasised that this is a very rare condition.

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The term biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth. This can include different species of plants and animals, as well as different types of ecosystems. There are many ways that humans can increase biodiversity. One way is to protect natural habitats, such as forests or coral reefs. This helps to preserve the existing diversity of plant and animal species. Another way to increase biodiversity is to restore damaged habitats, such as wetlands or grasslands. This can provide new homes for wildlife and help to bring back lost species. Lastly, people can also promote biodiversity by creating new habitats, such as community gardens or birdhouses. By taking any of these actions, we can help make our planet a more diverse and exciting place for all creatures to live! - Biodiversity can be increased in a number of ways, including: 1 - Establishing protected areas: Protected areas are critical for conserving biodiversity - They provide safe havens for species and help to ensure that populations are not lost due to human activities - Connecting habitats: By creating corridors between different habitat patches, we can help increase the amount of available space for species and reduce the risk of local extinctions - Improving land management practices: Land management practices such as sustainable agriculture and forestry can help to conserve biodiversity by reducing the impacts of human activities on natural ecosystems - Reducing pollution and other environmental stressors: Pollution and other environmental stressors such as climate change can have a negative impact on biodiversity - Reducing these stressors can help to protect species and their habitats What are the 3 Factors That Increase Biodiversity? Biodiversity, or the variety of life on Earth, is important for many reasons. It can provide us with food, fuel, medicine, and other resources. It helps keep our ecosystems healthy and can help us adapt to a changing climate. Biodiversity also makes our planet more beautiful. There are many factors that contribute to biodiversity. Here are three of the most important ones: 1. The number of different species: The more species there are in an ecosystem, the more biodiverse it is. This is because each species has its own unique role to play in the functioning of the ecosystem. For example, some plants may provide food for animals while others may help control pests or produce oxygen. 2. The number of individuals: Even if two ecosystems have the same number of species, they can still differ in terms of biodiversity if one has more individuals than the other. This is because each individual represents a potential source of genetic variation within a species. This variation is important for things like resistance to disease and adaptation to changes in the environment. 3. The degree of genetic diversity: Genetic diversity refers to the amount of variation within a species’ gene pool. A higher degree of genetic diversity means that there is a greater chance that at least some individuals will be able to survive and reproduce in changed conditions (such as those brought about by climate change). How Can Biodiversity Be Increased And Decreased? Biodiversity can be increased in a number of ways, including through habitat restoration, reforestation, and introduction of new species. Biodiversity can also be decreased by human activities such as deforestation, overfishing, and pollution. How to Maximise Biodiversity in Your Garden! The world’s biodiversity is in decline, and this has serious consequences for the planet’s ecosystems. To increase biodiversity, we need to take action at both the global and local levels. At the global level, we need to reduce human-caused pollution and habitat destruction. We can also help by supporting organizations that are working to conserve endangered species and habitats. At the local level, we can take steps to create habitat for wildlife in our own yards and gardens. By planting native plants and providing food, water, and shelter, we can attract a variety of birds, insects, and other animals. We can also participate in community efforts to restore natural areas.

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Disclosure: this post contains affiliate links, which means I may receive a commission if you click a link and purchase something at no extra cost to you. Please check out our policies page for more details. In today’s experiment, we’ll walk through an exciting technology experiment for kids: building conductive dough circuits. Building a conductive dough circuit will not only ignite your child’s imagination but also help them grasp fundamental concepts of electricity and circuits. You only need a few supplies to build a simple circuit today, so grab them and let’s get going! How to make the Spark Curiosity Conductive Dough technology experiment Supplies you will need For this experiment, you will need the following: - AA batteries - 2 battery holders - Electrical wires - Wires with alligator clips - Optional: small buzzers, motors, switches, or other electric components that can be added to the circuit If you want to buy several of the supplies needed for this experiment in one kit, we purchased this kit that has battery holders, wires, motors, switches, and other super helpful tools to use for technology experiments. Before you start If you don’t have some of these supplies, don’t worry! I’ll show you a couple of modifications below. Keep an eye on your child during this experiment, since we do not want any of the supplies needed in little mouths. Here is how to do this experiment with your toddler: Step 1: Connect two battery packs The LEDs we bought have a forward voltage of a little over 3V, which only gave off a slight light when we completed the circuit. We decided to run two battery packs in series to get a brighter light. Using one of your alligator clips, clip to the exposed end of the black (negative) wire from one battery pack and clip to the red (positive) wire on the other battery pack. You now have two battery packs running in a series! Step 2: Add batteries Next, let’s get some power! Insert two AA batteries per pack. Step 3: Insert wires from battery packs into Play-Doh Take the red wire from one of the battery packs and insert it inside the Play-Doh. Make sure the wire is not sticking all the way through the dough; it should be settled as close to the center of the Play-Doh as possible. Next, take the black wire from the other battery pack and insert it into the other dough ball. Here, I’m showing a super basic circuit just to show what it should look like (minus the LED, which is the next step). But, if your child is up for it, why not get creative with our Play-Doh? Here are a few fun ideas: - Spell their name - Do some math equations with it - See how many shapes they can build with the dough Step 4: Insert LED to complete the circuit Now to the technology part: connecting everything and seeing what lights up! First, let’s talk about how an LED lights up so we know where to place things. There are two legs on an LED: an anode and a cathode. The anode (the positive end of the LED) is represented by the longer leg of the LED. The cathode (the negative end) is the shorter of the two legs. When we run current through an LED, we need to be sure to connect the cathode with the negative current and the anode with the positive current. Now, back to our experiment! Separate the legs of the LED enough that you can place the anode in one Play-Doh shape and the cathode in the other piece of Play-Doh. Pierce the anode into the Play-Doh with the red wire inserted inside of it. Then, pierce the cathode into the Play-Doh with the black wire inserted into it to close your circuit. You’ve just created a circuit! Step 5: Talk about it Once you’ve built the circuit, we can talk about what just happened. Talk about the order that everything had to be in for it to work (and what might happen if it wasn’t in the right order). You can also play with other components if you have them, like switches, motors, buzzers, etc. to see what they do in the circuit. Remember to adapt the activity to your child’s age and abilities. If it’s overwhelming to add the optional supplies like buzzers and motors, stick with the simple circuit we walked through above. The technology behind the Spark Curiosity Conductive Dough technology experiment This experiment teaches: - Basic understanding of circuits and electricity - Problem-solving and critical thinking - Creativity and imagination How it works In this experiment, Play-Doh is used to create a circuit. Play-Doh contains salt and water, making it conductive and allowing electricity to flow through it. When a battery is connected to the circuit, it provides a power source. This allows electric current to flow through the Play-Doh. Components like LEDs can be added to the circuit to close it, which makes the LED light up. Basic understanding of circuits and electricity This experiment serves as a great introduction to help kids grasp fundamental concepts about circuits and electricity. They can learn that electricity needs a complete path (circuit) to flow and that conductive materials allow electricity to pass through them (you could even switch it up and try the experiment with homemade dough without salt – see what happens!). By experimenting with different circuit configurations and observing the behavior of the lights and/or other components, they can understand cause-and-effect relationships and the concept of closed circuits. Problem-solving and critical thinking Running this experiment with your child is a great way to build problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. In this experiment, we will face challenges, like making sure the dough shapes connect properly, troubleshooting when the circuit doesn’t work, or experimenting with different arrangements to get the right outcome. While you’re going through this experiment, encourage your child to think through their observations and make adjustments to foster problem-solving skills. You could ask them questions like: - If we take out all of our Play-Doh, what do you think will happen? - What if we use less voltage? Do you think the lights will be brighter or less bright? Asking these open-ended questions gives your child a chance to think through the experiment, piece by piece. Creativity and imagination A great aspect of this experiment is it allows your child to be as creative as they want without really harming the experiment. They can design and shape the dough into various forms, from simple shapes to intricate sculptures. It’s a good opportunity to create fun designs and unleash their creativity! More experiments to try out with your child Did you know that you can make your own working thermometer using a few supplies and some cool (pun intended) science? The Temperature Tracker experiment helps children understand how temperature... We've heard that all snowflakes are different, but in today's experiment, we are growing a very unique snowflake. The Snowflake Magic experiment explores crystal growth by watching sugar crystals...

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A groundbreaking genomic analysis of ancient human remains from KwaZulu-Natal has unveiled southern Africa's pivotal role in shaping the history of humankind. Published in the early online issue of Science on September 28th, the research, conducted by a collaborative team from Uppsala University in Sweden and the Universities of Johannesburg and Witwatersrand in South Africa, sheds light on the genetic makeup of individuals who lived in southern Africa 2300-300 years ago. The research team sequenced the genomes of seven individuals, with the three oldest dating back to 2300-1800 years ago displaying genetic ties to the descendants of southern Khoe-San groups. In contrast, the four younger individuals, who lived 500-300 years ago, were found to be genetically related to contemporary Bantu-speaking groups in South Africa. Co-first author Carina Schlebusch, a population geneticist at Uppsala University, notes that this genetic shift highlights a significant population replacement in southern Africa. The estimated divergence among modern humans, based on ancient Stone Age hunter-gatherer genomes, is proposed to have occurred between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago. This timeline challenges previous notions, suggesting that modern humans emerged earlier than commonly believed. Mattias Jakobsson, the project's leader and a population geneticist at Uppsala University, highlights the deep split time of 350,000 years ago, comparing an ancient Stone Age hunter-gatherer from Ballito Bay in South Africa to the West African Mandinka. The new timeline, spanning 350,000-260,000 years ago, aligns with the Florisbad and Hoedjiespunt fossils in southern Africa, contemporaneous with the small-brained Homo naledi. Marlize Lombard, Stone Age archaeologist at the University of Johannesburg, notes that this period saw the coexistence of at least two or three Homo species in southern Africa, including Homo naledi. Contrary to expectations, the genomic analysis did not reveal evidence of deep structure or archaic admixture among southern African Stone Age hunter-gatherers. Instead, the West African population showed some evidence of deep structure, affecting a small fraction of their genome and aligning with the earliest divergence among all humans, according to Mattias Jakobsson. The research team also uncovered evidence that all present-day Khoe-San populations experienced admixture with migrant East African pastoralists a little over a thousand years ago. Carina Schlebusch notes that previous limitations in detecting this widespread East African admixture were due to the absence of an un-admixed San group as a reference. With access to ancient DNA predating the East African migration, the researchers could discern admixture percentages in all San groups. Particularly noteworthy is the higher-than-estimated admixture percentages in the Khoekhoe, traditionally identified as pastoralists. Among the Iron Age individuals studied, three carried at least one Duffy null allele, providing protection against malaria, while two possessed at least one sleeping-sickness-resistance variant in the APOL1 gene. Notably, the Stone Age individuals lacked these protective alleles. Helena Malmström, co-first author and archaeo-geneticist at Uppsala University, emphasizes that this indicates Iron Age farmers carried disease-resistance variants upon their migration to southern Africa. Marlize Lombard underscores the archaeological evidence dating back to the split 350,000-260,000 years ago, indicating the presence of tool-making hunter-gatherers in South Africa during that time. While human fossils from this period are scarce, those from Florisbad and Hoedjiespunt are considered transitional to modern humans. These fossils may serve as ancestral links to individuals like the Ballito Bay boy and other San hunter-gatherers in southern Africa 2000 years ago. Contrary to the notion of a single point of origin for anatomically modern humans in Africa, recent findings, including those from northern Africa, suggest a multiregional origin. Carina Schlebusch emphasizes the growing consensus from both paleoanthropological and genetic evidence, indicating that Homo sapiens did not emerge from a singular location in Africa. Instead, the evolution from older forms likely occurred in various regions across the continent, with gene flow between distinct groups. Helena Malmström expresses the significance of sequencing entire genomes from ancient human remains in tropical areas, such as the southeast coast of South Africa, highlighting the promising avenues for ongoing investigations in Africa. Collectively, these findings contribute new dimensions to our understanding of deep African history, emphasizing the ongoing importance of unraveling the intricate interplay between genetics and archaeology in tracing the path to modern humans. Source: Uppsala University

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It refers to the difference in earnings between men and women in the workforce. It is typically measured by comparing the median or average earnings of full-time men and women. The gender wage gap is often expressed as a percentage, representing how much less women earn than men. This disparity in earnings results from various factors, including occupational segregation, Discrimination, differences in work experience, and societal norms. For More Info: The Gender Pay Gap - fact or fiction Sign up now to get updated on latest posts and relevant career opportunities

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The ISS faces health concerns: a study published in the journal Microbiome has just listed the bacteria and fungi present in the station. One could imagine a space station as sanitized as an operating room. Yet it is not, as just revealed an article published in the journal Microbiome. NASA researchers have listed an alarming amount of bacteria and fungi on the interior surfaces of the ISS. As many germs as in a gym While a survey published last month indicated that half of the astronauts who had stayed onboard the ISS were affected by the herpes virus, this week we learned that they could be exposed to many other potential problems. The researchers cataloged the germs found on board the station and especially noted a large presence of staphylococcus, pantoae (a kind of proteobacteria) and bacilli. A discovery to improve security measures To achieve such results, researchers used traditional culture techniques and methods of genetic sequencing. They were able to analyze samples collected during three flights over 14 months, in different places of the space station: the observation window, the toilets, the exercise platform, the table where the meals are taken and the sleeping space. The organisms found are considered opportunistic pathogenic bacteria on Earth but it has not been proven that they can develop into diseases in astronauts aboard the ISS. Consideration should be given to several factors including the health of each individual and how these organisms behave in space. “Detecting these potentially disease-causing bacteria highlights the importance of continuing research to examine how these SSI microbes evolve in such an environment,” said Dr. Aleksandra Checinska Sielaff, the lead author of the study. In addition to the health of the six astronauts currently on board, the deepening of this discovery could also serve us. As Dr. Kasthuri Venkateswaran, also a scientist and co-author of the report, explains, “these results can also impact our understanding of other enclosed and confined spaces, such as clean rooms used in the medical or medical industry.”

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What eats algae? ↓ Keep reading to watch this amazing video Did you know experts say algae could be the food of the future? According to the BBC, microalgae are rich in amino acids, proteins, fatty acids and vitamins. Even the Journal of Applied Phycology considers algae as a nutritional and functional food source for animals and humans. Are you still wondering why algae are essential and what is responsible for forming the energy base of the food web for nearly all water-based organisms? We'll cover all of this further in this article. What are algae? Algae are a group of aquatic, autotrophic, nucleated organisms of the kingdom Protists, without true roots, leaves, or stems. They also lack unique cell and tissue types found in other plants, such as phloem, stomata and xylem, but produce food that in turn provides the energy base for other organisms. These photosynthetic organisms produce food internally and reproduce through sexual or asexual (vegetative) reproduction methods. Algae thrive in freshwater lakes or saltwater oceans and tolerate a wide range of temperatures. Some algae live on land and grow in unexpected places like tree trunks, animal fur, snowdrifts, hot springs and soil. The importance of algae To put it bluntly, algae are huge contributors to our environment and to other living things, as they produce oxygen for all living things through photosynthesis. These aquatic nucleated organisms produce up to 50 percent of the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, which humans and other organisms use to breathe. Surprisingly, they don't compete with plants, but they serve as fertilizers to help grow crops efficiently. In addition to their many properties, they boost the immune system of fish, improve the fitness of marine invertebrates, provide an attractive natural appearance to the aquarium, and help clean the aquarium ecosystem as a form of filtration. With such high regard for these autotrophs, we'd be wise to dig a little deeper to find out where in the food chain they occur and what algae they typically eat. What eats algae? Many aquatic consumers, such as zooplankton, tadpoles , algavores (algivore), small fish, crustaceans, and aquatic insects, rely on algae as their main food source . Snails, crabs, and sea urchins also eat algae, but they have been known to eat red sticky algae, green membrane algae, hair algae, phaemenium algae, and many other types of algae in saltwater. Generally, these various species of aquatic consumers feed on algae, and interestingly, along the food chain, they become prey to larger marine organisms such as fish – which humans feed on. In fact, algae are the basis for the different energy productions of plants and animals. Let's take a look at what eats algae one by one. In freshwater, some fish such as plecostomus, kuhli loach, otocinclus, bristlenose pleco, Siamese algae-eater, Chinese algae-eater, flying fox, and mountain stream loach feed on algae. Plecostomus are a group of omnivores that include sucker catfish of various sizes. Diet choices for plecos vary, and they will eat anything on the menu, from algae, fish food, thawed frozen food, wood fiber, shrimp, to insects. Octocinclus eats algae and biofilms, which accumulate on plants and rocks. The Chinese algae-eating fish is a unique small sucker fish, interestingly, the shape of its sucker mouth allows it to forage algae efficiently on rocks and plants. On the other hand, mountain stream loaches eat algae. However, they cannot survive long-term on these diets alone unless their diets contain a variety of other high-quality nutrients. Shrimp are also excellent algae eaters in freshwater — these sea creatures are opportunistic omnivores, eating everything from algae to plankton. Fascinatingly, they are not selective about what they eat, so by default they will eat all types of algae, especially if they collect on hard surfaces in tanks or ponds. Some popular shrimp species known to eat algae include ghost shrimp, cherry shrimp, amano shrimp, bamboo shrimp, grass shrimp, snowball shrimp, bee shrimp, and Sulawesi cardinal shrimp. Many snails in freshwater, including shallow sea snails, apple snails, Ramshorn snails, rabbit snails, pond snails, Malaysian trumpet snails, and sun snails, eat algae. Snails play an important role in maintaining freshwater aquariums by removing algae, dead plant material, dead fish, and other debris. The incredible importance of these snails is that they inhabit freshwater aquariums, helping to recycle waste and reduce tank maintenance requirements. Crabs are omnivores, and interestingly, they like to eat protein and algae. Two common species of algae-eating crab are the sally lightfoot crab and the common mithrax crab. Several crabs inhabit the bottom of the sea, under rocks and coral reefs. When crabs inhabit these aquatic habitats, they prey on food such as algae, organic matter, carcasses and waste. With the help of their claws, these adorable sea creatures grab food and put it in their mouths. Sea urchins are good algae eaters, congregating mainly in cooler inshore waters. Interestingly, they will enter shallow water in search of food. Sea urchins possess a structure called an Aristotelian lantern, consisting of five rigid plates that come together like a beak to enable them to feed. They scrape algae off rocks with their beaks. Their sharp teeth can also crush plankton, kelp, periwinkle, and sometimes even barnacles and mussels. Fascinatingly, they can regenerate teeth to replace worn ones. Tadpoles are primarily herbivores, eating soft vegetation such as duckweed, moss, and algae. In fact, they are too small to eat the same food as frogs. Their diet varies by species, but for the first few days after birth they will insist on a diet of algae. other algae-eating animals - Some turtles (wood turtles, sea turtles, Midland painted turtles, red-eared turtles eat algae) - Antarctic krill List of animals that eat algae Here is a list of animals that eat algae: - sea turtle Are Chlorella Herbivores? Algae are generally classified as plants rather than animals, and they are sometimes considered protists. Chlorella are neither herbivores, carnivores, nor omnivores, and fascinatingly, they make food through photosynthesis. How do algae defend themselves? It is impossible for any creature to be eaten without wanting to defend itself. Some algae, especially those rich in calcium carbonate, are complex, mostly rocky, and unattractive, so they tend to use their traits to ward off predatory herbivores. These aquatic autotrophs also produce defensive chemicals to protect themselves from predators. Chlorella and the like contain high concentrations of toxic protective chemicals to keep herbivores from eating them. - Saw an alligator biting an electric eel with 860 volts - The 15 Deepest Lakes in America - Watch rare coyotes and bobcats now More from AZ Animals Thanks for reading! Have some feedback for us? Contact the 10hunting.com editorial team.

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A Rice University graduate student has identified a new subcompartment within peroxisomes, cellular organelles involved in metabolism, and suggested they may play important roles in managing fatty acids and offer a window into a range of disorders. First observed in 1954, peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids and form compounds used elsewhere in the cell during metabolism. They affect cancer and aging as part of their work in the immune response and balancing levels of oxidation agents, which can damage cell structures at high concentrations. Years before his discovery was published in a paper in Nature Communications, Zachary Wright was investigating the formation of peroxisomes at Rice. He genetically modified a sample of peroxisomes to produce fluorescent proteins and was surprised to see that they contained numerous inner membranes, which were later dubbed intralumenal vesicles, or ILVs. In his images, ILVs lit up in a bright green, while the rest of the peroxisome were colored magenta. Measuring in at roughly 1 micrometer or less wide, the peroxisomes were not known to have additional structures beyond its outer membrane — besides a temporary crystalline core that can form with a high concentration of some enzymes. “(Peroxisomes) were supposed to just be a simple single-membrane sac, and instead I saw these membranes inside of them,” Wright said. “I remember I thought it was wrong, and I thought I was just looking at something else.” After confirming that his observations weren't experimental artifacts and convincing his professor and coauthor, plant biologist Bonnie Bartel, Wright found that scientists noticed ILVs several times in the 1960s and 1970s. But at the time, researchers didn't look closely at them, because of preoccupation on other matters and limited microscope technology . Wright benefited from studying cells of Arabidopsis thaliana, a flowering plant native to Europe, Asia and Africa with peroxisomes dozens of times larger than mammalian cells and easier-to-spot ILVs. The unusually large organelles are thought to handle the large amounts of fat that the plants’ seeds store until growth begins. (Widely used in plant biology and genetics, Arabidopsis thaliana was the first plant to have its genome mapped back in 2000.) The ILVs appear to be constructed from the peroxisome’s outer membrane, according to Wright and Bartel. They took time-lapse photos of peroxisomes in a maturing seedling cell, and they observed peroxisomes shrink as they fill with more ILVs. Another test with fluorescent reporters showed only some ILVs glowing, leading the researchers to suggest that the membranes of subcompartments within a single peroxisome may contain different proteins. As for the subcompartments’ functions, the researchers believe that they aid in metabolism by importing fatty acids into the peroxisome — and preventing the hydrophobic compounds from haphazardly bonding to cell membranes in a water environment. If accurate, this could explain why peroxisomes evolved to break down fats when mitochondria already could, they said: Mitochondria struggle to safely metabolize fatty acids with long chains, which are more hydrophobic than short ones, while the ILVs help peroxisomes process them more effectively. The authors said that understanding the functions of ILVs, and how their functions get distorted by mutations, could shed light on cancers and peroxisomal disorders, a category of rare hereditary conditions stemming from defects in peroxisomes. These include X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, which can degrade brain function and lead to death at a young age, and Zellweger spectrum disorders, which can create neurological issues, abnormal facial features and other organ defects. Wright said he plans to continue his initial research pursuit into peroxisome formation but that his findings open up a lot of new questions about how the organelles work and the role that ILVs play. “This is the kind of result that is going to open up a lot more avenues than our lab can pursue alone,” Wright said. The article, “Peroxisomes form intralumenal vesicles with roles in fatty acid catabolism and protein compartmentalization in Arabidopsis,” was published Dec. 4 in Nature Communications. The authors of the study were Zachary Wright and Bonnie Bartel, Rice University. The lead author was Zachary Wright.

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- Sensitive instruments reveal methane beneath the Arctic Ocean for the first time. - The gas is released in cycles that correspond to the tides. - Rising warming oceans may help to contain the greenhouse gas. It’s a rhythm that preceded our presence on Earth: The moon’s inexorable push and pull on our planet’s oceans. According to researchers at University of Tromsø, The Arctic University of Norway, it turns out that the moon does more than move the tides—it also controls the release of methane into the atmosphere from below the Arctic Ocean. There’s no reason to think it’s not true in other seas as well. This is yet another example of the complexity of global warming, methane being the other major greenhouse gas. All sorts of things are involved in keeping the environment in balance that one would never expect, like the moon. The study points out that it’s not all bad news, however, since as the oceans rise they may help the moon in controlling methane’s release. The study is published in the journal Nature Communications. Credit: Andreia Plaza Faverola Methane often takes second billing to carbon dioxide in discussions of climate change, likely because it dissipates much more quickly. However, its warming effect is actually far more intense that CO2‘s — it is 84 times more potent. Methane makes up about 25 percent of our greenhouse gases. Says co-author of the study Andreia Plaza Faverola, “We noticed that gas accumulations, which are in the sediments within a meter from the seafloor, are vulnerable to even slight pressure changes in the water column. Low tide means less of such hydrostatic pressure and higher intensity of methane release. High tide equals high pressure and lower intensity of the release.” This phenomenon has not been previously observed. While significant gas hydrate concentrations have been sampled in the area, no methane release had been documented. “It is the first time that this observation has been made in the Arctic Ocean,” says co-author Jochen Knies. “It means that slight pressure changes can release significant amounts of methane. This is a game-changer and the highest impact of the study.” Credit: Przemyslaw Domel The researchers buried a tool called a piezometer in the sediment on the ocean floor, and left it in place for four days. During that time, the instrument made hourly measurements of pressure and temperature in the sediments, and these indicated the presence of methane close to the sea floor, increasing at low tide and decreasing at high tide. Their first notable observation was, of course, the presence of the gas on the Arctic Ocean floor despite a lack of other more visible indicators of its presence. “This tells us that gas release from the seafloor is more widespread than we can see using traditional sonar surveys,” says Plaza Faverola. “We saw no bubbles or columns of gas in the water.” She credits the watchful presence of the piezometer for making the discovery: “Gas burps that have a periodicity of several hours won’t be identified unless there is a permanent monitoring tool in place, such as the piezometer.” Enthuses Knies, “What we found was unexpected and the implications are big. This is a deep-water site. Small changes in pressure can increase the gas emissions but the methane will still stay in the ocean due to the water depth.” Of course, not all the Earth’s waters are equally deep, and there may not be enough water weight in some places to contain the methane below. “But what happens in shallower sites?” asks Knies. “This approach needs to be done in shallow Arctic waters as well, over a longer period. In shallow water, the possibility that methane will reach the atmosphere is greater.” The basic mechanics at play are simple. Higher tides mean more water pressing down on the methane, and this increased pressure keeps it from rising away from the sea floor. Low tide means less water, less pressure, and a greater opportunity for the methane to escape. The researchers note in their study that this simple relationship may actually offer a silver lining to the rising of the world’s ocean as the planet cools. There will be more water, and thus more pressure to keep methane from escaping up and into the atmosphere. In essence, higher sea levels may have something of a cooling effect by keeping methane out of the atmosphere. In the end, there’s not much we can do about the Moon and its tides, but the more knowledge we have of the mechanisms behind climate change the better. As Plaza Faverola puts it: “Earth systems are interconnected in ways that we are still deciphering, and our study reveals one of such interconnections in the Arctic: The moon causes tidal forces, the tides generate pressure changes, and bottom currents that in turn shape the seafloor and impact submarine methane emissions. Fascinating!”

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Quick mobile reference for nurses Skip to content The history and examination What are the steps in the general examination of a child? The first meeting Why is the introduction important? How should you address a child? Why is it important to listen to mothers? Why is it important to keep the language simple? The review of any referral information What is the value of a referral letter? What is the value of the Road-to-Health Card? What basic information is needed? Why are the age and gender important? How should the child’s size be recorded? How should you measure the child’s temperature? How do you start taking a history? Why is it important to obtain a good history? Who should give the history? What are the main parts of the history? What is important to ask about in the present history? What is important in the past history? What is needed in the immunisation history? Why may the social (home, family, school, economic) history be important? What question in the social history should not be forgotten? What special questions should be asked? When can an interpreter help in taking a history? Why is confidentiality important in history taking? What can be learned by observing the mother and child during history taking? The physical examination What are the steps in the physical examination? In what order should the steps of the examination be done? What are the components of each step of the physical examination? What is the most important component of the examination? Where should the examination be done? Should the child be undressed for the examination? What is the best approach to the general and regional inspection? How are the body systems examined? What are important danger signs? What are the early signs of dehydration? What special examination may be needed? What are the 10 common errors in the general examination of a child? What special investigations are usually needed? What additional investigations may be needed? What is the assessment? What is a problem list? How do you make a diagnosis? A plan of action What is a plan of action? Writing good clinical notes What is the importance of good clinical notes? How detailed should your notes be? How should the notes of the first visit be laid out? How should progress notes be written? Should notes always be made in the Road-to-Health Card? What is immunity? What is immunisation? What are the advantages of immunisation? What immunisations should be given to young children? What is the expanded programme on immunisation How are immunisations given? Which vaccines are used in South Africa? When should immunisations be given? Why is it important to give immunisations at the recommended time? What should be done if immunisations are missed or never started? Why are immunisations opportunities often missed? How should immunisations be recorded? What should be done if the Road-to-Health Card is lost? Should infants born to HIV-positive women be immunised? Should infants with HIV infection be immunised? Should malnourished infants be immunised? Should small or sick newborn infants be immunised? Should routine immunisations be given to a sick child? Can immunisations be safely given to an allergic child? When are immunisations contraindicated? Is immunisation safe? What is BCG? How should BCG be stored and mixed? When should BCG be given? How is BCG given? What are the side effects of BCG immunisation? What are the contraindications to BCG immunisation? Which polio vaccine is used? How should polio vaccine be stored? How is live polio vaccine given? Should oral polio immunisation be given to a breastfeeding infant? What are the contraindications to polio immunisation? Immunisation against diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus (dpt) What is DPT vaccine? How should DPT vaccine be stored? How is DPT vaccine given? What are the side effects of DPT immunisation? What are the possible serious reactions to pertussis immunisation? When should pertussis vaccine not be given? What is DT vaccine? Why is pertussis vaccine not given after 18 months? What measles vaccine is used? How should measles vaccine be stored? How is measles vaccine given? When should measles immunisation be given? What are the complications of measles immunisation? What are the contraindications to measles immunisation? What is MMR vaccine? Immunisation against hepatitis b What is hepatitis B ? When and how is hepatitis B vaccine given? What are the side effects of hepatitis B vaccine? What is the management of an infant born to a mother who is infected with hepatitis B ? Immunisation against haemophilus influenzae What is Haemophilus influenzae? What is Hib vaccine? How is Hib vaccine stored? When and how is Hib vaccine given? Which other immunisations are available? Why is a booster dose of vaccine given? Why are some immunisations given on the left and others on the right side of the body? What equipment is used to give intramuscular immunisations? What is ‘herd immunity’? Which infectious diseases in children are notifiable? What are mass immunisation campaigns? What is important about storing and handling vaccines? What is ‘the cold chain’? What is the correct use of a vaccine fridge? What is a cool box? What is an opened multidose vial policy? Growth and development What is growth? Measuring body size How is body size determined in children? How is weight measured? How are height and length measured? How should head circumference be measured? How often should the size of children be measured? How is a child’s size used to assess growth? The importance of growth monitoring What is growth monitoring? What is the value of weight in growth monitoring? What is the value of measuring height and head circumference? Can an infant’s growth be determined at a single clinic visit? What is a centile chart? What are the important centiles on a centile chart? What is the normal size for children of a given age? What size measurements are usually plotted on a centile chart? When is a child larger than normal? When is a child smaller than normal? How should you plot a child’s weight on a centile chart? Can length and height both be plotted on the same chart? What is the value of knowing a child’s weight-for-height? What is a growth curve? What is the value of a growth curve? What is the normal growth rate? How fast should most children grow? Is weight or height the better measure of growth? Is it important if a child is heavier than normal? Is it important if a child is lighter than normal? What should you do if a child is heavier or lighter than normal? What is a growth pattern? What other growth patterns are common? How can you recognise a large-for-age child? Which children weigh too much? What is a wasted child? What is growth faltering? How can you recognise stunting? What is the long term effect of stunting? What is the common growth pattern in poor communities? When does the puberty growth spurt occur? What is the effect of emotion on growth? Overweight and obesity How do you decide whether a child is overweight? When is a child overweight? What is obesity? How do you manage childhood obesity? The road-to-health card What is the Road-to-Health Card? What is the importance of the growth chart? When should the Road-to-Health Card be used? What is growth promotion? When and where should children with growth problems be referred? What is neurodevelopment? How is neurodevelopment monitored? What are normal milestones? What is puberty? What are the physical changes during puberty? What is nutrition? What is the nutritional state? What is normal nutrition? What are the main nutrients in the diet? What are energy foods? Which foods are carbohydrates? Which foods are rich in fats and oils? Which foods are rich in protein? What are micronutrients? What is a well-balanced diet? What foods are needed by children? What is malnutrition? How is malnutrition recognised clinically? Which children are underweight? Which children are stunted? Which children are wasted? Why is malnutrition important? How is a clinical diagnosis of malnutrition confirmed? What are the common forms of malnutrition? Protein energy malnutrition What is protein-energy malnutrition? What are the forms of protein-energy malnutrition? Which children are underweight-for-age? Why is it important to detect underweight-for-age children? What is marasmus? What is kwashiorkor? What is marasmic kwashiorkor? How can you determine whether a child has malnutrition? How can the history help in the diagnosis of malnutrition? How can a general examination help in the diagnosis of malnutrition? How common is protein-energy malnutrition? What factors are commonly associated with malnutrition? What are the complications of severe malnutrition? How are malnutrition and infection related? Is malnutrition always due to a poor diet? What is the management of an underweight-for-age child? What is the management of severe malnutrition? What resuscitation is needed? What nutritional rehabilitation is required? How can you prevent malnutrition recurring? How should you address the underlying causes of malnutrition? What can be done to prevent malnutrition in poor communities? What is the effect of severe malnutrition on a child’s mental development? What are micronutrients? What are vitamins? What are the common vitamin deficiencies in children? Which children are at greatest risk of vitamin A deficiency? How does vitamin A deficiency present? How is vitamin A deficiency prevented? How is vitamin A deficiency treated? What are the B group vitamins? What is pellagra? What is scurvy? What is rickets? Trace element and mineral deficiencies What are trace element and mineral deficiencies? How common is iron deficiency? What are the common causes of iron deficiency in children? What are the clinical signs of iron deficiency? How is the diagnosis of iron deficiency confirmed? How can iron deficiency be prevented? What is anaemia? What are the presenting symptoms and signs of anaemia? What are the common causes of anaemia in children? What is the simplest method of confirming anaemia due to iron deficiency? What is the treatment of iron deficiency anaemia? Diagnosis and causes of diarrhoea What is diarrhoea? Is diarrhoea common? Can diarrhoea be dangerous? What are the common causes of diarrhoea? What infections cause diarrhoea? What food intolerances cause diarrhoea? What is gastroenteritis? What is acute diarrhoea? What is persistent diarrhoea? What is the relationship between diarrhoea and malnutrition? Is diarrhoea common in children with HIV infection? Which infants are at greatest risk of dying from diarrhoea? What is cholera? What is dysentery? What is typhoid? The complications of acute diarrhoea What are the complications of acute diarrhoea? How can you recognise dehydration? How can you recognise loss of skin turgor? How can the degree of dehydration be assessed? How can weight loss help to decide the degree of dehydration? What is shock? How is a delayed capillary filling time measured? What causes acidosis in children with diarrhoea? Why do children with diarrhoea lose electrolytes? What is ileus? What is the danger of hypoglycaemia? How is septicaemia recognised? What signs suggest that the diarrhoea may have a surgical cause? Treatment of diarrhoea What is the management of a child with acute diarrhoea? Will milk feeds make acute diarrhoea worse? Can children with acute diarrhoea continue to be fed solid food? Should anti-diarrhoeal medication be used to treat acute diarrhoea? Should antibiotics be routinely given to children with acute diarrhoea? What should you do if the child vomits a lot? Can a child with acute diarrhoea be treated at home? What is oral rehydration therapy? What is oral rehydration solution? What is commercial oral rehydration solution? How can a sugar and salt solution be made at home? Who should know how to make up sugar and salt solution for oral rehydration? When should oral rehydration therapy be started? How much oral rehydration solution should be given? Which children with acute diarrhoea should be referred to hospital? What is the management of persistent diarrhoea? What is the management of dysentery? Management of dehydration What is the management of a child with diarrhoea but no visible dehydration? What is the treatment of a child with some dehydration? What is the treatment of a child with severe dehydration? What is the treatment of dehydration resulting in shock? What fluids should be given once dehydration has been corrected? What is the value of zinc supplements in managing a child with diarrhoea? Prevention of diarrhoea Is acute diarrhoea preventable? Why do children commonly get diarrhoea? How can the risk of diarrhoea be reduced? How can a safe water supply be obtained? How can sanitation be improved? Why is cup-feeding safer than bottle-feeding? How can hygiene be improved? Upper respiratory tract conditions What is the upper respiratory tract? What is the lower respiratory tract? What is a common cold? What is the cause of a common cold? What are the signs and symptoms of the common cold? What are the complications of a common cold? How can the common cold be prevented? What is the management of a common cold? What is acute sinusitis? What are the symptoms and signs of sinusitis? What is the treatment of sinusitis? What is allergic rhinitis? What are the symptoms and signs of allergic rhinitis? What is the cause of allergic rhinitis? What is the management of allergic rhinitis? Pharyngitis and tonsillitis What is pharyngitis? What are the causes of pharyngitis? What are the symptoms and signs of pharyngitis? What are the complications of pharyngitis? What is the management of pharyngitis? What is tonsillitis? What are the signs of tonsillitis? What is the management of tonsillitis? What are the signs and management of enlarged adenoids? What is otitis media? What are the symptoms and signs of acute otitis media? What is the management of acute otitus media? What is chronic suppurative otitis media? What is the management of chronic suppurative otitis media? What is chronic secretory otitis media? What is the management of chronic secretory otitis media? What is otitis externa? What is the treatment of otitis externa? What is the epiglottis? What is epiglottitis? How is acute epiglottitis recognised? How must acute epiglottitis be managed? What is influenza? What are the symptoms and signs of influenza? What is the management of influenza? How can acute respiratory conditions be prevented? Lower respiratory tract conditions What is the lower respiratory tract? What are the signs of breathing difficulty? What are the signs of respiratory distress? What is stridor? What is chest indrawing? What is a wheeze? How can you tell when a child is breathing too fast? What is central cyanosis? What is viral croup? What are the presenting signs of viral croup? How is the degree of stridor assessed? What is the correct management of viral croup? What is bronchitis? What are the symptoms and signs of acute bronchitis? What is the management of acute bronchitis? What is bronchiolitis? What are the signs of bronchiolitis? What is the correct management of bronchiolitis? When should children with bronchiolitis be referred to hospital? What is pneumonia? What are the causes of pneumonia? What are the symptoms and signs of pneumonia? Should all children with pneumonia have chest X-rays? Is pneumonia a serious infection? How can you recognise severe pneumonia? What is the correct management of pneumonia? What antibiotics are used in pneumonia? What is asthma? How common is asthma? What are the symptoms of asthma? What are the clinical signs of asthma? What is the cause of asthma? How do inherited factors increase the risk of asthma? What is allergy? What trigger factors may start an attack of asthma? How is asthma diagnosed? How is the severity of asthma graded? What is the correct management of asthma? How is the severity of acute asthma assessed? How should acute asthma be treated? What should you do if there is no response? How should inhaled and nebulised drugs be given? How can repeated attacks of asthma be prevented? How can trigger factors be avoided? What education and support is useful in asthma? An approach to lower respiratory tract conditions What is the syndromic approach to acute respiratory tract disorders? What are the important causes of a cough? What is the management of a cough? What signs of breathing difficulty suggest specific diagnoses? When and how should oxygen be given? What is tuberculosis? What causes tuberculosis? How is tuberculosis spread from person to person? Do all children infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis develop tuberculosis? Is tuberculosis common? In which communities is tuberculosis common? Why is tuberculosis an important disease? Which infected children are at greatest risk of developing tuberculosis? Which children have a weak immune system? What is primary tuberculosis of the lung? Can the primary infection cause illness due to spread of the infection within the lung? Can one have a tuberculous infection more than once? Can tuberculous infection spread from the lung to other parts of the body? Which other organs can be involved in tuberculosis? What are the most common complications of primary tuberculosis in children? How is tuberculosis diagnosed? What are the clinical signs and symptoms of tuberculosis? What are the signs and symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis? How can a clinical diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis be confirmed? What are the signs of tuberculosis on a chest X-ray? What is a tuberculin skin test? How is the Mantoux skin test done? How should you read a Mantoux skin test? Does a negative Mantoux test exclude infection with tuberculous bacilli? How can tuberculosis bacilli be identified? Which adults with tuberculosis are most infectious? How can a sample of sputum be obtained in a child? What is miliary tuberculosis? How is miliary tuberculosis diagnosed? What are the signs and symptoms of tuberculous meningitis? What are the signs and symptoms of abdominal tuberculosis? What are the signs of tuberculous infection of the peripheral lymph nodes? How is tuberculosis affected by HIV infection and AIDS? How does tuberculosis affect HIV infection and AIDS? How can tuberculosis be prevented? What is the value of BCG immunisation? How is the diagnosis of tuberculosis classified in children? What is the management of tuberculosis? What drugs are used to treat tuberculosis in children? What is short course treatment of tuberculosis? How is the response to treatment monitored? What are the side effects of anti-tuberculous drugs? What is the most common cause of failure to cure tuberculosis? What is the DOTS strategy? When are anti-tuberculous drugs given prophylactically to young children? What is the management of a newborn infant if the mother has tuberculosis? Is tuberculosis a notifiable disease? Should adults with tuberculosis be isolated? How can tuberculosis be controlled in a community? What are the main responsibilities of the staff in a primary care TB clinic? What is HIV? Are there different types of HIV? What is HIV infection? What is AIDS? Can a person have HIV infection but remain well? How common is HIV infection? Transmission of HIV to children How can a person become infected with HIV? How are children usually infected with HIV? What is the risk of a child becoming infected with HIV by mother-to-child transmission? How can the risk of mother-to-child transmission be reduced? What factors influence the risk of HIV transmission in breast milk? How can the risk of HIV transmission in breast milk be reduced? When is it best not to breastfeed? Diagnosing HIV infection in a child How is HIV infection diagnosed? What are the advantages of diagnosing HIV infection early? The clinical diagnosis of HIV infection and aids How does HIV infection present clinically in children? What are the clinical stages of HIV infection? How is symptomatic HIV infection diagnosed? What are the signs of stage 1 HIV infection? What are the clinical signs of stage 2 HIV infection? What are the signs of stage 3 HIV infection? What are the signs of stage 4 HIV infection? How is damage to the immune system documented in children? How is the clinical severity of HIV infection classified in children? Management of HIV-exposed infants How should an infant born to an HIV-infected woman be managed after delivery? How should HIV prophylaxis be given to the newborn infant to reduce the risk of HIV infection during labour and delivery? What is the management of HIV-exposed infants during the first year of life? Is it safe to give immunisations to infants who may be infected with HIV? What is the role of good nutrition in children with HIV infection? How and when should prophylactic co-trimoxazole be given? What is the value of antiretroviral therapy in children? What is the expected outcome for children with HIV infection? What factors other than age determine how fast HIV infection will progress? What are important respiratory problems in children with HIV infection? What is pneumocystis pneumonia? Is tuberculosis common in children with HIV infection? What forms of tuberculosis are common in children with HIV infection? What gastrointestinal problems are common in children with HIV infection? What skin conditions are common in children with HIV infection? What is the effect of HIV infection on neurodevelopment? Management of children with symptomatic HIV infection What are the major components of management? How important is nutrition support? How should opportunistic infections be managed? What are the goals of antiretroviral therapy? When should antiretroviral treatment be started? What are the guidelines for antiretroviral therapy? What drugs are used for antiretroviral therapy? What side effects are seen with antiretroviral drugs? What monitoring is need with antiretroviral therapy? Is there a vaccine against HIV infection? How can emotional and family support be provided? What is palliative and terminal care? Which are the common childhood infections? What is the cause of measles? What are the signs and symptoms of measles? What are the complications of measles? What is the relationship between measles and malnutrition? How can measles be prevented? What is the management of a child with measles? What is the cause of chickenpox? What are the signs and symptoms of chickenpox? How is a child with chickenpox managed? What are the clinical features of mumps? What are the complications of mumps? What is the management of children with mumps? What is herpes stomatitis? What is the management of a child with herpes stomatitis? What are fever blisters? Acute viral hepatitis What is hepatitis? What are the common causes of acute viral hepatitis? What is the clinical presentation of acute viral hepatitis? What are the complications of acute viral hepatitis? How can viral hepatitis be prevented? What is the management of a child with acute viral hepatitis? What is tickbite fever? What is the treatment of tickbite fever? What are the common causes of acute conjunctivitis? What are the clinical features of acute conjunctivitis? What is the treatment of acute conjunctivitis? What are the less common childhood illnesses? What are parasites? Which are the common intestinal parasites? What is a roundworm? How do children get roundworms? Do roundworms in the gut cause clinical problems? How can roundworms cause chest problems? How are roundworms treated? How can infection with roundworms be prevented? When is deworming recommended? What are whipworms? What are the clinical features of whipworm infection? What is the treatment of whipworm infection? What are pinworms? What are the clinical features of pinworm infection? How is pinworm infection diagnosed? What is the treatment of pinworms? What are hookworms? What are the clinical features of hookworm infection? How is hookworm infection diagnosed? What is the treatment of hookworm infection? What are tapeworms? How is tapeworm infection diagnosed? What is the treatment of tapeworm infection? How can tapeworm infection be prevented? Can tapeworm cysts enter the brain? What is hydatid disease? What is giardiasis? What are the clinical features of giardia infection? What is the treatment of giardia infection? What is amoebiasis? What are the clinical features of amoebiasis? What is the treatment of amoebiasis? How can infection with many types of intestinal parasite be prevented? What is the treatment of intestinal parasites? What is bilharzia? What are the clinical features of bilharzia of the bladder? How is the diagnosis of bilharzia of the bladder confirmed? What is the treatment of bilharzia? How can bilharzia be prevented? What is malaria? What are the clinical signs of malaria? How is the diagnosis of malaria confirmed? How can you tell whether malaria is uncomplicated or severe? What is cerebral malaria? How is uncomplicated malaria treated? How is severe malaria treated? How is malaria prevented? What malaria prophylaxis is recommended? How can the number of mosquitoes be reduced? Are skin conditions common in children? What is a rash? What are the common types of rash? Do all skin conditions present as a rash? How are skin conditions managed? Which groups of skin conditions are common in children? Local viral infection What local viral infections are common? How is molluscum contagiosum recognised and treated? How are warts recognised and managed? What are cold sores and how are they managed? Local fungal infections What local fungal infections are common in children? What is ringworm? How is ringworm recognised? How should ringworm be treated? What is tinea versicolor? How should you manage dandruff? How should you recognise and treat a candida rash? Local bacterial infections What local bacterial infections are common? What is impetigo? How are boils diagnosed and managed? Rashes due to systemic infections What common systemic infections cause a rash? How do you know that the rash is due to a systemic infection? Local parasitic infestations What local parasites cause skin conditions in children? What is scabies? What are the typical symptoms and signs of scabies? How is scabies treated? How does lice infestation present? How should you treat head lice? How are sandworms recognised and treated? Rashes due to skin irritants What skin irritants are common? How should sunburn be managed? What is nappy rash? How should common insect bites and stings be managed? What is miliaria? Rashes due to allergies What rashes are caused by allergies? What is atopic eczema? What are the clinical features of atopic eczema? How should atopic eczema be managed? What is ‘lick eczema’? What is seborrhoeic dermatitis? How is acute urticaria diagnosed and treated? What is papular urticaria? How is papular urticaria managed? Other skin conditions in children What is ichthyosis? What is psoriasis? What is acne? What is the management of acne? What is ‘vaseline dermatitis’? Typical presentation of rashes Which rashes typically cause itching? Which rashes are typically painful? Which rashes are typically scaly? What serious bacterial infections are seen in children? Acute rheumatic fever What is acute rheumatic fever? What are the clinical features of acute rheumatic fever? What are the signs of carditis? How is the clinical diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever made? How is acute rheumatic fever treated? How can the first attack of acute rheumatic fever be prevented? How can repeated attacks of acute rheumatic fever be prevented? What are the possible outcomes of acute rheumatic fever? What are the features of chronic rheumatic heart disease? What are the clinical symptoms and signs of heart failure? What is acute glomerulonephritis? What are the presenting signs of acute glomerulonephritis? What is the clinical course of acute glomerulonephritis? What are the complications of acute glomerulonephritis? What is the management of a child with acute glomerulonephritis? How can acute glomerulonephritis be prevented? What is septicaemia? What are the clinical features of septicaemia? What is shock? How is the capillary filling time measured? How is the clinical diagnosis of septicaemia confirmed? What is the management of septicaemia? What is the treatment of shock? What is meningococcal septicaemia? What is the typical presentation of meningococcal septicaemia? How is meningococcal septicaemia managed? How is meningococcal infection prevented? What is meningitis? What are the symptoms and signs of meningitis? How is the clinical diagnosis of meningitis confirmed? Is it easy to tell clinically whether meningitis in a child is due to a bacterial or viral infection? What is the correct management of bacterial meningitis? Can meningitis be prevented? What are the complications of meningitis? What is pyelonephritis? What are the clinical features of a urinary tract infection? How is the clinical diagnosis of a urinary tract infection confirmed? How should a urinary tract infection be managed? Other bacterial infections What serious bacterial infections are less common? What is diabetes? What are the presenting symptoms and signs of diabetes? What are convulsions? How are convulsions stopped? What are febrile convulsions? What is epilepsy? Are malignancies common in children? What malignancies occur in children? What are the warning signs of malignancy in children? Home and society What are the rights of children? What threatens children’s rights? What is the role of poverty in child health? Why does poverty place children at risk? What political factors play a role in poverty? What can health workers do to help obtain social grants for children? What grants are available? What home environmental factors can affect a child’s health? What environmental factors outside the home can affect a child’s wellbeing? When do children not have access to health care? What is child abuse? What are the forms of child abuse? When should you consider child abuse? What are the clinical signs of physical abuse in children? What are the clinical signs of sexual abuse in children? Why do people abuse children? What should you do if you think a child is being abused? Should the authorities be informed? What is the long term goal of managing an abused child? How should a child be managed if sexual abuse is suspected? What are street children? How do street children get onto the street? How do street children survive on the streets? How should the problem of street children be managed? What are orphans? Are the number of orphans increasing in south Africa? What are the risks of being an orphan? What can be done to help orphans? What is normal neurological development? Do all normal children reach the same milestones at the same age? What is developmental screening? What areas of development should be assessed? What are the common milestones in gross motor development? When do children develop fine motor skills? Which children are at high risk of developmental delay? What should be done if a child has developmental delay? What is disability? How is intellectual disability assessed? What are the grades of intellectual disability? What is cerebral palsy? How should cerebral palsy be managed? Behaviour and emotional problems What problems are common in young children? What problems are seen in older children? What is the attention deficit disorder? How are deaths during childhood counted? What is a mortality rate for children? What is the under-5 mortality rate? How can under-5 deaths be grouped? What is an annual mortality rate? Should the mortality rates be calculated for a special area? Are mortality rates the same for all health districts? Do mortality rates remain the same? Why is it important to know the infant and under-5 mortality rates? What determines the infant and under-5 mortality rates? What is the under-5 mortality rate in well resourced countries? What is the under-5 mortality rate in under resourced countries? What is the under-5 mortality rate in South Africa? What is the infant mortality rate in South Africa? What do under-5 mortality rates tell us? Collecting information on under-5 deaths Should childhood deaths be notified? How should the causes of childhood deaths be accurately identified? Why is it important to know the common causes of under-5 deaths? What is a mortality review? What are the aims of the mortality review? How should a mortality meeting be managed? What information is needed for each child who dies? How is the cause of death decided? How is the cause of death recorded? How should you decide whether the management of a child was correct? What is a modifiable factor? How can modifiable factors be classified? Causes of under 5 deaths What are the common causes of under-5 deaths in South African hospitals? How will the AIDS epidemic affect the common causes of death? Why is it important to determine the HIV status of each child that dies? How important is malnutrition as a cause of death? The analysis of mortality data What data are needed to analyse childhood deaths? How is the data analysed? What results are obtained from the analysis? What should be done with the results of the analysis? What is a mortality report? What ongoing assessments are needed? What is the Child Health Care Problem Identification Programme? Ways of avoiding the common causes of under 5 deaths What steps can be taken to reduce the under-5 mortality rate? How can under-5 mortality data be used to improve the quality of care in a health system? What should be done to address specific causes of under-5 deaths? What should be done once the modifiable factors have been identified within a region? 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This tutorial covers the creation of equations: mathematical statements that evaluate an expression based on input values. The key to equations in Max is the expr object, which provides a wealth of mathematical functions and a “write your own” mechanism for developing complex statements. To this point, we have created somewhat complex mathematical processes using individual math objects (+ , etc.). However, in many cases, we can collapse a number of objects into a single mathematical equation, eliminating a lot of unnecessary complexity in our patches. The tool used for this simplification is the expr object, which uses a specific syntax for creating an equation that accepts multiple inputs and can produce very complex results. Take a look at the tutorial patch to see the work we have ahead of us. This patch is broken into four portions of patcher logic and an lcd object; communication between the parts is accomplished using value objects and pairs of send objects. To see the patch in action, turn on the metro at the lower left of the patcher using the toggle box, then hit the space bar to trigger the events at the top of the patch. The result will vary from small scribbles to large-format abstract line-and-circle drawings. Each time you hit the space bar, the lcd will clear and a new, related drawing will begin to appear. box at the top of the patch shows three lines of mathematical equations: These expressions compute three values ( , , and ) based on applying some simple trigonometric functions to their previous states as well as five fixed values ( , , , , and ). When plotted onto the lcd object (with visualized as a circle of variable size), we can see that a wide variety of patterns can be created. This equation generates something called a strange attractor - in essence an iterated function where the previous outputs of the equation combine with five variables (called coefficients ) to generate a variety of shapes that exhibit chaotic behavior. Let’s examine each section of this patch. The lower-left is obviously the key to making things draw – it generates metro that are sent to the and receive objects, as well as into a subpatch that slowly varies the color of the drawing (more on this later). After the subpatch is evaluated, the section of the patch (in the middle) receives a . This section updates the equation for the next round of drawing by triggering a number value objects, sending their output through equations encoded in the expr objects. These then update the , , and values for drawing. We'll examine how these expr objects work in a moment. messages from a object named sends messages to the drawing routine at the top-right of the patch. This triggers the newly calculated , and values which are scale ed into command messages, and then put through a send object to the receive object attached to the lcd . This is just a shortcut to the input of the lcd , which performs the drawing commands that were generated above it. Finally, the top-left section of the patch controls the action when the space bar is pressed. It is a good example of the right-to-left execution of events in Max; when the key object outputs a (meaning that the space bar has been depressed), a button is used to generate a message. This, in turn, performs seven actions in order from right to left: the generation of 5 random values ( to ) that are scale d from to , the transmission of a message to the lcd object, and a reset of the value contained in the , and value objects. In essence, the space bar is the overall “reset” key for this patch, in that virtually every segment of the patch is affected when that key is hit. Now let’s look into the expr objects themselves. While they look complicated, the argument for each of the expr objects is a relatively simple equation. The important thing to realize is that the references simply refer to an incoming message, along with its message type number. So, for instance, using a reference named means that the equation should use an incoming message ( ) that is a floating-point number ( ) retrieved from inlet number 1 ( ). Once you realize that the “complexity” of the equation is simply its reference to incoming messages, the format of the expr statement is a little more comprehensible. The operations used in our expr statements are limited to the sin (sine function), cos (cosine) and * (multiply) functions; however, there are dozens of operations available. You can use the common math operators (+ ), logic (&& ), bitwise comparison (& ) and other C language math functions such as abs , and pow . The documentation provides a complete list of the available functions. In the case of our tutorial patch, the three expr objects use eight different variables ( , , , , , , , ) to create the three target values ( , , ). There is an interesting bit of feedback here: the target variables are not only used for the drawing routine, but are also used for the next “round” of computation. The five variables through only change when the space bar is hit, so they provide an “anchor” to the drawing routine while the ever-changing , and variables determine the individual line and circle drawings for each round of computation. In order to make the drawing a little more interesting, let’s do some creative equation-making and use it to generate a constantly shifting foreground color. We are going to “tap into” the value objects that are updated each of the metro Double-click the patcher object labeled at the bottom of the patch. We can see that the foreground color of the lcd is being altered by a trio of drunk objects that are pack ed into an message sent to the lcd . In here, we are going to use an expr object compute the (E to the power of x ) mathematical function. If you aren’t familiar with the properties of E , that’s OK – it’s sufficient to know that it is exponential in nature, and that the value will rapidly increase as the input value increases. Delete the drunk objects, or disconnect them from the inlet objects and move them out of the way. Create three new value objects with , , and as their respective arguments and connect the inlet object to their inlets. Now create a new object and type in the following: Examining the argument/equation from the inside-out, we see that we are taking an incoming floating-point value ( ), using the function to create a new value ( ), multiplying it by 5.0 ( ) then turning it into an integer ( ). The result will be a number that is approximately in the range of color values (0-255), but is predominantly low in that number range. Copy this expr object two more times, then connect the output of the three value objects ( , and ) to each of the expr objects. Connect the outlets of the expr objects into the pack , and see what happens. When we start the metro and the lcd , we will see that the drawing is colored, but tends toward the darker colors. Since the coloring is influenced by the calculated , and coordinates, the colors will tend to be brighter toward the extreme edges of the drawing window. This is an example of calculating drawing commands that might be difficult using traditional object-based programming, but is made quite easy using expr Using the expr object gives us the opportunity to create complex mathematical and logical equations without having to resort to large object programming segments. The huge number of operations that can be performed, in combination with the ability to define and use multiple inputs, allows for interesting results that might otherwise be cumbersome to create. Evaluate a mathematical expression

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In the event that a person has a habit of repeating words after his interlocutor, not really understanding the meaning of what was said, such a phenomenon may indicate the presence of echolalia . Such a diagnosis is made with a certain disorder of a neurological nature. Although sometimes echolalia can act as a form of natural development of the child’s speech. Characteristic features of echolalia The term ” echolalia ” comes from such ancient Greek words as “echo, conversation” and “speech”, which is why it indicates a symptom in which a person subject to such an ailment automatically repeats words in whole or in part. At the same time, the process of pronouncing the words heard in someone else’s speech occurs uncontrollably. Despite the fact that such a phenomenon may indicate a malfunction in the nervous system, it often acts as one of the communication tools. This can be especially pronounced at an early age, when a one-year-old or two-year-old child is inclined to repeat other people’s words during the formation of his own vocabulary. However, with the normal development of the baby, by the age of three, the symptoms of echolalia go away naturally. If the phenomenon does not disappear at an older age, then the presence of various developmental disorders and even the presence of a neurological disorder should be suspected. Echolalia , at whatever age it manifests itself, is divided into two types: With complete echolalia , a person tends to automatically repeat words without understanding their meaning. While with an illness in a partial form, there is an approximate understanding of the words that were uttered by other people. Often the words heard are repeated immediately, but with a delayed form, repetitions can occur after several hours or days. Causes of the disease Imitation of heard words is a normal development of speech skills in a baby, but when this state of affairs continues in a child’s life, it usually indicates disinhibition of the imitative reflex. Also, symptoms that do not go away with age may indicate possible damage to the left hemisphere of the brain. However, signs of illness often indicate various mental illnesses, among which are Pick’s disease , Tourette’s syndrome , catatonic schizophrenia . In most cases, people with autism tend to repeat words without realizing it. Methods for correcting echolalia The presence of echolalia is diagnosed by a specialist during a conversation with a person showing any signs of such a disorder. Along the way, other diagnostic manipulations can be applied to accurately make a final diagnosis, revealing the severity of the disease. Usually, to draw up a treatment plan, psychoneurologists cooperate with defectologists, speech therapists. An individual correction scheme is always selected taking into account the age of the patient and the level of neglect of the problem. Often assigned to the passage of special training programs with the use of specially designed manuals.

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Drug Development & How to Use this Video In this video, we talk to chemists and biologists that study molecules that might become potential drugs. How do they begin their search? Why is it important to know what these molecules look like? Find the video below, as well as some of the important Science Senses it relates to including using models, testing hypotheses, and understanding the difference between hypothesis-driven work and question-driven work. Have thoughts about the video? What resources or activities have you used to teach this topic in your class? We’d love to know – share your voice by sending us a message below 🙂 Science Senses Featured in this Video Using multiple lines of evidence to support conclusions Understanding the difference between hypothesis-driven work and question-driven work Activities & Lesson Plans Clinical trials and experimental design – discussing or having students evaluate clinical trials is a great opportunity to get into details about experimental design. Why are controls necessary? What is blinding and why is it needed? How do ethical decisions play a role? Students could also propose experiments for hypothetical drugs. Modeling – both physical and mathematical models play an important role in drug discovery and development. The Foldit computer game allows students to explore some basic chemical rules and how they can be combined with human puzzle solving skills to model proteins. Statistics and drugs – statistical analysis of drug experiments lends itself to discussions and activities about how to calculate effect size and risk and how to statistically control for possible confounding factors. Holford et al. 2009. Pruning nature: Biodiversity-derived discovery of novel sodium channel blocking conotoxins from Conus bullatus. Toxicon 53:90-98. Mullard. 2012. Drug repurposing programs get lift off. Nature. 11:1-2. Have an idea for how to use this video in class? Want to give us feedback? Let us know!

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Last updated August 24, 2023 What is a supply chain? A supply chain refers to the network of organizations, resources, activities, and technologies involved in the creating, production, distribution, and delivery of goods or services to the end consumers. It encompasses the entire process from sourcing raw materials to delivering the final product to customers. Supply chains involve multiple stages and participants, such as , manufacturers, wholesalers, and so on, all working together to ensure that products are efficiently produced, transported, and made available to consumers. What are the key components of a supply chain? - Sourcing and procurement: This involves finding and selecting suppliers for raw materials, components, and other resources needed to manufacture products. - Manufacturing or production: This step involves transforming raw materials and components into finished products through various manufacturing processes. - Distribution and logistics: After production, the products need to be transported to distribution centers or directly to retailers. This involves planning transportation routes, managing warehouses, and optimizing . - Retail and sales: The products reach retailers where they are displayed and sold to consumers. This step also involves and managing the available at retail locations. - Consumers: The end consumers purchase and use the products, which completes the supply chain cycle. Effective supply chain management ensures efficient production, timely delivery, cost savings, and improved customer satisfaction. It also helps in adapting to market changes and reducing risks. Supply chain disruptions are unexpected events, such as natural disasters, strikes, geopolitical issues, or supply shortages, that interrupt the normal flow of goods and services.

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The innate immune system is the body’s first line of defense to protect us from disease-causing microbes in our environment. However, the innate immune system can also generate other unintended and serious effects such as prolonged – and sometimes fatal – inflammation. The study of human systems such as the innate immune system is assisted by examining similar systems in other organisms, known as model organisms. Researchers link equivalent genes in the model organism to human genes, so that knowledge can be transferred from the model organism to humans. However, identifying equivalent genes between species can be a difficult task. The Brinkman laboratory at Simon Fraser University has developed a software program called Ortholuge that can detect pairs of genes that are likely to be “orthologs” – genes in different species that are similar to each other because they originated from a common ancestor. Orthologs are of significant interest when inferring function in humans based on different species, or when linking equivalent genes between species for large scale comparative analyses. Matthew Whiteside is working to improve the accuracy and speed of Ortholuge, adding functionality to the program that will resolve some of the more complex gene relationships. He will then use the software to perform a large-scale study of the innate immune system in humans, mice and animals important in agriculture, such as cattle. Whiteside’s work will be the first large-scale cross-species comparative analysis of the innate immune system. He hopes that this study will provide fundamental new insights regarding the evolution of innate immune system. This analysis may also highlight important innate immunity genes that are conserved between the species, with potential for identifying new therapeutic targets for immune diseases.

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If you are a language enthusiast, you might have encountered several unique, intriguing, and difficult-to-translate words. One such as “Quviviq.” Despite being an uncommon word, it has gained attention recently, leaving many curious about its meaning and origin. This article will explore the meaning and significance of “Quviviq” and what makes it so fascinating. What is Quviviq? “Quviviq” is a word from the Inuktitut language, which the Inuit people speak of the Arctic regions of Canada, Alaska, and Greenland. Inuktitut is one of the official languages of Nunavut, a Canadian territory that covers a vast area of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The Inuit language has a unique structure and a vast vocabulary to describe the harsh Arctic environment and the traditional way of life of the Inuit people. Quviviq is one such word that encapsulates the essence of the Inuit way of life. The Meaning of Quviviq The word “Quviviq” has a complex meaning that can be difficult to translate into English. At its core, “Quviviq” means to “wait and watch for something to emerge from the water.” In Inuit culture, this word is often used to describe the act of patiently waiting for seals to emerge from breathing holes in the ice, which the Inuit hunt for food and survival. “Quviviq ” means beyond just waiting for seals to emerge. It symbolizes resilience, patience, and adaptability, essential qualities for survival in the Arctic environment. The Inuit people have lived in the Arctic for thousands of years and have developed a deep connection with the land and the animals. “Quviviq” represents the Inuit philosophy of living in harmony with nature and respecting the environment’s natural cycles. The Significance of Quviviq “Quviviq” has gained significance in recent years beyond its linguistic and cultural roots. It has become a symbol of hope and resilience for the Inuit people. Who faces numerous challenges, including climate change and the loss of traditional hunting grounds? The Inuit people have been affected by the changing Arctic environment, which has disrupted the hunting patterns and migration of animals, including seals. “Quviviq” represents the Inuit philosophy of adapting to change and waiting patiently for nature to restore balance. It is a reminder that the Inuit people have survived in the Arctic for thousands of years by living in harmony with nature and respecting its cycles. “Quviviq” is a unique word representing the Inuit way of life, their philosophy of living in harmony with nature, and resilience in facing challenges. It symbolizes hope for the Inuit people, who face numerous challenges due to climate change and modernization. “Quviviq” is a unique word that represents the Inuit way of life, their philosophy of living in harmony with nature, and their resilience.

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Purpose: Poor literacy skills have been characteristic of the deaf population for decades. National data suggest that median literacy rates of deaf high school graduates have remained consistently around the fourth grade level since the beginning of the twentieth century. About one in five deaf students who graduate from high school have reading skills at or below the second grade level; about one in three deaf students who graduate from high school have reading skills between the second and fourth grade level. Compared to deaf students, hard of hearing students (i.e., those with mild to moderate hearing loss) fare better overall, but even mild hearing losses can create significant challenges for developing reading skills. Proficiency in reading is critical for furthering one's education and achieving success in the workplace. Improving reading outcomes for students who are deaf or hard of hearing requires substantial additional research, particularly research to identify, develop, and test instructional approaches, curricula, and other innovative education interventions designed to enhance the reading skills of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. The focus of the Center is a program of research to explore underlying factors related to literacy for young students who are deaf or hard of hearing (pre-kindergarten through Grade 3) and to develop innovative approaches to improving reading instruction for these students. The ultimate objective of the Center is to improve literacy skills for students in early elementary school to maximize the potential long-term impact of an early literacy skills intervention on literacy development and overall school performance. Projects: The Center's primary research will involve three sets of studies: (1) an identification study, (2) iterative design studies, and (3) promise studies. Focused Program of Research: At least 120 students in each grade (K–2) with moderate to profound hearing loss will participate in this study during Years 1–2. Data will be collected on a number of child factors including background, phonological awareness, literacy, and language skills, as well as classroom practices, teacher background, and family characteristics. The team will analyze the data to: (1) understand the language and literacy abilities in students who are deaf or hard of hearing; (2) describe classroom instruction that students receive in a variety of elementary school settings; and (3) investigate language and literacy skills over the school year as a function of child, classroom, and school characteristics as well as interactions between child and instructional characteristics. Iterative Design Studies During years 2–4, the team will develop interventions that can be adapted to students with moderate to profound hearing loss, including students who speak English, use sign language, or use both languages. These interventions will teach early reading skills, vocabulary, English syntax, and advanced language and cognitive skills. An iterative design process will be used to develop each intervention separately. After developed, the promise of the interventions will be evaluated with students in pre-K through Grade 3 using a number of research designs, including cluster randomized controlled trials, pre- and post-test group designs, and single-case design. Students will be assessed on a variety of distal and proximal measures to determine whether the intervention shows promise for improving language and literacy outcomes. Key Personnel: Georgia State University: Amy Lederberg, Susan Easterbrooks, Lee Branum-Martin, Mi-young Webb; University of Arizona: Shirin Antia; University of Colorado at Boulder: Brenda Schick; Rochester Institute of Technology: Poorna Kushalnagar; Arizona State University: Carol Connor IES Program Contact: Dr. Amy Sussman Telephone: (202) 219-2126 Project Website: http://clad.education.gsu.edu/ Related IES Projects: Improving Deaf Preschoolers' Literacy Skills (R324E060035); Foundations for Literacy: An Intervention for Young Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing (R324A110101) Publications from this project: Easterbrooks, S. R., Lederberg, A. R., Antia, S., Schick, B., Kushalnagar, P., Webb, M. Y., Branum-Martin, L., & Connor, C. M. (2015). Reading among diverse deaf and hard of hearing learners: What, how, and for whom? American Annals for the Deaf, 159 (5), 419–432. Webb, M. Y., Lederberg, A. R., Branum-Martin, L., Connor, C. M. (in press). Evaluating the structure of early English literacy skills in deaf and hard-of-hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education.

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The German Genitive Der Genitiv im Deutschen – Erklärungen und Beispiele The German Genitive – Summary A noun is in the genitive case when it is a attribute of another noun or when it indicates possession. German usually use the question “Wessen?” to determine the genitive element of a sentence. - “Der Hund der Familie liegt hier.” - “Das Auto des Fremden parkt hier.” - “Das Fenster des Hauses ist kaputt.” There are three types of declension for the genitive, which are indicated by the article and the wordending. - (e)s-Declension(“das Pferd – des Pferdes, der Hund- des Hundes”). Nearly all neutral and masculine nouns in genitive are part of this declension. When nouns end with “-s, -ß, -x, -z, -tz” the “e” has to be used. - (e)n-Declension (“der Treue – des Treuen”). Especially masculine nouns in genitive with the endings “-e, -ant, -ent, -ist” are part of this declension. The “e” is left in nouns ending with “-e, -el, -er” or in nouns ending in vowels. - Declension without endings (“die Frau – der Frau”). Here belong all the female nouns in genitive. In plural, always the article “der” is used and the noun is written as it would be in nominative. Welcome to language-easy.org! Well, as you have clicked on this article, I suppose that you want to know everything about a basic element in German grammar – The German genitive. Of course, most of you have heard of this case, as it also exists in the English language. However, the construction of the forms of German genitive is completely different to the English one. Well, although this German case might be a little bit complicated, you have to be conscious that it is of crucial importance to express possession and other things. In the following, I’d like to give you a short description of the German genitive and also talk about its correct usage. Furthermore, it is important to mention the special declension of pronouns in the German genitive. By the way, in case you’d like to have some additional information about German conditional clauses, just have a look at this article on Wikipedia. Hopefully, it will provide you with all the background information that you need. And now, let’s not lose too much time and come to the first part of this article and talk about what the German genitive case actually is. Auf geht’s! Description and Usage of the German Genitive Beschreibung und Anwendung des Gentiiv im Deutschen Now, we come to the first topic of this article about the German genitive. So, I’d like to give you a short description of the German genitive. Please, try to keep this description in mind – it is always useful to know what we are actually talking about. The German genitive case indicates possession. Whereas in the English language you use an “-‘s” or the preposition “of” to show position, in German you add “-es” or “-er” to dependent possessive pronouns. Well, in German we use the genitive after certain prepositions, verbs and adjectives. Furthermore, we can use the question “wessen” (whose) to find the German genitive case. Unfortunately, asking this question to find the German genitive does not make too much sense to English speakers. So, I’d like to show you some more ways to recognize the German genitive. - First, the German genitive, as already mentioned, indicated possession. “Das ist Philip, mein Bruder.” - Second, it also comes with certain propositions, like “wegen”, “trotz” and “anstelle”. “Wegen Philips Hund, ist mein Strumpf kaputt.” - And third, the German genitive occurs after certain verbs as a genitive object. “Philip freut sich seines Hundes wegen.” So, after clearing up the basics about the German genitive, let’s come to the next point of this article and talk about the declension of pronouns in the German genitive. The Declension of Pronouns in the German Genitive Die Deklination von Pronomen im Genitiv Now, we come to another important topic in the context of the German genitive, the declension of pronouns in this grammatical case. Well, keep in mind that we only use dependent possessive pronouns in the genitive case. Furthermore, you should always remind that personal pronouns and independent possessive pronouns cannot be put into the German genitive. So, in the following table I’d like to give you an overview about the mentioned dependent possessive pronouns and their genitive endings. Of course, you can observe clearly the endings “-es” and “-er”, as already mentioned in the short description of the German genitive above. Finally, we have reached the last part of this article where you can prove the German skills you have just learned. In the following you will see some phrases that you should complete with the correct terms. Once you have filled all the gaps, just click on the “correct” button and you can see your errors and the correct results. Good luck and… auf Wiedersehen!

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What is PTSD? Posttraumatic stress disorder, or more commonly known as PTSD, is a type of debilitating medical condition that usually occurs to individuals who have undergone a very traumatic incident. A traumatic event is something terrible that you’ve seen, heard, or experienced first-hand. This includes: - Exposure to war - Terrorist incident - Sexual assault - Physical abuse - Life-threatening accident - Natural disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. Most people experience symptoms such as extreme anxiety, difficulties in sleeping, or having nightmares after a traumatic incident. However, not everyone will have PTSD. You can only tell if you have the condition if the common symptoms get worse as time goes by. How PTSD Develops Everyone who has experienced a terrifying incident will have the common symptoms of anxiety during the early stages. However, only a handful will experience PTSD as time goes by. There is still no accurate answer as to why only some people develop PTSD in their lifetime. There are several factors that might increase your chances of having this mental condition: - The intensity of the trauma - If you, or your loved ones, acquire major injuries after an accident or disaster - Your proximity to the event - The level of your reaction during the traumatic event - Your level of control during the event - The type and frequency of the support that you get after experiencing the traumatic event Common Symptoms of PTSD The symptoms of this debilitating mental condition commonly starts after the person experiences any terrifying incident. However, it will take months or years before these symptoms intensify. In addition, they may also disappear and reappear over several years. Below is a list of the most common symptoms of PTSD. If these symptoms persist for more than a month, or if they are disrupting your work and home life routine, there’s a big chance that you have PTSD. You keep re-experiencing/reliving the traumatic event This usually occurs in the form of nightmares or horrifying memories. In some cases, you may also experience flashbacks. These are moments wherein you feel like you are going through the traumatic event again. Compared to a nightmare, flashbacks are usually more vivid. You veer away from events that remind you of the traumatic experience As much as possible, you try to avoid any situations (or even other people) that might trigger any bad memories. In addition, you may even attempt to stop thinking about the traumatic event. Sudden negative changes on feelings and behavior Because of the disturbing event that happened to you before, you may suddenly find yourself feeling a lot of guilt, fear, and shame. Another common symptom of PTSD is that your enthusiasms for activities that you loved doing in the past suddenly faded. You feel too jittery This excessive feeling of alertness is more commonly known as hyper arousal. Even if the environment is guaranteed 100% safe, your body remains tense and alert. In addition, you are always on the lookout for danger. Another symptom of hyper arousal is difficulty in sleeping or concentrating. Can children also experience PTSD? Sadly, even the little ones can also have PTSD when faced with horrifying experiences. The symptoms may be similar with the ones mentioned above, but there might still be slight changes depending on their age. Once the kids grow older, they will experience PTSD symptoms that are similar to that of the adults. These are just some of the common signs that your children are experiencing PTSD: - Kids age 6 years and below tend to feel upset when their parents are not around. They also tend to have some trouble sleeping or going to the comfort room by themselves. - Kids age 7 to 11 relive their traumatic experiences stories and drawings. They also experience nightmares. As they grow up, they tend to become more aggressive. Kids who experience PTSD show disinterest in going to school and even playing with their friends. - Kids age 12 and up experience PTSD symptoms that are similar to adults. This includes withdrawal, substance abuse, running away from home, and anxiety. Other problems experienced by people with PTSD It is not just the anxiety attacks, nightmares, and flashbacks that PTSD victims have to endure. Other problems that they might experience include: - Extreme feelings of despair and shame - Substance abuse and alcoholism - Chronic pain - Problems with balancing work and home life - Problems in maintaining good relationships with people Usually, these other problems can be fixed when the patient undergoes the standard PTSD treatment because they are somewhat related. Once you master the coping skills from PTSD therapy sessions, it will be easier for you to handle these problems. Civilianized: A Young Veteran’s Memoir In this dark humored War Memoir, Iraq veteran Michael Anthony discusses his return from war and how he defeated his PTSD. Civilianized is a must read for any veteran, or anyone who knows a veteran, who has returned from war and suffered through Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). “I wont soon forget this book.” -Mary Roach “A must read.” -Colby Buzzell “[S]mart and mordantly funny.” –Milwaukee Journal Sentinel “Anthony delivers a dose of reality that can awaken the mind…” Bookreporter Order your copy of Civilianized: A Young Veteran’s Memoir .

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About this Course 14.01 Principles of Microeconomics is an introductory undergraduate course that teaches the fundamentals of microeconomics. At MIT, this is the first course that undergraduates take in economics. For some, it may be the only course they take in the subject, and it provides a solid foundation for economic analysis and thinking that can last throughout their education and subsequent professional careers. For other students, it may provide a foundation for many years of study in economics, business, or related fields. This course begins with an introduction to supply and demand and the basic forces that determine an equilibrium in a market economy. Next, it introduces a framework for learning about consumer behavior and analyzing consumer decisions. We then turn our attention to firms and their decisions about optimal production, and the impact of different market structures on firms’ behavior. The final section of the course provides an introduction to some of the more advanced topics that can be analyzed using microeconomic theory. These include international trade, the impact of uncertainty on consumer behavior, the operation of capital markets, equity vs. efficiency trade-offs in economic policy and social insurance. By the end of the course, you will be able to understand introductory microeconomic theory, solve basic microeconomic problems, and use these techniques to think about a number of policy questions relevant to the operation of the real economy. Prerequisites and Preparation This course will include some basic uni-variate calculus material, as taught in the MIT course 18.01 Single Variable Calculus or in a comparable high-school calculus course. There are no other prerequisites. Visit 18.01SC Single Variable Calculus to learn or review this material. After completing this course, students should have developed a range of skills enabling them to understand economic concepts and use those concepts to analyze specific questions. By the end of this course, students should be able to: - Understand consumer behavior. - Understand firm behavior. - Analyze different types of market structures (monopoly, oligopoly and a competitive market). - Understand how to apply economic principles to a range of policy questions. Students should also have the skills needed to: - Use supply and demand diagrams to analyze the impact of overall changes in supply and demand on price and quantity. - Solve a consumer’s utility maximization problem mathematically and graphically; analyze the impact of changes in price and income on a consumer’s decision via shifting income and substitution effects. - Understand the consumer’s labor supply decision. - Solve a firm’s cost minimization problem mathematically and graphically. - Analyze the behavior of firms in a perfectly competitive market in the short-run and the long-run. - Calculate producer and consumer surplus. - Analyze the behavior of firms in a monopoly or oligopoly, and calculate the resulting changes in producer or consumer surplus. - Understand consumer behavior under uncertainty. - Use economic tools to analyze economic policies. Course Components and Requirements - Assigned readings - Nine problem sets - Two midterm exams - Final Exam Readings are assigned for each lecture, and should be completed prior to watching the lecture videos and completing subsequent activities. |[Perloff] = Perloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics. 5th ed. Addison Wesley, 2008. ISBN: 9780321558497. |This is the official textbook used by students enrolled in the class at MIT. While OCW cannot provide online access to this book, we provide “For Further Study” links to supplemental materials. |[R&T] = Rittenberg, Libby, and Timothy Tregarthen. Principles of Microeconomics (PDF - 15.1MB). 2009. (Courtesy of Libby Rittenberg, Timothy Tregarthen, and the Saylor Foundation.) |This Creative Commons-licensed text is a free online alternative to Perloff text used in the class at MIT. In Recitations, students meet with a Teaching Assistant in a smaller group to go over problem set and exam solutions, review key concepts, and occasionally learn new material. A selection of recitation notes is included throughout this course and highlights some of the key teachings of 14.01. Deliverables and Grading There will be nine mandatory problem sets which will be individually graded. At the end of the term students will have the best eight homework grades cumulated up and this will count for 22% of the final course grade. There will be two midterm exams held throughout the term. These will each cover roughly one -third of the course material, will be 2 hours long, and will count as 22% (collectively 44%) of the grade. There will also be a three hour final, which will be cumulative and cover all of the course materials. This will count as the remaining 34% of the grade. This course includes substantial contributions from several talented 14.01SC Teaching Assistants.

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