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= Greatest Hits ( Lost ) = " Greatest Hits " is the 21st episode of the third season of Lost and 70th episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producers Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and directed by supervising producer Stephen Williams . The episode first aired on May 16 , 2007 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . " Greatest Hits " was viewed by 12 million Americans and was well received by critics . Lost 's editors received a Golden Reel Award nomination . The episode takes place on December 22 , 2004 , 92 days after the crash of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . A group of survivors prepare for an upcoming raid on their camp by the " Others " , while the rest prepare to contact a nearby freighter . Charlie Pace ( played by Dominic Monaghan ) recounts the five greatest moments of his life , which are depicted in flashbacks , as he prepares to fulfill Desmond Hume 's ( Henry Ian Cusick ) premonitions of his death . = = Plot = = The Others ' leader Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) orders ten of the Others to go to the survivors ' camp to kidnap any pregnant women that night — a night earlier than was scheduled . Ben 's adopted daughter Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) persuades her boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) to canoe to the survivors ' beach to warn them . The survivors ' leader Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) plans to kill the ambushing Others with dynamite retrieved by island resident Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) . Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) and Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) are selected to stay behind to shoot the dynamite @-@ rigged tents when the Others arrive . Desmond tells Charlie about his latest premonition : Charlie 's girlfriend Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) and her baby Aaron will escape the island via helicopter if Charlie flips a switch in a Dharma Initiative station and drowns . Sayid tells Jack that he may be able to communicate with the freighter roughly 130 kilometres offshore . He can use the satellite phone of Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) , a woman working with those on the boat , once he goes to the radio tower to disable Rousseau 's distress signal . Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) informs Sayid that this will not work because the underwater " Looking Glass " is blocking outgoing transmissions . Sayid realizes that a cable he found seventy days before connects to this station and that they will need someone to go on a probable suicide mission there , and Charlie volunteers . Naomi tells Charlie that his band Drive Shaft released a successful greatest hits album after the crash of Flight 815 . Flashbacks show Charlie 's " greatest hits " of his life in descending order , which Charlie writes down and gives them to Desmond for Claire . The first time that he heard his band 's breakout song on the radio . When his father , Simon ( John Henry Canavan ) , taught him how to swim at Butlins . The time when his brother Liam ( Neil Hopkins ) gave him their grandfather Dextor Stratton 's " DS " ring , for which Drive Shaft is named , as a Christmas present . When Charlie saved a woman ( he didn 't know it was Nadia ) from being mugged and was called a hero . The night following the crash , when he met Claire . Before paddling out to the Looking Glass with Desmond , Charlie assures Claire that he will be fine , kisses her goodbye and leaves his ring in Aaron 's crib . Once Desmond and Charlie arrive over the station , Charlie knocks Desmond out with an oar and dives into the water . After diving underwater and entering the station , two Others named Greta ( Lana Parrilla ) and Bonnie ( Tracy Middendorf ) appear with guns aimed at Charlie . = = Production = = Most of the island scenes were filmed from April 9 , 2007 to April 12 . A detailed episode synopsis was uploaded online before the episode aired and Disney investigated the leak . The name of the Dharma station in the episode is an allusion to Lewis Carroll 's novel Through the Looking @-@ Glass . Dominic Monaghan was inspired by Leonardo DiCaprio 's underwater performance in Titanic and opened his mouth briefly underwater to appear under greater duress . This episode began the resolution of the story arc about Desmond 's prophecy regarding Charlie 's inevitable death , which began earlier in the season and would ultimately end in the finale . The storyline was conceived while producing the latter part of the second season when the writers were brainstorming ideas for a new storyline for Charlie . While Desmond could have had flashes of the future about anyone , Charlie was chosen over a less significant character so that the story would have higher stakes . Additionally , the writers decided that it would be a great way to bring out the heroic side of Charlie , with Charlie being the only character to die willingly . Despite the problems in Charlie 's life , the writers believed that Charlie always was a good person and wanted to show that with the happiest moments of the character 's life . Monaghan thought that " Greatest Hits " was made " to allow the audience to sit with [ his character 's fate ] long enough to prepare themselves for what was going to happen [ in the finale ] " . " Greatest Hits " marked the first appearance for married couple Rose and Bernard since the late second season and fans welcomed the recurring characters ' return . The writers cited the actors ' other projects as a reason for their absence . Additionally , it was feared that fans would complain if they appeared , when many actors with star billing had received limited screentime in the early third season . The writers also commented that they do not want to have the couple on the show if they are just going to be standing in the background ; they want to have Rose and Bernard in the show with interesting storylines . = = Reception = = " Greatest Hits " brought in an average of 12 @.@ 32 million American viewers , making Lost the fifteenth most watched series of the week ; this was consistent with previous Lost episodes in the same timeslot . The first half was viewed by 11 @.@ 9 million , and the audience increased to 12 @.@ 8 million in the second half . The episode received a 5 @.@ 2 / 14 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic , placing it as the top @-@ rated scripted program for the night . In Canada , " Greatest Hits " was seen by 875 @,@ 000 people , ranking twenty @-@ seventh for the week . In the United Kingdom , the episode attracted 1 @.@ 21 million viewers , and was the second most watched program of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels , beaten only by Katie & Peter : The Next Chapter . In Australia , Lost was the fifty @-@ first most viewed show of the week , bringing in 1 @.@ 001 million viewers . Patrick Day of the Los Angeles Times thought that " as far as penultimate set @-@ up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ big @-@ finale episodes go , ' Greatest Hits ' was above par in more than one way . " Day celebrated the return of Jack " from Mt . Boring " , the use of drums in Michael Giacchino 's musical score and the return of Rose and Bernard . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Monaghan " turned in his best performance yet on Lost " and described the final scene as " breathtaking " with " a stunningly realized , Emmy @-@ worthy triumph of F / X. " Kristin Veitch of E ! also enjoyed Monaghan 's acting and called the episode a " perfect example " of the series ' high quality . Charlie McCollum of the San Jose Mercury News described the latter episodes of the third season as " an absolute thrill ride " . Chris Carabott of IGN rated the episode as an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , commending the character development of Jack and Charlie , and the acting skills of Emerson , who portrays Ben . Lulu Bates of Television Without Pity graded the episode as an " A – " . Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad rated " Greatest Hits " as a 6 / 7 , saying that it succeeded in building momentum for the season finale , but pointed out the plot inconsistency regarding Charlie 's ( in ) ability to swim . Scott Juba of The Trades decided that " Greatest Hits " was the best episode of the third season , saying that the flashbacks " evok [ e ] the type of identifiable human emotions that drives the success of Lost . The true genius of the show lies not in its plot twists or mysteries but rather in its ability to make the audience invested in the characters by evoking themes that almost anyone can identify with . " Jon Lachonis of BuddyTV noted that the episode was " wildly successful " in turning Charlie into a likeable and relatable character . This episode was submitted for consideration for Outstanding Directing and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards . This episode was nominated for the Golden Reel Award in the Best Sound Editing in Television : Short Form – Dialogue and Automated Dialogue Replacement category .
= HMS Northumberland ( 1866 ) = HMS Northumberland was the last of the three Minotaur @-@ class armoured frigates built for the Royal Navy during the 1860s . She had a different armour scheme and heavier armament than her sister ships , and was generally regarded as a half @-@ sister to the other ships of the class . The ship spent her career with the Channel Fleet and occasionally served as a flagship . Northumberland was placed in reserve in 1890 and became a training ship in 1898 . She was converted into a coal hulk in 1909 and sold in 1927 , although the ship was not scrapped until 1935 . = = Design and description = = The Minotaur @-@ class armoured frigates were essentially enlarged versions of the ironclad HMS Achilles with heavier armament , armour , and more powerful engines . They retained the broadside ironclad layout of their predecessor , but their sides were fully armoured to protect the 50 guns they were designed to carry . Their plough @-@ shaped ram was also more prominent than that of Achilles . Northumberland was 400 feet 4 inches ( 122 @.@ 0 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 5 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 584 long tons ( 10 @,@ 754 t ) and had a tonnage of 6 @,@ 621 tons burthen . Her hull was subdivided by 15 watertight transverse bulkheads and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms . The ship was considered " a steady gun platform , able to maintain her speed in a seaway and satisfactory in manoeuvre " . She was authorized a crew of 705 officers and enlisted men , but actually carried 800 men . = = = Propulsion = = = Northumberland had a two @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine , made by John Penn and Sons , driving a single propeller using steam provided by 10 rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers . It produced a total of 6 @,@ 558 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 890 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials on 15 September 1868 and Northumberland had a maximum speed of 14 @.@ 1 knots ( 26 @.@ 1 km / h ; 16 @.@ 2 mph ) . The ships normally carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal , but had a maximum capacity of 1 @,@ 400 long tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) , enough to steam 2 @,@ 825 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 232 km ; 3 @,@ 251 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Originally designed with three masts , Northumberland was fitted with five masts until her 1875 – 79 refit when two were removed and she was re @-@ rigged as a barque . Northumberland only made 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) under sail , mainly because the ship 's propeller could only be disconnected and not hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag , the worst speed of any ironclad of her era . Admiral George A. Ballard described the Minotaur @-@ class ships as " the dullest performers under canvas of the whole masted fleet of their day , and no ships ever carried so much dress to so little purpose . " = = = Armament = = = Unlike her half @-@ sisters , Northumberland was armed with a mix of seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) , eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , and nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . All 4 nine @-@ inch and 18 eight @-@ inch were mounted on the main deck while 4 eight @-@ inch guns were fitted on the upper deck as chase guns . Both seven @-@ inch guns were mounted in the stern on the main deck , also as chase guns . The nine @-@ inch gun was credited with the ability to penetrate 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The eight @-@ inch gun could penetrate 9 @.@ 6 @-@ inch ( 244 mm ) of armour and the seven @-@ inch gun could penetrate 7 @.@ 7 inches ( 196 mm ) . Northumberland was partially rearmed in 1875 with an armament of 7 nine @-@ inch guns , 4 on the main deck , 2 forward chase guns and 1 rear chase gun . Two eight @-@ inch guns replaced the seven @-@ inchers on the main deck at the stern ; the other 18 eight @-@ inch guns remained where they were . In 1886 two six inches ( 152 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns replaced two eight @-@ inch guns . Six quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 @-@ mm ) guns , 10 QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns , and six machine guns were later added . = = = Armour = = = Unlike her half @-@ sisters , the entire side of Northumberland 's hull was not covered with wrought iron armour . To compensate for the additional weight of her armament , only her battery was protected above the main deck . The ship was fitted with a complete waterline armour belt that tapered from 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) at the ends to 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) amidships . The armour extended 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . The sides of the battery were 184 @.@ 5 feet ( 56 @.@ 2 m ) long and it was protected by 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armour on all sides , including transverse bulkheads fore and aft of the guns . The two forward chase guns on the upper deck were also protected by armoured bulkheads , but the stern chase guns on that same deck were entirely unprotected . The armour was backed by 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of teak . The ship also had a conning tower protected by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armour plates . = = Construction and service = = Northumberland , named after the ceremonial county , was ordered on 2 September 1861 from the Millwall Ironworks . She was laid down on 10 October 1861 at its shipyard in Millwall , London . She was altered while on the building slip after Sir Edward Reed succeeded Isaac Watts as Chief Constructor . Unlike her half @-@ sisters , the ship spent five years on the stocks before she was ready to be launched , partially due to frequent changes in design , although Northumberland was much closer to completion . The additional weight caused her stick for an hour on the slipway before she slid halfway down with her stern only supported by air , threatening to buckle the ship . Efforts by hydraulic jacks and tugboats failed to get her into the water on the next spring tide failed , but the use of pontoons on 17 April 1866 proved successful . Her builders went into bankruptcy while the ship was being launched and the liquidators seized Northumberland as a company asset once she was in the water . Eight months passed before the Admiralty could take possession and begin fitting out the ship . She was commissioned in October 1868 and completed on 8 October for a cost a total of £ 444 @,@ 256 . The ship 's first posting was to the Channel Fleet , where she remained until 1873 . Her first captain , Roderick Dew , had all of her yards painted black so that she could be visually distinguished from her half @-@ sisters , whose yards were white . During this time she helped her half @-@ sister Agincourt tow a floating drydock from England to Madeira where it would be picked up by Warrior and Black Prince and taken to Bermuda . The ships departed the Nore on 23 June 1869 , loaded down with 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of coal stowed in bags on their gun decks , and transferred the floating dock 11 days later after an uneventful voyage . She was anchored at Funchal , Madeira , on Christmas Day 1872 , when a storm parted her anchor chain and the ship drifted onto the ram bow of the ironclad Hercules . Northumberland was seriously damaged below the waterline , with one compartment flooded , though she was able to steam to Malta for repairs . While her half @-@ sister Minotaur , normally flagship of the Channel Fleet , was refitting in 1873 – 75 , Agincourt , normally the flagship of the fleet second @-@ in @-@ command , replaced her as flagship and Northumberland became flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command until Minotaur 's return to duty . She served as the flagship for Rear Admirals George Hancock and Lord John Hay . Northumberland received her own refit and rearmament from 1875 – 79 and rejoined the Channel Fleet upon its completion . The ship was paid off in 1885 for another refit and became the flagship of Vice Admirals Sir William Hewett and John Baird , successive commanders of the Channel Fleet , upon her completion in 1887 . Northumberland was assigned to the 1st Reserve Squadron at the Isle of Portland in 1890 – 91 and then at Devonport from 1891 – 98 . She was hulked in 1898 as a stokers ' training ship at the Nore and renamed Acheron . From 1909 – 27 the ship served as a coal hulk at Invergordon , renamed C.8 in 1909 and then C.68 in 1926 . The ship was sold in 1927 , but was then resold and renamed as Stedmound for service at Dakar until she was scrapped in 1935 . = = Relics = = Two large 1870s half @-@ scale models of the ship are at the Museum of London Docklands .
= The Satanic Bible = The Satanic Bible is a collection of essays , observations , and rituals published by Anton LaVey in 1969 . It contains the core principles of Satanism , and is considered the foundation of its philosophy and dogma . It has been described as the most important document to influence contemporary Satanism . Though The Satanic Bible is not considered to be sacred scripture in the way the Christian Bible is to Christianity , LaVeyan Satanists regard it as an authoritative text as it is a contemporary text that has attained for them scriptural status . It extols the virtues of exploring one 's own nature and instincts . Believers have been described as " atheistic Satanists " because they believe that God is not an external entity , but rather something that each person creates as a projection of his or her own personality — a benevolent and stabilizing force in his or her life . There have been thirty printings of The Satanic Bible , through which it has sold over a million copies . The Satanic Bible is composed of four books : The Book of Satan , The Book of Lucifer , The Book of Belial , and The Book of Leviathan . The Book of Satan challenges the Ten Commandments and the Golden Rule , and promotes Epicureanism . The Book of Lucifer holds most of the philosophy in The Satanic Bible , with twelve chapters discussing topics such as indulgence , love , hate , and sex . LaVey also uses the book to dispel rumors surrounding the religion . In The Book of Belial , LaVey details rituals and magic . He discusses the required mindset and focus for performing a ritual , and provides instructions for three rituals : those for sex , compassion , or destruction . The Book of Leviathan provides four invocations for Satan , lust , compassion , and destruction . It also lists the nineteen Enochian Keys ( adapted from John Dee 's Enochian keys ) , provided in both Enochian and translated to English . There have been both positive and negative reactions to The Satanic Bible . It has been described as " razor @-@ sharp " and " influential " . Criticism of The Satanic Bible stems both from qualms over LaVey 's writing and disapproval of the content itself . LaVey has been criticized for plagiarizing sections , and accusations have been made that his philosophies are largely borrowed . The Satanic Bible has been heavily condemned as dangerous , particularly to adolescents . Attempts have been made to ban the book in schools , public libraries , and prisons , though these attempts are somewhat rare . = = History = = There are multiple stories of the birth of The Satanic Bible . In the introduction to the 2005 – present edition , High Priest Peter H. Gilmore describes LaVey as having compiled The Satanic Bible on his own from monographs he had written about the Church of Satan and its rituals . Gilmore lists a number of people who influenced LaVey 's writings : Ayn Rand , Friedrich Nietzsche , H. L. Mencken , the members of the carnival with whom LaVey had supposedly worked in his youth , P. T. Barnum , Mark Twain , John Milton , and Lord Byron . LaVey 's estranged daughter Zeena Schreck , in an exposé about both her father 's religion and past , attributes the birth of The Satanic Bible to a suggestion by Peter Mayer , a publisher for Avon . According to Schreck , Mayer proposed that LaVey author a Satanic bible to draw from the popularity of the 1968 horror film Rosemary 's Baby , which had caused a recent rise in public interest in both Satanism and other occult practices . Schreck states that , aided by Diane Hegarty , LaVey compiled a number of writings he had already been distributing : an introduction to Satanism , a number of short essays , a guide to ritual magic , and articles he had previously published in The Cloven Hoof , a Church of Satan newsletter . Either to meet length requirements set by the publisher or out of agreement with the ideas , LaVey and Hegarty borrowed heavily from writings by other authors . These included a social Darwinist book published in 1890 entitled Might Is Right by Ragnar Redbeard , as well as Dee 's Enochian keys from Aleister Crowley 's The Equinox , modified to replace references to Christianity with those to Satan . Some accuse LaVey of paraphrasing the Nine Satanic Statements from Rand 's Atlas Shrugged without acknowledgement , though others maintain that LaVey was simply drawing inspiration from the novel . LaVey later affirmed the connection with Rand 's ideas by stating that LaVeyan Satanism was " just Ayn Rand 's philosophy , with ceremony and ritual added " . = = = Publication history = = = Originally published in paperback by Avon in 1969 , The Satanic Bible has had thirty printings and has never gone out of print . A hardcover edition was published by University Books that same year but has now been out of print for decades . In 2015 , William Morrow published a new hardcover edition of the book combined in a single volume with its companion work , The Satanic Rituals , and marketed under a special arrangement by Rabid Crow Arts and Graphics . The main content has not changed throughout the editions , although the dedication was removed after several printings and the introduction has changed several times . The Sigil of Baphomet has been printed on the cover since the original publication . The Satanic Bible has sold over one million copies since its initial release . It has also been translated into Danish , Swedish , Spanish , Finnish and Turkish . = = Content = = = = = Dedication = = = Though it is no longer included in current printings of The Satanic Bible , early printings included an extensive dedication to various people whom LaVey recognized as influences . LaVey 's primary dedication was to Bernardino Nogara ( misprinted as " Logara " ) , Karl Haushofer , Grigori Rasputin , Basil Zaharoff , Alessandro Cagliostro , Barnabas , Ragnar Redbeard , William Mortensen , Hans Brick , Max Reinhardt , Orrin Klapp , Fritz Lang , Friedrich Nietzsche , W. C. Fields , P. T. Barnum , Hans Poelzig , Reginald Marsh , Wilhelm Reich , and Mark Twain . The secondary dedication named Howard Hughes , James Moody , Marcello Truzzi , Adrian ‐ Claude Frazier , Marilyn Monroe , Wesley Mather , William Lindsay Gresham , Hugo Zacchini , Jayne Mansfield , Frederick Goerner , C. Huntley , Nathanael West , Horatio Alger , Jr . , Robert E. Howard , George Orwell , H. P. Lovecraft , Tuesday Weld , H. G. Wells , Sister Marie Koven , Harry Houdini , Togare ( LaVey 's pet lion ) , and the Nine Unknown Men from The Nine Unknown . = = = Introductions = = = Throughout the various printings of The Satanic Bible , it has included introductions by various authors . The first edition ( in print from 1969 to 1972 ) included an excerpt from an article by Burton H. Wolfe , an investigative journalist and biographer of LaVey , entitled " The Church that Worships Satan " . Wolfe provides an extensive biography of LaVey and a history of the Church of Satan . He mentions Rosemary 's Baby as contributing to the popularity of Satanism , though he does not claim LaVeyan Satanism to have directly influenced its creation . From 1972 until 1976 , the introduction to The Satanic Bible was a piece by Michael A. Aquino , who later went on to found the Temple of Set with a number of members of the Church of Satan . He gives a detailed analysis of the Satanic philosophies , and dispels myths about LaVeyan Satanism . He explains that it is not " devil worship " , and that LaVeyan Satanists in fact reject the worship of external gods completely . He too provides a brief background on LaVey , explaining how LaVey brought some of the knowledge he had acquired while working with the circus to his religion . Wolfe again wrote the introduction for the 1976 to 2005 editions of The Satanic Bible . It included some of the same content as the 1969 version , with an expanded biography of LaVey and more information on the various conflicts between other religions and LaVeyan Satanism . Since 2005 , The Satanic Bible has contained an introduction written by Gilmore , High Priest of the Church of Satan . In this introduction , he discusses his discovery of LaVeyan Satanism and his relationship with LaVey . He then goes on to provide a detailed biography of LaVey and addresses allegations that LaVey falsified much of the story of his own past . The introduction also provides a history of The Satanic Bible itself , as well as that of two other books by LaVey : The Satanic Witch and The Satanic Rituals . = = = Preface = = = LaVey explains his reasons for writing The Satanic Bible in a short preface . He speaks skeptically about volumes written by other authors on the subject of magic , dismissing them as " nothing more than sanctimonious fraud " and " volumes of hoary misinformation and false prophecy . " He complains that other authors do no more than confuse the subject . He mocks those who spend large amounts of money on attempts to follow rituals and learn about the magic shared in other occult books . He also notes that many of the existing writings on Satanic magic and ideology were created by " right @-@ hand path " authors . He tells that The Satanic Bible contains both truth and fantasy , and declares , " What you see may not always please you , but you will see ! " = = = Prologue = = = The prologue to The Satanic Bible begins by discussing the concept of gods , good and evil , and human nature . It includes the Nine Satanic Statements : Satan represents indulgence , instead of abstinence ! Satan represents vital existence , instead of spiritual pipe dreams ! Satan represents undefiled wisdom , instead of hypocritical self @-@ deceit ! Satan represents kindness to those who deserve it , instead of love wasted on ingrates ! Satan represents vengeance , instead of turning the other cheek ! Satan represents responsibility to the responsible , instead of concern for psychic vampires ! Satan represents man as just another animal , sometimes better , more often worse than those that walk on all @-@ fours , who , because of his " divine spiritual and intellectual development , " has become the most vicious animal of all ! Satan represents all of the so @-@ called sins , as they all lead to physical , mental , or emotional gratification ! Satan has been the best friend the church has ever had , as he has kept it in business all these years ! The Nine Satanic Statements outline the basic ideology of LaVeyan Satanism , and have become some of the guiding principles of LaVeyan Satanism . They also served as a template for later publications by LaVey , such as his 1987 " Nine Satanic Sins " . Ayn Rand 's influence on LaVeyan Satanism is apparent in the Nine Satanic Statements , leading some , namely Nikolas Schreck , to assert that the Statements are simply unacknowledged paraphrase of Rand 's thoughts . These accusations have been disproved , however . = = = The Book of Satan = = = Much of the first book of The Satanic Bible is taken from parts of Redbeard 's Might Is Right , edited to remove the racism , anti @-@ Semitism , and misogyny present in the original version . It challenges both the Ten Commandments and the Golden Rule , advocating instead a tooth @-@ for @-@ tooth philosophy . LaVey , through Redbeard , strongly advocates social Darwinism , saying , " Death to the weakling , wealth to the strong ! " Humans are identified as instinctually predatory , and " lust and carnal desire " are singled out as part of humans ' intrinsic nature . The Book of Satan suggests a hedonistic outlook , saying , " I break away from all conventions that do not lead to my earthly happiness . " Indulgence is endorsed , and readers are encouraged to make the most of their lives . It criticizes both law and religious principles , instead suggesting doing only what makes one happy and successful . LaVey continues to denounce other religions , and he rails against what he considers to be arbitrary definitions of " good " and " evil " . Religion is criticized as a man @-@ made construct , and the reader is urged to question everything and destroy any lies that he or she uncovers . Long @-@ standing lies that are believed to be irrefutable truths are identified as the most dangerous . The last part of The Book of Satan is an adaptation of the Christian Beatitudes , changed to reflect the principles of LaVeyan Satanism . = = = The Book of Lucifer = = = The Book of Lucifer contains the majority of the philosophy of The Satanic Bible . It details how Christianity has taught that God is good and Satan is evil , and presents an alternate view . It describes that the concept of Satan , used synonymously with " God " , is different for each LaVeyan Satanist , but that to all it represents a good and steadying force in his or her life . Believers have been called " atheistic Satanists " because of this lack of belief in external gods , but others identify as antitheistic . Satan is seen to LaVeyan Satanists not as " an anthropomorphic being with cloven hooves , a barbed tail , and horns " , but as a force of nature that has only been described as evil by other religions . Satan is viewed as a metaphor or a symbol , not as a being to be worshipped . LaVey rejects the idea of prayer , instead urging Satanists to take action to fix a situation instead of asking for a solution . The seven deadly sins are advocated , on the basis that they all lead to personal pleasure . He says that Satanism is a form of " controlled selfishness " , in the sense that doing something to help another will in turn make one happy . The Golden Rule is again mentioned , and LaVey suggests altering it from " Do unto others as you would have them do unto you " to " Do unto others as they do unto you " so that if someone is treated poorly , he or she can respond viciously . The Book of Lucifer also contains a list of " The Four Crown Princes of Hell " ( Satan , Lucifer , Belial , and Leviathan ) and of seventy @-@ seven " Infernal Names " , representations of Satan from various cultures and religions . They are the names that , according to LaVey , are most useful in Satanic rituals . The Book of Lucifer contains a long chapter titled " Satanic Sex " , discussing Satanism 's view on sexual activity as well as misconceptions surrounding these views . He denies the belief that sex is the most important element in LaVeyan Satanism , and that participation in orgies or other promiscuous behavior is forced . He explains that sexual freedom is encouraged , but only in the sense that believers should be free to explore their own sexualities as they please , without harming others . Along with the rumors regarding Satanic views on sex , LaVey also addresses those about animal and human sacrifice . He explains that the only time a LaVeyan Satanist would perform a human sacrifice would be to accomplish two goals : to " release the magician 's wrath " as he or she performed a curse , and to kill someone who deserved to die . He considers the action of hurting another person a request to be destroyed , and explains that the Satanist is morally required to grant this request in the form of a curse . LaVey also says that a Satanist would never sacrifice a baby or an animal , as they are pure carnal beings and considered to be sacred . In The Book of Lucifer , LaVey outlines LaVeyan Satanism 's views on death . He explains that one who has lived a full life will dread death , and that this is the way it should be . He also does not agree with the idea of reincarnation . He encourages a strong will to live , comparing it to animals ' instincts to fight viciously for their lives . Suicide is discouraged except in cases of euthanasia , where it would end extreme suffering . Because the Satanist is considered his or her own god , birthdays are celebrated as the most important holidays . Following one 's birthday in importance are Walpurgisnacht and Halloween . Solstices and equinoxes are also celebrated . = = = The Book of Belial = = = The third book of The Satanic Bible describes rituals and magic . According to Joshua Gunn , these are adapted from books of ritual magic such as Crowley 's Magick : Elementary Theory . The Satanic Rituals , published by LaVey in 1972 , outlines the rituals more precisely , and contains the entire text of the Black Mass . LaVey begins The Book of Belial by defining magic as " The change in situations or events in accordance with one 's will , which would , using normally accepted methods , be unchangeable . " He explains that some of the rituals are simply applied psychology or science , but that some contain parts with no scientific basis . LaVey explains that , in order to control a person , one must first attract his or her attention . He gives three qualities that can be employed for this purpose : sex appeal , sentiment ( cuteness or innocence ) , and wonder . He also advocates the use of odor . In the Book of Belial , he discusses three types of rituals : those for sex , compassion , and destruction . Sex rituals work to entice another person ; compassion rituals work to improve health , intelligence , success , and so on ; destruction rituals work to destroy another person . LaVey advocates finding others with whom to practice Satanic rituals in order to reaffirm one 's faith and avoid antisocial behavior . He particularly advocates group participation for destruction rituals , as compassion and sex rituals are more private in nature . LaVey goes on to list the key components to successful ritual : desire , timing , imagery , direction , and " The Balance Factor " ( awareness of one 's own limitations ) . Details for the various Satanic rituals are explained in The Book of Belial , and lists of necessary objects ( such as clothing , altars , and the symbol of Baphomet ) are given . = = = The Book of Leviathan = = = The final book of The Satanic Bible emphasizes the importance of spoken word and emotion to effective magic . An " Invocation to Satan " as well as three invocations for the three types of ritual are given . The " Invocation to Satan " commands the dark forces to grant power to the summoner , and lists the Infernal names for use in the invocation . The " Invocation employed towards the conjuration of lust " is used for attracting the attentions of another . Both male and female versions of the invocation are provided . The " Invocation employed towards the conjuration of destruction " commands the dark forces to destroy the subject of the invocation . The " Invocation employed towards the conjuration of compassion " requests protection , health , strength , and the destruction of anything ailing the subject of the invocation . The rest of The Book of Leviathan is composed of the Enochian Keys , which LaVey adapted from Dee 's original work . They are given in Enochian and also translated into English . LaVey provides a brief introduction that credits Dee and explains some of the history behind the Enochian Keys and language . He maintains that the translations provided are an " unvarnishing " of the translations performed by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in the 1800s , but others accuse LaVey of simply changing references to Christianity with those to Satan . = = Themes = = = = = God and Satan = = = The Satanic Bible often uses the terms " God " and " Satan " interchangeably , except when referring to the concepts of these as viewed by other religions . LaVey also occasionally uses the term " God " to refer to other religions ' views of God , and " Satan " or synonyms to refer to the idea of god as interpreted by LaVeyan Satanism , as when he writes , " When all religious faith in lies has waned , it is because man has become closer to himself and farther from ' God ' ; closer to the ' Devil . ' " Throughout The Satanic Bible , the LaVeyan Satanist 's view of god is described as the Satanist 's true " self " — a projection of his or her own personality — not an external deity . Satan is used as a representation of personal liberty and individualism . Satan is also used as a metaphor for the ideas connected with the early Christian view of Satan or the serpent : wise , defiant , questioning , and free @-@ thinking . LaVey discusses this extensively in The Book of Lucifer , explaining that the gods worshipped by other religions are also projections of man 's true self . He argues that man 's unwillingness to accept his own ego has caused him to externalize these gods so as to avoid the feeling of narcissism that would accompany self @-@ worship . If man insists on externalizing his true self in the form of " God , " then why fear his true self , in fearing " God , " — why praise his true self in praising " God , " — why remain externalized from " God " in order to engage in ritual and religious ceremony in his name ? Man needs ritual and dogma , but no law states that an externalized god is necessary in order to engage in ritual and ceremony performed in a god 's name ! Could it be that when he closes the gap between himself and his " God " he sees the demon of pride creeping forth — that very embodiment of Lucifer appearing in his midst ? Though at some points LaVey refers to Satan as a physical being , this is intended to encourage the Satanist 's " rational self @-@ interest . " = = = Science = = = Many of the ideas in The Satanic Bible are shaped around a secular , scientific view of the world . However , some of these ideas continue beyond present @-@ day secularism by implying that various occult forces are not supernatural , but rather thus far undiscovered by science . These forces are said to be manipulable by the practitioner of LaVeyan Satanism , a trait of the religion that has been compared with Christian Science and Scientology . James Lewis argues that scientific themes are so prevalent in The Satanic Bible because LaVey was appealing to the authority of science to legitimize LaVeyan Satanism as a religion . = = = Human nature and Social Darwinism = = = Social Darwinism and the concept of " human nature " are ideas that are prevalent throughout The Satanic Bible . LaVey describes Satanism as " a religion based on the universal traits of man , " and humans are described throughout as inherently carnal and animalistic . Each of the seven deadly sins is described as part of human 's natural instinct , and are thus advocated . Social Darwinism is particularly noticeable in The Book of Satan , where LaVey uses portions of Redbeard 's Might Is Right , though it also appears throughout in references to man 's inherent strength and instinct for self @-@ preservation . LaVeyan Satanism has been described as " institutionalism of Machiavellian self @-@ interest " because of many of these themes . = = Influence = = The Satanic Bible is recognized as one of the key texts of modern Satanism . The Church of Satan requires that people accept " LaVey 's principles " before becoming members of the church . Many other Satanist groups and individual Satanists who are not part of the Church of Satan also recognize LaVey 's work as influential . Many Satanists attribute their conversions or discoveries of Satanism to The Satanic Bible , with 20 % of respondents to a survey by James Lewis mentioning The Satanic Bible directly as influencing their conversion . In Gilmore 's introduction , he lists a number of novels and films supposedly influenced by The Satanic Bible and LaVeyan Satanism . These include novels Rosemary 's Baby by Ira Levin and Our Lady of Darkness by Fritz Leiber , as well as films such as Rosemary 's Baby , The Devil 's Rain , The Car , and Dr. Dracula . Others have lauded The Satanic Bible as heavily influential on metal and rock bands such as Black Sabbath , Venom , King Diamond , and Marilyn Manson . = = Reception = = Richard Metzger describes The Satanic Bible as " a razor @-@ sharp , no @-@ bullshit primer in natural and supernatural law . " David G. Bromley calls it " iconoclastic " and " the best @-@ known and most influential statement of Satanic theology . " Eugene V. Gallagher says that Satanists use LaVey 's writings " as lenses through which they view themselves , their group , and the cosmos . " He also states : " With a clear @-@ eyed appreciation of true human nature , a love of ritual and pageantry , and a flair for mockery , LaVey 's Satanic Bible promulgated a gospel of self @-@ indulgence that , he argued , anyone who dispassionately considered the facts would embrace . " The philosophy it presents has been described as " strident libertarianism " and " an obvious distillation of ideas common among members of the United States counter @-@ culture in the 1960s . " Joshua Gunn argues that the significance of The Satanic Bible as an occult item owes to its status as a " totem or a fetishized object in popular culture " , not the philosophy contained within . He argues that many erroneously categorize the content of The Satanic Bible as evil and depraved from the minimalist , dark cover design ( composed of a purple Sigil of Baphomet and white text on the front , and a photo of LaVey superimposed over the Sigil of Baphomet on the back ) , the verbose , overblown style of the text , and the presence of the word " Satan " in the title . Contrary to this belief , he says , the philosophy presented by LaVey is " neither offensive nor surprising . " Zeena Schreck has criticized The Satanic Bible as a financial endeavor suggested by Avon publisher , Mayer . She maintains that it contains large amounts of falsified information about LaVey 's past , and that much of the book is plagiarized from Redbeard 's Might Is Right , Dee 's Enochian Keys , and Rand 's Atlas Shrugged . Chris Mathews , in Modern Satanism : Anatomy of a Radical Subculture , describes The Satanic Bible as " hastily prepared " and cynical . Both Mathews and a 1971 article in Newsweek compare the ideologies presented in The Satanic Bible to Nazism : containing " unremitting focus on social elitism , appeals to force , and scorn for egalitarian principles " . Israel Regardie criticized LaVey 's alteration of the Enochian Keys in The Book of Leviathan as stupid and of lower quality than the original Keys . The Satanic Bible has also received a large amount of criticism from people and organizations who find its content to be dangerous . Much of this criticism came during the period of " Satanic panic , " when Satanic ritual abuse was feared to be epidemic . Much of this media coverage , however , has been denounced as " uncritical and sensationalized . " Tom Harpur condemns the book as " blasphemous " and " socially seditious , " and blames it for causing an increase in gruesome violence , ritual abuse , and other obscene acts . Critics have also accused The Satanic Bible of encouraging violence and murder , particularly in young people considered to be impressionable . Dawn Perlmutter criticizes it for providing adolescents with bad messages and messages that can be easily misinterpreted . Possession of The Satanic Bible has been used by some studies to identify adolescents who are antisocial , and some warn that possession of the book is a warning sign of emotional issues . The Council on Mind Abuse took a very negative view of The Satanic Bible . Former Executive Director Rob Tucker warned parents to look for The Satanic Bible in their children 's bedrooms , saying , " You have to help the child fight this obsession like any other addiction " and " It 's like giving drugs to a kid who is already on the edge . " Attempts to ban the book from schools and public libraries have been made in various places around the world , and bans or limitations on the book in prisons have been repeatedly challenged in court . However , opposition to The Satanic Bible has rarely led to its removal ; these bans are rare . The book was banned in South Africa from 1973 to 1993 .
= Over the Edge ( 1999 ) = Over the Edge ( 1999 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) and presented by MCI 's 1 @-@ 800 @-@ COLLECT , which took place on May 23 , 1999 , at Kemper Arena in Kansas City , Missouri , United States . It was the first event not to be promoted under the " In Your House " series of pay @-@ per @-@ views , which typically occurred in months not occupied by the WWF 's biggest events ( Royal Rumble , WrestleMania , King of the Ring , SummerSlam , and Survivor Series ) . Owen Hart was scheduled to face The Godfather for the WWF Intercontinental Championship during the event . Wrestling under his Blue Blazer gimmick , Hart was to make a superhero @-@ like ring entrance , which would have seen him descend from the arena rafters into the ring . He was , however , released prematurely when the harness line malfunctioned , and fell more than 70 feet ( 21 m ) into the ring and died . Criticism later arose over the WWF 's decision to continue the show after Hart 's accident . In court , his widow Martha , children , and parents sued the organization , contending that poor planning of the dangerous stunt caused Owen 's death . WWF settled the case out of court , paying US $ 18 million to his widow , children , and parents . Due to the accident and controversy surrounding the event the Over the Edge name was retired . The event was also not released for home video viewing until the launch of the WWE Network in 2014 . In the main event , The Undertaker defeated Steve Austin in a singles match ( with Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon as the guest referees ) to win the WWF Championship . Of the six scheduled bouts on the undercard , two received more promotion than the others . The first was a singles match , in which The Rock defeated Triple H. The other was an eight @-@ man elimination tag team match , which featured The Union 's ( Mankind , Ken Shamrock , Test , and the Big Show ) victory over the Corporate Ministry ( Viscera , the Big Boss Man , and the Acolytes ( Bradshaw and Faarooq ) ) . = = Background = = Over the Edge was the culmination of various scripted plots and storylines . Before the event , several WWF professional wrestling matches and stories were played out on WWF programming : Raw is War , SmackDown ! , and Sunday Night Heat . These narratives created feuds between various wrestlers , casting them as villains and heroes . The main narrative for Over the Edge continued the events that unfolded at Backlash , WWF 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , held on April 25 , 1999 . There , The Undertaker abducted Stephanie McMahon , the daughter of chairman Vince McMahon . The Undertaker 's price for Stephanie 's return was control over the wrestling organization . His plans were thwarted , however , by the WWF Champion , Steve Austin , who rescued Stephanie and denied The Undertaker his ransom . This plot development set up a feud between the two wrestlers , which would be settled in a standard singles match for the Championship at Over the Edge , in which both Vince and his son Shane , who had aligned himself with The Undertaker , would serve as the guest referee . Originally Shane had named himself the sole referee of the match , but WWF commissioner Shawn Michaels made Vince the co @-@ referee in order to level the playing field . WWF further built up the rivalry between The Undertaker and Austin by having them attack each other on WWF programming , before their showdown . On May 3 , 1999 , The Undertaker threw Austin off the stage , and two weeks later , the WWF Champion was handcuffed by his title 's challenger to a crucifix , which was raised above the ring . Another feud created for Over the Edge involved Triple H and The Rock , who would meet each other in a standard singles match at the event . Triple H had interfered in one of The Rock 's matches , and later threw him off the stage . The script called for The Rock to portray an injury to his arm that required him to wear a plaster cast . Shane , acting his role as co @-@ owner of WWF and ally of Triple H , further aggrieved The Rock by forbidding him to wear the cast for Over the Edge . The pay @-@ per @-@ view event featured the buildup of a rivalry among two stables , groups of at least three wrestlers . The two groups were the Corporate Ministry and the Union . The Corporate Ministry was formed when the Corporation merged with the Ministry of Darkness ; the Corporate Ministry consisted of Viscera , the Big Boss Man , and the Acolytes ( Bradshaw and Faarooq ) . Throughout the month of May , the Ministry was involved in matches with Mankind , Ken Shamrock , the Big Show , and Test , and in retaliation , the four wrestlers formed the Union stable . The WWF continued to enhance the feud over several weeks , which included a brawl among all eight wrestlers on May 10 , 1999 . The evolving plot led to the promotion of an eight @-@ man elimination tag team match between both groups at Over the Edge . In this bout , the team that eliminated all of its opponents would win . Other feuds that received less promotion and culminated into matches at Over the Edge include Billy Gunn versus Road Dogg and the Blue Blazer versus WWF Intercontinental Champion The Godfather for the title in standard singles bouts . Mark Henry and D 'Lo Brown versus WWF Tag Team Champions Kane and X @-@ Pac in a tag team match for the championship , Hardcore Holly versus Al Snow in a Hardcore singles match for the Hardcore Title , and a mixed tag team match involving Val Venis and Nicole Bass versus Jeff Jarrett and Debra were also advertised . = = Event = = Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an episode of Sunday Night Heat aired live on the USA Network . In a standard match , Meat defeated Brian Christopher , while the Hardy Boyz ( Matt and Jeff ) defeated Goldust and the Blue Meanie in a tag team match . In the final contest , Vince McMahon and Mideon fought in a singles match that ended in " No Contest " , when the Corporate Ministry attacked Vince and broke his ankle in order to prevent him from refereeing the main event match . = = = Miscellaneous = = = Jim Ross and Jerry " The King " Lawler were the English commentators for the event , while Carlos Cabrera and Hugo Savinovich were the Spanish commentators . Howard Finkel acted as the ring announcer . The referees included Tim White , Mike Chioda , and Teddy Long . Other officials include Vince McMahon , Pat Patterson , and Gerald Brisco . = = = Preliminary matches = = = After Sunday Night Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view began with a tag team match , in which the WWF Tag Team Champions Kane and X @-@ Pac defended against Mark Henry and D 'Lo Brown . During the match , Henry lifted X @-@ Pac and rammed his back against the steel ring post at ringside . Afterward , Brown and Henry simultaneously attacked X @-@ Pac , which led Kane to launch himself from the top turnbuckle onto Brown and Henry . After the competitors reentered the ring , Kane performed a chokeslam on Henry , lifting him by the throat and slamming him down . Kane then pinned Henry to retain the WWF Tag Team Title . Next was the hardcore singles bout — a match allowing no disqualifications or countouts . WWF Hardcore Champion Al Snow defended against Hardcore Holly . Holly and Snow began their bout in the ring but were scripted to move their brawl into the arena stands . From there , they proceeded to the backstage area , and into the concession stands before returning to the ring . The fight was decided when Snow lifted Holly onto his shoulders and threw him through a wooden table . Successfully covering and pinning Holly , Snow retained the WWF Hardcore Title . The next scheduled match was a singles match for the WWF Intercontinental Title between The Godfather ( champion ) and the Blue Blazer . As Hart descended into the ring on a safety harness , the equipment gave way , and he fell . Emergency medical technicians ( EMTs ) rushed him to the hospital , but he was pronounced dead on arrival . The show was halted for 15 minutes before it continued with the next match . The fourth scheduled contest was the Mixed tag team match that featured Val Venis and Nicole Bass facing Jeff Jarrett and Debra . At one point , Jarrett gained possession of a guitar and attempted to hit Bass with it , but Venis took the guitar away and lifted Jarrett from behind to drop him onto the mat ; he then pinned Jarrett . In the fourth match of the evening , Billy Gunn defeated his former tag team partner Road Dogg , after hitting him with the time keeper 's hammer . = = = Main event matches = = = The fifth match was the eight @-@ man elimination tag @-@ team match between The Union and the Corporate Ministry . Test was eliminated by pinfall after Bradshaw performed a high @-@ impact forearm attack " Clothesline from Hell " on him . Bradshaw was then eliminated by submission as a result of Ken Shamrock 's ankle lock . Afterwards , Shamrock was eliminated via disqualification as a result of attacking the referee . Then , Faarooq was eliminated by pinfall after the Big Show executed a chokeslam on him . Only one member of each team remained after Viscera and the Big Show failed to return to the ring within ten seconds , and were counted out as a result . The Union won the match after Mankind forced Boss Man to submit with the Mandible claw . It was at this point that the viewers at home were told by Jim Ross that Owen Hart had died . The final match on the undercard was a standard match that featured Triple H and The Rock . Continuing the storyline of The Rock 's injured arm , Triple H was scripted to target and attack The Rock 's arm . Towards the final moments of the bout , Triple H asked Chyna , his valet , to retrieve a folding chair . The referee , however , took it away from him , which led to an argument between Triple H and the referee ; the mishap prompted Triple H to push the referee down . The referee disqualified Triple H for this action ; thus , The Rock won the match . After the match , Mankind ran in to save The Rock from Triple H and Chyna . The main event was a singles match in which WWF Champion Steve Austin defended against the Undertaker . Originally , Shane and Vince McMahon were supposed to be the guest referees , but due to storyline purposes , Pat Patterson , an accomplice of Vince McMahon , replaced Vince , who had had his ankle broken earlier in the event , in order to prevent Shane from helping The Undertaker . Patterson , however , was unable to officiate the entire match after the Undertaker executed a chokeslam on him . The Undertaker and Austin wrestled inconclusively until Austin hit The Undertaker on the head with a folding chair . As Austin went to cover the Undertaker , Gerald Brisco , another accomplice of Vince , came down to the ring to replace Patterson and officiated the unsuccessful pinfall attempt by Austin . Like his partner Patterson , Brisco was unable to officiate the entire match after the Undertaker attacked him . Vince then came down to the ring as another referee replacement , but when Austin forcefully pulled the Undertaker 's head over his shoulders to perform a stunner , Shane prevented him from performing a three count . As Vince and Shane argued , Austin got up and confronted Vince at which point Shane shoved Vince into Austin , who fell into a roll @-@ up by The Undertaker and then performed a fast count to give him the victory and the WWF Title . = = Owen Hart accident = = When Owen Hart was to challenge The Godfather for the WWF Intercontinental Champion 's title , he was performing as the Blue Blazer . The character was a superhero gimmick that parodied various wrestlers . At Over the Edge , Hart was to emulate World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) wrestler Sting 's ( Steve Borden ) ring entrance by descending from the arena rafters into the ring . The entrance was successfully tested on the November 15 , 1998 , episode of Sunday Night Heat ; however , during his descent at Over the Edge , a cable disengaged from the safety vest he wore , and he fell more than 70 feet ( 21 m ) from the rafters into the ring . As he fell , his chest landed on one of the ring 's padded turnbuckles . The accident was not viewed by television viewers . A pre @-@ recorded interview video was shown at the start of Hart 's descent , and when the broadcast returned live , the cameras quickly turned away from the ring to the audience . Soon afterward , Jim Ross , one of the commentators of the event , informed pay @-@ per @-@ view viewers that Hart had fallen from the rafters , that the incident was " not a part of the entertainment " and that it was " a real situation " . EMTs came down to the ring and gave Hart CPR , but he showed no response to the treatment . Bringing Hart out on a gurney , the EMTs boarded the heavily injured wrestler into an ambulance and took him to a nearby hospital in Kansas City . After the incident , the event was halted for 15 minutes , until Vince McMahon and other WWF Corporate officials made the decision to continue the event . Hart 's coworkers , professional wrestlers and other miscellaneous workers , appeared somber after Hart 's fall as they continued to do their jobs . An hour after the event restarted , Ross informed pay @-@ per @-@ view viewers that Hart had died at the age of 34 at a nearby hospital . The fans in attendance were not told any information about what had happened to Hart , and they did not hear the announcement of his death . " Ladies and gentlemen , earlier tonight here in Kansas City , tragedy befell the World Wrestling Federation and all of us . Owen Hart was set to make an entrance from the ceiling , and he fell from the ceiling . I have the unfortunate responsibility to let everyone know that Owen Hart has died . Owen Hart has tragically died from that accident here tonight . " = = Aftermath = = After the event , in response to Owen Hart 's death , the WWF canceled the encore presentation of Over the Edge via pay @-@ per @-@ view , and they also canceled four live events in Canada and one in Illinois . Information about Over the Edge from the WWF ( now named the WWE ) is sparse because the event was never released on VHS or DVD due to Hart 's death . In 2014 , the event was shown in an edited form on the WWE Network . On May 24 , 1999 , the day following this event , a tribute to Hart was held on Raw is War in St. Louis , which the WWF called Raw is Owen . For this show , all storylines and rivalries were stopped , and wrestlers were given the option to wrestle or not . The show also featured interviews and testimonies from his coworkers and highlights of his professional wrestling career . Hart 's funeral service was held on May 31 , 1999 , in Calgary , Alberta , Canada , and it was attended by family members , friends , and over 300 wrestlers who were acquainted with him . Following the funeral , Hart was buried in Calgary 's Queens Park Cemetery later that day . Three weeks after the event , his widow , children , and parents sued the WWF for causing Owen 's death with a poorly planned stunt ; they claimed that the harness system was defective . After the court case had extended one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , a settlement was reached on November 2 , 2000 , when the WWF agreed to pay his widow , children , and parents US $ 18 million . The manufacturer of the harness system had also been named as a defendant in the case but was dismissed from the case after the settlement was reached . After Over the Edge , The Rock was scripted into a feud with the Undertaker over his WWF Championship . The evolving feud culminated into a standard match at King of the Ring , the WWF 's June pay @-@ per @-@ view event , after The Rock defeated The Undertaker and Triple H in a standard match involving three wrestlers ( also called a triple threat match ) , to earn a WWF Championship match against the Undertaker . At King of the Ring , the Undertaker defeated The Rock to retain his title . After Steve Austin lost his WWF Title , he engaged in a rivalry with Vince and Shane McMahon in retaliation for their interference during his match at Over the Edge . Austin lost the match at King of the Ring , and his 50 % control in the WWF ( kayfabe ) , but before that he scheduled himself in a standard match against the Undertaker for his title on June 28 . Austin won the match and the title . Eventually , the WWF developed a feud with Austin , Mankind , and Triple H over the WWF title , which led to a match at SummerSlam , the WWF 's August pay @-@ per @-@ view event . There , Mankind won the WWF title . Owen Hart ( as his " Blue Blazer " alter @-@ ego ) was booked to win the Intercontinental Title from The Godfather at Over the Edge . Hart 's tag team partner and good friend Jeff Jarrett would win the title a week later on Raw , using Hart 's signature " Sharpshooter " finisher and shouting " Owen Hart ! " upon being handed the belt . = = = Reactions = = = Vince McMahon and the World Wrestling Federation received strong criticism for designing the stunt and allowing the event to continue after Owen Hart 's fall . In his weekly column for the Calgary Sun — a major newspaper in Hart 's hometown — on May 31 , 1999 , Bret Hart blamed McMahon for his brother 's death . He " question [ ed ] if this was really necessary " and said , " Shame on you , Vince McMahon . " He also claimed that the tribute show " reeked of disrespect , " stating , " Yes , the so @-@ called tribute where afterward wrestlers point to their crotches and say : ' Suck it ! ' It makes me nauseous . " Other members of the Hart family also blamed McMahon for Owen 's death , claiming that the accident was the inevitable outcome of " an obsession for ratings and revenues . " While in Calgary for Owen 's funeral , wrestler Hulk Hogan stated , " Hopefully something good will happen . Wrestling 's gotten ... way too over the top " . In reference to McMahon , he added , " I hope he learns a lesson from this horrible accident " . Ralph Klein , Alberta 's premier at the time , expressed a hope that Hart 's death would lead to changes in wrestling , stating , " Maybe the various federations will rethink the gimmickry . " Calgary Sun columnist Eric Francis called McMahon 's decision to continue the event " sick , disrespectful and wrong . But what else would you expect from the WWF ? " He added , " if there 's any justice in this world , McMahon will pay dearly for what his organization has done to further pain the Harts " . Some fans were also upset with the decision to carry on with the show . One man , who left the event with his children upon hearing that Hart had died , claimed , " It was disgusting .... For kids to see that , for this to be so @-@ called family entertainment , for them to just carry on as if nothing had happened , is just sad . " Martha Hart , Owen 's wife , refused to criticize McMahon publicly in the immediate aftermath of her husband 's death . She said that McMahon " absolutely should be there " at the funeral . She also stated , " I 'm a very forgiving person and I 'm not bitter or angry , but there will be a day of reckoning " . Commenting on the WWF 's decision to continue the show after her husband 's death , Martha stated , " After he lost his fight for life they just scooped him up and ordered the next match out . Where 's the humanity ? Would he have wanted the show to go on ? Absolutely not . " The WWF received some support from people who felt that the company did the right thing by continuing the event . Vince Russo , a WWF script writer at the time , pointed to the fact that Brian Pillman , a family friend of the Harts and a member of The Hart Foundation died shortly before the Badd Blood : In Your House pay @-@ per @-@ view on which he was scheduled to perform in 1997 . After learning of Pillman 's death , Hart went ahead with his match on the show . Russo claimed that this showed that " the night he passed away I 'm sure Owen would have wanted the same thing . " Vince McMahon refused to comment on Hart 's death until he felt sufficient time had passed . When asked if he felt responsible for the accident , he replied , " I have a lot to say and I will say it . I promise you that . But this is not the time to do it .... Give me a few days . Give me to the end of the week . Then we 'll talk . " The day after Over the Edge , the WWF published a message in the Calgary Sun , stating , " We do not have much information as to how it happened and will not know until an investigation is completed . We are all shaken , and to say Owen will be missed is to fall short of a way to fully explain what he meant to us . " Although the WWF had no information , they reported that " Our thoughts and prayers go out to the entire Hart family . We have to be strong for Owen ; he was an extraordinary human being and consummate performer and knows that the highest tribute that we can pay is to go on entertaining the fans he loved so much . " = = Results = =
= Mississippi Highway 9W = Mississippi Highway 9W ( MS 9W ) is a 20 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 32 @.@ 7 km ) long state highway located in northern Mississippi . The southern terminus of the route is at MS 9 north of Bruce in Calhoun County while the northern terminus is at MS 7 south of Oxford in Lafayette County . The route is a two @-@ lane undivided road its entire length and passes through rural areas of woods and farms . Along the way , MS 9W intersects MS 315 in Paris . MS 9W was designated to follow its current alignment in 1956 and was fully paved from a gravel road by 1960 . = = Route description = = MS 9W begins at an intersection with MS 9 to the north of Bruce in Calhoun County . The route heads northwest on a two @-@ lane undivided road through a mix of woods and farmlands with a few homes . The road turns to the north and reaches the community of Banner , where the road crosses two County Roads : CR 275 and CR 267 . MS 9W enters a dense forest as it curves northwest again and heads into more agricultural fields , coming to a junction with CR 284 . After crossing into Lafayette County , the route reaches the community of Paris and intersects the eastern terminus of MS 315 as well as CR 428 . After this intersection , MS 9W passes through several more miles of forests , intersecting CR 371 before reaching its terminus at MS 7 to the south of Oxford . MS 9W is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 . = = History = = MS 9W was designated in 1956 for a gravel road connecting MS 9 north of Bruce to MS 7 south of Oxford . By 1960 , the entire route was paved . Since then , the route has not undergone any alignment changes . = = Major intersections = =
= Gojira ( band ) = Gojira is a French heavy metal band from Bayonne . The band was known as Godzilla until 2001 . Gojira is composed of vocalist and rhythm guitarist Joe Duplantier , his brother Mario Duplantier on drums , lead guitarist Christian Andreu , and Jean @-@ Michel Labadie on bass . They have released six studio albums and three live DVDs . They are known for their environmentally @-@ themed lyrics and have gone from " utmost obscurity " to being mentioned regularly " amongst the genre 's leading new millennium upstarts " . = = History = = = = = Early years and Terra Incognita ( 1996 − 2002 ) = = = Gojira was formed in 1996 by Joe and Mario Duplantier , Christian Andreu , and Alexandre Cornillon in their hometown of Ondres . Gojira 's music combines elements of death metal , groove metal , thrash metal and progressive metal . The band started touring and recording under the name Godzilla and released their demos Victim , Possessed , Saturate and Wisdom Comes in 1996 , 1997 , 1999 and 2000 , respectively . After touring , supporting Cannibal Corpse , Edge of Sanity , Impaled Nazarene and supporting Immortal in September 1999 , legal problems forced Godzilla to change their name . They changed their name to Gojira , the rōmaji spelling of the fictional monster Godzilla . Their debut album Terra Incognita was released under the new name in 2001 . = = = The Link and From Mars to Sirius ( 2003 − 2007 ) = = = The band released their second studio album in 2003 , The Link ( reissued in 2007 with remastered audio and new booklet artwork ) . After the success of the first two albums and their live performances they made a DVD in Bordeaux produced by Gabriel Editions . Since 19 May 2004 , The Link Alive has been on sale in France . In 2005 , Gojira decided to sign with French @-@ based Listenable Records to help give them exposure outside France with the album From Mars to Sirius . Gojira was featured on Children of Bodom 's US tour in late 2006 , joining Amon Amarth and Sanctity as the openers . Furthermore , Gojira supported Trivium on the UK dates of their European tour in 2007 with Sanctity and Annihilator . Later they supported Lamb of God on their 2007 American tour along with Trivium and Machine Head . In late 2007 they took part in the Radio Rebellion Tour , featuring co @-@ headliners Behemoth and Job for a Cowboy , as well as Beneath the Massacre . In October 2007 , Listenable Records re @-@ released Gojira 's 1997 demo Possessed as a limited edition . = = = The Way of All Flesh ( 2008 − 2011 ) = = = The Way of All Flesh was released on 13 October in Europe via Listenable Records and 14 October in North America through Prosthetic Records in 2008 . On 25 July 2008 , the band announced the track listing and revealed the final cover art for the record . Joe Duplantier stated about the album : " This record is a lot darker — like , a lot darker , I would say . The music is darker and more violent . " The album will be " more intense , more brutal , and more melodic " than its predecessor . " That 's the theme — it 's about death itself , " he explained . " It 's also about the immortality of the soul . That 's the main subject for us " . Randy Blythe from the American band Lamb of God appeared as a guest vocalist on the song " Adoration for None " The album took four months to write and record , and three months to mix . On 17 March 2009 , the band 's first North American headlining tour was announced . Opening bands were The Chariot and Car Bomb . Gojira accompanied Metallica on their tour 14 September – 18 October , performing before Lamb of God . Gojira entered a Los Angeles , California @-@ area studio in early November 2010 , with producer Logan Mader to begin recording a new non @-@ profit four @-@ song EP , the proceeds from which will benefit Sea Shepherd , an anti @-@ whaling organization . According to Joe Duplantier , the EP will feature guest appearances from the international metal scene . " Of Blood And Salt " will feature Devin Townsend and Fredrik Thordendal . The other tracks will feature Randy Blythe , Anders Fridén , Jonas Renkse and Max Cavalera . As a preview of their Sea Shepherd EP , Gojira released the song " Of Blood And Salt " in May 2011 , featuring Devin Townsend as a guest vocalist and a guest guitar solo performed by Fredrik Thordendal . As of 2016 , the EP has yet to see a release , as the hard drive it was on crashed . = = = L 'Enfant Sauvage and Magma ( 2012 − present ) = = = They were acquired by Roadrunner Records and released L 'Enfant Sauvage on 4 April 2012 on that label . The title translates to " The Wild Child . " The album features 11 tracks , and was released on 26 June 2012 . The title song " L 'Enfant Sauvage " was released as a single along with a video to support it followed by a release of the song " Liquid Fire " as a free download on Gojira 's official website . The album was released 26 June 2012 through Roadrunner Records . On March 11 , 2014 , Gojira released a Live CD / DVD / Picture book Les Enfants Sauvages , which was recorded at Brixton Academy London in March 2013 . In November 2014 the band began constructing a recording studio in Queens , New York City . That same month , Mario Duplantier moved to New York . In an interview conducted in February 2015 with AMH TV , Mario Duplantier stated that the band is working on a new album . Further speaking with AMH TV , he went on to say that " We spent two months ... composing new stuff , composing new songs . And we feel very optimistic about the future . We 're already enjoying a lot of the new stuff . We want to make the strongest album we can do . I mean , all the bands say they try to make the strongest album , but this time , I think we will really do it . " On 4 January 2016 , the band posted a video on their YouTube page announcing the new album would be out in spring . That same month , Rolling Stone named the album their sixth @-@ most anticipated album of 2016 . In April 2015 the band finished the construction of their New York recording studio , ' Silver Cord Studio ' . However , ten days into recording there , Joe and Mario Duplantier learned that their mother had fallen very ill and so the band put the recording session on hold . Their mother later died , and this experience had a profound influence on the recording process . On 13 April 2016 , the band released a thirty @-@ second video teaser confirming that the album will be titled Magma and will be released June 17 , 2016 through Roadrunner Records . They followed this with the release of the first song from Magma , titled " Stranded " , on 22 April . The single 's music video was directed by Vincent Caldoni . On 20 May 2016 , a second song , " Silvera " , was released , accompanied by a music video directed by Drew Cox . Magma was officially released on June 17 , 2016 through Roadrunner Records to " universal critical acclaim " . The album marked a change in style for the band , with Joe Duplantier experimenting with clean vocals , and with Mario commenting that " this time , we just felt all together that we wanted something straight to the point more . We wanted to change the dynamic . " The band will tour North America with Tesseract from mid @-@ July through October 2016 in support of the album . In 2016 , the band will tour the United Kingdom with Alter Bridge , Volbeat , and Like a Storm . = = Side projects = = Joe Duplantier was invited by the founding brothers of influential Brazilian band Sepultura , Max and Igor Cavalera , to join their new band Cavalera Conspiracy as a bassist . The album Inflikted was released in March 2008 and a tour followed in mid @-@ 2008 . Also , the Duplantier brothers formed an avant @-@ garde metal band called Empalot in 1998 , starring Stéphane Chateauneuf , who appears in The Link Alive DVD 's short show called " Thang & Tanguy " . Their first release was a demo album called Brout . It was released in 1998 . Two albums followed : Tous aux Cèpes in 2001 and a live CD called Empalot en Concert in 2004 . = = Musical style and lyrical themes = = Gojira 's sound is not easily classifiable as they blend several styles . Genres that have been associated with Gojira are technical death metal , progressive metal , groove metal and thrash metal . Gojira has been influenced by heavy metal artists such as Slayer , Sepultura , Death , Morbid Angel , Meshuggah , Tool , Metallica , Pantera , and Neurosis . Gojira plays a technical and rhythmic style of heavy metal with precision drumming along with blast beats , unusual rhythm patterns , and start @-@ and @-@ stop riffs . Gojira has also been known to incorporate textured atmospheric elements and instrumental songs into their music . Gojira songs have progressive and uncommon song structures , rarely using the standard verse , chorus , verse songwriting.The vocal style is varied , ranging from the screamed style often employed in extreme metal , with the death growl style predominantly used in death metal , in addition to clean vocals and higher screams . At times , death metal growls and clean vocals are mixed to create an aggressive but melodic effect . Gojira 's lyrics tackle themes of life , death , rebirth , spirituality , and nature . In particular , their 2005 album From Mars to Sirius is a concept album tackling environmental issues as well as broader themes of life , death , and rebirth . The members of the band were raised in Bayonne , a city on the south west coast of France ( Pyrénées @-@ Atlantiques / French Basque Country ) . The surrounding scenic countryside and rugged coastline inspired Gojira 's interest in nature and the earth . Gojira uses its lyrics to spread its spiritual beliefs and concerns for the environment . They also cooperate with Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to protect marine animals , especially dolphins , whales and sharks . Members from Sea Shepherd Conservation Society are allowed to run a merchandise booth at Gojira gigs . In addition , Gojira is working on the Sea Shepherd EP with well @-@ known musicians from the metal scene , including Devin Townsend . All proceeds from the project will go to the organization , though as of June 2016 the current status of this project is unknown . = = Band members = = Members Joe Duplantier − lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 1996 – present ) Mario Duplantier − drums , percussion ( 1996 – present ) Christian Andreu − lead guitar ( 1996 – present ) Jean @-@ Michel Labadie − bass ( 2001 – present ) Past members Alexandre Cornillon − bass ( 1996 – 2001 ) = = Discography = = Studio albums Terra Incognita ( 2001 ) The Link ( 2003 ) From Mars to Sirius ( 2005 ) The Way of All Flesh ( 2008 ) L 'Enfant Sauvage ( 2012 ) Magma ( 2016 )
= Lucas North = Lucas North , formerly known as John Bateman , is a fictional character from the BBC espionage television series Spooks ( known in the United States as " MI5 " ) , which follows the exploits of Section D , a counter @-@ terrorism division of MI5 . North is portrayed by British actor Richard Armitage . The character is introduced in Spooks ' seventh series as the former head of Section D , who was captured and imprisoned during an operation in Russia . He returns to the UK after eight years and is eventually reinstated into MI5 . He is described as having once been the best in his field , and he is now trying to regain his former brilliance . Lucas North is a main character in the seventh , eighth , and ninth series ; the ninth series reveals that Lucas " isn 't who you think he is . " Following the creation of the character by the show 's writers , Armitage was chosen early in the casting process , since the producers believed he could carry the mystery of the character . A tentative viewer of Spooks , he was approached for the role following the completion of the second series of Robin Hood , in which he portrayed series regular Sir Guy of Gisbourne . After agreeing to appear in Spooks , Armitage learned how to speak fluent Russian and lost a stone in weight in order to fit the description of his character . With regard to the show 's notorious habit of killing off major characters , Armitage said he had no preference as to Lucas ' possible exit . He has performed his own stunts on the series , which have included a waterboarding scene , although the character becomes less physical in the ninth series . The Lucas North character and his portrayal by Armitage met with unanimous praise from cast , crew , and reviewers . = = Role in Spooks = = = = = Character arc = = = Born John Bateman , the character later known as Lucas North was raised in rural Cumbria , where his father was a Methodist minister . During his time at Leeds University he lived with Maya Lahan ( Laila Rouass ) . While enrolled at Leeds he visited Dakar , Senegal , where he engaged in shipping cannabis to Hamburg in exchange for money . When he was caught the authorities took the shipment and his money , stranding him in Dakar . To gain enough money to get back to the UK , he worked in a casino . While working there John Bateman was approached by Vaughn Edwards ( Iain Glen ) , who persuaded him to deliver packages for him . One of the packages delivered by Bateman was a bomb that exploded at a British Embassy , killing 17 people . To escape the country Bateman killed a friend of his named Lucas North . North had just made it past the first battery of tests for admission to MI5 . Bateman assumed North 's identity and left Maya behind . Bateman / North would later suppress these memories , believing that Vaughn was solely responsible for the bombing and for his friend 's death . He would later join MI5 in place of the real Lucas North and become head of Section D. He was also once married to Elizabeta Starkova ( Paloma Baeza ) . During an operation in Russia , Lucas North was captured and imprisoned for eight years , during which time he was often subjected to torture . In the seventh series , Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) is able to secure Lucas ' release from prison in exchange for a Russian spy imprisoned in the UK . However , Arkady Kachimov ( Stuart Wilson ) coerces Lucas to work against MI5 , to assist Russia in launching a cyber attack against the UK . In the first episode , Lucas aids section chief Adam Carter ( Rupert Penry @-@ Jones ) in rescuing a kidnapped soldier and preventing the bombing of a Remembrance Day memorial service ; the rescue results in Adam 's death . In the second episode , the team begins to suspect Lucas of working for the Russians , but he later reveals that he is actually trying to stop Arkady and the attack ; the team succeeds in stopping the attack and apprehends Arkady . Following Adam 's death , Lucas is reassigned as Senior Case Officer , and handles Adam 's assets . In the third episode , Lucas recalls being tortured and asked for details of " Sugar Horse " , a top secret MI5 operation involving the recruitment of Russians who move into top positions in the Russian government . In the penultimate episode , Harry orders Lucas to Moscow to uncover the identity of a Federal Security Service ( FSB ) mole in MI5 who is sabotaging Sugar Horse and framing Harry . There , Lucas discovers that Connie James ( Gemma Jones ) is the mole . In the season finale , Section D learns that operation " Tiresias " , the Russian equivalent of Sugar Horse , is going to detonate a nuclear bomb in London . Lucas and Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) save Connie from the authorities in order to enlist her help in stopping the attack . After finding the bomb , Connie disarms it , Lucas asks her who sold him out to the Russians and she admits it was her with her final words but she dies in the process as the bomb goes off seconds later . In the fourth episode of the eighth series , Oleg Darshavin , who had been one of Lucas 's interrogators in Russia , approaches him for help in stopping a planned bombing by Sudanese extremists ; Lucas takes the case despite Harry 's suspicion that he developed Stockholm syndrome during his captivity . Harry 's suspicions are solidified when Lucas goes off @-@ piste , but ultimately , Lucas is able to bring Darshavin in and takes him into FSB custody after uncovering his involvement in the plot , while Ros stops the bomb . During the same series , Lucas conducts an affair with CIA liaison Sarah Caufield ( Genevieve O 'Reilly ) , who is later revealed to be an operative of " Nightingale " , a multinational shadow organisation bent on a New World Order . When he discovers this and confronts Sarah about her involvement , she flees . She returns in the series eight finale , and before she is assassinated , she reveals that Nightingale is attempting to provoke a nuclear war between India and Pakistan . In the end , Lucas and Ros go to a hotel rigged to explode , set up by Nightingale , to save Pakistan President Mudasser and Home Secretary Andrew Lawrence before the building explodes ; Lucas rescues Mudasser , who calls off the impending war , but Ros is killed in the explosion before she can get Lawrence to safety . In the ninth series , Harry reinstates Lucas as chief of Section D ; this makes Lucas responsible for the integration of two new team members into the section , Beth Bailey ( Sophia Myles ) and Dimitri Levendis ( Max Brown ) . Vaughn returns and hands Lucas a briefcase with possessions from his life before MI5 , including photographs of him and Maya Lahan . When he visits her , however , she is so shocked at his reappearance and angry over his letting her believe him dead that at first she wants nothing to do with him . Later , Vaughn promises to leave Lucas alone in exchange for an MI5 file on " Albany " ; Lucas eventually hands him what he believes is the file . Believing he is free from Vaughn , Lucas persuades Maya to restart their relationship . However , it is revealed the file was not Albany , though it leads to the location of the actual file . Vaughn forces Lucas to find the file , which is in the possession of former Section D member Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones ( Hugh Simon ) . After convincing Malcolm to give him the file , Lucas hands it over to Vaughn , but it is soon discovered that this file , too , is a fake , and Malcolm has abandoned the house where he and Lucas had met . To force Lucas to continue seeking the file hand Vaughn kidnaps Maya . By this time , Harry Pierce has discovered that Lucas is not who he claims to be . Arrested and questioned , Lucas admits his true identity and his past , but convinces Harry to save Maya . A mortally wounded Vaughn is able to " wake up " Lucas ' true persona , who he was before MI5 . Believing Harry may not honour the deal they have worked out , Lucas intends to leave the country after getting his hands on the Albany file . The file is revealed to contain directions for building a genetic weapon that Vaughn has agreed to sell to the Chinese . After Lucas acquires the real file from Harry in exchange for team member Ruth Evershed , whom he has kidnapped , Maya is killed while he is trying to escape with her . He delivers the file to the Chinese agents anyway and intends to kill Harry for revenge . During their roof @-@ top confrontation , Lucas learns that Albany is an elaborate deception ; the genetic weapon is unworkable . Lucas then forces Harry to turn around , as if he is about to execute him . Instead , Lucas throws himself from the roof , to his death . = = = Characteristics and relationships = = = Lucas North appears to be a person divided between who he was prior to his incarceration and who he has become since . Richard Armitage has described Lucas as " very ambiguous , but quite open with everybody " and " a bit of a double @-@ edged sword , so he 's not completely white . He 's a bit of a dark horse . " He is also described as having " no knowledge of how damaged he is emotionally , until memories start to work their way to the surface . " Following his release from prison , glimpses of him adjusting to the outside world — such as a scene in episode two in which Lucas lies on the floor rather than in a bed in order to sleep — reveal to the audience how much he is struggling , though he keeps it hidden from his teammates . Lucas also fights very hard to be accepted and to regain Harry 's trust , but he does not always play by the rules . In the series seven finale , Lucas admits to having blamed Harry for his ordeal . However , in series nine , Lucas also believed he deserved being tortured , as penance for bombing the British Embassy in Dakar . Lucas is an admirer of English poet and painter William Blake ; Elizabeta reveals that Lucas ' admiration of Blake is based on their common distrust of systems . Lucas decorates his flat with some of Blake 's paintings , and has a chest tattoo resembling The Ancient of Days , one of Blake 's watercolour paintings . Though no longer married to Elizabeta , he maintains strong feelings towards her throughout the first half of series seven . The eighth series sees the return of Oleg Darshavin , one of Lucas 's former interrogators during his imprisonment . During his interrogations , Lucas had developed Stockholm syndrome , and his interrogator had managed to deconstruct him almost to the point of being turned and wanting to die . Lucas also becomes involved with CIA liaison officer Sarah Caufield . The initial power struggle between them ends up in a " torrid love affair , " which is monitored by the team . When Ruth Evershed ( Nicola Walker ) returns in the series , Lucas " really takes control of her position " , in a similar manner to Harry and Ros 's actions during Lucas 's return . Armitage described Lucas 's friendship with Ros as a " good combo " ; while Lucas likes to play the " maverick " with " all guns blazing " Ros would " slip around the back and silently slit a throat . " Following Ros 's death in the series eight finale , Lucas " sees the team 's been slightly shattered by it " and responds by " trying to pull the team together and aiming to be a strong figure for Harry . " The ninth series reveals a dark secret in Lucas 's past that will lead to the " ultimate betrayal . " Armitage revealed that Lucas " isn 't quite who you think he is . " It sees the introduction of a character named Maya , played by Laila Rouass , who is Lucas 's old flame and possible first love ; she is involved in Lucas 's secret . Lucas states that Maya means more to him than his job and reputation . Vaughn would use Maya as a way of controlling him . Armitage also revealed Lucas goes off the radar " quite a lot this series " and behaves " quite strangely . " = = Conceptual history = = = = = Creation and casting = = = The character of Lucas North and his background was first revealed in March 2008 , shortly after filming the seventh series began . The producers wanted to create a new character to be a part of the team . They came up with a " new heroic figure " that they wanted to " put as much distance between [ the ] previous hero , " Adam Carter . The producers focused on Richard Armitage early into the casting suggestions , because they felt he could carry the mystery of Lucas North . Writer Neil Cross felt that Armitage would bring the entire tortured history of North on screen . The producers approached Armitage in November 2007 , following the completion of the second series of Robin Hood , for which he played the regular part of Sir Guy of Gisbourne . Though interested in appearing on Spooks , he was initially somewhat worried and hesitant to join the series , citing replacing Rupert Penry @-@ Jones , which he thought was a " tall order , " and fears of bringing the series down . He agreed to appear on the series upon reading the rough outline of the script . He and the producers discussed about the potential and direction for the character , as well as where he would fit in the world of Spooks . A tentative viewer of the Spooks , he spent two days catching up on the series before starting . = = = Development = = = To research for his role , Armitage read novels from authors including John le Carré , Frederick Forsyth and Robert Ludlum . He tried to inspire his acting style for Lucas by Jason Bourne , a character created by Ludlum . He also lost a stone in weight in order to keep with the description that Lucas is malnourished , but also had to keep physically fit in order to perform a fight sequence during his first week of filming . Since Lucas is a fluent Russian speaker , Armitage had to learn it phonetically , which he found " pretty impossible . " He originally tried to learn it from a disc , but found it too basic and had since moved on to a language coach . Though interested , yet frustrated about the writing style and not knowing what is going to happen next , upon starting , Armitage was told by co @-@ star Peter Firth to learn to run with it , as well as learn the lines and political jargon quickly . He also thought the scripts are " quite a workout for the brain . " Armitage was also coached on his " serious face " and the " Spooks lean " by Rupert Penry @-@ Jones . The numerous tattoos on Lucas 's torso were actually transfers planted on Armitage , and took a couple of hours to apply . However , he was often told not to move much , as they could rub off quite easily . Armitage was also one of only two actors , along with Hermione Norris , who plays Ros Myers , who went to Moscow , Russia in the series ' first overseas shoot in August 2008 . When questioned regarding Spooks 's notoriety of killing off main characters , and the chances of Lucas meeting his demise , Armitage stated ; Armitage believes that when it is Lucas 's turn to leave the series , he would " leave in style , " and has no preference how he would exit , whether " sending Lucas to Manchester or severing his head , " he believes the producers would owe him a " brilliant exit . " In an interview with Lorraine Kelly on GMTV on May 2010 , Armitage revealed that in the ninth series , " [ Lucas ] is not who you thought he was . He 's not who I thought he was . " He admitted to being surprised at the development while reading the script . With the series theme being " deception " , Armitage felt that playing another side of Lucas was " interesting , " " quite exciting to play " and like " working in reverse because we 've already established his background and then we 've had to go and establish a much deeper background . " Writers Jonathan Brackley and Sam Vincent ( both head writers of the ninth series , having written five of the episodes ) made the decision about Lucas ' story @-@ arc in the series during the initial meetings with the producers . Throughout the process of developing Lucas ' arc , they worked through " a bazillion different versions . " For example , in the series finale , they considered that Lucas would release the Albany weapon on the Grid . Both writers admitted that they were " not @-@ half " concerned with possible negative reactions from fans of both Armitage and the character . In September 2011 , co @-@ star Peter Firth confirmed Lucas was killed off in the ninth series finale . He stated that the character " was always going to die . " At some point the producers considered having Harry shoot him at the top of the building where he would fall to his death . However , this changed to have Lucas just jumping off the building instead . = = = Stunt work and on @-@ screen violence = = = Armitage performs his own stunts . When performing fight scenes , they would be choreographed carefully so Armitage could take part rather than a stunt double . For series eight , Armitage performed a fight scene in a swimming pool , which he thought was " fun , " but also thought it was difficult as it was " like acting and punching in slow motion . " In another sequence , he injured a stuntman with a hospital trolley . He was only given a short lesson on how to handle firearms , since he was already accustomed to using them whilst working on Ultimate Force . While discussing the shootout at the end of series seven , Armitage noted that he is " not a violent person but when you put a gun in somebody 's hands [ ... ] it 's like a little animal comes out of you that wants to fire the gun again . " In a flashback sequence in one of his early episodes , Lucas is subjected to waterboarding , a method of psychological torture . In order to ensure the authenticity of the sequence , Armitage was himself subjected to the actual torture while shooting . He agreed to perform the sequence after he was convinced by consultants for the FSB and CIA . Armitage was only subjected to it for a short time , and was filmed in slow motion to make it appear he was on for longer . The ambient temperature of the room was also raised to make him as comfortable as possible . However , after the sequence was shot , Armitage changed his opinion entirely , stating ; " I only lasted five to ten seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . " Armitage shot more interrogation scenes during production of the eighth series , but only some were added into the episodes . He was " less physical " in the ninth series . = = Reception = = The reaction towards the character and Armitage 's portrayal were met with unanimous praise . In a viewer poll on their favourite character played by Armitage on RichardArmitageNet , Lucas North was voted third behind Sir Guy of Gisbourne , and winner John Thornton in North and South . Spooks producer Katie Swinden described Armitage 's addition as " fantastic " , as he " has that dark and brooding quality which make him perfect for the role . " Co @-@ star Hermione Norris thought Lucas was a " really fantastic character " and has brought " a completely different vibe and quality " to the series . John Beresford of TV Scoop thought the acting of the cast in the beginning of the seventh series , including Armitage 's was " pitch perfect " , and noted he " looks and sounds like he 's been here all along , already , and having only seen him briefly in Robin Hood I 've been quite astonished by how good he is in this . " Sky TV described Lucas North 's character as a " refreshing change " for the series . The Bromsgrove Advertiser noted that Armitage " certainly has the looks needed for the part " with " classic leading man presence , " and while comparing past main actors of the series , Matthew Macfadyen and Rupert Penry @-@ Jones , the author believed that " the eye candy quota is being kept high . " Leigh Holmwood of The Guardian reacted positively towards the introduction of Lucas after Adam 's departure , believing the change has " more than made amends . " David Blackwell of Enterline Media liked Lucas " better than Adam Carter or Tom Quinn " and felt that his " dark and conflicted persona adds to the story and makes him a more interesting character than Adam or Tom ever were . " Blackwell also believed that Armitage 's portrayal gives the character " real intensity and mystery . " In the ninth series Metro 's Lewis Bazley believed that Lucas " continues to give a violent , powder @-@ keg edge to proceedings – thank heaven for small mercies as his continual scowl never convinces in comparison with his predecessors Matthew McFadyen and Rupert Penry @-@ Jones . " Critics reacted positively towards Lucas ' development in the ninth series . Metro 's Keith Watson said that the scene had a " touch of Don Draper about it , " one of the factors that " Spooks has still got its hooks in . " Catherine Gee of The Daily Telegraph reflected on the " dramatically provided " twist , stated " just as we were finally beginning to trust him . " Vicky Frost of The Guardian stated that Spooks was " looking a bit lacklustre , " but now " seems to have raised its game " because of several developments for series nine , including the closing scenes involving Lucas and Vaughn , and his relationship with Dimitri Levendis . The Daily Mail Weekend Magazine stated " will he really turn out to be a bad guy ? It wouldn 't be the first time , " mirroring Armitage 's statement that " baddies are always the most fun to play . "
= WWE 2K = WWE 2K is a series that has more than 20 of those professional wrestling video games that are currently developed by Visual Concepts and Yuke 's , and it was later published by 2K Sports . These series of games are based on the professional wrestling promotion WWE , which features the professional wrestling match types , storylines , and playable characters based on WWE programming . The series was originally named SmackDown ! , after it has garnered from the WWE 's own SmackDown television program . The first release in the series was WWF SmackDown ! in March 2000 , which along with these subsequent titles , remained exclusive to Sony 's PlayStation consoles . After the brand extension , the series was retitled SmackDown ! vs. Raw in 2004 , to indicate the Raw brand was also featured . Within a few years , the series had expanded to a yearly release cycle for various seventh @-@ generation consoles as well as mobile devices . Yuke 's had also released the games in Japan under the name of Exciting Pro Wrestling . However , after SmackDown ! vs. Raw 2006 , THQ took over as the Japanese publisher and the Japanese releases adopted the western name . The series was later renamed as just simply WWE , starting from 2011 and 2012 . After THQ 's dissolution in January 2013 , it was reported that the publishing rights for the WWE video game series were acquired by Take @-@ Two Interactive . Take @-@ Two confirmed the acquisition in February , saying that it would also retain the services of Yuke 's and the THQ staff that worked on the WWE series . WWE 2K14 is the first game to be released under the 2K brand . Reception to the series ' games has overall been favorable , and WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 was rated 31st and 28th ( Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , respectively ) in IGN 's " Top 100 Games " list . It is among the best @-@ selling video game franchises , with 60 million copies shipped as of 2013 . = = WWE games series = = = = Gameplay = = The first game in the series , WWF SmackDown ! had a clear cut system for moves such as combining an arrow key with the circle button for grappling and moves and combining an arrow key with the X button for striking moves . Most of the later games , from WWF SmackDown ! 2 : Know Your Role to WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2006 used the aforementioned control scheme . When WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2007 was released , new game mechanics were introduced , in which a new control scheme altered the grappling system of the game , called " Ultimate Control moves . " Unlike the previous games , where the player pressed two buttons to perform a grapple or an attack , players were able to place their opponents into a grapple position and then choose to perform a move by moving the directional buttons of their system 's controller . For example , the player could place their opponent in a suplex grappling position and then either perform a normal suplex or an inverted suplex slam . Before the release of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 , in order for players to force a superstar to submit , they had to tap buttons to move a marker towards the end of the meter labeled " Submit " , and the only way for opponents to escape was for them to move the meter towards " Escape " . Included with the release of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 was a new submission system , in which the player had to move the analog sticks of their system 's controller in different directions to force the opponent to submit , while the opponent could do the same to escape the submission hold . Every game in the SmackDown vs. Raw series used to have the amount of damage inflicted to the player 's chosen superstar , measured with a meter on the HUD , where a design of a male figure presented the damage . As a move was performed against a superstar , the affected area of the body flashed — the more damage that is done to that specific body part , the more likely it is for the superstar to submit . Colors were used to represent the amount of damage done to a specific body area ; yellow represented minimal damage , orange represented moderate damage , and red represented maximum damage . This was however taken out of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 . Now the only way to tell how damaged the opponent is to watch their physical body actions that indicate how hurt they are . The more damage inflicted to opponents , the more likely it is for them to lose the match . There are four ways to win a match in every game : by pinfall , submission , knockout , countout ; alternatively , the match could end in a draw . With the introduction of an on @-@ screen referee in WWF SmackDown ! Just Bring It , the ability to win by disqualification was also included . Included with the release of WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw was the option of fighting " dirty " or " clean " . When players select " dirty " , the superstar is booed by the audience in the game ; conversely , the " clean " superstar is cheered by the audience . With the " dirty " or " clean " option comes the inclusion of performing a special maneuver when playing . Players using a " dirty " superstar must direct their superstar into building up their " dirty " meter by performing " dirty " tactics , such as attacking the referee or taking the pad off the ring 's turnbuckle . Unlike performing dirty tactics , " clean " superstars build their meters by performing " clean " tactics , such as an aerial techniqupe or performing a taunt . When " dirty " superstars ' meters build up , they are able to perform a signature low blow ; likewise , " clean " superstars can perform their signature move at double its normal damage . With the release of WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw 2006 was the inclusion of a stamina system , which was a measure of the superstars ' stamina . The stamina system was measured by a meter on the HUD ; the meter decreased when performing a variety of moves . The meter increases , however , when the player does nothing with the superstar or holds down a selected button that increased the stamina , which varied depending on the player 's system . When the superstar 's stamina was low , the wrestler reacted by moving slower when performing moves , walking , and running . If the meter decreased completely , the superstar fell to the ground until the meter increased . This system is disabled by default since WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 . The weak / strong grapple system from the past games was removed from WWE ' 12 onwards . Characters now perform different moves based on their opponent 's current physical state . Players now have a window of opportunity to attack while still in a downed state and can also interrupt moves and Royal Rumble eliminations with attacks . Similarly , the pinning meter from the past games has been reworked to make it more difficult to kick out as a wrestler takes more damage . The game 's artificial intelligence has also been adjusted to prevent players from overusing the same move . In addition , the ability to store finishing moves has returned . " Dynamic Comebacks " gives players on the verge of losing the opportunity to successfully hit a combination of moves to gain two finishing moves . New " wake up taunts " bring a downed opponent to their feet for a finishing move ( such as Randy Orton pounding on the ground before his RKO finishing maneuver ) . Players also have the ability to target specific limbs during matches and perform submissions through a " Breaking Point " submission minigame . OMG ! moments were introduced to WWE ' 13 . These are moves than can be performed in certain situations with certain superstars when a finisher is obtained . An example of this is Mark Henry superplexing the Big Show , making the ring break and the match stop . Better weight detection was implemented to WWE ' 13 , so the smaller Rey Mysterio can ’ t body slam the 500 pound Big Show . In fact , super heavyweights like Mark Henry or Show now have different frames to better capture their enormous size . Pinning is now not only influenced by damage , but the power of the move that was previously executed . In WWE ' 13 alongside selecting arenas , characters and the number of finishing moves available at the start of a match ( a new option , which can range from 0 to Infinite ) , players will be able to adjust a setting called ‘ Match Experience ’ . Three settings - “ Quick ” , “ Normal ” and “ Epic ” - will affect the overall pacing of a fight , independent of AI difficulty . Factors such as momentum , damage , enemy aggressiveness and even kick out and reversal rates will be affected . To overhaul the gameplay of the series , 2K15 features five times the animation data of WWE 2K14 , containing over fifty days work of motion capture by the WWE superstars . Over four times the amount of dialogue for commentary was recorded . The general gameplay of the game too has been revised , with the wrestlers being divided once more into classes , as was present in the Smackdown vs. Raw series . This creates what is known as " in ring psychology " was the classes ( brawlers , giants , grapplers and high @-@ flyers ) all provide different and unique sensations within the game to provide more diverse mechanics . In addition , the game 's overall core mechanics have been fundamentally altered . WWE 2K16 introduces Working Holds , which allows the player to go through a collar @-@ elbow tie @-@ up situation in order to either damage the opponent or regain stamina to reverse the tide in the match . Dirty Pins now come in various animations and also A.I. for the referee is improved ; for example , they break up collar @-@ elbow tie @-@ ups when the wrestlers are holding each other at the corner for too long . The Reversal Limit system was introduced to prevent players from reversing throughout the match , they come as minor and major ones depending on the class of the wrestler / diva . This method can be toggled on / off in the Options section . = = = Story modes = = = In the WWE SmackDown vs. Raw series , the player was able to choose a " superstar " from a roster and compete in an arcade @-@ like feature called season mode . In season mode , players direct their superstars through different career obstacles through a year of WWE programming to gain respect with other superstars and popularity among the fans . Like superstars from WWE , the superstars in the WWE SmackDown vs. Raw series season mode are involved in storylines that affect their career mode in some way . Beginning with the release of WWE SmackDown ! Shut Your Mouth , the WWE Brand Extension has been included in season mode , and superstars are exclusive to one brand of WWE . A result of this feature is that the player 's superstar may only wrestle superstars and compete for championships from the same brand on which he is a part of . In season mode , the player 's superstar has the ability to earn and wrestle for a variety of championships based on actual WWE Championships . When superstars win championships , their respect and popularity increase , which also increases their involvement in main event matches . As the superstar 's respect and popularity increases through the year of WWE programming , it becomes more likely for the player to achieve the main goal in season mode , which is to earn a World Heavyweight Championship or WWE Championship match at WrestleMania , the WWE 's flagship pay @-@ per @-@ view event and the final stage in season mode . After the final stage , season modes begins again with the same superstar chosen before , though the player has the option of switching superstars . The superstar is then a part of the WWE Draft Lottery and is assigned to a brand . Season mode was replaced with Road to WrestleMania in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 , and remained in the games until WWE ' 12 . In this mode , players could choose from superstars to play as in single @-@ player or multi @-@ player storylines . The difference is that each storyline is tailor made for the superstar the player chooses . This mode is a more authentic experience and less arcade @-@ like than the former season mode was . Road to WrestleMania was replaced with Attitude Era Mode in WWE ' 13 . This single @-@ player mode is an abridged recreation of a memorable time in sports entertainment , allowing players to journey through various storylines as eight of the most popular superstars of that time , including “ Stone Cold ” Steve Austin and Dwayne " The Rock " Johnson . The chapter @-@ based saga moves through WWE ’ s struggle and eventual triumph during the “ Monday Night Wars , ” which saw the company on the brink of defeat at the hands of a powerful rival , WCW . Told from the perspective of the WWE during that period , matches and in @-@ game cutscenes are supplemented by video packages assembled by WWE ’ s own editors . In WWE 2K14 , a single player campaign titled " The 30 Years of WrestleMania " was introduced , a nostalgic gameplay mode that recreates nearly three decades of WWE history , including 46 matches , classic WWE footage and many legendary characters . The mode features a distinct roster of wrestlers and alternate gimmicks , who wrestled at WrestleMania . In this mode matches have primary objectives , required to beat the game , and bonus historical objectives , which result in recreated WrestleMania moments . Sometimes the player must follow a guided sequence of inputs , rather than freely control the character . The player competes through storylines of various lengths , switching predetermined characters as they are completed . Each chapter has its own title and focus ; " Hulkamania Runs Wild " focuses on Hulk Hogan and early WrestleManias , while " The New Generation " showcases the rise of Bret Hart and Shawn Michaels in the mid @-@ 1990s . The " Attitude Era " chapter brings back some matches from WWE ' 13 's " Attitude Era " mode , as well as some not covered before . The " Ruthless Aggression " chapter focuses on the departure of The Rock , lessened focus on Triple H and rise of Randy Orton and Edge . The final " Universe Era " chapter focuses on the rise of John Cena and the returns of The Rock and Brock Lesnar . The video packages provided detailed the intro to Wrestlemania , Wrestlemania III , Wrestlemania V , which background glimpses IV , Wrestlemania VI , Wrestlemania VIII , an intro to the New Generation Era leading to Wrestlemania X also another promoting X , Wrestlemania XII , a video opening the Attitude Era leading to XIV , Wrestlemania 2000 , Wrestlemania X @-@ Seven , two videos about Wrestlemania X8 , two about Wrestlemania XIX , two of Wrestlemania XX , Wrestlemania 23 , Wrestlemania XXIV , A interchange video regarding the Ruthless Aggression Era to the Universe Era opening for XXV , Wrestlemania XXVI , Wrestlemania 27 , next , a video of Wrestlemania 27 , which crosses into XXVIII and another of XXVIII which culminates the first battle between the Rock and John Cena . Videos for XXIX was not included as three important matches were just finished at that event in the same year when the game was released . The matches were Undertaker vs. CM Punk ; Triple H vs. Brock Lesnar & The Rock vs. John Cena for the Reality Era WWE Championship . The last video was an overlook of what happened throughout the decades showing some events going to the future of that pay per view . WWE 2K15 features the 2K Showcase , the core stories include CM Punk vs. John Cena & Triple H vs. Shawn Michaels . These rivalries detail from 2002 to 2004 ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) and 2011 to 2013 ( CM Punk and John Cena ) . Three other stories which were included as DLC include The Path of the Warrior , a highlight behind the life of the Ultimate Warrior and his meteoric rise concentrating on championships to the Hall of Fame as commemoration . The Hall of Pain , a story behind the World 's Strongest Man , Mark Henry as he punished many to become the World Heavyweight Champion and attempts to gain the WWE title . And lastly , the One More Match story , which stars captain charisma , Christian as he complained about having one more match as his way of getting multiple second chances of earning the World Heavyweight Championship . Originally , these stories were meant to be produced for WWE ' 12 , WWE ' 13 & WWE 2K14 , but the developers chose to use WWE ' 12 for Road to Wrestlemania , the Attitude Era for WWE ' 13 and 30 years of Wrestlemania for WWE 2K14 . WWE 2K16 details the historical career of Steve Austin , from his days at ECW when he was angry that things were not going to happen in a good sense for him to WCW when he and Brian Pillman began to become a strong tag team leading to Austin suffering injury and going through a rub shot in WWE as Stone Cold , an anti @-@ hero that was not going to be tame into a corporate man . Video Packages contain commentary that was remixed from WWE ' 13 and WWE 2K14 with the exception of some not documented before . Through DLC , the WWE Hall of Fame showcase contains what if matches and some from WCW ; these matches were announced on Oct 7th 2015 and to be released alongside the Deluxe Editions of the video game . = = = General Manager Mode = = = Starting with WWE SmackDown ! vs. RAW 2006 , a General Manager mode ( or GM Mode for short ) was introduced . It allowed the player to act as the General Manager of the Raw or Smackdown brands ( or ECW brand in WWE SmackDown vs. RAW 2008 ) . After choosing a brand , and selecting to participate in the WWE Draft , or using a default roster , you then start a calendar year of hiring and managing Superstar and Divas , booking matches , establishing rivalries , and other options to try and win WWE fans to support your brand . You must manage finances , contract or release Superstars & try to make better matches than your rival brand . At the end of the year at WrestleMania , Vince McMahon will give The General Manager of the Year award to the show that was able to hold the most fans . In WWE SmackDown vs. RAW 2008 , GM Mode was combined into one game mode called WWE 24 / 7 Mode . This basically allowed Superstars to train , make special appearances or other actions between matches during full calendar years . After achieving specific goals through the game , a percentage will increase of becoming a WWE Hall of Famer / General Manager of the Year winner , and the mode does not end until this percentage reaches 100 % . This mode was discontinued in WWE SmackDown vs. RAW 2009 . = = = Universe mode = = = The series has had a " WWE Universe " mode since SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 which replaces the career mode from previous games . The mode builds storylines , and integrates cut scenes and rivalries between wrestlers based on the matches that are wrestled . These cut scenes appear randomly before , during , and after the match . In WWE ' 12 , championships was not able to be toggled on and off from most wrestlers . WWE ' 13 introduced the option to toggle on and off rivalries injuries and tag team changes also crowd reactions . WWE 2K14 was the last title to use the method of created arena before it was removed in WWE 2K15 . In WWE 2K15 , secret hints had to be unlocked through actions in this mode ; they were 300 to collect . WWE 2K16 allows wrestlers to be branded by multiple promotions . WWE 2K17 will mimic the Smackdown vs. Raw series in splitting rosters . = = = My Career Mode = = = This mode was introduced in WWE 2K15 , social media followers were counted for the WWE Universe liking the player ( the number of followers can decrease if bad performances occur during matches ) ; pre @-@ set cutscenes that used to be created for Story Mode in WWE ' 12 to WWE 2K14 appear at random times . In WWE 2K16 , the player has to fight for ranks to earn championships ( the main goal is to reach the WWE Hall of Fame by fulfilling certain requirements ) . = = = Exhibition mode = = = Other than the season mode , every game features an exhibition mode , where different professional wrestling match types are available . Basic matches included in every game are " one @-@ on @-@ one " matches , where a player chooses one superstar to wrestle another bot operated or human operated superstar , or tag team matches , where a pair of superstars team together to face another team . These basic matches may also expand into six @-@ man tag team matches or non @-@ elimination type matches , which include four or more superstars . Besides basic matches , hardcore based matches are also included , such as the Steel Cage match , which has been included in every game , the Ladder match , the Elimination Chamber , which was first included with the release of WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain , and ECW Extreme Rules matches , which is basic hardcore wrestling based on the ECW brand of WWE ( which first appeared with the release of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 ) . Also included in every game is the Royal Rumble match , which is based on WWE 's actual Royal Rumble match , in which a player chooses to compete as one superstar , and must wrestle against twenty @-@ nine other superstars . Two recently added matches are the Championship Scramble introduced in the 2010 game and the " I Quit " match from WWE ' 13 . In WWE ' 13 the ' special referee ' match type ( which hadn 't been seen since Smackdown vs. Raw 2007 ) made its return to the series . The exhibition mode was renamed " Play " in SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 to WWE 2K14 and renamed Exhibition in WWE 2K15 before returning as Play mode in WWE 2K16 . = = = Online gameplay = = = Starting with the release of WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw , online gameplay was made available for players who had a Sony Network Adapter and a Sony PlayStation 2 . Online gameplay was kept at a minimum , as online players only had two game modes to compete in : one @-@ on @-@ one and a Bra and Panties match , in which a player competes as a WWE Diva and strips the opposition of her clothes , until she is left with only her undergarments . When WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw 2006 was released , the online gameplay was changed , and players were able to compete in more match types , defend the created championships , and compete with up to four players in each match . With the release of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 on the Xbox 360 console ( PS3 would not see this feature until WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 ) , players were able to select music from their system 's hard disk drive into the video game , where the music can be used in superstars ' ring entrances . = = = Roster = = = Every game in the WWE SmackDown vs. Raw series includes a roster of " superstars " and " Divas " based on superstars who compete for WWE . Every year , WWE acquires new superstars and releases old superstars . As a result , every time a WWE SmackDown vs. Raw game is released , the new superstars are added into the game and the old released superstars are removed from the game to reflect the changes in the actual WWE . From the release of WWF SmackDown ! to the release of WWF SmackDown ! Just Bring It , superstars were not divided into brands . In 2002 , the WWE split its entire roster into two brands of wrestling , called Raw and SmackDown ! , which were named after WWE 's television shows . The WWE Brand Extension was first featured in WWE SmackDown ! Shut Your Mouth . In 2006 , WWE launched a new brand , called ECW , which was named after the original Extreme Championship Wrestling promotion . The new ECW brand was first featured in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 . WWE holds an annual draft lottery , in which WWE superstars switch brands . The games in production when the draft occurs include the changes that take place in the draft . For example , when WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 was in production during June 2007 , the 2007 WWE Draft took place , and the draft changes were included in the video game . Another brand of wrestling included in the series is the legends program , which was first included with the release of WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain . Popular WWE alumni or members of the WWE Hall of Fame have been included since then under the legends program . This was featured up until the release of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 , as alumni and Hall of Fame members were not featured in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 due to production of WWE Legends of WrestleMania . WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 was also the first game to feature characters as downloadable content . WWE ' 12 has 56 wrestlers and 78 by DLC , WWE 13 with 84 and 107 by DLC , WWE 2K14 with 82 and 103 by DLC , WWE 2K15 with 76 and 113 with DLC , WWE 2K16 with 133 including DLC giving this title " the highest character roster in the video game 's history " with 165 . = = = Create mode = = = The series features a create @-@ a @-@ superstar mode , where players are able to create their own wrestler , including their move set and ring entrances . The feature was introduced when WWF SmackDown ! was released in 2000 . As new games were released , the mode was altered ; the first change came with the release of WWF SmackDown ! 2 : Know Your Role , which featured a mode in which wrestler taunts could be created and customized . This was further modified in WWE SmackDown ! Shut Your Mouth , which enabled players to create the walking style of a wrestler . With the release of WWE SmackDown ! vs. RAW 2006 , the game first featured the ability for players to make an entrance for the created superstar . The feature was expanded with the release of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007 , as players could place pyrotechnics and special effects in any part of the superstar 's entrance . As an addition to SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 , a create a finisher mode was introduced where the player chooses up to 10 out of 500 animations combined to make their own personalised finisher . On the 360 and PS3 versions of WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 , it is possible to change the colors of a featured superstar 's attire , this new mode is known as " Superstar Threads " . In this game , there is also a new creation mode giving players the ability to create their designs . From WWE 2K14 alongside the " Superstar Threads " feature , in the " Create a Superstar " mode there was a new part of it called " Superstar Heads " . This feature allowed players to take certain in game models and modify or create a new attire for that model and use it as an alternative attire for the superstar that they have done it for . This was only available for very limited superstars and players couldn 't any headgear or masks to the superstar . A DLC was soon released which featured vintage versions of some of the existing models as well as few new models . From WWE 2K15 , on next generation consoles a new feature was available to players which was similar to the " Superstar Heads " feature that had previously featured on WWE games but this new feature was called the " Superstar Studio " . This new " Superstar Studio " allowed players to take any existing in game model and modify their attires into anything that the player desired . Whilst this was exclusive to nect generation consoles , players playing on last generation consoles had the returning " Superstar Heads " mode which featured all of the models from 2K14 as well as a new Brock Lesnar model . = = Development = = Every game in the WWE 2K series is developed by Yuke 's and Visual Concepts , and published by 2K Sports . From 1999 - 2013 the publisher was THQ . The game engine was originally based on the one used by the Japanese professional wrestling video game series Toukon Retsuden , which was also developed by Yuke 's . Before the release of WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw , the only communication possible in season mode was through subtitles . Voice over , however , was included in season mode with the release of WWE SmackDown ! vs. RAW . WWE superstars record a script , which is then assigned to the voice of the corresponding superstar in the game . With the exception of WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain , pre @-@ recorded commentary by WWE commentators has been included in each game since the release of WWF SmackDown ! Just Bring It . Yuke 's studios in Yokohama , Japan worked with WWE writers to create storylines for the season modes of each game . When WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007 was released for more than one console , Yuke 's had to port their original game codes that make up each game mode and graphic designs to a new game engine that supported the new consoles . When new features are added to WWE 2K games , developers have to create new gaming codes for the features . Along with the features , the developers have to test the game for any errors . An improvement done yearly by Yuke 's with each release of a WWE 2K game is the polygon count for the 3D models of the superstars in each game . = = Reception = = The original WWF SmackDown ! was one of the most popular games for the PlayStation console in 2000 , selling over 975 @,@ 000 units for the PlayStation , and selling over one million copies in the United States . The game lost appeal due to the failing of a well @-@ established season mode that was deemed " disappointing . " The season mode was criticized for the lack of in @-@ depth storylines and the way superstars spoke in season mode , through " putrid lines " and " blocked text . " WWF SmackDown ! 2 : Know Your Role received a better reception than the first WWE SmackDown game , as IGN stated that season mode " actually works properly " , though the audio of the game was lacking as there was no commentary , and only generic music was included in the game . WWF SmackDown ! Just Bring It , according to IGN , did little to improve the season mode of the game , while GameSpot stated that the addition of audio commentary detracted from the playing experience . WWE SmackDown ! Shut Your Mouth and WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain received more positive reviews from both IGN and GameSpot , both of whom cited the expanded season mode as an improvement , although flaws were still visible in the mode . It improved from the previous three WWF SmackDown ! games , as it was written by actual WWE storyline writers . Both games also featured generic music , though the quality of it had improved . Shut Your Mouth featured little improvement to the commentary , which was then removed completely from Here Comes the Pain . WWE SmackDown ! vs. RAW received a more positive review than previous games , as GameShark stated that it was " a wonderful new edition to the SmackDown ! family , serving up slick graphics , vastly enhanced gameplay , and lots of other bells and whistles that make the whole package shine . " WWE SmackDown ! vs. RAW 2006 received a positive review and a 9 @.@ 2 / 10 rating by IGN due to the additions of matches , the General Manager mode , and the ability to defend championships in exhibition mode . WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 received more negative reviews due to lack of an appealing season mode and little improvement of features , with the exceptions of the " Ultimate Control moves , " " Struggle system , " and the ECW Extreme Rules matches .
= Mississippi Highway 198 = Mississippi Highway 198 ( MS 198 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Mississippi . The highway is the designation for six former segments of U.S. Highway 98 ( US 98 ) that have been bypassed by newer alignments . These six segments are located in Tylertown , Columbia , Hattiesburg , Beaumont , McLain , and Lucedale . Five of the six sections of MS 198 are two @-@ lane undivided roads that pass through small towns ; the exception is the Hattiesburg section which is a four @-@ lane divided highway running through developed areas of the city . The total length of the six sections of MS 198 is 24 @.@ 937 miles ( 40 @.@ 132 km ) . What is now MS 198 originally existed as gravel and earth roads by the 1920s . The portions of the current road became parts of MS 24 and MS 15 in the 1930s and were all paved by the 1940s . US 98 was designated on these segments in 1955 . Between the 1970s and 1990s , US 98 was rerouted to bypass Tylertown , Columbia , Hattiesburg , Beaumont , McLain , and Lucedale . By 1998 , MS 198 was designated onto the former alignment of US 98 through these communities . The McLain section was truncated from US 98 east of town to MS 57 in 2005 . = = Route description = = MS 198 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 as the designation for former sections of US 98 that have been relocated by the completion of new alignments . = = = Tylertown = = = The Tylertown section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 northwest of Tylertown in Walthall County , heading southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Beluah Avenue . The road passes through wooded areas with some homes and businesses . After passing to the south of Walthall County General Hospital , MS 198 comes to an intersection with MS 48 , at which point that highway begins a concurrency with MS 198 . The two highways continue southeast into Tylertown , curving east into residential areas . The road heads into the commercial downtown and comes to an intersection with MS 27 . The highway passes more businesses before leaving the downtown and heading into wooded areas with some homes . MS 48 splits from MS 198 by heading southeast , with MS 198 continuing east past residences and commercial establishments on Old Highway 98 East . The road leaves Tylertown and heads northeast through wooded areas with some homes . This section of MS 198 ends at another intersection with US 98 . = = = Columbia = = = The Columbia section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 / MS 44 southwest of Columbia in Marion County , heading northeast on two @-@ lane undivided South High School Avenue . The road passes through woodland , curving north into Columbia . In Columbia , the route becomes concurrent with MS 13 . Here , the highway heads past several businesses before turning east onto Broad Street and splitting off of MS 13 . MS 198 heads through residential areas , coming to an intersection with MS 44 . The road continues east through wooded areas with some homes and businesses as Old Highway 98 East , ending at an intersection with US 98 east of Columbia . = = = Hattiesburg = = = The Hattiesburg section begins at an interchange with Interstate 59 ( I @-@ 59 ) and US 98 in Hattiesburg , Lamar County , where the road continues west as part of US 98 . From this interchange , MS 198 heads east into Forrest County on Hardy Street , a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes several businesses . The highway passes to the south of the University of Southern Mississippi before ending at an intersection with US 49 . Past this intersection , Hardy Street continues east as a four @-@ lane undivided city street . = = = Beaumont = = = The Beaumont section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 within the DeSoto National Forest northwest of Beaumont in Perry County , heading east on a two @-@ lane undivided road . The highway heads through dense forests , curving southeast near a few homes as it runs a short distance to the southwest of a Canadian National railroad line . The road passes through more forests before entering Beaumont , where it heads near a mix of residences and businesses . MS 198 turns northeast to cross the railroad line and come to an intersection with MS 15 . At this point , MS 198 turns southeast to form a concurrency with MS 15 , leaving Beaumont for dense forests and running to the northeast of the Canadian National railroad line . The road curves south and ends at an interchange with US 98 southeast of Beaumont . = = = McLain = = = The McLain section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 northwest of McLain in Greene County , heading southeast on two @-@ lane undivided West Main Street . The road heads through wooded areas with some homes , entering McLain . The highway passes through residential and commercial areas in the town . MS 198 continues through woodland with some development a short distance to the northeast of a Canadian National railroad line , ending at an intersection with MS 57 . = = = Lucedale = = = The Lucedale section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 northwest of Lucedale in George County , heading southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Main Street . The road heads through dense forests with some homes , passing under a Canadian National railroad line . The highway continues through more rural areas , heading more to the east and passing under MS 63 , at which point the railroad tracks run immediately to the north of the road . MS 198 curves southeast away from the tracks into more forests , eventually entering Lucedale . The road heads through wooded areas of homes before turning east and passing through the commercial downtown . In this area , the highway intersects the eastern terminus of MS 26 and the northern terminus of MS 613 . The road leaves Lucedale , crossing a Canadian National railroad line and heading into a mix of farmland and woodland with some development . This section of MS 198 ends at another intersection with US 98 east of Lucedale . = = History = = The current alignments of MS 198 existed by 1928 as unnumbered roads . The sections in Tylertown , Columbia , Hattiesburg , and Beaumont were gravel roads and the sections in McLain and Lucedale were unimproved roads . By 1932 , what is now MS 198 in Tylertown , Columbia , Hattiesburg , Beaumont , and McLain became a part of MS 24 , which ran east @-@ west across the southern part of the state . The section of road in McLain became a gravel road by 1933 . In 1935 , the road west of Tylertown became paved . MS 15 was designated onto MS 24 east of Beaumont and in McLain and what is now the Lucedale portion of MS 198 in 1936 . A year later , the portion of road east of Lucedale was paved . In 1938 , the portion of current MS 198 southwest of Columbia was paved . The road east of Tylertown was paved by 1939 . In 1940 , a new alignment of MS 24 between McComb and Tylertown was under construction , which included what is now MS 198 northwest of Tylertown . Also by this time , the road between Columbia and MS 44 was paved . In 1941 , the portions of road in Hattiesburg , east of Beaumont , in McLain , and northwest of Lucedale were paved . The road west of Beaumont was paved in 1943 . The portion of MS 24 between McComb and Tylertown was completed as a paved road in 1944 . In 1955 , US 98 was extended into Mississippi , replacing the MS 24 and MS 15 designations on what is now MS 198 . By 1973 , the road bypassed Columbia . In 1984 , US 98 was routed to bypass Hattiesburg on I @-@ 59 and a new freeway . A bypass to the north of Tylertown was built for US 98 in 1985 . US 98 was moved to a new alignment to bypass Lucedale in 1988 . In 1996 , US 98 was routed out of Beaumont and McLain as a result of the construction of a new alignment on a divided highway . By 1998 , MS 198 was marked on the six former alignments of US 98 in Tylertown , Columbia , Hattiesburg , Beaumont , McLain , and Lucedale . In 2005 , the eastern terminus of the McLain section of MS 198 was truncated from US 98 to MS 57 . = = Major intersections = = = = = Tylertown = = = The entire route is in Tylertown , Walthall County . = = = Columbia = = = The entire route is in Columbia , Marion County . = = = Hattiesburg = = = The entire route is in Hattiesburg . = = = Beaumont = = = The entire route is in Beaumont , Perry County . = = = McLain = = = The entire route is in McLain , Greene County . = = = Lucedale = = = The entire route is in Lucedale , George County .
= John Neild = John Cash Neild ( 4 January 1846 – 8 March 1911 ) was an English @-@ born Australian politician who served as a Senator from New South Wales from 1901 to 1910 . Neild 's family arrived in Australia in 1860 , and he worked as an insurance agent and company manager before winning election to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly in 1885 . He served intermittently until 1901 and had a tumultuous career as a backbencher , eventually contributing significantly to the fall of the Reid government in 1899 . He also established his own volunteer regiment , which had a difficult and sometimes hostile relationship with military command . Elected in 1901 to the Senate , Neild was a vigorous supporter of old @-@ age pensions , free trade and several other causes , but his ambitions of promotion were never realised . Passionately loyal to the British Empire , he questioned aspects of the White Australia policy and spoke in support of the children of Kanaka labourers facing deportation . His continued disputes with the military , including an attempt to have the commander of the Australian military forces found in contempt of Parliament , saw him lose respect among his colleagues and his later career was spent in comparative isolation . He lost his seat in 1910 and died the following year . = = Early life = = Neild was born in Bristol on 4 January 1846 to Maria Greenwood and John Cash Neild , a surgeon . He was named after his father . In 1853 the family moved to Taranaki in New Zealand , evacuating to Sydney in 1860 to escape the First Taranaki War . On 29 October 1868 Neild married Clara Matilda Gertrude Agnew , whose father Philip founded the New South Wales Free Church of England . Clara died in 1879 , three years after the death of the only child of the marriage ; Neild remarried on 19 February 1880 at St Paul 's Anglican Church in Redfern , to Georgine Marie Louise Uhr , daughter of a former New South Wales sheriff . Neild had received a private education and was first employed at Montefiore , Joseph & Co . , an importing firm . In 1865 he set up as a commission agent , becoming an insurance agent by 1870 and later managing several companies . He was elected to Woollahra Municipal Council in 1876 and in 1882 unsuccessfully stood for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly seat of Paddington . He was successful at his second attempt in 1885 , when he was elected as a supporter of Henry Parkes ; remaining on Woollahra Council , he served as mayor from 1888 to 1889 , leaving the council in 1890 . = = State politics and military career = = Neild devoted his first speech to criticism of the Protectionist Dibbs government , and became known for pursuing causes such as free trade , old @-@ age pensions and law reform . He earned the nickname " Jawbone " on 23 June 1886 , after speaking for nine hours against the Jennings government 's introduction of ad valorem duties . He was narrowly passed over by Parkes for a ministry in January 1887 , but was given charge of Sir Alfred Stephen 's divorce extension bill , which passed in 1892 . Neild continued to be active in religious affairs , serving from 1891 to 1893 as Right Worshipful Grand Master of the Loyal Orange Institution of New South Wales , although he offended many extreme Protestants by praying for the recovery of the Pope . Neild began to encounter difficulties in his political career towards the end of the 1880s ; his oversight of the establishment of the 1887 Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition led to investigation by a Legislative Assembly select committee , which absolved him of accusations of extravagance and using his office for personal gain . In 1895 he began to agitate for old @-@ age pensions , but in 1899 he was investigated again after Premier George Reid paid him £ 350 for writing a report ; although Neild repaid the money , the incident was part of the pretext for a successful no confidence motion in September which brought down the Reid government . In 1896 , in response to the establishment of an Irish @-@ Australian unit in the New South Wales citizen army , Neild raised a volunteer regiment that became St George 's English Rifles . He was promoted major of the regiment in July 1896 and lieutenant @-@ colonel in April 1898 , and frequently led his men , dressed as British soldiers , around Circular Quay to the tune of " The British Grenadiers " or " The English Gentleman " . Despite his promotions , Neild had no previous military experience , and in 1899 Lord Beauchamp , the Governor , wrote that his organisation was " in a state of ridiculous insubordination " . He was suspended around Easter of that year for publicly criticising a staff officer and encouraging insubordination ; following unfavourable findings by a military inquiry , Neild avoided dismissal only by investing considerable amounts of money into the regiment . = = Senate career = = Neild contested the first federal election in 1901 , running as a Free Trade candidate for the Senate . Together with Senator Cyril Cameron , he was one of two parliamentarians to wear full dress uniform to the opening of Parliament . He introduced the Parliamentary Evidence Bill on 9 August 1901 , which aimed " to enable and regulate the taking of evidence by Parliament and Parliamentary Committees " . The bill was withdrawn and reintroduced several times over the next decade but never passed into law . Harbouring ambitions of becoming deputy President , Neild was active in many committees but failed to achieve his aim , although he did serve as Temporary Chairman of Committees from 1903 to 1910 . Neild was not a supporter of party discipline , refusing to follow Sir Josiah Symon 's leadership of the Free Trade Senators . He spoke against the dictation test for non @-@ British immigrants and the deportation of Kanaka workers , and continued to advocate free trade and old @-@ age pensions . Having won the fifth position at the 1901 election , Neild faced re @-@ election in 1903 , and his impassioned support of the British Empire saw him elected at the head of the poll despite failing health . In March 1904 Neild attacked the government 's military policy and the commander of the military forces , Major @-@ General Sir Edward Hutton , who had long wished to dismiss Neild from the citizen army . Neild had incited a near mutiny by destroying a well @-@ known sergeant 's military career , and was suspended from duty ; Neild responded by accusing Hutton of intimidation and infringing a Senator 's right of freedom of expression . In April 1904 the Senate formed a committee to investigate alleged contempt of Parliament by Hutton , which found that Neild had not been intimidated . In 1905 Neild retired from the militia . Neild 's adventures had seen him lose respect in his political career , and he was now openly mocked in the Senate chamber , becoming something of a joke . He introduced a number of bills in his remaining five years in the Senate , all of which lapsed . He spoke in support of Muslim camel drivers and opposed military training for boys , and continued to oppose elements of the White Australia policy , raising concerns about Australian @-@ born children of Kanaka labourers : " They will have difficulties enough in front of them in a country that is so rampantly strong on the white Australia policy without our making their case worse . " Neild was defeated at the 1910 election . Suffering from hepatic cirrhosis , Neild died at his home in Woollahra on 8 March 1911 , aged 65 , survived by his second wife and their two children . He received a military funeral before being buried with Anglican rites at Waverley Cemetery in Sydney . = = Other interests = = Neild published an anthology of his own poetry , Songs ' neath the Southern Cross , in 1896 .
= Foo Fighters ( album ) = Foo Fighters is the debut studio album by American alternative rock band Foo Fighters , released on July 4 , 1995 , by Capitol Records through Dave Grohl 's label Roswell . Grohl wrote and recorded the entire album himself – with the exception of a guest guitar spot by Greg Dulli – with the assistance of producer Barrett Jones at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle , Washington , in 1994 . Grohl claimed he recorded the album just for fun , describing it as a cathartic experience to recover from the death of his Nirvana bandmate Kurt Cobain . After Grohl completed the recordings , he chose the name " Foo Fighters " for the project to hide his identity and passed cassettes copies of the sessions to personal friends . After said tapes attracted record label interest , Grohl signed with Capitol and recruited a full band to perform the songs live . The album was promoted through extensive tours and six singles , two of which received music videos . Foo Fighters earned positive reviews praising the songwriting and performances , and was also a commercial success , becoming the band 's second @-@ best @-@ selling album in the United States and reaching the top five in the charts of United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , and New Zealand . = = Background = = Following the death of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain in April 1994 , drummer Dave Grohl entered a state of depression , and found it difficult to both listen to music and play instruments . He was uncertain of what to do next , even considering abandoning his musical career despite a few invitations by bands such as Danzig or Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers to become their drummer , because " it would just remind me of being in Nirvana ; every time I sat down at a drum set , I would think of that . " Grohl 's first musical performance following the demise of Nirvana was performing with The Backbeat Band at the 1994 MTV Movie Awards in June , during which he was invited by Mike Watt to take part in his album Ball @-@ Hog or Tugboat ? . After enjoying the performance , Grohl figured he could do his own musical project , which could work as " some sort of cathartic therapy , to go out and record these songs that I 'd written by myself . " Grohl afterwards booked six days at Seattle 's Robert Lang Studios , which were located near his house , where he would record " my favorite songs I had written in the past four , five years that no one had heard " with the assistance of producer Barrett Jones , with whom he had recorded the demo tape Pocketwatch in 1992 . The idea was to have Grohl playing all instruments and release it under a name that would make people believe it was a band , similar to Stewart Copeland 's Klark Kent . = = Recording = = Grohl and Jones produced the record across a period of one week in October 1994 , with Grohl recording all vocal , guitar , bass and drum tracks himself . Both would arrive in the morning at Robert Lang Studios , start production by noon and do four songs a day . According to Grohl , during the recording process he would run from room to room , " still sweating and shaking from playing drums and [ then ] pick up the guitar and put down a track , do the bass , maybe another guitar part , have a sip of coffee and then go in and do the next song " . The only performance by an outsider was a guitar part on " X @-@ Static " provided by Greg Dulli of The Afghan Whigs , who was watching Grohl record the songs . Grohl eventually asked him if he wanted to play and handed him a guitar . Each song took about 45 minutes to be completed , and the compositions were recorded in the same order that became the album 's track listing . The only song that required two run @-@ throughs before completion was " I 'll Stick Around " . Grohl was insecure about his singing , and added effects to his voice in " Floaty " , and tried to enhance the performance through double track – " You know how people double their vocals to make them stronger ? That album the vocals are quadrupled . " In an attempt to keep his anonymity , Grohl planned to release the songs under the name Foo Fighters . It would be a very low @-@ key release , with only 100 LP records being pressed after the sessions were finished . Grohl also went to a cassette duplication lab in Seattle and created 100 cassette copies of the session and started handing them to friends for feedback and " I 'd give tapes to everybody . Kids would come up to me and say ' Nirvana was my favourite band ' and I 'd say ' well here , have this ' " . Eddie Vedder premiered two songs from the recording on January 8 , 1995 during his Self @-@ Pollution radio broadcast . The recordings quickly circulated amongst the music industry , which in turn created record label interest . A deal was eventually signed to Capitol Records , as president Gary Gersh was a personal friend of Grohl ever since he worked on Nirvana 's label Geffen Records . The mixing sessions of the album began in Robert Lang Studios ( which were used on the 100 tapes Grohl gave away ) but eventually those mixes were discarded and the sessions moved to Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock 's " The Shop " studio in Arcata , California . Mixes were done on a 32 channel API DeMedio console , custom built by Frank DeMedio in 1972 for Wally Heider Recording 's ' Studio 4 ' . A Stephen 's 24 track 2 " tape machine was used for playback . Processors used in the mixes included an Eventide Omnipressor compressor for vocals and guitar solos , an Alan Smart stereo compressor for " squashing " the drums and mixing them back in as well as being used over the entire mix . Other processors included UREI 1176 and LA3A compressors as well as an Echoplex for delays and a " crappy digital reverb " . Mixes were " nothing that crazy " Rob described , adding that he " mixed Big Me in 20 minutes " . During the sessions , Grohl was invited by Tom Petty to perform with The Heartbreakers on Saturday Night Live one month later . The performance was followed by an invitation to be a full @-@ time member of the Heartbreakers , but once Petty heard about the Foo Fighters , he instead encouraged Grohl to move on with this solo project . Grohl soon recruited a full band , which included bassist Nate Mendel and drummer William Goldsmith of the recently disbanded Sunny Day Real Estate , as well as Nirvana touring guitarist , and former Germs member , Pat Smear . = = Music and composition = = Nine of the songs in the album were composed before or during Grohl 's tenure with Nirvana , and existed in demos created by Grohl on his home 8 @-@ track tape recorder . The only compositions done after Cobain 's death were " This Is a Call " , " I 'll Stick Around " , " X @-@ Static " and " Wattershed " . The music mostly followed a hard rock sound with the soft @-@ loud dynamics seen in Nirvana tracks such as " Smells Like Teen Spirit " and " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " . Variants include the melancholic " Exhausted " , which Grohl defined as a song that 's " sad but makes you feel good " . Most of the lyrics in Foo Fighters are nonsensical lines written by Grohl in the 20 minutes before recording began . As the frontman , Grohl explained , " I had seven days to record fifteen songs . I was just concentrating on everything being as together as possible , having everything be tight and in sync . There wasn 't too much time spent sitting in a chair thinking . " Grohl would add that the gibberish was deliberate , given that , " there was too much to say , " following Cobain 's death and , " a lot of emphasis placed on the meaning of the first Foo Fighters album . " Grohl still considered that " the things you write down spur of the moment are most revealing . Now I look at them and some of them seem to actually have meaning " , and revealed that a few songs have lyrics inspired by " personal experiences of the last four or five years " , with the standout being " Big Me " , an " out @-@ and @-@ out love song " to Grohl 's then @-@ wife Jennifer Youngblood that he described as his favorite track on the album . Contrasting with the aggressive and rebellious themes of Nirvana , Grohl had positive and cheery tunes such as " This Is a Call " , defined as " a ' hello ' and a ' thank you ' " to everyone that had played a key role in Grohl 's life ; the playful " For All the Cows " ; and " Wattershed " , with a title referencing Mike Watt and lyrics that described Grohl 's " love of hardcore and old school punk rock " . = = Packaging = = The name " Foo Fighters " was taken from the description World War II aircraft pilots would use to describe various UFOs . This science fiction theme is further continued with the name of Grohl 's Capitol Records imprint , Roswell Records , a reference to the city of Roswell , New Mexico , known for the Roswell UFO incident of 1947 ; and the album cover done by Grohl 's then @-@ wife , photographer Jennifer Youngblood , featuring a Buck Rogers XZ @-@ 38 Disintegrator Pistol . Some reviewers considered the gun on the cover as insensitive , given Kurt Cobain died by shooting himself , but Grohl dutifully disregarded it as just a coincidence . Goldsmith later explained , " It was all pretty much based on the whole Foo Fighters thing — Roswell , the space stuff , an antique Buck Rogers raygun . It 's really a completely separate thing . Dave wasn 't even conscious of that . " Despite Grohl being the album 's only contributor , at Capitol 's insistence the liner notes included a picture of the full band that Grohl had recruited . = = Release and promotion = = In spring 1995 , the Foo Fighters embarked on their first ever United States tour supporting Mike Watt along with fellow tour newbies Hovercraft , whose line @-@ up included Vedder at the time . As well as performing with their own bands , Grohl and Vedder each picked up a role as a member of Watt 's backing band throughout the tour , supplying drums and guitar respectively . On May 1995 , radio stations KROQ @-@ FM and KNDD started playing some tracks of the then @-@ unreleased album before receiving a cease @-@ and @-@ desist from Capitol . That June , " Exhausted " and " This Is a Call " were sent to college and modern rock radio stations . One week later , " This Is a Call " became the band 's first commercial single . Foo Fighters was released July 4 , 1995 on Roswell Records , distributed by Capitol Records . The band promoted the release that summer by completing another US tour with Wool and Shudder to Think , with 25 concerts in little over a month . The Foo Fighters also made their network television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman in August 14 , where they performed " This Is a Call " . Afterwards , the band played several of their largest shows up to that point , making their debut on the European festival circuit with performances at Pukkelpop , Reading and Lowlands . " I 'll Stick Around " was issued as the second single on September 4 , 1995 and would also mark Foo Fighters music video debut , directed by Gerald Casale . That fall , the band continued to tour extensively , with a European tour with Built to Spill , and visits to Japan , Australia and New Zealand . The tour was wrapped with a performance at the Phoenix Festival on July 20 , 1996 . The Foo Fighters performed nearly 100 concerts throughout 1995 , and over 70 dates the following year . Three more songs of the album were issued as singles : " For All the Cows " in 1995 , and both " Big Me " and " Alone + Easy Target " in 1996 . " Big Me " was the first commercial single made available in the US , and the second song from the album to see release as a music video , a parody of the Mentos television commercials directed by Jesse Peretz . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Foo Fighters earned mostly positive reviews upon release . Many critics compared the album to Grohl 's previous band , Nirvana . Reviewer David Browne of Entertainment Weekly considered that " [ Grohl 's ] songs pack the riffy wallop of unpolished Nirvana demos , and his voice has Kurt Cobain 's lunging , over @-@ the @-@ top passion . " Writing for Spin , Terri Sutton stylistically compared the album to Nirvana 's second album , Nevermind , saying that " the album 's first half [ ... ] owes much to Nevermind , and it 's tempting to hear it in the way Nevermind taught us to hear . " Paul Rees of Kerrang ! admitted that " Foo Fighters cannot fail to evoke Kurt Cobain 's memory , whether if through Grohl 's ragged howl of a voice or the way a number of its songs go soft @-@ soft @-@ loud " , but ultimately considered the record " more than strong enough to stand or fall in its own merits " . Billboard complimented the " inspired songwriting and passionate performances " , adding the album could please grunge fans and " also remind fans of other rock and punk taste makers , from Green Day and The Offspring to Better than Ezra . " The album received minor criticism for its lack of intensity , which many proposed was due to the fact that Grohl played all the instruments himself . AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote , " Since he recorded the album by himself , they aren 't as powerful as most band 's primal sonic workouts , but the results are damn impressive for a solo musician . " Rolling Stone 's Alex Foege described the record as a " remarkable yet coolly understated solo debut " and felt that " the album 's only disappointment is that despite its home @-@ studio feel , it ultimately reveals little about its creator . " New York described both the overall melodies and Grohl 's singing as derivative of the grunge sound , but praised the " tight Beatlesesque harmonies " and lyrics that " key into the more poetic moments of dudespeak . " Robert Christgau wrote in The Village Voice that the band shows " spirit " but lacks an " identity " and cited the songs " Big Me " and " This Is a Call " as highlights . He later rated the album a three @-@ star honorable mention in his Consumer Guide book , indicating " an enjoyable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well treasure " . The album was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 1996 Grammy Awards ceremony , but lost to MTV Unplugged in New York , an album by Grohl 's former band Nirvana . Kerrang ! named Foo Fighters the best album of the year , and Rolling Stone put it second on their list , behind PJ Harvey 's To Bring You My Love . It also ranked sixth on the Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop poll , and 20th on Spin 's list . = = = Commercial reception = = = The commercial performance of Foo Fighters was also successful . In the United States , it debuted at the Billboard 200 on number twenty @-@ three , with first @-@ week sales of 40 @,@ 000 units . The album debuted at number two in New Zealand 's album chart , three in the UK Albums Chart , and fifth in Australia 's ARIA Charts . It also peaked at number five in the Canadian Albums Chart . By December , it had reached 900 @,@ 000 units domestically and 2 million worldwide . On September 27 , 1995 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , being later certified Platinum on January 26 , 1996 . By 2011 , Foo Fighters had sold 1 @.@ 468 million units in North America , being the second most successful release of the band behind follow @-@ up The Colour and the Shape . It was also certified Platinum in Canada , and Gold in the United Kingdom . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Dave Grohl . Album Reissued in 2003 ( CD ) and 2011 ( LP + MP3 Download ) with normal track list . = = Personnel = = Foo Fighters Dave Grohl – vocals , guitars , bass guitar , drums , production Additional musicians Greg Dulli – guitar on " X @-@ Static " Technical personnel Jaq Chartier – jacket artwork Steve Culp – engineering Curt Doughty – photography Tim Gabor – art direction , album design Barrett Jones – production Stephen Marcussen – mastering Charles Peterson – photography Jeff Ross – photography Tom Rothrock – mixing Rob Schnapf – mixing Jennifer Youngblood – cover photo , photography = = Charts and certifications = = = = = Singles charts = = =
= Ladas ( horse ) = Ladas ( 1891 – 1914 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . His career attracted an unusual amount of attention as his owner , Lord Rosebery , became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the height of his success . In a career that lasted from 1893 to 1894 , Ladas ran eleven times and won seven races . He was the leading British two @-@ year @-@ old of 1893 , being unbeaten in four starts including the Champagne Stakes and the Middle Park Stakes . In the following year , he won the 2000 Guineas at Newmarket and the Derby at Epsom to complete the first two legs of the English Triple Crown . He was beaten by the four @-@ year @-@ old colt Isinglass in his next two starts and failed in his bid for the Triple Crown when beaten in the St Leger at Doncaster . Ladas was retired to stud at the end of the season , and sired the winners of several important races . He died in 1914 . = = Background = = Ladas was a bay horse of almost faultless conformation , standing just under 16 hands high . He was bred at the Crafton Stud in Buckinghamshire by his owner , Lord Rosebery , a prominent Liberal statesman who became Prime Minister in 1894 . He was trained by Mathew Dawson at Newmarket , Suffolk . Dawson , who was over seventy at the time , had " retired " from large @-@ scale training in 1885 , but continued to handle a small number of horses at his Melton House Stable . Ladas was ridden in his Classic wins by Jack Watts . Ladas 's sire , named Hampton , was a successful racehorse , especially over long distances , who won both the Goodwood Cup and the Doncaster Cup . Hampton was the Champion sire in 1887 and sired , in addition to Ladas , the Derby winners Merry Hampton and Ayrshire , as well as Bay Ronald , the sire of Bayardo . Illuminata , the dam of Ladas , also produced a filly called Gas , the dam of the Derby winner Cicero , and Chelandry , who won the 1000 Guineas and herself produced the 2000 Guineas winner Neil Gow . The name Ladas , derived from that of Alexander the Great 's messenger , had previously been used by Lord Rosebery 's father for a horse who ran unplaced in the 1869 Derby . Rosebery , then an under @-@ graduate at Oxford University , had tipped the horse to his friends as a likely winner and was reportedly mortified by the result . By way of an apology , Rosebery told his friends that if he ever had a horse with a " prime chance " of winning the Derby , he would name him " Ladas " so that they could all " take the tip and back him . " It was the memory of this incident which reportedly persuaded Rosebery to abandon his original plan to name the colt " Hampton Wick " . The pronunciation of the name was a point of disagreement between owner and trainer : Rosebery called the colt " Lar @-@ dar " or " Lah @-@ dah " , while Dawson insisted on " Lay @-@ das " or " Ley @-@ das " . = = Racing career = = = = = 1893 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Until 1946 , racehorses in England were allowed to race without an official name and the colt who would become Ladas was still unnamed when he made a successful debut on 31 May in the Woodcote Stakes at the Epsom Derby meeting . He showed impressive acceleration to easily beat the filly Mecca and was identified as " a colt full of promise " by one correspondent . He was then sent to Royal Ascot where he started 6 / 4 ( 1 @.@ 5 / 1 ) favourite for the Coventry Stakes on 13 June . He led from the start on this occasion and shook off the opposition in the closing stages to win by one and a half lengths from a colt named Bullingdon . " The Illuminata colt " , as he was still known , was then given a break of three months before returning in the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster in September , in which a horse named Sempronius was his only rival . " The Illuminata colt " led from the start , and when Sempronius moved up to challenge him , he quickened away to win easily . After his win at Doncaster , he was officially named Ladas and was then sent to Newmarket for the Middle Park Plate , the most important two @-@ year @-@ old race of the season . He started at odds of 1 / 5 ( 0 @.@ 2 / 1 ) and was never in any danger , leading at half way and winning the race by two lengths from a filly named Jocasta , with Sempronius two lengths further back in third . Ladas ended the season unbeaten in four races and was the winter favourite for the following year ’ s Derby at 5 / 2 ( 2 @.@ 5 / 1 ) with the Dewhurst Stakes winner Matchbox , from the stable of John Porter , being seen as his biggest potential rival . . = = = 1894 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = = = = = = 2000 Guineas = = = = Ladas progressed well over the winter , despite a reported bout of coughing in early March , and was sent straight for the 2000 Guineas for his first appearance of 1894 . On 9 May he started at odds of 5 / 6 ( 0 @.@ 83 / 1 ) in a field of eight with Matchbox the second choice on 9 / 2 ( 4 @.@ 5 / 1 ) . Ladas raced towards the rear in the early stages before moving into third place behind Matchbox and St Florian just after half way . Two furlongs from the finish , Watts ( riding on his thirty @-@ third birthday ) moved him up to challenge for the lead and , as predicted , the race developed into a contest between Ladas and Matchbox . Matchbox " came again " after being overtaken and the colts raced together for a few strides before Ladas pulled away to win by one and a half lengths . Immediately after the race , bookmakers offered Ladas at odds of 8 / 13 ( 0 @.@ 62 / 1 ) for the Derby , which was expected to be his next major target . On 23 May Ladas started at odds of 1 / 12 ( 0 @.@ 08 / 1 ) for the Newmarket Stakes against four opponents . He took the lead soon after half way and won easily ( " unextended " ) by two lengths from St Florian . His price for the Derby was immediately shortened ( reduced ) to 4 / 9 ( 0 @.@ 44 / 1 ) . In the next two weeks , Ladas was the subject of intense interest , and was protected by a group of police detectives . = = = = Epsom Derby = = = = At the Epsom Derby on 6 June , Ladas was the shortest @-@ priced favourite in the history of the Derby , starting at odds of 2 / 9 ( 0 @.@ 22 / 1 ) in against six opponents . Matchbox was the second favourite on 9 / 1 ahead of his stable companion Bullingdon on 100 / 6 ( 16 / 1 ) . Ladas started well , but was held up ( restrained ) by Watts and raced in fourth or fifth place in the early stages as Matchbox and Bullingdon made the running . Bullingdon weakened just after half way and Matchbox led the field into the straight , where Ladas emerged to challenge him , traveling in " grand style " and looking likely to win easily . Matchbox , however , responded well and , for the first time in his career , Ladas was placed under pressure . He " forged ahead " inside the final furlong and won the race by one and a half lengths from Matchbox , with Reminder six lengths further back in third . The victory , which was received with " immense enthusiasm " , completed a three @-@ part prediction made by Rosebery as a student : that he would marry an heiress , become Prime Minister and win the Derby . He required the assistance of the police to extricate himself from the crush of well @-@ wishers at the course , while at Westminster , Ladas 's win was cheered in the House of Commons . By contrast , Rosebery was strongly criticised by some churchmen for involving himself in the " dishonesty and degradation " of the racing world . Rosebery , who responded to criticism by saying that he had " no vestige of shame " in owning a good horse , used the Derby win to his advantage ; he presented one of Ladas 's winning horseshoes as a gift to the United States ambassador Thomas F. Bayard . = = = = Rivalry with Isinglass = = = = Ladas was then matched against Isinglass , the Triple Crown winner of 1893 , in the £ 10 @,@ 000 Princess of Wales 's Stakes over one mile at Newmarket on 5 July . The race attracted a large crowd including the Prince of Wales ( who supported Isinglass ) and the Queen 's cousin George , Duke of Cambridge ( who favoured Ladas ) . The field also included Raeburn , the only horse to have beaten Isinglass , Ravensbury , who had won impressively at Royal Ascot , and Bullingdon , who had recovered from the bout of coughing that had reportedly affected him at Epsom . The early pace was slow , and Watts held Ladas up behind the leaders before moving into the lead just over a furlong out . He was immediately challenged , however , and overtaken inside the final furlong by both Isinglass and Bullingdon . Isinglass prevailed by a short head with Ladas , who was eased in the closing stages , finishing a well @-@ beaten third . Ladas appeared to be perfectly sound after the race , and the only explanation offered ( by The Sportsman ) was that the slow pace ( the winning time was 1 : 48 @.@ 4 ) had produced a false result . In the Eclipse Stakes at Sandown on 20 July , Ladas met Isinglass again , this time over ten furlongs on soft ground . Isinglass started favourite at 4 / 5 ( 0 @.@ 8 / 1 ) with Ladas on 13 / 8 ( 1 @.@ 6 / 1 ) and the other runners , who included Raeburn , Ravensbury and a filly named Throstle virtually ignored . The outsider Priestholme set off at an unsustainably fast pace , followed by Isinglass , with Watts restraining Ladas towards the rear . Priestholme dropped away in the straight , leaving Isinglass in the lead with Watts moving Ladas up to challenge . The two Derby winners dominated the race in the closing stages but in spite of a " game pursuit " , Ladas was unable to overhaul Isinglass , who won by a length with the rest of the field , headed by Throstle , well beaten . There were no excuses for Ladas : Watts admitted that he had been beaten by a better horse . = = = = St Leger = = = = Ladas was sent to Doncaster for the St Leger on 12 September in an attempt to win the Triple Crown . Ridden by Tommy Loates , Ladas started at odds of 10 / 11 ( 0 @.@ 9 / 1 ) in a field of eight , with Matchbox ( ridden by Watts ) the second choice on 2 / 1 and the filly Throstle ignored on 50 / 1 . As usual , Ladas was held up at the back of the field as , at first Throstle , then a horse named Legal Tender , then Matchbox made the running . Ladas moved steadily closer and turned into the straight in second , before overtaking Matchbox and going into a clear lead . In the final furlong , however , he was challenged by Throstle , and in the closing stages the latter pulled ahead to win by three quarters of a length . According to The Sportsman , the cheers of the crowd were replaced by those of the bookmakers as the outsider overhauled the favourite . = = = 1895 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Ladas was kept in training as a four @-@ year @-@ old for the 1895 season . Rosebery issued a challenge to Isinglass 's owner , Harry McCalmont , for a match race between Ladas and Isinglass to take place at Newmarket in May . McCalmont declined as he did not want to disrupt his horse 's preparation for the Ascot Gold Cup . Ladas had a series of training problems which kept him off the course for most of the season and he was also becoming " short @-@ tempered and impetuous " . He made his belated seasonal reappearance at Newmarket on September 27 when he ran in the £ 10 @,@ 000 Jockey Club Stakes . Although Ladas was reported to be running with only two sound legs , he was his owner 's first choice ahead of his 1895 Derby winner , Sir Visto . Carrying top weight of 142 pounds , he raced in third place for most of the way but weakened in the closing stages . He finished fourth of the eleven runners behind horses named Laveno , None The Wiser and Venia . Despite Ladas 's disappointing season , Rosebery turned down a reported offer of £ 20 @,@ 000 for the colt , preferring instead to retire him to his own stud . = = Assessment and earnings = = Before Ladas ran as a three @-@ year @-@ old , Mat Dawson , who had been training horses , including more than twenty classic winners since the 1850s , was reported to have called Ladas the best he had ever trained . Later that season he ranked him second , slightly behind St. Simon . Henry Chaplin , the owner of Hermit , called Ladas the finest horse he had seen . In June 1894 Ladas was rated fourteen pounds superior to the Derby winner Sir Visto by Dawson , who trained both horses . Ladas earned £ 5 @,@ 768 as a two @-@ year @-@ old , placing him sixth among British horses for 1894 . He added £ 12 @,@ 790 in 1895 . = = Stud career = = Ladas had some success at stud , siring the Classic winners Gorgos ( 2000 Guineas ) and Troutbeck ( St Leger ) . Another successful offspring was the gelding Epsom Lad , who won the Eclipse Stakes and the Princess of Wales ’ s Stakes as a four @-@ year @-@ old in 1901 . In total , he sired the winners of 196 races and £ 97 @,@ 000 in winnings . By 1912 he had been retired from active stud duty and become extremely bad tempered : one writer said that the old stallion had " worn himself out with his restlessness and peevishness " . He died on 31 March 1914 at his owner 's stud at Mentmore . = = Pedigree = =
= Mingo Oak = The Mingo Oak ( also known as the Mingo White Oak ) was a white oak ( Quercus alba ) in the U.S. state of West Virginia . First recognized for its age and size in 1931 , the Mingo Oak was the oldest and largest living white oak tree in the world until its death in 1938 . The Mingo Oak stood in Mingo County , West Virginia , in a cove at the base of Trace Mountain near the headwaters of the Trace Fork of Pigeon Creek , a tributary stream of Tug Fork . The tree reached a height of over 200 feet ( 61 m ) , and its trunk was 145 feet ( 44 m ) in height . Its crown measured 130 feet ( 40 m ) in diameter and 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height . The tree 's trunk measured 9 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 00 m ) in diameter and the circumference of its base measured 30 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 37 m ) . Assessments of its potential board lumber ranged from 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) to 40 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Following the tree 's felling in 1938 , it was estimated to weigh approximately 5 @,@ 400 long tons ( 5 @,@ 500 t ) . While the tree had long been known about for its size , the unique status of the Mingo Oak was not recognized until 1931 , when John Keadle and Leonard Bradshaw of Williamson took measurements of the tree , and found it to be the largest living white oak in the world . Various estimates place the Mingo Oak 's seeding between 1354 and 1361 AD . Using borings from the tree , the Smithsonian Institution determined that the Mingo Oak was the oldest tree of its species . The Island Creek Coal Company , the North East Lumber Company , and the Cole and Crane Real Estate Trust leased 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) encompassing the tree to the West Virginia Game , Fish , and Forestry Commission for it to be managed as a state park for the life of the tree . The commission cleared the surrounding land and made improvements such as seating and picnic accommodations for visitors . By the spring of 1938 , the Mingo Oak failed to produce leaves , and on May of that year , West Virginia state forester D. B. Griffin announced the tree 's death . The prevailing theory is that the tree died from the release of poisonous gases and sulfur fumes from a burning spoil tip in nearby Trace Gap . The tree was felled with fanfare on September 23 , 1938 , with transections being sent to the Smithsonian Institution and the West Virginia State Museum . Under the terms of the Island Creek Coal Company 's lease with the West Virginia Game , Fish , and Forestry Commission , the land 's lease around the former tree reverted to the company following the tree 's felling . = = Geography and setting = = Prior to the arrival of European American settlers and explorers , the Allegheny Plateau region of West Virginia , lying to the west of the Allegheny and Cumberland mountain ranges of the Appalachian Mountains , was overlaid with old @-@ growth forests consisting predominantly of deciduous mixed oaks and chestnut trees . The cove forests of the Appalachian Mountains were undisturbed for approximately 300 million years , and the ample moisture and deep soils of cove topography allowed for the proliferation of temperate broadleaf and mixed forest species . The largest of the tree species in this virgin timbershed was the white oak ( Quercus alba ) , which often exceeded 100 feet ( 30 m ) in height and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter . While the white oak 's range encompasses most of the Eastern United States , the most favorable environments for its growth are on the western slopes of the Appalachian Mountains . According to botanist Earl Lemley Core , the species flourishes on northern mountain flanks , and in coves , which are small valleys or ravines between two ridge lines that are closed at one or both ends . White oaks also thrive in moist lowlands and in upland topography , with the exception of extremely dry ridges with shallow soil . The Mingo Oak , known alternatively as the Mingo White Oak , was a white oak that stood in such a cove at the base of Trace Mountain on a shelf near the headwaters of the Trace Fork of Pigeon Creek , a tributary stream of Tug Fork . The tree was located near the census @-@ designated place of Holden , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Logan and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Logan County line in Mingo County , from which it took its name . The county was in turn named for the Mingo Iroquois peoples , of which Native American war leader Logan was affiliated . Holden was the base of operations of the Island Creek Coal Company , which leased the land where the tree was located . = = Dimensions and age = = The Mingo Oak was the largest specimen of these giant white oaks that dotted the old @-@ growth forests of pre @-@ settlement West Virginia . The tree was found to be the largest living white oak in the United States , and in the world , following a survey of white oaks throughout the country . The Mingo Oak 's nearest competition was a tree that was identified in Stony Brook on Long Island with a larger circumference , but a shorter height of 86 feet ( 26 m ) . Together with its uppermost branches , the tree reached a height of over 200 feet ( 61 m ) , and its trunk ( or bole ) towered to a height of 145 feet ( 44 m ) where the trunk forked into branches that spread in all directions . Its crown measured 130 feet ( 40 m ) in diameter and 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height . The tree 's trunk measured 9 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 00 m ) in diameter . The tree 's circumference measured 30 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 37 m ) at the base and 19 feet 9 inches ( 6 @.@ 02 m ) at 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) from the ground . As the virgin forest around it had been lumbered , the tree towered over the surrounding secondary forest . An initial estimate by lumbermen in 1931 stated that if the tree were to be cut for lumber , it would produce between 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) and 40 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) of board lumber , with a value of $ 1 @,@ 400 . In February 1932 , Perkins Coville of the United States Forest Service Department of Silvics estimated the tree 's volume to contain 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) of board lumber . In 1938 , engineers of the Island Creek Coal Company estimated that the tree 's trunk contained 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) of board lumber . Following the tree 's felling in 1938 , it was estimated to weigh approximately 5 @,@ 400 long tons ( 5 @,@ 500 t ) . Various estimates place the tree 's seeding sometime between 1354 and 1361 AD . Using borings from the tree , the Smithsonian Institution determined that the Mingo Oak was the oldest tree of its species . In September 1932 , West Virginia state forester D. B. Griffin and Emmett Keadle , president of the Mingo County Fish and Game Protective Association in Williamson , used an increment borer to estimate the tree as having begun its growth around 1356 , with a margin of error within 25 or 30 years . Blueprints and boring samples were given to the West Virginia State Museum in Charleston and to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C. = = Preservation attempts = = Ownership of the timber land around the tree was eventually acquired by the Cole and Crane Real Estate Trust , which leased the timbering rights to the North East Lumber Company . Under the lease agreement , the North East Lumber Company only paid for the lumber that it cleared from the land . The company found the Mingo Oak too large to cut down , and assessed that its removal was too costly to undertake . The Cole and Crane Real Estate Trust also leased out the land where the tree was located to the Island Creek Coal Company for mining . The land around the tree continued to be developed . A highway connecting Logan to Williamson , was built parallel to the Trace Fork of Pigeon Creek , opposite the Mingo Oak . While the tree had long been known for its size , the unique status of the Mingo Oak was not recognized until 1931 , when John Keadle and Leonard Bradshaw of Williamson took measurements of the tree , and found it to be the largest living white oak in the world . Upon this finding by the two men , Cole and Crane Real Estate Trust and the Island Creek Coal Company agreed to make a joint deed conveying the property to the state of West Virginia . In late 1931 , Emmett Keadle of the West Virginia Oil and Grease Company wrote a letter to Governor William G. Conley informing him of the tree 's significance and the companies ' willingness to lease the land to the state . Governor Conley responded to Keadle and suggested the companies convey the property to the West Virginia Game , Fish , and Forestry Commission . The Island Creek Coal Company , the North East Lumber Company , and the Cole and Crane Real Estate Trust leased to the commission 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) encompassing the tree for it to be managed as a state park for the lifetime of the tree . The commission removed vegetation from the immediate land around the tree , constructed a fence around the plot , and built a bridge crossing the Trace Fork of Pigeon Creek so that motorists could access the park from the highway . The state built cooking ovens , picnic tables , and benches along the tree 's southern slopes . Also , due to its enormous size and advanced age , the Mingo Oak acquired spiritual and inspirational significance . It became a place of worship , and a pulpit and benches were built beneath its branches . During the summer months , outdoor sermons were delivered by preachers at the tree . The Mingo Oak was also credited with raising awareness of conservation . The Mingo Oak became a popular attraction for visitors . Conferences , such as the annual conference of the West Virginia Parent @-@ Teacher Association in 1933 , included visits to the tree as part of their itineraries . = = Death = = In the summer of 1937 , the Mingo Oak scarcely sprouted leaves on only a couple of its branches . In February 1938 , biologist Earl M. Vanscoy wrote in Castanea that the tree was " almost dead " due to the release of poisonous gases and sulfur fumes from a coal spoil tip of the Island Creek Coal Company , which had been burning nearby in Trace Gap . In the spring of 1938 , the tree failed to produce any leaves . White oaks flower in the spring at approximately the same time as their leaves form , between late March and late May . On May 4 , 1938 , West Virginia 's state forester , D. B. Griffin , announced that the Mingo Oak was dead . Griffin also noted that a fungus that only lived on dead or dying trees had been present on the tree for several months prior to its death . The prevailing theory is that the tree died as a result of suffocation from the fumes of the burning pile of coal waste ; however , local media initially reported that the tree was killed as a result of fungal growth . = = Felling = = In preparation for the tree 's felling , some preliminary cutting was undertaken in the tree 's north side in the afternoon hours of September 22 . This work was done in order to manipulate the course of the tree 's fall , and to estimate the length of time it would take to cut through the remainder of the trunk . After a saw had been worked approximately 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) into the trunk , it was discovered that the tree was decomposing and open in its center . The lumber crews trimmed the tree 's initial cut , and the further work to topple the tree was adjourned until the following morning . The tree was felled on September 23 during a ceremony attended by between 2 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 people . Among those in attendance were state forester D. B. Griffin , the president of the Island Creek Coal Company , E. P. Rice , and representatives from other companies that had previously owned and leased the land where the tree was located . In addition to standard cameras photographing the event , two movie cameras were brought to capture the felling and its associated events . Uniformed West Virginia Game , Fish , and Forestry Commission officers , Mingo County sheriffs ' deputies , and other law enforcement personnel were also on hand to provide security and direct traffic . Two lumberman were brought in to facilitate the cutting and toppling of the tree : Paul Criss of Charleston and Ed Meek of Indianapolis . Criss brought with him a team of woodchoppers and sawyers representing the Kelly Ax and Tool Works Company . Criss was a public relations spokesperson for the Kelly Ax and Tool Works Company . Meek arrived with his own crew from the E. C. Atkins and Company , a saw manufacturer . Griffin also enlisted the assistance of a crew of game wardens and rangers . A nearby Civilian Conservation Corps camp also provided a team to assist in the felling and dismemberment of the tree . The E. C. Atkins and Company also brought a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) saw . Most of the readily available crosscut saws measured 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in length , thus rendering them ineffective at cutting through the tree 's wide trunk , which measured over 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) from the ground . Prior to the tree 's cutting , Criss shaved Meek 's face with his axe . He lathered Meek 's face and neck and moved his axe blade over Meek 's bristles , drawing blood at his chin line . Criss commented : " That 's the trouble with having a lot of officials around . I 've shaved a thousand men with that axe and that 's the first time I ever drew blood . These officials get me a little nervous . " By 09 : 00 , hundreds of people had arrived to observe the tree 's toppling . At 10 : 00 , the final cutting commenced . Criss decided to topple the tree downhill onto a ledge , which narrowed between the two ravines that emptied into Trace Fork . While it was assessed that the shelf was not long enough for the tree to land on , it was agreed upon by all the participants that given the rotten nature of the tree 's top section , it would fracture notwithstanding the orientation of its fall . Prior to Criss cutting further into the tree , he assured the crews : " I can put her anywhere you want her gentlemen . Lay a $ 10 bill anywhere you like and I 'll guarantee the trunk will cover it . " The cutting of the tree began when the 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) saw , operated by six men , was positioned across the trunk . The saw penetrated the trunk , and the adjacent area was cleared of bystanders . The spectators were repositioned up the hillside to the south and across the ravine to land that had previously been cleared by the Civilian Conservation Corps camp . The men moved the saw backward and forward , as woodchoppers widened the open wedge . After approximately 30 minutes , Criss yelled , " We 're through boys . " The men removed the saw , and the woodchoppers continued to pick at the open wedge . The tree made a crackling sound , its upper limbs dipped , and the Mingo Oak crashed onto its designated felling location . While it had been intended that the tree be down by 10 : 30 , it was not until 11 : 00 that this occurred . To assist in the segmentation of the collapsed tree , competitions were held in woodchopping and log sawing . Saw manufacturer E. C. Atkins and Company furnished saws for the competitors . Because of the tree 's advanced decomposition within the center of its base , the trunk 's lowest 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) were assessed to be worthless ; however , 66 feet ( 20 m ) of the trunk was salvaged in one entire piece . Another cutting yielded a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) log in length , that averaged 54 inches ( 140 cm ) in diameter . The Island Creek Coal Company sent the 66 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) log to the Meadow River Lumber Company plant in Rainelle , which had the largest cutoff saw in the Eastern United States . From this log , transections were cut , and other divisions of it produced lumber , tabletops , and novelty items . Various segments of the tree were cut and given to the West Virginia State Museum and the Smithsonian Institution . = = Legacy = = The Mingo Oak was the largest living white oak ; and with the exception of the state 's box huckleberries ( Gaylussacia brachycera ) , it was the oldest living flora specimen in West Virginia . The tree was referred to as the " mighty monarch of the mountains " . Biologist Earl M. Vanscoy said that the tree was " perhaps West Virginia 's most remarkable tree " ; and Colby B. Rucker of the Native Tree Society referred to the Mingo Oak as an " exceptional forest giant " . Under the terms of the West Virginia Game , Fish , and Forestry Commission 's lease from the Cole and Crane Real Estate Trust , the North East Lumber Company , and the Island Creek Coal Company , the lease for the land around the former tree reverted to the Island Creek Coal Company following the tree 's death and felling . In 1940 , a club of whittlers presented a gavel made from a piece of the Mingo Oak to federal judge Harry E. Atkins in Huntington . Several of the club 's whittlers had served as members of the jury during Atkins 's court proceedings , and they presented the gavel as a token of their appreciation . The West Virginia Division of Culture and History installed a historic marker as part of the West Virginia Highway Historical Marker Program near the site of the Mingo Oak ; it has since gone missing . The marker read : The largest white oak in the United States when it died and was cut down , 9 @-@ 23 @-@ 1938 . Age was estimated to be 582 years . Height , 146 feet ; circumference , 30 feet , 9 inches ; diameter , 9 feet , 9 1 / 2 inches . Trunk contained 15 @,@ 000 feet B. M. lumber .
= The Ash Garden = The Ash Garden is a novel written by Canadian author Dennis Bock and published in 2001 . It is Bock 's first novel , following the 1998 release of Olympia , a collection of short stories . The Ash Garden follows the stories of three main characters affected by World War Two : Hiroshima bombing victim Emiko , German nuclear physicist Anton Böll , and Austrian @-@ Jewish refugee Sophie Böll . The narrative is non @-@ linear , jumping between different times and places , and the point of view alternates between the characters ; Emiko 's story being written in the first person while Anton and Sophie 's stories are written in the third person . Bock took several years to write the novel , re @-@ writing several drafts , before having it published in August 2001 by HarperCollins ( Canada ) , Alfred A. Knopf ( USA ) and Bloomsbury ( UK ) . Critics gave it mostly positive reviews and it became a best @-@ seller in Canada . It was nominated for the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award , the Books in Canada First Novel Award , and the Kiriyama Prize . It has been analysed in several literature journals , including Canadian Ethnic Studies which noted the similarities between the character Emiko and the Hiroshima Maidens . = = Background = = At the time of publication , author Dennis Bock was 36 years old and living in Toronto . He had previously published a book of short stories called Olympia , but struggled with this project that would become his first novel , taking several years to write the novel . Doubleday Canada originally owned the rights but Bock withdrew the book from Doubleday citing " a difference of opinion " between himself and the editor . He had written two drafts , including one in which the main character was an art historian involved in art theft and looting during World War II . With a working title of A Man of Principle , Bock gave the draft to editor Phyllis Bruce in 1999 and sold it to Knopf for US $ 250 @,@ 000 . He re @-@ wrote most of the book with the help of Bruce , and two other editors , Gary Fisketjon of Knopf and Liz Calder of Bloomsbury ( who published the book in the UK ) . = = Summary = = The narrative alternates between three characters ( Emiko , Anton and Sophie ) and takes place around the fiftieth anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , though the back story of each character is told . Emiko was a small girl living in Hiroshima with her parents , younger brother , and grandfather during WWII . Following the atomic bombing , with her parents dead , Emiko and her brother recover in a hospital and her grandfather cares for patients . Though her brother dies , Emiko travels to the United States as part of a group of girls receiving reconstructive surgery . On the way , the American media takes an interest in the girls and she appears on an episode of This Is Your Life thanking the American audience for bringing her to the US . She later becomes a documentary filmmaker and , in 1995 , approaches Anton Böll to be part of a new project . Anton was a scientist in Nazi Germany who , following a disagreement regarding the direction of its nuclear program , is recruited by the US and flees via France , Spain , and Portugal . He becomes a part of the Manhattan Project , witnesses the tests , and travels to Hiroshima recording the aftermath . Anton regrets the consequences of the atomic bombs , attends the Pugwash Conference , but maintains his belief that it was necessary to end the war and prevented more deaths . He marries Sophie and becomes a professor at Columbia University in New York . With Sophie , he retires to a small town outside of Toronto . As WWII was beginning , Sophie 's Jewish parents sent her away from Austria . She was on board of the MS St. Louis when it was turned away from Cuba and sent to the United Kingdom . She was living in a refugee camp in Canada when she met Anton . She was diagnosed with lupus and takes up gardening , planning elaborate landscapes every year . In 1995 , after refusing further medical treatments , and with Anton by her side , she succumbs to the disease . After Sophie 's funeral Anton reveals to Emiko the extent to which he had been involved in Emiko 's life . He first met her while volunteering at the hospital in which her grandfather was working . Feeling he had to make amends in some way , he ensured that Emiko was on the list of girls to get reconstructive surgery , and secretly filmed her at memorial events . He had been waiting for her to find him . = = Style and themes = = The portions of the book that follow the character Emiko Amai is written as a first @-@ person narrative , while the portions following Sophie and Anton Böll use the third @-@ person . The tone was described as " disturbingly calm " . Its central theme is that of identity and attempts to find solace . Bock states " All three of the main characters in The Ash Garden are refugees who don 't belong anywhere . Each has a desperate search for home . " In Harper 's Magazine , Pico Iyer compares The Ash Garden with Michael Ondaatje 's The English Patient as " a book that ends where Bock 's begins " . An essay in the journal Canadian Ethnic Studies , looked at The Ash Garden from the a Japanese historical perspective , finding strong similarities between the real @-@ life Hiroshima Maiden Shigeko and the character Emiko , but noting it was not a roman à clef . = = Publication and reception = = The book was released as a hardcover on August 25 , 2001 , published by HarperCollins in Canada , Alfred A. Knopf in the United States , and Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom . Knopf ordered an initial print run of 60 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted at the # 2 sport on the Maclean 's fiction bestseller list and peaked at # 1 in late September and early October . It was translated and published in multiple languages , including Japanese and German . The book was a finalist for the 2001 for the Books in Canada First Novel Award , as well as the Kiriyama Prize , an international literary award for promoting greater understanding of the Pacific Rim and South Asia . It was nominated by the Vancouver Public Library and the Bergen Public Library for the 2003 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award . In Time , Brian T. Bennett wrote , " The Ash Garden may not be a page @-@ turner , but Bock 's prose lures the reader along through smooth , sculpted sentences full of rich detail and subtle meditation . " In Maclean 's magazine , Brian Bethune wrote , " Intellectually engaging , beautifully written and powered by three memorable characters , The Ash Garden will seduce anyone who reads it . " In the Christian Science Monitor , fiction critic Ron Charles wrote " Bock moves back and forth through time in a series of exquisite scenes , always keeping his vision tightly focused , despite the world @-@ altering events he describes . ... What makes the novel so compelling and disturbing , though , is its emotional restraint . " Regarding the quality of the prose , a review in the Quill & Quire said " Bock 's writing is both dense and immensely readable " while the review in Library Journal " highly recommended " it . In Books in Canada one reviewer highlighted that on " occasions , the prose turns mannered and cliches pop up " . though a later review by W. P. Kinsella called it a " brilliant novel ... [ with ] superb plot twists that make it a spellbinding adventure in reading " . A Japanese review in the Yomiuri Shimbun noted " something inaccessible about all three [ characters ... who are ] as remote to each other as they [ are ] to the reader , and thus are never truly empathetic " . The review in The New York Times by literary critic Michiko Kakutani called it " an elegant , unnerving novel " but that Bock " tries too hard to underscore those links by using leitmotifs to connect his characters ' experiences " . In London , the review in The Sunday Telegraph was more critical , finding it " is badly let down by its form , a split @-@ time @-@ scale narrative ... [ and ] is significantly short of narrative dynamism " , while novelist Amanda Craig concludes that it " reads as the work of a young writer who is straining with too much effort " .
= Joseph Grimaldi = Joseph Grimaldi ( 18 December 1778 – 31 May 1837 ) was an English actor , comedian and dancer , who became the most popular English entertainer of the Regency era . In the early 1800s , he expanded the role of Clown in the harlequinade that formed part of British pantomimes , notably at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane and the Sadler 's Wells and Covent Garden theatres . He became so dominant on the London comic stage that the harlequinade role of Clown became known as " Joey " , and both the nickname and Grimaldi 's whiteface make @-@ up design were , and still are , used by other types of clowns . Grimaldi originated catchphrases such as " Here we are again ! " , which continue to feature in modern pantomimes . Born in London to an entertainer father , Grimaldi began to perform as a child , making his stage debut at Drury Lane in 1780 . He became successful at the Sadler 's Wells Theatre the following year ; his first major role was as Little Clown in the pantomime The Triumph of Mirth ; or , Harlequin 's Wedding in 1781 , in which he starred alongside his father . After a brief schooling , he appeared in various low @-@ budget productions and became a sought @-@ after child performer . He took leading parts in Valentine and Orson ( 1794 ) and The Talisman ; or , Harlequin Made Happy ( 1796 ) , the latter of which brought him wider recognition . Towards the end of the 1790s , Grimaldi starred in a pantomime version of Robinson Crusoe , which confirmed his credentials as a key pantomime performer . Many productions followed , but his career at Drury Lane was becoming turbulent , and he left the theatre in 1806 . In his new association with the Covent Garden theatre , he appeared at the end of the same year in Harlequin or Mother Goose , which included perhaps his best known portrayal of Clown . Grimaldi 's residencies at Covent Garden and Sadler 's Wells ran simultaneously , and he became known as London 's leading Clown and comic entertainer , enjoying many successes at both theatres . His popularity in London led to a demand for him to appear in provincial theatres throughout England , where he commanded large fees . Grimaldi 's association with Sadler 's Wells came to an end in 1820 , chiefly as a result of his deteriorating relationship with the theatre 's management . After numerous injuries over the years from his energetic clowning , his health was also declining rapidly , and he retired in 1823 . He appeared occasionally on stage for a few years thereafter , but his performances were restricted by his worsening physical disabilities . In his last years , Grimaldi lived in relative obscurity and became a depressed , impoverished alcoholic . He outlived both his wife and his actor son , Joseph Samuel , dying at home in Islington in 1837 , aged 58 . = = Biography = = = = = Family background and early years = = = Grimaldi was born in Clare Market , London , into a family of dancers and comic performers . His great @-@ grandfather , John Baptist Grimaldi , was a dentist by trade and an amateur performer , who in the 1730s moved from Italy to England . There he performed the role of Pantaloon opposite John Rich 's Harlequin . John Baptist 's son , Grimaldi 's paternal grandfather , Giovanni Battista Grimaldi , began performing at an early age and spent much of his career in Italy and France . According to biographer Andrew McConnell Stott , Giovanni was held in the Paris Bastille as the result of a scandalous performance . After his release , Giovanni moved to London in 1742 , where John Baptist introduced him to John Rich ; Giovanni then defrauded Rich and fled to the continent , where he later died . Grimaldi 's father , Joseph Giuseppe Grimaldi ( c . 1713 – 1788 ) , an actor and dancer ( known professionally as Giuseppe or " the Signor " ) , also made his way to London in around 1760 . His first London appearance was at the King 's Theatre . He was later engaged by David Garrick to play Pantaloon in pantomimes at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , earning high praise , and eventually became the ballet master there . Grimaldi 's mother , Rebecca Brooker , was born in Holborn in 1764 . She was apprenticed to Giuseppe Grimaldi in 1773 as a dancer and public speaker , and she became his mistress shortly afterwards , even though she was under 14 and he was about 60 . Grimaldi 's father was a serial philanderer who had at least ten children with three different women . In 1778 , he divided his time between two London addresses occupied by his mistresses , Brooker and Anne Perry . Both women gave birth that year , Perry to a daughter named Henrietta and Brooker to Joseph . Although jubilant at the birth of his first son , Giuseppe Grimaldi spent little time with Brooker , living mostly with Perry , and probably maintaining other mistresses as well . Brooker raised her son alone for the first few years in Clare Market , a slum area of west London . In about 1780 , Brooker gave birth to a second son , John Baptiste . Keen to set up an acting dynasty , Giuseppe left Perry and his daughter and moved with Brooker and his two sons to Little Russell Street , High Holborn . Giuseppe , who often displayed eccentric and obsessive behaviour , was a strict disciplinarian and often beat his children for disobeying his orders . A fascination with death consumed his later life ; he would feign death in front of his children , so as to gauge their reactions , and he insisted on his eldest daughter , Mary , decapitating him after his death because of his fear of being buried alive , a task which earned her £ 5 extra in her inheritance . = = = Early years at Sadler 's Wells and Drury Lane = = = From the age of two , Grimaldi was taught to act the characters in the harlequinade by his father . Although he and his younger brother John Baptiste both displayed acting talent , Joseph was groomed for the London stage . He made his stage debut at the Sadler 's Wells Theatre in late 1780 , when Giuseppe took him on stage for his " first bow and first tumble " . On 16 April 1781 , Richard Brinsley Sheridan , the manager of Drury Lane , cast both Giuseppe and Grimaldi in the pantomime The Wizard of the Silver Rocks ; or , Harlequin 's Release . Sheridan employed dozens of children , including Grimaldi , as extras at Drury Lane . On Boxing Day 1781 , Grimaldi took the part of Little Clown in the pantomime The Triumph of Mirth ; or , Harlequin 's Wedding at Drury Lane . It was a success for him personally , and the pantomime enjoyed an extended run until March 1782 . As a result of his performance , he received further work offers from the management and became an established juvenile performer at Drury Lane . At the same time , he was a prolific performer at Sadler 's Wells where he played a host of minor roles , including monkeys , imps , fairies and demons . The Drury Lane season ran every year from September to late spring , with Sadler 's Wells playing from 15 April to the second week in October . Though the two theatres staged similar productions , they appealed to different audiences : Drury Lane to the wealthy classes of society and Sadler 's Wells to the boisterous working class . Although Grimaldi 's stage career was flourishing , Giuseppe enrolled him at Mr Ford 's Academy , a boarding school in Putney , which educated the children of theatrical performers . Although Grimaldi struggled with reading and writing , he showed a talent for art , as evidenced by some of his drawings that survive in the Harvard Theatre Collection . Their success on the London stage allowed the Grimaldis to enjoy an affluent lifestyle in contrast to other working @-@ class families living in Clare Market and Holborn . By the age of six , Grimaldi was considered a prominent stage performer by the press , with one critic from the Gazetteer commenting that " the infant son of Grimaldi performs in an astonishing manner " . One evening , Grimaldi was playing the part of a monkey and was led onto the stage by his father , who had attached a chain to Grimaldi 's waist . Giuseppe swung his young son around his head " with the utmost velocity " , when the chain snapped , causing young Grimaldi to land in the orchestra pit . From 1789 Grimaldi would appear alongside his siblings in an act entitled " The Three Young Grimaldis " . Grimaldi 's father suffered ill health for many years and died of dropsy in 1788 . As a result , at age 9 , Grimaldi became the family 's principal breadwinner . Sheridan paid him an above @-@ average wage of £ 1 a week at Drury Lane , and allowed his mother to work at Drury Lane as a dancer . However , the proprietors of Sadler 's Wells were less supportive , cutting Grimaldi 's pay from 15 shillings to 3 shillings a week , at which level it remained for the next three years . The loss of Giuseppe 's income and Joseph 's reduced summertime earnings meant the Grimaldis could no longer afford to keep the house in Holborn . They moved to the slum district of St. Giles , where they took lodgings with a furrier in Great Wild Street . Grimaldi 's brother , John Baptiste , illegally signed on as a cabin boy aboard a frigate in 1788 , when he was nine , using a false identity . Grimaldi saw him only once more in his life . John Philip Kemble took over the producer 's ( director 's ) duties at Drury Lane later in 1788 when Sheridan was promoted to chief treasurer . Sheridan often employed Grimaldi in minor roles in Kemble 's productions and continued to allow him to work concurrently at Sadler 's Wells . Grimaldi took an interest in the design and construction of stage scenery and would often help to design sets . His stage performances over the next two years did not garner him the kind of success he had experienced under the management of his father , and the role of pre @-@ eminent Clown in London productions soon fell to Jean @-@ Baptiste Dubois , a versatile French acrobat , horseman , singer and strongman , with a formidable repertoire of comic tricks . Grimaldi worked as Dubois ' assistant , although in later life he denied that he had been the Frenchman 's student . In 1791 the Drury Lane Theatre was demolished , and Grimaldi was loaned to the Haymarket Theatre , where he appeared , briefly , in the opera Cymon , which starred the tenor Michael Kelly . On 21 April 1794 , the new Drury Lane theatre opened , and Grimaldi , now 15 years old , resumed his place as one of the principal juvenile performers . The same year , he played his first major part since his father 's death ; as the dwarf in Valentine and Orson . Two years later , at Sadler 's Wells , he played the role of Hag Morad in the Thomas John Dibdin Christmas pantomime The Talisman ; or , Harlequin Made Happy . The pantomime was a success , and Grimaldi received rave reviews . The Drury Lane management were eager to capitalise on his success , and later that year he was cast in Lodoiska , a Parisian hit adapted for the London stage by Kemble . Grimaldi played Camasin , a role that required the acrobatic and sword @-@ fighting skills that he had learned as a child . He won wider admiration as Pierrot in the 1796 Christmas pantomime of Robinson Crusoe at Drury Lane . Grimaldi met his future wife , Maria Hughes in 1796 . The eldest daughter of the proprietor of the Sadler 's Wells theatre , Richard Hughes , Maria was introduced to Grimaldi by his mother , Rebecca Brooker , and a romance soon blossomed . They married on 11 May 1799 and moved to 37 Penton Street , Pentonville . Later that year , Grimaldi appeared in a succession of shows including A Trip to Scarborough ( as a countryman ) and Rule a Wife and Have a Wife ( as a maid ) . The roles he took in these productions were eccentric and usually reserved for low comedians . Despite this , he was praised for his characterisations and was deemed a player of legitimate adult roles at Drury Lane , which qualified him to become a member of the prestigious Drury Lane Theatrical Fund . = = = Last years at Drury Lane = = = In 1798 , Drury Lane suspended its tradition of staging an annual Christmas pantomime , which meant that Grimaldi had to seek work elsewhere during the festive period . The following year , with the help of his father @-@ in @-@ law , he joined the company at Sadler 's Wells , where he played roles in several Charles Dibdin plays . Grimaldi made a big impression , especially in Dibdin 's Easter 1800 pantomime , Peter Wilkins : or Harlequin in the Flying World , based on Robert Paltock 's 1751 novel . For this elaborate production , which featured two Clowns ( Dubois and Grimaldi ) , Dibdin introduced new costume designs . Clown 's costume was " garishly colourful ... patterned with large diamonds and circles , and fringed with tassels and ruffs , " instead of the tatty servant 's outfit that had been used for a century . The production was a hit , and the new costume design was copied by others in London . Despite Dubois ' " endless bag of tricks [ and ] vast array of skills " , his performance appeared artificial , in contrast to Grimaldi , who was better able to " draw the audience into believing the essential comedic qualities " of Clown . At Drury Lane later in 1800 , he starred as an officer in The Wheel of Fortune by Richard Cumberland , a Jewish pedlar in The Indian , as Clown in Robinson Crusoe , and as the Second Gravedigger in Hamlet , alongside John Philip Kemble . Grimaldi 's wife Maria and his unborn child died during childbirth on 18 October 1800 . To cope with his grief , Grimaldi would often perform two shows a night ; one at Sadler 's Wells and the other at Drury Lane . With the Christmas season approaching , and the success of Peter Wilkins still a topic of conversation within theatrical circles , Kemble decided to stage the first Drury Lane pantomime in three years , Harlequin Amulet ; or , The Magick of Mona , with Grimaldi as Punch and then as Clown , instead of Dubois . In this production , Harlequin became " romantic and mercurial , instead of mischievous " , leaving Grimaldi 's Clown as the " undisputed agent " of chaos . The pantomime was a great success , running for thirty @-@ three performances and having a second Drury Lane season at Easter 1801 ; as a result , Grimaldi became recognised as one of London 's leading Clowns . Grimaldi originated the catchphrase " Here we are again ! " , which is still used in pantomime . He also was known for the mischievous catchphrase " Shall I ? " , which prompted audience members to respond " Yes ! " Grimaldi and Dubois appeared together again later that spring at Sadler 's Wells in Dibdin 's Harlequin Alchemist , which set up a mock duel between the two Clowns , with the audience deciding who could pull the most hideous face . Grimaldi consistently won . In the next piece , Harlequin Benedick ; or , The Ghost of Mother Shipton . Dubois was relegated to the role of Pierrot , while Grimaldi played Clown . Grimaldi 's mother was in the cast , appearing as the Butcher 's Wife . He then appeared in another Dibdin play , The Great Devil . During the run , he accidentally injured himself on stage by shooting himself in the foot and was confined to bed for five weeks . His mother became so concerned at her son 's fragile and still grief @-@ stricken state that she employed a dancer at Drury Lane , Mary Bristow , to care for him full @-@ time during those weeks . They formed a close friendship , which resulted in a loving relationship , and they married on 24 December 1801 . After a falling @-@ out with Kemble at Drury Lane , Grimaldi was dismissed and began appearing at the nearby Covent Garden Theatre . He also took up an engagement at his father @-@ in @-@ law 's theatre in Exeter . There was no Christmas 1801 or Easter 1802 pantomime at Drury Lane , and Kemble noticed a reduction in his theatre 's audiences . Grimaldi began to appear in provincial theatres , with the first appearance being in Rochester , Kent , in 1801 . In March 1802 , he returned to Kent where he performed in pantomime , earning £ 300 for two days work . His dismissal from Drury Lane was short @-@ lived , and he was reinstated within a few months in a revival of Harlequin Amulet . Sadler 's Wells closed for refurbishment at the end of its 1801 season and re @-@ opened on 19 April 1802 ; Grimaldi returned to take a major role in the Easter pantomime , for which he designed the look of his recurring Clown character " Joey " . He began by painting a white base over his face , neck and chest before adding red triangles on the cheeks , thick eyebrows and large red lips set in a mischievous grin . Grimaldi 's design is used by many modern clowns . According to Grimaldi 's biographer Andrew McConnell Stott , it was one of the most important theatrical designs of the 1800s . Later in 1802 , Dubois left the Sadler 's Wells company , making Grimaldi the sole resident Clown . Grimaldi starred in St. George , Champion of England opposite his friend Jack Bologna . This was followed by Ko and Zoa ; or , the Belle Savage . A critic from The Times remarked that the pair 's death scene together was " truely affecting " [ sic ] . Bologna and Grimaldi 's on @-@ stage partnership had by now become the most popular on the British stage ; the Morning Chronicle thought they " stood unrivalled " compared to other acts within the harlequinade . On 21 November 1802 , his wife Mary bore Grimaldi his only child , a son , Joseph Samuel , whom they called " JS " . Grimaldi introduced his young son to the eccentric atmosphere at both Drury Lane and Sadler 's Wells from the age of 18 months . Although eager to have his son follow him onto the stage , Grimaldi felt that it was more important for the boy to have an education and eventually enrolled him at Mr Ford 's Academy . Grimaldi returned to Drury Lane late in 1802 and starred in a production of Bluebeard , followed by the Christmas pantomime Love and Magic . In 1803 Grimaldi 's contract at Sadler 's Wells was extended for another three years . He starred as Rufo the Robber in Red Riding Hood , as Sir John Bull in New Broom and Aminadab in Susanna Centlivre 's A Bold Stroke for a Wife . The Napoleonic Wars had started , and the new proprietors of Sadler 's Wells and Drury Lane looked to Grimaldi to satisfy audiences eager for comic relief . Cinderella ; or , the Little Glass Slipper was presented at Drury Lane on 3 January 1804 . Grimaldi played the part of Pedro , a servant to Cinderella 's sisters . The production was a major success for the theatre , enhanced by Michael Kelly 's musical score ; however Grimaldi and the critics grew concerned that the theatre was underusing his talents and that he was miscast in the role . The Sadler 's Wells season commenced at Easter 1805 , and Grimaldi and Jack Bologna enjoyed a successful period . Drury Lane staged the opera Lodoiska , in which Grimaldi , his mother and his wife all had starring roles . After this he was asked to choreograph John Tobin 's play , The Honey Moon , at Drury Lane on short notice . He accepted on the proviso that his wages be increased for the show 's entire run and not just until a new dancing instructor was found . The Drury Lane management agreed to pay Grimaldi £ 2 more per week . A few weeks into his new assignment , management appointed James D 'Egville as the new ballet master . D 'Egville 's debut production was Terpsichore 's Return , in which Grimaldi played Pan , a role which he considered to be one of his best assignments to date . That October , however , the theatre reduced his wages . The extra £ 2 that he had been promised had been deducted from his salary when Terpsichore closed , and he approached Thomas Dibdin for advice . Dibdin advised him to leave Drury Lane and to take up a residency at the nearby Covent Garden Theatre . Grimaldi wrote to Thomas Harris , the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre , hoping to persuade him to stage Christmas pantomimes . Harris was already a supporter of the shows and had employed the writing talents of both Charles Dibdin and his co @-@ writer Charles Farley . Grimaldi met with Harris and obtained a contract . Before joining that theatre , however , he had to satisfy prior commitments at Drury Lane , appearing in the poorly received Harlequin 's Fireside . = = = Covent Garden years = = = In 1806 , Grimaldi bought a second home , a cottage in Finchley , to which he retired between seasons . He was engaged to appear at Astley 's Theatre in Dublin , in a play by Thomas Dibdin and his brother Charles . The Dibdins leased the theatre , but it was badly in need of repair . As a result audiences were small , and the show 's box @-@ office takings suffered . Grimaldi donated his salary to help pay for the renovation of the theatre . The Dibdin company , with Grimaldi , transferred to the nearby Crow Street Theatre where they performed a benefit concert in aid of Astley 's . After two more plays , the company moved back to London . Harlequin and the Forty Virgins opened the Easter season at Sadler 's Wells and lasted the entire season . Grimaldi sang " Me and my Neddy " , which proved very successful for both him and the theatre . Amid great expectations , he appeared at the Covent Garden Theatre on 9 October 1806 playing Orson opposite Charles Farley 's Valentine in Thomas Dibdin 's Valentine and Orson . Grimaldi , who considered the role of Orson to be the most physically and mentally demanding of his career , nevertheless performed the part with enthusiasm on tour in the provinces . Perhaps the best @-@ known of Grimaldi 's pantomimes was Thomas Dibdin 's Harlequin and Mother Goose ; or , The Golden Egg , which opened on 29 December 1806 at the Covent Garden Theatre . As in most pantomimes , he played a dual role , in this case first as " Bugle " , a wealthy but abrasive eccentric womaniser , and after the transformation to the harlequinade , as Clown . Mother Goose was a runaway success with its London audiences and earned an extraordinary profit of £ 20 @,@ 000 . It completed a run of 111 performances over a two @-@ year residency , a record for any London theatre production at the time . Grimaldi , however , considered the performance to be one of the worst of his career and became depressed . Critics thought differently , attributing the pantomime 's success to Grimaldi 's performance . It prompted one critic from European Magazine to write : " We have not for several years witnessed a Pantomime more attractive than this : whether we consider the variety and ingenuity of the mechanical devices [ or ] the whim , humour , and agility of the Harlequin , Clown and Pantaloon " . Kemble stated that Grimaldi had " proved himself [ as ] the great master of his art " , while the actress Mrs Jordan called him " a genius ... yet unapproached " . The production regularly played to packed audiences . In September 1808 , a fire at the Covent Garden theatre destroyed much of the Mother Goose scenery ; the production transferred to the Haymarket Theatre where it completed its run . While Kemble and Harris raised funds and renovated Covent Garden , Grimaldi made provincial appearances in Manchester and Liverpool . The Covent Garden theatre re @-@ opened in December 1809 with a revival of Mother Goose . In an attempt to recover the costs incurred by the rebuilding , Kemble raised the theatre 's seat prices , causing audiences to protest violently for more than two months , and the management was forced to reinstate the old prices . Grimaldi 's 1809 – 10 productions included Don Juan , in which he appeared as Scaramouche , and Castles in the Air , as Clown . Later in 1810 , he appeared in Birmingham in a benefit performance in aid of his sister @-@ in @-@ law . The following year , Grimaldi sang " Tippitywitchet " for the first time at Sadler 's Wells in Charles Dibdin 's pantomime Bang up , or , Harlequin Prime ; it became one of his most popular songs . By 1812 , despite Grimaldi 's success as a performer , he was close to bankruptcy as a result of his wife 's extravagant spending , a number of thefts by his accountant and the cost of maintaining both an idyllic country lifestyle and his son JS 's private education . The strain on Grimaldi 's finances caused him to accept as many provincial engagements as he could . That year , he travelled to Cheltenham and appeared again as Scaramouche in a revival of Don Juan . In nearby Gloucester he met the poet Lord Byron , on whose poem the play was based , at a dinner party . Byron was in awe at meeting the famous Clown , stating that he felt " great and unbounded satisfaction in becoming acquainted with a man of such rare and profound talents " . Grimaldi returned to London to star as Queen Ronabellyana with much success in the Covent Garden Christmas pantomime , Harlequin and the Red Dwarf ; or , The Adamant Rock . After this , he increasingly played " dame " roles . Sadler 's Wells opened its season in April 1814 with Grimaldi appearing in , amongst others , Kaloc ; or , The Pirate Slave . That year he played the title role in Robinson Crusoe at Sadler 's Wells , with his young son , JS , making his stage debut as Man Friday . Other pantomimes followed at Sadler 's Wells that year , including The Talking Bird , in which he played Clown , and he also played Clown in productions at the Surrey Theatre and Covent Garden – a challenging schedule . Later in 1814 , he played the title role in a revival of Don Juan at Sadler 's Wells , with JS in his second role as Scaramouche . The receipts at the box @-@ office were unusually large and confirmed , in Grimaldi 's mind , that his son was capable of sustaining his own career . Grimaldi suffered two setbacks towards the end of the year , becoming housebound for a few months due to illness and learning of the death of his friend , mentor and former father @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Hughes , in December . In early 1815 , Grimaldi and his son played father and son Clowns in Harlequin and Fortunio ; or , Shing @-@ Moo and Thun @-@ Ton . During 1815 , the relationship between Grimaldi and Thomas Dibdin became strained . Dibdin , as manager at Sadler 's Wells , denied Grimaldi 's request for a month 's leave to tour the provincial theatres . Dibdin was annoyed at the tolerant attitude Grimaldi displayed in his position as the Chief Judge and Treasurer of the Sadler 's Wells Court of Rectitude , a body set up to regulate the behaviour of performers . Grimaldi briefly left Sadler 's Wells in 1815 to conduct a tour of the northern provincial theatres . Alongside Jack Bologna , he staged fifty @-@ six shows during the summer months and earned £ 1 @,@ 743 , a much higher amount than he earned at Sadler 's Wells . Dibdin was struggling , and after the tour Grimaldi used the problems at Sadler 's Wells to negotiate a lucrative contract . Dibdin agreed to a salary increase but bristled at Grimaldi 's other demands and eventually gave the position of resident Clown to the little @-@ known Signor Paulo . = = = Later career = = = In 1815 , Grimaldi played Clown in Harlequin and the Sylph of the Oak ; or , The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green at Covent Garden , followed by the Christmas pantomime Robinson Crusoe ; or , The Bold Buccaneer , in which he played Friday to Charles Farley 's title character . Grimaldi conducted a remunerative but gruelling tour to Scotland , Manchester and Liverpool in 1818 . He sustained bruising and strains from two falls , the second of which left him briefly unable to walk . He and Mary moved to 56 Exmouth Market , Islington , where he recovered from his injuries before going on tour with his son . At Easter 1819 , in The Talking Bird , or , Perizade Columbine , he introduced perhaps his best known song " Hot Codlins " , an audience participation song about a seller of roasted apples who gets drunk on gin while working the streets of London . Songs about trades were popular on the stage in the 1800s . Grimaldi sought inspiration for the character of the apple seller by walking around the streets of London and observing real @-@ life tradespeople . Despite Signor Paulo 's success at Sadler 's Wells , Richard Hughes 's widow Lucy , who was a majority shareholder at the theatre , pleaded with Grimaldi to return . He agreed on the conditions that he was sold an eighth share in the theatre , remained the resident Clown and received a salary of 12 guineas a week . She agreed to his terms , and he took the part of Grimaldicat in the 1818 Easter pantomime The Marquis De Carabas ; or , Puss in Boots . The show was a disaster and closed after one night . Grimaldi was booed off the stage after an impromptu joke ( eating a prop mouse ) upset the audience and caused two female audience members to fight in the auditorium . The audience was also angry at Grimaldi 's weak performance ; later he felt that this marked the beginning of his career 's decline . Dibdin left Sadler 's Wells that year ; his fortunes changed rapidly for the worse , and he spent time in a debtors ' prison . Grimaldi 's debut as a theatre proprietor was also a failure . Although Jack Bologna , Mary , JS and Bologna 's wife Louisa were all cast in Grimaldi 's only commissioned pantomime , The Fates ; or , Harlequin 's Holy Day , he had underestimated the amount of work required to run a theatre , and the strain of management hastened the already rapid deterioration in his health . The shares in Sadler 's Wells were sold , with Grimaldi 's going to Daniel Egerton . Egerton wanted to keep Grimaldi on the payroll but proposed loaning him to other theatres . Grimaldi refused a contract on these terms and instead appeared alongside JS in a few engagements in Ireland . During the Easter season of 1820 , Grimaldi appeared at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , in Harlequin and Cinderella ; or , the Little Glass Slipper . Grimaldi played the wife of the lead character Baron Pomposini ; the role was probably an early example of a pantomime dame . In the latter months of 1820 , Grimaldi 's health worsened , and he suffered frequent emotional breakdowns , gastric spasms , breathlessness and severe rheumatoid pain . These ailments did not affect his desire to perform . That September he appeared at Covent Garden , as Kasrac in Aladdin followed by the Christmas pantomime Harlequin and Friar Bacon ; the pantomime was particularly successful . In May 1821 , Grimaldi collapsed after a performance of Undine ; or , the Spirit of the Waters . Doctors diagnosed him as suffering from " premature old age " . JS took over his father 's role and completed the remainder of the show 's run . Now acting as an official understudy , JS filled many of his father 's other theatrical engagements , including a rerun of Harlequin and Mother Bunch ; or , the Yellow Dwarf , in which he caused a scandal by threatening and verbally abusing a heckler in the audience . In the early 1820s , Grimaldi made a brief recovery and held a six @-@ week engagement at the Coburg Theatre where he appeared as Clown in Salmagundi ; or , the Clown 's Dish of All Sorts ; a pantomime which ran for a week before being replaced by Disputes in China ; or , Harlequin and the Hong Merchants . Both productions were successful , but Grimaldi was taken ill half way through the latter 's run . In 1822 , Grimaldi travelled to Cheltenham , in poor health , to fulfil an engagement as Clown by another actor in Harlequin and the Ogress ; or , the Sleeping Beauty in the Wood . Despite the rehearsals being cut short due to Grimaldi 's rapidly deteriorating health , critics praised his performances . = = = Last years and death = = = Grimaldi retired from the stage in 1823 as a result of ill health . The years of extreme physical exertion his clowning had involved had taken a toll on his joints , and he suffered from a respiratory condition that often left him breathless . The Times noted in 1813 : Grimaldi is the most assiduous of all imaginable buffoons and it is absolutely surprising that any human head or hide can resist the rough trials he volunteers . Serious tumbles from serious heights , innumerable kicks , and incessant beatings come on him as matters of common occurrence , and leave him every night fresh and free for the next night 's flagellation . Although officially retired , Grimaldi still received half of his former small salary from Drury Lane until 1824 . Soon after the fee stopped , Grimaldi fell into poverty after a number of ill @-@ conceived business ventures and because he had entrusted management of his provincial earnings to people who cheated him . Despite his disabilities , he offered his services as a cameo performer in Christmas pantomimes . Along with Bologna , he re @-@ appeared briefly at Sadler 's Wells where he gave some acting instruction to the mime artist William Payne , the future father of the Payne Brothers . He also started working for Richard Brinsley Peake , namesake of Richard Brinsley Sheridan , who was the dramaturge at the English Opera House . Peake hired Grimaldi to star in Monkey Island alongside his son JS . However , Grimaldi 's health deteriorated further and he was forced to quit before the show opened ; his scene was cut . The early end to his career , worries about money , and the uncertainty over his son 's future made him increasingly depressed . To make light of it , he would often joke about his condition : " I make you laugh at night but am Grim @-@ all @-@ day " . In 1828 , two " farewell " benefit performances were held for him . In the first , he appeared as Hock the German soldier and a drunken sailor in Thomas Dibdin 's melodrama The Sixes ; or , The Fiends at Sadler 's Wells to an audience of 2 @,@ 000 people . Unable to stand for long periods of time , he sang a duet with JS and finished the evening with a scene from Mother Goose . His last farewell benefit performance on 27 June 1828 was at Drury Lane . Between 1828 and 1836 , Grimaldi relied on charity benefits to replace his lost income . The relationship between Grimaldi and his son first became strained during the early 1820s . JS , who had made a career of emulating his father 's act , received favourable notices as Clown , but his success was constantly overshadowed by that of his father . He became resentful of his father and publicly shunned any association with him . JS became an alcoholic and was increasingly unreliable . In 1823 , he became estranged from his parents , who saw their son only occasionally over the next four years , as JS went out of his way to avoid them . They communicated only through letters , with Grimaldi often sending his son notes begging for money . JS once replied : " At present I am in difficulties ; but as long as I have a shilling you shall have half " . However , there is no record of him ever sending money to his father . JS finally returned home in 1827 , when the Grimaldis were awakened one night to discover their son standing in the street , feverish , emaciated and dishevelled . After appearing in a few Christmas pantomimes and benefits for his father , JS fell into unemployment and was incarcerated in a debtors ' prison for a time ; his alcoholism also further worsened . In 1832 , Grimaldi , Mary and their son moved to Woolwich , but JS often abused his parents ' hospitality by bringing home prostitutes and fighting in the house with his alcoholic friends . He moved out later that year and died at his lodgings on 11 December 1832 , aged 30 . With Grimaldi almost crippled , and Mary having suffered a stroke days before JS 's death , they made a suicide pact . They took some poison , but the only result was a long bout of stomach cramps . Dismayed at their failure , they abandoned the idea of suicide . Mary died in 1834 , and Grimaldi moved to 33 Southampton Street , Islington , where he spent the last few years of his life alone as a depressed alcoholic . On 31 May 1837 he complained of a tightening of the chest but recuperated enough to attend his local public house , The Marquis of Cornwallis , where he spent a convivial evening entertaining fellow patrons and drinking to excess . He returned home that evening and was found dead in bed by his housekeeper the following morning . The coroner recorded that he had " died by the visitation of God " . Grimaldi was buried in St. James 's Churchyard , Pentonville , on 5 June 1837 . The burial site and the area around it was later named Joseph Grimaldi Park . = = Legacy and reputation = = After Grimaldi 's death , Charles Dickens was invited by Richard Bentley to edit and improve Thomas Egerton Wilks 's clumsily written life of Grimaldi , which had been based on the clown 's own notes . As a child , Dickens saw Grimaldi perform at the Star Theatre , Rochester , in 1820 . The Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi sold well , to Dickens 's surprise . Grimaldi 's fame was established primarily by his numerous successes as Clown in pantomimes . His Clown satirised many aspects of contemporary British life , and made comic mockery of absurdities in fashion . Grimaldi quickly became the most famous Clown in London , gradually transforming the Clown character from a pratfalling country bumpkin into the most important character in the harlequinade , more important even than Harlequin . He expanded the role of Clown to include a range of comic impersonations , from the rival suitor , to household cook or nurse . Grimaldi 's popularity changed the balance of the evening 's entertainment , so that the first , relatively serious , section of the pantomime soon dwindled to " little more than a pretext for determining the characters who were to be transformed into those of the harlequinade . " He became so dominant in the harlequinade that later Clowns were known as " Joey " , and the term , as well as his make @-@ up design , were later generalised to other types of clowns . A contributor to Bentley 's Miscellany wrote in 1846 : " To those who never saw him , description is fruitless ; to those who have , no praise comes up to their appreciation of him . We therefore shake our heads and say ' Ah ! You should have seen Grimaldi ! ' " Another writer commented that his performances elevated his role by " acute observation upon the foibles and absurdities of society . ... He is the finest practical satyrist that ever existed . ... He was so extravagantly natural , that [ no one was ] ashamed to laugh till tears coursed down their cheeks at Joe and his comicalities . " The British dramatist James Planché worried , in a rhymed couplet , that Grimaldi 's death meant the end of a genre : " Pantomime 's best days are fled ; Grimaldi , Barnes , Bologna dead ! " Grimaldi became " easily the most popular English entertainer of his day " . The Victoria and Albert Museum and the actor Simon Callow have both concluded that no other Clown achieved Grimaldi 's level of fame . Richard Findlater , author of a 1955 Grimaldi biography , commented : " Here is Joey the Clown , the first of 10 @,@ 000 Joeys who took their name from him ; here is the genius of English fun , in the holiday splendour of his reign at Sadler 's Wells and Covent Garden ... during his lifetime [ Grimaldi ] was generally acclaimed as the funniest and best @-@ loved man in the British theatre . " A later biographer , Andrew McConnell Stott , wrote that " Joey had been the first great experiment in comic persona , and by shifting the emphasis of clowning from tricks and pratfalls to characterisation , satire and a full sense of personhood , he had established himself as the spiritual father of all those later comedians whose humour stems first and foremost from a strong sense of identity . " Grimaldi is remembered today in an annual memorial service on the first Sunday in February at Holy Trinity Church in Hackney . The service , which has been held since the 1940s , attracts hundreds of clown performers from all over the world who attend the service in full clown costume . In 2010 a coffin @-@ shaped musical memorial dedicated to Grimaldi , made of musical floor tiles , was installed in Joseph Grimaldi Park . The bronze tiles are tuned so that when danced upon it is possible to play " Hot Codlins " .
= Matthew Cox = Matthew Bevan Cox ( born July 2 , 1969 ) , commonly known as Matthew Cox , also sometimes known as Matthew B. Cox and Matt Cox , is an American felon and con man who has been convicted of conspiracy and grand theft . Cox , also an aspiring author , wrote an unpublished manuscript entitled The Associates in which the main character traveled the country committing mortgage fraud similarly as Cox later did . Cox falsified documents to make it appear that he owned properties , and then fraudulently obtained several mortgages on them for five to six times their actual worth . He acquired millions of dollars this way ; estimates report the amount at between US $ 5 and $ 25 million . Cox 's first conviction occurred in 2002 when he was sentenced to probation for mortgage fraud . He was then fired from the mortgage broker position he held in a Tampa , Florida area firm . He began his life as a dedicated criminal in central Florida after that offense , before fleeing the area when his activities were discovered . His crime spree continued across the southern US , eventually landing him on the Secret Service 's Most Wanted list . He was aided by several female accomplices , some of whom are in prison or have served time there for their participation in his fraudulent mortgage practices . Cox was arrested on November 16 , 2006 . Indicted on 42 counts , and facing prison sentences of up to 400 years , he plea bargained his sentence down to a maximum of 54 years on April 11 , 2007 and was sentenced to 26 years on November 17 . He is currently in a low @-@ security prison in Florida . His story is well chronicled and has been featured on Dateline NBC , CNBC 's American Greed , in Fortune magazine , Bloomberg BusinessWeek , Playboy magazine and many other media outlets . = = Early life = = Born in Florida , Cox struggled in school due to severe dyslexia . His teachers advised him to get a job in which he worked with his hands , so he studied sculpture at the University of South Florida , and majored in Art . Rather than follow art , Cox took a job as an insurance agent after college , but his income disappointed him , and he sought out different , more high @-@ paying work . = = Adult life = = = = = Tampa , Florida = = = Cox left his job as an insurance agent to work as a mortgage broker for a local company . While there he developed a reputation for unscrupulousness , which was heightened by his authorship of an unpublished 317 @-@ page manuscript entitled The Associates . The novel 's protagonist , written as a similar copy of himself , travels the country committing mortgage fraud . Cox told co @-@ workers about the book , and elaborated its details to them . " He sent it to a lot of people to see if they thought it worked " said a former co @-@ worker . After being fired from the company when he was convicted of mortgage fraud in 2002 , Cox faked a good credit history , and used that to buy dozens of homes and properties . In one instance he used the social security number of a toddler , and all of his documents — references , bank letters , rent receipts , W @-@ 2s from nonexistent employees — were counterfeit . He used his skills as an artist to decorate the properties with elaborate art deco @-@ style murals . Several of his future girlfriends said that his painting talents were part of his allure , though St. Petersburg Times said that his works were merely copies of murals by Tamara de Lempicka . Cox charmed Alison Arnold , a young local married woman , into believing he could give her a wealthy and luxurious life . While courting Arnold she said he took her to crime films such as The Italian Job and Catch Me if You Can — which he reportedly adored and watched several times — and began to detail his criminal plans to her . Cox often filed fraudulent mortgage documents , and in several cases was able to mortgage properties for five to six times their actual worth . In this practice , known as " shotgunning " in the real estate community , Cox either himself forged or had accomplices attain inflated appraisals to increase the value of the mortgages . One of his accomplices was a detention officer , who acquired 14 properties worth nearly $ 600 @,@ 000 , while making $ 35 @,@ 568 a year in his job . Cox took advantage of the Hillsborough County school district by selling it a property for much more than its appraised value , and arranged financing on a $ 90 @,@ 000 house for local politician Janet Cruz . He recorded that sale for $ 233 @,@ 000 , and hired Cruz to do some rezoning research . Cruz claims she was unaware he inflated the sale price , and that she was never paid for her research . When a female accomplice rented a house in Pinellas County as part of Cox 's schemes , then faked ownership of the property , the owner found out about the fraud . A title company manager had become suspicious of a loan Cox 's accomplice was applying for on the home and called the property 's real owner . The Clearwater Police department was contacted , and they began an investigation . Cox and Arnold grew apart and eventually Cox began courting another woman . Rebecca Hauck , a divorced mother , moved to Tampa after falling into debt and declaring Bankruptcy in Las Vegas . She had already committed criminal offenses before meeting Cox ; Hauck was fired from a job in Las Vegas for forging her employer 's name on checks that she used to pay her debts . They met through an online dating service . She , unlike Arnold , was willing to leave her son . After finding out that a local newspaper , the St. Petersburg Times , was investigating him , Cox and Hauck fled town . Two days later , on December 14 , 2003 , a story entitled " Dubious housing deals line avenue " arrived on newsstands . The story detailed Urban Equities Inc. an investment company started by Cox . His ex @-@ wife Keyla Burgos , who is mother to his son , was one of the two shareholders . Despite her involvement in the purchase or sale of 58 properties in six years , she claimed that her and the other remaining shareholder were " incapable of operating or managing Urban Equity " , so the company was put into receivership . His partners claimed to be unaware of Cox 's dealings , and they were financially ruined by the collapse of the company . = = = Crime spree across the southern states = = = Cox travelled to Atlanta , Georgia , where he and Hauck settled . He became a fugitive when he failed to report to his probation officers . During this period , he traveled to Mobile , Alabama , and using the identity of a former co @-@ worker , acquired credit cards and the credit needed to rent a home . After filing false documents that indicated he owned the house , Cox took out mortgages on the property for several hundred thousand dollars . He took out one mortgage under the name of The Simpsons character " C. Montgomery Burns " . Cox acquired several more properties , then the couple moved to the Tallahassee , Florida area . Authorities in the Atlanta area discovered Cox 's activities , and eventually his identity . On August 6 , 2004 , police issued arrest warrants for conspiracy , stolen identification documents , mail and wire fraud , money laundering and social security number fraud . News broadcasts showed photos of Cox and Hauck and requested that viewers provide any information pertaining to their whereabouts . By spring 2005 , the couple had eluded authorities for eighteen months , using dozens of identities , including ones stolen from former co @-@ workers and acquaintances . Cox also stole identities from the homeless by posing as a survey – taking Red Cross worker to acquire their social security numbers . At this point , due to remorse and anxiety , Arnold called the FBI and confessed . She was sentenced to two years in prison for numerous offenses , including conspiracy to commit bank fraud and identity theft . Arnold was also ordered to pay $ 300 @,@ 000 dollars in restitution to her victims . Shortly thereafter , Cox filed multiple mortgages on two houses for $ 886 @,@ 318 in Columbia , South Carolina in less than a week . An abstractor noticed this , and a fraud alert was issued on one of Cox 's money laundering bank accounts . He was arrested when he returned to the bank to make a transaction , but he told authorities his name was Gary Lee Sullivan , one of about thirty aliases Cox had at the time , and because Sullivan had no open warrants the police released him . Shortly afterwards , Cox and Hauck moved to Houston , but they separated and she remained there in hiding under an assumed name . A year later the Secret Service found Hauck and arrested her . Convicted on numerous counts , Hauck was sentenced to six years in prison , and five years of supervised release . In May 2006 , after being on the run from authorities for two and a half years , Cox was placed on the Secret Service 's Most Wanted List . = = = Nashville , Tennessee = = = The week that Hauck was sentenced to prison , Cox was living in Nashville , Tennessee under the name Joseph Carter . He was dating a single mother , Amanda Gardner , who was unaware of his criminal past , and posing as the owner of a home restoration business . He told her he was from a wealthy family , and his silver 2005 Infiniti and " fashionably decorated bungalow " seemed to confirm this . Cox used a falsified passport to travel to Europe on a cruise of the Greek Isles with Gardner , a new friend Brian Williamson , and Williamson 's wife . He did not spend much time in Italy or Greece due to his intense fear of Interpol . He was reported by Gardner 's 60 @-@ year @-@ old babysitter , Patsy Taylor . She became suspicious of Cox , so she researched him online , where she discovered his identity . Taylor was put in contact with the attorney of Rebecca Hauck by a St. Petersburg Times reporter . Hauck 's family paid Taylor for Cox 's address , as this information could be used to reduce Hauck 's sentence . He temporarily escaped capture due to a chance series of events . Cox and his girlfriend 's home was burglarized , and he temporarily moved himself and Gardner to a hotel . On November 16 , 2006 , Cox was arrested by a half dozen Secret Service agents — who had been pursuing him for over two years — when he and Gardener returned from the hotel . He had been building Williamson a house via his fake identity and credit history , but , fortunately for his friend , he was arrested before Williamson could give him a down payment . Hauck 's sentence was later reduced from 70 to 42 months as a result of her assistance in Cox 's capture . = = = Prison = = = Cox faced 42 counts of fraud , in addition to felony charges for fleeing while on probation from a previous conviction . Facing potential prison sentences of over 400 years , he negotiated a plea bargain agreement that gave him a maximum of 54 years , and a $ 2 million fine . On November 16 , federal judge Timothy C. Batten , Sr. sentenced Cox to 26 years in prison . He also ordered Cox to pay $ 5 @.@ 97 million in restitution . He will not be eligible for release until 2029 . Depending on the source , estimates of the amount of money Cox fraudulently obtained vary from $ 5 million , to over $ 15 million , to more than $ 25 million . He is believed to have fraudulently mortgaged more than 100 properties . Cox is serving a 26 @-@ year sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution ( FCI ) , a low @-@ security facility in Coleman , Florida . He was ordered to pay $ 5 @.@ 97 million in restitution , and testify against his co @-@ conspirators . Although as of 2010 , the United States Attorney 's office has not brought charges against any of his 13 Tampa area cohorts , even though Assistant U.S. Attorney Robert A. Mosakowski informed a judge in 2005 that he planned to bring charges against up to 13 accomplices . While in prison , Cox mailed several letters to the St. Petersburg Times in 2008 in which he accused politician Kevin White of taking bribes from him during Cox 's criminal career . He claims he made payoffs to White , who was then a Tampa City Council candidate , in 2002 and 2003 . Cox said White told him he could not receive the money directly , so he should have his friends each donate $ 500 and then reimburse them . Records and statements from those who donated show that Cox did in fact make numerous contributions to White 's campaign , and reimbursed others who did so as well . White , he claims , agreed to vote to rezone vacant properties in Tampa and Ybor City . When Cox was first arrested the FBI talked to him about White , who they were also investigating , and he told them the same information . He claimed to have paid him $ 7 @,@ 000 in cash in addition to the recorded contributions he arranged . When White and a fellow City Council member were told Cox 's contributions might have been illegal in 2004 , his colleague told the police , while White kept silent . White has denied that he knew these contributions were reimbursed , and called Cox 's accusations " the jailhouse ramblings of a reputed con man . " White said he befriended Cox when he came to believe the con man was interested in revitalizing Tampa Heights . Cox fled the Tampa area before White cast any rezoning votes , so there is no voting record which could help confirm the validity of his accusations . = = Unpublished novel = = Authorities were amazed by the similarities between Cox 's actual crimes and the manuscript , which they found several years before Cox was arrested . The fictional character is 5 ft 7 in ( 170 cm ) , has brown hair and blue eyes . Cox is 5 ft 6 in ( 168 cm ) , has brown hair and green eyes . Both the fictional character and Cox drove a silver Audi TT , illegally acquired Tampa real estate worth $ 2 @.@ 7 million , were alumni of the University of South Florida , had an intense fear of Interpol , and formerly worked as insurance seller . In the novel , the protagonist and a female accomplice rent a home like the one Cox and Hauck rented in Atlanta . The character then opens accounts at several banks in the area so that he can use them for money laundering purposes , which Cox did . Then , Cox , like the character in the manuscript , forged a document , claiming that the mortgage on the home — which he did not even own — was paid off . The character in the manuscript then contacted lenders , and told them he owned the property outright . Cox is in prison for this same crime .
= Cornwallis in North America = Charles , Earl Cornwallis ( 1738 – 1805 ) was a military officer who served in the British Army during the American War of Independence . He is best known for surrendering his army after the 1781 Siege of Yorktown , an act that ended major hostilities in North America and led directly to peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war . Born into an aristocratic family with a history of public service , Cornwallis was politically opposed to the war , but agreed to serve when it became clear that Britain would require a significant military presence in the Thirteen Colonies . First arriving in May 1776 , he participated in the Battle of Sullivan 's Island , before joining the main army under General William Howe . He played a notable role in the partially successful New York and New Jersey campaign when George Washington successfully eluded him after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and inflicted a decisive defeat on troops left at his rear in the Battle of Princeton . Cornwallis was also involved in the Philadelphia campaign ( 1777 – 1778 ) , leading a wing of Howe 's army , before he became one of the leading figures of the British " southern strategy " to gain control of the southern colonies . In that role he successfully led troops that gained a measure of control and influence in South Carolina before heading into North Carolina . There , despite successes like his victory at the Battle of Camden , which burnished his reputation , wings of his army were decisively defeated at Kings Mountain and Cowpens . After a Pyrrhic victory at Greensboro , North Carolina , Cornwallis moved his battered army to Wilmington to rest and resupply . From Wilmington , Cornwallis , in a move that became a subject of contemporary and historical debate , led his army into Virginia , where he joined with other British troops that had been raiding economic and military targets in that colony . Ineffectually opposed by a smaller Continental Army under the Marquis de Lafayette , he was eventually ordered to establish a well @-@ defended port by General Henry Clinton . Poor communications in the British establishment and French naval superiority over the Chesapeake Bay caused him to become entrapped at Yorktown without the possibility of reinforcement ; he surrendered after three weeks of siege , on October 17 , 1781 . He was released on parole , and returned to England in December of that year . He and General Clinton engaged in a highly public exchange after the 1781 campaign in which each sought to deflect blame for its failure . = = Background = = Charles , Earl Cornwallis was a military officer born into an aristocratic family . His family had a distinguished record of public and military service , and Cornwallis was no exception . Eager for action , he served with the British Army in Europe during the Seven Years ' War , rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel . During those years he also served first in the House of Commons of Great Britain , and then , upon his accession to the title of Earl of Cornwallis in 1762 , in the House of Lords . He was politically aligned with the Whigs , and was sympathetic to the complaints of the British colonists in North America , voting against the 1765 Stamp Act . When it was repealed the following year , he was one of a few voters against the Declaratory Act , in which Parliament continued to claim authority over the colonies . Also in 1766 , he was given the colonelcy of the 33rd Regiment of Foot . In the following years he continued to argue politically in support of the colonists even as tensions rose between them and the Parliament . When the North ministry rose to power in 1770 , Cornwallis adopted a less active voice in politics , and avoided seeking political appointments . In 1768 he married Jemima Tullekin Jones , the daughter of a regimental colonel . They had two children , a boy and a girl , before Jemima died in 1779 , and were by all accounts a happy , devoted couple . = = American War of Independence = = After the opening skirmishes of the war took place near Boston , Cornwallis put his politics aside and sought active service . Despite his opposition to the king 's colonial policy , Cornwallis had retained King George III 's favour , and was rapidly promoted . On September 29 , 1775 he was promoted to major general . In November he offered to serve in North America on a proposed expedition to the southern colonies , even though the number of officers that were senior to him in rank meant he was unlikely to get an independent command . This generosity was appreciated by the king and by Lord George Germain , the secretary of state for the colonies . On January 1 , 1776 he was given the rank of lieutenant general in North America . His orders from Lord Germain were to accompany a convoy of troops from Cork , Ireland to North America , where he was to join at Cape Fear , North Carolina with General Henry Clinton , who was bringing troops from Boston for operations in the southern colonies . Clinton arrived at Cape Fear well before the earl , since logistics delayed the convoy 's departure , and then bad weather slowed its progress across the Atlantic . Cornwallis expected to have good relations with Clinton ; a mutual friend , William Phillips , reported Cornwallis to be " very happy to think he shall serve under an old friend and a man he has so good an opinion of . " These forces then shifted south and participated in the first Siege of Charleston in June 1776 . Cornwallis was landed with Clinton 's troops on Long Island , where they were unable to cross the deep channel separating the island from Sullivan 's Island , where the principal colonial defenses were located . The colonists brought artillery up to oppose any attempted crossing , and the landing was a failure , as was the naval cannonade of Fort Sullivan . = = = New York campaign = = = After the failure in South Carolina , Clinton and Cornwallis transported their troops north to serve under William Howe in the campaign for New York City . In the Battle of Long Island , Cornwallis led the reserve division that took part in the successful flanking of the American position on Gowanus Heights . Cornwallis 's role in the following weeks was minor ; his command was not directly involved in the battles that drove George Washington across the Hudson River and into New Jersey . At the fall of Fort Washington , Cornwallis 's troops sealed one of the last escape routes . General Howe then gave Cornwallis his first chance at an independent command , assigning him to capture Fort Lee across the river from Fort Washington . The Americans occupying that fortification were led by Nathanael Greene , who would later face Cornwallis in the south , and only barely made their escape . Cornwallis 's prizes in the bloodless seizure of the fort included tents , guns , and other military supplies . Washington ended up withdrawing all the way across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania , with Cornwallis in pursuit until his force reached New Brunswick . His troops were exhausted from the chase , and his orders from Howe were to go no further . Cornwallis , who was criticized for disobeying or disregarding Clinton 's orders in later campaigns , observed that he would have disobeyed Howe 's orders if he believed further pursuit would have gained material advantage for the British . Howe joined him on December 6 , and led the pursuit to the Delaware with Cornwallis in the van . In his orders of December 14 , Howe recognized the successful close of the campaign " much to the honor of his lordship and the officers and soldiers under his command . " = = = Trenton and Princeton = = = After the New York City campaign and the subsequent occupation of New Jersey by the British army , Cornwallis applied for leave to return home . He was preparing to sail from New York when orders arrived cancelling his leave . Washington 's successful surprise attack on Trenton on the morning of December 26 demanded a response , and Howe ordered Cornwallis back to New Jersey to deal with Washington . Cornwallis rode into New Jersey on New Year 's Day 1777 and gathered together the scattered British and German garrisons at Princeton , where an army of 8 @,@ 000 came together . Leaving 3 @,@ 000 men in posts at Princeton and Maidenhead , Cornwallis advanced with the remaining 5 @,@ 000 down the main road to Trenton early on January 2 , where Washington had established a strong position on the south side of the Assunpink Creek . He rejected advice from the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop , who proposed a two @-@ column approach that would turn Washington 's right flank . After a running series of skirmishes designed to delay the British march , Cornwallis finally reached Trenton and came upon Washington 's position around sunset . In the battle that followed , Cornwallis 's forces made three attempts to either cross bridges or ford the creek ; all were successfully repulsed . Rather than attempt a nighttime assault across unknown terrain against Washington 's position , Cornwallis ordered his troops to camp , noting that he could " bag the fox " in the morning . During the night , however , Washington 's forces slipped around his , and successfully attacked the British outpost at Princeton . Although the Continental Army 's disengagement was due in large part to Washington 's use of deception , including the maintenance of blazing campfires and the presence of a small detachment of troops to keep up camp sounds throughout the night , Cornwallis also neglected to send out sufficient patrols to monitor Washington 's activities . When the disappearance of Washington 's army was discovered in the morning , Cornwallis immediately gave chase , but his troops only began to arrive two hours after the Princeton troops surrendered . Washington , his forces tired out after the night march and battle , moved north toward Morristown , while Cornwallis returned to New Brunswick , where the large base had been left garrisoned by a single regiment , and included the British warchest . Cornwallis remained in New Jersey through the winter , where an ongoing series of skirmishes kept the German and British forces under his command constantly on edge . Persistent attacks on Cornwallis 's own regiment , the 33rd , prompted him to plan a significant retaliatory attack . In early spring 1777 , Cornwallis surprised Benjamin Lincoln 's garrison at Bound Brook on April 13 , very nearly capturing Lincoln . In June , General Howe ordered a movement in force into New Jersey apparently in an attempt to draw Washington into battle from a strong position in the Watchung Mountains . This move failed , although Cornwallis very nearly cut off a portion of Washington 's army in the June 26 Battle of Short Hills . These engagements had no long @-@ term impact , and Howe withdrew is forces onto naval transports for an expedition to capture Philadelphia . = = = Philadelphia campaign = = = General Howe hoped that capturing Philadelphia , the rebel capital , would end the war at a stroke . Cornwallis was given command of the army 's light infantry in the campaign , which got underway when the army disembarked at Head of Elk ( now Elkton , Maryland ) on 25 August 1777 . Advance units of Cornwallis 's division were involved in the Battle of Cooch 's Bridge on 3 September , as the army began its march northward . At the Battle of Brandywine on 11 September , Howe and Cornwallis led the flanking movement that ultimately forced the Americans from their position . Cornwallis also played an important role in the Battle of Germantown on 4 October , bringing up reinforcements late in the battle . When Howe sought to gain control over the Delaware River approaches to Philadelphia , Cornwallis was sent into New Jersey in November to secure Fort Mercer after a failed Hessian assault . The Americans abandoned the fort as his column approached . General Howe then sent Cornwallis to probe Washington 's position at White Marsh in December ; these movements resulted in a series of inconclusive skirmishes . When the army entered winter quarters in Philadelphia , Cornwallis took his long @-@ delayed leave , sailing for England on 13 December . In addition to spending several months with his devoted wife , he informed the government of affairs in the colonies and visited the families of his colleagues . He sailed from England on 21 April 1778 , and arrived in Philadelphia in early June , after a crossing that was much more pleasant than his first in 1776 . During Cornwallis 's absence , control of the British forces had passed to Henry Clinton on the resignation of General Howe ; as a consequence , Cornwallis was now second in command in North America . After the surrender of John Burgoyne 's army at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war , the British decided to withdraw from Philadelphia to concentrate defenses in New York against the French threat . Cornwallis commanded the rearguard during the overland march from Philadelphia to New York City and played an important role in the Battle of Monmouth on 28 June 1778 . After a surprise attack on the British rearguard , Cornwallis launched a counter @-@ attack which checked the American advance . However , when he then led elite units against an entrenched Continental Army position , it refused to budge , and Cornwallis was forced to withdraw with heavy casualties . Even though Clinton commended Cornwallis for his performance at Monmouth , he eventually came to blame the earl for failing to win the day . After returning to New York , Cornwallis applied to Clinton for leave to return to England , where his wife was ill . Clinton , believing Cornwallis was well positioned to influence the political leadership to gain additional troops for the war effort , granted the leave , and Cornwallis returned to England in December 1778 . Although he spent some time pleading Clinton 's case , his wife 's illness distracted him . Finding her in " a very weak state indeed " , he stayed with her until she died on February 14 , 1779 . Cornwallis was devastated by the loss , reporting that her death had " effectually destroyed all my hopes of happiness in this world . " He eventually decided to return to service in April 1779 ; in a letter to Clinton he offered to serve either in the southern colonies or the West Indies . = = = South Carolina = = = Cornwallis returned to America in July 1779 , where he was to play a central role as the lead commander of the British " Southern strategy " . At the end of 1779 , Clinton and Cornwallis transported a large force south and initiated the second siege of Charleston during the spring of 1780 , which resulted in the surrender of the Continental forces under Benjamin Lincoln . Cornwallis and Clinton at first worked closely together during the siege , but their relationship deteriorated . Cracks had formed between the two as early as October 1776 , when Cornwallis reported to General Howe critical comments that Clinton made about Howe 's conduct at White Plains . Clinton also seemed to believe that one reason for Cornwallis 's trips to England was to scheme for an independent command . Cornwallis as second in command held a dormant commission and would replace Clinton as commander in chief . He was aware that Clinton wanted to resign , but he did not want to be saddled with a difficult command situation should that occur . Cornwallis consequently avoided advising Clinton as much as possible , in order to avoid responsibility for poor outcomes . The deterioration in their relationship set the stage for some of their communication difficulties that resulted in Cornwallis 's eventual surrender at Yorktown . In late April , Clinton detached a force under Cornwallis to ensure that the enemy 's communications and supplies were interrupted around the city . Because of this , Cornwallis missed most of the siege bombardment and the surrender in May ; forces directed by Cornwallis and led by Banastre Tarleton completed the encirclement of Charleston , skirmishing with the Americans at Monck 's Corner and Lenud 's Ferry . After the American surrender Clinton ordered Cornwallis to secure South Carolina 's interior , while Clinton organized control of Charleston . Not long after Tarleton defeated Abraham Buford 's Virginia regiments at Waxhaw , Clinton returned to New York , leaving Cornwallis in command in the south . The task Clinton left Cornwallis with was to , first and foremost , preserve the gains made by taking Charleston , and only then engage in offensive moves . Clinton 's orders gave Cornwallis wide latitude in how to achieve the goal of pacifying both South and North Carolina , after which Clinton expected Cornwallis to move into Virginia . Clinton wrote , " I should wish you to assist in operations which will certainly be carried on in the Chesapeake as soon as we are relieve from our apprehension of a superior fleet and the season will admit ... " However , Clinton provided Cornwallis with a relatively modest force of British , German , and provincial ( Loyalist ) regiments — about 3 @,@ 000 men — with which to accomplish all of this . The forces he was given to accomplish this were limited by the necessity of keeping a large British force in New York under Clinton to shadow Washington . Cornwallis was expected to recruit more Loyalists , who were believed to be more numerous in the southern colonies . After the fall of Charleston , Cornwallis set about establishing a British presence throughout South Carolina . Although he successfully established outposts , keeping communication and supply lines open was an ongoing challenge . Supplies not available locally ( like uniforms , camp gear , arms , and ammunition ) were delivered all too infrequently , and supply ships were frequent targets of local privateers . The weather that summer was rainy , turning the red clay roads of the area into impassable mires . In order to help provide fresh food and forage for his troops , Cornwallis established two commissioners . The first was responsible for administering goods confiscated from Patriots ( he avoided confiscating supplies from Loyalists since he depended on them for manpower and intelligence ) , and the second for administering land that was confiscated . A chronic shortage of hard currency ( another supply only infrequently delivered to Charleston ) made it difficult to purchase supplies from any source , either Patriot or Loyalist . Cornwallis also attempted to reestablish civil authority under British or Loyalist oversight . Although these attempts met with limited success , they were continually undermined by Patriot activity , both political and military , and the indifferent abuses of British and Loyalist forces . The latter took the form of militia companies that harassed Loyalists , small British units , and supply and communication lines . In early August , Cornwallis was alerted by Lord Rawdon , the commander of the British garrison at Camden that a new southern Continental Army , this time under the command of Horatio Gates , was approaching from the north . Cornwallis moved forces to Camden from Charleston , and on August 16 inflicted an embarrassing defeat on Gates at the Battle of Camden . The relatively untried Continentals in Gates ' army were routed , and suffered heavy casualties . This served to keep South Carolina clear of Continental forces , and was a blow to rebel morale . The victory added to his reputation , although the rout of the American rebels had as much to do with the failings of Gates ( whose rapid departure from the battlefield was widely noted ) as it did the skill of Cornwallis . In London , Cornwallis was perceived as a hero , and was viewed by many there as the right man to lead the British forces to victory over the rebels . = = = North Carolina = = = Cornwallis , buoyed by the victory at Camden , then prepared to advance north into North Carolina while militia activity , led by Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion , continued to harass the troops he left in South Carolina . He detached Patrick Ferguson , his inspector of militia , to raise a company of militia in the hills of North and South Carolina and cover his left flank . Ferguson was zealous in execution of this assignment , raising nearly 1 @,@ 100 men . However , he angered many colonists by issuing threats to " lay their country waste with fire and sword " if they continued their opposition , and a Patriot militia arose to oppose him . While Ferguson recruited , Cornwallis moved his army to Charlotte , North Carolina , skirmishing with Patriot forces left there to harass his advance . Ferguson 's Loyalists and the Patriot militia , led by a coalition of commanders , clashed at Kings Mountain in early October , two weeks after Cornwallis arrived in Charlotte . The battle was a disaster : Ferguson was killed , and nearly his entire force was killed or captured . Kings Mountain was only about 35 miles ( 56 km ) from Charlotte , within Cornwallis 's range to assist . The defeat , combined with other failures to raise Loyalist militia and ongoing Patriot activity in South Carolina , prompted Cornwallis to retreat to Winnsboro , South Carolina , where he set up a winter camp . Attempts to capture either Marion or Sumter were repeatedly frustrated . To reinforce his army , he ordered Major General Alexander Leslie , stationed at Portsmouth , Virginia , to abandon that outpost and join him in South Carolina . The British camp at Winnsboro was not particularly comfortable , and the men were often sick , living in crude accommodations not unlike those that Washington 's men had erected at Valley Forge in 1777 . The army suffered from a general lack of supplies , but wagons and horses were in particularly short supply , and the earl discovered that his quartermasters were profiteering on the provisioning of those items . The methods by which horses were acquired also served to alienate their Loyalist friends , since the quartermasters were sometimes indiscriminate , seizing horses from Patriots and Loyalists alike . His supply lines were also continually harassed , particularly by Francis Marion . In November he ordered Tarleton out to capture Marion ; the two commanders successfully maneuvered themselves out of entrapments laid by the other . Tarleton eventually returned to Cornwallis , reporting that Marion 's force had been broken up ; several days later , Marion resumed his guerrilla war . The arrival in North Carolina of a new Continental Army under Major General Nathanael Greene in December meant that the army would need to begin campaigning again . Although General Clinton had dispatched Brigadier General Benedict Arnold to Virginia to threaten Greene 's supply lines , Cornwallis needed to deal with the wily general . Greene had detached Brigadier General Daniel Morgan with a light infantry corps to cause trouble in the highlands of South Carolina . Cornwallis sent Tarleton with a sizable force to chase down Morgan . In a tactically brilliant battle at Hannah 's Cowpens on January 17 , 1781 , Morgan decisively defeated Tarleton , capturing most of his force . News of the battle so upset the earl that he was reported to snap a sword . He wrote that " [ T ] he late affair has almost broke my heart " , and vowed to recover the prisoners Morgan had taken . Immediately giving chase , he was unable to gain on Morgan , who , although burdened with prisoners , was not burdened by a large baggage train . Cornwallis , in a move calculated to force his army to be able to move faster , ordered most of his baggage train destroyed on January 24 . Starting with the personal effects of himself and his officers , he ordered the burning of everything except a minimal set of supplies . Cornwallis 's second in command , Charles O 'Hara , commented that the move " must ever do the greatest honor to Lord Cornwallis ' military reputation " . This move inaugurated what has been called " race to the Dan " . The Dan River separated Greene 's army from his supply bases in Virginia , and Cornwallis wanted to catch Morgan before he and Greene could join forces , or before Greene could reach Virginia . In a rapid series of marches under extremely difficult conditions that tired out both armies , Greene and Morgan reunited their forces , and Greene made it across the flood @-@ swollen Dan on February 13 . Cornwallis decided to halt the pursuit , having effectively driven the Continentals from North Carolina , and returned to Hillsboro , where he again attempted to raise Loyalist militia . After resting his troops , General Greene recrossed the Dan and returned to North Carolina . He and Cornwallis then engaged in a military dance of sorts , where Cornwallis tried to bring Greene to battle , while Greene , awaiting the arrival of more troops , sought to avoid it . Cornwallis 's force was also constantly suffering food shortages , and the earl ensured that officers and soldiers shared equally in the suffering . Cornwallis was unable to intercept the arriving reinforcements , and learned that Greene had taken up a position at Guilford Courthouse on March 14 , apparently ready to do battle . In the ensuing battle the next day , Cornwallis was victorious , but at significant cost . Greene 's army had numbered over 4 @,@ 000 men , while Cornwallis 's was only about 2 @,@ 000 . The British successfully pushed the Americans back , but Cornwallis was several times in personal danger , and he was forced to commit his reserves early in the battle . With a furious melee going on before him and the outcome of the battle appearing to hang in the balance , Cornwallis made a controversial decision . He ordered his artillery to load with grape shot and fire into the melee , which included men from the elite Brigade of Guards . General O 'Hara protested the move , but Cornwallis said " This is a necessary evil which we must endure , to arrest the impending destruction . " A final charge then broke the Americans , who disengaged , leaving their artillery on the field . Although Cornwallis had won the battle , he had lost a quarter of his army , and the survivors were exhausted . Cornwallis , his forces reduced by the seemingly endless campaign , then moved to Wilmington on the coast to resupply . Greene , whose army was still intact after the loss at Guilford Courthouse , crossed into South Carolina , where over the course of several months regained control over most of the state . Cornwallis received dispatches in Wilmington informing him that another British army under Generals Phillips and Arnold had been sent to Virginia . He finally came to the conclusion that , in spite of orders that limited him to the Carolinas , he would best serve the British cause by going to Virginia to join his army with that of Phillips and Arnold . Writing after the campaign , he explained that he did not feel he could effectively support Lord Rawdon , who he had left in command in South Carolina , and that he would be unable to gain control of North Carolina until Virginia had been pacified . Since he had not received instructions from Clinton in some time , he wrote the general a letter specifically requesting direction : " I am very anxious to receive your Excellency 's commands , being as yet totally in the dark as to the intended operations of the summer . I cannot help expressing my wishes that the Chesapeak may become the seat of war [ ... ] North Carolina [ ... ] is the most difficult of provinces to attack . " He also wrote to Lord Germain arguing the case for operations in Virginia . = = = Virginia campaign = = = Cornwallis marched from Wilmington on April 25 , sending orders to Phillips to meet him at Petersburg , Virginia . On his arrival at Petersburg on May 20 , he learned that Phillips , an old friend of his , had died a week earlier of a fever . With his arrival and that of fresh troops from New York , the army that came under his command numbered about 7 @,@ 200 . It was opposed by a Continental Army contingent currently at Richmond under the command of the Marquis de Lafayette . Lafayette 's force numbered 3 @,@ 000 , of which about two thirds were militia . He was also expecting to be reinforced soon by additional Continental Army troops from Pennsylvania led by Brigadier General Anthony Wayne . = = = = Chasing Lafayette = = = = Cornwallis , in the absence of instructions from Clinton , sought to execute the orders Clinton had given Phillips . These were to establish a naval station and to engage in raids against economic and military targets , and did not include any organized scheme of offense . Sending General Arnold , who complained of gout , back to New York , he set out in pursuit of the marquis on May 27 . He also sent a letter to Clinton , outlining his preference for Yorktown over Portsmouth as the site of a naval station . Lafayette , aware that he was not strong enough to oppose Cornwallis , fell back rapidly toward his supply base at Fredericksburg . When Cornwallis reached Hanover Court House he stopped the chase , and instead detached Tarleton and John Graves Simcoe on two separate raiding expeditions . Tarleton he sent to raid Charlottesville , where the Virginia legislature was meeting , while he sent Simcoe to Point of Fork , where Baron von Steuben had a supply depot . Both expeditions were qualified successes ; Tarleton very nearly captured Virginia governor Thomas Jefferson at his home of Monticello , while Simcoe managed to destroy a significant cache of supplies despite being outnumbered by von Steuben 's force . While these raids went on , Lafayette and Wayne joined forces , and Lafayette was further reinforced by the arrival of about 600 experienced militia a few days later . Cornwallis began to slowly move east toward Williamsburg , practically ignoring Lafayette . He periodically detached Simcoe or Tarleton on foraging and raiding expeditions as he went , and his main army reached Williamsburg on June 25 . Lafayette , buoyed by his reinforcements , followed the earl , and began sending out detachments of his own light troops to bring at least part of the British army to battle . Learning that Simcoe was foraging behind the main army , Lafayette sent out 600 men to track him down before he could rejoin Cornwallis . These two forces clashed on June 26 not far from Williamsburg , and Cornwallis escorted out reinforcements to cover Simcoe 's retreat . = = = = Confusing orders = = = = At Williamsburg , Cornwallis received several letters from Clinton . Clinton was upset that Cornwallis had moved into Virginia , and ordered him to establish a suitable fortified point . He also ordered him to return any troops he could spare to New York . ( This request , written in mid @-@ June , reflected concern over the movements of the French army from Newport , Rhode Island to White Plains , New York , and intelligence that General Washington was considering an attack on New York City . ) Cornwallis reconnoitered Yorktown , and found it to be inadequate . He informed Clinton that he would move to Portsmouth , embark troops there for Clinton 's use , and assess whether Portsmouth was a more suitable location for a naval station . Cornwallis accordingly began moving his army toward Portsmouth . This necessitated crossing the wide James River at Jamestown , a move the earl realized would give Lafayette an opportunity to attack . He decided to lay a trap for the marquis , who had come to the same conclusion when he noticed Cornwallis heading for the ferry . Lafayette 's advance force , led by General Wayne , walked into the trap , and only just escaped it , suffering 150 casualties . On July 8 Cornwallis received orders from Clinton directing the troops he was planning to embark for a potential operation against Philadelphia . Upon his arrival at Suffolk he received further dispatches from Clinton , including some that predated others he had already received . Cornwallis decided to proceed with the embarkation of troops for Philadelphia . By July 20 , some of these troops had boarded their transports when fresh orders arrived countermanding those for the Philadelphia expedition . He was now ordered to , if possible , recall any embarked troops , and instead do nothing beyond establishing a fortified naval station . He was " at full liberty to detain all the Troops now in Chesapeake " for the purpose . It proved a fateful decision on Clinton 's part , since the need to build and protect the new anchorage robbed Cornwallis of any freedom of manoeuvre . This was doubly unfortunate for as Cornwallis pointed out to his superior , the open bays and rivers of the Chesapeake , meant that any base there would " always be exposed to sudden French attack . " Nevertheless , Cornwallis , after analysing Portsmouth and several other options , dutifully chose Yorktown and Gloucester Point ( across the York River from Yorktown ) as the best of the choices for the station . On August 2 , he disembarked his army at Yorktown , and began fortifying the area . = = = = Trapped = = = = While Cornwallis fortified , forces from the West Indies and the allied camp outside New York were preparing to converge on his position . With the arrival of the French fleet under the Comte de Grasse at the end of August , and the arrival of General Washington 's combined French @-@ American army by late September , Cornwallis was trapped . After the Royal Navy fleet under Admiral Thomas Graves was defeated by the French at the 5 September Battle of the Chesapeake , and the French siege train arrived from Newport , his position became untenable . On September 6 , General Clinton wrote a letter to Cornwallis , telling him to expect reinforcements . Received by Cornwallis on September 14 , this letter may have been instrumental in the decision by Cornwallis to remain at Yorktown and not try to fight his way out , despite the urging of Banastre Tarleton to break out against the comparatively weak Lafayette . The British military leadership in New York held a council on September 17 in which they agreed that Cornwallis could not be reinforced until they had regained control of the Chesapeake . Historian Richard Ketchum describes the decision of the council as leaving Cornwallis " dangling in the wind . " One day earlier , Cornwallis wrote a desperate plea for help : " I am of the opinion that you can do me no effectual service but by coming directly to this place . " Before dispatching the letter on the 17th , Cornwallis added , " If you cannot relieve me very soon , you must prepare to hear the worst " . The siege formally got underway on September 28 . Despite a late attempt by Cornwallis to escape via Gloucester Point , the siege lines closed in on his positions and the allied cannons wrought havoc in the British camps , and on October 17 he opened negotiations to surrender . On that very day , the British fleet again sailed from New York , carrying 6 @,@ 000 troops . Still outnumbered by the French fleet , they eventually turned back . A French naval officer , noting the British fleet 's departure on October 29 , wrote , " They were too late . The fowl had been eaten . " Apparently not wanting to face Washington , Cornwallis claimed to be ill on October 19 , the day of the surrender , and sent Brigadier General O 'Hara in his place to formally surrender his sword . Washington had his second @-@ in @-@ command , Benjamin Lincoln , accept Cornwallis 's sword . = = = Aftermath = = = Cornwallis returned to Britain with General Arnold , and they were cheered when they landed in England on January 21 , 1782 . In 1782 Henry Laurens , a representative to the Continental Congress , was released from the Tower of London in exchange for a promise to effect the release of Cornwallis from his parole . Laurens was unsuccessful in this , and Cornwallis was not formally freed until a preliminary peace was agreed in 1783 . His tactics in America , especially during the southern campaign , were a frequent subject of criticism by his political enemies in London , especially General Clinton , who sought to blame Cornwallis for the failures . His dispute with Clinton was particularly public ; both men published works critical of the other , and much of their correspondence in 1781 was made public as a result . However Cornwallis retained the confidence of King George III and the British government . = = Later career = = In August 1785 Cornwallis attended manoeuvres in Prussia along with the Duke of York where they encountered Frederick the Great and Cornwallis 's Virginia opponent , the marquis de Lafayette . In 1786 he was appointed to be Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of British India and Governor of the Presidency of Fort William , also known as the Bengal Presidency . He served in these posts with distinction , enacting administrative reforms in the British East India Company , and made changes to judicial , civil , and revenue administration in the company 's territories that had significant long @-@ term consequences . He returned to England in 1794 , worn out from the difficult military campaigns of the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War , in which he led the first major British defeat of Tipu Sultan . After holding administrative posts in London , he was despatched to the Kingdom of Ireland in June 1798 after the Irish Rebellion broke out . In addition to mopping up most of the remnants of the rebellion , Cornwallis was instrumental in convincing the Irish Parliament to pass the Act of Union ( 1800 ) . This was a critical step in uniting the British and Irish crowns , creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Cornwallis resigned his posts in Ireland in 1801 after King George refused to support Catholic emancipation . The king then sent Cornwallis to finalize a peace agreement with Napoleon , and signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 on behalf of the United Kingdom . In 1805 Cornwallis was again appointed to India . He died not long after his arrival , in October 1805 . He is buried in Ghazipur , the place where he died .
= Myrmecia ( ant ) = Myrmecia is a genus of ants first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804 . The genus is a member of the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae . Myrmecia is a large genus of ants , comprising at least 93 species that are found throughout Australia and its coastal islands , while a single species is only known from New Caledonia . One species has been introduced out of its natural distribution and was found in New Zealand in 1940 , but the ant was last seen in 1981 . These ants are commonly known as " bulldog ants " or " jack jumper " ants , and are also associated with many other common names . They are characterised by their extreme aggressiveness , ferocity , and painful stings . Some species are known for the jumping behaviour they exhibit when agitated . Species of this genus are also characterised by their elongated mandibles and large compound eyes that provide excellent vision . They vary in colour and size , ranging from 8 to 40 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 to 1 @.@ 57 in ) . Although workers and queens are hard to distinguish from each other due to their similar appearance , males are identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles . Almost all Myrmecia species are monomorphic , with little variation among workers of a given species . Some queens are ergatoid and have no wings , while others have either stubby or completely developed wings . Nests are mostly found in soil , but they can be found in rotten wood and under rocks . One species does not nest in the ground at all ; its colonies can only be found in trees . A queen will mate with one or more males , and during colony foundation she will hunt for food until the brood have fully developed . The life cycle of the ant from egg to adult takes several months . Myrmecia workers exhibit greater longevity in comparison to other ants , and workers are also gamergates , that are able to reproduce with male ants . Myrmecia is one of the most primitive group of ants on earth , exhibiting differentiated behaviours from other ants . Workers are solitary hunters and do not lead other workers to food . Adults are omnivores that feed on sweet substances , but the larvae are carnivores that feed on captured prey . Very few predators eat these ants due to their sting , but their larvae are often consumed by blindsnakes and echnidnas , and a number of parasites infect both adults and brood . Some species are also effective pollinators . Myrmecia stings are very potent , and the venoms from these ants are among the most toxic in the insect world . In Tasmania , 3 % of the human population are allergic to the venom of M. pilosula and can suffer life @-@ threatening anaphylactic reactions if stung ; many human deaths have been recorded . People prone to severe allergic reactions can be treated with allergen immunotherapy ( desensitisation ) . = = Etymology and common names = = The generic name Myrmecia derives from Greek word Myrmec- ( + -ia ) , meaning " ant " . In Western Australia , the Australian Aborigines called these ants kallili or killal , meaning " lion @-@ ant " . Ants of this genus are popularly known as bulldog ants , bull ants or jack jumper ants . This is due to their ferocity and the way they hang off their victims using their mandibles , and also due to the jumping behaviour displayed by some species . Other common names include inch ants , sergeant ants and soldier ants . The jack jumper ant and other members of the Myrmecia pilosula species group are commonly known as " black jumpers " , " hopper ants " , " jumper ants " , " jumping ants " , " jumping jacks " and " skipper ants " . = = Taxonomy and evolution = = Genetic evidence suggests that Myrmecia diverged from related groups approximately 100 million years ago . The subfamily Myrmeciinae to which Myrmecia belongs , is believed to have been found in the fossil record of 110 million years ago . However , one study suggests that the age of the most recent common ancestor for Myrmecia and Nothomyrmecia is 74 million years ago , and the subfamily is possibly younger than previously thought . Ants of the extinct genus Archimyrmex may possibly be the ancestor of Myrmecia . In the Evans ' vespoid scala , Myrmecia and other primitive ant genera such as Amblyopone and Nothomyrmecia exhibit behaviour which is similar to a clade of soil @-@ dwelling families of vespoid wasps . Four species groups form a paraphyletic assemblage while five species groups form a monophyletic assemblage . The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships within Myrmecia : = = = Classification = = = Myrmecia was first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in his 1804 publication Systema Piezatorum , in which seven species from the genus Formica were placed into the genus along with the description of four new species . Myrmecia has been classified into numerous families and subfamilies ; in 1858 British entomologist Frederick Smith placed it in the family Poneridae , subfamily Myrmicidae . It was placed in the subfamily Ponerinae by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862 . This classification was short @-@ lived , as Mayr reclassified the genus into the subfamily Myrmicinae three years later . In 1877 , Italian entomologist Carlo Emery classified the genus into the newly established subfamily Myrmeciidae , family Myrmicidae . Smith , who had originally established Myrmicidae as a family in 1851 , reclassified it as a subfamily in 1858 . He would again treat it as a family in 1871 . Swiss myrmecologist Auguste Forel initially treated Poneridae as a subfamily and classified Myrmecia as one of its constituent genera , but later placed it in Ponerinae . William H. Ashemad placed the genus in the subfamily Myrmeciinae in 1905 , but it was later placed back in Ponerinae in 1910 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler . In 1954 , Myrmecia was placed into Myrmeciinae ; this would be the last time the genus would be placed into a different ant subfamily . In 1911 Emery classified the subgenera Myrmecia , Pristomyrmecia and Promyrmecia , based on the shape of the mandibles . Wheeler established the subgenus Halmamyrmecia , and the ants placed in it were characterised by their jumping behaviour . The taxon Wheeler described was not referred to in his later publications , and the genera Halmamyrmecia and Pristomyrmecia were synonymised by John Clark . At the same time , Clark reclassified the subgenus Promyrmecia as a full genus . He revised the whole subfamily Myrmeciinae in 1951 , recognising 118 species and subspecies in Myrmecia and Promyrmecia ; five species groups were assigned to Myrmecia and eight species groups to Promyrmecia . This revision was rejected by entomologist William Brown due to the lack of morphological evidence that would make the two genera distinct from each other . Due to this , Brown would classify Promyrmecia as a synonym of Myrmecia in 1953 . Clark 's revision was the last major taxonomic study on the genus before 1991 , and only a single species was described in the intervening years . In 2015 , four new Myrmecia ants were described by Robert Taylor , all exclusive to Australia . Currently , 94 species are described in the genus , but as many as 130 species may exist . Under the present classification , Myrmecia is the only extant genus in the tribe Myrmeciini , subfamily Myrmeciinae . It is a member of the family Formicidae , belonging to the order Hymenoptera . The type species for the genus is M. gulosa , discovered by Joseph Banks in 1770 during his expedition with James Cook on the HMS Endeavour . M. gulosa is among the earliest Australian insects to be described , and the specimen Banks collected is housed in the Joseph Banks Collection in the Natural History Museum in London . M. gulosa was described by Fabricius in 1775 under the name Formica gulosa and later designated as the type species of Myrmecia in 1840 . = = = Genetics = = = The number of chromosomes per individual varies from one to over 70 among the species in the genus . The genome of M. pilosula is contained on a single pair of chromosomes ( males have just one chromosome , as they are haploid ) . This is the lowest number possible for any animal , and workers of this species are homologous . Like M. pilosula , M. croslandi also contains a single chromosome . While these ants only have a single chromosome , M. pyriformis contains 41 chromosomes while M. brevinoda contains 42 . The chromosome count for M. piliventris and M. fulvipes is 2 and 12 , respectively . The genus Myrmecia retains many traits that are considered basal for all ants ( i.e. workers foraging alone and relying on visual cues ) . = = = Species groups = = = Myrmecia contains a total of nine species groups . Originally , seven species groups were established in 1911 , but this was raised to 13 in 1951 ; Promyrmecia had a total of eight while Myrmecia only had five . M. maxima does not appear to be in a species group , as no type specimen is available . = = Description = = Myrmecia ants are easily noticeable , due to their large mandibles , and large compound eyes that provide excellent vision , and a powerful sting that they use to kill prey . Each of their eyes contains 3 @,@ 000 facets , making them the second largest in the ant world . Size varies widely , ranging from 8 to 40 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 to 1 @.@ 57 in ) in length . The largest Myrmecia species is M. brevinoda , with workers measuring 37 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) ; M. brevinoda workers are also the largest in the world . Almost all species are monomorphic , but M. brevinoda is the only known species where polymorphism exists . It is well known that two worker sub @-@ castes exist , but this does not distinguish them as two different polymorphic forms . This may be due to the lack of food during winter and the fact they could be incipient colonies . The division of labour is based on the size of ant , rather than its age , with the larger workers foraging for food or keeping guard outside the nest while the smaller workers tend to the brood . Their colouration is variable ; black combined with red and yellow is a common pattern , and many species have golden @-@ coloured pubescence ( hair ) . Many other species are brightly coloured , which warns predators to avoid them . The formicine ant Camponotus bendigensis is similar in appearance to M. fulvipes , and data suggests C. bengdigensis is a batesian mimic of M. fulvipes . The number of malpighian tubules differs between castes ; in M. dispar , males have 16 tubules , queens range from 23 to 26 , and workers have 21 to 29 . Worker ants are usually the same size as each other , although this is not true for some species ; worker ants of M. brevinoda , for example , vary in length from 13 to 37 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 to 1 @.@ 46 in ) . The mandibles of the workers are long with a number of teeth , and the clypeus is short . The antennae consist of 12 segments and the eyes are large and convex . Based on a study on the antennal sensory of M. pyriformis , the antennal sensilla is known to have eight types of sensilla . Large ocelli is always present . Queens are usually larger than the workers , but are similar in colour and body shape . The head , node and postpetiole are broader in the queen , and the mandibles are shorter and also broad . Myrmecia queens are unique in that particular species either have fully winged queens , queens with poorly developed wings , or queens without any wings . For example , M. aberrans and M. esuriens queens are ergatoid , meaning that they are wingless . Completely excavated nests showed no evidence of any winged queen residing within them . Some species have queens which are subapterous , meaning they are either wingless or only have rudiments of wings ; the queens can be well developed with or without these wing buds . M. nigrocincta and M. tarsata are " brachypterous " , where queens have small and rudimentary wings which render the queen flightless . Dealated queens with developed wings and thorax are considered rare . In some species , such as M. brevinoda and M. pilosula , there are three forms of queens , with the dealated queens being the most recognisable . Males are easy to identify due to their perceptibly broad and smaller mandibles . Their antennae consist of 13 segments , and are almost the same length as the ants ' bodies . Ergatandromorph ( an ant that exhibits both male and worker characteristics ) males are known ; in 1985 , a male M. gulosa was collected before it hatched from its cocoon , and it had a long but excessively curved left mandible while the other mandible was small . On the right side of its body , it was structurally male , but the left side appeared female . The head was also longer on the female side , its colour was darker , and the legs and prothorax were smaller on the male side . Male genitalia are retracted into a genital cavity that is located in the posterior end of the gaster . The sperm is structurally the same to other animal sperm , forming an oval head with a long tail . Among the largest larvae examined were those of M. simillima , reaching lengths of 35 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . The pupae are enclosed in dark cocoons . = = Distribution and habitat = = Almost all species in the genus Myrmecia are found in Australia and its coastal islands . M. apicalis is the only species not native to Australia , and is only found in the Isle of Pines , New Caledonia . Only one ant has ever established nests outside its native range ; M. brevinoda was first discovered in New Zealand in 1940 , and the ant was recorded in Devonport in 1948 , 1965 and 1981 , where a single nest was destroyed . Sources suggest the ant was introduced to New Zealand through human activity ; they were found inside a wooden crate brought from Australia . While no eradication attempt was made by the New Zealand government , the ant has not been found in the country since 1981 and is presumed to have been eradicated . Ants of this genus prefer to inhabit grasslands , forests , heath , urban areas and woodland . Nests are found in Callitris forest , dry marri forest , Eucalyptus woodland and forests , mallee scrub , in paddocks , riparian woodland , and wet and dry sclerophyll forests . They also live in dry sandplains , and coastal plain . When a queen establishes a new colony , the nest is at first quite simple structurally . The nest gradually expands as the colony grows larger . Nests can be found in debris , decaying tree stumps , rotten logs , rocks , sand , and soil , and under stones . While most species nest underground , M. mjobergi is an arboreal nesting species found on epiphytic ferns of the genus Platycerium . Two types of nests have been described for this genus : a simple nest with a noticeable shaft inside , and a complex structure surrounded by a mound . Some species construct dome @-@ shaped mounds containing a single entrance , but some nests have numerous holes that are constantly used and can extend several metres underground . Sometimes , these mounds can be half of a metre ( 20 in ) high . Workers decorate these nests with a variety of items , including charcoal , leaves , plant fragments , pebbles and twigs . Some ants utilise the warmth by decorating their nests with dry materials that heat quickly , providing the nest with solar energy traps . = = Behaviour and ecology = = = = = Foraging = = = The genus Myrmecia is among the most primitive of all known living ants , and ants of the genus are considered specialist predators . Unlike most ants , workers are solitary hunters , and do not lay pheromone trails ; nor do they recruit others to food . Tandem running does not occur , and workers carrying other workers as a method of transportation is rare or awkwardly executed . Although Myrmecia is not known to lay pheromone trails to food , M. gulosa is capable of inducing territorial alarm using pheromones while M. pilosula can attack en masse , suggesting these ants can also induce alarm pheromones . M. gulosa induces territorial alarm behaviour using pheromones from three sources ; an alerting substance from the rectal sac , a pheromone found in the Dufour 's gland , and an attack pheromone from the mandibular gland . Despite Myrmecia ants being among the most primitive ants , they exhibit some behaviours considered " advanced " ; adults will sometimes groom each other and the brood , and distinct nest odors exist for each colony . Most species are diurnal , and forage on the ground or onto low vegetation in search of food , but a few are nocturnal and only forage at night . Most Myrmecia ants are active during the warmer months , and are dormant during winter . However , M. pyriformis is a nocturnal species that is active throughout the whole year . M. pyriformis also has a unique foraging schedule ; 65 % of individuals who went out to forage left the nest in 40 – 60 minutes , while 60 % of workers would return to the nest in the same duration of time at dusk . Foraging workers rely on landmarks for navigation back home . If displaced a short distance , they will scan their surroundings , and then rapidly move in the direction of the nest . M. vindex ants carry dead nest @-@ mates out of their nests and place them on refuse piles , a behaviour known as necrophoresis . = = = Pollination = = = While pollination by ants is somewhat rare , several Myrmecia species have been observed pollinating flowers . For example , the orchid Leporella fimbriata is a myrmecophyte which can only be pollinated by the winged male ant M. urens . Pollination of this orchid usually occurs between April and June during warm afternoons , and may take several days until the short @-@ lived males all die . The flower mimics M. urens queens , and so the males move from flower to flower in an attempt to copulate with it . M. nigrocincta workers have been recorded visiting flowers of Eucalyptus regnans and Senna acclinis , and are considered a potential pollination vector for E. regnans trees . Although Senna acclinis is self @-@ compatible , the inability of M. nigrocincta to appropriately release pollen would restrict its capacity to effect pollination . Foraging M. pilosula workers are regularly observed on the inflorescences of Prasophyllum alpinum ( mostly pollinated by wasps of the family Ichneumonidae ) . Although pollinia are often seen in the ants ' jaw , they have a habit of cleaning their mandibles on the leaves and stems of nectar @-@ rich plants before moving on , preventing pollen exchange . It is unknown whether M. pilosula contributes to pollination . = = = Diet = = = Despite their ferocity , adults are nectarivores , consuming honeydew ( a sweet , sticky liquid found on leaves , deposited from various insects ) , nectar , and other sweet substances . The larvae , however , are carnivorous . After they reach a certain size , they are fed insects that foragers capture and kill . The workers also regurgitate food for other ants to consume . Young ants are rarely fed food regurgitated by adults . Adult workers prey on a variety of insects and arthropods , such as beetles , caterpillars , earwigs , Ithone fusca moths , Perga saw flies , and spiders . Other prey include invertebrates such as bees , cockroaches , crickets , wasps and other ants ; in particular , workers prey on Orthocrema ants ( a subgenus of Crematogaster ) and Camponotus , although this is risky since these ants are able to call for help through chemical signals . Slaters , earthworms , scale insects , frogs , lizards , grass seeds , possum feces and kangaroo feces are also collected as food . Flies such as the housefly and blowfly are consumed . Some species , such as M. pilosula , will only attack small fly species and ignore larger ones . Nests of the social spider Delena cancerides are often invaded by M. pyriformis ants , and nests once housing these spiders are filled with debris such as twigs and leaves by the workers , rendering them useless . These " scorched earth " tactics prevent the spiders competing with the ants . M. gulosa attacks Christmas beetles , but workers later bury them . Myrmecia is one of the very few genera where the workers lay trophic eggs , or infertile eggs laid as food for viable offspring . Workers laying trophic eggs have only been reported in two species ; these species are M. forceps and M. gulosa . Depending on the species , colonies specialise in trophallaxis ; queens and larvae eat eggs that are laid by worker individuals , but the workers do not feed on eggs . Neither adults nor larvae consume food during winter , but cannibalism among larvae is known to occur throughout the year . The larvae only cannibalise each other ; this is most likely to happen when no dead insects are available . = = = Predators , parasites and associations = = = Myrmecia ants deter many potential predators due to their sting . The blindsnake Ramphotyphlops nigrescens consumes the larvae and pupae of Myrmecia , while avoiding the potent sting of the adults , which it is vulnerable to . The short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) also eats the eggs and larvae . Nymphs of the assassin bug species Ptilocnemus lemur lure these ants to themselves by trying to make the ant sting them , by waving its hind legs around to attract a potential prey item . Body remains of Myrmecia have been found in the stomach contents of the eastern yellow robin ( Eopsaltria australis ) . The Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) , the black currawong ( Strepera versicolor ) , and the white @-@ winged chough ( Corcorax melanorhamphos ) prey on these ants , but few are successfully taken . The host association between Myrmecia and eucharitid wasps began several million years ago ; M. forficata larvae are the host to Austeucharis myrmeciae , being the first recorded eucharitid parasitoid of an ant , and Austeucharis fasciiventris is a parasitoid to M. gulosa pupae . M. pilosula is affected by a gregarines parasite that changes an ants colour from their typical black appearance to brown . This was discovered when brown workers were dissected and found to have gregarinasina spores , while black workers showed no spores . Another unidentified gregarine parasite is known to infect the larvae of M. pilosula and other Myrmecia species . This gregarine parasite also softens the ant 's cuticle . Other parasites include Beauveria bassiana , Paecilomyces lilacinus , Chalcura affinis , Tricoryna wasps , and various mermithid nematodes . M. hirsuta and M. inquilina are the only known species in this genus that are inquilines and live in other Myrmecia colonies . An M. inquilina queen has been found in an M. vindex colony . Myrmecia is a larval attendant to the butterfly Theclinesthes serpentata ( saltbush blue ) , while some species , particularly M. nigrocincta , enslave other ant species , notably those in the genus Leptomyrmex . M. nigriceps ants are able to enter another colony of the same species without being attacked , as they may be unable to recognize alien conspecifics , nor do they try to distinguish nestmates from ants of another colony . Formicoxenus provancheri and M. brevinoda share a form of symbiotic relationship known as xenobiosis , where one species of ant will live with another and raise their young separately , with M. brevinoda being the host . Solenopsis may sometimes nest in Myrmecia colonies , as a single colony was found to have three or four Solenopsis nests inside . Lagria beetles and rove beetles in the genus Heterothops dwell inside colonies and skinks and frogs have also been found living unmolested within Myrmecia nests . Metacrinia nichollsi , for example , has been reported living inside M. regularis colonies . = = = Life cycle = = = Like other ants , Myrmecia ants begin as an egg . If the egg is fertilised , the ant becomes a diploid female ; if not , it becomes a haploid male . They develop through complete metamorphosis , meaning that they pass through larval and pupal stages before emerging as adults . During the process of founding a colony , as many as three to four queens cooperate with each other to find a suitable nesting ground , but after the first generation of workers are born , they fight each other until one queen is left alive . However , occasional colonies are known to have as many as six queens coexisting peacefully in the presence of workers . A queen searches for a suitable nest site to establish her colony , and excavate a small chamber in the soil or under logs and rocks , where she takes care of her young . A queen also hunts for prey instead of staying in her nest , a behaviour known as claustral colony founding . Although queens do provide sufficient amounts of food to feed their larvae , the first generation of workers are " nanitics " ( or minims ) ; smaller than the smallest workers encountered in older developed colonies . Several species do not have any worker caste , and solitary queens will raid a colony , kill the residing queen , and take over the colony . The first generation of workers may take awhile to fully develop into adults ; for example , M. forficata eggs take around three to four months ( 100 days or more ) to fully develop , while other species may take up to eight months . Queens lay around eight eggs , but less than half of these eggs fully develop . Some species , such as M. simillima and M. gulosa lay their eggs singly on the colony floor , while M. pilosula ants may lay eggs in a clump . These clumps have around two to 30 eggs each with no larvae present . With this said , certain Myrmecia species do not lay their eggs singly and will form clumps of eggs instead . The larvae are capable of crawling short distances without the assistance from adult workers , and workers will cover the larvae in dirt to help them spin into a cocoon . If cocoons are isolated from a colony , they are capable of shedding their skin before hatching , allowing themselves to advance to full pigmentation . Sometimes , a newborn can emerge from their pupa without the assistance of other ants . Once these ants are born , they are able to identify distinct tasks , a well known primitive trait . Myrmecia life spans vary in each species , but their longevity is greater than many ant genera : M. nigrocincta and M. pilosula have a life span of one year , while M. nigriceps workers can live up to 2 @.@ 2 years . The oldest recorded worker was a M. vindex , living up to 2 @.@ 6 years . If a colony is deprived of workers , queens are able to revert to colony @-@ founding behaviours until there is a sustainable workforce . A colony may also emigrate to a new nesting spot altogether . = = = Reproduction = = = Virgin queens and males appear in colonies during January , before their nuptial flight . 20 females or fewer are found in a single colony , while males are much more common . The nuptial flight begins at different times for each species ; they have been recorded in mid @-@ summer to autumn ( January to early April ) , but there is one case of a nuptial flight occurring from May to July . Ideal conditions for nuptial flight are hot stormy days with windspeeds of 30 km / h ( 18 mi / h ) and temperatures reaching 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , and elevations of 91 metres ( 300 ft ) . Nuptial flights are rarely recorded due to queens leaving their nest singly , although as many as four queens may leave the nest at the same time . Species are both polygynous and polyandrous , with queens mating with one to ten males . Polygynous and polyandrous societies can occur in a single nest , but particular species are either primarily polygynous or primarily polyandrous . For example , nearly 80 % of tested M. pilosula colonies are polygynous while M. pyriformis colonies are mostly polyandrous . Nuptial flight takes place during the morning and can last until late afternoon . When the alates leave the nest , most species launch themselves into the air from trees and shrubs , although others launch themselves off the ground . Queens discharge a glandular secretion from the tergal gland , which males are strongly attracted to . As many as 1 @,@ 000 alates will gather to mate . A queen was once found to have five or six males attempting to copulate with her . The queen is unable to bear the weight of the large number of males trying to mate with her , and will drop to the ground , with the ants dispersing later on . M. pulchra queens are ergatoid and cannot fly ; the males meet the queen out in an open area away from the nest and mate , and these queens do not return to their nest after mating . Both independent and dependent colony foundation can occur after mating . Isolation by distance ( IBD ) patterns have been recorded with M. pilosula queens , where nests that tend to be closer together were more genetically related to each other in comparison to other nests further away . Independent colony foundation is closely associated with queens which engage in nuptial flight in areas far from their home colony , showing that dependent colony foundation mostly occurs if they mate near their nest . In some cases , queens could seek adoption into alien colonies if there are no suitable areas to find a nest or independent colony foundation cannot be carried out . Other queens could try and return to their home nest after nuptial flight , but they may end up in another nest near the nest they originally came from . In multiple @-@ queen societies , the egg @-@ laying queens are generally unrelated to one another , but one study showed that it is possible for multiple queens in the same colony to be genetically related to each other . Depending on the species , the number of individuals present in a colony can range from 50 to over 2 @,@ 200 individuals . A colony with less than 100 workers is not considered a mature colony . M. dispar colonies have around 15 to 329 ants , M. nigrocincta have over 1 @,@ 000 , M. pyriformis have from 200 to over 1 @,@ 400 and M. gulosa have nearly 1 @,@ 600 . A colony can last for a number of years . Foraging behavior among smaller workers which never usually leave the nest can be a sign of a colony 's impending demise . Workers are known to produce their own eggs , but these eggs are unfertilised and hatch into male ants . There is a chance of workers attacking a particular individual who has successfully produced male offspring due to a change in a workers cuticular hydrocarbon ; cuticular hydrocarbons are believed to play a vital role in the regulation of reproduction . However , this is not always the case . Myrmecia is one of several ant genera which possess gamergate workers , where a female worker is able to reproduce with mature males when the colony is lacking a queen . Myrmecia workers are highly fertile and can successfully mate with males . A colony of M. pyriformis without a queen was collected in 1998 and kept in captivity , during which time the gamergates produced viable workers for three years . Ovarian dissections showed that three workers of this colony mated with males and produced female workers . Queens have bigger ovaries than the workers , with 44 ovarioles while workers have 8 to 14 . Spermatheca is present in M. gulosa workers , based on eight dissected individuals showing a spermatheca structurally similar to those found in queens . These spermathecas did not have any sperm . Why the queen was not replaced is still unknown . = = = Vision = = = While most ants have poor eyesight , Myrmecia ants have excellent vision . This trait is important to them , since Myrmecia primarily relies on visual cues for navigation . These ants are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away . Winged alates are only active during the day , as they can see better . Members of a colony have different eye structures due to each individual fulfilling different tasks , and nocturnal species have larger ommatidia in comparison to those that are active during the day . Facet lenses also vary in size ; for example , the diurnal species M. croslandi has a smaller lens in comparison to M. nigriceps and M. pyriformis which have larger lenses . Myrmecia ants have three photoreceptors that can see UV light , meaning they are capable of seeing colours that humans cannot . Their vision is said to be better than some mammals , such as cats , dogs or wallabies . Despite their excellent vision , worker ants of this genus find it difficult to find their nests at night , due to the difficulty of finding the landmarks they use to navigate . They are thus more likely to return to their nests the following morning , walking slowly with long pauses . = = = Sting = = = Myrmecia workers and queens possess a sting , which can be fatal to sensitive human beings . The sting has been described as " sharp in pain with no burning " , and the pain may last for several minutes . In the Starr sting pain scale , a scale which compares the overall pain of hymenopteran stings on a four @-@ point scale , Myrmecia stings were ranked from 2 – 3 in pain , described as " painful " or " sharply and seriously painful " . Unlike in honeybees , the sting lacks barbs , and so the stinger is not left in the area the ant has stung , allowing the ants to sting repeatedly without any harm to themselves . The retractable sting is located in their abdomen , attached to a single venom gland connected by the venom sac , which is where the venom is accumulated . Exocrine glands are known in some species , which produce the venom compounds later used to inject into their victims . Examined workers of larger species have long and very potent stingers , with some stings measuring 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) . = = Interaction with humans = = Myrmecia is one of the best @-@ known genera of ants . Myrmecia ants usually display defensive behavior only around their nests , and are more timid while foraging . However , most species are extremely aggressive towards intruders ; a few , such as M. tarsata , are timid , and the workers retreat into their nest instead of pursuing the intruder . If a nest is disturbed , a large force of workers rapidly swarm out of their nest to attack and kill the intruder . Some species , particularly those of the M. nigrocincta and M. pilosula species groups , are capable of jumping several inches when they are agitated after their nest has been disturbed ; jumper ants propel their jumps by a sudden extension of its middle and hind legs . M. pyriformis is considered the most dangerous ant in the world by the Guinness World Records . M. inquilina is the only species of this genus that is considered vulnerable by the IUCN , although the conservation status needs updating . Fatalities associated with Myrmecia stings are well known , and have been attested to by multiple sources . In 1931 two adults and an infant girl from New South Wales died from ant stings , possibly from M. pilosula or M. pyriformis . Another fatality was reported in 1963 in Tasmania . Between 1980 and 2000 , there were six recorded deaths , five in Tasmania and one in New South Wales . Four of these deaths were due to M. pilosula , while the remaining two died from a M. pyriformis sting . Half of the victims had known ant @-@ sting allergies , but only one of the victims was carrying adrenaline before being stung . Most victims died within 20 minutes of being stung , but one of the victims died in just five minutes from a M. pyriformis sting . No death has been officially recorded since 2003 , but M. pilosula may have been responsible for the death of a man from Bunbury in 2011 . Prior to the establishment of a desensitisation program , Myrmecia stings caused one fatality every four years . = = = Venom = = = Each Myrmecia species has different venom components , so people who are allergic to ants are advised to stay away from Myrmecia , especially from species they have never encountered before . Based on five species , the median lethal dose ( LD50 ) is 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 35 mg / kg , making it among the most toxic venoms in the insect world . The toxicity of the venom may have evolved due to the intense predation by animals and birds during the day , since Myrmecia is primarily diurnal . In Tasmania , 2 – 3 % of the human population is allergic to M. pilosula venom . In comparison , only 1 @.@ 6 % people are allergic to the venom of the western honeybee ( Apis mellifera ) , and 0 @.@ 6 % to the venom of the European wasp ( Vespula germanica ) . In a 2011 Australian ant @-@ venom allergy study , the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis , it was shown that 265 of the 376 participants taking part of the study reacted to the sting of several Myrmecia species . Of these , the majority of patients ( 176 ) reacted to M. pilosula venom and to that of several other species . In Perth , M. gratiosa was responsible for most cases of anaphylaxis due to ant stings , while M nigriscapa and M. ludlowi were responsible for two cases . The green @-@ head ant ( Rhytidoponera metallica ) was the only ant other than Myrmecia species to cause anaphylaxis in patients . Dogs are also at risk of death from Myrmecia ants ; renal failure has been recorded in dogs experiencing mass envenomation , and one dog was euthanised due to its deteriorating health despite treatment . Sensitivity is persistent for many years . Pilosulin 3 has been identified as a major allergen in M. pilosula venom , while pilosulin 1 and pilosulin 4 are minor allergens . = = = Sting treatment = = = The nature of treatment for a Myrmecia sting depends on the severity of the reaction . If there are no signs of an allergic reaction , an ice pack or commercially available spray are used to relieve the pain . Washing the stung area , stingose , or the use of antihistamine tablets are other methods to reduce the pain . Indigenous Australians use bush remedies to treat Myrmecia stings , such as rubbing the tips of bracken ferns onto the stung area . Carpobrotus glaucescens is also used to treat stung areas , using juices that are squeezed and rubbed onto the area , which quickly relieves the pain from the sting . Emergency treatment is only needed if a person is showing signs of a severe allergic reaction . Prior to calling for help , it is suggested that a person should be laid down , and their legs elevated . An EpiPen or an Anapen is given to people at risk of anaphylaxis , to use in case they are stung . If someone experiences anaphylactic shock , adrenaline and intravenous infusions are required , and those who suffer cardiac arrest require resuscitation . Desensitisation ( also called allergy immunotherapy ) is offered to those who are susceptible to M. pilosula stings , and the program has shown effectiveness in preventing anaphylaxis . However , the standardisation of M. pilosula venom is not validated , and the program is poorly funded . The Royal Hobart Hospital and the Royal Adelaide Hospital are the only known hospitals to run desensitisation programs . During immunotherapy , patients are given an injection of venom under the skin . The first dose is small , but dosage gradually increases . This sort of immunotherapy is designed to change how the immune system reacts to increased doses of venom entering the body . Before venom immunotherapy , whole body extract immunotherapy was widely used due to its apparent effectiveness , and it was the only immunotherapy used for ant stings . However , fatal failures were reported and this led to scientists to research for alternative methods of desensitisation . Before 1986 allergic reactions were not recorded and there was no study on Myrmecia sting venom ; whole body extracts were later used on patients during the 1990s , but this was found to be ineffective and was subsequently withdrawn . In 2003 , ant venom immunotherapy was shown to be safe and effective against Myrmecia venom . = = = Prevention = = = Myrmecia ants are frequently encountered by humans , so avoiding them is difficult . Wearing closed footwear such as boots and shoes can reduce the risk of getting stung ; these ants are capable of stinging through fabric , however . There is also a risk of being stung while gardening ; most cases of stings occur when someone is gardening and is unaware of the ants ' presence . Eliminating nearby nests or moving to areas with low Myrmecia populations significantly decrease the chances of getting stung . = = = In human culture = = = Due to their large mandibles , Myrmecia ants have been used as surgical sutures to close wounds . The ant is featured on a postage stamp and on an uncirculated coin which are part of the Things That Sting issue by Australia Post , and M. gulosa is the emblem for the Australian Entomological Society . Myrmecia famously appears in the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer 's major work , The World as Will and Representation , as a paradigmatic example of strife and constant destruction endemic to the " will to live " . But the bulldog @-@ ant of Australia affords us the most extraordinary example of this kind ; for if it is cut in two , a battle begins between the head and the tail . The head seizes the tail in its teeth , and the tail defends itself bravely by stinging the head : the battle may last for half an hour , until they die or are dragged away by other ants . This contest takes place every time the experiment is tried . " Notable Australian poet Diane Fahey wrote a poem about Myrmecia , which is based on Schopenhauer 's description , and a music piece written by German composer Karola Obermüller was named after the ant .
= Mike Scully = Michael " Mike " Scully ( born October 2 , 1956 ) is an American television writer and producer . He is known for his work as executive producer and showrunner of the animated sitcom The Simpsons from 1997 to 2001 . Scully grew up in West Springfield , Massachusetts and long had an interest in writing . He was an underachiever at school and dropped out of college , going on to work in a series of jobs . Eventually , in 1986 , he moved to Los Angeles where he worked as a stand @-@ up comic and wrote for Yakov Smirnoff . Scully went on to write for several television sitcoms before 1993 , when he was hired to write for The Simpsons . There , he wrote twelve episodes , including " Lisa on Ice " and " Team Homer " , and served as showrunner from seasons 9 to 12 . Scully won three Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on the series , with many publications praising his episodes , but others criticizing his tenure as a period of decline in the show 's quality . Scully still works on the show and also co @-@ wrote 2007 's The Simpsons Movie . More recently , Scully co @-@ created The Pitts and Complete Savages as well as working on Everybody Loves Raymond and Parks and Recreation . He co @-@ developed the short @-@ lived animated television version of Napoleon Dynamite . Scully is married to fellow writer Julie Thacker . = = Early life = = Scully was born October 2 , 1956 at Springfield Hospital in Springfield , Massachusetts and grew up in the Merrick section of West Springfield . His father , Richard , was a salesman and owned a dry cleaning business , his mother Geraldine worked for the Baystate Medical Center once Scully and his brothers were old enough to be left at home alone . Scully is of Irish ancestry . As a child he " hoped to be a musician or a hockey player . " At Main Street Elementary School , with the encouragement of his teacher James Doyle , he developed an interest in writing , serving as editor for his school newspaper . He graduated from West Springfield High School in 1974 , having been voted " Most Likely Not to Live Up to Potential " by his classmates , and dropped out of Holyoke Community College after one day , undecided about what he wanted to do with his life . He took up work in the clothing department at Steiger 's department store , as a janitor at the Baystate Medical Center and also as a driving instructor . He commented : " I think if I had actually succeeded at college and gotten a degree in accounting or something , I might have given up too quickly on writing . Having no marketable job skills was a tremendous incentive to keep trying to succeed as a writer . " He realized " there probably wasn 't going to be a career in riding around with my friends listening to Foghat , " so Scully decided he " definitely wanted to break into comedy " even though he " really had no reason to believe [ he ] could succeed . " Regardless , he moved to Los Angeles , California in 1982 . = = Career = = = = = Early career = = = In California , Scully worked in a tuxedo store . He also got a job writing jokes for comedian Yakov Smirnoff and developed his joke writing skills by performing himself at amateur stand @-@ up comedy nights . He purchased scripts from a variety of half @-@ hour comedy shows , including Taxi , to train himself to write them and had numerous speculative scripts rejected . He started " bouncing around Hollywood working on some of the lousiest sitcoms in history . " He served on the writing staff of The Royal Family , Out of This World , Top of the Heap and What a Country ! , where he did audience warm @-@ up , a role he also performed on Grand . = = = The Simpsons = = = In 1993 , David Mirkin hired Scully to write for The Simpsons , as a replacement for the departing Conan O 'Brien , after reading some of his sample scripts . He began as a writer and producer for the show during its fifth season and wrote the episodes " Lisa 's Rival " , " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " and " Lisa on Ice " which aired in season six . " Lisa 's Rival " was his first episode ; he wrote the script , but the original concept had been conceived by O 'Brien . Similarly , he wrote the script for " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " , which was based on an idea by Al Jean and Mike Reiss . " Lisa on Ice " was inspired by Scully 's love of ice hockey and featured many experiences from his childhood , as was " Marge Be Not Proud " ( which he wrote for season seven ) which was based " one of the most traumatic moments " of his life , when he was caught shoplifting aged twelve . He jokingly told Variety that " It 's great to be paid for reliving the horrors of your life . " He also wrote " Team Homer " and " Lisa 's Date with Density " . Scully noted : " I wrote a lot of Lisa 's shows . I have five daughters , so I like Lisa a lot . I like Homer , too . Homer comes very naturally to me : I don 't know if that 's a good or a bad thing . A lot of my favorite episodes are the ones when Homer and Lisa are in conflict with each other ... They 're very human , I think that 's their appeal . " Scully became showrunner of The Simpsons in 1997 , during its ninth season . As showrunner and executive producer , Scully said his aim was to " not wreck the show " , and he headed up the writing staff and oversaw all aspects of the show 's production . During his time as showrunner he was credited with writing or co @-@ writing five episodes : " Treehouse of Horror VIII " ( " The HΩmega Man " segment ) , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " , " Beyond Blunderdome " , " Behind the Laughter " and " The Parent Rap " . Scully was popular with the staff members , many of whom praised his organization and management skills . Writer Tom Martin said he was " quite possibly the best boss I 've ever worked for " and " a great manager of people " while Don Payne commented that for Scully " it was really important that we kept decent hours " . Scully served as showrunner until 2001 , during season 12 , making him the first person to run the show for more than two seasons . He returned in season 14 to write and executive produce the episode " How I Spent My Strummer Vacation " , and co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced The Simpsons Movie in 2007 . Scully 's tenure as showrunner of The Simpsons has been the subject of praise from some of the show 's fans . John Ortved wrote " Scully 's episodes excel when compared to what The Simpsons airs nowadays , but he was the man at the helm when the ship turned towards the iceberg . " The BBC noted " the common consensus is that The Simpsons ' golden era ended after season nine " , while an op @-@ ed in Slate by Chris Suellentrop argued The Simpsons changed from a realistic show about family life into a typical cartoon during Scully 's years : " Under Scully 's tenure , The Simpsons became , well , a cartoon ... [ E ] pisodes that once would have ended with Homer and Marge bicycling into the sunset ( perhaps while Bart gagged in the background ) now end with Homer blowing a tranquilizer dart into Marge 's neck . " The Simpsons under Scully has been negatively labelled as a " gag @-@ heavy , Homer @-@ centric incarnation " by Jon Bonné of MSNBC , while some fans have bemoaned the transformation in Homer 's character during the era , from sweet and sincere to " a boorish , self @-@ aggrandizing oaf " , dubbing him " Jerkass Homer " . Despite this , much of Scully 's work on the show also received critical praise . Scully won five Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on The Simpsons , while Entertainment Weekly cited " How I Spent My Strummer Vacation " as the show 's 22nd best episode . Robert Canning of IGN also gave the episode a positive review , something he also did for " Behind the Laughter " and " Trilogy of Error " , which aired during season 12 . He called the latter : " one extremely enjoyable misadventure . The Simpsons may have peaked in the ' 90s , but that doesn 't mean the eight years since haven 't delivered their share of quality episodes . This was one of them . " Martin said that he does not understand the criticism against Scully , and that he thinks the criticism " bothered [ him ] , and still bothers him , but he managed to not get worked up over it . " Ortved noted in his book that blaming a single show runner for what some perceive as the lowering quality of the show " is unfair . " When asked in 2007 how the series ' longevity is sustained , Scully joked , " Lower your quality standards . Once you 've done that you can go on forever . " = = = Further career = = = Scully was a writer and co @-@ executive producer on Everybody Loves Raymond for part of season seven and all of season eight , winning an Emmy for his work . Scully co @-@ created ( with wife Julie Thacker ) The Pitts for Fox and Complete Savages for ABC , which was produced by Mel Gibson . The Pitts was a sitcom about a family suffering from bad luck . Thacker stated the show was designed " as a companion piece for The Simpsons . It had a very cartoony feel to it . We always knew the initial audience for the show would be 12 @-@ year @-@ olds to start , and then when families saw that the writing was very Simpsons - like , because many of the writers were from The Simpsons , [ we thought ] families would start to watch it together . " It was canceled after six episodes ; Scully and Thacker laid the blame for this on the show 's timeslot , 9 : 30 P.M. , which was too late for the target audience . Complete Savages , which Thacker and Scully wrote with the " Simpsons sensibility " of layered jokes , was canceled in January 2005 due to low ratings and network anger at Scully and Thacker 's decision to write to TV critics in what the Hartford Courant labelled " unsanctioned promoting " . A fan of NRBQ , Scully produced , with Thacker , a documentary about the band in 2003 entitled NRBQ : Rock ' n ' Roll 's Best Kept Secret ; Scully employed the group as the " unofficial house band " of The Simpsons during his tenure as showrunner . Scully also created a pilot for Fox called Schimmel in 2000 , starring Robert Schimmel , which was dropped after Schimmel was diagnosed with cancer . Scully served as a consulting producer on the NBC series Parks and Recreation , and wrote the episodes " Ron and Tammy " in 2009 , and " The Possum " in 2010 . Scully also had a cameo role in the episode " Eagleton " as a speaker at the Pawnee community meeting . In 2012 , Scully co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote an animated TV version of the film Napoleon Dynamite , which was canceled after six episodes . That May , Scully signed a seven @-@ figure , multi @-@ year overall deal with 20th Century Fox Television to develop several projects . He served as co @-@ executive producer on the single @-@ season NBC sitcom The New Normal ( 2012 – 2013 ) , alongside Allison Adler and Ryan Murphy . Scully held the same title for Fox 's Dads ( which debuted in 2013 ) . = = Personal life = = He is married to writer Julie Thacker ; the couple has five daughters . His brother Brian Scully is also a comedy writer and he has a second brother called Neil , who is an ice hockey writer . His mother died in 1985 . Scully was awarded an honorary doctorate in fine arts from Westfield State University in 2008 . He walked the picket line during the 2007 – 2008 WGA strike while on crutches . Scully received a lifetime achievement award by the WGA West in 2010 . = = Credits = = Episodes listed are those Scully has been credited as writing or co @-@ writing What a Country ! ( 1986 – 1987 ) – writer Out of This World ( 1987 – 1991 ) – supervising producer , writer " Baby Talk " " Mosquito Man : The Motion Picture " " Blast from the Past " " Old Flame " " Evie 's Two Dads " " Evie Goes to Hollywood " " Whose House Is It , Anyway ? " " Evie 's Driver 's License " " The Rocks That Couldn 't Roll " " My Mother the Con " " Goodbye , Mr. Chris " " New Kid on the Block " " Come Fly with Evie " " Would You Buy a Used Car from This Dude ? " " Mayor Evie " Grand – writer " Lady Luck " Top of the Heap ( 1991 ) – writer " The Agony and the Agony " " The Marrying Guy " The Royal Family ( 1992 ) – writer " Cocoa in Charge " The Simpsons ( 1993 – present ) – writer , producer , executive producer , showrunner , consulting producer " Lisa 's Rival " " Lisa on Ice " " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " " Marge Be Not Proud " " Team Homer " " Lisa 's Date with Density " " Treehouse of Horror VIII " ( " The HΩmega Man " ) " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " ( with Tom Martin , George Meyer and Brian Scully ) " Beyond Blunderdome " " Behind the Laughter " ( with Tim Long , George Meyer and Matt Selman ) " The Parent Rap " ( with George Meyer ) " How I Spent My Strummer Vacation " The Preston Episodes ( 1995 ) – writer " The Halloween Episode " ( with Julie Thacker ) Schimmel ( 2000 ) – creator , producer The Pitts ( 2003 ) – creator , executive producer , writer Everybody Loves Raymond ( 2003 – 2004 ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer " Fun with Debra " " Party Dress " " Blabbermouths " " Angry Sex " Complete Savages ( 2004 – 2005 ) – creator , executive producer , writer " Pilot " " Free Lily " " Thanksgiving with the Savages " " Saving Old Lady Riley " The Simpsons Movie ( 2007 ) – producer and writer Parks and Recreation ( 2009 – 2012 ) – consulting producer and writer " Ron and Tammy " " The Possum " " The Comeback Kid " Napoleon Dynamite ( 2012 ) – co @-@ developer , producer , writer " FFA " The New Normal ( 2012 – 2013 ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer " The Godparent Trap " " Dog Children " 70th Golden Globe Awards ( 2013 ) – special material Dads ( 2013- ) – co @-@ executive producer
= Boyle Roche = Sir Boyle Roche , 1st Baronet ( October 1736 – 5 June 1807 ) was an Irish politician . After a distinguished career in North America with the British Army , Roche became a member of the Irish House of Commons in 1775 , generally acting in support of the viceregal government . He is better remembered for the language of his speeches than his politics — they were riddled with mixed metaphors ( " Mr Speaker , I smell a rat ; I see him forming in the air and darkening the sky ; but I 'll nip him in the bud " ) , malapropisms and other unfortunate turns of phrase ( " Why we should put ourselves out of our way to do anything for posterity , for what has posterity ever done for us ? " ) . Roche may have been Richard Brinsley Sheridan 's model for Mrs Malaprop . While arguing for a bill , Roche once said , " It would surely be better , Mr. Speaker , to give up not only a part , but , if necessary , even the whole , of our constitution , to preserve the remainder ! " While these Irish bulls have led many writers to portray Roche as a buffoon , other biographers have interpreted them not as blunders , but as calculated attempts to disarm opposition to ministerial policies through humour . Roche ended his political career with the passage of the Act of Union 1800 , which he supported . He chose not to attempt to enter the British House of Commons and retired on a government pension until his death , married but childless , in 1807 . = = Life = = = = = Early life , family background and military service = = = Boyle Roche was born , the youngest of three sons , to Jordan Roche and Ellen White in County Galway in 1736 . His was an old and respectable Protestant family , said to be a junior branch of the ancient baronial house of Roche , Viscount Fermoy from which Diana , Princess of Wales , descended . The family were also no strangers to politics : Roche 's great @-@ grandfather had been elected mayor of Limerick four times . Roche 's older brother was Tiger Roche , a celebrated duellist and adventurer . Boyle Roche entered the army at an early age , and served in the so @-@ called American war ( that is , the American portion of the Seven Years ' War ) . There are reports of a Lieutenant Boyle Roche in Rogers ' Rangers who was captured by the French during The Battle on Snowshoes ( near what is now Lake George , New York in March 1758 ) and later returned to his regiment . It is possible that Roche served with Wolfe at the Siege of Quebec in 1759 ; it is a certainty that he distinguished himself in 1762 during the capture of El Morro in Havana . By 1770 he had become a major in the 28th Foot . He was knighted for his bravery at El Morro in 1776 . Retiring from the army , he obtained an office in the Irish revenue department in 1775 . In the same year , Boyle Roche entered the Irish House of Commons as Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Tralee , a seat he held until 1776 . Although he was one of the first volunteers to fight the rebellious colonials in 1776 , his contribution to that conflict was mainly in the area of recruitment — he successfully enlisted 500 volunteers in one weekend in Limerick alone , a feat which so gratified Lord Kenmare that he paid Roche an additional bounty of half a guinea per man . Roche 's flamboyant recruiting methods were described by the Edinburgh Advertiser as follows : Yesterday Major BOYLE Roche , representative in parliament for Tralee ( who is raising a body of men for his Majesty 's service ) began recruiting here , and met with great success , which is not surprising , if we consider his connexions , and the uncommon support he has received from the noblemen and gentlemen of this province . His method of enlisting was as uncommon as it was pleasing to those who viewed the procession , which was as follows : Major Roche , bearing a large purse of gold . Captain Cowley . A great number of likely recruits . An elegant band of music , consisting of French horns , hautboys [ oboes ] , clarionets , and bassoons , playing God Save the King . A large brewer 's dray , with five @-@ barrels of beer , the horse richly caparisoned and ornamented with ribbands . Two draymen with cockades to serve the beer , The recruiting serjeant . Drums [ and ] fifes . Another division of recruits . The returning soldiers . Prodigious concourse of [ spectators ? ] . The following speech was made by Major Roche to the populace : Being appointed , through the favour of [ our ] most excellent governor , to raise a body of men for the service of his Majesty , I think it [ a ] most happy circumstance of my life to be the instrument of leading you to honour and renown . The laurels fought for and obtained in all parts [ of ] the globe [ through ] war , have procured us a fame so glorious as not to be equalled by people in any fame not to be sullied by the assaults of prejudice , nor the effects of time : not an action in which we were not victorious , not a siege in which we were not honoured . Will you , my dear countrymen , permit those laurels to fade , or those actions to be forgotten ? No , forbid it , heaven ! Let us now that we have it in our power convey to later posterity a renewal of our fidelity , and a confirmation of our loyalty . A more critical period never presented itself , nor had we ever a fairer opportunity of shewing our attachment to the illustrious house of Hanover , than the present , as his Majesty 's deluded subjects in America are in open rebellion , and like unnatural children , wound their ever indulgent parent , forgetting the torrents of blood spilt , and heap of treasure expended for their preservation . His Sacred Majesty now calls and our fidelity obliges us , and I hope your instinct prompts you , to obey the dictates of so [ grand ] a master . Let us then , my brave and loyal countrymen , join hearts and hands and cheerfully step forth in the glorious cause of our Creator , our King and our Country . In Dublin , Roche was a member of the Kildare Street Club . = = = Member of Parliament = = = Roche continued on in the Grattan Parliament , representing Gowran from 1777 to 1783 , Portarlington from 1784 to 1790 , Tralee ( again ) from 1790 to 1798 and Old Leighlin from 1798 until the union with Great Britain in 1801 . From the beginning of his parliamentary career Roche ranged himself on the side of the government , and for his services he was granted a pension , appointed chamberlain to the viceregal court , and on 30 November 1782 was created a baronet . For the office of chamberlain he was thought to be " eminently qualified by his handsome figure , graceful address and ready wit , qualities which were set off by a frank , open and manly disposition . " It was during this period ( in 1782 ) that Roche coined the term " Protestant Ascendancy " . Apparently , members of the cabinet wrote speeches for Sir Boyle which he somewhat imperfectly committed to memory , in general mastering the substance but frequently producing , through his love of language and ornament , travesties on the original words . Through this he gained his lasting reputation as an inveterate perpetrator of Irish bulls . Boyle 's memory was indeed excellent . On one occasion he illustrated both the accuracy of his memory and the audacity of his character at the expense of a brother member . Edmond Stanley , anxious to produce an effect in an important debate , had been at pains to reduce his speech to writing . Unluckily , Stanley happened to drop his manuscript in the coffee @-@ room , and walked back into the House unconscious of his loss . Sir Boyle , finding the document , speedily mastered its contents , and , rising at the first opportunity , delivered the speech almost verbatim in the hearing of its dismayed and astonished author . His apology afterward only added insult to injury : Here , my dear Stanley , is your speech again , and I thank you kindly for the loan of it . I never was so much at a loss for a speech in the whole course of my life , and sure it is not a pin the worse for the wear . On another occasion , he amused and relieved the House , irritated by the prospect of being obliged to listen to the reading of a mass of documents as a preliminary to a resolution , by suggesting that a dozen or so clerks be called in who might read the documents simultaneously and thus dispose of the business in a few minutes . Beyond these efforts , he was also the author of a bill to enact , among other things , that " Every quart bottle should contain a quart . " = = = The Volunteer Convention = = = The chief service Boyle Roche rendered his government was in connection with the Volunteer Convention of November 1783 , in which he " acted a part only less remarkable than his immunity from the opprobrium which might have been expected to attach to it . " The question of admitting the Roman Catholics to the franchise was at the time being agitated , and found many warm supporters in the convention . The proposal was extremely obnoxious to the Irish government , and on the second day of the meeting the secretary of state , George Ogle , announced that the Roman Catholics , in the person of Lord Kenmare , had relinquished the idea of making any claim further than the religious liberty they then enjoyed , and gave as his authority for this extraordinary statement Sir Boyle Roche , by whom it was confirmed ! Ten days later Lord Kenmare ( who had not been in Dublin at the time ) denied that he had given the least authority to any person to make any such statement in his name . However , his disavowal came too late : the anti @-@ Catholic party in the convention had found time to organize themselves , and when the intended Reform Bill took shape it was known that the admission of Roman Catholics to the franchise was not to form part of the scheme . Several months later ( on Valentine 's Day ) , Sir Boyle explained himself in a public letter , starting with a description of his alarm upon hearing that the bishop of Derry ( then Frederick Hervey ) and his associates were bent on extending the legislative privilege : I thought a crisis was arrived in which Lord Kenmare and the heads of that body should step forth to disavow those wilde projects , and to profess their attachment to the lawful powers . Unfortunately , his lordship was at a great distance , and most of my other friends were out of the way . I therefore resolved on a bold stroke , and authorized only by the sentiments of the persons in question , [ took action ] . He added that while he regretted that his message had been disowned by Lord Kenmare , that was of less consequence , since his manoeuvre had succeeded to admiration . Some believe that Sir Boyle , who was related to Lord Kenmare and often represented his views in Commons , was also stating Lord Kenmare 's true views on this occasion and doing so with his full knowledge , but in a way that provided Kenmare plausible deniability . Sir Boyle fought hard for the Union : Gentlemen may tither , and tither , and tither , and may think it a bad measure ; but their heads at present are hot , and will so remain till they grow cool again , and so they can 't decide right now , but when the day of judgement comes then honourable gentlemen will be satisfied with this most excellent union . For himself , he declared that his love for England and Ireland was so great that he " would have the two sisters embrace like one brother . " = = = His life in politics = = = Those who placidly accept the judgement that Boyle Roche was " the Fool of the Grattan Parliament " should reflect on the fact that for almost 25 years he served as Gentleman Usher and Master of Ceremonies to the Irish Court , " an office for which a dignified and decorous demeanor is among the chief essentials . " Roche was also capable of humour which was both subtle and unquestionably intentional . Once , upon hearing his opponent John Philpot Curran expostulate that he could be " the guardian of his own honour " , Sir Boyle offered his " congratulations to the honourable member on his possession of a sinecure . " On another occasion , when the Opposition tried to cough him down in a debate , Sir Boyle met the interruption by producing some bullets , with the observation " I have here some excellent pills to cure a cough . " His personal courage being beyond dispute , this jest was quite sufficient in those duelling days to procure attention for the remainder of his speech . = = = Marriage , retirement and death = = = On 20 October 1778 , Boyle Roche married Mary Frankland of Great Thirkleby Hall , near Thirsk , Yorkshire , daughter of Admiral Sir Thomas Frankland , Bt , whose family name goes back to the time of William the Conqueror . Although childless , Boyle and Lady Mary appeared to have lived a life of uninterrupted happiness . After the Union and the dissolution of the Irish Parliament , Boyle received a £ 400 pension , and in addition £ 300 annually in his capacity as " Surveyor of Kenmare River , " a post which had been invented as a reward and required no work . Thus provided for , he was able to spend the rest of his days in comfort . Boyle Roche died at his house in 63 Eccles Street , Dublin , on 5 June 1807 , and was buried in St. Mary 's Church , Dublin , on 9 June . Mary lived on until 1831 . = = Boyle Roche 's bird = = Roche is perhaps best known for once excusing an absence in Parliament thus : " Mr. Speaker , it is impossible I could have been in two places at once , unless I were a bird . " This quotation was referenced by Ambrose Bierce in The Devil 's Dictionary in his definition of ubiquity : In recent times ubiquity has not always been understood — not even by Sir Boyle Roche , for example , who held that a man cannot be in two places at once unless he is a bird . But Roche was not uttering a malapropism here , he was quoting , and quoting correctly . The line appears in Jevon ’ s play , The Devil of a Wife , as follows : Wife : I cannot be in two places at once . Husband ( Rowland ) : Surely no , unless thou wert a bird .
= Battle of Messines ( 1917 ) = The Battle of Messines ( 7 – 14 June 1917 ) was an offensive conducted by the British Second Army , under the command of General Sir Herbert Plumer , on the Western Front near the village of Messines in West Flanders , Belgium , during the First World War . The Nivelle Offensive in April and May had failed to achieve its more ambitious aims , led to the demoralisation of French troops and the dislocation of the Anglo @-@ French strategy for 1917 . The offensive at Messines forced the Germans to move reserves to Flanders from the Arras and Aisne fronts , which relieved pressure on the French . The tactical objective of the attack at Messines was to capture the German defences on the ridge , which ran from Ploegsteert ( Plugstreet ) Wood in the south , through Messines and Wytschaete to Mt . Sorrel , to deprive the German 4th Army of the high ground south of Ypres . The ridge commanded the British defences and back areas further north , from which the British intended to conduct the " Northern Operation " , to advance to Passchendaele Ridge , then capture the Belgian coast up to the Dutch frontier . The Second Army had five corps , of which three conducted the attack and two remained on the northern flank , not engaged in the main operation ; the XIV Corps was available in General Headquarters reserve ( GHQ reserve ) . The 4th Army divisions of Gruppe Wijtschate ( Group Wytschaete ) held the ridge , which were later reinforced by a division from Gruppe Ypern . The battle began with the detonation of a series of mines beneath German lines , which created 19 large craters and devastated the German front line defences . This was followed by a creeping barrage 700 yards ( 640 m ) deep , covering the British troops as they secured the ridge , with support from tanks , cavalry patrols and aircraft . The effectiveness of the British mines , barrages and bombardments was improved by advances in artillery survey , flash @-@ spotting and centralised control of artillery from the Second Army headquarters . British attacks from 8 – 14 June advanced the front line beyond the former German Sehnen ( Oosttaverne ) line . The Battle of Messines was a prelude to the much larger Third Battle of Ypres campaign , the preliminary bombardment for which began on 11 July 1917 . = = Background = = = = = British plans 1916 – 1917 = = = In 1916 , the British planned to clear the German army from the Belgian coast to prevent them from using the coastal ports as bases from which to attack merchant ships and troop transports in the North Sea and English Channel . In January 1916 , General Sir Herbert Plumer recommended to Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig the capture of Messines Ridge ( part of the southern arc of the Ypres Salient ) before an operation to capture the Gheluvelt plateau further north . The Flanders campaign was postponed , because of the German offensive at Verdun and the demands of the Battle of the Somme . When it became apparent that the Nivelle Offensive ( 16 April – 9 May 1917 ) had failed to achieve its most ambitious objectives , Haig instructed the Second Army to capture the Messines – Wytschaete Ridge as soon as possible . Haig intended to force the Germans to move troops away from the French armies on the Aisne front , where demoralisation amid the failure of the Nivelle Offensive had led to a number of mutinies . British operations in Flanders would relieve pressure on the French Army , as the Battle of the Somme had done . The capture of Messines Ridge would give the British control of the strategically important ground on the southern flank of the Ypres Salient , shorten the front , deprive the Germans of observation over British positions further north and would occupy ground from which the British could observe the southern slope of Menin Ridge at the west end of the Gheluvelt plateau , in preparation for a larger offensive in the Ypres Salient . The front line around Ypres had changed relatively little since the end of the Second Battle of Ypres ( 22 April – 25 May 1915 ) . The British held the city , while the Germans held the high ground of the Messines – Wytschaete Ridge to the south , the lower ridges to the east and the flat ground to the north . The Ypres front was a salient bulging into the German lines but was overlooked by German artillery observers on the higher ground . The British had little ground observation of the German rear areas and valleys east of the ridges . The ridges ran north and east from Messines , 264 feet ( 80 m ) above sea @-@ level at its highest point , past " Clapham Junction " at the west end of the Gheluvelt plateau , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from Ypres at 213 feet ( 65 m ) and Gheluvelt which was above 164 feet ( 50 m ) to Passchendaele , 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) from Ypres at 164 feet ( 50 m ) above sea @-@ level , declining from there to a plain further north . Gradients varied from negligible , to 1 : 60 at Hooge and 1 : 33 at Zonnebeke . Underneath the soil was London clay , sand and silt . Since the First Battle of Ypres in 1914 , much of the drainage in the area had been destroyed by artillery @-@ fire , although some repairs had been achieved by army Land Drainage Companies brought from England . The area was considered by the British to be drier than Loos , Givenchy and Plugstreet Wood further south . = = Prelude = = = = = British offensive preparations = = = The Second Army devised a centralised artillery plan of great sophistication , following the practice established at the Battle of Arras in April 1917 . The use of field survey , gun calibration , weather data and a new and highly accurate 1 : 10 @,@ 000 scale map , gave British artillery much improved accuracy . Target @-@ finding became systematic , with the use of new sound @-@ ranging equipment , better organisation of flash @-@ spotting and the communication of results through the Army Report Centre at Locre Château . Second Army counter @-@ battery artillery bombardments increased from twelve in the week ending 19 April , to 438 in the last ten days before the attack . A survey of captured ground after the battle found that 90 percent of the German artillery positions had been plotted . The 2nd Field Survey Company also assisted the mining companies by establishing the positions of objectives within the German lines , using intersection and a special series of aerial photographs . The company surveyed advanced artillery positions , so that guns moving forward to them once the battle had begun could begin firing as soon as they arrived at the positions . The British had begun a mining offensive against the German @-@ held Wijtschate ( sic ) salient in 1916 . Sub @-@ surface conditions were especially complex and separate ground water tables made mining difficult . To overcome the technical difficulties , two military geologists assisted the miners from March 1916 , including Edgeworth David , who planned the system of mines . Sappers dug the tunnels into a layer of " blue clay " 80 – 120 feet ( 24 – 37 m ) below the surface , then drifted galleries for 5 @,@ 964 yards ( 5 @,@ 453 m ) to points deep underneath Group Wytschaete 's front lines , despite German counter @-@ mining . German tunnellers came within metres of several British mine chambers , found the mine at La Petite Douve Farm and wrecked the chamber with a camouflet . The British diverted the attention of German miners from their deepest galleries , by making many secondary attacks in the upper levels . Co @-@ ordinated by tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers , Canadian , Australian , New Zealand and British miners laid 26 mines with 447 long tons ( 454 t ) of ammonal explosive . The British knew of the importance the Germans placed on holding the Wijtschate salient , after a captured corps order from Gruppe Wijtschate stating " that the salient be held at all costs " was received by Haig on 1 June . In the week before the attack , 2 @,@ 230 guns and howitzers bombarded the German trenches , cut wire , destroyed strong @-@ points and conducted counter @-@ battery fire against 630 German artillery pieces , using 3 @,@ 561 @,@ 530 shells . In May , the 4th Australian , 11th and 24th divisions were moved north from Arras , to become reserve divisions for those corps in the Second Army which were preparing to attack Messines Ridge . Seventy @-@ two of the new Mark IV tanks also arrived in May and were hidden south @-@ west of Ypres . British aircraft began to move north from the Arras front , the total rising to about 300 operational aircraft in II Brigade in the Second Army area . The mass of artillery to be used in the attack was supported by many artillery observation and photographic reconnaissance aircraft , in corps squadrons which had been increased from twelve to eighteen aircraft . Strict enforcement of wireless procedures allowed a reduction of the minimum distance between observation aircraft from 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) at Arras in April 1917 to 400 yards ( 370 m ) at Messines , without mutual wireless interference . Wire @-@ cutting began on 21 May and an extra two days were added to the bombardment for more counter @-@ battery fire . The main bombardment began on 31 May , with only one day of poor weather before the attack . Two flights of each observation squadron concentrated on counter @-@ battery observation and one became a " bombardment flight " , working with particular artillery ' " bombardment groups " for wire @-@ cutting and trench @-@ destruction ; these flights became " contact @-@ patrol flights " intended to observe the positions of British troops once the assault began . The attack barrage was rehearsed on 3 June to allow British air observers to plot masked German batteries , which mainly remained hidden but many minor flaws in the British barrage were reported . A repeat performance on 5 June induced a larger number of hidden German batteries to reveal themselves . The 25th Division made its preparations on a front from the Wulverghem – Messines road to the Wulverghem – Wytschaete road , facing 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) of the German front line , which tapered to the final objective 700 yards ( 640 m ) wide at the near crest of the ridge , 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) distant , behind nine German defensive lines . The advance would begin up a short rise to the near edge of the Steenbeek Valley , then up the steep rise from the valley floor between Hell and Sloping Roof Farms to Four Huns , Chest and Middle Farms on the main ridge , with Lumm Farm on the left flank of the objective . Artillery emplacements for the 25th divisional artillery and 112th Army Field Brigade were built and the Guards Division field artillery was placed in concealed forward positions . Road making and the construction of dug @-@ outs and communication trenches took place between 12 – 30 April and between 11 May – 6 June . An assembly trench was dug 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the German front line , in three hours on the night of 30 / 31 May , complete with communication trenches and barbed wire . Bridges and ladders were delivered in the two days before the attack . 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) of telephone cable was dug in at least 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep , which withstood fifty German artillery hits before the British attack . Large numbers of posts , from which machine @-@ guns were to fire an overhead barrage were built and protective pits were dug for mules , which were to carry loads of 2 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition to advanced troops . Three field companies of engineers with a pioneer battalion were kept in reserve , to follow up the attacking infantry and rebuild roads and work on defensive positions as ground was consolidated . The artillery in support of the division devised a creeping and standing barrage plan and time @-@ table , tailored to the estimated rates of advance of the infantry units . The standing barrage lifts were to keep all trenches within 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) of the infantry under continuous fire and targets fired on by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzer , 6 @-@ inch howitzer and 8 @-@ inch howitzers were to change from them only when infantry got within 300 yards ( 270 m ) . The 18 @-@ pounder field gun standing barrages would then jump over the creeping barrages , to the next series of objectives . The concealed guns of the Guards Division field artillery were to join the creeping barrage for the advance at 4 : 50 a.m. and at 7 : 00 a.m. the 112th Army Field Brigade was to advance to the old front line , to be ready for an anticipated German counter @-@ attack by 11 : 00 a.m. The 47th Division planned to attack with two brigades , each reinforced by a battalion from the reserve brigade , along either side of the Ypres – Comines Canal . Large numbers of machine @-@ guns were organised to fire offensive and defensive barrages and signal detachments were organised to advance with the infantry . An observation balloon was reserved for messages by signal lamp from the front line , as insurance against the failure of telephone lines and message @-@ runners . The divisional trench mortar batteries were to bombard the German front line opposite the 142nd Brigade , where it was too close for the artillery to shell without endangering British troops . Wire @-@ cutting began in mid @-@ May , against considerable local retaliation by German artillery . At the end of May the two attacking brigades began training at Steenvoorde , on practice courses built to resemble the German positions to be attacked , using air reconnaissance photographs to mark the positions of machine @-@ gun posts and hidden barbed wire . Divisional intelligence summaries were used to plan the capture of German company and battalion headquarters . The 140th Brigade with four tanks attached , was to occupy White Château and the adjacent part of Damstrasse , while the 142nd Brigade attacked the spoil heaps and the canal bank to the left . On 1 June , the British artillery began the intense stage of preparatory bombardment for trench @-@ destruction and wire cutting and the two attacking brigades assembled for the attack from 4 – 6 June . British fighter aircraft tried to prevent German aircraft observing for their artillery , by dominating the air from the British front line to the German balloon line , about 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) beyond . Better aircraft like the Bristol Fighter , S.E.5a and the naval Sopwith Triplane had entered service since Arras and matched the performance of the German Albatros D.III and Halberstadt D.II fighters . The " barrage line " was patrolled all day for the week before the attack , by fighters at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) with more at 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) in the centre of the attack front . No British corps aircraft were shot down by German aircraft until 7 June , when 29 corps aircraft were able to direct artillery fire simultaneously over the three attacking corps . Behind the barrage line lay a second line of defence , which used wireless interception to take bearings on German artillery observation aircraft and guide British aircraft into areas where German flights were most frequent . By June 1917 , each British army had a control post of two aeroplane compass stations and an aeroplane intercepting station , linked by telephone to the army wing headquarters , fighter squadrons , the anti @-@ aircraft commander and the corps heavy artillery headquarters . The new anti @-@ aircraft communication links allowed areas threatened by German bombardment to be warned , German artillery spotting aircraft to be attacked and German artillery batteries to be fired on when they revealed themselves . From 1 – 7 June , II Brigade had 47 calls through wireless interception , shot down one German aircraft , damaged seven and stopped 22 German artillery bombardments . Normal offensive patrols continued beyond the barrage line out to a line from Ypres to Roulers and Menin , where large formations of British and German aircraft clashed in long dogfights , once German air reinforcements began operating in the area . Longer @-@ range bombing and reconnaissance flights concentrated on German @-@ occupied airfields and railway stations and the night bombing specialists of No. 100 Squadron RFC attacked trains around Lille , Courtrai , Roulers and Comines . Two squadrons were reserved for close air support on the battlefield and low attacks on German airfields . = = = Plan of attack = = = The British planned to advance on a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) front , from St. Yves to Mt . Sorrel east to the Oosttaverne line , a maximum depth of 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . Three intermediate objectives to be reached a day at a time became halts , where fresh infantry would leap @-@ frog through to gain the ridge in one day . In the afternoon a further advance down the ridge was to be made . The attack was to be conducted by three corps of the Second Army ( General Sir Herbert Plumer ) : II Anzac Corps in the south @-@ east was to advance 800 yards ( 730 m ) , IX Corps in the centre was to attack on a 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) front , which would taper to 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) at the summit and X Corps in the north had an attack front of 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . The corps planned their attacks under the supervision of the army commander , using as guides , the analyses of the Somme operations of 1916 and successful features of the attack at Arras on 9 April . Great care was taken in the planning of counter @-@ battery fire , the artillery barrage time @-@ table and machine @-@ gun barrages . German artillery positions and the second ( Höhen ) line were not visible to British ground observers . For observation over the rear slopes of the ridge , 300 aircraft were concentrated in II Brigade RFC and eight balloons of II Kite Balloon Wing were placed 3 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 – 1 @,@ 520 m ) behind the British front line . The Second Army artillery commander , Major @-@ General George Franks , co @-@ ordinated the corps artillery plans , particularly the heavy artillery arrangements to suppress German artillery , which were devised by the corps and divisional artillery commanders . The Second Army Report Centre at Locre Château was linked by buried cable to each corps report centre , corps heavy artillery headquarters , divisional artillery headquarters , RFC squadrons , balloon headquarters , survey stations and wireless stations . Responsibility for counter @-@ battery fire was given to a counter @-@ battery staff officer with a small staff , who concentrated exclusively on the defeat of the German artillery . A conference was held each evening by the counter @-@ battery staffs of divisions and corps , methodically to collate the day 's reports from observation aircraft and balloons , field survey companies , sound ranging sections and forward observation officers . Each corps had a counter @-@ battery area , which was divided into zones and allotted to heavy artillery groups . Each heavy artillery group headquarters divided their zones into map squares , which were allotted to artillery batteries , required to be ready swiftly to open fire on them . The attacking corps organised their heavy artillery within the army plan according to local conditions . II Anzac Corps created four counter @-@ battery groups , each with one heavy artillery group and IX Corps arranged four similar groups and five bombardment groups , one for each of the three IX Corps divisions making the initial attack and two ( with the heaviest howitzers ) in reserve , under the control of the corps heavy artillery commander . A Heavy Artillery Group Commander was attached to each divisional artillery headquarters , to command the heavy artillery once the infantry attack began . Field artillery arrangements within corps also varied , in IX Corps groups and sub @-@ groups were formed so that infantry brigades had an artillery liaison officer and two sub @-@ groups , one with six 18 @-@ pounder batteries and one with six 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzer batteries . Surplus field artillery brigade headquarters planned forward moves for the guns and were kept ready to replace casualties . It was expected that much of the artillery would need to switch rapidly from the bombardment plan to engage counter @-@ attacking German infantry . It was planned that the Forward Observation Officers of the divisions in the first attack onto the ridge would control the artillery which had remained in place and the reserve divisions advancing down the far slope to the Oosttaverne line would control the artillery hidden close to the front line and the artillery which advanced into no @-@ man 's @-@ land . Franks planned to neutralise German guns within 9 @,@ 000 yards ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) of the attack front . On the flanks of the British attack front of 17 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , 169 German guns had been located , for which 42 British guns ( 25 percent of the German total ) were set aside . The 299 German guns in the path of the attack were each to be engaged by a British gun , a formula which required 341 British guns and howitzers to be reserved for counter @-@ battery fire . Every 45 yards ( 41 m ) of front had a medium or heavy howitzer for bombardment , which required 378 guns , with 38 super @-@ heavy guns and howitzers ( 5 percent ) deployed with the field artillery that was due to fire the creeping and standing barrages . Franks devised a bombardment timetable and added arrangements for a massed machine @-@ gun barrage . The 756 medium and heavy guns and howitzers were organised in forty groups and the 1 @,@ 510 field guns and howitzers in sixty @-@ four field artillery brigades within the attacking divisions and thirty @-@ three Army field artillery brigades , divided among the three attacking corps . Ammunition weighing 144 @,@ 000 long tons ( 146 @,@ 000 t ) was delivered with 1 @,@ 000 shells for each 18 @-@ pounder , 750 shells per 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzer , 500 rounds for each medium and heavy piece and another 120 @,@ 000 gas and 60 @,@ 000 smoke shells for the 18 @-@ pounder field guns . Two thirds of the 18 @-@ pounders were to fire a creeping barrage of shrapnel immediately ahead of the advance , while the remainder of the field guns and 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers were to fire a standing barrage , 700 yards ( 640 m ) further ahead on German positions and lift to the next target , when the infantry came within 400 yards ( 370 m ) of the barrage . Each division was given four extra batteries of field artillery , which could be withdrawn from the barrage at the divisional commander 's discretion to engage local targets . The field batteries of the three reserve divisions were placed in camouflaged positions , close to the British front line . As each objective was taken by the infantry , the creeping barrage was to pause 150 – 300 yards ( 140 – 270 m ) ahead and become a standing barrage , while the infantry consolidated . During this time the pace of fire was to slacken to one round per @-@ gun per @-@ minute , allowing the gun @-@ crews a respite , before resuming full intensity as the barrage moved on . The heavy and super @-@ heavy artillery was to fire on German artillery positions and rear areas and 700 machine @-@ guns were to fire a barrage over the heads of the advancing troops . At 03 : 00 a.m. the mines would be detonated , followed by the attack of nine divisions onto the ridge . The blue line ( first objective ) was to be occupied by zero + 1 : 40 hours followed by a two @-@ hour pause . At zero + 3 : 40 hours the advance to the black line ( second objective ) would begin and consolidation was to start by zero + 5 : 00 hours . Fresh troops from the unengaged brigades of the attacking divisions or from the reserve divisions would then pass through , to attack the Oosttaverne line at zero + 10 : 00 hours . As soon as the black line was captured , all guns were to bombard the Oosttaverne line , conduct counter @-@ battery fire and place a standing barrage beyond the black line . All operational tanks were to join with the 24 held in reserve , to support the infantry advance to the Oosttaverne line . = = = German defensive preparations = = = The Messines defences were on a forward slope , overlooked from Haubourdin Hill ( Hill 63 ) south of the Douve valley and Kemmel Hill , 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) west of Wijtschate , an arrangement which the experience of 1916 showed to be obsolete . A new line incorporating the revised principles of defence derived from the experience of the Battle of the Somme , known as Flandern I , was begun in February 1917 . The first section began 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) behind Messines Ridge , running north from the Lys to Linselles then Werviq and Beselare , where the nearest areas giving good artillery observation to the west were found . In April , Field Marshal Crown Prince Rupprecht and his chief of staff , Lieutenant @-@ General Hermann von Kuhl , favoured withdrawal to the Warneton ( third ) line , before a British attack . The local divisional commanders objected , due to their belief that counter @-@ mining had neutralised the British underground threat and the inadequacy of the Warneton line . The convex eastern slope limited artillery observation and the Ypres – Comines canal and the river Lys restricted the space below the ridge where infantry could manoeuvre for counter @-@ attacks . British observation from the ridge would make the ground to the east untenable as far as Flandern I 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) beyond . A withdrawal that far would uncover the southern slopes of Menin Ridge , which was the most vital part of the Flandern position . Rupprecht re @-@ examined the Warneton ( third ) line and the extra Sehnen line ( Oosttaverne line to the British ) between the Warneton Line and the Hõhen ( second ) line and dropped the withdrawal proposal . Gruppe Wijtschate with three divisions under the command of the headquarters of XIX Corps ( General Maximilian von Laffert ) , held the ridge , as part of the 4th Army ( General Friedrich Bertram Sixt von Armin ) . The ridge garrison was reinforced with the 24th Division in early May . The 35th and 3rd Bavarian divisions were brought up as Eingreif divisions and Gruppe Wijtschate was substantially reinforced with artillery , ammunition and aircraft . The vulnerability of the northern end of Messines Ridge , where it met the Menin Ridge , led to the German command limiting the frontage of the 204th ( Württemberg ) Division to 2 @,@ 600 yards ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) . The 24th Division to the south held 2 @,@ 800 yards ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) and the 2nd Division at Wijtschate held 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . In the south @-@ east , 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) of the front line either side of the river Douve , was defended by the 40th Division . The front @-@ line was lightly held , with fortifications distributed up to 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) behind the front line . At the end of May , British artillery fire was so damaging that the 24th and 40th divisions were relieved by the 35th and 3rd Bavarian ( Eingreif ) divisions , which were replaced by the 7th and 1st Guard Reserve divisions in early June and relief of the 2nd Division was promised for 7 / 8 June . The German front line regiments held areas 700 – 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 640 – 1 @,@ 100 m ) wide with one ( Kampf ) battalion forward , one ( Bereitschaft ) battalion in support and the third in reserve 3 – 4 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 4 km ) back . The Kampf battalion usually had three companies in the front system ( which had three lines of breastworks called " Ia " , " Ib " and " Ic " ) and one in the Sonne ( intermediate ) line ( with a company of the support battalion , available for immediate counter @-@ attack ) between the front system and the Höhen ( second ) line on the ridge crest . The other three companies of the support battalion sheltered in the Höhen ( second ) line . About 32 machine @-@ gun posts per regimental sector were dispersed around the defensive zone . The German defence was intended to be mobile and Stosstrupps in " Ic " the third breastwork , were to conduct immediate counter @-@ attacks to recapture " Ia " and " Ib " . If they had to fall back , the support battalions would advance to restore the front system , except at Spanbroekmolen Hill , which due to its importance was to be held unbedingtes Halten ( at all costs ) . On 8 May , the British preliminary bombardment began and on 23 May became much heavier . The breastworks of the front defences were demolished and concrete shelters on both sides of the ridge were systematically destroyed . Air superiority allowed the British artillery observation aircraft to cruise over the German defences , despite the defensive efforts of the Richthofen Circus . On 26 May , the German front garrisons were ordered to move forward 50 yards ( 46 m ) into shell @-@ holes in no @-@ man 's @-@ land at dawn and return to their shelters at night . When the shelters were destroyed , shell @-@ hole positions were made permanent as were those of the companies further back . Troops in the Höhen ( second ) line were withdrawn behind the ridge and by the end of May , the front battalions were being changed every two days instead of every five , due to the effect of the British bombardment . Some German troops on the ridge were convinced of the mine danger and their morale was depressed further by the statement of a prisoner taken on 6 June , that the attack would be synchronised with mine explosions . On 1 June , the British bombardment became more intense and nearly every German defensive position on the forward slope was obliterated . The Luftstreitkräfte effort reached its maximum from 4 – 5 June , when German aircraft observed 74 counter @-@ battery shoots and wireless interception by the British showed 62 German aircraft , escorted by up to seven fighters each , directing artillery fire against the Second Army . British air observation on the reverse slope was less effective than in the foreground but Mesen and Wijtschate villages were demolished , as were much of the Höhen and Sehnen lines , although many pill boxes survived . Long @-@ range fire on Comines , Warneton , Wervicq and villages , road junctions , railways and bridges caused much damage and a number of ammunition dumps were destroyed . = = Battle = = = = = Second Army = = = Fine weather was forecast for 4 June , with perhaps a morning haze ( between 15 May – 9 June the weather was fair or fine except for 16 , 17 and 29 May , when it was very bad ) . Zero Day was fixed for 7 June , with zero hour at 3 : 10 a.m. , when it was expected that a man could be seen from the west at 100 yards ( 91 m ) . There was a thunderstorm in the evening of 6 June but by midnight the sky had cleared and at 2 : 00 a.m. , British aircraft cruised over the German lines to camouflage the sound of tanks as they drove to their starting points . By 3 : 00 a.m. , the attacking troops had reached their jumping @-@ off positions unnoticed , except for some in the II Anzac Corps area . Routine British artillery night @-@ firing stopped around half an hour before dawn and birdsong could be heard and at 3 : 10 a.m. the mines began to detonate . After the explosions , the British artillery began to fire at maximum rate . A creeping barrage in three belts 700 yards ( 640 m ) deep began and counter @-@ battery groups bombarded all known German artillery positions with gas shell . The nine attacking divisions and the three in reserve began their advance as the German artillery reply came scattered and late , falling on British assembly trenches after they had been vacated . = = = = First objective ( blue line ) = = = = The II Anzac Corps objective was the southern part of the ridge and Messines village . The 3rd Australian Division on the right , had been disorganised by a German gas bombardment on Ploegsteert ( Plugstreet ) Wood around midnight , which caused 500 casualties during the approach march but the attack between St. Yves and the river Douve began on time . The 9th and 10th Brigades benefitted from four mine explosions at Trenches 122 and 127 , which were seven seconds early and left craters 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) deep . The craters disrupted the Australian attack formation , some infantry lines merging into a wave before reforming as they advanced . The New Zealand Division approached over Hill 63 and avoided the German gas bombardment . The two attacking brigades crossed the dry river bed of the Steenebeke and took the German front line , despite the abandonment of the mine at La Petite Douve Farm and then advanced towards Messines village . On the left of the corps , the 25th Division began its advance 600 yards ( 550 m ) further back than the New Zealand Division but quickly caught up , helped by the mine at Ontario Farm . On the right of IX Corps , the 36th ( Ulster ) Division attack on the front of the 107th Brigade , was supported by three mines at Kruisstraat and the big mine at Spanbroekmolen , 800 yards ( 730 m ) further north . The 109th Brigade on the left was helped by a mine at Peckham House . The devastated area was crossed without resistance , German survivors being stunned by the mine explosions . The 16th ( Irish ) Division attacked between Maedelstede Farm and the Vierstraat – Wytschaete road . The mines at Maedelstede and the two at Petit Bois devastated the defence ; the mines at Petit Bois on the left were about 12 seconds late and knocked over some of the advancing British infantry . On the left of IX Corps , the 19th Division , north of the Vierstraat – Wytschaete road , attacked with two brigades into the remains of Grand Bois and Bois Quarante . Three mine explosions at Hollandscheschuur allowed the infantry to take a dangerous salient at Nag 's Nose , as German survivors surrendered or retreated . X Corps had a relatively short advance of 700 yards ( 640 m ) to the crest and another 600 yards ( 550 m ) across the summit , which would uncover the German defences further north on the southern slope of the Gheluvelt plateau and the ground back to Zandvoorde . The German defences had been strengthened and had about double the normal infantry garrison . The German artillery concentration around Zandvoorde made a British attack in the area highly vulnerable but the British counter @-@ battery effort suppressed the German artillery , its replies being late and ragged . On the night of 6 / 7 June , gaps were cut in the British wire to allow the troops to assemble in no @-@ man 's @-@ land , ready to attack at 3 : 10 a.m. The 41st Division attacked with two brigades past a mine under the St. Eloi salient , finding the main obstacle to be wreckage caused by the explosion . The 47th and 23rd divisions formed the left defensive flank of the attack , advancing onto the ridge around the Ypres – Comines canal and railway , past the mines at Caterpillar and Hill 60 . The cuttings of the canal and railway were a warren of German dug @-@ outs but the 47th Division , advancing close up to the creeping barrage , crossed the 300 yards ( 270 m ) of the German front position in 15 minutes , German infantry surrendering along the way . Soft ground in the valley south of Mt . Sorrel , led the two infantry brigades of the 23rd Division to advance on either side up to the near crest of the ridge , arriving while the ground still shook from the mines at Hill 60 . In the areas of the mine explosions , the British infantry found dead , wounded and stunned German soldiers . The attackers swept through the gaps in the German defences as Germans further back hurriedly withdrew . About 80 @,@ 000 British troops advanced up the slope , helped by the creeping bombardment , which threw up lots of smoke and dust , blocking the view of the remaining German defenders . The barrage moved at 100 yards ( 91 m ) in two minutes , which allowed the leading troops to rush or outflank German strong points and machine @-@ gun nests . Where the Germans were able to resist , they were engaged with rifle @-@ grenades , Lewis guns and trench mortars , while riflemen and bombers worked behind them . Pillbox fighting tactics had been a great success at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April and in training for the attack at Messines , the same methods were adopted along with emphasis on mopping @-@ up captured ground , to ensure that bypassed German troops could not engage advancing troops from behind . In the smoke and dust , direction was kept by compass and the German forward zone was easily overrun in the 35 minutes allotted , as was the Sonne line , half way to the German Höhen ( second ) line on the ridge . The two supporting battalions of the attacking brigades leap @-@ frogged through , to advance to the second objective on the near crest of the ridge 500 – 800 yards ( 460 – 730 m ) further on . The accuracy of the British barrage was maintained and local German counter @-@ attack attempts were stifled . As the infantry approached the German second line , resistance increased . = = = = Second objective ( black line ) = = = = In the II Anzac Corps area , the 3rd Australian Division consolidated the southern defensive flank of the attack , digging @-@ in astride the river Douve with its right in the new craters at Trench 122 , defeating several hasty German counter @-@ attacks ; the left flank of the division was anchored by a captured German strong @-@ point . The New Zealand Division attacked Messines village , the southern bastion of the German defences on the ridge . The village had been fortified with a line of trenches around the outskirts and an inner defence zone comprising five pillboxes and all the house cellars , which had been converted into shell @-@ proof dug @-@ outs . Two machine @-@ gun posts on the edge of the village were rushed but fire from Swayne 's Farm 400 yards ( 370 m ) north held up the advance , until a tank drove through it and caused 30 German troops to surrender . The New Zealanders penetrated the outer trenches behind the creeping barrage , which slowed to 100 yards ( 91 m ) in 11 minutes ; the German garrison defended the village with great determination , before surrendering when the garrison commander was captured . The 25th Division took the Messines – Wytschaete road on the ridge , north of the New Zealand Division with little opposition except at Hell Farm , which was eventually overrun . In the IX Corps area , the 36th ( Ulster ) Division captured the wreckage of two woods and Bogaert Farm in between , finding that the artillery fire had cut the masses of barbed wire and destroyed many strong @-@ points . Further north , the 16th ( Irish ) and 19th divisions advanced through the remains of Wytschaete wood and Grand Bois , which had been hit by a 2 @,@ 000 oil drum Livens Projector bombardment on the night of 3 / 4 June and by standing barrages on all the known German positions in the woods . A German force at L 'Hospice held out despite being by @-@ passed , until 6 : 48 a.m. and the objective was reached just after 5 : 00 a.m. German positions at Dammstrasse , which ran from the St. Eloi road to White Château , in the X Corps area , fell to the 41st Division after a long fight . White Château was attacked by the 47th Division as it advanced to the first objective , covered by smoke and Thermite shells fired on the German positions further to the north , along the Comines Canal . The German garrison fought hard and repulsed two attacks , before surrendering after a trench @-@ mortar bombardment at 7 : 50 a.m. The northern defensive flank was maintained by the 23rd Division , with an advance of 300 yards ( 270 m ) in twenty minutes . A German force at the head of the Zwarteleen re @-@ entrant , south of Mt . Sorrel where the two attacking brigades met , held out until forced to surrender by volleys of rifle @-@ grenades . Just after 5 : 00 a.m. all of the British second intermediate objective , the first trench of the German Höhen ( second ) line , on the near crest of the ridge , had been taken . German documents gleaned from the battlefield showed that they expected the forward crest of the ridge to be held until the Eingreif divisions arrived to counter @-@ attack ; the effect of the mines , artillery and British infantry tactics had been underestimated by the German command . The next objective was the rear trench of the German Höhen ( second ) line and the rear crest of the ridge , 400 – 500 yards ( 370 – 460 m ) away . There was a pause of two hours , for fresh battalions to move forward and the captured ground to be consolidated . About 300 yards ( 270 m ) beyond the forward positions , a protective bombardment by 18 @-@ pounders swept back and forth , while the heavier artillery stood ready to respond with SOS barrages . Pack animals and men carrying Yukon packs , brought supplies into the captured ground and engineers supervised the digging and wiring of strong @-@ points . At 7 : 00 a.m. the protective bombardment increased in intensity and began to creep forward again , moving at 100 yards ( 91 m ) in three minutes , as some divisions used battalions from their third brigade and other divisions those that had attacked earlier . Most of the tanks still operational were outstripped but some caught up the infantry . Fresh battalions of the New Zealand Division leap @-@ frogged through those which had attacked earlier and advanced either side of Messines , where some German posts still held out . A German artillery headquarters at Blauwen Molen ( blue windmill ) , 500 yards ( 460 m ) beyond Messines , was captured and a tank broke into a strong point at Fanny 's Farm , causing a hundred Germans to surrender . The reserve brigade of the 25th Division continued the advance to the north except at Lumm Farm , which was eventually taken with assistance from the right flank troops of the 36th ( Ulster ) Division . Helped by two tanks , the rest of the 36th ( Ulster ) Division advanced to the right of Wytschaete village and captured a German battalion headquarters . Wytschaete had been fortified like Messines but special bombardments fired on 3 June had demolished the village . Two battalions of the 16th ( Irish ) Division overran the German survivors and on the left , the reserve brigade of the 19th Division took the area from Wytschaete village to Oosttaverne Wood with little resistance . X Corps had greater difficulty reaching some of its final objectives ; the loss of White Château disorganised the German defenders adjacent to the south . The 41st Division easily crossed the summit and reached the rear slope of the ridge 500 yards ( 460 m ) away , which overlooked the eastern slope and Roozebeke valley , taking many prisoners at Denys and Ravine woods . North of the canal , the 47th Division had to capture a spoil heap 400 yards ( 370 m ) long , where several German machine @-@ gun nests had been dug in . The British attacks established a footing on the heap at great cost , due to machine @-@ gun fire from the spoil heap and others in Battle Wood further north . At 9 : 00 a.m. the infantry withdrew to allow the area to be bombarded from 2 : 30 to 6 : 55 p.m. for an attack by a reserve battalion at 7 : 00 p.m. The 23rd Division had many casualties caused by flanking machine @-@ gun fire from the spoil heap while clearing Battle Wood , which took until the evening . In the centre of the attack , a company from each battalion advanced behind the barrage , to an observation line several hundred yards down the east slope of the ridge , at 8 : 40 a.m. assisted by eight tanks and patrols of cavalry . Most German troops encountered surrendered quickly , except at Leg Copse and Oosttaverne Wood where they offered slight resistance . British aircraft added to German difficulties , with low @-@ level machine @-@ gun attacks . The second objective ( the observation line ) from Bethleem Farm to south of Messines , Despagne Farm and Oosttaverne Wood , was reached with few casualties . Ground markers were put out for the three divisions due to attack in the afternoon and the area consolidated . The defensive frontages of the British units on the ridge had been based on an assumption that casualties in the advance to the first intermediate objective ( blue line ) would be 50 percent and in the advance to the ridge ( black line ) would be 60 percent . There were far fewer British casualties than anticipated , which caused congestion on the ridge , where the attacking troops suffered considerable casualties from German long @-@ range machine @-@ gun and artillery fire . The British planners expected that the two German Eingreif divisions behind the ridge , would begin organised counter @-@ attacks at about 11 : 00 a.m. and arranged for a long pause in the advance down the eastern slope , to enable them to be defeated from consolidated defensive positions , rather than encountered in the open while the British were still advancing . The masked batteries of the three reserve divisions were used to add to the protective barrage in front of the infantry but no Germans could be seen . = = = = Final objective ( Oosttaverne line ) = = = = A pause of five hours was considered necessary to defeat the German Eingreif divisions , before resuming the advance on the Oosttaverne ( Sehnen ) line . The pause was extended by two hours to 3 : 10 p.m. , after Plumer received reports on the state of the ground . More artillery joined the masked batteries close to the front line and others moved as far into no @-@ man 's @-@ land as the terrain allowed . On the nearside of the ridge , 146 machine @-@ guns were prepared , to fire an overhead barrage and each division placed sixteen more guns in the observation line on the eastern slope . The 24 tanks in reserve began to advance at 10 : 30 a.m. to join II Anzac Corps and IX Corps on the flanks . Surviving tanks of the morning attack in X Corps , were to join in from Damm and Denys woods . The 4th Australian Division continued the attack on the II Anzac Corps front , the right hand brigade reaching the assembly areas by 11 : 30 a.m. , before learning of the postponement . The brigade had to lie on open ground under German artillery and machine @-@ gun fire , which caused considerable loss but the left brigade was informed in time to hold back until 1 : 40 p.m. The bombardment began to creep down the slope at 3 : 10 p.m. at a rate of 100 yards ( 91 m ) in three minutes . The right brigade advanced on a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) front towards the Oosttaverne line , from the river Douve north to the Blauwepoortbeek ( Blue Gate Brook ) . German machine @-@ gunners in the pillboxes of the Oosttaverne line caused many casualties but with support from three tanks the Australians reached the pillboxes , except for those north of the Messines – Warneton road . As the Australians outflanked the strongpoints , the Germans tried to retreat through the British barrage , which had stopped moving 300 yards ( 270 m ) beyond the rear trench of the Oosttaverne line . The left brigade was stopped on its right flank by fire from the German pillboxes north of the Messines – Warneton road up to the Blauwepoortbeek , 500 yards ( 460 m ) short of the Oosttaverne line , with many casualties . The left battalion , unaware that the 33rd Brigade ( 11th Division ) to the north had been delayed , veered towards the north @-@ east to try to make contact near Lumm Farm , which took the battalion across the Wambeke Spur instead of straight down . The objective was easily reached but at the Wambeek , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) north of the intended position . The Australians extended their line further north to Polka Estaminet trying to meet the 33rd Brigade , which arrived at 4 : 30 p.m. with four tanks . The brigade took Joye and Van Hove farms beyond the objective , silencing the machine @-@ guns being fired from them . On the IX Corps front , the 33rd Brigade ( 11th Division ) had been ordered to advance to Vandamme Farm at 9 : 25 a.m. but the message was delayed and the troops did not reach the assembly area at Rommens Farm until 3 : 50 p.m. , half an hour late . To cover the delay , the corps commander ordered the 57th Brigade ( 19th Division ) from reserve , to take the Oosttaverne line from Van Hove Farm to Oosttaverne village then to Bug Wood , so that only the southern 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) were left for the 33rd Brigade . These orders were also delayed and the 19th Division commander asked for a postponement , then ordered the 57th Brigade to advance without waiting for the 33rd Brigade . The troops only knew that they were to advance downhill and keep up to the barrage but were able to occupy the objective in 20 minutes against light opposition , meeting the Australians at Polka Estaminet . Two brigades of the 24th Division in Corps reserve , advanced into the X Corps sector and reached Dammstrasse on time . The brigades easily reached their objectives around Bug Wood , Rose Wood and Verhaest Farm , taking unopposed many German pillboxes . The brigades captured 289 Germans and six field guns for a loss of six casualties , advancing 800 yards ( 730 m ) along the Roozebeek valley , then took Ravine Wood unopposed on the left flank . The left battalion was drawn back to meet the 47th Division , which was still held up by machine @-@ gun fire from the spoil bank . The final objectives of the British offensive had been taken , except for the area of the Ypres – Comines canal near the spoil bank and 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) of the Oosttaverne line , at the junction of the II Anzac Corps and IX Corps . Despite a heavy bombardment until 6 : 55 p.m. , the Germans at the spoil bank repulsed another infantry attack . The reserve battalion which had been moved up for the second attack on the spoil bank , had been caught in a German artillery bombardment while assembling for the attack . The companies which attacked then met with massed machine @-@ gun fire during the advance and only advanced half @-@ way to the spoil bank . The 207 survivors of the original 301 infantry , were withdrawn when German reinforcements were seen arriving from the canal cutting and no further attempts were made . The situation near the Blauwepoortbeek worsened , when German troops were seen assembling near Steingast Farm , close to the Warneton road . A British SOS barrage fell on the 12th Australian Brigade , which was inadvertently digging @-@ in 250 yards ( 230 m ) beyond its objective . The Australians stopped the German counter @-@ attack with small @-@ arms fire but many survivors began to withdraw spontaneously , until they stopped in relative safety on the ridge . As darkness fell and being under the impression that all the Australians had retired , New Zealand artillery observers called for the barrage to be brought closer to the observation line , when they feared a German counter @-@ attack . The bombardment fell on the rest of the Australians , who withdrew with many casualties , leaving the southern part of the Oosttaverne line unoccupied , as well as the gap around the Blauwepoortbeek . An SOS barrage on the IX Corps front stopped a German counter @-@ attack from the Roozebeke valley but many shells fell short , precipitating another informal withdrawal . Rumour led to the barrage being moved closer to the observation line , which added to British casualties until 10 : 00 p.m. , when the infantry managed to get the artillery stopped and were then able to re @-@ occupy the positions . Operations to re @-@ take the Oosttaverne line in the II Anzac Corps area started at 3 : 00 a.m. on 8 June . = = = Air operations = = = As the infantry moved to the attack contact @-@ patrol aircraft flew low overhead , two being maintained over each corps during the day . The observers were easily able to plot the positions of experienced troops , who lit flares and waved anything to attract attention . Some troops , poorly trained and inexperienced , failed to co @-@ operate , fearing exposure to the Germans so aircraft flew dangerously low to identify them , four being shot down in consequence . Although air observation was not as vital to German operations because of their control of commanding ground , the speed by which reports from air observation could be delivered , made it a most valuable form of liaison between the front line and higher commanders . German infantry proved as reluctant to reveal themselves as the British so German flyers also had to make visual identifications . Reports and maps were dropped at divisional headquarters and corps report centres , allowing the progress of the infantry to be followed . During the pause on the ridge crest , an observer reported that the Oosttaverne line was barely occupied , at 2 : 00 p.m. a balloon observer reported a heavy German barrage on the II Anzac Corps front and a counter @-@ attack patrol aircraft reported German infantry advancing either side of Messines . The German counter @-@ attack was " crushed " by artillery fire by 2 : 30 p.m. Each corps squadron kept an aircraft on counter @-@ attack patrol all day , to call for barrage fire if German troops were seen in the open but the speed of the British advance resulted in few German counter @-@ attacks . Artillery observers watched for German gunfire and made 398 zone calls but only 165 managed to have German guns engaged . The observers regulated the bombardment of the Oosttaverne line and the artillery of VIII Corps to the north of the attack , which was able to enfilade German artillery opposite X Corps . Fourteen fighters were sent to strafe from low altitude , German ground targets ahead of the British infantry , roving behind German lines , attacking infantry , transport , gun @-@ teams and machine @-@ gun nests ; the attacks continued all day , with two of the British aircraft being shot down . Organised attacks were made on the German airfields at Bisseghem and Marcke near Courtrai and the day bombing squadrons attacked airfields at Ramegnies Chin , Coucou , Bisseghem ( again ) and Rumbeke . Reconnaissance reports of German troops concentrating from Quesnoy – Warneton , led to aircraft setting out to attack them within minutes . German fighters made a considerable effort to intercept corps observation aircraft over the battlefield but were frustrated by patrols on the barrage line and offensive patrols beyond ; only one British corps aircraft was shot down by German aircraft during the day . After dark , the night @-@ bombing specialists of 100 Squadron bombed railway stations at Warneton , Menin and Courtrai . Ignorance of the situation at the northern end of the II Anzac Corps front. was resolved by air reconnaissance at dawn on 8 June . = = = German 4th Army = = = At 2 : 50 a.m. on 7 June , the British artillery bombardment ceased ; expecting an immediate infantry assault , the German defenders returned to their forward positions . At 3 : 10 a.m. the mines were detonated , killing c . 10 @,@ 000 German soldiers and destroying most of the middle breastwork Ib of the front system , paralysing the survivors of the eleven German battalions in the front line , who were swiftly overrun . The explosions occurred while some of the German front line troops were being relieved , catching both groups in the blasts and British artillery fire resumed at the same moment as the explosions . Some of the Stoßtruppen ( Stormtroops ) in breastwork Ic were able to counter @-@ attack but were overwhelmed quickly , as the British advanced on the Sonne line , which usually held half of the support battalions but had been reduced to about 100 men and six machine @-@ guns , in each 800 yards ( 730 m ) regimental zone . Smoke and dust from the British barrage limited visibility to 100 yards ( 91 m ) and some defenders thought that figures moving towards them were German soldiers , retreating elastically and were also overrun . After a pause , the British continued to the Höhen line , held by half of the support battalions , a company of each reserve battalion and 10 – 12 machine @-@ guns per regimental sector . Despite daylight , German defenders only saw occasional shapes in the dust and smoke , as they were deluged by artillery fire and machine @-@ gunned by swarms of British aircraft . The German defence in the south collapsed and uncovered the left flank of each unit further north in turn , forcing them to retire to the Sehnen ( Oosttaverne ) line . Some German units held out in Wijtschate and near St. Eloi , waiting to be relieved by counter @-@ attacks which never came . The garrison of the Kofferberg ( Caterpillar or spoil heap to the British ) held on for 36 hours until relieved . Laffert had expected that the two Eingreif divisions behind Messines Ridge , would reach the Höhen ( second ) line before the British . The divisions had reached assembly areas near Gheluvelt and Warneton by 7 : 00 a.m. and the 7th Division was ordered to move from Zandvoorde to Hollebeke , to attack across the Comines canal , towards Wijtschate into the British northern flank . The 1st Guard Reserve Division was to move to the Warneton line east of Messines , then advance around Messines to recapture the original front system . Both Eingreif divisions were plagued by delays , being new to the area and untrained for counter @-@ attack operations . The 7th Division was shelled by British artillery all the way to the Comines canal , then part of the division was diverted to reinforce the remnants of the front divisions holding positions around Hollebeke . The rest of the division found that the British had already taken the Sehnen ( Oosttaverne ) line , by the time that they arrived at 4 : 00 p.m. The 1st Guard Reserve Division was also bombarded as it crossed the Warneton ( third ) line but reached the area east of Messines by 3 : 00 p.m. , only to be devastated by the resumption of the British creeping barrage and forced back to the Sehnen ( Oosttaverne ) line , as the British began to advance to their next objective . Laffert contemplated a further withdrawal , then ordered the existing line to be held after the British advance stopped . Most of the losses inflicted on the British infantry by the German defence came from German artillery fire . In the days after the main attack , German shellfire on the new British lines was extremely accurate and well @-@ timed , inflicting 90 percent of the casualties suffered by the 25th Division . = = Aftermath = = = = = Analysis = = = Military analysts and historians disagree on the strategic significance of the battle , although most describe it as a British tactical and operational success . In 1919 , Ludendorff wrote that the British victory cost the German army dear and drained German reserves . Hindenburg wrote that the losses at Messines had been very heavy and that he regretted that the ground had not been evacuated ; in 1922 , Kuhl called it one of the worst German tragedies of the war . In 1920 Haig 's Dispatches described the success of the British plan , organisation and results but refrained from hyperbole , referring to the operation as a successful preliminary to the main offensive at Ypres . In 1930 , Liddell Hart thought the success at Messines inflated expectations for the Third Battle of Ypres and that because the circumstances of the operations were different , attempts to apply similar tactics resulted in failure . In 1938 Lloyd George called the battle an apéritif and in 1939 , G. C. Wynne judged it to be a " brilliant success " , overshadowed by the subsequent tragedy of the Battles of Passchendaele . The Official Historian called it a " great victory " in 1948 and Prior and Wilson ( 1997 ) called the battle a " noteworthy success " but then complained about the decision to postpone exploitation of the success on the Gheluvelt plateau . Ashley Ekins referred to the battle as a great set @-@ piece victory , which was also costly , particularly for the infantry of II Anzac Corps , as did Christopher Pugsley , referring to the experience of the New Zealand Division . Heinz Hagenlücke called it a great British success and wrote that the loss of the ridge , had a worse effect on German morale than the number of casualties . Jack Sheldon called it a " significant victory " for the British and a " disaster " for the German army , which was forced into a " lengthy period of anxious waiting " . Brown in 1996 and Simpson in 2001 concluded that extending British supply routes over the ridge , which had been devastated by the mines and millions of shells , to consolidate the Oosttaverne line and completion of the infrastructure further north in the Fifth Army area , was necessary before the " Northern Operation " ( the Third Battle of Ypres ) could begin and was the main reason for the operational pause in June and July . = = = Casualties = = = In 1941 the Australian Official Historian recorded II Anzac Corps losses from 1 – 14 June as 4 @,@ 978 casualties in the New Zealand Division , 3 @,@ 379 casualties in the 3rd Australian Division and 2 @,@ 677 casualties in the 4th Australian Division . Using figures from the Reichsarchiv , Bean recorded German casualties for 21 – 31 May , 1 @,@ 963 ; 1 – 10 June , 19 @,@ 923 ( including 7 @,@ 548 missing ) ; 11 – 20 June , 5 @,@ 501 and 21 – 30 June , 1 @,@ 773 . In volume XII of Der Weltkrieg the German Official Historians recorded 25 @,@ 000 casualties for the period 21 May – 10 June including 10 @,@ 000 missing of whom 7 @,@ 200 were reported as taken prisoner by the British . Losses of the British were recorded as 25 @,@ 000 casualties and a further 3 @,@ 000 missing from 18 May – 14 June . The initial explosion of the mines , in particular the mine that created the Lone Tree Crater , accounts for the high number of casualties and missing from 1 – 10 June . In 1948 , the British Official Historian gave casualties of II Anzac Corps , 12 @,@ 391 ; IX Corps , 5 @,@ 263 ; X Corps , 6 @,@ 597 ; II Corps , 108 and VIII Corps , 203 a total of 24 @,@ 562 casualties from 1 – 12 June . The 25th Division history gave 3 @,@ 052 casualties and the 47th Division history notes 2 @,@ 303 casualties . The British Official Historian recorded 21 @,@ 886 German casualties , including 7 @,@ 548 missing , from 21 May – 10 June , using strength returns from groups Ypern , Wijtschate and Lille in the German Official History , then wrote that 30 % should be added for wounded likely to return to duty within a reasonable time , since they were " omitted " in the German Official History , reasoning which has been severely criticised ever since . In 2007 Sheldon gave 22 @,@ 988 casualties for the German 4th Army from 1 – 10 June 1917 . = = = Subsequent operations = = = At 3 : 00 a.m. on 8 June , the British attack to regain the Oosttaverne line from the river Douve to the Warneton road found few German garrisons as it was occupied . German artillery south of the Lys , heavily bombarded the southern slopes of the ridge and caused considerable losses among Anzac troops pinned there . Ignorance of the situation north of the Warneton road continued ; a reserve battalion was sent to reinforce the 49th Australian Battalion near the Blauwepoortbeek for the 3 : 00 a.m. attack , which did not take place . The 4th Australian Division commander , Major @-@ General William Holmes , went forward at 4 : 00 a.m. and finally clarified the situation . New orders instructed the 33rd Brigade ( 11th Division ) to side @-@ step to the right and relieve the 52nd Australian Battalion , which at dusk would move to the south and join the 49th Australian Battalion for the attack into the gap at the Blauwepoortbeek . All went well until observers on the ridge saw the 52nd Australian Battalion withdrawing , mistook it for a German counter @-@ attack and called for an SOS bombardment . German observers in the valley saw troops from the 33rd Brigade moving into the area to relieve the Australian battalion , mistook them for an attacking force and also called for an SOS bombardment . The area was deluged with artillery fire from both sides for two hours , causing many casualties and the attack was postponed until 9 June . Confusion had been caused by the original attacking divisions on the ridge , having control over the artillery which covered the area occupied by the reserve divisions down the eastern slope . The arrangement had been intended to protect the ridge from large German counter @-@ attacks , which might force the reserve divisions back up the slope . The mistaken bombardments of friendly troops ended late on 9 June , when the New Zealand , 16th ( Irish ) and 36th ( Ulster ) divisions were withdrawn into reserve and the normal corps organisation was restored ; anticipated large German counter @-@ attacks had not occurred . On 10 June , the attack down the Blauwepoortbeek began but met strong resistance from the fresh German 11th Division , brought in from Group Ypres . The 3rd Australian Division advanced 600 yards ( 550 m ) either side the river Douve , consolidating their hold on a rise around Thatched Cottage , which secured the right flank of the new Messines position ; early on 11 June , the Germans evacuated the Blauwepoortbeek sector . British observation from the Oosttaverne line proved to be poor , which led Plumer to order a further advance down the slope . On 14 June , the II Anzac Corps was to push forward on the right from Plugstreet Wood to Trois Tilleuls Farm and Hill 20 and another 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) to the Gapaard spur and Ferme de la Croix . IX Corps was to take Joye Farm , the Wambeke hamlet and come level with the Australians at Delporte Farm ; X Corps was to capture the Spoil Bank and the areas adjacent . The attack was forestalled by a German retirement on the night of 10 / 11 June and by 14 June , British advanced posts had been established without resistance . Meticulously planned and well executed , the assault secured its objectives in fewer than twelve hours . The combination of tactics devised on the Somme and at Arras , the use of mines , artillery survey , creeping barrages , tanks , aircraft and small @-@ unit fire @-@ and @-@ movement tactics , created a measure of surprise and allowed the attacking infantry to advance by infiltration when confronted by intact defences . Well @-@ organised mopping @-@ up parties prevented by @-@ passed German troops from firing on advanced troops from behind . The British took 7 @,@ 354 prisoners , 48 guns , 218 machine @-@ guns and 60 trench mortars . The offensive secured the southern end of the Ypres salient in preparation for the British " Northern Operation " . Laffert , commander of Gruppe Wijtschate , was sacked two days after the battle . Haig had discussed the possibility of rapid exploitation of a victory at Messines with Plumer before the attack , arranging for II and VIII Corps to advance either side of Bellewaarde Lake , using some of the artillery from the Messines front , which Plumer considered would take three days to transfer . On 8 June , patrols on the II and VIII Corps fronts reported strong resistance , Haig urged Plumer to attack immediately and Plumer replied that it would still take three days to arrange . Haig transferred the two corps to the Fifth Army and that evening , gave instructions to Gough to plan the preliminary operation to capture the area around Stirling Castle . On 14 June , Gough announced that the operation would put his troops into a salient and that he wanted to take the area as part of the main offensive . On 13 June , German aircraft began daylight attacks on London and the south @-@ east of England , leading to the diversion of British aircraft from the concentration of air forces for the " Northern Operation " . = = = Victoria Cross = = = Private John Carroll , 33rd Battalion , 3rd Australian Division . Lance @-@ Corporal Samuel Frickleton , 3rd Battalion , New Zealand Rifles , New Zealand Division . Captain Robert Cuthbert Grieve , 37th Battalion , 3rd Australian Division . Private William Ratcliffe , 2nd South Lancashire Regiment , 25th Division .
= Stella Nickell = Stella Nickell ( born August 7 , 1943 ) is an American woman who was sentenced to 90 years in prison for product tampering after she poisoned Excedrin capsules with lethal cyanide , resulting in the deaths of her husband , Bruce , and Susan Snow . Her May 1988 conviction and prison sentence were the first under federal product tampering laws instituted after the Chicago Tylenol murders . = = Early life = = Stella Nickell was born Stella Maudine Stephenson in Colton , Oregon , to Alva Georgia " Jo " ( née Duncan ; later changed her name to Cora Lee ) and George Stephenson , and grew up poor . By age sixteen , she was pregnant with her daughter Cynthia . Nickell then moved to Southern California , married , and had another daughter . She began to have various legal troubles , including a conviction for fraud in 1968 , a charge the following year of beating Cynthia with a curtain rod , and a conviction for forgery in 1971 . She served six months in jail for the fraud charge , and was ordered into counseling after the abuse charge . Stella met Bruce Nickell in 1974 . Nickell was a heavy equipment operator with a drinking habit , which suited Stella 's lifestyle , and the two were married in 1976 . In the course of their ten @-@ year marriage , Bruce Nickell entered rehab and gave up drinking . Reportedly , Stella resented this . Her bar visits were curtailed by Bruce 's sobriety , and Stella cultivated a home aquarium as a new hobby . = = Deaths = = On June 5 , 1986 , the couple was living in Auburn , Washington when Bruce Nickell , 52 , came home from work with a headache . According to Stella , Nickell took four Extra @-@ Strength Excedrin capsules from a bottle in their home for his headache and collapsed minutes later . Nickell died shortly thereafter at Harborview Medical Center , where treatment had failed to revive him . His death was initially ruled to be by natural causes , with attending physicians citing emphysema . A second death , less than a week later , forced authorities to reconsider the cause of Nickell 's death . On June 11 , Susan Snow , a 40 @-@ year @-@ old Auburn bank manager , took two Extra @-@ Strength Excedrin capsules for an early @-@ morning headache . Snow 's husband , Paul Webking , took two capsules from the same bottle for his arthritis and left the house for work . At 6 : 30 am , the Snows ' fifteen @-@ year @-@ old daughter found Susan Snow collapsed on the floor of her bathroom , unresponsive and with a faint pulse . Paramedics were called and transported Snow to Harborview Medical Center , but she died later the same day without regaining consciousness . = = Investigation = = = = = Initial investigation = = = During an autopsy on Susan Snow , Assistant Medical Examiner Janet Miller detected the scent of bitter almonds , an odor distinctive to cyanide . Tests verified that Snow had died of acute cyanide poisoning . Investigators examined the contents of the Snow @-@ Webking household and discovered the source of the cyanide : the bottle of Extra @-@ Strength Excedrin capsules that both Snow and Webking had used the morning of Snow 's death . Three capsules out of those that remained in the 60 @-@ capsule bottle were found to be laced with cyanide in toxic quantities . A murder by cyanide was sensational news in Washington . When another tainted bottle from the same lot was found in a grocery store in nearby Kent , Washington , the manufacturers of Excedrin , Bristol @-@ Myers , responded to the discovery with a heavily @-@ publicized recall of all Extra @-@ Strength Excedrin products in the Seattle , Washington area , and a group of drug companies came together to offer a $ 300 @,@ 000 reward for the capture of the person responsible . In response to the publicity , Stella Nickell came forward on June 19 . She told police that her husband had recently died suddenly , after taking pills from a 40 @-@ capsule bottle of Extra @-@ Strength Excedrin with the same lot number as the one that had killed Susan Snow . Tests by the FDA confirmed the presence of cyanide in Bruce Nickell 's remains and in two Excedrin bottles Stella Nickell had turned over to police . Initial suspicions were directed at the manufacturers of the Excedrin capsules . Both Paul Webking and Stella Nickell filed wrongful death lawsuits against Bristol @-@ Myers , and the FDA inspected the Morrisville , North Carolina plant where Extra @-@ Strength Excedrin lot 5H102 had been packaged , but found no traces of cyanide to explain its presence in the Washington bottles . On June 18 , Bristol @-@ Myers recalled all Excedrin capsules in the United States , pulling them from store shelves and warning consumers to not use any they may already have bought ; two days later the company announced a recall of all of their non @-@ prescription capsule products . On June 24 , a cyanide @-@ contaminated bottle of Extra @-@ Strength Anacin @-@ 3 was found at the same store where Susan Snow had bought her contaminated Excedrin . On June 27 , Washington State put into an effect a 90 @-@ day ban on the sale of non @-@ prescription medication in capsules . Examination of the contaminated bottles by the FBI Crime Lab found that , in addition to containing cyanide powder , the poisoned capsules also contained flecks of an unknown green substance . Further tests showed that the substance was an algaecide used in home aquariums , sold under the brand name Algae Destroyer . = = = Focusing the investigation = = = With contamination of the Excedrin at the source having been ruled out , investigators began to focus their investigation on the end @-@ users of the product . The FBI began an investigation into possible product tampering having been the source of the poison . At the time , Excedrin was packaged in plastic bottles with the mouth of the bottle sealed with foil and the lid secured to the bottle with plastic wrap . Both Paul Webking and Stella Nickell were asked to take polygraph examinations . Webking did so , though he complained in subsequent press about his treatment by the FBI . Nickell declined to take a polygraph exam through the lawyer representing her in the wrongful @-@ death suit she had filed , who told reporters that she was too " shaken up " to be subjected to the examination . Investigators ' suspicions began to turn to Stella Nickell when they discovered that she claimed that the two contaminated Excedrin bottles that she had turned over to police had been purchased at different times and different locations . A total of five bottles had been found to be contaminated in the entire country , and it was regarded as suspicious that Nickell would happen to have acquired two of them purely by chance . With investigatory focus turned to Stella Nickell , detectives uncovered more circumstantial evidence pointing to her as the culprit . Nickell had taken out a total of about $ 76 @,@ 000 in insurance coverage on her husband 's life , with an additional payout of $ 100 @,@ 000 if his death was accidental . She was also known to have , even before Susan Snow 's death , repeatedly disputed doctors ' ruling that her husband had died of natural causes . Further FBI investigation showed that Bruce Nickell 's purported signatures on at least two of the insurance policies in his name had been forged . Investigators were also able to verify that Nickell had purchased Algae Destroyer from a local fish store ; it was speculated that the algaecide had become mixed with the cyanide when Nickell used the same container to crush both substances without washing it in between uses . Nickell finally consented to a polygraph examination in November 1986 . She failed it and investigators narrowed their focus to her even further ; however , concrete evidence proving that Nickell had ever purchased or used cyanide was lacking , and despite their relative certainty that Stella Nickell had orchestrated the poisonings as either an elaborate cover @-@ up for an insurance @-@ motivated murder of her husband , or as a desperate attempt to force her husband 's death to be ruled an accident , to increase her insurance payout , they were unable to build a strong enough case to support an arrest . = = = Breaking the case = = = In January 1987 , Stella Nickell 's adult daughter , Cynthia Hamilton , approached police with information : Nickell had spoken to her daughter repeatedly about wanting her husband dead . He was a bore , Nickell said , who after having gotten sober , preferred to stay home and watch television rather than go out to bars . Nickell , Hamilton claimed , had even told her that she had tried to poison Bruce previously with foxglove . When that failed , she had begun library research into other methods and hit upon cyanide . Cynthia also claimed that Nickell had spoken to her about what the two of them could do with the insurance money if Bruce Nickell were dead . Records from the Auburn Public Library , when subpoenaed , showed that Nickell had checked out numerous books about poisons , including Human Poisonings from Native and Cultivated Plants and Deadly Harvest . The former was marked as overdue in library records , indicating that Nickell had borrowed but never returned it . The FBI identified Nickell 's fingerprints on cyanide @-@ related pages of a number of the works she had checked out from the library in this period . By the summer of 1987 , even Nickell 's attorneys acknowledged that she was the prime suspect in the case . = = Arrest and trial = = On December 9 , 1987 , Stella Nickell was indicted by a federal grand jury on five counts of product tampering , including two which resulted in the deaths of Susan Snow and Bruce Nickell , and arrested the same day . She went on trial in April , 1988 and was found guilty of all charges on May 9 , after five days of jury deliberation . Despite Nickell 's legal team 's claims of jury @-@ tampering and judicial misconduct having occurred , a motion for a mistrial was denied and Nickell was sentenced to two ninety @-@ year terms for the charges relating to the deaths of Snow and Bruce Nickell , and three ten @-@ year terms for the other product tampering charges . All sentences were to run concurrently , and the judge ordered Nickell to pay a small fine and forfeit her remaining assets to the families of her victims . Nickell will be eligible for parole in 2018 , when she will be 75 years old . = = Appeals and subsequent petitions = = Nickell continued to maintain her innocence after her trial . An appeal based on jury @-@ tampering and judicial misconduct issues was rejected by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in August 1989 . A second appeal , beginning in 2001 with the assistance of Innocence Project and private detectives Al Farr and Paul Ciolino , requested a new trial on the basis of new evidence having been discovered that the FBI may have withheld documents from the defense . The appeal was denied , though Nickell and her team continue to assert her innocence . She claims that her daughter Cynthia lied about Nickell 's involvement in the case in order to reap the $ 300 @,@ 000 of reward money being offered . Cynthia Hamilton eventually collected $ 250 @,@ 000 of that money . Nickell also alleges that the testimony of various smaller cogs in the case , such as the store owner who testified about her having purchased Algae Destroyer , was influenced by promises of payment . = = FDA regulations = = After the 1982 Tylenol murders , FDA regulations went into effect which made it a federal - rather than just a state or local - crime to tamper with consumer products . Local and state authorities are not , however , prevented from also filing charges in such cases . Under this law , Nickell 's crime was prosecutable as a federal product tampering case as well as a state murder case , and she was convicted not of murder , but of product tampering that caused death . The possibility of state charges for the actual murders of Susan Snow and Bruce Nickell continues to exist . = = In media = = A 2000 made @-@ for @-@ TV film was to be made about the Stella Nickell case , but it was cancelled shortly before production began based on strong objections from advertisers , including Johnson & Johnson , owner of the Tylenol brand of painkillers , which had featured in the Chicago Tylenol murders , a prior product @-@ tampering case . The film was to have aired on USA Network , directed by Jeff Reiner and starring Katey Sagal . Seattle author Gregg Olsen wrote about the Nickell case in his book , Bitter Almonds : The True Story of Mothers , Daughters and the Seattle Cyanide Murders . The case was also featured on episodes of HBO Autopsy , Forensic Files , The New Detectives , and Snapped , as well as two episodes of Deadly Women . Nickell 's murders are discussed in the Jodi Picoult novel House Rules .
= Admiral @-@ class battlecruiser = The Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers were to have been a class of four British Royal Navy battlecruisers designed near the end of World War I. Their design began as an improved version of the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships , but it was recast as a battlecruiser after Admiral John Jellicoe , commander of the Grand Fleet , pointed out that there was no real need for more battleships , but that a number of German battlecruisers had been laid down that were superior to the bulk of the Grand Fleet 's battlecruisers and the design was revised to counter these . The class was to have consisted of HMS Hood , Anson , Howe , and Rodney — all names of famous admirals — but the latter three ships were suspended as the material and labour required to complete them was needed for higher @-@ priority merchantmen and escort vessels . Their designs were updated to incorporate the lessons from the Battle of Jutland , but the Admiralty eventually decided that it was better to begin again with a clean @-@ slate design so they were cancelled in 1919 . No more battlecruisers would be built due to the arms limitations agreements of the interbellum . Hood , however , was sufficiently advanced in construction that she was completed in 1920 and immediately became flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . She served as the flagship of the Special Service Squadron during its round @-@ the @-@ world cruise in 1923 @-@ 24 . Hood was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1936 and spent much of the next few years on Non @-@ Intervention Patrols during the Spanish Civil War , returning to the United Kingdom before the beginning of World War II and the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet . Hood spent most of the early part of the war patrolling against German commerce raiders and escorting convoys . Flagship of Force H , based at Gibraltar , she bombarded French ships during the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . In May 1941 Hood and the battleship Prince of Wales were ordered to intercept the German battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen as they attempted to break out into the North Atlantic . In the subsequent Battle of the Denmark Strait , the aft magazines of Hood exploded , sinking her within five minutes of opening fire . = = Design and description = = In 1915 the Admiralty was considering the next generation of warship to follow the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . The Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , Sir Eustace Tennyson @-@ d 'Eyncourt , was given instructions to prepare designs for a new battleship . The design should : " take the armament , armour and engine power of Queen Elizabeth as the standard and build around them a hull which should draw as little water as was considered practicable and safe , and which should embody all the latest protection and improvements against underwater attack . " The design ( ' A ' ) was submitted to the Admiralty on 30 November for consideration . The DNC had been able to reduce the draught in comparison to Queen Elizabeth by 22 % by widening the ship to 104 feet ( 31 @.@ 7 m ) and lengthening it to 810 feet ( 246 @.@ 9 m ) ; this had the consequence of restricting the ships to use only one dock in Rosyth and two in Portsmouth . Large anti @-@ torpedo bulges were fitted , and the secondary armament of twelve 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns of a new design was mounted on the forecastle deck . The resulting high freeboard gave the design a greater ratio of reserve buoyancy to displacement than in any previous British dreadnought . The design 's stretched hull form also gave her an estimated speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) , about 2 @.@ 5 knots ( 4 @.@ 6 km / h ; 2 @.@ 9 mph ) faster than Queen Elizabeth had been able to reach in service . The First Sea Lord , Admiral Sir Henry Jackson , responded on 6 December that one danger of such a large ship would be start a new arms race with the Americans that Britain could ill @-@ afford , and that better deck protection was necessary to defeat plunging shells during long @-@ range engagements . The Admiralty asked for the design to be reworked ( ' B ' ) with a maximum beam of 90 feet ( 27 @.@ 4 m ) , but this was deemed unsatisfactory as it compromised the ship 's underwater protection . A pair of revised designs was requested with the speed reduced to 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) to allow the hull to be shortened to better fit in existing floating docks and the minimum possible draught . The first of the two ( ' C1 ' ) was to have full bulge protection and the second ( ' C2 ' ) to have the best bulge protection possible without exceeding Queen Elizabeth 's length . ' C1 ' was shortened by 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) in comparison with ' B ' and ' C2 ' was only 610 feet ( 185 @.@ 9 m ) in length , but draught increased by 1 foot 3 inches ( 0 @.@ 38 m ) . In both proposals it had been necessary to reduce the number of guns in the secondary armament and reduce the thickness of the armour . The Admiralty was not pleased with either design and asked for a revised version of ' A ' of the same draught , beam , armour and armament , but shortened and with the same speed as Queen Elizabeth . In addition the new five @-@ inch gun was rejected in favour of the existing 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) gun . At least some of the designs were passed to Admiral John Jellicoe , commander of the Grand Fleet , who pointed out that there was no need for new battleships as the British superiority in numbers over the Germans was substantial , but that was not true for battlecruisers . Germany was known to be building three new Mackensen @-@ class battlecruisers with an estimated speed approaching 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) and a reported armament of 15 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 386 mm ) guns . These ships would be superior to all existing British battlecruisers , and those then under construction ( the two Renown @-@ class and the three Courageous @-@ class ' large light cruisers ' ) were equally fast , but too thinly armoured to compete with them . He also remarked that his experience with Queen Elizabeth @-@ class had persuaded him that an intermediate speed between the battleships and the battlecruisers was of little use ; he suggested that the design should be for either a 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) battleship or a thirty @-@ knot battlecruiser , preferably the latter . The DNC prepared two new designs in response to Admiral Jellicoe 's comments on 1 February 1916 , each for a battlecruiser capable of thirty knots or better and armed with eight 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns . Design ' 1' displaced 39 @,@ 000 long tons ( 39 @,@ 626 t ) with two less inches in belt armour and a speed of thirty knots . It used the bulky large @-@ tube boilers traditional in British capital ships , which explains why the design was 9 @,@ 000 long tons ( 9 @,@ 144 t ) larger than any of the previous battleship designs . Design ' 2' was essentially a repeat of the first design except that small @-@ tube boilers were substituted . These were considerably smaller than the older type and saved 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 556 t ) over Design ' 1' and had one less foot of draught . These savings were substantial enough to overcome the Engineer @-@ in @-@ Chief 's objections that they required more frequent and expensive repairs . The DNC was asked to submit four more designs using small @-@ tube boilers which were submitted on 17 February . Design ' 3' was Design ' 2' with the machinery power increased to 160 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 000 kW ) to boost the maximum speed to 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) while the other designs had either four , six or eight 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) guns . Design ' 3' was selected as Admiral Jellicoe has specified that the minimum number of guns should be no less than eight as fewer caused problems in accurate fire control , and two alternatives were to be provided , one with a dozen 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and the other with sixteen such guns . The latter proposal was selected on 7 April and orders were placed on 19 April for three ships ( Hood , Howe and Rodney ) . The order for the fourth ship , Anson , was placed on 13 June . Hood was laid down on 31 May 1916 , the same day as the Battle of Jutland . The loss of three British battlecruisers during that battle caused the work on all three ships to be suspended pending an investigation into possible design flaws . Admiral Jellicoe 's investigation blamed the loss of the ships on faulty cordite handling procedures that allowed fires in the turrets or hoists to reach the ships ' magazines . It recommended anti @-@ flash equipment be installed in magazines and handling rooms and the improvement of deck armour over the magazines to prevent plunging shells or fragments from reaching the magazines . The DNC and the Third Sea Lord opposed the latter , believing that there was no direct evidence that the magazines had been directly penetrated . On 5 July the DNC submitted two revised designs for the Admiral @-@ class ships . The first was a modification of the previous design with slight increases to the deck , turret , barbette , and funnel uptake armour , one @-@ inch protection for the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ammunition hatches and hoists , and the number of electrical generators increased from four to eight . These changes increased the displacement by 1 @,@ 250 long tons ( 1 @,@ 270 t ) and draught by 9 inches ( 228 @.@ 6 mm ) . The second design drastically improved the protection and converted the ships into fast battleships . The vertical armour was generally increased by 50 % and the deck protection was slightly thickened as in the first design . These changes would have added another 4 @,@ 300 long tons ( 4 @,@ 369 t ) to the original design and increased the draught by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) , but would have cost half a knot in speed . This design would have been equal to the Queen Elizabeths , but 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) faster and with much improved torpedo protection , although it was some 13 @,@ 000 long tons ( 13 @,@ 209 t ) larger than the older ships . After the DNC submitted the above designs , he was asked to consider variations with triple fifteen @-@ inch turrets , and these were submitted on 20 July . The Admiralty chose the fast battleship design , and Hood was laid down again on 1 September . Later that month Hood 's armour scheme was slightly revised in light of further analysis of the results of Jutland and the deck armour was modestly increased in order to ensure that a minimum thickness of nine inches of armour would have to be penetrated by shells striking at angles of descent up to 30 ° from the horizontal . Further alterations were made in 1917 during her construction that increased the thickness of her turret faces and roofs . These changes , plus numerous others , increased her displacement by 600 long tons ( 610 t ) , her draught by 3 inches ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) and reduced her speed to 31 knots ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) . The changes continued during 1918 when the thickness of her magazine crowns was increased from one inch to two ; the armour for the funnel uptakes above the forecastle deck was omitted in compensation . In May 1919 her main deck armour at the side abreast the magazines was increased to three inches ( 76 mm ) , and four 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and their ammunition were deleted in consequence . The next month plans were approved to increase the thickness of the main deck over the forward magazines to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) and to 6 inches ( 152 mm ) over the rear magazines ; her four above water torpedo tubes and their protection were to be omitted and the wall of the torpedo control tower were to be reduced to a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 @.@ 1 mm ) to offset the armour 's weight . However , the additional deck armour was never fitted and the torpedo tubes ( less their protection ) were retained . Earlier in 1917 , however , construction of Hood 's three sisters had been suspended as the amount of labour and material they required would be better employed in the construction and repair of merchant ships and escorts needed to keep open Britain 's lines of communication in the face of the U @-@ boat blockade . Design work continued however , although Hood was too far advanced to incorporate these changes , and ultimately would have been extensive enough for the other three ships to constitute their own class . At the end of 1917 the suspended ships ' design was modified to increase the thickness of the turret roofs to six inches ( 152 mm ) , and ( unspecified ) alterations were made to the armoured bulkheads . These cost a total of 267 long tons ( 271 t ) in displacement . Other changes were a redesigned bridge structure and moving the funnels closer together and the exchange in position between the fifteen @-@ inch shellrooms and magazines . This latter change would have caused the hull 's form to be filled out somewhat to accommodate the handling room of the rearmost turret at the cost of a slight loss in speed and ammunition storage . Hood was the closest to completion and her construction was continued in case the Germans managed to complete any of their new battlecruisers . Admiral Beatty continually pressed to have Hood 's construction expedited and for her sisters to be restarted , but the War Cabinet refused to approve either measure as nothing could be sacrificed in the shipbuilding programme to this end . After the end of the war the three suspended ships were cancelled as they could not fully incorporate the lessons of the war . = = = General characteristics = = = The Admiral @-@ class ships were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Renown class . They had an overall length of 860 feet ( 262 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 104 feet ( 31 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 31 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . This was 110 feet ( 33 @.@ 5 m ) longer and 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wider than the smaller ships . They displaced 41 @,@ 200 long tons ( 41 @,@ 861 t ) at load and 45 @,@ 620 long tons ( 46 @,@ 352 t ) at deep load , over 13 @,@ 000 long tons ( 13 @,@ 210 t ) more than the older ships . They had a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) at deep load as well as a complete double bottom . = = = Propulsion = = = The ships had four Brown @-@ Curtis single @-@ reduction geared steam turbine sets , each of which drove one propeller shaft . They were arranged in three engine rooms . The forward engine room held the two turbines for the wing shafts , the middle compartment housed the turbines for the port inner shaft and the aft engine room contained the turbines for the starboard inner shaft . A cruising turbine was built into the casing of each wing turbine . The turbines were powered by twenty @-@ four Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers equally divided between four boiler rooms . They were designed to produce a total of 144 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 107 @,@ 000 kW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ) , but achieved more than 151 @,@ 000 shp ( 112 @,@ 601 kW ) during Hood 's trials , when she slightly exceeded her designed speed of 31 knots ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) . They were designed to normally carry 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 219 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 064 t ) . At full capacity , Hood could steam at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) for an estimated 7 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 890 km ; 8 @,@ 630 mi ) . They had eight 175 @-@ kilowatt ( 235 hp ) dynamos , two diesel , two turbo @-@ driven , and four reciprocating . = = = Armament = = = The Admiral @-@ class ships mounted eight BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in four twin hydraulically powered Mark II turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 30 ° ; they could be loaded at any angle up to 20 ° , although loading at high angles tended to slow the gun 's return to battery . The ships carried 120 shells per gun . They fired 1 @,@ 920 @-@ pound ( 871 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 467 ft / s ( 752 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 29 @,@ 000 yd ( 26 @,@ 518 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . Their secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns , which were mounted on pivot mounts on the forecastle deck , protected by gun shields . They were provided with 200 rounds per gun . The guns on their CPII mounts had a maximum elevation of 30 ° . They fired 82 @-@ pound ( 37 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 790 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) . Their maximum range was 17 @,@ 700 yd ( 16 @,@ 200 m ) at 30 ° elevation . Their rate of fire was twelve rounds per minute . The Admiral @-@ class ships were designed with four QF four @-@ inch Mark V anti @-@ aircraft guns . They had a maximum depression of -5 ° and a maximum elevation of 80 ° . They fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of ten to fifteen rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective range of much less . Two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged side @-@ loading torpedo tubes were fitted forward of ' A ' turret and eight above @-@ water side @-@ loading Mark V tubes were intended to be mounted abreast the rear funnel on the upper deck , although only four of the latter were carried by Hood . They were loaded and traversed by hydraulic power ; the submerged tubes were fired by compressed air while the above @-@ water tubes used cordite charges . Thirty @-@ two warheads could be accommodated in the two magazines in the hold forward of ' A ' turret 's shellroom . Hood carried Mark IV and IV * torpedoes , each which had a warhead of 515 pounds ( 234 kg ) of TNT . They had three speed settings which governed their range ; from 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 315 m ) at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) , 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 144 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) , and 13 @,@ 500 yards ( 12 @,@ 344 m ) at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . = = = Fire @-@ control = = = The main guns of the Admiral @-@ class ships were controlled from either of the two fire @-@ control directors . The primary director was mounted above the conning tower in an armoured hood and the other was in the fore @-@ top on the foremast . ' B ' turret could also control all the main gun turrets while ' X ' turret could control the rear guns . Data from a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder in the armoured hood were input into a Mk V Dreyer Fire Control Table located in the Transmitting Station ( TS ) on the platform deck where they were converted into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data were also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . The fore @-@ top was equipped with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinder . Each turret was provided with a thirty @-@ foot rangefinder in an armoured housing on the turret roof and a Dumaresq analogue computer for local fire @-@ control . The secondary armament was primarily controlled by the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch directors mounted on each side of the bridge . They were supplemented by the two additional control positions in the fore @-@ top , which were provided with 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders . Each of these positions was equipped with a Dumaresq calculator for local control , but the spotting data were normally sent to the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch TS on the lower deck much like the procedure for the fifteen @-@ inch guns , except that the firing data were calculated by two Type F fire @-@ control clocks ( analog computers ) . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a simple 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) rangefinder mounted on the aft superstructure . The torpedoes initially had a similar system where various rangefinders , especially the fifteen @-@ foot rangefinder above the aft torpedo control tower , and deflection sights provided data to a Dreyer table in the torpedo TS adjacent to the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch TS on the lower deck . However the Dreyer table was removed during Hood 's 1929 – 1931 refit and the calculations were made in the torpedo control position in the bridge . = = = Armour = = = The waterline belt of the Admiral @-@ class ships was 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick , angled 12 ° outwards partly to keep the belt inside the bulge structure and allow torpedo hits to vent to the atmosphere . This angle also increased the armor 's relative thickness to horizontal , close @-@ range fire , albeit at the cost of reducing its relative height which increased the chance of plunging shellfire going over or under it . This sloped belt made their armor comparable to the 13 inches ( 330 mm ) found in the latest British dreadnoughts . It ran some 562 feet ( 171 @.@ 3 m ) , from the forward edge of ' A ' barbette to the middle of ' Y ' barbette . Forward of this the belt thinned to six inches before further reducing to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) and ending in a five @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) bulkhead well short of the bow . Aft of the midships section the belt reduced to six inches ( 152 mm ) ; it did not reach the stern , but terminated at a five @-@ inch bulkhead . This belt had a height of 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) , which 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) was below the designed waterline . Above it was the seven @-@ inch middle belt , 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , and the five @-@ inch upper belt , which was 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high . The middle belt stretched between ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes , ending in four @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end . The upper belt only ran from ' A ' barbette to the end of the machinery spaces and ended in another four @-@ inch transverse bulkhead . Five of Hood 's decks were armoured with thicknesses varying from .75 to 3 inches ( 19 to 76 mm ) , with the greatest thicknesses over the magazines and the steering gear . Immediately adjacent to ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes the main deck was five inches thick to protect the magazines . The turret faces were fifteen inches thick while their sides ranged from 11 to 12 inches ( 279 to 305 mm ) in thickness , and the roof was five inches thick . The barbettes had a maximum of twelve inches of armour , but were reduced in thickness in stages below decks , although the outer faces of ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes were considerably thicker below decks than the other barbettes . The conning tower armour was nine to eleven inches thick , and it was the largest yet fitted to a British capital ship as it weighed 600 long tons ( 610 t ) . The primary fire @-@ control director atop the conning tower was protected by an armoured hood . The face of the hood was six inches thick , its sides were two inches thick , and its roof was protected by three inches of armour . A communications tube with six @-@ inch sides ran from the conning tower down to the lower conning position on the main deck . The three torpedo bulkheads were 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) , 1 inch ( 25 mm ) and .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The anti @-@ torpedo bulges of the Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers were the first fitted on a British capital ship to fully incorporate the lessons learned from a series of experiments begun before World War I. They consisted of an outer air space , an inner buoyancy space and the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch protective bulkhead . The buoyancy space was filled with sealed steel crushing tubes intended to distribute the force of an explosion over as wide an area as possible as well as absorb as much of its force as possible . However , tests conducted after Hood was completed showed that filling the buoyancy space with water was equally as effective and considerably cheaper . = = Ships = = = = Service = = Shortly after commissioning on 15 May 1920 Hood became flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Sir Roger Keyes . She made a cruise to Scandinavian waters that year . She visited the Mediterranean in 1921 and 1922 to show the flag and to train with the Mediterranean Fleet , before sailing on a cruise to Brazil and the West Indies in company with the Battlecruiser Squadron . In November 1923 Hood , accompanied by the battlecruiser Repulse and a number of Danae @-@ class cruisers of the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron , set out on a world cruise from west to east via the Panama Canal . They returned home ten months later in September 1924 . The Battlecruiser Squadron visited Lisbon in January 1925 to participate in the Vasco da Gama celebrations before continuing on the Mediterranean for exercises . Hood would continue this pattern of a winter training visit to the Mediterranean for the rest of the decade . Hood was given a major refit from 1 May 1929 to 10 March 1931 and afterwards resumed her role as flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron . Later that year her crew participated in the Invergordon Mutiny over pay cuts for the sailors . It ended peacefully and Hood returned to her home port afterwards . The Battlecruiser Squadron made a Caribbean cruise in early 1932 . The next year she resumed her previous practice of a winter cruise in the Mediterranean . While en route to Gibraltar for one of these cruises she collided with the battlecruiser Renown on 23 January 1935 , but was only lightly damaged . Hood participated in King George V 's Silver Jublilee Fleet Review at Spithead the following August . She was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly afterward and stationed at Gibraltar at the outbreak of the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War and the Spanish Civil War . On 23 April 1937 she escorted three British merchantmen into Bilbao harbour despite the presence of the Nationalist cruiser Almirante Cervera that attempted to blockade the port . She returned to Portsmouth in January 1939 for an overhaul that lasted until 12 August . = = = World War II = = = In June 1939 , she was assigned to the Home Fleet ’ s Battlecruiser Squadron while still refitting ; when war broke out later that year , she was employed principally in patrolling the vicinity of Iceland and the Faroe Islands to protect convoys and intercept German raiders attempting to break out into the Atlantic . In September 1939 , she was hit by a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) aircraft bomb with minor damage . By early 1940 Hood 's machinery was in dire shape and limited her best speed to 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) ; she was refitted between 4 April and 12 June . Hood and the aircraft carrier Ark Royal were ordered to Gibraltar to join Force H on 18 June where Hood would become the flagship . As such , she took part in the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kebir in July 1940 . Just eight days after the French surrender , the British Admiralty had issued an ultimatum to the French Fleet at Oran to ensure they would not fall into German or Italian hands . The terms were rejected and the Royal Navy opened fire on the French ships berthed there . The results of Hood 's fire are not known exactly , but she damaged the French battleship Dunkerque , which was hit by four fifteen @-@ inch shells and was forced to beach herself . Hood was straddled during the engagement by Dunkerque ; shell splinters wounded two men . Dunkerque 's sister ship Strasbourg managed to escape from the harbour and Hood with several light cruisers gave chase , but gave up after two hours after Hood had dodged a salvo of torpedoes from the a French sloop and she had stripped a turbine reaching 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Hood was relieved as flagship of Force H by Renown on 10 August after returning to Scapa Flow . After a short refit she resumed her previous role in patrolling against German commerce raiders and convoy escort . This lasted until January 1941 when she began a refit that lasted until March . Upon its completion she was ordered to sea in an attempt to intercept the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst . Unsuccessful , she was ordered to patrol the Bay of Biscay against any breakout attempt by the German ships from Brest . Hood was ordered to the Norwegian Sea on 19 April when the Admiralty received a false report that the Bismarck had sailed from Germany . Afterwards she patrolled the North Atlantic before putting into Scapa Flow on 6 May . = = = = Battle of the Denmark Strait = = = = On the evening of 21 May 1941 Hood and the newly completed battleship Prince of Wales sailed from Scapa Flow to join the heavy cruisers Norfolk and Suffolk patrolling the Denmark Strait between Greenland and Iceland on the news that Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen had sortied into the North Atlantic . They had not yet reached the Strait when Suffolk spotted the German ships north of Iceland in the early evening on 23 May . Hood and Prince of Wales altered course and increased their speed to intercept . The British squadron spotted the Germans at 5 : 37 a.m. , but the Germans were already aware of their presence . The British opened fire at 05 : 52 with Hood engaging Prinz Eugen , the lead ship in the German formation , and the Germans returned fire 05 : 55 , both ships concentrating on Hood . Prinz Eugen ( probably ) was the first ship to score when a shell hit Hood 's boat deck , between her funnels , and started a large fire among the ready @-@ use ammunition for the anti @-@ aircraft guns and rockets of the Unrotated Projectile mounts . Right before 06 : 00 , while Hood was turning 20 ° to port to unmask her rear turrets , she was hit again on the boat deck by a shell from Bismarck 's fifth salvo . The exact location and sequence of events is unknown , but her aft fifteen @-@ inch magazines exploded . This broke her back and she sank with the loss of all but three of her crew .
= Fighting Tommy Riley = Fighting Tommy Riley is a 2004 American independent film that tells the story of Tommy Riley and Marty Goldberg , a boxer and his trainer , as they work to secure a title shot for Tommy . Their plans are complicated by the unrequited feelings Marty develops for Tommy . When a big @-@ time promoter seeks to acquire Tommy 's contract , Tommy endangers his future career because of his loyalty to Marty . Marty , seeing only one way to free Tommy to take his shot , takes his own life . Directed by Eddie O 'Flaherty , the film was written by J. P. Davis , who sold the script only on the condition that he himself would play Tommy . It also stars Eddie Jones as Marty , Christina Chambers as Stephanie , Diane Tayler as Diane Stone , and Paul Raci as Bob Silver . Fighting Tommy Riley opened in limited release on May 6 , 2005 to generally positive reviews , with Jones 's performance as Marty frequently singled out for praise . = = Plot = = Tommy Riley ( J. P. Davis ) stands in boxing gear in a dingy dressing room . There is a knock at the door and a voice calls out , " Are you ready ? " The film flashes back seven months . Tommy is a former boxer who almost made the 2000 U.S. Olympic boxing team as a middleweight . He works laying computer cable and earns money on the side as a sparring partner in a local gym . His lack of motivation has led his girlfriend Stephanie ( Christina Chambers ) to move out . Marty ( Eddie Jones ) is a former boxer , now a high school teacher and boxing trainer / manager who had previously coached a fighter to a title shot , only to have the fighter leave him just before the fight . Marty and his business partner Diane ( Diane Tayler ) arrive at the gym where Tommy spars to scout his sparring partner . The fighter 's manager instructs Tommy to make his fighter look good , but after he suffers a low blow , Tommy knocks the fighter out with one punch . The manager and the gym 's owner angrily order Tommy from the gym but Marty and Diane chase after him , inviting him to train with Marty . Tommy 's reputation and news of his return to the ring spark interest from promoters . After training some time , Marty and Diane set up a fight so that promoters can see him in action . He wins the fight but the promoter at ringside shows no enthusiasm . Diane gives Marty a tape of Tommy 's 1999 Olympic trial fight . Tommy was ahead after two rounds but quit before round three because of a hand injury . Marty realizes that Tommy faked his injury because of the poor coaching and abuse coming from his stepfather , who was serving as his cornerman . Marty and Tommy talk about Tommy 's stepfather and Marty 's former fighter . Marty tells Tommy that boxing is a team sport and that Tommy will never be alone in the ring . Tommy 's renewed motivation as a fighter leads to a reconciliation with Stephanie . Leroy Kane ( Don Wallace ) , the fighter who went to the Olympics instead of Tommy , wants a " tune @-@ up " fight before his fight for the middleweight title . His scheduled opponent is injured and Diane sets Tommy up for the bout instead . The fight is in four weeks , so Tommy and Marty go to Marty 's cabin in the woods to train without distractions . After several days , during a rubdown following a workout , Marty touches Tommy inappropriately . Tommy reacts strongly negatively and Marty apologizes . They agree to ignore the incident but return to the city ahead of schedule . On the night of Tommy 's fight with Kane , Tommy and Marty plan to force Kane to exhaust himself pursuing Tommy until the seventh round and then put him away . The plan works and Tommy knocks out Kane in round seven . After the fight Marty plans to take everyone out for a celebratory dinner but Bob Silver ( Paul Raci ) , a big @-@ time promoter , has watched the fight and , impressed , invites them all out . Marty declines and goes home , but later that night is taken to the hospital . Tommy rushes to the hospital and finds Diane there . He asks if Marty is in the hospital because of what happened at the cabin . Diane tells him that when Marty was a fighter , people threatened to expose Marty 's homosexuality , so he ended his career by putting his hand through a window and damaging it . He became a teacher and his influence led Diane to make herself a success . When Marty is released , Tommy moves in with him temporarily to help him recuperate . Bob summons Tommy , alone , for a meeting . Bob offers him a million dollar three @-@ fight contract on the condition that he leave Marty . Marty , Bob says , has a " tainted rep " in the fight game and represents an " element " that boxing will never be ready for . Tommy refuses the deal if it means leaving Marty . Diane and Marty both advise Tommy to take the offer but he still refuses . Stephanie and Tommy argue about the offer and Tommy drives Stephanie away . Marty tries to alienate Tommy by ignoring him during training and becoming verbally abusive . After Marty slaps Tommy several times during a training session , Tommy attacks him , yelling that if Marty ever puts his " faggot @-@ ass hands " on him again , he will kill him . Later that night Tommy goes to Marty 's place to apologize and to tell him that Marty can 't make him go away . Marty refuses to take him back . Tommy reduces himself to offering himself to Marty sexually . Marty explodes at him , furious that Tommy would think that of him after all they 'd been through . The next morning , Tommy rushes back to Marty 's house where he and a distraught Diane find Marty 's body . He has committed suicide by taking an overdose of sleeping pills . Tommy calls Stephanie to apologize and to tell her of Marty 's death . The film returns to the opening scene . Tommy breaks down in tears but stops crying when , upon catching sight of a mirror , he sees the image of Marty standing behind him . He finishes dressing for the fight and , as he walks to the ring , hears Stephanie calling to him . He turns to her ; they smile . He resumes his walk to the ring and the camera pulls back to reveal that he is dressed in Marty 's old ring robe in tribute . = = Cast = = J. P. Davis as Tommy Riley Eddie Jones as Marty Goldberg Christina Chambers as Stephanie Diane Tayler as Diane Stone Paul Raci as Bob Silver Don Wallace as Lenny Kane Scot Belsky as Freddie Holt Michael Bent as Mosley = = Production = = J. P. Davis was inspired to write the script after observing an older trainer working with a young boxer in a Brooklyn gym : " I watched the guy spar . You could tell he wasn 't going anywhere , but you could never convince the trainer . He 's almost a caretaker . He 's watching out for you completely . You could see the devotion involved . " Drawing upon material originally created for his critically acclaimed one @-@ man off @-@ Broadway show " Dreamer Awakens , " Davis completed the script in 1999 and moved to Los Angeles . Unrepresented by management , Davis sent his script out unsolicited to agents and studios over the course of the next three years . Davis secured representation through his efforts and received a number of studio offers , but , in a story reminiscent of Sylvester Stallone 's experience with Rocky , he refused to sell the script unless he was signed to play the title role . He also resisted demands that Marty be made heterosexual . While Davis and director O 'Flaherty honed the script , Davis trained as a boxer to add to the film 's authenticity . The film was shot in Los Angeles on high @-@ definition digital video on a budget of $ 200 @,@ 000 and was O 'Flaherty 's feature debut . The part of Marty was originally to be played by Rod Steiger , but Steiger died in 2002 , before filming could begin . = = Critical response = = Fighting Tommy Riley received generally positive reviews , with Eddie Jones frequently singled out for his performance . Variety gave the film an overall favorable review , citing Jones in particular for " personally push [ ing ] the movie to a higher emotional plane . " Davis and Tayler are also praised , the former for " grow [ ing ] into [ the ] role " and the latter for her " pro job at playing counterpoint " to Jones . Collectively the cast , but especially Jones , is said to elevate the picture above being a " standard drama on the sweet science with the usual tropes . " The San Francisco Chronicle largely agreed , calling Davis " a Van Damme who can act " and Jones " never less than convincing " as well as praising director O 'Flaherty for " coach [ ing ] solid performances from his small cast and mak [ ing ] the most of the handful of up @-@ close , well @-@ choreographed fight montages . " The Los Angeles Times was even more effusive , citing Jones as " unforgettable " and " in such command of his acting skills that Marty 's every gesture , look and movement is expressive and revealing , " Davis ' script as " exceptional " and his performance " no less fully realized " and O 'Flaherty 's direction as " subtle ... intense and convincing . " Tayler and Chambers are also lauded , Tayler for creating a " well drawn " character and Chambers for delivering an " effective " performance . Sports Illustrated called the film " stylish and well @-@ paced " despite its limited budget and echoes others ' praise for Jones 's " nuanced , intense performance , " but ( without mentioning the plot point of Marty 's sexual advance ) pinpoints the retreat to Marty 's cabin as when the script " starts to look and sound like beginners ' work . " When asked to name that year 's notable indie films and directors , famed film critic Roger Ebert stated " First @-@ time director Eddie O ’ Flaherty was able to work outside the system to make Fighting Tommy Riley , a film that I think can play in any theater or any multiplex . And yet it ’ s a boxing picture that is quite different from any formula boxing picture you ’ ve ever seen . In the final analysis , it ’ s not even really about boxing . " Strongly dissenting was the Village Voice , calling the film " [ o ] utrageously sentimental and retrograde " and in need of " serious vetting by [ LGBT media watchdog organization ] GLAAD . " The Voice compared Marty 's fate to that of other cinematic " self @-@ loathing homosexuals " like Martha Dobie of The Children 's Hour . However , writing for the LGBT @-@ interest Advocate magazine , gay film researcher David Ehrenstein praised the film for " speak [ ing ] volumes about those whom the gay rights revolution never touched and about the lives of older gays and lesbians in general . " Cinematographer Michael Fimognari won the Kodak Award for Cinematography at the 14th Annual Hamptons International Film Festival . Fighting Tommy Riley was an official selection of the 7th Annual San Francisco Independent Film Festival and of the 2004 Los Angeles Film Festival .
= The Hunger Games ( novel ) = The Hunger Games is a 2008 dystopian novel by the American writer Suzanne Collins . It is written in the voice of 16 @-@ year @-@ old Katniss Everdeen , who lives in the future , post @-@ apocalyptic nation of Panem in North America . The Capitol , a highly advanced metropolis , exercises political control over the rest of the nation . The Hunger Games is an annual event in which one boy and one girl aged 12 – 18 from each of the twelve districts surrounding the Capitol are selected by lottery to compete in a televised battle to the death . The book received mostly positive responses from major reviewers and authors . It was praised for its plot and character development . In writing The Hunger Games , Collins drew upon Greek mythology , Roman gladiatorial games , and contemporary reality television for thematic content . The novel won many awards , including the California Young Reader Medal , and was named one of Publishers Weekly 's " Best Books of the Year " in 2008 . The Hunger Games was first published in hardcover on September 14 , 2008 , by Scholastic , featuring a cover designed by Tim O 'Brien . It has since been released in paperback and also as an audiobook and ebook . After an initial print of 200 @,@ 000 , the book had sold 800 @,@ 000 copies by February 2010 . Since its release , The Hunger Games has been translated into 26 languages , and publishing rights have been sold in 38 territories . The novel is the first in The Hunger Games trilogy , followed by Catching Fire ( 2009 ) and Mockingjay ( 2010 ) . A film adaptation , directed by Gary Ross and co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Collins herself , was released in 2012 . = = Background = = Collins has said that the inspiration for The Hunger Games came from channel surfing on television . On one channel she observed people competing on a reality show and on another she saw footage of the invasion of Iraq . The two " began to blur in this very unsettling way " and the idea for the book was formed . The Greek myth of Theseus served as a major basis for the story , with Collins describing Katniss as a futuristic Theseus , and Roman gladiatorial games provided the framework . The sense of loss that Collins developed through her father 's service in the Vietnam War was also an influence on the story , with Katniss having lost her father at age 11 , five years before the story begins . Collins stated that the deaths of young characters and other " dark passages " were the most difficult parts of the book to write , but that she had accepted that passages such as these were necessary to the story . She considered the moments where Katniss reflects on happier moments in her past to be more enjoyable . = = Plot = = The Hunger Games takes place in a nation known as Panem , established in North America after the destruction of the continent 's civilization by an unknown apocalyptic event . The nation consists of the wealthy Capitol and twelve surrounding , poorer districts united under the Capitol 's control . District 12 , where the book begins , is located in the coal @-@ rich region that was formerly known as Appalachia . As punishment for a past rebellion against the Capitol , in which a 13th district was destroyed , one boy and one girl between the ages of 12 and 18 from each district are selected by an annual lottery to participate in the Hunger Games , an event in which the participants , the " tributes " , must fight to the death in an outdoor arena controlled by the Capitol , until only one individual remains . The story is narrated by 16 @-@ year @-@ old Katniss Everdeen , a girl from District 12 who volunteers for the 74th annual Hunger Games in place of her younger sister , Primrose . The male tribute chosen from District 12 is Peeta Mellark , a former schoolmate of Katniss who once gave her bread from his family 's bakery when her family was starving . Katniss and Peeta are taken to the Capitol , where their drunken mentor , Haymitch Abernathy , victor of the 50th Hunger Games , instructs them to watch and determine the strengths and weaknesses of the other tributes . " Stylists " are employed to make each tribute look his or her best ; Katniss 's stylist , Cinna , is the only person at the Capitol with whom she feels a degree of understanding . The tributes are publicly displayed to the Capitol audience in an interview with television host Caesar Flickerman , and have to attempt to appeal to the television audience in order to obtain " sponsors " . During this time , Peeta reveals on @-@ air his longtime unrequited love for Katniss . Katniss believes this to be a ploy to gain sponsors , who can be critical to survival because of their ability to send gifts such as food , medicine , and tools to favored tributes during the Games . While nearly half the tributes are killed in the first day of the Games , Katniss relies on her well @-@ practiced hunting and survival skills to remain unharmed and concealed from the other tributes . A few days into the Games , Katniss develops an alliance with Rue , a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl from the agricultural District 11 who reminds Katniss of her younger sister . In the meantime , Peeta appears to have joined forces with the tributes from the richer districts . However , when he has the opportunity to kill Katniss , he instead saves her from the others . Katniss 's alliance with Rue is brought to an abrupt end when Rue is killed by another tribute , whom Katniss then kills in self @-@ defence with an arrow . Katniss sings to Rue until she dies and spreads flowers over her body as a sign of respect for Rue and disgust towards the Capitol . Apparently because of Katniss and Peeta 's image in the minds of the audience as " star @-@ crossed lovers " , a rule change is announced midway through the Games , allowing two tributes from the same district to win the Hunger Games as a couple . Upon hearing this , Katniss begins searching for Peeta . She eventually finds him , wounded and in hiding . As she nurses him back to health , she acts the part of a young girl falling in love to gain more favor with the audience and , consequently , gifts from her sponsors . When the couple remains as the last two surviving tributes , the Gamemakers reverse the rule change in an attempt to force them into a dramatic finale , in which one must kill the other to win . Katniss , in an act of defiance against the Capitol , retrieves highly poisonous berries known as " nightlock " from her pouch and offers some to Peeta . Realizing that Katniss and Peeta intend to commit suicide , the Gamemakers announce that both will be the victors of the 74th Hunger Games . Although she survives the ordeal in the arena and is treated to a hero 's welcome in the Capitol , Katniss is warned by Haymitch that she has now become a political target after defying her society 's authoritarian leaders so publicly . Afterwards , Peeta is heartbroken when he learns that Katniss 's actions in the arena were part of a calculated ploy to earn sympathy from the audience . However , Katniss is unsure of her own feelings and realizes that she is dreading the moment when she and Peeta will go their separate ways . = = Themes = = In an interview with Collins , it was noted that the novel " tackles issues like severe poverty , starvation , oppression , and the effects of war among others . " The novel deals with the struggle for self @-@ preservation that the people of Panem face in their districts and the Hunger Games in which they must participate . The citizens ' starvation and their need for resources , both in and outside of the arena , create an atmosphere of helplessness that the main characters try to overcome in their fight for survival . Katniss needs to hunt to provide food for her family , resulting in the development of skills that are useful to her in the Games ( such as her proficiency with the bow and arrow ) , and represents her rejection of the Capitol 's rules in the face of life @-@ threatening situations . On the subject of the Games ' parallels with popular culture , Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly writes that the book " is an incisive satire of reality television shows " , and that the character of Cinna " almost seems like a contestant on a fascist version of Project Runway , using Katniss ' outfits as a vehicle to express potentially dangerous ideas . " The choices the characters make and the strategies they use are often morally complex . The tributes build a personality they want the audience to see throughout the Games . Library journal Voice of Youth Advocates names the major themes of The Hunger Games as " government control , ' big brother ' , and personal independence . " The trilogy 's theme of power and downfall , similar to that of Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar , was pointed out by its publisher Scholastic . Laura Miller of The New Yorker finds the author 's stated premise of the Games – an exercise in propaganda and a " humiliating as well as torturous [ ... ] punishment " for a failed uprising against the Capitol many years earlier – to be unconvincing . " You don 't demoralize and dehumanize a subject people by turning them into celebrities and coaching them on how to craft an appealing persona for a mass audience . " But the story works much better if the theme is vicissitudes of high school and " the adolescent social experience " . Miller writes : " The rules are arbitrary , unfathomable , and subject to sudden change . A brutal social hierarchy prevails , with the rich , the good @-@ looking , and the athletic lording their advantages over everyone else . To survive you have to be totally fake . Adults don 't seem to understand how high the stakes are ; your whole life could be over , and they act like it 's just some " phase " ! Everyone 's always watching you , scrutinizing your clothes or your friends and obsessing over whether you 're having sex or taking drugs or getting good enough grades , but no one cares who you really are or how you really feel about anything . " Donald Brake from The Washington Times and pastor Andy Langford state that the story has Christian themes , such as that of self @-@ sacrifice , which is found in Katniss ' substitution for her younger sister , analogous to the sacrifice of Jesus as a substitute for the atonement of sins . Brake , as well as another reviewer , Amy Simpson , both find that the story also revolves around the theme of hope , which is exemplified in the " incorruptible goodness of Katniss ' sister , Primrose . " Simpson also points to events similar to the Passion of Jesus ; in the Games , " Christ figure " Peeta Mellark is stabbed after warning Katniss to flee for her life , and is then buried in the ground and placed in a cave for three days before emerging with a new lease on life . Further , she finds that the Christian image of the Bread of Life is used throughout The Hunger Games ; in the story , Peeta gives Katniss a loaf of bread , saving the girl and her family from starvation . = = Publication history = = After writing the novel , Collins signed a six @-@ figure deal for three books with Scholastic . First published as a hardcover in the United States on September 14 , 2008 , The Hunger Games had a first printing of 50 @,@ 000 copies , which was bumped up twice to 200 @,@ 000 copies . By February 2010 , the book had sold 800 @,@ 000 copies , and rights to the novel had been sold in 38 territories worldwide . A few months later , in July , the book was released in paperback . The Hunger Games entered the New York Times Best Seller list in November 2008 , where it would feature for over 100 consecutive weeks . By the time the film adaptation of The Hunger Games was released in March 2012 , the book had been on USA Today 's best @-@ sellers list for 135 consecutive weeks and has sold over 17 @.@ 5 million copies . The novel is the first in The Hunger Games trilogy ; it is followed by sequels Catching Fire ( 2009 ) and Mockingjay ( 2010 ) . In March 2012 , during the time of The Hunger Games film 's release , Scholastic reported 26 million Hunger Games trilogy books in print , including movie tie @-@ in books . The Hunger Games ( and its sequels ) have sold exceptionally well in ebook format . Suzanne Collins is the first children 's or young adult author to sell over one million Amazon Kindle ebooks , making her the sixth author to join the " Kindle Million Club " . In March 2012 , Amazon announced that Collins had become the best @-@ selling Kindle ebook author of all time . An audiobook version of The Hunger Games was released in December 2008 . Read by the actress Carolyn McCormick , it has a total running time of eleven hours and fourteen minutes . The magazine AudioFile said : " Carolyn McCormick gives a detailed and attentive narration . However , she may rely too much on the strength of the prose without providing the drama young adult listeners often enjoy . " School Library Journal also praised the audiobook , stating that " McCormick ably voices the action @-@ packed sequences and Katniss 's every fear and strength shines through , along with her doomed growing attraction to one of her fellow Tributes . " The Tim O 'Brien @-@ designed cover features a gold " mockingjay " – a fictional bird in The Hunger Games born by crossbreeding female mockingbirds and genetically engineered male " jabberjays " – with an arrow engraved in a circle . This is a depiction of the pin worn by Katniss into the arena , given to her by the District 12 mayor 's daughter , Madge Undersee . The image matches the description of the pin that is given in the novel , except for the arrow : " It 's as if someone fashioned a small golden bird and then attached a ring around it . The bird is connected to the ring only by its wing tips . " = = Critical reception = = The Hunger Games has received critical acclaim . In a review for The New York Times , John Green wrote that the novel was " brilliantly plotted and perfectly paced " , and that " the considerable strength of the novel comes in Collins 's convincingly detailed world @-@ building and her memorably complex and fascinating heroine . " However , he also noted that , while allegorically rich , the book sometimes does not realize the allegorical potential that the plot has to offer and that the writing " described the action and little else . " Time magazine 's review was also positive , stating that it " is a chilling , bloody and thoroughly horrifying book " and praising what it called the " hypnotic " quality of the violence . In Stephen King 's review for Entertainment Weekly , he compared it to " shoot @-@ it @-@ if @-@ it @-@ moves videogames in the lobby of the local eightplex ; you know it 's not real , but you keep plugging in quarters anyway . " However , he stated that there were " displays of authorial laziness that kids will accept more readily than adults " and that the love triangle was standard for the genre . He gave the book a B grade . Elizabeth Bird of School Library Journal praised the novel , saying it is " exciting , poignant , thoughtful , and breathtaking by turns " , and called it one of the best books of 2008 . Booklist also gave a positive review , praising the character violence and romance involved in the book . Kirkus Reviews gave a positive review , praising the action and world @-@ building , but pointed out that " poor copyediting in the first printing will distract careful readers – a crying shame " . Rick Riordan , author of the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series , claims it is the " closest thing to a perfect adventure novel " he has ever read . Stephenie Meyer ( author of the Twilight series ) endorsed the book on her website , saying , " I was so obsessed with this book ... The Hunger Games is amazing . " The Hunger Games received many awards and honors . It was named one of Publishers Weekly 's " Best Books of the Year " in 2008 and a The New York Times " Notable Children 's Book of 2008 " . It was the 2009 winner of the Golden Duck Award in the Young Adult Fiction Category . The Hunger Games was also a " 2008 Cybil Winner " for fantasy and science @-@ fiction books along with The Graveyard Book , one of School Library Journal 's " Best Books 2008 " , and a " Booklist Editors ' Choice " in 2008 . In 2011 , the book won the California Young Reader Medal . In the 2012 edition of Scholastic 's Parent and Child magazine , The Hunger Games was listed as the 33rd @-@ best book for children , with the award for " Most Exciting Ending " . The novel is one of the top 5 best selling Kindle books of all time . However , the novel has also been controversial with parents ; it ranked in fifth place on the American Library Association 's list of frequently challenged books for 2010 , with " unsuited to age group " and " violence " being among the reasons cited . Similarities of The Hunger Games to Koushun Takami 's 1999 novel Battle Royale have been noted . Collins stated that she " had never heard of that book or that author until my book was turned in . At that point , it was mentioned to me , and I asked my editor if I should read it . He said : ' No , I don 't want that world in your head . Just continue with what you 're doing ' . " Susan Dominus of The New York Times reports that " the parallels are striking enough that Collins 's work has been savaged on the blogosphere as a baldfaced ripoff " of Battle Royale but argued that " there are enough possible sources for the plot line that the two authors might well have hit on the same basic setup independently . " Stephen King noted that the reality TV " badlands " were similar to Battle Royale , as well as his own novels The Running Man and The Long Walk . Eric Eisenberg wrote that The Hunger Games was " not a rip off of Battle Royale , but simply a different usage of a similar idea " , pointing out various differences in both story and themes . = = Film adaptation = = In March 2009 , Lions Gate Entertainment entered into a co @-@ production agreement for The Hunger Games with Nina Jacobson 's production company Color Force , which had acquired worldwide distribution rights to the novel a few weeks earlier . The studio , which had not made a profit for five years , raided the budgets of other productions and sold assets to secure a budget of $ 88 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 – one of its largest ever – for the film . Collins ' agent Jason Dravis remarked that " they [ Lionsgate ] had everyone but the valet call us " to help secure the franchise . Intending the film to have a PG @-@ 13 rating , Collins adapted the novel for film herself , in collaboration with screenwriter Billy Ray and director Gary Ross . The screenplay remains extremely faithful to the original novel , with Ross saying he " felt the only way to make the film really successful was to be totally subjective " in its presentation of events , echoing Collins ' use of first person present in the novel . Twenty @-@ year @-@ old actress Jennifer Lawrence was chosen to play Katniss Everdeen . Though Lawrence was four years older than the character when filming began , Collins felt the role demanded " a certain maturity and power " and said she would rather the actress be older than younger . She added that Lawrence was the " only one who truly captured the character I wrote in the book " and that she had " every essential quality necessary to play Katniss . " Lawrence , a fan of the books , took three days to accept the role , initially intimidated by the size of the production . Josh Hutcherson and Liam Hemsworth were later added to the cast , in the roles of Peeta and Gale , respectively . Production began in late spring 2011 and the film was released on March 23 , 2012 . The film 's opening weekend brought in a non @-@ sequel record $ 152 @.@ 5 million ( USD ) in North America . The Hunger Games : Catching Fire , based on the second novel in the series , was released the following year on November 22 , 2013 .
= Viper dogfish = The viper dogfish or viper shark ( Trigonognathus kabeyai ) is a rare species of dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae , and the only extant member of its genus . It has been found in the Pacific Ocean off southern Japan , the Bonin Islands , and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . This species inhabits upper continental slopes and seamounts . It may migrate vertically , shifting between bottom waters 270 – 360 m ( 890 – 1 @,@ 180 ft ) deep during the day and upper waters less than 150 m ( 490 ft ) deep at night . A slender , black shark reaching 54 cm ( 21 in ) in length , the viper dogfish can be recognized by its narrow , triangular jaws and well @-@ spaced , fang @-@ like teeth . It also has two spined dorsal fins , dermal denticles with faceted crowns , and numerous light @-@ emitting photophores concentrated on its ventral surface . Feeding mainly on bony fishes , the viper dogfish captures prey by protruding its jaws and impaling them with its teeth . Its impressive gape allows it to swallow relatively large fish whole . The skeletal and muscular structure of its head shows unique features that support this feeding mechanism , which is unlike that of other dogfish sharks . This shark gives birth to live young , which are nourished by yolk during gestation ; the litter size is probably fewer than 26 pups . Small numbers of viper dogfish are caught incidentally in purse seines and bottom trawls . The IUCN presently lacks sufficient data to assess the conservation status of this species . = = Taxonomy = = The first specimens of the viper dogfish were two immature males caught off southern Japan by the bottom trawler Seiryo @-@ Maru in 1986 . The first , designated as the holotype , measured 22 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) long and was collected off Cape Shiono at a depth of 330 m ( 1 @,@ 080 ft ) . The second measured 37 cm ( 15 in ) long and was collected off Hiwasa , Tokushima at a depth of 360 m ( 1 @,@ 180 ft ) . The shark was described as a new species and genus by University of Tokyo researchers Kenji Mochizuki and Fumio Ohe in a 1990 article for the Japanese Journal of Ichthyology . They gave it the name Trigonognathus kabeyai ; the generic name is derived from the Greek trigonon ( " triangle " ) and gnathus ( " jaw " ) , while the specific name honors Hiromichi Kabeya , the captain of the Seiryo @-@ Maru . Mochizuki and Ohe originally assigned the viper dogfish to the family Squalidae , which at the time was used for all members of the order Squaliformes aside from the bramble and rough sharks . In a 1992 morphological study , Shigeru Shirai and Osamu Okamura placed this species in the squalid subfamily Etmopterinae , which most taxonomists now recognize as the separate family Etmopteridae . = = Phylogeny and evolution = = The position of Trigonognathus within the Etmopteridae is uncertain . Morphological and molecular phylogenetic data generally support the subdivision of the Etmopteridae into two clades , one consisting of Etmopterus and Miroscyllium and the other consisting of Centroscyllium and Aculeola . Phylogenetic analyses have variously placed Trigonognathus as closer to one clade or the other or as basal to both , depending on which morphological characters , nuclear DNA markers , and / or mitochondrial DNA markers were used . Based on molecular clock estimation , Trigonognathus is thought to have originated around 41 million years ago during the Middle Eocene , as part of a larger evolutionary radiation of etmopterid genera . The genus is represented in this time period by the extinct species T. virginiae , whose fossilized teeth have been recovered from Lutetian age ( 47 @.@ 8 – 41 @.@ 3 Mya ) strata in Landes , southwestern France . Fossil teeth virtually identical to those of the modern viper dogfish are known from the Cubagua Formation in northeastern Venezuela , which dates to the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene ( 11 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 6 Mya ) . = = Description = = The viper dogfish has a slender , cylindrical body and a moderately flattened head with a very short and blunt snout . Behind the large oval eyes are narrow , elliptical spiracles . The nostrils are nearly vertical slits . The jaws are long and narrowly triangular , and can be protruded from the head . The teeth are distinctively fang @-@ like and widely spaced ; the most anterior teeth are grooved lengthwise . Six to 10 upper and seven to 10 lower tooth rows occur on each side , along with a single tooth row at the upper and lower symphyses ( jaw midpoints ) . The teeth are largest at the symphysis and decline in size towards the corners of the mouth . When the mouth is closed , the upper symphysial tooth overlaps the lower , while the lateral teeth interlock . Five gill slits are seen , with the fifth pair longer than the others . The fins are small and very thin . The pectoral fins are rounded and lobe @-@ like . The two dorsal fins are positioned about between the pectoral and pelvic fins . Each dorsal fin bears a slightly grooved spine in front ; the second dorsal spine is longer than the first . The anal fin is absent , and the caudal peduncle lacks keels or notches . The upper lobe of the caudal fin is larger than the lower and has a notch in the trailing margin . The skin , excluding on the fins , is densely covered with irregularly arranged , nonoverlapping dermal denticles . Each denticle has a swollen rhombic shape with 10 – 40 facets on the crown . The viper dogfish is black with distinct darker markings on the underside . These markings contain large numbers of tiny light @-@ producing photophores ; more photophores are found sparsely scattered over the rest of the body , as well as in a translucent patch on the upper eyelid . The fins are translucent , and the tip of the caudal fin upper lobe is blackish . The largest known male is 47 cm ( 19 in ) long and weighs 0 @.@ 43 kg ( 0 @.@ 95 lb ) , and the largest female is 54 cm ( 21 in ) long and weighs 0 @.@ 76 kg ( 1 @.@ 7 lb ) . = = Distribution and habitat = = Most specimens of the viper dogfish have been collected from a relatively small area of the northwestern Pacific Ocean off the Kii Peninsula in Japan . A number of specimens were also recovered from the stomachs of predatory fishes caught in the Bonin Islands . One specimen was caught from the Hancock Seamount , located some 300 km ( 190 mi ) northwest of Kure Atoll in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands . During the day , this species has been caught close to the bottom on the upper reaches of continental slopes and seamounts , at depths of 270 – 360 m ( 890 – 1 @,@ 180 ft ) . At night , it has been caught between the surface and a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) in water over 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) deep . This pattern suggests the viper dogfish performs a diel vertical migration , spending the day in deeper water and rising towards the surface at night ; such daily movement may relate to feeding . = = Biology and ecology = = The viper dogfish feeds primarily on bony fishes , notably lanternfishes in the genera Benthosema and Diaphus , and also takes crustaceans . Its long jaws and slender teeth are adapted for grasping rather than cutting , in contrast to the short jaws and saw @-@ like lower teeth of other dogfish sharks that are suited for excising chunks of meat . Prey is seized by a rapid extension of the jaws and swallowed whole ; the shark can consume fish close to 40 % as long as itself . The viper dogfish is the only dogfish species that lacks a suborbital muscle , which is normally responsible for pulling the jaws forward when biting . Jaw protrusion is instead effected by the hyomandibular bone , which is articulated to the skull in a manner that allows it to swing down and forward . This unique arrangement serves to increase the distance the shark can protrude its jaws , as well as the size of its gape both vertically and horizontally . Known predators of the viper dogfish include the bigeye tuna ( Thunnus obesus ) and the sickle pomfret ( Taractichthys steindachneri ) . Like other members of its family , this species is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained to term by yolk . Adult females have two functional ovaries and two functional uteri . Two of the recorded female specimens contained 25 and 26 mature ova ; in the related black dogfish ( Centroscyllium fabricii ) , the number of mature ova in a female is slightly greater than the number of resulting embryos , which suggests a litter size under 26 in the viper dogfish . Males and females mature sexually at roughly 43 and 52 cm ( 17 and 20 in ) long , respectively . = = Human interactions = = The viper dogfish has no economic value . It is very infrequently caught in commercial purse seines and bottom trawls targeting other species , though what effect , if any , fishing has on its population is unknown . As a result , the IUCN has listed it under Data Deficient .
= Ernest R. Kouma = Ernest Richard Kouma ( November 23 , 1919 – December 19 , 1993 ) was a soldier in the United States Army during World War II and the Korean War . He rose to the rank of Master Sergeant and received the Medal of Honor for his actions on August 31 and September 1 , 1950 , during the Second Battle of Naktong Bulge in South Korea . Born in Nebraska , Kouma grew up on a family farm before enlisting in the US Army in 1940 . Kouma served as a tank commander during World War II , seeing combat in Germany with the 9th Armored Division from 1944 to 1945 . After that war , Kouma served as part of the occupation force in South Korea and Japan . On the outbreak of the Korean War , Kouma commanded an M26 Pershing tank in the 2nd Infantry Division . While fighting during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter along the Naktong River , Kouma commanded his tank as it single @-@ handedly fended off repeated North Korean attempts to cross the river after units around it had withdrawn . Wounded twice , Kouma killed 250 North Korean troops in this action . After receiving the medal , Kouma served as a recruiter and remained in the Army for 31 years , retiring in 1971 . He lived in Kentucky until his death , and is buried in Fort Knox , Kentucky . = = Biography = = Ernest Richard Kouma was born on November 23 , 1919 , in Dwight , Nebraska , to a farming family . He spent much of his early life on the family farm before enlisting in the United States Army in June 1940 . = = = World War II = = = When the United States entered World War II , Kouma was trained as a tank crew member . He was assigned to the 9th Armored Division . The Division landed in Normandy late in September 1944 , and moved to the front lines on October 23 . Its first mission was patrol duty in a quiet sector along the Luxembourg @-@ German frontier . When the Germans launched their winter offensive , the 9th Armored Division was quickly involved in the Battle of the Bulge with next to no experience . The Division saw very heavy action at St. Vith , Echternach and Bastogne , its units , unprepared to counter the offensive , fighting in widely separated areas . The 9th Armored Division made a stand at Bastogne and held off the Germans long enough to enable the 101st Airborne Division to dig in for a defense of the city , resulting in the Battle of Bastogne . After a rest period in January 1945 , the 9th Armored Division made preparations for a drive across the Roer River . The offensive was launched on February 28 , and the 9th smashed across the Roer to Rheinbach , sending patrols into Remagen . The Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen was found intact , and was seized by elements of the 9th Armored Division minutes before demolition charges were set to explode on March 7 , 1945 . The division exploited the bridgehead , moving south and east across the Lahn River toward Limburg , where thousands of Allied prisoners were liberated . The Division drove on to Frankfurt and then turned to assist in the closing of the Ruhr Pocket . In April it continued east , encircled Leipzig and secured a line along the Mulde River . The division was shifting south to Czechoslovakia when the war in Europe ended on V @-@ E Day in May 1945 . Following the end of the war , Kouma decided to stay in the Army . He was moved to South Korea for occupation duties before being moved to Japan for the post @-@ war occupation of that country . Eventually , Kouma was assigned as a tank commander in A Company , 72nd Tank Battalion , 2nd Infantry Division , which was stationed at Fort Lewis , Washington . By this time he had a home in Penobscot County , Maine when he was not at Fort Lewis . = = = Korean War = = = Following the outbreak of war between North Korea and South Korea on June 25 , 1950 , the United States mobilized a large contingent of troops to send into the beleaguered country . Initially , units occupying Japan were called into the country , but forces were eventually dispatched from the United States . In August 1950 , Kouma , who was then a Sergeant First Class , sailed for Korea along with much of the 2nd Infantry Division . It arrived there in late August and was moved into line at the Pusan Perimeter , where US troops were fighting a tight defensive line around the port city of Pusan . The North Korean People 's Army , meanwhile , was preparing for a September offensive by capturing the Miryang and Samnangjin areas to cut off the US 2nd Division 's route of supply and withdrawal between Daegu and Busan . However , the North Koreans were unaware that the US 2nd Infantry Division had recently replaced the US 24th Infantry Division in positions along the Naktong River . Consequently , they expected lighter resistance ; the 24th troops were exhausted from months of fighting but the 2nd Division men were fresh and newly arrived in Korea . They had only established their lines shortly before the North Koreans began the attack . The North Koreans began crossing the Naktong River under cover of darkness at certain points . On the southern @-@ most flank of the US 9th Infantry Regiment river line , just above the junction of the Nam River with the Naktong , A Company of the 1st Battalion was dug in on a long finger ridge paralleling the Naktong that terminates in Hill 94 at the Kihang ferry site . The river road from Namji @-@ ri running west along the Naktong passes the southern tip of this ridge and crosses to the west side of the river at the ferry . A small village called Agok lay at the base of Hill 94 and 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the river . A patrol of tanks and armored vehicles , together with two infantry squads of A Company , 9th Infantry , held a roadblock near the ferry and close to Agok . On the evening of August 31 , A Company moved from its ridge positions overlooking Agok and the river to new positions along the river below the ridge line . = = = Medal of Honor action = = = That evening Kouma led the patrol of two M26 Pershing tanks and two M19 Gun Motor Carriages in Agok , along the Naktong River . Kouma placed his patrol on the west side of Agok near the Kihang ferry . At 20 : 00 a heavy fog covered the river , and at 22 : 00 mortar shells began falling on the American @-@ held side of the river . By 22 : 15 this strike intensified and North Korean mortar preparation struck A Company 's positions . American mortars and artillery began firing counter @-@ battery . Some of A Company 's men reported hearing noises on the opposite side of the river and splashes in the water . At 22 : 30 the fog lifted and Kouma saw that a North Korean pontoon bridge was being laid across the river directly in front of his position . Kouma 's four vehicles attacked this structure , with Kouma manning the M2 Browning .50 @-@ caliber machine gun atop the tank . As the gunner fired the tank 's main cannon , Kouma sank many of the boats attempting to cross the river with his machine gun . At 23 : 00 a small arms fight flared around the left side of A Company north of the tanks . This gunfire had lasted only two or three minutes when the A Company roadblock squads near the tanks heard over the field telephone that the company was withdrawing and that they should do likewise . Kouma instead opted to act as a rearguard to cover the infantry . He was wounded shortly thereafter in the foot reloading the tank 's ammunition . He quickly fought off another North Korean attack across the river with his machine gun . Kouma 's force was then ambushed by a group of North Koreans dressed in US military uniforms . Kouma was wounded a second time , in the shoulder , as he beat back repeated North Korean crossings on his machine gun . Several strong attacks came within meters of the tank , but Kouma was able to drive them back despite his wounds . Eventually , the other three vehicles withdrew or were neutralized , and Kouma held the Agok crossing site until 07 : 30 the next morning with his tank . At one point , the tank was surrounded and Kouma had to engage the North Koreans from outside the tank with machine gun fire at point blank range . After the tank gun 's ammunition was expended , Kouma used his pistol and grenades to hold off the North Koreans . The tank then withdrew 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the newly established American lines , destroying three North Korean machine gun positions along the way . During his action , Kouma had killed an estimated 250 North Korean troops . His actions in this fight alone surpassed the highly decorated US Army soldier Audie Murphy , who was credited with 240 kills during World War II , and who had been the second most decorated US soldier in the war . Once he returned to his unit , Kouma attempted to resupply his tank and return to the front lines . Instead , the wounded Kouma was ordered to evacuate for medical treatment . As he was being evacuated , Kouma again requested to return to the front lines . = = = Subsequent career and retirement = = = Kouma was returned to duty three days later . Shortly thereafter , he was promoted to Master Sergeant , and evacuated to the United States , to be presented with the Medal of Honor for his actions . Originally , Kouma had been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , but that award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor . On May 19 , 1951 , Kouma was presented the Medal of Honor by US President Harry S. Truman in a ceremony at the White House . He got his medal alongside Carl Dodd and John Pittman , two other 2nd Infantry Division soldiers who were awarded the medal . After being awarded the medal , Kouma served as a recruiter in Omaha , Nebraska . Kouma then spent the remainder of the Korean War as a tank gunnery instructor for the US Army Armor School at Fort Knox , Kentucky . Following the end of the war , Kouma remained in the Army . He served a second tour of duty as a recruiter , and then two tours as a tank commander , first at a unit in Fort Carson , Colorado , and then with a second unit in Germany . Though he remained in the Army for 31 years , Kouma did not see combat after his time in Korea . Kouma retired in 1971 at the age of 52 , and lived a quiet life in McDaniels , Kentucky , after retirement . Kouma died on December 19 , 1993 , and was buried in the Fort Knox post cemetery . The Tank Platoon Gunnery Excellence competition at Fort Knox was subsequently named in Kouma 's honor . There is a dining facility named in his honor at Fort Knox on Eisenhower Road . = = Awards and decorations = = Kouma was decorated several times during World War II . His decorations included the following medals : = = = Medal of Honor citation = = = Kouma , along with Dodd and Pittman , were the first soldiers to be awarded the Medal of Honor in the Korean War who were present for the presentation of their medals . It was reported the other nine soldiers who were awarded the medal , were done so posthumously . Unbeknownst to the public , Major General William F. Dean , who had been awarded the medal for actions in the Battle of Taejon , was actually a prisoner of war in North Korea . Rank and organization : Master Sergeant ( then Sergeant First Class ) U.S. Army , Company A , 72nd Tank Battalion Place and date : Vicinity of Agok , Korea , August 31 , and September 1 , 1950 Entered service at : Dwight , Nebr . Born : November 23 , 1919 , Dwight , Nebraska G.O. No . : 38 , June 4 , 1951Citation : M / Sgt. Kouma , a tank commander in Company A , distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy . His unit was engaged in supporting infantry elements on the Naktong River front . Near midnight on August 31 , a hostile force estimated at 500 crossed the river and launched a fierce attack against the infantry positions , inflicting heavy casualties . A withdrawal was ordered and his armored unit was given the mission of covering the movement until a secondary position could be established . The enemy assault overran 2 tanks , destroyed 1 and forced another to withdraw . Suddenly M / Sgt. Kouma discovered that his tank was the only obstacle in the path of the hostile onslaught . Holding his ground , he gave fire orders to his crew and remained in position throughout the night , fighting off repeated enemy attacks . During 1 fierce assault , the enemy surrounded his tank and he leaped from the armored turret , exposing himself to a hail of hostile fire , manned the .50 caliber machine gun mounted on the rear deck , and delivered pointblank fire into the fanatical foe . His machine gun emptied , he fired his pistol and threw grenades to keep the enemy from his tank . After more than 9 hours of constant combat and close @-@ in fighting , he withdrew his vehicle to friendly lines . During the withdrawal through 8 miles of hostile territory , M / Sgt. Kouma continued to inflict casualties upon the enemy and exhausted his ammunition in destroying 3 hostile machine gun positions . During this action , M / Sgt. Kouma killed an estimated 250 enemy soldiers . His magnificent stand allowed the infantry sufficient time to reestablish defensive positions . Rejoining his company , although suffering intensely from his wounds , he attempted to resupply his tank and return to the battle area . While being evacuated for medical treatment , his courage was again displayed when he requested to return to the front . M / Sgt. Kouma 's superb leadership , heroism , and intense devotion to duty reflect the highest credit on himself and uphold the esteemed traditions of the U.S. Army .
= St Mary 's Church , Bodewryd = St Mary 's Church , Bodewryd is a small medieval church in the hamlet of Bodewryd , in Anglesey , north Wales . The date of construction is unknown , but there was a church on this site in 1254 and the earliest feature to which a date can be given is a doorway in a 15th @-@ century style dating to around 1500 . When the church was restored in 1867 after being struck by lightning , stained glass with Islamic @-@ influenced patterns was included in the windows , a requirement of Lord Stanley of Alderley , the church 's benefactor , who was a convert to Islam . The church is used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of five churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is a " simple , rural church of Medieval origins . " = = History and location = = The date of foundation of the first religious building on this site is unknown . A church was recorded here in the Norwich Taxation of 1254 , and the church was owned by the Augustinian priory at Penmon , at the south @-@ eastern corner of Anglesey , during the 13th century ; the priory also owned ( and therefore received the tithes from ) the Anglesey churches of Llanddona and St Cwyllog , Llangwyllog at this time . The current building has medieval walls , and the doorway of the porch on the north side of the church , which is of 15th @-@ century style , is the oldest dateable part of the building . A 2009 guide to the buildings of north @-@ west Wales put the date for the doorway at c.1500. St Mary 's was restored in 1867 by Henry Kennedy , the architect of the Diocese of Bangor , after the previous church was struck by lightning . It was funded by Lord Stanley of Alderley , a convert to Islam , whose donations to rural churches carried the requirement that Islamic detail should be included in any restoration work . At St Mary 's , the windows have geometric patterns of small panes of coloured glass as a result . This condition was also imposed by him for the restoration work at the nearby church of St Peirio , Rhosbeirio ( now closed ) , where the new windows were also decorated with geometric patterns in glass . For many years , the church was associated with the Wynn ( or Wynne ) family of Bodewryd . They had an estate at Bodewryd from 1521 until 1755 , when Edward Wynne ( Chancellor of the Diocese of Hereford from 1707 to 1754 ) died without male heirs . His uncle , Humphrey Humphreys ( who was Bishop of Bangor and then Bishop of Hereford ) , was married in St Mary 's in 1690 ; the bishop 's sister had married into the Wynne family in 1672 . The church is by the side of the road in Bodewryd , in the north of Anglesey , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the town of Amlwch . It is surrounded by a rectangular churchyard , entered through a wooden gate . It is still in use for worship , belonging to the Church in Wales , and is part of the combined parish of Llanfechell with Bodewryd with Rhosbeirio with Llanfflewin and Llanbadrig . It is within the deanery of Twrcelyn , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the rector is the Reverend Canon G W Edwards . The church was used at one time as a chapel of ease for St Eilian 's Church , Llaneilian . = = Architecture and fittings = = The rectangular church , which has been described as " tiny " , is said by the Diocese of Bangor to be the second @-@ smallest church in Anglesey . The nave and chancel ( which are not divided ) measure together 34 feet 9 inches by 14 feet ( about 10 @.@ 6 m by 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The church is constructed of rubble masonry , dressed with freestone and with a foundation of boulders . The roof , which has a bellcote at the west end , is made of slate ; the roof timbers can be seen from inside . The only bell , which is dated 1747 , is decorated with a vine scroll . The door to the church is on the north side through a porch ; the doorway to the porch has a rounded head and a 15th @-@ century style doorjamb , but the porch itself is more modern . The windows in the nave ( one in the north wall , one in the west wall and two in the south wall ) have rounded tops . The window at the east end of the church , which dates from the late 16th century , is rectangular with three arched lights ( vertical sections ) set in a square frame . The lights are separated by mullions and there is an external hoodmould above the window . There are two fonts : one , which may be medieval in origin , is a gritstone bowl of rectangular shape ; the other , which may have been added during the 19th @-@ century restoration , is an oval alabaster bowl , with rich decoration . The south wall of the chancel has a brass tablet to mark money received from Queen Anne 's Bounty in 1720 and Robert Wynn , rector of Llantrisant , Anglesey , in 1727 . There are various memorials on the interior walls . Edward Wynne ( who is buried in the churchyard ) , his siblings and parents are commemorated by various brass tablets . The 1937 survey of the church by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire claims that seven generations of Wynne 's male ancestors were buried in the church , beginning with Rees ap Llewelyn in 1500 . The survey also recorded that the church possessed a silver cup from about 1641 donated by Wynne , a silver cup and paten donated by his sister Ellin in 1703 , and part of an oak table top with a Latin inscription and the date 1611 . = = Assessment = = The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 and has been listed as " a simple , rural church of Medieval origins " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) notes that it " retains Medieval fabric but is largely of 19th @-@ century character " , describing it as a " simple vernacular building . " The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as a " small ancient edifice " . She noted the memorials to the Wynnes as well as a tablet marking Edward Wynne 's " munificence " : she recorded that he had donated 121 acres ( 49 ha ) in 1722 and a rent charge of £ 2 to endow the living , and that £ 800 was also received from Queen Anne 's Bounty . A 2006 guide to the churches of the county describes it as " one of the smallest churches in Anglesey " , and says that it stood " in a pleasant location . "
= You Win or You Die = " You Win or You Die " is the seventh episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . It was written by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , and directed by Daniel Minahan . Set to air May 29 , 2011 , the episode was released in advance immediately following the conclusion of " A Golden Crown " to HBO customers with access to HBO Go . The episode furthers the story line of deterioration of the political balance of the Seven Kingdoms , with Eddard Stark revealing what he has discovered to Cersei Lannister while King Robert is still away on a hunt . The title of the episode is part of a quote from Cersei Lannister during the final confrontation with Eddard : " When you play the game of thrones , you win or you die . There is no middle ground . " The catchphrase has been frequently used during the promotion of both the books and the TV series . The episode attracted 2 @.@ 4 million viewers in its initial airing , with a total of 3 @.@ 2 million including the follow @-@ up airing . The episode was generally well received by critics for its well @-@ acted dramatic tension , but with several criticizing the coupling of exposition and nudity as " sexposition . " = = Plot = = Like previous episodes , " You Win or You Die " interweaves action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the Kingdom of Westeros . While the dramatic center of this episode is in the capital of King 's Landing , where the title quote is issued , ongoing events at The Wall and Winterfell in the north and with the Dothraki across the Narrow Sea continue , and events at the Lannister army 's camp are depicted as well . = = = At the Lannister camp = = = Lord Tywin Lannister ( Charles Dance ) talks with his son Jaime ( Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau ) while the former is skinning a stag , symbolic animal of the house Baratheon . While Tywin chastises Jaime for causing the recent troubles with the Starks , he nevertheless believes this war is the perfect opportunity for the Lannisters to set up a dynasty as the new rulers of the Seven Kingdoms . Tywin gives half of his forces to Jaime to attack Riverrun , the seat of House Tully and Lady Catelyn 's childhood home , in retaliation for Catelyn 's seizure of Tyrion . = = = At Winterfell = = = The captured wildling Osha ( Natalia Tena ) , now a servant of the Starks , is harassed by Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) , who warns her that if she had been arrested in his homeland the Iron Islands , she would have suffered a worse fate . As Maester Luwin ( Donald Sumpter ) tells Theon to leave her alone after witnessing Theon 's sexual advance on her , he asks Osha why she and other wildlings are coming south from the Wall . She reveals they were fleeing from the White Walkers , who have apparently returned after millennia of slumber , and declares that every army in the Seven Kingdoms should be marching north to confront that threat . = = = At the Wall = = = Benjen Stark 's horse returns from north of the Wall without him , much to the worry of his nephew , Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) . Later , to Jon 's disappointment and anger , he is told he has been assigned as a steward to the Lord Commander instead of a ranger , like his uncle . Jon suspects Ser Alliser Thorne 's ( Owen Teale ) involvement , as revenge for Jon defying him ; however , Sam ( John Bradley ) believes that this assignment may mean he is being groomed for command . As Jon and Sam take their vows near a heart tree , Jon 's direwolf brings him a dismembered hand . = = = In Vaes Dothrak = = = Daenerys Targaryen ( Emilia Clarke ) attempts to convince Khal Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) to return to her homeland and reclaim the throne of the Seven Kingdoms , but he is not interested . While Daenerys and her entourage go sightseeing at a market , Ser Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) receives a pardon for him to return to the Seven Kingdoms from an informant of Lord Varys ( Conleth Hill ) . Jorah realizes this means the order to assassinate Daenerys has been officially issued and quickly saves her from a wine merchant who tries to poison her . Drogo , angered by the attempt on his wife 's life , vows to his followers that he will lead his people to cross the Narrow Sea to invade the Seven Kingdoms as revenge and reclaim the Iron Throne for his unborn son . = = = In King 's Landing = = = Ned ( Sean Bean ) confronts Queen Cersei ( Lena Headey ) , telling her that he knows Prince Joffrey and his siblings are not King Robert 's ( Mark Addy ) children , but were incestuously fathered by her brother Jaime . Cersei defends her affair with Jaime , comparing it to the ancient Targaryen practice of wedding brothers to sisters and saying she tried to love Robert , but he refused to love her because he was still in love with Ned 's deceased sister , Lyanna . Ned shows Cersei mercy and tells her to leave the capital with her children before he tells Robert the truth . Unexpectedly , Lord Renly Baratheon ( Gethin Anthony ) returns and informs Ned that , while hunting , Robert was mortally wounded by a boar . On his deathbed , Robert dictates his will to Ned , in which Robert makes Ned the Lord Regent and Protector of the Realm until Joffrey comes of age . Ned writes down Robert 's words , but instead of using " Joffrey , " Ned writes " my rightful heir , " making the succession ambiguous . Robert signs the will without reading this change in wording and begs Ned to make Joffrey a better man . Robert also tells Ned that he was wrong to have ordered Daenerys Targaryen 's assassination and orders Ned to let her live . Fearing Cersei and the Lannisters will use this time to their advantage , Renly tries to convince Ned they should raise an army and launch a coup d 'état ; however , Ned refuses him . Ned wants to assure the crown passes to the rightful heir : Stannis Baratheon , Robert and Renly 's brother . Ned writes a letter to Stannis informing him of the situation , dispatching it to Dragonstone , Stannis ' island fortress . Ned also reveals to Petyr " Littlefinger " Baelish ( Aidan Gillen ) the truth of Joffrey 's heritage , to which Littlefinger suggests they allow Joffrey and the Lannisters to take the throne , and if Joffrey proves to be an unfit ruler , they can use the truth to overthrow him and make Renly the king instead . Ned refuses such treason , asking Littlefinger to secure the support of the City Watch to overpower Cersei 's men @-@ at @-@ arms if they attempt to seize the throne . By the time Robert dies , Renly has fled the capital , and Joffrey has already ordered his own coronation within a fortnight . As Ned and his allies enter the throne room , he gives Ser Barristan Selmy ( Ian McElhinney ) Robert 's will to read out aloud . Cersei refuses to follow Robert 's will and tears it up , ordering Barristan to seize Ned . Ned orders his men to arrest Cersei and Joffrey . As both sides prepare to fight , the City Watch slaughters the Stark men while Littlefinger holds Ned with a knife at his throat , telling Ned that he should have listened to Littlefinger 's advice about distrusting him . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = The episode was written by the showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , based on the original novel by George R. R. Martin . The chapters included in " You Win or You Die " are 46 , 48 @-@ 50 , and 55 ( Eddard XII , Eddard XIII , Jon VI , Eddard XIV , and Daenerys VI ) , making it the episode that includes fewest chapters of the source novel in the entire first season . Among the scenes created specifically for the show were a meeting between Tywin and Jaime Lannister ( as Lord Tywin is field dressing a stag ) and a " training " session between Littlefinger and two new female recruits for one of his brothels . = = = Casting = = = " You Win or You Die " marks the first appearance of Charles Dance as Lord Tywin , the patriarch of the Lannister household . Cast in the role shortly after the production began , Dance had been the first choice of the producers and one of the fan favorites for the role . Author George R. R. Martin commented that " his commanding screen presence and steely charisma should make him the perfect Lord Tywin . " The deer that is field dressed by Tywin in the opening scene was a real dead stag . Dance had no previous experience with skinning and gutting , and before filming the scene practiced for an hour with a butcher . = = = Filming locations = = = Most of the episode was shot on set at the Irish studios of The Paint Hall . The exteriors of the entrance of Vaes Dothrak were filmed in the Sandy Brae area , and for the confrontation between Eddard and Cersei taking place in the Red Keep 's gardens ( identified as a godswood in the novels ) the production used the cloister of the St Dominic Monastery in Rabat , in Malta . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " You Win or You Die " ' s first airing was seen by 2 @.@ 4 million viewers , stabilizing the show 's ratings . This could be considered positive when taking into account that the episode had been offered in advance during all the preceding week in HBO 's online service , and that it was aired in a three @-@ day holiday weekend which often results in lower viewership . With the second airing , the total audience for the night was 3 @.@ 2 million viewers . = = = Critical response = = = The episode was well received by critics . Time 's reviewer James Poniewozik called " You Win or You Die " the " most thrilling and thematically rich hour to date , " AOL TV 's Maureen Ryan found it an excellent outing that " saw the stakes raised in satisfying and suspenseful ways , " and HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall called it a terrific episode and commended how " it turned the spotlight on the characters who are villains in Ned Stark 's version of the story . " Poniewozik continued : " We knew this would be a significant episode if for no other reason than that it contains the scene — alluded to in the episode 's title — that gives the series its name , " a sentiment Sepinwall agreed with . Myles McNutt , writing for Cultural Learnings , also considered " You Win or You Die " a climactic moment in the series . IGN 's Matt Fowler noted that this was the episode that saw Ned Stark " unfortunately thwarted by his own honorable intentions , " but that his " stubborn nobility is what makes Ned such a great character . " The final showdown with the Lannisters seizing control from Eddard was much discussed , with many commentators criticizing Ned 's ingenuity and his actions during the episode . In The Atlantic , Scott Meslow wrote that Eddard could never win the " game of thrones " because he is dedicated to playing by the rules . In his opinion , " one can 't afford to play fair " when the only outcomes are " win " or " die . " McNutt felt that the climax at the episode 's end " was really well handled by both the cast and the director ( Dan Minahan ) . " As well as the final confrontation between Eddard and Cersei , other scenes were praised by the critics . The introduction of Charles Dance as Lord Tywin Lannister was considered " a beauty " by Todd VanDerWerff from the A.V. Club , who admired how a single scene depicted not only the relationship between Tywin and Jaime , but also all the dynamics of the Lannister clan . He also praised the work of Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau in the scene , commenting that despite having few lines , he transmitted that Jaime is cowed by his father very well . Maureen Ryan agreed with that sentiment , and also lauded Natalia Tena 's short appearance . David Sims ( a second reviewer for the A.V. Club ) highlighted the work of Mark Addy in his final scene , extending the praise to the rest of his work on the series . Critics agreed that the scenes with the Dothraki were strong , with the storyline having improved significantly since the first episodes . Poniewozik stated that " this was the first week for me that the Dothraki scenes were not just absorbing but felt like the characters were as well @-@ imagined as those in Westeros , " and McNutt felt the episode " finally allows Khal Drogo to become an actual character . " Drogo 's rant vowing to give his unborn son the Iron Throne led to compliments about Jason Momoa 's intensity and Emilia Clarke 's calm and loving facial expressions . However , the scene where Littlefinger exposes his motivations while hiring two whores for his brothel was largely criticized as an example of the show 's perceived abuse of conversations with prostitutes as an expository device , a situation for which Myles McNutt coined the term " sexposition . " Aidan Gillen 's acting was consistently praised and the comparison between Littlefinger 's actions and faking an orgasm was considered apt , but many agreed with Meslow 's statement that it was " annoyingly overshadowed by the series ' most gratuitous sex scene to date . " Among other criticisms were the scene 's excessive length , the repetition of the dramatic approach , and the assumption that viewers were not going to pay attention when presented with a long exposition that did not include sex .
= Igbo people = The Igbo people , often erroneously spelled and pronounced " Ibo " ( because certain Europeans had difficulty making the / ɡ ͡ b / sound ) , are an indigenous linguistic and cultural people of southern Nigeria . Geographically , the Igbo homeland is divided into two unequal sections by the Niger River – an eastern ( which is the larger of the two ) and a western section . Culturally and linguistically , the Niger River has provided an easy means of communication and unity amongst the Igbo natives on both sides , as well as promoted ancient trade and movement of peoples between Igboland and rest of the world . Known as Ndi Igbo in the Igbo language and sometimes identified by their respective Igboid dialects or subgroupings , such the Anioma and the Ngwa , the culture of the Igbos has been shaped primarily by Igboland 's rainforest climate , its historic trades , ancient migration folklores and social ties with its neighbours as well as far @-@ flung trading and political allies and lately with the Europeans through colonization and the entire Western World through globalization . They speak Igbo , which includes various Igboid languages and dialects . The Igbo homeland is almost surrounded on all sides by other ethnic peoples of southern and central Nigeria namely , the Ijaw , Edo , Itsekiri , Ogoni , Igala , Tiv , Yako , Idoma and Ibibio . The Igbo people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa . In rural Nigeria , Igbo people work mostly as craftsmen , farmers and traders . The most important crop is the yam ; celebrations take place annually to celebrate its harvesting . Other staple crops include cassava and taro . The Igbos are also highly urbanized , with some of the largest cities and metropolitan areas in Igboland being Onitsha , Enugu , Aba , Asaba , Owerri , Orlu , Nnewi , Port Harcourt , Umuahia , Abakaliki and Agbor . Before British colonial rule , the Igbo were a politically fragmented group . There were variations in culture such as in art styles , attire and religious practices . Various subgroups were organized by clan , lineage , village affiliation , and dialect . There were not many centralized chiefdoms , hereditary aristocracy , or kingship customs except in kingdoms such as those of the Nri , Arochukwu , Agbor and Onitsha . This political system changed significantly under British colonialism in the early 20th century ; Frederick Lugard introduced Eze ( kings ) into most local communities as " Warrant Chiefs " . The Igbo became overwhelmingly Christian under colonization . Chinua Achebe 's Things Fall Apart is one of the most popular novels to depict Igbo culture and changes under colonialism . By the mid @-@ 20th century , the Igbo people developed a strong sense of ethnic identity . Certain conflicts with other Nigerian ethnicities led to Igbo @-@ densely populated Eastern Nigeria seceding to create the independent state of Biafra . The Nigerian Civil War or the Nigerian @-@ Biafran War ( 6 July 1967 – 15 January 1970 ) broke out shortly after . With their defeat , the Republic of Biafra once again was part of Nigeria . MASSOB , a sectarian organization formed in 1999 , continues a non @-@ violent struggle for an independent Igbo state . Due to the effects of migration and the Atlantic slave trade , there are descendant ethnic Igbo populations in countries such as Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea , as well as outside Africa . Their exact population outside Africa is unknown , but today many African Americans and Afro Caribbeans are of Igbo descent . According to Liberian historians the fifth president of Liberia Edward James Roye was of Igbo descent . = = Identity = = The Igbo people have had fragmented and politically independent communities . Before knowledge of Europeans and full exposure to other neighbouring ethnic groups , the Igbo did not have a strong identity as one people . As in the case of most ethnic groups , the British and fellow Europeans identified the Igbo as a tribe . Chinua Achebe , among other scholars , challenged this because of its negative connotations and possible wrong definition . He suggested defining the Igbo people as a nation although the Igbo do not have an officially recognized physical state of their own . Due to the effects of migration and the Atlantic slave trade , there are descendant historical Igbo populations in countries such as Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea , as well as outside Africa ; many African Americans and Afro Caribbeans are believed to be partially of Igbo descent . The most common name for the Igbo in English was formerly " Ibo " . They have also been known as the " Iboe " , " ' Ebo " , " Eboe " , " Eboans " , or " Heebo " . Their territory and main settlement have often also been known by their name . = = History = = = = = Origin = = = Pottery dated at around 2500 BCE showing similarities with later Igbo work was found at Nsukka , along with pottery and tools at nearby Ibagwa ; the traditions of the Umueri clan have as their source the Anambra valley . In the 1970s the Owerri , Okigwe , Orlu , Awgu , Udi and Awka divisions were determined to constitute " an Igbo heartland " from the linguistic and cultural evidence . = = = Nri Kingdom = = = The Nri people of Igbo land have a creation myth which is one of the many creation myths that exist in various parts of Igbo land . The Nri and Aguleri people are in the territory of the Umueri clan who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king @-@ figure Eri . Eri 's origins are unclear , though he has been described as a " sky being " sent by Chukwu ( God ) . He has been characterized as having first given societal order to the people of Anambra . The historian Elizabeth Allo Isichei says " Nri and Aguleri and part of the Umueri clan , [ are ] a cluster of Igbo village groups which traces its origins to a sky being called Eri . " Archaeological evidence suggests that Nri hegemony in Igboland may go back as far as the 9th century , and royal burials have been unearthed dating to at least the 10th century . Eri , the god @-@ like founder of Nri , is believed to have settled the region around 948 with other related Igbo cultures following after in the 13th century . The first Eze Nri ( King of Nri ) Ìfikuánim followed directly after him . According to Igbo oral tradition , his reign started in 1043 . At least one historian puts Ìfikuánim 's reign much later , around 1225 AD . Each king traces his origin back to the founding ancestor , Eri . Each king is a ritual reproduction of Eri . The initiation rite of a new king shows that the ritual process of becoming Ezenri ( Nri priest @-@ king ) follows closely the path traced by the hero in establishing the Nri kingdom . E. Elochukwu Uzukwu The Kingdom of Nri was a religio @-@ polity , a sort of theocratic state , that developed in the central heartland of the Igbo region . The Nri had seven types of taboos which included human ( such as the birth of twins ) , animal ( such as killing or eating of pythons ) , object , temporal , behavioral , speech and place taboos . The rules regarding these taboos were used to educate and govern Nri 's subjects . This meant that , while certain Igbo may have lived under different formal administration , all followers of the Igbo religion had to abide by the rules of the faith and obey its representative on earth , the Eze Nri . = = = Traditional society = = = Traditional Igbo political organization was based on a quasi @-@ democratic republican system of government . In tight knit communities , this system guaranteed its citizens equality , as opposed to a feudalist system with a king ruling over subjects . This government system was witnessed by the Portuguese who first arrived and met with the Igbo people in the 15th century . With the exception of a few notable Igbo towns such as Onitsha , which had kings called Obi , and places like the Nri Kingdom and Arochukwu , which had priest kings ; Igbo communities and area governments were overwhelmingly ruled solely by a republican consultative assembly of the common people . Communities were usually governed and administered by a council of elders . Although title holders were respected because of their accomplishments and capabilities , they were never revered as kings , but often performed special functions given to them by such assemblies . This way of governing was immensely different from most other communities of Western Africa , and only shared by the Ewe of Ghana . Umunna are a form of patrilineage maintained by the Igbo . Law starts with the Umunna which is a male line of descent from a founding ancestor ( who the line is sometimes named after ) with groups of compounds containing closely related families headed by the eldest male member . The Umunna can be seen as the most important pillar of Igbo society . Mathematics in indigenous Igbo society is evident in their calendar , banking system and strategic betting game called Okwe . In their indigenous calendar , a week had four days , a month consisted of seven weeks and 13 months made a year . In the last month , an extra day was added . This calendar is still used in indigenous Igbo villages and towns to determine market days . They settled law matters via mediators , and their banking system for loans and savings , called Isusu , is also still used . The Igbo new year , starting with the month Ọ ́ nwạ ́ M ̀ bụ ́ ( Igbo : First Moon ) occurs on the third week of February , although the traditional start of the year for many Igbo communities is around springtime in Ọ ́ nwạ ́ Ágwụ ́ ( June ) . Used as a ceremonial script by secret societies , the Igbo have an indigenous ideographic set of symbols called Nsibidi , originating from the neighboring Ejagham people . Igbo people produced bronzes from as early as the 9th century , some of which have been found at the town of Igbo Ukwu , Anambra state . A system of indentured servitude existed among the Igbo before and after the encounter with Europeans . Indentured service in Igbo areas was described by Olaudah Equiano in his memoir . He describes the conditions of the slaves in his community of Essaka , and points out the difference between the treatment of slaves under the Igbo in Essaka , and those in the custody of Europeans in West Indies : … but how different was their condition from that of the slaves in the West Indies ! With us , they do no more work than other members of the community , … even their master ; … ( except that they were not permitted to eat with those … free @-@ born ; ) and there was scarce any other difference between them , … Some of these slaves have … slaves under them as their own property … for their own use . The Niger coast was an area of contact between African and European traders from the years 1434 – 1807 . The Portuguese were the first traders , then the Dutch and finally the British . Prior to European contact , Igbo trade routes stretched as far as Mecca , Medina and Jeddah on the continent . = = = Transatlantic slave trade and diaspora = = = The transatlantic slave trade , which took place between the 16th and late 19th centuries , had huge effects on the Igbo because so many young people were taken , and warfare increased for the taking of captives . Most Igbo slaves were taken from the Bight of Biafra ( also known as the Bight of Bonny ) . This area included modern day southeastern Nigeria , Western Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea and parts of Northern Gabon . Major trade ports for goods and slaves in the area included Bonny and Calabar Town . A large number of slaves from the Bight of Biafra would have been Igbo . Slaves were usually sold to Europeans by the Aro Confederacy , who kidnapped or bought slaves from Igbo villages in the hinterland . Most Igbo slaves were not victims of slave @-@ raiding wars or expeditions , but were sometimes debtors and people who committed what their communities considered to be abominations or crimes . Igbo slaves were known to the British colonists as being rebellious and having a high rate of suicide to escape slavery . For still unknown reasons , there is evidence that traders sought Igbo women . Contrary to common belief , European slave traders were fairly well informed about various African ethnicities , leading to slavers ' targeting certain ethnic groups which plantation owners preferred . Particular desired ethnic groups consequently became fairly concentrated in certain parts of the Americas . The Igbo were dispersed to colonies such as Jamaica , Cuba , Saint @-@ Domingue , Barbados , the United States , Belize and Trinidad and Tobago , among others . Elements of Igbo culture can still be found in these places . For example , in Jamaican Patois , the Igbo word unu , meaning " you " plural , is still used . " Red Ibo " ( or " red eboe " ) describes a black person with fair or " yellowish " skin . This term had originated from the reported prevalence of these skin tones among the Igbo but eastern Nigerian influences may not be strictly Igbo . The word Bim , a colloquial term for Barbados , was commonly used among enslaved Barbadians ( Bajans ) . This word is said to have derived from bém in the Igbo language meaning ' my place or people ' , but may have other origins ( see : Barbados etymology ) . A section of Belize City was named Eboe Town after its Igbo inhabitants . In the United States , the Igbo were imported most commonly to the Chesapeake Bay colonies and states of Maryland and Virginia , where they constituted the largest group of Africans . Since the late 20th century , a wave of Nigerian immigrants , mostly English and Igbo @-@ speaking , have settled in Maryland , attracted to its strong professional job market . = = = Colonial period = = = The 19th @-@ century British colonization effort in present @-@ day Nigeria and increased encounters between the Igbo and other ethnicities near the Niger River led to a deepening sense of a distinct Igbo ethnic identity . The Igbo proved decisive and enthusiastic in their embrace of Christianity and Western education . Due to the incompatibility of the Igbo decentralized style of government and the centralized system including the appointment of warrant chiefs required for British indirect rule , British colonial rule was marked with open conflicts and much tension . Under British colonial rule , the diversity within each of Nigeria 's major ethnic groups slowly decreased and distinctions between the Igbo and other large ethnic groups , such as the Hausa and the Yoruba , became sharper . Colonial rule transformed Igbo society , as portrayed in Chinua Achebe 's novel Things Fall Apart . British rule brought about changes in culture , such as the introduction of Warrant Chiefs as Eze ( indigenous rulers ) where there were no such monarchies . Christian missionaries introduced aspects of European ideology into Igbo society and culture , sometimes shunning parts of the culture . The rumours that the Igbo women were being assessed for taxation sparked off the 1929 Igbo Women 's War in Aba ( also known as the 1929 Aba Riots ) , a massive revolt of women never encountered before in Igbo history . Aspects of Igbo culture such as construction of houses , education and religion changed following colonialism . The tradition of building houses out of mud walls and thatched roofs ended as the people shifted to materials such as cement blocks for houses and zinc roofs . Roads for vehicles were built . Buildings such as hospitals and schools were erected in many parts of Igboland . Along with these changes , electricity and running water were installed in the early 20th century . With electricity , new technology such as radios and televisions were adopted , and have become commonplace in most Igbo households . = = = Nigerian – Biafran War = = = A series of ethnic clashes between Northern Muslims and the Igbo , and other ethnic groups of Eastern Nigeria Region living in Northern Nigeria took place between 1966 and 1967 . Elements in the army had assassinated the Nigerian military head of state General Johnson Aguiyi @-@ Ironsi ( 29 July 1966 ) and peace negotiations failed between the military government that deposed Ironsi and the regional government of Eastern Nigeria at the Aburi Talks in Ghana in 1967 . These events led to a regional council of the peoples of Eastern Nigeria deciding that the region should secede and proclaim the Republic of Biafra on May 30 , 1967 . General Emeka Odumegwu @-@ Ojukwu made this declaration and became the Head of state of the new republic . The resultant war , which became known as the Nigerian Civil War or the Nigerian @-@ Biafran War , lasted from July 6 , 1967 until January 15 , 1970 , after which the federal government re @-@ absorbed Biafra into Nigeria . Several million Eastern Nigerians died from the pogroms against them , such as the 1966 anti @-@ Igbo pogrom where between 10 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 Igbo people were killed . In their struggle for self @-@ determination , the people of Biafra earned the respect of a generation , and figures such as Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and John Lennon , who returned his British honor , MBE , partly in protest against British collusion in the Nigeria @-@ Biafra war . In July 2007 the former President of Biafra , General Emeka Odumegwu @-@ Ojukwu , renewed calls for the secession of the Biafran state as a sovereign entity . " The only alternative is a separate existence ... What upsets the Igbo population is we are not equally Nigerian as the others " . = = = Recent history ( 1970 to present ) = = = The Nigerian – Biafran War left Igboland devastated . Fighting had completely destroyed many hospitals , schools , and homes . In addition to the loss of their savings , many Igbo people faced discrimination from other ethnic groups and from the new non @-@ Igbo federal government . Some Igbo subgroups , such as the Ikwerre , started disassociating themselves from the larger Igbo population after the war . In the post @-@ war era , people of eastern Nigeria changed the names of both people and places to non @-@ Igbo @-@ sounding words . For instance , the town of Igbuzo was anglicized to Ibusa . Due to discrimination , many Igbo had trouble finding employment , and during the early 1970s , the Igbo became one of the poorest ethnic groups in Nigeria . Igboland was gradually rebuilt by its citizens and some contribution from the Nigerian government over a period of twenty years and the economy prospered again due to the rise of the petroleum industry in the adjacent Niger Delta region . This led to the establishment of new factories in southern Nigeria . Many Igbo people eventually took government positions , although many were engaged in private business . Since the early 21st century , there has been a wave of Nigerian Igbo immigration to other African countries , Europe , and the Americas . = = Culture = = Igbo culture includes the various customs , practices and traditions of the people . It comprises archaic practices as well as new concepts added into the Igbo culture either through evolution or outside influences . These customs and traditions include the Igbo people 's visual art , use of language , music and dance forms , as well as their attire , cuisine and language dialects . Because of their various subgroups , the variety of their culture is heightened further . = = = Language and literature = = = The Igbo language was used by John Goldsmith as an example to justify deviating from the classical linear model of phonology as laid out in The Sound Pattern of English . It is written in the Roman script as well as the Nsibidi formalized ideograms , which is used by the Ekpe society and Okonko fraternity , but is no longer widely used . Nsibidi ideography existed among the Igbo before the 16th century , but died out after it became popular among secret societies , who made Nsibidi a secret form of communication . Igbo language is difficult because of the huge number of dialects , its richness in prefixes and suffixes and its heavy intonation . Igbo is a tonal language and there are hundreds of different Igbo dialects and Igboid languages , such as the Ikwerre and Ekpeye languages . In 1939 , Dr. Ida C. Ward led a research expedition on Igbo dialects which could possibly be used as a basis of a standard Igbo dialect , also known as Central Igbo . This dialect included that of the Owerri and Umuahia groups , including the Ohuhu dialect . This proposed dialect was gradually accepted by missionaries , writers , publishers , and Cambridge University . In 1789 , The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano was published in London , England , written by Olaudah Equiano , a former slave . The book featured 79 Igbo words . In the first and second chapter , the book illustrates various aspects of Igbo life based on Olaudah Equiano 's life in his hometown of Essaka . Although the book was one of the first books published to include Igbo material , Geschichte der Mission der evangelischen Brüder auf den caraibischen Inseln St. Thomas , St. Croix und S. Jan ( German : History of the Evangelical Brothers ' Mission in the Caribbean Islands St. Thomas , St. Croix and St. John ) , published in 1777 , written by the German missionary C. G. A. Oldendorp , was the first book to publish any Igbo material . Perhaps the most popular and renowned novel that deals with the Igbo and their traditional life was the 1959 book by Chinua Achebe , Things Fall Apart . The novel concerns influences of British colonialism and Christian missionaries on a traditional Igbo community during an unspecified time in the late nineteenth or early 20th century . Most of the novel is set in Umuofia , one of nine villages on the lower Niger . = = = Performing arts = = = The Igbo people have a musical style into which they incorporate various percussion instruments : the udu , which is essentially designed from a clay jug ; an ekwe , which is formed from a hollowed log ; and the ogene , a hand bell designed from forged iron . Other instruments include opi , a wind instrument similar to the flute , igba , and ichaka . Another popular musical form among the Igbo is Highlife . A widely popular musical genre in West Africa , Highlife is a fusion of jazz and traditional music . The modern Igbo highlife is seen in the works of Dr Sir Warrior , Oliver De Coque , Bright Chimezie and Chief Osita Osadebe , who were among the most popular Igbo highlife musicians of the 20th century . Masking is one of the most common art styles in Igboland and is linked strongly with Igbo traditional music . A mask can be made of wood or fabric , along with other materials including iron and vegetation . Masks have a variety of uses , mainly in social satires , religious rituals , secret society initiations ( such as the Ekpe society ) and public festivals , which now include Christmas time celebrations . Some of the best known include the Agbogho Mmuo ( Igbo : Maiden spirit ) masks of the Northern Igbo which represent the spirits of deceased maidens and their mothers with masks symbolizing beauty and Ijele . Other impressive masks include Northern Igbo Ijele masks . At 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high , Ijele masks consist of platforms 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter , supporting figures made of coloured cloth and representing everyday scenes with objects such as leopards . Ijele masks are used for honoring the dead to ensure the continuity and well @-@ being of the community and are only seen on rare occasions such as the death of a prominent figure in the community . There are many Igbo dance styles , but perhaps , Igbo dance is best known for its Atilogwu dance troops . These performances include acrobatic stunts such as high kicks and cartwheels , with each rhythm from the indigenous instruments indicating a movement to the dancer . = = = Visual art and architecture = = = There is such variety among Igbo groups that it is not possible to define a general Igbo art style . Igbo art is known for various types of masquerade , masks and outfits symbolising people , animals , or abstract conceptions . Bronze castings found in the town of Igbo Ukwu from the 9th century , constitute the earliest sculptures discovered in Igboland . Here , the grave of a well @-@ established man of distinction and a ritual store , dating from the 9th century AD , contained both chased copper objects and elaborate castings of leaded bronze . Along with these bronzes were 165 @,@ 000 glass beads said to have originated in Egypt , Venice and India . Some popular Igbo art styles include Uli designs . The majority of the Igbo carve and use masks , although the function of masks vary from community to community . Igbo art is noted for Mbari architecture . Mbari houses of the Owerri @-@ Igbo are large opened @-@ sided square planned shelters . They house many life @-@ sized , painted figures ( sculpted in mud to appease the Alusi ( deity ) and Ala , the earth goddess , with other deities of thunder and water ) . Other sculptures are of officials , craftsmen , foreigners ( mainly Europeans ) , animals , legendary creatures and ancestors . Mbari houses take years to build in what is regarded as a sacred process . When new ones are constructed , old ones are left to decay . Everyday houses were made of mud and thatched roofs with bare earth floors with carved design doors . Some houses had elaborate designs both in the interior and exterior . These designs could include Uli art designed by Igbo women . One of the unique structures of Igbo culture was the Nsude Pyramids , at the town of Nsude , in Abaja , northern Igboland . Ten pyramidal structures were built of clay / mud . The first base section was 60 ft. in circumference and 3 ft. in height . The next stack was 45 ft. in circumference . Circular stacks continued , till it reached the top . The structures were temples for the god Ala / Uto , who was believed to reside at the top . A stick was placed at the top to represent the god 's residence . The structures were laid in groups of five parallel to each other . Because it was built of clay / mud like the Deffufa of Nubia , time has taken its toll requiring periodic reconstruction . = = = Religion and rites of passage = = = Today , the majority of the Igbo people are Christian , although many also retain belief in their traditional religion . Over half of the Christians are Roman Catholic . There are a small population of Igbo Jews , who claim descent from ancient Jewish traders who married their women . This claim is based on population genetics that shows Igbos has L1c gene which is one of the original Eve genes L1 , L2 , L3 . Recent books use ethnolinguistics and paleoanthropology to demonstrate that Hebrew language was formed from Igbo language consonants . The Igbo religion and traditions are known as Odinani . In Igbo religion the supreme God is called Chukwu ( " great spirit " ) ; Chukwu created the world and everything in it and is associated with all things on Earth . They believe the Cosmos is divided into four complex parts : creation , known as Okike ; supernatural forces or deities called Alusi ; Mmuo , which are spirits ; and Uwa , the world . Chukwu is the supreme deity in Odinani as he is the creator , and the Igbo people believe that all things come from him and that everything on earth , heaven and the rest of the spiritual world is under his control . Linguistic studies of the Igbo language suggests the name Chukwu is a compound of the Igbo words Chi ( spiritual being ) and Ukwu ( great in size ) . Each individual is born with a spiritual guide / guardian angel or guardian principle , " Chi " , unique to each individual and the individual 's fate and destiny is determined by their Chi . Thus the Igbos say that the siblings may come of the same mother but no two people have the same Chi and thus different destinies for all . Alusi , alternatively known as Arusi or Arushi ( depending on dialect ) , are minor deities that are worshiped and served in Odinani . There are many different Alusi , each with its own purpose . When an individual deity is no longer needed , or becomes too violent , it is discarded . The Igbo have traditionally believed in reincarnation . People are believed to reincarnate into families that they were part of while alive . Before a relative dies , it is said that the soon to be deceased relative sometimes give clues of who they will reincarnate as in the family . Once a child is born , he or she is believed to give signs of who they have reincarnated from . This can be through behavior , physical traits and statements by the child . A diviner can help in detecting who the child has reincarnated from . It is considered an insult if a male is said to have reincarnated as a female . Children are not allowed to call elders by their names without using an honorific ( as this is considered disrespectful ) . As a sign of respect , children are required to greet elders when seeing them for the first time in the day . Children usually add the Igbo honorifics Mazi or Dede before an elder 's name when addressing them . = = = = Burials = = = = After a death , the body of a prominent member of society is placed on a stool in a sitting posture and is clothed in the deceased 's finest garments . Animal sacrifices may be offered and the dead person is well perfumed . Burial usually follows within 24 hours of death . In the 21st century , the head of a home is usually buried within the compound of his residence . Different types of deaths warrant different types of burials . This is determined by an individual 's age , gender and status in society . For example , children are buried in hiding and out of sight ; their burials usually take place in the early mornings and late nights . A simple untitled man is buried in front of his house and a simple mother is buried in her place of origin : in a garden or a farm @-@ area that belonged to her father . In the 21st century , a majority of the Igbo bury their dead in the western way , although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional Igbo ways . = = = = Marriage = = = = The process of marrying usually involves asking the young woman 's consent , introducing the woman to the man 's family and the same for the man to the woman 's family , testing the bride 's character , checking the woman 's family background , and paying the brides ' wealth . Marriages were sometimes arranged from birth through negotiation of the two families . In the past , many Igbo men practiced polygamy . The polygamous family is made up of a man and his wives and all their children . Men sometimes married multiple wives for economic reasons so as to have more people in the family , including children , to help on farms . Christian and civil marriages have changed the Igbo family since colonization . Igbo people now tend to enter monogamous courtships and create nuclear families , mainly because of Western influence . Some Western marriage customs , such as weddings in a church , take place either before or after the lgbo cultural traditional marriage . = = = Attire = = = Traditionally , the attire of the Igbo generally consisted of little clothing , as the purpose of clothing originally was simply to conceal private parts.Uli body art was used to decorate both men and women in the form of lines forming patterns and shapes on the body . Women traditionally carry their babies on their backs with a strip of clothing binding the two with a knot at her chest , a practice used by many ethnic groups across Africa . This method has been modernized in the form of the child carrier . Maidens usually wore a short wrapper with beads around their waist and other ornaments such as necklaces and beads . Both men and women wore wrappers . Men would wear loin cloths that wrapped round their waist and between their legs to be fastened at their back , the type of clothing appropriate for the intense heat as well as jobs such as farming . In Olaudah Equiano 's narrative , Equiano describes fragrances that were used by the Igbo in the community of Essaka ; " Our principal luxury is in perfumes ; one sort of these is an odoriferous wood of delicious fragrance : the other a kind of earth ; a small portion of which thrown into the fire diffuses a most powerful odor . We beat this wood into powder , and mix it with palm oil ; with which both men and women perfume themselves . " Olaudah Equiano As colonialism became more influential , the Igbo adapted their dress customs . Clothing worn before colonialism became " traditional " and worn on cultural occasions . Modern Igbo traditional attire , for men , is generally made up of the Isiagu top , which resembles the Dashiki worn by other African groups . Isiagu ( or Ishi agu ) is usually patterned with lions ' heads embroidered over the clothing and can be a plain colour . It is worn with trousers and can be worn with either a ceremonial title holders hat or with the conventional striped men 's hat known as Okpu Agu . For women , a puffed sleeve blouse along with two wrappers and a head tie are worn . = = = Cuisine = = = The yam is very important to the Igbo as the staple crop . There are celebrations such as the New yam festival ( Igbo : Iwaji ) which are held for the harvesting of the yam . During the festival , yam is eaten throughout the communities as celebration . Yam tubers are shown off by individuals as a sign of success and wealth . Rice has replaced yam for many ceremonial occasions . Other indigenous foods include cassava , garri , maize and plantains . Soups or stews are included in a typical meal , prepared with a vegetable ( such as okra , of which the word derives from the Igbo language , Okwuru ) to which pieces of fish , chicken , beef , or goat meat are added . Jollof rice is popular throughout West Africa and Palm wine is a popular alcoholic traditional beverage . = = Demographics = = = = = Nigeria = = = The Igbo in Nigeria are found in Abia , Akwa Ibom , Anambra , Benue , Cross River , Ebonyi , Edo , Enugu , Imo , Delta and Rivers State . The Igbo language is predominant throughout these areas , although Nigerian English ( the national language ) is spoken as well . Prominent towns and cities in Igboland include Aba , Enugu ( considered the ' Igbo capital ' ) , Onitsha , Owerri , Abakaliki , Asaba and Port Harcourt among others . A significant number of Igbo people have migrated to other parts of Nigeria , such as the cities of Lagos , Abuja , and Kano . The official data on the population of ethnic groups in Nigeria continues to be controversial as a minority of these groups have claimed that the government deliberately deflates the official population of one group , to give the other numerical superiority . The CIA World Factbook puts the Igbo population of Nigeria at 18 % of a total population of 177 million , or approximately 32 million people . Southeastern Nigeria , which is inhabited primarily by the Igbo , is the most densely populated area in Nigeria , and possibly in all of Africa . Most ethnicities that inhabit southeastern Nigeria , such as the closely related Efik and Ibibio people , are sometimes regarded as Igbo by other Nigerians and ethnographers who are not well informed about the southeast . = = = Diaspora = = = After the Nigerian @-@ Biafran War , many Igbo people emigrated out of the indigenous Igbo homeland in southeastern Nigeria due to an absence of federal presence , lack of jobs , and poor infrastructure . In recent decades the Igbo region of Nigeria has suffered from frequent environmental damage mainly related to the oil industry . Igbo people have moved to both Nigerian cities such as Lagos and Abuja , and other countries such as Gabon , Canada , the United Kingdom and the United States . Prominent Igbo communities outside Africa include those of London in the United Kingdom and Houston , Baltimore , Chicago , Detroit , Seattle , Atlanta and Washington , D.C. in the United States . About 21 @,@ 000 Igbo people were recorded in Ghana in 1969 . A small number ( 8 @,@ 680 ) in Bioko island in 2002 . Small numbers live in Japan making up the majority of the Nigerian immigrant population based in Tokyo . A large amount of the African population of Guangdong , China , are Igbo @-@ speaking and are mainly businessmen trading between factories in China and southeastern Nigeria , particularly Enugu . Other Igbo immigrants are found in the Americas ( Igbo Canadian , Igbo American , Igbo Jamaican ) and elsewhere . = = Genetics = = Genetic studies have shown the Igbo to cluster most closely with other Niger @-@ Congo @-@ speaking peoples . With genealogy tracing by means of DNA testing , the roots of the African diaspora is being uncovered by descendants of the victims of the Atlantic slave trade who are researching their family history . In the 2003 PBS programme African American Lives , Bishop T.D. Jakes had his DNA analyzed ; his Y chromosome showed that he is descended from the Igbo . American actors Forest Whitaker , Paul Robeson , and Blair Underwood have traced their genealogy back to the Igbo people . = = Organizations = = The 1930s saw the rise of Igbo unions in the cities of Lagos and Port Harcourt . Later , the Ibo Federal Union ( renamed the Ibo State Union in 1948 ) emerged as an umbrella pan @-@ ethnic organization . Headed by Nnamdi Azikiwe , it was closely associated with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons ( NCNC ) , which he co @-@ founded with Herbert Macaulay . The aim of the organization was the improvement and advancement ( such as in education ) of the Igbo and their indigenous land and included an Igbo " national anthem " with a plan for an Igbo bank . In 1978 after Olusegun Obasanjo 's military regime lifted the ban on independent political activity , the Ohaneze Ndi Igbo organization was formed , an elite umbrella organization which speaks on behalf of the Igbo people . Their main concerns are the marginalization of the Igbo people in Nigerian politics and the neglect of indigenous Igbo territory in social amenities and development of infrastructure . Other groups which protest the perceived marginalization of the Igbo people are the Igbo Peoples Congress ( IPC ) . Even before the 20th century there were numerous Igbo unions and organizations existing around the world , such as the Igbo union in Bathurst , Gambia in 1842 , founded by a prominent Igbo trader and ex @-@ soldier named Thomas Refell . Another was the union founded by the Igbo community in Freetown , Sierra Leone by 1860 , of which Africanus Horton , a surgeon , scientist and soldier , was an active member . Decades after the Nigerian @-@ Biafran war , the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra ( MASSOB ) , a secessionist group , was founded in September 1999 by Ralph Uwazurike for the goal of an independent Igbo state . Since its creation , there have been several conflicts between its members and the Nigerian government , resulting in the death of members . After the 2015 Nigerian general elections a group known as the Indigenous People of Biafra ( IPOB ) became the most prominent vocal group for the agitation of the creation of an independent state of Biafra through a radio station named Radio Biafra . For the promotion of the Igbo language and culture , the Society for Promoting Igbo Language and Culture ( SPILC ) was founded in 1949 by Frederick Chidozie Ogbalu , and has since created a standard dialect for Igbo .
= Ann T. Bowling = Ann Trommershausen Bowling ( June 1 , 1943 – December 8 , 2000 ) was one of the world 's leading geneticists in the study of horses , conducting research in the areas of molecular genetics and cytogenetics . She was a major figure in the development of testing to determine animal parentage , first with blood typing in the 1980s and then DNA testing 1990s . She later became known for her studies of hereditary diseases in horses and equine coat color genetics , as well as research on horse evolution and the development of horse breeds . She studied the population genetics of feral horses , did considerable work to help preserve the Przewalski 's horse , and was one of the founding members of the international project to map the horse genome . She was an adjunct professor at the University of California , Davis ( UCD ) , and at the time of her death in 2000 was the executive associate director of the Veterinary Genetics Laboratory ( VGL ) there . Her unexpected death on December 8 , 2000 at age 57 was attributed to a massive stroke . = = Early life and career = = Ann Bowling ( née Trommershausen ) was born June 1 , 1943 in Portland , Oregon , to Claire Bowen and William Ernest Trommershausen , who worked for the Bonneville Power Administration . After the Bowlings moved to Boulder , Colorado , Bowling attended Boulder High School and was class valedictorian . She obtained her undergraduate degree at Carleton College in Minnesota , graduating magna cum laude . Bowling earned her PhD in 1969 at the University of California , Davis , completing her thesis on the genetics of plants under the supervision of G. Ledyard Stebbins . She joined the faculty of Occidental College in Los Angeles in 1968 , then was hired by UC Davis in 1973 , and at the time of her death in 2000 was an adjunct professor and executive associate director of the Veterinary Genetics Laboratory ( VGL ) at UC Davis . She married Michael Bowling in 1981 . Both members of the couple shared a strong interest in genetics ; prior to their marriage , Ann used Michael 's stud book research in her own 1980 study of genetic diseases . Michael Bowling wrote a number of articles on Arabian horse genetics for general @-@ interest publications , and the pair collaborated on a study of mtDNA in Arabian bloodlines . Their daughter Lydia attended veterinary school and UC Davis and became a veterinarian . = = Animal parentage identification = = Bowling developed some of the first blood typing and DNA parentage tests for horses , and became a genetics consultant to several horse breed registries , including The Jockey Club , Arabian Horse Association ( originally Arabian Horse Registry of America ) , American Quarter Horse Association , and the American Morgan Horse Association . Beginning in 1976 , she published research on animal blood types , and developed tests using blood type to establish parentage . She advocated for adopting blood typing for parentage verification of registered animals . Numerous breed registries did so . In the course of this research , she also studied the phenomenon of chimerism , which sometimes created inconsistent results in parentage testing . By the late 1990s , as the science of parentage testing evolved , she researched the effectiveness of DNA typing and concluded that it was as effective as blood typing for verifying parentage . Her lab pioneered the DNA @-@ based parentage verification of horses and camelids — species for which Bowling herself had conducted research — using microsatellites as biomarkers . This testing program also expanded to include eight other types of mammals . Bowling applied her work on identifying parentage to help preserve the genetic diversity of the Przewalski 's horse . Among other work , she reconstructed the herd book of the captive Askania Nova herd in Ukraine using parentage testing data . She studied the genetics of Mustangs in the Great Basin and located genetic markers linking them to other domesticated horse breeds . She also performed research on the blood types of the Paso Fino breed . Some of the more unusual work the VGL performed was a 1996 investigation by Scotland Yard , which sought help from the lab to identify the source of a blood sample associated with a murder . The lab identified the sample as being from a dog that was at the crime scene , and this information helped crack the case by leading investigators to a suspect who was the owner of the dog . Bowling was the director of the laboratory at the time , and as a result of this work , expanded the lab 's scope so it could continue to help identify animals present at crime scenes and those animals which themselves were victims of crimes such as theft or animal abuse . From this beginning , the VGL also later helped create a national canine database used to prosecute cases of dogfighting . Bowling also published articles on parentage in mules , including a case where she proved the rare occurrence of a fertile mule mare by parentage testing . = = Genetic disease and equine coat color research = = From very early in her career , Bowling wrote about educating horse breeders on genetic diseases in purebred animals and how to deal with these conditions . She performed a number of studies on the Arabian horse breed , including research into one of the genetic diseases that affects Arabians , cerebellar abiotrophy ( CA ) . In 1985 , she created a breeding herd at UCD of horses known to carry CA , and this small group provided preliminary DNA data for researchers . Bowling 's own studies of CA were unpublished at the time of her death , but she is credited with demonstrating that the condition had a recessive mode of genetic inheritance and was likely the result of a single mutated allele . A DNA marker test for the condition was developed by her successors at UCD , which became available to the public in 2008 . In 2011 , the causative mutation for cerebellar abiotrophy was identified , and the condition was conclusively established as an autosomal recessive . Bowling also studied genetic conditions in other horse breeds , including hyperkalemic periodic paralysis ( HYPP ) in the American Quarter Horse . In 1996 , her research found that the origin of this genetically dominant disorder traced to a single stallion , later identified publicly as Impressive . Bowling 's study of equine coat color genetics originally coincided with her studies of animal parentage . Research related to equine coat colors dovetailed with genetic disease research when she studied overo spotting patterns seen in Paint horses . She was part of a research team that studied lethal white syndrome ( LWS ) , a fatal condition in newborn foals . She had authored an early study in 1977 that ruled out neonatal isoerythrolysis as a cause of death . In 1983 , the team linked LWS to a coat color spotting pattern , later identified as frame overo , which is seen in the American Paint Horse and related breeds . In 1997 Bowling was one of three researchers to identify the gene responsible for LWS , and in the process identified the condition as the equine version of Hirschsprung disease . While researching lethal white syndrome , Bowling also studied the phenomenon of cropouts ; spotted offspring born from two minimally @-@ marked parents . She also worked with the team that mapped the cream gene , which is a dilution gene with no deleterious effects , though a misconception exists that cream colors might be linked to lethal white syndrome . In addition to her work on deleterious mutations associated with horse genetics , Bowling studied genetic disorders in the Australian shepherd dog that appeared to be linked to the merle coat color . = = Horse genome project = = In the 1990s , Bowling was one of the leaders in the horse genome project . This work was also important to human medicine , as there are at least 90 genetic conditions that can affect both humans and horses . The horse genome was first sequenced in 2006 , and was fully mapped by 2009 . = = Horse breeding = = Bowling owned Arabian horses , and was a co @-@ founder of the New Albion Stud along with her husband Michael and her parents , Bill and Claire Trommershausen . Ann and her parents had owned half @-@ Arabians when they lived in Colorado ; Michael Bowling had owned Arabians since 1962 . They started the farm in September 1980 , about the same time that Ann and Michael married , and placed an emphasis on bloodlines descended from the Crabbet Arabian Stud . The farm continued to be operated by her husband and daughter after Bowling 's death . Bowling 's study of mitochondrial DNA in Arabians found that pedigree records kept by the American registry for Arabian horses were generally reliable from the time of importation forward . But her work also brought into question a belief commonly held by Arabian breeders that horses imported from the desert identified by specific historic dam lines or " strains " in their pedigrees actually traced to specific matrilineal groups . Bowling also found that some mare lines claimed to originate from the same desert @-@ bred " strain " were not related at all , and some mares whose pedigrees claimed they were of different strains turned out to be distantly related . = = Publications = = Bowling was the author or coauthor of two books and 93 scientific journal articles , including : Books Bowling , Ann T. ( 1997 ) . Horse Genetics ( Repr. ed . ) . Wallingford : CAB International . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 101 @-@ 6 . Bowling , A.T. ; Ruvinsky , A. ( 2000 ) . The Genetics of the Horse . Wallingford : CAB International . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 925 @-@ 8 . Journals
= Number 1 to Infinity = # 1 to Infinity is the sixth compilation album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released by Sony Music Entertainment on May 15 , 2015 . It features Carey 's eighteen U.S. number @-@ one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 . A new recording called " Infinity " was released as the only single on April 27 , 2015 . In January 2015 , the singer announced that she had signed a residency deal to perform at The Colosseum at the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas in May and July 2015 , and would perform all of her number @-@ ones . As a result , she decided to re @-@ release her first compilation , # 1 's , from 1998 with an updated list of subsequent chart toppers . Carey promoted the album with her Mariah Carey # 1 's residency and with live performances at the Billboard Music Awards , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Live ! with Kelly and Michael . = = Background = = Following the release of Mariah Carey 's fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah … The Elusive Chanteuse , in May 2014 , she parted ways with her record label Def Jam Recordings , her publicist Cindi Berger and her manager Jermaine Dupri . She signed a new record contract with L.A. Reid at Epic Records ( who co @-@ executively produced Carey 's tenth album The Emancipation of Mimi in 2005 ) , sought a new publicist with Chris Chambers of the Chamber Group and hired new managers Stella Bulochnikov and Brian Sher . Writers Shirley Halperin and Andrew Hampp of Billboard attributed Carey 's decision to seek new a new label and management to the low sales of Me . I Am Mariah … The Elusive Chanteuse , which at a total of 117 @,@ 000 units since its release , is Carey 's lowest selling album in the United States . Carey secured a multi @-@ album record deal with Epic in January 2015 , a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment , meaning that # 1 to Infinity would be her first album since her seventh studio album Rainbow in 1999 to be released with Sony . Following the release of Rainbow , Carey left Sony and signed an $ 80 million , four @-@ album contract with EMI 's Virgin Records , wishing to severe all ties with Sony and its chairman , her former husband Tommy Mottola . Halperin and Hampp believe that following a prolonged period of absence from Sony and re @-@ signing with them is a positive situation for Carey : " Doug Morris , current chairman / CEO of Sony Music , brought Carey to Island Def Jam in 2003 when he was running Universal Music Group . Reid , then head of Island Def Jam , oversaw her Mimi @-@ powered 2005 comeback . Joey Arbagey , a collaborator of Carey 's during the making of the six @-@ times platinum [ The Emancipation of Mimi ] , is now executive vp A & R at Epic . " Furthermore , Carey released seven studio albums , a live EP and four compilation / greatest hits albums with Sony , which have sold a total of 43 @.@ 9 million units in the US combined . Although Halperin and Hampp note that " Carey 's legacy is undisputed , her recent stumbles have not gone unnoticed , " with regard to her divorce from Nick Cannon , the low sales of Me . I Am Mariah … The Elusive Chanteuse and its failure to garner a top @-@ ten single on the Billboard Hot 100 and hiring and firing three managers : Dupri , Randy Jackson and Kevin Giles ( the last of whom Carey has kept as a consultant ) . As a result , several record labels were reluctant to offer Carey a contract . According to Billboard , many other critics felt that reuniting with Reid is Carey 's best chance of re @-@ establishing herself on the charts . = = Content = = In January 2015 , Carey announced that she would re @-@ release # 1 's ( 1998 ) with an updated version featuring her songs that had in the meantime reached number @-@ one : " Heartbreaker " featuring Jay @-@ Z ( 1999 ) , " Thank God I Found You " featuring Joe and 98 Degrees ( 2000 ) , " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) , " Don 't Forget About Us " ( 2005 / 06 ) and " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) . The North American track listing of # 1 to Infinity features Carey 's eighteen U.S. number @-@ one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 and one new recording called " Infinity " . Instead of including the original studio version of her third number @-@ one " Someday " ( 1991 ) , the live recording from her MTV Unplugged EP ( 1992 ) features instead . Carey explains in the liner notes of # 1 to Infinity that she felt the studio version was overproduced . The Bad Boy Fantasy remix of her ninth number @-@ one " Fantasy " featuring Ol ' Dirty Bastard was included instead of the original solo version . Carey describes the remix as a " turning point " in her career . " Someday " , " I Don 't Wanna Cry " and " Thank God I Found You " were omitted from the international track listing . They were replaced with Carey 's cover of Badfinger 's song " Without You " ( number @-@ one in New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and several European territories ) , her " Endless Love " duet with Luther Vandross ( number @-@ one in New Zealand ) and " Against All Odds " featuring Westlife ( number @-@ one in the United Kingdom ) . " Thank God I Found You " was also omitted from the Japanese track listing , and replaced with " All I Want for Christmas Is You " . For the album artwork , Carey launched a social media campaign on April 12 , 2015 , whereby fans had to share a link to her website in order to reveal the cover which was concealed by a curtain . Using the hashtag " RevealMariah " , the more shares the link received , the quicker the cover was revealed . Fans unlocked the final image a day later on April 13 . = = Singles = = " Infinity " was released as the only single from the album , and was the only new recording to be included on the track list . It is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song written by Carey , Eric Hudson , Priscilla Renea , Taylor Parks and Ilsey Juber . Lyrically , the song is about Carey freeing herself and emancipation , however many critics speculated that the lyrics were specifically about her separation from her second husband , Nick Cannon . In response , Carey said that the song was not a reflection of her personal life , but even if it was , she would not publicly confirm who it was written about . Critical response to the song was positive , with many critics praising Carey 's vocals and her comical songwriting , specifically with regard to the reference about Fritos . " Infinity " reached number 82 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her forty @-@ seventh entry since her debut in 1990 . = = Promotion = = On January 15 , 2015 , Carey appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to announce that she signed a contract to take up residency at The Colosseum at the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas in May and July 2015 ; it is called Mariah Carey # 1 's . During the interview , Carey confirmed " I 'm going to do my first ever residency in Vegas at Caesars . " " This is a special event for me . And again , I have to hope that the fans will enjoy this cause I 'm gonna be performing , which was kind of inspired by my album # 1 's , and this is now the updated version with eighteen of them . Hopefully other people will enjoy this . I 've never done this before . " The confirmation of Carey 's residency came after Canadian singer Celine Dion announced that she had postponed dates of her residency at Caesars Palace to care for her husband , René Angélil , who is suffering from cancer . Aside from singing " Infinity " at her residency , Carey performed a medley of her 1990 debut single " Vision of Love " followed by " Infinity " at the Billboard Music Awards on May 17 , 2015 ; it was her first performance at the ceremony in seventeen years . Andrew Hampp for Billboard described the performance as " octave @-@ leaping " and one of the most memorable of the night . Other promotional appearances included Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Live ! with Kelly and Michael . For the latter , Carey wore an Aurora @-@ inspired dress from the Disney film Sleeping Beauty and performed on Main Street , U.S.A. in Disney World . = = Chart performance = = # 1 to Infinity debuted at number 29 on the Billboard 200 chart on June 6 , 2015 . It became her twentieth album to make the chart . Her eponymous album had debuted at number 80 twenty @-@ five years prior in 1990 and later became her first of six number @-@ one albums in 1991 . # 1 to Infinity peaked at number 2 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and R & B Albums chart , respectively . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 8 on May 24 , 2015 , remaining on the chart for 5 weeks . On the UK R & B Albums Chart , the compilation reached number 1 . Similarly , the album peaked at number 18 on the Australian Albums Chart , but reached number 2 on the Urban Albums Chart . = = Track listing = = Notes " I 'll Be There " featuring Trey Lorenz is a cover , originally performed by The Jackson 5 " Without You " is a cover , originally performed by Badfinger " Endless Love " with Luther Vandross is a cover , originally performed by Lionel Richie and Diana Ross " Against All Odds " with Westlife is a cover , originally performed by Phil Collins Sample credits " Fantasy " is the Bad Boy Fantasy version . It also contains a sample of the Tom Tom Club 's song " Genius of Love " , written by Chris Frantz , Tina Weymouth , Adrian Belew and Steven Stanley " Honey " contains samples of " Hey DJ " performed by the World 's Famous Supreme Team , written by Stephen Hague , and " The Body Rock " performed by the Treacherous Three , written by Bobby Robinson , Larry Price and Malcolm McLaren " Heartbreaker " contains a sample of " Attack of the Name Game " performed by Stacy Lattisaw , written by Shirley Ellis and Lincoln Chase " We Belong Together " contains samples of Bobby Womack 's " If You Think You 're Lonely Now " , written by Bobby Womack , Patrick Moten and Sandra Sully , and The Deele 's " Two Occasions " , written by Darnell Bristol and Kenneth Edmonds = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Prostitution of children = Prostitution of children or child prostitution is prostitution involving a child , and it is a form of commercial sexual exploitation of children . The term normally refers to prostitution of a minor , or person under the legal age of consent . In most jurisdictions , child prostitution is illegal as part of a general prohibition on prostitution . Prostitution of children usually manifests in the form of sex trafficking , in which a child is kidnapped or duped into becoming involved in the sex trade , or " survival sex " , in which the child engages in sexual activities to procure basic essentials such as food and shelter . Prostitution of children is commonly associated with child pornography , and they often overlap . Some people travel to foreign countries to engage in child sex tourism . Research suggests that there may be as many as 10 million children involved in prostitution worldwide . The problem is most severe in South America and Asia , but prostitution of children exists globally , in undeveloped countries as well as developed . Most of the children involved with prostitution are girls , despite an increase in the number of young boys in the trade . The United Nations has declared the prostitution of children to be illegal under international law , and various campaigns and organizations have been created to protest its existence . " Most of the victimized children who face prostitution are vulnerable children who are exploited . Many predators target runaways , sexual assault victims , and children who have been harshly neglected by their biological parents . Not only have they faced traumatic violence that affects their physical being , but become intertwined into the violent life of prostitution . " – U.S. Deputy Attorney General James Cole . = = Definitions = = Several definitions have been proposed for prostitution of children . The United Nations defines it as " the act of engaging or offering the services of a child to perform sexual acts for money or other consideration with that person or any other person " . The Convention on the Rights of the Child 's Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children , Child Prostitution , and Child Pornography defines the practice as " the act of obtaining , procuring or offering the services of a child or inducing a child to perform sexual acts for any form of compensation or reward " . Both emphasize that the child is a victim of exploitation , even if apparent consent is given . The Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention , 1999 , ( Convention No 182 ) of the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) describes it as the " use , procuring or offering of a child for prostitution " . According to the International Labour Office in Geneva , prostitution of children and child pornography are two primary forms of child sexual exploitation , which often overlap . The former is sometimes used to describe the wider concept of commercial sexual exploitation of children ( CSEC ) . It excludes other identifiable manifestations of CSEC , such as commercial sexual exploitation through child marriage , domestic child labor , and the trafficking of children for sexual purposes . The terminology applied to the practice is a subject of dispute . The United States Department of Justice states , " The term itself implies the idea of choice , when in fact that is not the case . " Groups that oppose the practice believe that the terms " child prostitution " and " child prostitute " carry problematic connotations because children are generally not expected to be able to make informed decisions about prostitution . As an alternative , they use the terms " prostituted children " and " the commercial sexual exploitation of children " . Other groups use the term " child sex worker " to imply that the children are not always " passive victims " . = = Causes and types = = Children are often forced by social structures and individual agents into situations in which adults take advantage of their vulnerability and sexually exploit and abuse them . Structure and agency commonly combine to force a child into commercial sex : for example , the prostitution of a child frequently follows from prior sexual abuse , often in the child 's home . Many believe that the majority of prostituted children are from Southeast Asia and the majority of their clients are Western sex tourists , but sociologist Louise Brown argues that , while Westerners contribute to the growth of the industry , most of the children 's customers are Asian locals . Prostitution of children usually occurs in environments such as brothels , bars and clubs , homes , or particular streets and areas ( usually in socially run down places ) . According to one study , only about 10 % of prostituted children have a pimp and over 45 % entered the business through friends . Maureen Jaffe and Sonia Rosen from the International Child Labor Study Office write that cases vary widely : " Some victims are runaways from home or State institutions , others are sold by their parents or forced or tricked into prostitution , and others are street children . Some are amateurs and others professionals . Although one tends to think first and foremost of young girls in the trade , there is an increase in the number of young boys involved in prostitution . The most disquieting cases are those children who are forced into the trade and then incarcerated . These children run the possible further risk of torture and subsequent death . " = = = Human trafficking = = = Human trafficking is defined by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ) as " the recruitment , transport , transfer , harbouring or receipt of a person by such means as threat or use of force or other forms of coercion , of abduction , of fraud or deception for the purpose of exploitation " . The UNODC approximates the number of victims worldwide to be around 2 @.@ 5 million . UNICEF reports that since 1982 about 30 million children have been trafficked . Trafficking for sexual slavery accounts for 79 % of cases , with the majority of victims being female , of which an estimated 20 % are children . Women are also often perpetrators as well . In 2007 the UN founded United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking ( UN.GIFT ) . In cooperation with UNICEF , the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe ( OSCE ) , and the United Nations Development Fund for Women ( UNIFEM ) the United Nations took a grant from the United Arab Emirates to establish UN.GIFT. UN.GIFT aims to fight human trafficking through a mutual support from its stakeholders which includes governments , businesses , and other large global actors . There first initiative is to spread the word that human trafficking is immoral and has become a growing problem that it will take a global cooperation to cease its continuation . UN.GIFT strives to lower the demand for this exploitation and create a safe environment for potential victims . In some cases , victims of sex trafficking are kidnapped by strangers , either by force or by being tricked into becoming involved through lies and false promises . In other cases , the children 's families allow or force them to enter the industry as a result of severe poverty . In cases where they are taken out of the country , traffickers prey on the fact that the children are often unable to understand the language of their new location and are unaware of their legal rights . Research indicates that traffickers have a preference for females age 12 and under because young children are more easily molded into the role assigned to them and because they are assumed to be virgins , which is valuable to consumers . The girls are then made to appear older , and documents are forged as protection against law enforcement . Victims tend to share similar backgrounds , often coming from communities with high crime rates and lack of access to education . However , victimology is not limited to this , and males and females coming from various backgrounds have become involved in sex trafficking . Psychotherapist Mary De Chesnay identifies five stages in the process of sex trafficking : vulnerability , recruitment , transportation , exploitation , and liberation . The final stage , De Chesnay writes , is rarely completed . Murder and accidental death rates are high , as are suicides , and very few trafficking victims are rescued or escape . Sex trafficking is a lucrative business due to the low risk and high demand for its existence . The return of high profits acts as a primary incentive driving the spread of human trafficking . Today , most markets are operated online disguised as salon parlors making it harder to enforce sex trafficking laws . Examples are online escort services , residential brothels , brothels disguised as massage businesses or spas , many of which enslave children to their services . = = = Survival sex = = = The other primary form of prostitution of children is " survival sex " . The US Department of Justice states : " Survival sex " occurs when a child engages in sex acts in order to obtain money , food , shelter , clothing , or other items needed in order to survive . In these situations , the transaction typically only involves the child and the customer ; children engaged in survival sex are usually not controlled or directed by pimps , madams , or other traffickers . Any individual who pays for sex with a child , whether the child is controlled by a pimp or is engaged in survival sex , can be prosecuted . A study commissioned by UNICEF and Save the Children and headed by sociologist Annjanette Rosga conducted research on prostitution of children in post @-@ war Bosnia and Herzegovina . Rosga reported that poverty was a strong contributing factor . She stated , " The global sex trade is as much a product of everyday people struggling to survive in dire economic straits as it is an organized crime problem . Attacking the crime and not the poverty is treating the symptom but not the disease ... It 's not uncommon for girls to know what they 're entering into , and to enter voluntarily to some degree . Maybe they think they 'll be different and able to escape , or maybe they 'd rather take the risk than feel powerless staying at home in poverty . " Jaffe and Rosen disagree and argue that poverty alone does not often force children into prostitution , as it does not exist in a large scale in several impoverished societies . Rather , a number of external influences , such as poor family situations and domestic violence , factor into the problem . Prostitution of children in the form of survival sex occurs in both undeveloped and developed countries . In Asia , underage girls sometimes work in brothels to support their families . In Sri Lanka parents will more often have their sons prostitute themselves rather than their daughters , as the society places more weight on sexual purity among females than males . Jaffe and Rosen write that prostitution of children in North America often results from " economic considerations , domestic violence and abuse , family disintegration and drug addiction " . In Canada , a young man was convicted of charges relating to the prostitution of a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl online in 2012 ; he had encouraged her to prostitute herself as a means of making money , kept all of her earnings , and threatened her with violence if she did not continue . = = Consequences = = = = = Treatment of prostituted children = = = Prostituted children are often forced to work in hazardous environments without proper hygiene . They face threats of violence and are sometimes raped and beaten . Researchers Robin E. Clark , Judith Freeman Clark , and Christine A. Adamec write that they " suffer a great deal of abuse , unhappiness , and poor health " in general . For example , Derrick Jensen reports that female sex trafficking victims from Nepal are " ' broken in ' through a process of rapes and beatings , and then rented out up to thirty @-@ five times per night for one to two dollars per man " . Another example involved mostly Nepalese boys who were lured to India and sold to brothels in Mumbai , Hyderabad , New Delhi , Lucknow , and Gorakhpur . One victim left Nepal at the age of 14 and was sold into slavery , locked up , beaten , starved , and forcibly circumcised . He reported that he was held in a brothel with 40 to 50 other boys , many of whom were castrated , before escaping and returning to Nepal . Criminologist Ronald Flowers writes that prostitution of children and child pornography are closely linked ; up to one in three prostituted children have been involved in pornography , often through films or literature . Runaway teenagers , he states , are frequently used for " porn flicks " and photographs . In addition to pornography , Flowers writes that , " Children caught up in this dual world of sexual exploitation are often victims of sexual assaults , sexual perversions , sexually transmitted diseases , and inescapable memories of sexual misuse and bodies that have been compromised , brutalized , and left forever tarnished . " = = = Physical and psychological effects = = = According to Humanium , an NGO that opposes the prostitution of children , the practice causes injuries such as " vaginal tearing , physical after @-@ effects of torture , pain , infection , or unwanted pregnancy " . As clients seldom take precautions against the spread of HIV , prostituted children face a high risk of contracting the disease , and the majority of them in certain locations contract it . Other sexually transmitted diseases pose a threat as well , such as syphilis and herpes . High levels of tuberculosis have also been found among prostituted children . These illnesses are often fatal . Former prostituted children often deal with psychological trauma , including depression and posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . Other psychological effects include anger , insomnia , sexual and personality confusion , inability to trust adults , and loss of confidence . Drug @-@ related health problems included dental problems , hepatitis B and C , and serious liver and kidney problems . Other medical complications included reproductive problems and injuries from sexual assaults ; physical and neurological problems from violent physical attacks ; and other general health issues including respiratory problems and joint pains . = = Prohibition = = Prostitution of children is illegal under international law , and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child , Article 34 , states , " the State shall protect children from sexual exploitation and abuse , including prostitution and involvement in pornography . " The convention was first held in 1989 and has been ratified by 193 countries . In 1990 , the United Nations appointed a Special Rapporteur on the sale of children , child prostitution , and child pornography . While the legality of adult prostitution varies between different parts of the world , the prostitution of minors is illegal in most countries , and all countries have some form of restrictions against it . There is a dispute surrounding what constitutes a prostituted child . International law defines a child as any individual below the age of 18 , but a number of countries legally recognize lower ages of consent and adulthood , usually ranging from 13 to 17 years of age . Thus , law enforcement officers are sometimes hesitant to investigate cases because of the differences in age of consent . The laws of some countries do , however , distinguish between prostituted teenagers and prostituted children . For example , the Japanese government defines the category as referring to minors between 13 and 18 . Consequences for offenders vary from country to country . In the People 's Republic of China , all forms of prostitution are illegal , but having sexual contact with anyone under the age of 14 , regardless of consent , will result in a more serious punishment than raping an adult . In the United States , the legal penalty for participating in the prostitution of children includes five to twenty years in prison . The FBI established " Innocence Lost " , a new department working to free children from prostitution , in response to the strong public reaction across the country to the news of Operation Stormy Nights , in which 23 minors were released from forced prostitution . = = Prevalence = = Prostitution of children exists in every country , though the problem is most severe in South America and Asia . The number of prostituted children is rising in other parts of the world , including North America , Africa , and Europe . Exact statistics are difficult to obtain , but it is estimated that there are around 10 million children involved in prostitution worldwide . Note : this is a list of examples ; it does not cover every country where child prostitution exists . By 1999 , it was reported that in Argentina prostitution of children was increasing at an alarming rate and that the average age was decreasing . The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women ( CATW ) fact book says Argentina is one of the favored destinations of pedophile sex tourists from Europe and the United States . Argentina 's Criminal Code criminalizes the prostitution of minors of eighteen years of age or younger , but it only sanctions those who " promote or facilitate " prostitution , not the client who exploits the minor . = = Views = = = = = Public perception = = = Anthropologist Heather Montgomery writes that society has a largely negative perception of prostitution of children , in part because the children are often viewed as having been abandoned or sold by their parents and families . The International Labour Organization includes the prostitution of children in its list of the " worst forms of child labour " . At the 1996 World Congress Against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children it was called " a crime against humanity " , " torture " , and " slavery " . Virginia Kendall , a district judge and expert on child exploitation and human trafficking , and T. Markus Funk , an attorney and law professor , write that the subject is an emotional one and that there are various perspectives about its prevention : The topic of proscribing and punishing child exploitation triggers intense emotions . While there is general consensus that child sexual exploitation , whether through the Internet , forced prostitution , the international or domestic trafficking of children for sex , or molestation , is on the rise , observers in the United States and elsewhere find little common ground on the questions of how serious such conduct is , or what , if anything , must be done to address it . Investigative journalist Julian Sher states that widespread stereotypes about the prostitution of children continued into the 1990s , when the first organized opposition arose and police officers began working to dispel common misconceptions . Criminologist Roger Matthews writes that concerns over pedophilia and child sexual abuse , as well as shifting perceptions of youth , led the public to see a sharp difference between prostitution of children and adult prostitution . While the latter is generally frowned upon , the former is seen as intolerable . Additionally , he states , children are increasingly viewed as " innocent " and " pure " and their prostitution as paramount to slavery . Through the shift in attitude , the public began to see minors involved in the sex trade as victims rather than as perpetrators of a crime , needing rehabilitation rather than punishment . = = = Opposition = = = Though campaigns against prostitution of children originated in the 1800s , the first mass protests against the practice occurred in the 1990s in the United States , led largely by ECPAT ( End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism ) . The group , which historian Junius P. Rodriguez describes as " the most significant of the campaigning groups against child prostitution " , originally focused on the issue of children being exploited in Southeast Asia by Western tourists . Women 's rights groups and anti @-@ tourism groups joined to protest the practice of sex tourism in Bangkok , Thailand . The opposition to sex tourism was spurred on by an image of a Thai youth in prostitution , published in Time and by the publication of a dictionary in the United Kingdom describing Bangkok as " a place where there are a lot of prostitutes " . Cultural anthropologists Susan Dewey and Patty Kelly write that though they were unable to inhibit sex tourism and rates of prostitution of children continued to rise , the groups " galvanized public opinion nationally and internationally " and succeeded in getting the media to cover the topic extensively for the first time . ECPAT later expanded its focus to protest child prostitution globally . The late 1990s and early 2000s also saw the creation of a number of shelters and rehabilitation programs for prostituted children , and the police began to actively investigate the issue . The National Human Trafficking Resource Center ( NHTRC ) was later established by the Polaris Project as a national , toll @-@ free hotline , available to answer calls from anywhere in the United States , 24 hours a day , seven days a week , every day of the year . Operated by Polaris Project , the hotline was designed to allow callers to report tips and receive information on human trafficking . The opposition to prostitution of children and sexual slavery spread to Europe and elsewhere , and organizations pushed for prostituted children to be recognized as victims rather than offenders . The issue remained prominent in the following years , and various campaigns and organizations continued into the 2000s and 2010s . = = History = = Prostitution of children dates to antiquity . Prepubescent boys were commonly prostituted in brothels in ancient Greece and Rome . According to Ronald Flowers , the " most beautiful and highest born Egyptian maidens were forced into prostitution ... and they continued as prostitutes until their first menstruation . " Chinese and Indian children were commonly sold by their parents into prostitution . Parents in India sometimes dedicated their female children to the Hindu temples , where they became " devadasis " . Traditionally a high status in society , the devadasis were originally tasked with maintaining and cleaning the temples of the Hindu deity to which they were assigned ( usually the goddess Renuka ) and learning skills such as music and dancing . However , as the system evolved , their role became that of a temple prostitute , and the girls , who were " dedicated " before puberty , were required to prostitute themselves to upper class men . The practice has since been outlawed but still exists . In Europe , child prostitution flourished until the late 1800s ; minors accounted for 50 % of individuals involved in prostitution in Paris . A scandal in 19th @-@ century England caused the government there to raise the age of consent . In July 1885 , William Thomas Stead , editor of the Pall Mall Gazette , published " The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon " , four articles describing an extensive underground sex trafficking ring that reportedly sold children to adults . Stead 's reports focused on a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Eliza Armstrong , who was sold for £ 5 ( the equivalent of around £ 500 in 2012 ) , then taken to a midwife to have her virginity verified . The age of consent was raised from 13 to 16 within a week of publication . During this period , the term white slavery came to be used throughout Europe and the United States to describe prostituted children .
= Bismuth = Bismuth is a chemical element with the symbol Bi and the atomic number 83 . Bismuth , a pentavalent post @-@ transition metal , chemically resembles arsenic and antimony . Elemental bismuth may occur naturally , although its sulfide and oxide form important commercial ores . The free element is 86 % as dense as lead . It is a brittle metal with a silvery white color when freshly produced , but is often seen in air with a pink tinge owing to surface oxidation . Bismuth is the most naturally diamagnetic element , and has one of the lowest values of thermal conductivity among metals . Bismuth metal has been known since ancient times , although it was often confused with lead and tin , which share some physical properties . The etymology is uncertain , but possibly comes from Arabic bi ismid , meaning having the properties of antimony or German words weiße Masse or Wismuth ( " white mass " ) , translated in the mid @-@ sixteenth century to New Latin bisemutum . Bismuth has long been considered the element with the highest atomic mass that is stable . However , in 2003 it was discovered to be weakly radioactive : its only primordial isotope , bismuth @-@ 209 , decays via alpha decay with a half life more than a billion times the estimated age of the universe . Bismuth compounds account for about half the production of bismuth . They are used in cosmetics , pigments , and a few pharmaceuticals , notably bismuth subsalicylate , used to treat diarrhea . Bismuth 's unusual propensity to expand upon freezing is responsible for some of its uses , such as in casting of printing type . Bismuth has unusually low toxicity for a heavy metal . As the toxicity of lead has become more apparent in recent years , there is an increasing use of bismuth alloys ( presently about a third of bismuth production ) as a replacement for lead . = = History = = The name bismuth is from ca . 1660s , and is of uncertain etymology . It is one of the first 10 metals to have been discovered . Bismuth appears in the 1660s , from obsolete German Bismuth , Wismut , Wissmuth ( early 16th century ) ; perhaps related to Old High German hwiz ( " white " ) . The New Latin bisemutum ( due to Georgius Agricola , who Latinized many German mining and technical words ) is from the German Wismuth , perhaps from weiße Masse , " white mass " . The element was confused in early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to those elements . Bismuth has been known since ancient times , so no one person is credited with its discovery . Agricola , in De Natura Fossilium ( ca . 1546 ) states that bismuth is a distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and lead . This was based on observation of the metals and their physical properties . Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the name tectum argenti , or " silver being made , " in the sense of silver still in the process of being formed within the Earth . Beginning with Johann Heinrich Pott in 1738 , Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Torbern Olof Bergman , the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear , and Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated in 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and tin . Bismuth was also known to the Incas and used ( along with the usual copper and tin ) in a special bronze alloy for knives . = = Characteristics = = = = = Physical characteristics = = = Bismuth is a brittle metal with a white , silver @-@ pink hue , often occurring in its native form , with an iridescent oxide tarnish showing many colors from yellow to blue . The spiral , stair @-@ stepped structure of bismuth crystals is the result of a higher growth rate around the outside edges than on the inside edges . The variations in the thickness of the oxide layer that forms on the surface of the crystal causes different wavelengths of light to interfere upon reflection , thus displaying a rainbow of colors . When burned in oxygen , bismuth burns with a blue flame and its oxide forms yellow fumes . Its toxicity is much lower than that of its neighbors in the periodic table , such as lead , antimony , and polonium . No other metal is verified to be more naturally diamagnetic than bismuth . ( Superdiamagnetism is a different physical phenomenon . ) Of any metal , it has one of the lowest values of thermal conductivity ( after manganese , and maybe neptunium and plutonium ) and the highest Hall coefficient . It has a high electrical resistance . When deposited in sufficiently thin layers on a substrate , bismuth is a semiconductor , despite being a post @-@ transition metal . Elemental bismuth is denser in the liquid phase than the solid , a characteristic it shares with antimony , germanium , silicon and gallium . Bismuth expands 3 @.@ 32 % on solidification ; therefore , it was long a component of low @-@ melting typesetting alloys , where it compensated for the contraction of the other alloying components , to form almost isostatic bismuth @-@ lead eutectic alloys . Though virtually unseen in nature , high @-@ purity bismuth can form distinctive , colorful hopper crystals . It is relatively nontoxic and has a low melting point just above 271 ° C , so crystals may be grown using a household stove , although the resulting crystals will tend to be lower quality than lab @-@ grown crystals . At ambient conditions bismuth shares the same layered structure as the metallic forms of arsenic and antimony , crystallizing in the rhombohedral lattice ( Pearson symbol hR6 , space group R3m No. 166 ) , which is often classed into trigonal or hexagonal crystal systems . When compressed at room temperature , this Bi @-@ I structure changes first to the monoclinic Bi @-@ II at 2 @.@ 55 GPa , then to the tetragonal Bi @-@ III at 2 @.@ 7 GPa , and finally to the body @-@ centered cubic Bi @-@ IV at 7 @.@ 7 GPa . The corresponding transitions can be monitored via changes in electrical conductivity ; they are rather reproducible and abrupt , and are therefore used for calibration of high @-@ pressure equipment . = = = Chemical characteristics = = = Bismuth is stable to both dry and moist air at ordinary temperatures . When red @-@ hot , it reacts with water to make bismuth ( III ) oxide . 2 Bi + 3 H2O → Bi2O3 + 3 H2 It reacts with fluorine to make bismuth ( V ) fluoride at 500 ° C or bismuth ( III ) fluoride at lower temperatures ( typically from Bi melts ) ; with other halogens it yields only bismuth ( III ) halides . The trihalides are corrosive and easily react with moisture , forming oxyhalides with the formula BiOX . 2 Bi + 3 X2 → 2 BiX3 ( X = F , Cl , Br , I ) Bismuth dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make bismuth ( III ) sulfate and sulfur dioxide . 6 H2SO4 + 2 Bi → 6 H2O + Bi2 ( SO4 ) 3 + 3 SO2 It reacts with nitric acid to make bismuth ( III ) nitrate . Bi + 6 HNO3 → 3 H2O + 3 NO2 + Bi ( NO3 ) 3 It also dissolves in hydrochloric acid , but only with oxygen present . 4 Bi + 3 O2 + 12 HCl → 4 BiCl3 + 6 H2O It is used as a transmetalating agent in the synthesis of alkaline @-@ earth metal complexes : 3 Ba + 2 BiPh3 → 3 BaPh2 + 2 Bi = = = Isotopes = = = The only primordial isotope of bismuth , bismuth @-@ 209 , was traditionally regarded as the heaviest stable isotope , but it had long been suspected to be unstable on theoretical grounds . This was finally demonstrated in 2003 , when researchers at the Institut d 'Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay , France , measured the alpha emission half @-@ life of 209Bi to be 1 @.@ 9 × 1019 years , over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe . Owing to its extraordinarily long half @-@ life , for all presently known medical and industrial applications , bismuth can be treated as if it is stable and nonradioactive . The radioactivity is of academic interest because bismuth is one of few elements whose radioactivity was suspected and theoretically predicted before being detected in the laboratory . Bismuth has the longest known alpha decay half @-@ life , although tellurium @-@ 128 has a double beta decay half @-@ life of over 2 @.@ 2 × 1024 years . Several isotopes of bismuth with short half @-@ lives occur within the radioactive disintegration chains of actinium , radium , and thorium , and more have been synthesized experimentally . Bismuth @-@ 213 is also found on the decay chain of uranium @-@ 233 . Commercially , the radioactive isotope bismuth @-@ 213 can be produced by bombarding radium with bremsstrahlung photons from a linear particle accelerator . In 1997 , an antibody conjugate with bismuth @-@ 213 , which has a 45 @-@ minute half @-@ life and decays with the emission of an alpha particle , was used to treat patients with leukemia . This isotope has also been tried in cancer treatment , for example , in the targeted alpha therapy ( TAT ) program . = = Chemical compounds = = Bismuth forms trivalent and pentavalent compounds , the trivalent ones being more common . Many of its chemical properties are similar to those of arsenic and antimony , although they are less toxic than derivatives of those lighter elements . = = = Oxides and sulfides = = = At elevated temperatures , the vapors of the metal combine rapidly with oxygen , forming the yellow trioxide , Bi 2O 3 . When molten , at temperatures above 710 ° C , this oxide corrodes any metal oxide , and even platinum . On reaction with base , it forms two series of oxyanions : BiO − 2 , which is polymeric and forms linear chains , and BiO3 − 3 . The anion in Li 3BiO 3 is actually a cubic octameric anion , Bi 8O24 − 24 , whereas the anion in Na 3BiO 3 is tetrameric . The dark red bismuth ( V ) oxide , Bi 2O 5 , is unstable , liberating O 2 gas upon heating . The compound NaBiO3 is a strong oxidising agent . Bismuth sulfide , Bi 2S 3 , occurs naturally in bismuth ores . It is also produced by the combination of molten bismuth and sulfur . Bismuth oxychloride ( BiOCl , see figure at right ) and bismuth oxynitrate ( BiONO3 ) stoichiometrically appear as simple anionic salts of the bismuthyl ( III ) cation ( BiO + ) which commonly occurs in aqueous bismuth compounds . However , in the case of BiOCl , the salt crystal forms in a structure of alternating plates of Bi , O , and Cl atoms , with each oxygen coordinating with four bismuth atoms in the adjacent plane . This mineral compound is used as a pigment and cosmetic ( see below ) . = = = Bismuthine and bismuthides = = = Unlike earlier members of group 15 elements such as nitrogen , phosphorus , and arsenic , and similar to the previous group 15 element antimony , bismuth does not form a stable hydride . Bismuth hydride , bismuthine ( BiH 3 ) , is an endothermic compound that spontaneously decomposes at room temperature . It is stable only below − 60 ° C. Bismuthides are intermetallic compounds between bismuth and other metals . In 2014 researchers discovered that sodium bismuthide can exist as a form of matter called a “ three @-@ dimensional topological Dirac semi @-@ metal ” ( 3DTDS ) that possess 3D Dirac fermions in bulk . It is a natural , three @-@ dimensional counterpart to graphene with similar electron mobility and velocity . Graphene and topological insulators ( such as those in 3DTDS ) are both crystalline materials that are electrically insulating inside but conducting on the surface , allowing them to function as transistors and other electronic devices . While sodium bismuthide ( Na 3Bi ) is too unstable to be used in devices without packaging , it can demonstrate potential applications of 3DTDS systems , which offer distinct efficiency and fabrication advantages over planar graphene in semiconductor and spintronics applications . = = = Halides = = = The halides of bismuth in low oxidation states have been shown to adopt unusual structures . What was originally thought to be bismuth ( I ) chloride , BiCl , turns out to be a complex compound consisting of Bi5 + 9 cations and BiCl2 − 5 and Bi 2Cl2 − 8 anions . The Bi5 + 9 cation has a distorted tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry , and is also found in Bi 10Hf 3Cl 18 , which is prepared by reducing a mixture of hafnium ( IV ) chloride and bismuth chloride with elemental bismuth , having the structure [ Bi + ] [ Bi5 + 9 ] [ HfCl2 − 6 ] 3 . Other polyatomic bismuth cations are also known , such as Bi2 + 8 , found in Bi 8 ( AlCl 4 ) 2 . Bismuth also forms a low @-@ valence bromide with the same structure as " BiCl " . There is a true monoiodide , BiI , which contains chains of Bi 4I 4 units . BiI decomposes upon heating to the triiodide , BiI 3 , and elemental bismuth . A monobromide of the same structure also exists . In oxidation state + 3 , bismuth forms trihalides with all of the halogens : BiF 3 , BiCl 3 , BiBr 3 , and BiI 3 . All of these except BiF 3 are hydrolyzed by water . Bismuth ( III ) chloride reacts with hydrogen chloride in ether solution to produce the acid HBiCl 4 . The oxidation state + 5 is less frequently encountered . One such compound is BiF 5 , a powerful oxidizing and fluorinating agent . It is also a strong fluoride acceptor , reacting with xenon tetrafluoride to form the XeF + 3 cation : BiF 5 + XeF 4 → XeF + 3BiF − 6 = = = Aqueous species = = = In aqueous solution , in strong acid conditions the Bi3 + ion solvated to form the aqua ion Bi ( H 2O ) 3 + 8 . At pH > 0 polynuclear species exist , the most important of which is believed to be the octahedral complex [ Bi 6O 4 ( OH ) 4 ] 6 + . = = Occurrence and production = = In the Earth 's crust , bismuth is about twice as abundant as gold . The most important ores of bismuth are bismuthinite and bismite . Native bismuth is known from Australia , Bolivia , and China . According to the United States Geological Survey , the world mining production of bismuth in 2014 was 13 @,@ 600 tonnes , with the major contributions from China ( 7 @,@ 600 tonnes ) , Vietnam ( 4 @,@ 950 tonnes ) and Mexico ( 948 tonnes ) . The refinery production in 2010 was 16 @,@ 000 tonnes , of which China produced 13 @,@ 000 , Mexico 850 and Belgium 800 tonnes . The difference reflects bismuth 's status as a byproduct of extraction of other metals such as lead , copper , tin , molybdenum and tungsten . Bismuth travels in crude lead bullion ( which can contain up to 10 % bismuth ) through several stages of refining , until it is removed by the Kroll @-@ Betterton process which separates the impurities as slag , or the electrolytic Betts process . Bismuth will behave similarly with another of its major metals , copper . The raw bismuth metal from both processes contains still considerable amounts of other metals , foremost lead . By reacting the molten mixture with chlorine gas the metals are converted to their chlorides while bismuth remains unchanged . Impurities can also be removed by various other methods for example with fluxes and treatments yielding high @-@ purity bismuth metal ( over 99 % Bi ) . World bismuth production from refineries is a more complete and reliable statistic . = = = Price = = = The price for pure bismuth metal has been relatively stable through most of the 20th century , except for a spike in the 1970s . Bismuth has always been produced mainly as a byproduct of lead refining , and thus the price , usually reflected the cost of recovery and the balance between production and demand . Demand for bismuth was small prior to World War II and was pharmaceutical – bismuth compounds were used to treat such conditions as digestive disorders , sexually transmitted diseases and burns . Minor amounts of bismuth metal were consumed in fusible alloys for fire sprinkler systems and fuse wire . During World War II bismuth was considered a strategic material , used for solders , fusible alloys , medications and atomic research . To stabilize the market , the producers set the price at $ 1 @.@ 25 per pound ( 2 @.@ 75 $ / kg ) during the war and at $ 2 @.@ 25 per pound ( 4 @.@ 96 $ / kg ) from 1950 until 1964 . In the early 1970s , the price rose rapidly as a result of increasing demand for bismuth as a metallurgical additive to aluminium , iron and steel . This was followed by a decline owing to increased world production , stabilized consumption , and the recessions of 1980 and 1981 – 82 . In 1984 , the price began to climb as consumption increased worldwide , especially in the United States and Japan . In the early 1990s , research began on the evaluation of bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in ceramic glazes , fishing sinkers , food @-@ processing equipment , free @-@ machining brasses for plumbing applications , lubricating greases , and shot for waterfowl hunting . Growth in these areas remained slow during the middle 1990s , in spite of the backing of lead replacement by the US Government , but intensified around 2005 . This resulted in a rapid and continuing increase in price . = = = Recycling = = = Whereas bismuth is most available today as a byproduct , its sustainability is more dependent on recycling . Bismuth is mostly a byproduct of lead smelting , along with silver , zinc , antimony , and other metals , and also of tungsten production , along with molybdenum and tin , and also of copper production . Recycling bismuth is difficult in many of its end uses , primarily because of scattering . Probably the easiest to recycle would be bismuth @-@ containing fusible alloys in the form of larger objects , then larger soldered objects . Half of the world 's solder consumption is in electronics ( i.e. , circuit boards ) . As the soldered objects get smaller or contain little solder or little bismuth , the recovery gets progressively more difficult and less economic , although solder with a higher silver content will be more worthwhile recovering . Next in recycling feasibility would be sizeable catalysts with a fair bismuth content , perhaps as bismuth phosphomolybdate , and then bismuth used in galvanizing and as a free @-@ machining metallurgical additive . Bismuth in uses where it is dispersed most widely include stomach medicines ( bismuth subsalicylate ) , paints ( bismuth vanadate ) on a dry surface , pearlescent cosmetics ( bismuth oxychloride ) , and bismuth @-@ containing bullets that have been fired . The bismuth scattered in these uses is unrecoverable with present technology . The most important sustainability fact about bismuth is its byproduct status , which can either improve sustainability ( i.e. , vanadium or manganese nodules ) or , for bismuth from lead ore , constrain it ; bismuth is constrained . The extent that the constraint on bismuth can be ameliorated or not is going to be tested by the future of the lead storage battery , since 90 % of the world market for lead is in storage batteries for gasoline or diesel @-@ powered motor vehicles . The life @-@ cycle assessment of bismuth will focus on solders , one of the major uses of bismuth , and the one with the most complete information . The average primary energy use for solders is around 200 MJ per kg , with the high @-@ bismuth solder ( 58 % Bi ) only 20 % of that value , and three low @-@ bismuth solders ( 2 % to 5 % Bi ) running very close to the average . The global warming potential averaged 10 to 14 kg carbon dioxide , with the high @-@ bismuth solder about two @-@ thirds of that and the low @-@ bismuth solders about average . The acidification potential for the solders is around 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 1 kg sulfur dioxide equivalent , with the high @-@ bismuth solder and one low @-@ bismuth solder only one @-@ tenth of the average and the other low @-@ bismuth solders about average . There is very little life @-@ cycle information on other bismuth alloys or compounds . = = Applications = = Bismuth has few commercial applications , none of which is particularly large . Taking the US as an example , 884 tonnes of bismuth were consumed in 2010 , of which 63 % went into chemicals ( including pharmaceuticals , pigments , and cosmetics ) , 26 % into metallurgical additives for casting and galvanizing , 7 % into bismuth alloys , solders and ammunition , and 4 % into research and other uses . Some manufacturers use bismuth as a substitute in equipment for potable water systems such as valves to meet " lead @-@ free " mandates in the U.S. ( starts in 2014 ) . This is a fairly large application since it covers all residential and commercial building construction . In the early 1990s , researchers began to evaluate bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in various applications . = = = Medicines = = = Bismuth is an ingredient in some pharmaceuticals , although the use of some of these substances is declining . Bismuth subsalicylate is used as an antidiarrheal ; it is the active ingredient in such " Pink Bismuth " preparations as Pepto @-@ Bismol , as well as the 2004 reformulation of Kaopectate . It is also used to treat some other gastro @-@ intestinal diseases . The mechanism of action of this substance is still not well documented , although an oligodynamic effect ( toxic effect of small doses of heavy metal ions on microbes ) may be involved in at least some cases . Salicylic acid from hydrolysis of the compound is antimicrobial for toxogenic E. coli , an important pathogen in traveler 's diarrhea . a combination of bismuth subsalicylate and bismuth subcitrate is used to treat the bacteria causing peptic ulcers . Bibrocathol is an organic bismuth @-@ containing compound used to treat eye infections . Bismuth subgallate , the active ingredient in Devrom , is used as an internal deodorant to treat malodor from flatulence ( " gas " ) and feces . Bismuth compounds ( including sodium bismuth tartrate ) were formerly used to treat syphilis " Milk of bismuth " ( an aqueous solution of bismuth hydroxide and bismuth subcarbonate ) was marketed as an alimentary cureall in the early 20th century Bismuth subnitrate ( Bi5O ( OH ) 9 ( NO3 ) 4 ) and bismuth subcarbonate ( Bi2O2 ( CO3 ) ) are also used in medicine . = = = Cosmetics and pigments = = = Bismuth oxychloride ( BiOCl ) is sometimes used in cosmetics , as a pigment in paint for eye shadows , hair sprays and nail polishes . This compound is found as the mineral bismoclite and in crystal form contains layers of atoms ( see figure above ) that refract light chromatically , resulting in an iridescent appearance similar to nacre of pearl . It was used as a cosmetic in ancient Egypt and in many places since . Bismuth white ( also " Spanish white " ) can refer to either bismuth oxychloride or bismuth oxynitrate ( BiONO3 ) , when used as a white pigment . = = = Metal and alloys = = = Bismuth is used in metal alloys with other metals such as iron , to create alloys to go into automatic sprinkler systems for fires . Also used to make bismuth bronze which was used in the Bronze Age . = = = = Lead replacement = = = = The density difference between lead ( density 11 @.@ 32 g · cm − 3 ) and bismuth ( density 9 @.@ 78 g · cm − 3 ) is small enough that for many ballistics and weighting applications , bismuth can substitute for lead . For example , it can replace lead as a dense material in fishing sinkers . It has been used as a replacement for lead in shot , bullets and less @-@ lethal riot gun ammunition . The Netherlands , Denmark , England , Wales , the US , and many other countries now prohibit the use of lead shot for the hunting of wetland birds , as many birds are prone to lead poisoning owing to mistaken ingestion of lead ( instead of small stones and grit ) to aid digestion , or even prohibit the use of lead for all hunting , such as in the Netherlands . Bismuth @-@ tin alloy shot is one alternative that provides similar ballistic performance to lead . ( Another less expensive but also more poorly performing alternative is " steel " shot , which is actually soft iron . ) Bismuth 's lack of malleability does , however , make it unsuitable for use in expanding hunting bullets . Bismuth , as a dense element of high atomic weight , is used in bismuth @-@ impregnated latex shields to shield from X @-@ ray in medical examinations , such as CTs , mostly as it is considered non @-@ toxic . The European Union 's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive ( RoHS ) for reduction of lead has broadened bismuth 's use in electronics as a component of low @-@ melting point solders , as a replacement for traditional tin @-@ lead solders . Its low toxicity will be especially important for solders to be used in food processing equipment and copper water pipes , although it can also be used in other applications including those in the automobile industry , in the EU for example . Bismuth has been evaluated as a replacement for lead in free @-@ machining brasses for plumbing applications , although it does not equal the performance of leaded steels . = = = = Other metal uses and specialty alloys = = = = Many bismuth alloys have low melting points and are found in specialty applications such as solders . Many automatic sprinklers , electric fuses , and safety devices in fire detection and suppression systems contain the eutectic In19.1 @-@ Cd5.3 @-@ Pb22.6 @-@ Sn8.3 @-@ Bi44.7 alloy that melts at 47 ° C ( 117 ° F ) This is a convenient temperature since it is unlikely to be exceeded in normal living conditions . Low @-@ melting alloys , such as Bi @-@ Cd @-@ Pb @-@ Sn alloy which melts at 70 ° C , are also used in automotive and aviation industries . Before deforming a thin @-@ walled metal part , it is filled with a melt or covered with a thin layer of the alloy to reduce the chance of breaking . Then the alloy is removed by submerging the part in boiling water . Bismuth is used to make free @-@ machining steels and free @-@ machining aluminium alloys for precision machining properties . It has similar effect to lead and improves the chip breaking during machining . The shrinking on solidification in lead and the expansion of bismuth compensate each other and therefore lead and bismuth are often used in similar quantities . Similarly , alloys containing comparable parts of bismuth and exhibit a very small change ( on the order 0 @.@ 01 % ) upon melting , solidification or aging . Such alloys are used in high @-@ precision casting , e.g. in dentistry , to create models and molds . Bismuth is also used as an alloying agent in production of malleable irons and as a thermocouple material . Bismuth is also used in Aluminum @-@ Silicon cast alloys in order to refine Si morphology . However , it indicated a poisoning effect on modification of strontium ( Sr ) . Some bismuth alloys , such as Bi35 @-@ Pb37 @-@ Sn25 , are combined with non @-@ sticking materials such as mica , glass and enamels because they easily wet them allowing to make joints to other parts . Addition of bismuth to caesium enhances the quantum yield of Cs cathodes . Sintering of bismuth and manganese powders at 300 ° C produces a permanent magnet and magnetostrictive material , which is used in ultrasonic generators and receivers working in the 10 – 100 kHz range and in magnetic memory devices . = = = Other uses as compounds = = = Bismuth is included in BSCCO ( bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide ) which is a group of similar superconducting compounds discovered in 1988 that exhibit the highest superconducting transition temperatures . Bismuth subnitrate is a component of glazes that produces an iridescence and is used as a pigment in paint . Bismuth telluride is a semiconductor and an excellent thermoelectric material . Bi2Te3 diodes are used in mobile refrigerators , CPU coolers , and as detectors in infrared spectrophotometers . Bismuth oxide , in its delta form , is a solid electrolyte for oxygen . This form normally breaks down below a high @-@ temperature threshold , but can be electrodeposited well below this temperature in a highly alkaline solution . Bismuth vanadate is an opaque yellow pigment in artists ' oil and acrylic paint . This compound is a non @-@ toxic lightfast substitute for lemon yellow pigments such as the cadmium sulfides and the lead / strontium / barium chromates . Unlike lead chromate + lead sulfate lemon , bismuth vanadate does not readily blacken with UV exposure . A catalyst for making acrylic fibers . As an electrocatalyst in the conversion of CO2 to CO . Ingredient in lubricating greases . In crackling microstars ( dragon 's eggs ) in pyrotechnics , as the oxide , subcarbonate or subnitrate . = = Toxicology and ecotoxicology = = Scientific literature concurs that bismuth and most of its compounds are less toxic compared to other heavy metals ( lead , antimony , etc . ) and that it is not bioaccumulative . They have low solubilities in the blood , are easily removed with urine , and showed no carcinogenic , mutagenic or teratogenic effects in long @-@ term tests on animals ( up to 2 years ) . Its biological half @-@ life for whole @-@ body retention is 5 days but it can remain in the kidney for years in patients treated with bismuth compounds . Bismuth poisoning exists and mostly affects the kidney , liver , and bladder . Skin and respiratory irritation can also follow exposure to respective organs . As with lead , overexposure to bismuth can result in the formation of a black deposit on the gingiva , known as a bismuth line . Bismuth 's environmental impacts are not very well known . It is considered that its environmental impact is small , due in part to the low solubility of its compounds . Limited information however means that a close eye should be kept on its impact . = = Bioremediation = = The fungus Marasmius oreades can be used for the biological remediation of bismuth in polluted soils .
= Wood Badge = Wood Badge is a Scouting leadership programme and the related award for adult leaders in the programmes of Scout associations throughout the world . Wood Badge courses aim to make Scouters better leaders by teaching advanced leadership skills , and by creating a bond and commitment to the Scout movement . Courses generally have a combined classroom and practical outdoors @-@ based phase followed by a Wood Badge ticket , also known as the project phase . By " working the ticket " , participants put their newly gained experience into practice to attain ticket goals aiding the Scouting movement . The first Wood Badge training was organized by Francis " Skipper " Gidney and lectured at by Robert Baden @-@ Powell and others at Gilwell Park ( United Kingdom ) in September 1919 . Wood Badge training has since spread across the world with international variations . On completion of the course , participants are awarded the Wood Badge beads to recognize significant achievement in leadership and direct service to young people . The pair of small wooden beads , one on each end of a leather thong ( string ) , is worn around the neck as part of the Scout uniform . The beads are presented together with a taupe neckerchief bearing a tartan patch of the Maclaren clan , honoring William de Bois Maclaren , who donated the £ 7000 to purchase Gilwell Park in 1919 plus an additional £ 3000 for improvements to the house that was on the estate . The neckerchief with the braided leather woggle ( neckerchief slide ) denotes the membership of the 1st Gilwell Scout Group or Gilwell Troop 1 . Recipients of the Wood Badge are known as Wood Badgers or Gilwellians . = = Scout leader training course = = = = = History = = = Soon after founding the Scout movement , Robert Baden @-@ Powell saw the need for leader training . Early Scoutmaster training camps were held in London and Yorkshire . Baden @-@ Powell wanted practical training in the outdoors in campsites . World War I delayed the development of leader training , so the first formal Wood Badge course was not offered until 1919 . Gilwell Park , just outside London , was purchased specifically to provide a venue for the course and the Opening Ceremonies were held on July 26 , 1919 . Francis Gidney , the first Camp Chief at Gilwell Park , conducted the first Wood Badge course there from September 8 – 19 , 1919 . It was produced by Percy Everett , the Commissioner of Training , and Baden @-@ Powell himself gave lectures . The course was attended by 18 participants , and other lecturers . After this first course , Wood Badge training continued at Gilwell Park , and it became the home of leadership training in the Scout movement . = = = Modern curriculum = = = The main goals of a Wood Badge course are to : Recognize the contemporary leadership concepts utilized in the corporate world and leading governmental organizations that are relevant to Scouting 's values . Apply the skills one learns from participating as a member of a successful working team . View Scouting globally , as a family of interrelated , values @-@ based programmes that provide age @-@ appropriate activities for youth . Revitalize the leader 's commitment by sharing in an inspirational experience that helps provide Scouting with the leadership it needs to accomplish its mission . Generally , a Wood Badge course consists of classroom work , a series of self @-@ study modules , outdoor training , and the Wood Badge " ticket " or " project " . Classroom and outdoor training are often combined and taught together , and occur over one or more weeks or weekends . As part of completing this portion of the course , participants must write their tickets . The exact curriculum varies from country to country , but the training generally includes both theoretical and experiential learning . All course participants are introduced to the 1st Gilwell Scout group or Gilwell Scout Troop 1 ( the latter name is used in the Boy Scouts of America and some other countries ) . In the Boy Scouts of America , they are also assigned to one of the traditional Wood Badge " critter " patrols . Instructors deliver training designed to strengthen the patrols . One @-@ on @-@ one work with an assigned troop guide helps each participant to reflect on what he has learned , so that he can better prepare an individualized " ticket " . This part of the training program gives the adult Scouter the opportunity to assume the role of a Scout joining the original " model " troop , to learn firsthand how a troop ideally operates . The locale of all initial training is referred to as Gilwell Field , no matter its geographical location . = = = Ticket = = = The phrase ' working your ticket ' comes from a story attributed in Scouting legend to Baden @-@ Powell : Upon completion of a British soldier 's service in India , he had to pay the cost of his ticket home . The most affordable way for a soldier to return was to engineer a progression of assignments that were successively closer to home . Part of the transformative power of the Wood Badge experience is the effective use of metaphor and tradition to reach both heart and mind . In most Scout associations , " working your ticket " is the culmination of Wood Badge training . Participants apply themselves and their new knowledge and skills to the completion of items designed to strengthen the individual 's leadership and the home unit 's organizational resilience in a project or " ticket " . The ticket consists of specific goals that must be accomplished within a specified time , often 18 months due to the large amount of work involved . Effective tickets require much planning and are approved by the Wood Badge course staff before the course phase ends . Upon completion of the ticket , a participant is said to have earned his way back to Gilwell . = = = On completion = = = After completion of the Wood Badge course , participants are awarded the insignia in a Wood Badge bead ceremony . They receive automatic membership in 1st Gilwell Park Scout Group or Gilwell Troop 1 . These leaders are henceforth called Gilwellians or Wood Badgers . It is estimated that worldwide over 100 @,@ 000 Scouters have completed their Wood Badge training . The 1st Gilwell Scout Group meets annually during the first weekend in September at Gilwell Park for the Gilwell Reunion . Gilwell Reunions are also held in other places , often on that same weekend . = = Insignia = = Scout leaders who complete the Wood Badge program are recognized with insignia consisting of the Wood Badge beads , 1st Gilwell Group neckerchief and woggle . = = = Woggle = = = The Gilwell woggle is a two @-@ strand version of a Turk 's head knot , which has no beginning and no end , and symbolizes the commitment of a Wood Badger to Scouting . In some countries , Wood Badge training is divided into more than one part and the Gilwell woggle is given for completion of Wood Badge Part I. = = = Beads = = = The beads were first presented at the initial leadership course in September 1919 at Gilwell Park . The origins of Wood Badge beads can be traced back to 1888 , when Baden @-@ Powell was on a military campaign in Zululand ( now part of South Africa ) . He pursued Dinuzulu , son of Cetshwayo , a Zulu king , for some time , but never managed to catch up with him . Dinuzulu was said to have had a 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) -long necklace with more than a thousand acacia beads . Baden @-@ Powell is claimed to have found the necklace when he came to Dinuzulu 's deserted mountain stronghold . Such necklaces were known as iziQu in Zulu and were presented to brave warrior leaders . Other sources suggest that what Baden @-@ Powell actually found were a Zulu girl 's marriage dowry beads . Much later , Baden @-@ Powell sought a distinctive award for the participants in the first Gilwell course . He constructed the first award using two beads from the necklace he had recovered , and threaded them onto a leather thong given by an elderly South African in Mafeking , calling it the Wood Badge . While no official knot exists for tying the two ends of the thong together , the decorative diamond knot has become the most common . When produced , the thong is joined by a simple overhand knot and various region specific traditions have arisen around tying the diamond knot , including : having a fellow course member tie it ; having a mentor or course leader tie it ; and having the recipient tie it after completing some additional activity that shows he or she has mastered the skills taught to him or her during training . = = = = Significance of additional beads = = = = Additional beads are awarded to Wood Badgers who serve as part of a Wood Badge training team . One additional bead is awarded to each Assistant Leader Trainer ( Wood Badge staff ) and two additional beads are awarded to each Leader Trainer ( Wood Badge course directors ) , for a total of four . As part of a tradition , five beads may be worn by the " Deputy Camp Chiefs of Gilwell " . The Deputy Camp Chiefs are usually the personnel of National Scout Associations in charge of Wood Badge training . The fifth bead symbolizes the Camp Chief 's position as an official representative of Gilwell Park , and his or her function in maintaining the global integrity of Wood Badge training . William Hillcourt is one person who wore five beads . The founder of the Scouting movement , Robert Baden @-@ Powell , wore six beads , as did Sir Percy Everett , then Deputy Chief Scout and the Chief 's right hand . Baden @-@ Powell 's beads are on display at Baden @-@ Powell House in London . Everett endowed his six beads to be worn by the Camp Chief of Gilwell as a badge of office . Since that time the wearer of the sixth bead has generally been the director of leader training at Gilwell Park . = = = 1st Gilwell Scout Group neckerchief = = = The neckerchief is a universal symbol of Scouting and its Maclaren tartan represents Wood Badge 's ties to Gilwell Park . The neckerchief , called a " necker " in British and some Commonwealth Scouting associations , is a standard triangular scarf made of cotton or wool twill with a taupe face and red back ; a patch of Clan MacLaren tartan is affixed near the point . The pattern was adopted in honor of a British Scout commissioner who , as a descendant of the Scottish MacLaren clan , donated money for the Gilwell Park property on which the first Wood Badge program was held . Originally , the neckerchief was made entirely of triangular pieces of the tartan , but its expense forced the adoption of the current design . The neckerchief is often worn with the Gilwell woggle . = = = Axe and Log = = = The axe and log logo was conceived by the first Camp Chief , Francis Gidney , in the early 1920s to distinguish Gilwell Park from the Scout Headquarters . Gidney wanted to associate Gilwell Park with the outdoors and Scoutcraft rather than the business or administrative Headquarters offices . Scouters present at the original Wood Badge courses regularly saw axe blades masked for safety by being buried in a log . Seeing this , Gidney chose the axe and log as the totem of Gilwell Park . = = = Other symbols = = = The kudu horn is another Wood Badge symbol . Baden @-@ Powell first encountered the kudu horn at the Battle of Shangani , where he discovered how the Matabele warriors used it to quickly spread a signal of alarm . He used the horn at the first Scout encampment at Brownsea Island in 1907 . It is used from the early Wood Badge courses to signal the beginning of the course or an activity , and to inspire Scouters to always do better . The grass fields at the back of the White House at Gilwell Park are known as the Training Ground and The Orchard , and are where Wood Badge training was held from the early years onward . A large oak , known as the Gilwell Oak , separates the two fields . The Gilwell Oak symbol is associated with Wood Badge , although the beads for the Wood Badge have never been made of this oak . Wolf Cub leaders briefly followed a separate training system beginning in 1922 , in which they were awarded the Akela Badge on completion . The badge was a single fang on a leather thong . Wolf Cub Leader Trainers wore two fangs . The Akela Badge was discontinued in 1925 , and all leaders were awarded the Wood Badge on completion of their training . Very few of the fangs issued as Akela Badges can now be found . = = International training centers and trainers = = = = = Great Britain = = = The first Wood Badge training took place on Gilwell Park . The estate continues to provide the service in 2007 , for British Scouters of The Scout Association and international participants . Original trainers include Baden @-@ Powell and Gilwell Camp Chiefs Francis Gidney , John Wilson and , until the 1960s , John Thurman . = = = Australia = = = Other sites providing Wood Badge training have taken the Gilwell name . The first Australian Wood Badge courses were held in 1920 after the return of two newly minted Deputy Camp Chiefs , Charles Hoadley and Mr. Russell at the home of Victorian Scouting , Gilwell Park , Gembrook . In 2003 , Scouts Australia established the Scouts Australia Institute of Training , a government @-@ registered National Vocational & Education Training ( VET ) provider . Under this registration , Scouts Australia awards a " Diploma of Leadership and Management " to those Adult Leaders who complete the Wood Badge training and additional competencies . The Diploma of Leadership and Management , like all Australian VET qualifications , is recognized throughout Australia by both government and private industry . This is an optional extra that Leaders and Rovers may undertake . = = = Austria = = = The first Wood Badge training in Austria was held September 8 to 17 , 1922 , near Vienna ; it was led by Scoutmaster Miegl = = = Finland = = = Alfons Åkerman gave the first eight Wood Badge courses and was from 1927 to 1935 the first Deputy Camp Chief . In lieu of Gilwell training , the Finnish Scouts have a " Kolmiapila @-@ Gilwell " ( Trefoil @-@ Gilwell ) , combining aspects of both girls ' and boys ' advanced leadership training . = = = Canada = = = Scouts Canada holds numerous Woodbadge training courses on an annual basis throughout the country . In this NSO , all Scouters ( volunteers ) are required to complete a Woodbadge 1 Course , and are encouraged to complete a Woodbadge 2 Course . Upon completion of the Woodbadge 2 course a volunteer is conferred their " beads " and the Gilwell Necker . = = = France = = = The first Wood Badge training in France was held Easter 1923 by Père Sevin in Chamarande . = = = The Netherlands = = = The first Wood Badge training in the Netherlands was held in July 1923 by Scoutmaster Jan Schaap , on Gilwell Ada 's Hoeve , Ommen . At Gilwell Sint Walrick , Overasselt , the Catholic Scouts had their training . Since approximately 2000 , the Dutch Wood Badge training takes place on the Scout campsite Buitenzorg , Baarn , or outdoors in Belgium or Germany under the name ' Gilwell Training ' . = = = Ireland = = = Wood Badge training in Ireland goes back to the 1st Larch Hill of the Catholic Boy Scouts of Ireland , who conducted Wood Badge courses that emphasized the Catholic approach to Scouting . This emphasis is now disappeared since the formation of Scouting Ireland . = = = Israel = = = The first Wood Badge training in Israel was held in April 1963 by John Thurman and took place at the Israeli Scout Ranch , together with 20 participants , Jews , Arabs and Druze . Since the first training , every Wood Badge course run by the Israel Boy and Girl Scouts Federation is a mutual event for all different religions and organizations in Scouting . = = = United States of America = = = Wood Badge was introduced to America by Baden @-@ Powell and the first course was held in 1936 at the Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation , the Boy Scouts of America national training center until 1979 . Despite this early first course , Wood Badge was not formally adopted in the United States until 1948 under the guidance of Bill Hillcourt who became national Deputy Camp Chief of the United States . Today the national training center of the Boy Scouts of America is the Philmont Training Center , which hosts a few camps each year . Nearly all Wood Badge courses are held throughout the country at local council camps under the auspices of each BSA region . = = = Philippines = = = Wood Badge was introduced in the Philippines in 1953 with the first course held at Camp Gre @-@ Zar in Novaliches , Quezon City . Today , Wood Badge courses are held at the Philippine Scouting Center for the Asia @-@ Pacific Region , at the foothills of Mount Makiling , Los Baños , Laguna province .
= Æthelbert of York = Æthelbert ( sometimes Æthelberht , Albert , Ælberht , Aethelberht , or Ælbert ; died 8 November 780 ) was an eighth century scholar , teacher , and Archbishop of York . Related to his predecessor at York , he became a monk at an early age and was in charge of the cathedral 's library and school before becoming archbishop . He taught a number of missionaries and scholars , including Alcuin , at the school . While archbishop Æthelbert rebuilt the cathedral and sent missionaries to the Continent . Æthelbert retired before his death , and during his retirement built another church in York . = = Early life = = Æthelbert , was the teacher and intimate friend of Alcuin , whose poem on the saints and prelates of the Church of York , Versus de Patribus Regibus et de Sanctis et Pontificibus Ecclesiæ Eboracensis , is the principal source of information concerning Æthelbert 's life . He was a kinsman of his predecessor Ecgbert , who was brother to Eadberht , King of Northumbria . Æthelbert 's family placed him in a monastery as a young child , where he was a pupil in the school founded at York by Ecgbert . Ecgbert ordained Æthelbert as a priest put him in charge of the school . Æthelbert was instrumental in forming a library at York , which was probably the largest contemporary collection of books to be found in Europe outside of Rome . Alcuin mentions several Latin and Greek classical authors , as well as the Fathers and other Christian writers that formed the 8th century canon . Æthelbert , in his search for books , travelled far , and we know that he visited Rome among other places . Alcuin 's poem Versus lists 41 different authors , including some who wrote in Hebrew . He taught both the trivium as well as the quadrivium , plus how to figure the dates of church festivals and natural science . = = Archbishop = = In 766 Æthelbert succeeded Ecgbert as archbishop ; he was consecrated 24 April 767 , the feast day of his predecessor Wilfrid . This may have been deliberate and a sign that Æthelbert wished to revive Wilfrid 's ambitions for the archiepiscopal see . Æthelbert received his pallium from Pope Adrian I in 773 . Alcuin was appointed head of the cathedral school after Æthelbert became archbishop . Much of Alcuin 's description of Æthelbert 's time as archbishop has the flavour of a panegyric , as Alcuin praised Æthelbert as a model bishop suitable for other bishops to use as a role model . Æthelbert rebuilt York Minster , which had been destroyed by fire in 741 , giving Eanbald and Alcuin the job of overseeing the construction . Alcuin wrote that it had bright windows and ceilings and that the liturgical vessels and altars were decorated with precious metals and gems . The new building also had 30 altars as well as upper apartments . Æthelbert dedicated one of the altars to Saint Paul and it was located on the location where Edwin , the first Christian king of Northumbria , was baptized . Æthelbert sent out missionaries to the pagans of Northern Europe , among them Alubert and Liudger , who went to northern Germany . Liudger had earlier been a pupil at the school in York , and went on to become the first Bishop of Munster . Æthelbert was the recipient of letters from one of the missionaries - Lull , the Archbishop of Mainz , assuming that Lull 's correspondent " Coena " , who is an archbishop and who was being asked for the works of Bede , is actually Æthelbert , as most historians seem convinced of . Books were sent to the missionaries from the York library . In 774 , Æthelbert called a council which deposed Alhred the King of Northumbria and sent the ex @-@ king north into exile with the Picts . The cause of the deposition may have been related to missionary work . The historian D. P. Kirby feels that Æthelbert was not a supporter of Alhred prior to his deposition . Alhred was replaced with Æthelred , who was replaced in 778 by Ælfwald , the son of Oswulf . Kirby sees Æthelbert 's withdrawal of support as instrumental in the deposition of Æthelred , noting that Ælfwald was closely related to Æthelbert , unlike both Alhred and Æthelred . Kirby also notes that medieval chroniclers noted that Æthelbert is said to have not " spared evil kings " . = = Retirement and death = = Æthelbert retired some time before his death , consecrating Eanbald as his successor . The exact date this occurred is unclear . Alcuin gives a date corresponding to July 778 , but it could be 777 too . Eanbald 's position may have just been as an associate bishop , with Æthelbert remaining in office until his death while sharing the office with Eanbald . During his retirement , he had constructed a new church dedicated to Alma Sophia . He lived long enough to consecrate the new church , ten days before his death on 8 November .
= 2014 Continental Cup of Curling = The 2014 Continental Cup of Curling was held from January 16 to 19 at the Orleans Arena in Paradise , Nevada , a suburb of Las Vegas . This edition of the Continental Cup of Curling , sponsored by World Financial Group , was the first held outside of Canada . The Continental Cup , based on the Ryder Cup of golf , pits teams from North America against teams from the rest of the World . The tournament featured team events , mixed doubles events , singles competitions , and skins competitions , and the brunt of available points was awarded in the skins competitions . TSN broadcast the event , as it has in previous years . Team North America was represented by Canada Cup champion Jeff Stoughton , Tournament of Hearts champion Rachel Homan , Canadian Olympic Trials champions Jennifer Jones and Brad Jacobs , and the United States ' Olympic Trials champions Erika Brown and John Shuster . Team World was represented by reigning women 's world champion Eve Muirhead , two @-@ time world silver medalist Margaretha Sigfridsson , Japanese women 's national champion Satsuki Fujisawa , reigning men 's world champion Niklas Edin , two @-@ time world champion David Murdoch , and two @-@ time European champion Thomas Ulsrud . Team North America became the first team to win back @-@ to @-@ back titles . Team World and Team North America were square at the beginning of the event . Team North America built a three @-@ point lead with wins in the team games , but Team World turned the tables on Team North America in the singles competition , taking the lead with a dominant performance . Team North America regained their lead with successive wins in the remaining team and mixed doubles games . Team World cut their lead by two points after the first round of skins games , but Team North America dominated the second round of skins play to clinch the cup , extending their overall record to 6 – 4 . The event was well attended and broke the attendance record of 42 @,@ 317 set at the 2004 Continental Cup of Curling in Medicine Hat , Alberta . It was the second most attended curling event ever in the United States , behind the 2008 World Men 's Curling Championship in Grand Forks , North Dakota . However , most of the fans had flown in from Canada . = = Competition format = = This edition of the Continental Cup used the same format as that of the previous year . Out of the sixty total points available , a majority of points was needed to win the cup . The mixed doubles , singles , and team games were worth one point each , and ties were worth one half point each to both teams . The skins games were worth a total of five points . Six mixed doubles and six singles games were played , along with eighteen team games and six skins games . = = Teams = = The teams were selected from the top teams in each region . Six teams from each region competed against each other in the competition . Four teams from Canada earned the right to represent Team North America by virtue of winning certain events , namely the Canada Cup of Curling and the Canadian Olympic Curling Trials / Canadian National Championships ( the Brier and the Tournament of Hearts ) . Two teams from the United States , namely the winners of the 2014 United States Olympic Curling Trials , were chosen to represent North America , and the teams representing Team World were selected by the World Curling Federation . The teams in the table below have been announced as representatives of their respective regions . = = Event summary = = = = = Day 1 = = = Team World and Team North America began the event with team play . Eve Muirhead capitalized on numerous mistakes from Jennifer Jones 's rink to steal five points and secure a substantial win . Jeff Stoughton and Thomas Ulsrud played a tight game until Ulsrud scored three in the fourth end , holding the lead to score another point for Team World . Erika Brown and Satsuki Fujisawa played a close game , but a key steal by Brown 's team gave them a slight edge , which they held to win after Brown made a draw to the four @-@ foot , allowing Team North America to escape a sweep by Team World . In the mixed doubles draw , Mark Nichols and Jennifer Jones swept Niklas Edin and Christina Bertrup , stealing five points and winning the game in seven ends . Kaitlyn Lawes made a game @-@ winning draw to give another point to Team North America , defeating Sebastian Kraupp and Maria Prytz with her mixed doubles partner Jeff Stoughton . The United States ' Jeff Isaacson and Debbie McCormick ran into some bad situations during their game and were defeated thoroughly by Christoffer Svae and Satsuki Fujisawa , who stole seven points and won with a twelve @-@ point margin . Team North America were able to even the tournament score out at three points apiece . The evening team draw saw the first sweep of the event by Team North America . Brad Jacobs played Niklas Edin in a rematch of the previous year 's world championship game , and scored one in the final end to take a one @-@ point victory . Rachel Homan scored five straight points , of which three were steals , to overcome a three @-@ point deficit against Margaretha Sigfridsson , and John Shuster made an early steal against David Murdoch and built up a two @-@ point lead , which he held to win the game . = = = Day 2 = = = The morning draw consisted of team play . Jennifer Jones found an easy win over Margaretha Sigfridsson , stealing eight points in the first half against Sigfridsson , whose fourth , Maria Prytz , was struggling to make her shots . Niklas Edin scored multiple points in the third and fifth ends against John Shuster , and held his lead to win a point for Team World . Rachel Homan was in the lead against Satsuki Fujisawa coming into the final end , but she flashed her last shot , giving Fujisawa a steal of two . As a result , the game ended as a draw , and Team World split the points with Team North America . Team North America held a three @-@ point lead over Team World after the morning draw . The singles competition , similar to a skills competition in ice hockey , involved team members from each of the twelve teams attempting six types of shots . Team World was the clear winner in the singles competition , sweeping all but one of the matchups to bounce out to a one @-@ point lead in the tournament . On the women 's side , the team skipped by Margaretha Sigfridsson scored the highest total of points at 24 points , while on the men 's side , Thomas Ulsrud 's team scored the highest total of points at 18 points . In the evening draw , Team North America regained the lead from Team World , winning two games and splitting one . Erika Brown and Eve Muirhead played a tight game , and in the final end , Brown had a one @-@ point lead from a steal in the sixth end . Muirhead was able to get one point and tie the game . The game between Brad Jacobs and Thomas Ulsrud was also close . Ulsrud had the lead in the final end , but he was unable to remove Jacobs ' stones in the center of the house with his last shot , giving Jacobs the win . Jeff Stoughton scored a crucial point in the sixth end and went on to win the game by scoring two in the final end . = = = Day 3 = = = The morning draw consisted of the final draw of mixed doubles , and saw Team North America adding another point to its lead . Emma Miskew and Ryan Fry scored multiple three @-@ point ends against Greg Drummond and Anna Sloan to win the game , and John Shuster and Jessica Schultz won their game against Thomas Ulsrud and Miyo Ichikawa , who struggled to score and gave up nine points in steals . On the other hand , David Murdoch and Eve Muirhead won their game to give Team World a point . They were able to string together three straight stolen points against E. J. Harnden and Rachel Homan , who cut Team World ’ s lead to one point until they gave up two deuces to Team World in the sixth and seventh ends . In the afternoon , Team World salvaged two half @-@ points from an otherwise dominant Team North America , who looked to sweep all three games . Erika Brown stole five points against Margaretha Sigfridsson , whose team struggled early on , but a critical miss from Brown gave Sigfridsson ’ s fourth , Maria Prytz , a chance to tie the game with a draw for three . Brad Jacobs held an early lead against David Murdoch , but a late comeback from Murdoch , coupled with an imperfect takeout by Jacobs , gave Murdoch a steal of one point and the tie . Team North America won one game on the ice , however . Rachel Homan held an early lead against Eve Muirhead , but Muirhead stole a point to stay alive . She had an open shot to tie the game , but missed , giving Homan the win . In the evening draw , the North American team limited Team World to one half @-@ point and extended their lead . Jeff Stoughton was able to steal a point from Niklas Edin early in the game . Edin ’ s third Sebastian Kraupp left the game due to illness , and David Murdochreplaced him . Crucial misses by Edin ’ s team led to Stoughton scoring four in the fifth end , giving him a five @-@ point lead which he held to win the game . John Shuster and Thomas Ulsrud traded doubles until Shuster was only able to score one in the seventh end . Shuster was able to force Ulsrud to make a draw for the win , but Ulsrud came up short , giving Shuster a steal of one and tying the game . Jennifer Jones played a tight game against Satisuki Fujisawa , and they were tied going in to the last end . Jones capitalized on a miss from Fujisawa to make a double @-@ takeout for one point and the win . = = = Day 4 = = = In the first round of skins play , Team World made a comeback , winning two skins games and narrowing Team North America ’ s lead . Niklas Edin , playing with Torger Nergård in place of his normal third Sebastian Kraupp , played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game with John Shuster , trading one @-@ point skins until the final end , when Edin made a shot for the carry @-@ over and then drew the button for the final point . Rachel Homan and her mixed team of Jon Mead , Alison Kreviazuk , and Reid Carruthers had an advantage over Team World ’ s Tom Brewster , Emi Shimizu , Greg Drummond , and Chiaki Matsumara , winning the first three points . However , Brewster and his team carried over the rest of the points into a draw @-@ to @-@ the @-@ button challenge , which Brewster won , giving him the final two points . Jennifer Jones held an early lead over Margaretha Sigfridsson , but Sigfridsson forced two carryovers and won the game after Jones missed a potential game @-@ tying shot . The second round of skins play would decide the winner of the Continental Cup . Brad Jacobs faced off against Thomas Ulsrud , and Jacobs dominated the game , taking all but one of the available points . The cup @-@ winning skin was scored in the sixth end of the game , when Ulsrud missed a difficult double @-@ takeout , giving Jacobs the skin of one point . Eve Muirhead held an early lead against Erika Brown , scoring the first three skins , but Brown made a comeback , forcing two carryovers from Muirhead and winning two skins to win the game . With the win for Team North America , Brown became the first four @-@ time Continental Cup winner in Continental Cup history . Jeff Stoughton ’ s mixed team of Emma Miskew , Mark Nichols , and Lisa Weagle shut out David Murdoch and his team of Satsuki Fujisawa , Scott Andrews , and Miyo Ichikawa , capitalizing from mistakes by Murdoch ’ s team and scoring all of the available points in the game . The final score of the event was 36 – 24 , and the winning team , Team North America , received a purse of CAD $ 52 @,@ 000 , CAD $ 2 @,@ 000 per player , in addition to the skins bonus of CAD $ 13 @,@ 000 , while the losing team , Team World , received a purse of CAD $ 26 @,@ 000 , CAD $ 1 @,@ 000 per player . The 2014 Continental Cup marked the first time in Continental Cup history that a team defended their title from the previous year . = = Events = = All times listed are in Pacific Standard Time ( UTC − 8 ) . The draws for Thursday , Friday , and Saturday were released on Wednesday night , and the draws for Sunday were released on Saturday afternoon . = = = Thursday , January 16 = = = Team 8 : 30 am Mixed doubles 1 : 00 pm Team 7 : 00 pm = = = Friday , January 17 = = = Team 8 : 30 am Singles 1 : 00 pm Team 7 : 00 pm = = = Saturday , January 18 = = = Mixed doubles 8 : 30 am Team 1 : 00 pm Team 6 : 30 pm = = = Sunday , January 19 = = = Skins 1 : 00 pm Skins 6 : 00 pm = = Statistics = = The statistics for team play , including team skins play , are listed below . The percentages are calculated for each player by rating their shots in each game . Each shot the player attempts is scored out of four based on how well the shot is made . = = = Player percentages = = = = = = = Men = = = = = = = = Women = = = = = = = Team percentages = = = = = = = Men = = = = = = = = Women = = = = = = = Perfect games = = = = = = = Men = = = = = = = = Women = = = =
= Kelly Kelly = Barbara Jean " Barbie " Blank @-@ Souray ( born January 15 , 1987 ) is an American model , former professional wrestler and professional wrestling valet , better known by her ring name Kelly Kelly . She is best known for her time with WWE . Blank has a background in gymnastics and cheerleading . She studied broadcast journalism , hoping to become a television anchor , and worked as a model for Venus Swimwear and Hawaiian Tropic . In 2006 , Blank was signed to a contract by WWE and sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling , a WWE developmental territory . She debuted on the ECW brand in June 2006 as ' Kelly Kelly ' , with the character of an exhibitionist and performing a striptease . She continued her stripteases , in a segment known as Kelly 's Exposé , weekly on ECW , and also became the valet of her on @-@ screen boyfriend Mike Knox . The following year , she formed Extreme Exposé with Layla and Brooke Adams , and the trio performed regular dance segments on ECW . They later became involved in a storyline with The Miz , which led to the dissolution of the group . Kelly then began participating in more wrestling matches , and was moved to the Raw brand in July 2008 . Throughout the next year , she unsuccessfully challenged for the WWE Divas Championship on several occasions , before moving to SmackDown in early 2010 . There she challenged LayCool for the WWE Women 's Championship , but was unsuccessful . In April 2011 , Kelly returned to the Raw brand , where she won the WWE Divas Championship for the first time in June . Kelly lost the title to Beth Phoenix in October , ending her four @-@ month reign . In September 2012 , Blank was released from her WWE contract , and later that year , began making appearances on the independent circuit . = = Early life = = Blank was born in Jacksonville , Florida to a Jewish father and Christian mother . Blank was a fan of professional wrestling as a child , and cites Stone Cold Steve Austin as her favorite wrestler . While growing up , Blank participated in gymnastics for ten years , before she was forced to quit due to an injury . She later took up cheerleading . Blank studied broadcast journalism , hoping to become a news anchor . She was also a Hawaiian Tropic and Venus Swimwear bikini model . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = = = = = = Developmental territories ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = = In 2006 , while working as a model , Blank was scouted by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) official John Laurinaitis , who was interested in signing her to a contract . As a result , WWE contacted her modeling agency and invited her to their then @-@ developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , for a tryout . Despite having no previous wrestling experience , she was offered a contract , which she signed in May 2006 . Even after being called up to WWE 's main roster , she continued to fly back and forth to OVW 's base of Louisville , Kentucky once a week to work shows ; first as a ring announcer and referee , then as a wrestler . One of her first matches took place at the September 6 television tapings , where she participated in a Divas battle royal , which was won by ODB . In late 2007 , she also made appearance in Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , another developmental territory . = = = = Extreme Exposé ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = = Blank debuted for the ECW brand as Kelly Kelly . Originally , she was to be named just ' Kelly ' , but her ring name was expanded to ' Kelly Kelly ' by WWE chairman Vince McMahon . She made her debut on the first episode of ECW on June 13 , 2006 , becoming the youngest Diva on the WWE roster at the age of 19 . Her character , an exhibitionist , was introduced performing a striptease for the crowd . The next week , while performing another striptease , Kelly was interrupted by her on @-@ screen boyfriend , Mike Knox , who came to the stage and covered her with a towel before dragging her backstage . Her stripping became a weekly segment known as Kelly 's Exposé and usually followed the same routine ; Kelly would dance and strip until she was interrupted by Knox , who was upset by her exhibitionism and showing off her body to others . Originally a solo segment , Kelly was joined by the villainous Candice Michelle on the July 11 edition of ECW . Knox began forcing Kelly to accompany him to ringside so he could keep an eye on her , making her his de facto valet . As a result , she found herself involved in the feud developing between Mike Knox and partner Test with Tommy Dreamer and his partner The Sandman , including being inadvertently hit with a cane by Sandman when Knox used her as a shield . She made her in @-@ ring debut for the brand on the August 22 , 2006 episode of ECW on Sci @-@ Fi in a losing effort , as part of a six @-@ person mixed tag team match which saw herself , Knox , and Test lose to Dreamer , Sandman and Torrie Wilson , in what was the last match of the feud . Following the feud , Kelly and Knox were moved into a storyline with CM Punk in September , in which Kelly was shown to have developed a liking for Punk , and Knox was shown to be increasingly protective and jealous . During the next month , Kelly continuously flirted with Punk and was shown watching his matches from the crowd , until Knox stopped her . Subsequently , Kelly 's character dressed as Punk for ECW 's Halloween Costume Contest , enraging Knox and leading to a match between the two , during which Kelly cheered for Punk . At December to Dismember , Kelly and Knox took on the team of Ariel and Kevin Thorn in a mixed tag team match , during which Knox refused to tag in before abandoning Kelly , leaving her to be beaten down by Ariel . On the following episode of ECW , Kelly defeated Ariel with a roll @-@ up on her first ECW singles match , after which Knox came to ringside with flowers , only to throw them in Kelly 's face and perform his signature swinging reverse STO on her , ending their relationship and giving her a scripted injury , removing her from the program for six weeks . She returned to television on January 16 , 2007 and cut a promo announcing that she was newly single and bringing back Kelly 's Exposé . The following week , she joined Layla and Brooke to form Extreme Exposé . The trio performed a weekly dance segment on ECW for the next several months , as a successor to Kelly 's Exposé . In June 2007 , The Miz was moved to the brand , prompting a storyline in which all three members of Extreme Exposé were attracted to him . When Kelly shifted her attentions towards Balls Mahoney , Layla , Brooke , and Miz mocked her , and Miz later prevented her from going on a date with Mahoney , stating that he owned her contract and would fire her if she did so . On November 1 , Brooke was released from her WWE contract , and Extreme Exposé dissolved as a group , leaving Kelly and Layla to enter an ongoing rivalry with more active wrestling roles . On the October 29 episode of Raw , Kelly won a battle royal to earn a match against the WWE Women 's Champion , Beth Phoenix . After the match however , Kelly was attacked by Phoenix and lost the subsequent match between the two the following week on Raw . Kelly continued to feud with Layla , and they were on opposite sides of a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match at Survivor Series , which Kelly 's team won . In December , Layla formed an alliance with Victoria , which expanded to include Lena Yada in January 2008 , and Kelly continued to feud with the trio . At WrestleMania XXIV , Kelly was a " lumberjill " for the Divas ' tag team lumberjill match . The following month , Kelly was part of the losing team in a five @-@ on @-@ five Divas tag team match at Backlash . = = = = Various feuds ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = = Following the 2008 WWE Draft , Kelly was moved to the Raw brand on July 7 . Kelly had her debut match as part of the brand that same night , teaming with Mickie James to defeat Layla and Jillian Hall . She quickly became involved in a feud with Beth Phoenix , facing her on multiple occasions in both singles and tag team matches with a variety of opponents , including Mickie James and Candice Michelle . During this time , Phoenix was aligned with Jillian Hall , and in late September , Kelly transitioned into a feud with Hall . At Survivor Series in November , Kelly was part of the victorious Raw Diva team which defeated the SmackDown Divas in a five @-@ on @-@ five elimination match ; she eliminated Victoria , before being eliminated by Maryse . The following month at Armageddon , Kelly teamed with Maria , Michelle McCool and Mickie James in a winning effort against Jillian Hall , Maryse , Victoria and Natalya . On April 5 , 2009 , Kelly competed in a Divas battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , which was won by Santina Marella . On the May 18 episode of Raw , Kelly won a battle royal by eliminating Beth Phoenix and Mickie James , to become the number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship . The following week , she challenged Maryse for the championship and won by disqualification , allowing Maryse to retain . Kelly lost a subsequent rematch on June 8 . Three weeks later , she competed in a fatal four @-@ way match to determine the number one contender , but the match was won by Mickie James . Throughout the remainder of mid @-@ 2009 , Kelly unsuccessfully competed in several number one contender 's matches . At Bragging Rights in October , Kelly , Gail Kim and Melina comprised Team Raw , but lost to Team SmackDown , consisting of Beth Phoenix , Natalya and Michelle McCool . The following month at Survivor Series , Kelly participated in a five @-@ on @-@ five elimination match ; she eliminated Layla before being eliminated by Phoenix , however her team went on to win the match . In January 2010 , Kelly participated in the tournament to determine a new Divas Champion , after Melina was forced to vacate the championship due to injury , but was eliminated by Alicia Fox in the first round . Throughout early 2010 , Kelly was involved in several backstage segments with the guest hosts of Raw . At WrestleMania XXVI , Kelly teamed with Beth Phoenix , Gail Kim , Mickie James and Eve Torres in a losing effort to Michelle McCool , Layla , Maryse , Alicia Fox and Vickie Guerrero . The following night on Raw , the teams faced off in a rematch with the opposite result . The following week , Kelly took part in a 10 @-@ Diva " Dress To Impress " battle royal , to determine the number one contender for Maryse 's Divas Championship , but the match was won by Eve Torres . = = = = Divas Champion ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = = = During the 2010 WWE draft on April 26 , Kelly was drafted to the SmackDown brand . She made her debut on the April 30 episode of SmackDown , teaming with Beth Phoenix to defeat LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) . She went on to feud with LayCool , gaining an ally in Tiffany . Over the next several weeks , Kelly and Tiffany faced LayCool in tag team matches , with LayCool winning on both occasions . On the June 4 episode of SmackDown , Kelly made her singles debut for the brand , defeating Rosa Mendes , despite being distracted by Layla and McCool . After defeating both Layla and McCool in singles matches , Kelly received a WWE Women 's Championship match at Money in the Bank in July , but was unsuccessful . On August 31 , Kelly announced that she would be a mentor on the all @-@ female third season of NXT , with Naomi as her rookie . Throughout the second half of 2010 , Kelly continued to feud with LayCool , and gained an ally in Natalya in October . In November , Kelly 's NXT rookie , Naomi , was named runner @-@ up to the winner , Kaitlyn , during the season finale . In December , Kelly started a storyline with Drew McIntyre , who had developed an on @-@ screen romantic interest in her . She rebuffed his advances on several occasions , stating that he was too aggressive and vindictive . On January 30 , 2011 , at the Royal Rumble , Kelly prevented the Acting General Manager Vickie Guerrero from interfering in the World Heavyweight Championship match between Edge and Dolph Ziggler . On the following SmackDown , Kelly and Edge defeated LayCool and Ziggler in a two @-@ on @-@ three handicap match to retain Edge 's World Heavyweight Championship , with Kelly scoring the pinfall . Following the match , Guerrero fired Kelly in storyline . At Elimination Chamber later that month , Kelly was re @-@ hired by SmackDown General Manager Teddy Long , and made her return by attacking Guerrero . She was stopped by LayCool , who were in turn stopped by Trish Stratus . On the following episode of SmackDown , Kelly gained revenge on Guerrero when Kelly and Edge defeated Guerrero and Drew McIntyre in a mixed tag team match , causing Guerrero to be fired in storyline per the pre @-@ match stipulation . On April 26 , Kelly was drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft . On May 22 at Over the Limit , Kelly unsuccessfully challenged Brie Bella for the WWE Divas Championship . The following month , on the Power to the People special edition of Raw on June 20 , Kelly won a fan vote to determine the challenger for the Divas Championship that night ; Kelly went on to win her first Divas Championship by defeating Bella . Her win later garnered her a Slammy Award for " Divalicious Moment of the Year " . At Money in the Bank in July , Kelly made her first title defense , successfully defeating Brie Bella in a rematch . On August 1 , Beth Phoenix won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Kelly 's championship , and afterward attacked Kelly to provoke a feud between the two . Kelly went on to successfully defend her championship against Phoenix at SummerSlam on August 14 . Following SummerSlam , Kelly continued to feud with Phoenix , defeating her at Night of Champions , before dropping the championship to her at Hell in a Cell on October 2 , ending her reign at 104 days . She failed to reign the championship on the October 14 episode of SmackDown in a rematch . Kelly again challenged Phoenix for the Divas Championship at Tables , Ladders & Chairs , but was unsuccessful . At WrestleMania XXVIII in April 2012 , Kelly and Extra correspondent Maria Menounos defeated Beth Phoenix and Eve in a tag team match . In June , WWE granted Kelly a period of time off , and she returned on Raw on August 6 , defeating Eve in singles match . On September 28 , Blank was released from her contract . In a December 2012 interview , Blank stated she needed time off to heal a neck injury , and had plans to model . = = = Independent circuit ( 2012 ) = = = Blank was set to appear at her first independent wrestling show in Waterbury , Connecticut at a North East Wrestling event on November 4 , 2012 , followed by a house show event on November 5 , but her appearances were canceled due to Hurricane Sandy . Blank eventually made her first appearance for North East Wrestling on December 4 . = = Other media = = In April 2007 , Kelly , along with Ashley Massaro , Layla El , Brooke Adams , Torrie Wilson , and Maryse Ouellet , appeared in a music video for the Timbaland song " Throw It on Me " , featuring The Hives . On April 11 , 2008 , Blank along with Mickie James , Melina Perez , and Layla El appeared in an episode of Celebrity Fit Club : Boot Camp as trainers . Six days later , she appeared as a " Soccerette " on the British football show Soccer AM . She appeared a second time on Soccer AM in 2009 . On June 14 , 2011 , Kelly and The Bella Twins appeared on an episode of The Price Is Right . In August 2007 , all three members of Extreme Exposé took part in a photo @-@ shoot for FHM Online . In 2011 , Blank was ranked number 82 in Maxim 's Hot 100 . Blank was later featured on both the front and back covers of Maxim in December 2011 . In 2012 , Blank ranked number 38 in Maxim 's Hot 100 . Blank is one of the cast members of the E ! reality television series WAGS , which began airing in August 2015 and features a look into the personal lives of the wives and girlfriends of sportsmen . = = Personal life = = While training at OVW , Blank lived in Kentucky . Following this , Blank lived in Tampa , Florida prior to moving to Miami . She then returned to living in Tampa in 2010 . As of 2015 , she resides in Malibu , California . She describes Trish Stratus as her inspiration in wrestling . Blank was in a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year relationship with wrestler Andrew Martin , that had ended prior to his death in March 2009 . In August 2014 , she became engaged to former ice hockey player Sheldon Souray . The couple were married in Mexico on February 27 , 2016 . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves K2 ( Leg drop bulldog ) Signature moves Diving crossbody Kelly Killer ( Handspring back elbow smash , to a cornered opponent ) Hanging figure four necklock Hurricanrana One @-@ handed bulldog Sitout facebuster Stink face Corner foot choke Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl headscissors takedown Thesz press followed by multiple punches Wrestlers managed The Miz Mike Knox Entrance themes " Holla " by Desiree Coleman ( 2006 – 2008 ) " Holla ( V2 ) " by Desiree Coleman ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = Championships and accomplishments = = Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI ranked her # 15 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2011 World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE WWE Divas Championship ( 1 time ) Slammy Award for Divalicious Moment of the Year ( 2011 ) – Kelly winning the Divas Championship
= Calabozos = Calabozos is a Holocene caldera in central Chile 's Maule Region ( 7th Region ) . Part of the Chilean Andes ' volcanic segment , it is considered a member of the Southern Volcanic Zone ( SVZ ) , one of the three distinct volcanic belts of South America . This most active section of the Andes runs along central Chile 's western edge , and includes more than 70 of Chile 's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields . Calabozos lies in an extremely remote area of poorly glaciated mountains . Calabozos and the majority of the Andean volcanoes formed from the subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate under the continental South American continental lithosphere . The caldera is in a transitional region between thick and thin lithosphere , and is probably supplied by a pool of andesitic and rhyolitic magma . It sits on a historic bed of volcanic and plutonic sedimentary rock ( rock formed within the Earth ) that in turn sits on top of a layer of merged sedimentary and metamorphic rock . Calabozos is responsible for the huge Loma Seca Tuff , a body of material 200 cubic kilometres ( 48 cu mi ) to 500 cubic kilometres ( 120 cu mi ) in volume . It accumulated over at least three eruptive periods , beginning 800 @,@ 000 years ago ( 0 @.@ 8 mya ) and lasting until 150 @,@ 000 years ago ( 0 @.@ 15 mya ) . The caldera 's dimensions are 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) by 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) , and it has an elevation of 3 @,@ 508 metres ( 11 @,@ 509 ft ) . Activity from the caldera has produced many other stratovolcanoes to form a complex volcano . = = Geography and structure = = Calabozos lies in central Chile 's Maule Region , near Curicó and Talca , on the western Andes . This is an area of poorly glaciated mountains that is not permanently populated . There are no roads , and it is only accessible via horse or on foot . Calabozos is part of the South Volcanic Zone , which runs along the western edge of central Chile and extends south , jumping the border to continue its course in Argentina . This range includes at least nine caldera complexes , more than 70 of Chile 's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields that have been active in the Quaternary , and hundreds of minor eruptive centers . The South Volcanic Zone is the most volcanically active region in Chile , and produces around one eruption per year . Its largest historical eruption was at Quizapu Crater , located 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) to 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the north side of Cerro Azul 's summit , and its most active volcanoes are Llaima and Villarrica . Calabozos is a ring @-@ shaped caldera 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) by 14 kilometres ( 9 mi ) wide , with an elevation of 3 @,@ 508 metres ( 11 @,@ 509 ft ) . Volcanoes have been formed by eruptions in the crater . The largest , which is on the southern rim of the caldera , is the Holocene Cerro del Medio complex with an elevation of 3 @,@ 508 metres ( 11 @,@ 509 ft ) . It is made mainly of andesite and dacite , and has a volume of 20 cubic kilometres ( 5 cu mi ) to 25 cubic kilometres ( 6 cu mi ) . On the southwestern edge several eruptions have created the Descabezado Chico volcano ( elevation : 3 @,@ 250 metres ( 10 @,@ 663 ft ) ) which consists of four overlapping volcanic craters . The last eruption occurred during Holocene time , and produced a dacitic lava flow ( 2 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 1 cu mi ) in volume ) that extends for 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) . Cerro Colorado , with an elevation of 2 @,@ 928 metres ( 9 @,@ 606 ft ) , forms another cone in the complex . Towards the center of the caldera , hot springs including Cajon Los Calabozos and Baños de Llolli are present . The springs are as old as 0 @.@ 3 mya , and may have formed directly after Calabozos 's second eruption as a result of uplift caused by re @-@ occurring activity in the caldera . The vents occur in two clusters , Colorado and Puesto Calabozos , and are located along the margin of a fault at the southwestern edge of the caldera . Hildreth et al . ( 1983 ) evaluated that Calabozos could potentially be useful for the harvesting of geothermal energy . = = Geology = = Subduction of the eastern edge of the Nazca Plate under the western edge of the South American Plate occurs about 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) west of Peru and Chile , at a rate of 9 to 11 centimetres ( 4 in ) per year at 30 degrees south latitude . This subduction process has resulted in the formation of the Peru – Chile Trench , an oceanic trench in the Pacific Ocean . It also produced the Andean Volcanic Belt and the rest of the Andes . Calabozos is one of 44 Holocene epoch volcanoes located in central Chile and Argentina . It is included within the Southern Volcanic Zone , the most active section of the Chilean Andes . The date of its last known eruption is not known with precision , though it took place during the Holocene . Through K @-@ Ar dating , geologist Robert Edward Drake established the age of 66 events in central Chile , and divided them into groups based on the time of their origin . In a paper published in 1976 , he described the location of each group and the west @-@ east @-@ trending movement of volcanism in the range . To the west of the Chilean Andes are an early group of eruptions , dated from the Oligocene and the Early Miocene ( 33 @.@ 3 – 20 @.@ 2 mya ) . The scale of the eruptive events that produced these features remains unclear . Further east , in the actual range , are huge numbers of eruptions . Between 15 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 4 mya , widespread volcanism took place , followed by extensive folding ; this process then repeated itself from 18 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 7 mya during the Miocene . Beginning 6 @.@ 4 mya the Chilean Andes were quiet , though whether or not this quiet period took place throughout all of the Andes remains unknown . Central Chilean volcanoes became active once again around 2 @.@ 5 mya , and have erupted almost continuously since . = = = Local = = = Calabozos lies in an area between thick and thin continental crust , and its eruptions are probably fed from a pool of andesitic and rhyolitic magma that sits just under its caldera . The caldera is underlain by a layer of volcaniclastic sedimentary rock from the Mesozoic era coalesced with intrusive and volcanic rocks of Tertiary age , over a layer of Precambrian @-@ Triassic sedimentary and metamorphic rock formed from later plutons ( magma intrusions ) . Under its northeast edge , Calabozos is cut by a north @-@ south trending segment of sedimentary rock that includes gypsiferous and carbonates . Calabozos is similar in age to Cerro Azul and Descabezado Grande , and its eruptions may correspond to past activity at both volcanoes . Eruption products of very similar composition ( including mafic andesite , agglutinates , and dacite ) make up the volcanoes . There is also a similarity in size ( all are between 40 and 70 cubic kilometers in volume ) . The volcano appears to be part of a north @-@ south trending group of rhyolitic , silicic Quaternary volcanoes ( including Puelche Volcanic Field , Laguna del Maule , and Volcán Domuyo ) that veers off the north @-@ northeast direction of the rest of the Andes . The directional formation of this belt corresponds to the fold @-@ and @-@ thrust movement of the nearby Malargüe fault , which formed in the Tertiary and remained active until the early Pliocene or late Miocene . This may suggest that Calabozos ' activity is more dependent on local processes than subduction of the Nazca Plate . = = = Geologic record = = = In comparison to the well @-@ preserved rocks of the dry , central part of the Andes , the record that defines the southern sector is poorly preserved . Remnants of Miocene and Quaternary eruptions within the central part are clearly preserved in the rock record . Ash flow sheets constitute as much as 40 percent of the area 's total erupted material , suggesting that pyroclastic eruptions were rather important during this time . By examining the eruption rate of individual volcanoes , Hildreth et al. concluded that similar amounts of ash @-@ flow volcanism took place in the southern sector as well . Their study established that in particular silicic ash was missing from the record , and concluded that erosion had probably disrupted deposition of volcaniclastic rock . While the volcanic history of the area extends back far further , the earliest fully recognizable events in the region are recorded in the pyroclastic Campanario Formation . This sequence appears to begin at Laguna de la Invernada and ranges from 15 to 6 mya . Remnants of magma intrusions as young as 7 mya can be found at the lake ( Laguna de la Invernada ) . The most recent volcanic phase began about 4 mya , producing largely andesitic eruptions . A series of eruptions built up a broad plateau of lava , and extended over the area where Calabozos now lies . Locally , this plateau was composed of mafic andesite with olivine , which over time gathered to form 300 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) to 500 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) thick layers . Nearby volcanoes sit on top of two mya lavas that formed during this period , while the Loma Seca Tuff lies atop andesitic deposits from Descabezado Grande . = = = Composition = = = Calabozos lies between two different types of volcanism — to its north , andesite and rhyolite are the primary constituents of lava while its southern neighbors are composed of more mafic andesite and basalt . It is mainly basaltic andesite and rhyodacite that make up Calabozos , forming a calcalkilic suite rich with potassium . Its lavas are dotted with phenocrysts , which vary from 2 to 25 percent of their mass . These phenocrysts are typically made of plagioclase , but also contain clinopyroxene , orthopyroxene , ilmenite , apatite , and titanomagnetite . = = Climate and vegetation = = The area 's rainfall averages 134 centimetres ( 53 in ) annually , varying from 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) at its lowest to 225 centimetres ( 89 in ) at its highest . Precipitation between May and August ( primarily snow ) is normally 20 to 35 centimetres , dropping to below one centimetre during summer . Temperature is also variable , typically registering 25 degrees Celsius during the summer , but dropping below freezing at high elevations ( above 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) ) . Vegetation is rare in the area . The 1932 eruption of Cerro Azul 's Quizapu Crater reduced much of the land to a pumice desert . Above 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) , vegetation becomes even more sparse . = = Eruptive history = = During the late Pleistocene , Calabozos erupted tuff composed primarily of rhyodacite and dacite . Three distinct eruptions have taken place within the last million years . The sheets of remaining ash left over from all of the eruptions together range from 200 cubic kilometres ( 48 cu mi ) to 500 cubic kilometres ( 120 cu mi ) in volume and are known as the Loma Seca Tuff . The first eruption , which took place 0 @.@ 8 mya , was distinct from later eruptions in that its product lacks flattened lenticles ( lens @-@ shaped layers of mineral or rock embedded in rock ) . The tuff is dotted with predominantly plagioclase phenocrysts , which make up between less than 5 to approximately 15 percent of each particle 's mass . After being erupted , the material settled in canyons , where it underwent glaciation . This carved cliffs which drop as much as 100 metres ( 328 ft ) . The tuff is limited to just a few kilometers around the complex . Taking place 0 @.@ 3 mya , the second eruption was the most extensive . It was probably between 250 cubic kilometres ( 60 cu mi ) and 300 cubic kilometres ( 72 cu mi ) in volume and extended past the reaches of the caldera , down the adjacent foothills . Beyond the caldera , the eruptive products are poor in phenocrysts ( unlike those of the first eruption ) . They are instead rich in lithic material , which makes up as much as 10 percent of the rock in parts ( 50 percent at the base of the caldera ) . As the first of the ash was deposited , it accumulated in layers that formed quickly and resisted erosion , but only partially melded together . However , except for these basal layers and thin zones where the ash was devitrified ( loses the properties of a glass and becomes brittle ) , the entire sheet is melded together . Inside Calabozos , the ash resisted welding and contains more phenocrysts . Instead , erosion ate away at it , in the form of acid leaching , and broke down much of its pumice content . Still , the rock layer here contains five to 30 percent phenocrysts , and has high levels of devitrification and lithic content . The differences between these two deposits can be accounted for by a few factors , including time of eruption and placement . The material inside the caldera must be younger and erupted from a pool of magma that had larger crystals . Its extensive erosion can be explained by the presence of hydrothermal vents , and its high levels of lithics probably originate from either being exposed to the rocks after they were erupted , lying adjacent to them while they underwent subsidence , or is a result of long , slow formation . Any of these reasons would also effectively account for the poor mixing of the lavas . Activity continued for approximately 150 @,@ 000 years in the form of quiet andesitic eruptions , as glaciation took place . About 0 @.@ 15 mya ( 150 @,@ 000 years ago ) , a third and final ash flow was erupted . With a volume of 175 cubic kilometers ( 42 cu mi ) to 250 cubic kilometres ( 60 cu mi ) , it was smaller than the second eruption , but acted similarly , and had much more densely welded tuff . The ash was thickest at 300 metres ( 984 ft ) , at Loma Seca , and the top of the deposit has undergone erosion . It is densely welded in crevasses , but not at thin 50 metres ( 164 ft ) layers , where much of the material is barely welded or not welded at all . The first layers of the last deposit were alternating belts of light and dark @-@ colored material , and were densely welded . They appear to have been erupted in pulses , and continue for hundreds of meters . Deposition was continuous except for one interruption , which can be seen at proximity to the caldera , where the layers are replaced by thin , nonwelded sheets of lava . Another zone of nonwelded material , about 20 metres ( 66 ft ) and near Cajon Los Calabozos , underwent no erosion , suggesting that activity stopped , then began again . High in fiamme , the third tuff layer differs from the second in that it has even higher phenocryst content , but poor lithics . In the fiamme , phenocrysts constitute between 5 and 15 percent of the rock , increasing to 25 to 30 percent near the caldera . In the younger emplacements , clinopyroxene is evident along with an increase in mafic content . = = Threats and preparedness = = Calabozos is in the South Volcanic Zone , which contains potentially deadly and active volcanoes such as Mount Hudson , Llaima , and Villarrica . Villarrica and Llaima together have more than 80 reported episodes of volcanism since 1558 , and at least 40 South Volcanic Zone volcanoes have had Holocene @-@ age eruptions . Its remoteness means that Calabozos poses little threat to humans , but if necessary relief efforts could be orchestrated . The Volcanic Disaster Assistance Program ( VDAP ) formed in response to the famous eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia and saved lives following the 1991 eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile by organizing evacuations . The team 's stated aim is to " reduce eruption @-@ caused fatalities and economic losses in developing countries " . Made up of various USGS offices such as the Cascades Volcano Observatory ( CVO ) , responsible for monitoring Mount St. Helens , the team has equipment to monitor any volcano , allowing the timely prediction of volcanic eruptions and the evacuation of nearby homes .
= 2013 Tour de France = The 2013 Tour de France was the 100th edition of the Tour de France , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . It started on the island of Corsica on 30 June and finished on the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris on 21 July . The Tour consisted of twenty @-@ one race stages and covered a total distance of 3 @,@ 403 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @,@ 115 mi ) . The race was won by Chris Froome of Team Sky . Second and third respectively were the Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) and the Team Katusha rider , Joaquim Rodríguez . Marcel Kittel ( Argos – Shimano ) was the first rider to wear the race leader 's yellow jersey after winning stage one . He lost the lead the next day to Jan Bakelants of RadioShack – Leopard , who managed to obtain a one @-@ second lead from a late solo attack . Simon Gerrans gained the race lead after his team , Orica – GreenEDGE , won the stage four team time trial . Gerrans passed the lead on to teammate Daryl Impey after the fifth stage . Froome took the lead from Impey after the eighth stage , the first classified as mountainous . Froome maintained his lead for the remainder of the race by consolidating his lead through solid performances in the individual time trials and in the high mountains . Froome became the second consecutive British cyclist to win the Tour de France , after Bradley Wiggins accomplished the feat the year before . In the race 's other classifications , Movistar Team rider Quintana won the mountains classification and also finished as the best young rider in the general classification , finishing in second place overall ; Peter Sagan of the Cannondale team was the winner of the points classification , with Saxo – Tinkoff finishing as the winners of the team classification . Christophe Riblon ( Ag2r – La Mondiale ) was given the award for the most combative rider . = = Teams = = Twenty @-@ two teams participated in the 2013 edition of the Tour de France . All of the nineteen UCI ProTeams were entitled , and obliged , to enter the race . On 27 April 2013 , the organiser of the Tour , Amaury Sport Organisation ( ASO ) , announced the three second @-@ tier UCI Professional Continental teams given wildcard invitations , all of which were French @-@ based . The presentation of the teams took place at the harbour of Porto @-@ Vecchio on the island of Corsica on 27 June , two days before the opening stage held in the town . Each team arrived by boat to the stage , before being introduced to the crowd . The number of riders allowed per squad was nine , therefore the start list contained a total of 198 riders . From the riders that began this edition , 169 completed the race . The riders came from 34 countries ; France , Spain , Italy , Netherlands , Australia , Belgium and Germany all had 10 or more riders in the race . The average age of all the riders was 29 @.@ 45 , with 19 @-@ year @-@ old Danny van Poppel ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) as the youngest rider , and 41 @-@ year @-@ old Jens Voigt ( RadioShack – Leopard ) the most senior . Cannondale was the youngest team and Saxo – Tinkoff the oldest . The teams entering the race were : = = Pre @-@ race favourites = = In the run up to the 2013 Tour de France , Chris Froome was wideley considered as the top pre @-@ race favourite for the general classification , with his closest rivals were thought to be Alberto Contador ( Saxo – Tinkoff ) and Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) . Astana 's Vincenzo Nibali was also a possible contender after getting his first Tour podium in 2012 but he had focused on the 2013 Giro d 'Italia . The riders considered outsiders were BMC Racing Team riders Cadel Evans and Tejay van Garderen , Richie Porte ( Team Sky ) , Jurgen Van den Broeck ( Lotto – Belisol ) , Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ.fr ) , Ryder Hesjedal ( Garmin – Sharp ) , Robert Gesink ( Belkin Pro Cycling ) , and Movistar Team riders Alejandro Valverde and Nairo Quintana . The 2012 Tour de France winner , Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky , had focused on the Giro d 'Italia , but retired early due to illness , subsequently pulling out because illness and injury had left him insufficient time to train for the Tour de France and chose not to ride . This left Froome , runner @-@ up in 2012 , the undisputed leader of Team Sky . He had shown his form so far in 2013 season by winning four of the five stage races he had rode : Tour of Oman , Critérium International , Tour de Romandie and Critérium du Dauphiné . Two @-@ time Tour winner ( 2007 and 2009 ) Contador returned to the race having been suspended from the 2012 race ; he had won the 2012 Vuelta a España and his best major result of the season had been second in Oman . Rodríguez had podium finishes in both the Giro and Vuelta in 2012 , as well as winning the UCI World Tour . He had top @-@ ten placings in three major stage races in the season . The sprinters considered favourites for the points classification and wins in bunch sprint finishes were Mark Cavendish ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) , Peter Sagan ( Cannondale ) , André Greipel ( Lotto – Belisol ) , Matthew Goss ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) and Argos – Shimano riders Marcel Kittel and John Degenkolb . Cavendish won the points classicfication at the 2013 Giro and had shown his form with thirteen wins in the season . In the previous year 's Tour , Sagan won the points classification and had won the same at the Tour de Suisse in the month preceding the Tour . Greipel , whose team manager Marc Sergeant claimed he had the best sprint train , came into the Tour with nine wins in the season , including three at the Tour Down Under . Goss only had one victory in the season , but had a team of strong and experienced riders . Kittel , as with Greipel , would arrive with a team dedicated for the sprints and he had accumulated eleven wins in the season . His teammate Degenkolb won five stages at the 2012 Vuelta and it was thought he was most likely to be used for the hillier stages . = = Route and stages = = On 24 November 2011 , the ASO announced Corsica would host the 2013 edition 's Grand Départ ( the Tour 's opening stages ) , the first time the Tour has visited the island . The route of the race was unveiled on 24 October 2012 at the Palais des Congrès in Paris . The Tour was the first to be completed entirely on French soil since 2003 and included ten new start or finish locations . The Grand Départ in Corsica consisted of three stages . The ASO chartered the Mega Smeralda cruiseferry in Porto @-@ Vecchio to house members of the organisation , media and others who work on the Tour and to host press conferences , although the riders stayed in hotels in and around the town . The opening stage left Porto @-@ Vecchio and ended in Bastia , with next two stages ending in Ajaccio and Calvi respectively . The race then moved to mainland France at Nice . Stages five to eight formed a four @-@ stage journey that navigated westwards finishing at the Ax 3 Domaines ski resort in the Pyrenees . Stage nine took place between Saint @-@ Girons to Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre , before riders took an air transfer to the north @-@ west of the country . Stage ten finished in the port city of Saint @-@ Malo , with the next finishing at the Mont Saint @-@ Michel island commune in Normandy . The following four stages , 11 to 15 , crossed the center of the country back to the south @-@ east finishing atop Mont Ventoux . The next five stages took place in and around the Alps , before a second air transfer took the Tour to the finish with the Champs @-@ Élysées stage in Paris . There were 21 stages in the race , covering a total of 3 @,@ 403 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 115 mi ) , 93 @.@ 4 km ( 58 mi ) shorter than the 2012 Tour . The longest race stage was the fourth at 228 @.@ 5 km ( 142 mi ) , and stage 20 the shortest at 125 km ( 78 mi ) . It featured a final set of stages which were described by journalist William Fotheringham as " brutal " , including three Alpine stages in the last week along with a " viciously hard " time trial . As the 100th edition of the race , the 2013 edition featured some of the famous climbs from the history of the race , including a summit finishes on Mont Ventoux on stage 15 , and Alpe d 'Huez on stage 18 . These included a double ascent of the Alpe d 'Huez , the first time the tour featured a double climb of this scale . There were eight flat stages , three hilly stages , seven mountain stages ( with four summit finishes ) , two individual time trial stages and one team time trial stage . The final stage ending on the Champs @-@ Élysées was an evening finish for the first time . The rest days were after stage 9 , in Saint @-@ Nazaire , and 15 , in Vaucluse . = = Race overview = = In the first stage , the Orica – GreenEDGE team bus had become stuck under the finishing arch in Bastia , Corsica , and with the peloton ( the main group ) 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away , the race officials moved the finish to the 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to go marker . As the peloton closed in , the bus was freed , and the decision was reversed . Marcel Kittel took the victory from the bunch sprint , putting him in the race leader 's yellow jersey ; he also became the first leader of the points classification , with Juan José Lobato ( Euskaltel – Euskadi ) taking the polka dot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification . Two crashes occurred in the stage ; the first with 37 km ( 23 mi ) remaining and the second in the final kilometers , which included a contender for the stage , Mark Cavendish . The second stage RadioShack – Leopard 's Jan Bakelants launched an attack from a breakaway group in the final kilometer to win in Ajaccio , one second ahead of the encroaching peloton . The yellow jersey switched to Bakelants , and Pierre Rolland of Team Europcar claimed the polka dot . Simon Gerrans ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) won the third stage , the final in Corsica , from a bunch sprint in Calvi . Peter Sagan took over the points classification . Orica – GreenEDGE won stage four 's 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) team time trial in and around Nice , putting Gerrans in the yellow jersey . Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step came in second place , one second in arrears , with Team Sky a further two . The fifth and sixth stages ended in bunch sprints , with Cavendish and André Greipel the victors respectively . After stage six , Daryl Impey became the first South African rider to wear the yellow jersey . His teammate Gerrans ensured it for him by holding back at the finish allowing Impey – who was second overall – the time necessary to replace him at the top of the general classification . Sagan claimed the seventh stage from a bunch sprint in Albi , with Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Blel Kadri talking the polka dot jersey . In stage eight , the Tour 's first mountain stage , which ended at the Ax 3 Domaines , Froome attacked a select five @-@ rider group , which included Alberto Contador and Alejandro Valverde , as they passed the lone leader Nairo Quintana with 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining . Froome took the stage win , fifty @-@ one seconds ahead of his teammate Richie Porte , with Valverde third a further seventeen down . Contador and Quintana finished one minute forty @-@ five seconds behind Froome . Froome 's victory win put him in the lead of the general and mountains classifications , ahead of Porte . In the ninth stage , Froome managed to subdue attacks from his rivals , although his team 's efforts left him isolated for the majority of the stage . After a descent from the mountain pass of La Hourquette d 'Ancizan , a group of twenty @-@ three riders came into the finish in Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre , where Dan Martin ( Garmin – Sharp ) beat Jakob Fuglsang ( Astana ) from sprint , twenty seconds ahead of the group . Porte lost eighteen minutes , dropping from second overall to thirty @-@ third , with Valverde moving up to second . Rolland took back the polka dot jersey . The next day was the first rest day of the Tour . Kittel took his second stage of the Tour win from the bunch sprint in the tenth stage , with his compatriot Greipel second . Stage eleven 's individual time trial between Avranches and Mont Saint @-@ Michel was taken by Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Tony Martin . Froome came second with a deficit of twelve seconds , over two minutes ahead of the second placed overall Valverde , extending his lead to over three minutes . Two flat stages ending with bunch sprints then followed ; the first , stage twelve , was won by Kittel , ahead of Cavendish , who came back to win the next . The stage saw Valverde suffer a punctured tyre and lose almost ten minutes , struggling to match the pace set by Cavendish 's Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step team at the head of the race . Stage fourteen was taken by Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Matteo Trentin from a large breakaway that held off the peloton . Stage fifteen , finishing on Mont Ventoux , saw all of the leading contenders , with exception of Froome and Contador , dropped on the early part of the final climb . Froome then moved away from Contador and caught Quintana , who had attacked earlier in the climb . The pair worked together to put time into their rivals , before Froome attacked with 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining and soloed to the finish . This gave Froome a lead of four minutes and fourteen seconds over Mollema in second place , with Contador a further eleven seconds back . Froome regained the lead in the mountains classification . The following day was the Tour 's second rest day . The sixteenth stage saw a twenty @-@ six rider breakaway reach the final climb , the Col de Manse , where Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) attacked and then descended own his own to the finish in Gap . Froome won stage seventeen 's time trial , finishing the 32 km ( 19 @.@ 9 mi ) course from Embrun to Chorges in 51 minutes and 33 seconds , with Contador coming in nine seconds behind , in second place . Contador moved up to second overall , four minutes and thirty @-@ four seconds down , with teammate Roman Kreuziger third . In the Tour 's queen stage , the eighteenth , early breakaway riders Christophe Riblon ( Ag2r – La Mondiale ) and Tejay van Garderen lead on the second ascent of Alpe d 'Huez . Van Garderen attacked on the early slopes , opening up a margin of forty @-@ five seconds on Riblon in the second part of the climb , before Riblon passed with 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining and took the stage win by fifty @-@ nine seconds . Quintana and Rodríguez came in fourth and fifth respectively , over two minutes in arrears . With 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to go , Porte and Froome , who came in under minute after the aforementioned pair , were penalised twenty seconds as Porte went back to the team car to retrieved an energy gel and water bottle for Froome outside the designated zone . Froome extended his lead over Contador by thirty @-@ seven seconds . Costa repeated his feat of three stages previous by taking victory in stage nineteen , by attacking on the final climb of Col de la Croix Fry and soloing to the finish in Le Grand @-@ Bornand . There were no major changes at the head of general classification . Stage twenty , the penultimate stage , saw the leaders of the general classification still together at the head of the race with 8 km ( 5 mi ) remaining of the final climb of Mont Semnoz . Quintana and Rodríguez then attacked , with Froome the only rider able to bridge , and again the pair pulling away , with Quintana managing to hold off Rodríguez by eighteen seconds to take the stage win , with Froome a further eleven down . Contador came in seventh , two minutes and twenty @-@ eight in arrears , dropping to fourth overall , with Rodríguez moving up to third . With the double points gained with his win Quintana secured the mountains classification . The final stage was won by Kittel on the Champs @-@ Élysées , his fourth stage win of the race . Froome finished the race to claim his first Tour de France , becoming the second British rider to win the race . He beat second @-@ placed Quintana by four minutes and twenty seconds , with Rodríguez third , a further forty @-@ four seconds down . Sagan won his second consecutive points classification with a total of 409 , 100 ahead of Cavendish in second . Froome placed second behind Quintana in the mountains classification , with Rolland third . The best young rider was Quintana , followed by Andrew Talansky ( Garmin – Sharp ) and Michał Kwiatkowski ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) respectively . Saxo – Tinkoff finished as the winners of the team classification , eight minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds ahead of second @-@ placed Ag2r – La Mondiale . = = Classification leadership = = There were four main individual classifications contested in the 2013 Tour de France , as well as a team competition . The most important was the general classification , which was calculated by adding each rider 's finishing times on each stage . The rider with the least accumulated time is the race leader , identified by the yellow jersey ; the winner of this classification will be considered the winner of the Tour . If a crash happened within the final 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) of a stage , not including time trials and summit finishes , the riders involved received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred . There were no time bonuses given for this edition of the Tour . The points classification leader was identified with a green jersey . Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish , or in intermediate sprints during the stage . The points available for each stage finish were determined by the " coefficient " ranking scale . No changes were made to the mountains classification , where points were awarded to the riders that reached the top of the most difficult ascents first . The climbs were categorised as either hors catégorie ( English : beyond category ) , first , second , third , or fourth @-@ category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorized climbs . The overall leader wore a polka dot jersey . Double points were awarded on the summit finishes on stages 5 , 15 , 18 and 20 . The young rider classification , denoted by a white jersey , was calculated the same way as the general classification , but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1988 . The team classification was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage ( not the team time @-@ trial ) ; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time . The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie . The riders in the team that lead this classification were identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets . In addition , there was a combativity award , given after each stage to the rider considered , by a jury , to have " made the greatest effort and who has demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship " . The winner wore a red number bib the following stage . At the conclusion of the Tour , Christophe Riblon won the overall super @-@ combativity award . A total of € 2 @,@ 023 @,@ 300 was awarded in cash prizes in the race . The overall winner of the general classification received € 450 @,@ 000 , with the second and third placed riders getting € 200 @,@ 000 and € 100 @,@ 000 respectively ; all finishers of the race were awarded with money . The holders of the classifications benefited on each stage they lead ; the final winners of the points and mountains were given € 25 @,@ 000 , while the best young rider and most combative rider got € 20 @,@ 000 . Team prizes were available , with € 10 @,@ 000 for the team time trial and € 50 @,@ 000 for the winners of the team classification . There was also a special award with a prize of € 5 @,@ 000 , the Souvenir Henri Desgrange , given to first rider ( Nairo Quintana ) to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour , the Port de Pailhères in stage eight . = = Final standings = = = = UCI World Tour rankings = = The race was the eighteenth of the twenty @-@ nine events in the UCI World Tour , with riders from the WorldTeams competing individually for points that contributed towards the rankings . Points were awarded to the top twenty finishers in the general classification and to the top five finishers in each stage . The 587 points accrued by Chris Froome put him in to the lead of the individual ranking , with Peter Sagan dropping to second . Team Sky retained their lead of the team ranking , ahead of Movistar Team . Spain remained as leaders of the nations ranking , with Great Britain second .
= The American and the Queen = The American and the Queen is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Maud , the fictional queen of Rumania , who is overthrown by her cousin , Rupert . Maud is thrown into prison after refusing the romantic advances of Rupert . She escapes with the aid of her lady @-@ in @-@ waiting and a priest . A wealthy American named Jack Walton , foils an assassination attempt on Maud and he falls in love with her . Maud is recaptured and set to be executed when the priest comes up with a plan to save her , by marrying Jack and Maud . The ceremony takes place through her cell window , and soon the United States military arrives to save the now wife of an American . Rupert is killed in the ensuing conflict . No known cast or production credits for the film is known . The film was released on November 11 , 1910 and was met with neutral to negative reviews by critics . The patriotic element of the film was cited as likely being comical for European audiences and the film was also used as an example of an inappropriate example of American flag @-@ waving . The film is presumed lost . = = Plot = = Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 22 , 1910 . It states : " Maud , the beautiful queen of Rumania , is deposed through the efforts of her wicked cousin , Rupert , who seizes the throne . He tries to make love to Maud , but when she spurns him he has her thrown into prison . Through the efforts of her faithful lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , and the kindly priest , the young queen escapes . While on a steamer , her cousin 's spy locates her and decides to give her poison , but his attempt is detected by Jack Walton , wealthy young American who has seen the queen and fallen in love with her without knowing anything as to her history . A number of noblemen urge the queen to make an effort to regain the throne , and when Jack joins his plea to theirs , she consents . But the queen is only in her country a few hours when she is arrested during the absence of Jack on a mission . " " Jack prepares to save the queen , but has hit on no definite plan . Then Father Paul proposes a scheme . The queen 's prison is on the ground floor ; it is possible for her to stretch her hand through the bars . And Jack marries the woman he loves , though a stone wall is between them . The priest , with the bridegroom is outside , and the careless guards do not see them . Rupert then sends for his cousin again , and for the second time he offers to marry her . But she spurns him . Then he orders her execution . The sentence is about to be carried out when Jack arrives with a squad of U.S. troops from a troop ship in the harbor . The queen is entitled to their protection , for she is now the wife of an American . And she gets it . Rupert loses his life and the ensuing combat . " = = Production = = The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . A reviewer said that the film was a poor take on Anthony Hope , but did not further expand on the nature of this connection . This was likely a reference to Anthony Hope 's works like The Prisoner of Zenda and may have been made due to the arrival of a foreigner who resolves a royal conspiracy . Bowers would list this film as being of " patriotic " character instead of listing it simply as a drama or a comedy production . The patriotic element of the film was heavily promoted in advertising and was likely true given the reaction of viewers to the film . One article in The Moving Picture News referred to the film as an example of a problematic use of the United States flag appearing suddenly with the marines at the climax of the plot , all while on foreign soil . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . = = Release and reception = = The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on November 11 , 1910 . The film was originally planned to be released on November 4 , but it was delayed and some advertisements and later listings for the film give the erroneous date . The film received negative reviews in trade publications from even those which typically praised even the weaker productions . Though it was not well @-@ received , the production was not criticized as sharply as Avenged had been . Walton of The Moving Picture News stated that the film was " [ a ] very feeble echo on Anthony Hope . The throne room staging is ridiculous and so is the resolution . The flag @-@ waving business is feebly melodramatic . Princes , etc. don 't sit on that sort of chair . I 'm an admirer of Thanhouser , but this thing is straight , plain punk . In Europe it will be received as a Yankee joke . " The reviewer for The Moving Picture World was decidedly neutral , highlighting only the novelty of the plot and refraining from any criticism or praise of the merits of the production . The New York Dramatic Mirror was negative , but not scathing . The reviewer stated , " The narrative is very entertaining - or could be made so , if the producer had cared to trouble himself about details . In its present crude form , its wild impossibility rather grates upon a spectator , because every scene in the film has some inconsistency . At least , it was worth doing well . Unfortunately , neither the acting nor the mounting has any particular merit . "
= ROT13 = ROT13 ( " rotate by 13 places " , sometimes hyphenated ROT @-@ 13 ) is a simple letter substitution cipher that replaces a letter with the letter 13 letters after it in the alphabet . ROT13 is a special case of the Caesar cipher , developed in ancient Rome . Because there are 26 letters ( 2 × 13 ) in the basic Latin alphabet , ROT13 is its own inverse ; that is , to undo ROT13 , the same algorithm is applied , so the same action can be used for encoding and decoding . The algorithm provides virtually no cryptographic security , and is often cited as a canonical example of weak encryption . ROT13 is used in online forums as a means of hiding spoilers , punchlines , puzzle solutions , and offensive materials from the casual glance . ROT13 has been described as the " Usenet equivalent of a magazine printing the answer to a quiz upside down " . ROT13 has inspired a variety of letter and word games on @-@ line , and is frequently mentioned in newsgroup conversations . = = Description = = Applying ROT13 to a piece of text merely requires examining its alphabetic characters and replacing each one by the letter 13 places further along in the alphabet , wrapping back to the beginning if necessary . A becomes N , B becomes O , and so on up to M , which becomes Z , then the sequence continues at the beginning of the alphabet : N becomes A , O becomes B , and so on to Z , which becomes M. Only those letters which occur in the English alphabet are affected ; numbers , symbols , whitespace , and all other characters are left unchanged . Because there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and 26 = 2 × 13 , the ROT13 function is its own inverse : <formula> for any basic Latin @-@ alphabet text x . In other words , two successive applications of ROT13 restore the original text ( in mathematics , this is sometimes called an involution ; in cryptography , a reciprocal cipher ) . The transformation can be done using a lookup table , such as the following : For example , in the following joke , the punchline has been obscured by ROT13 : Why did the chicken cross the road ? Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr ! Transforming the entire text via ROT13 form , the answer to the joke is revealed : Jul qvq gur puvpxra pebff gur ebnq ? To get to the other side ! A second application of ROT13 would restore the original . = = Usage = = ROT13 was in use in the net.jokes newsgroup by the early 1980s . It is used to hide potentially offensive jokes , or to obscure an answer to a puzzle or other spoiler . A shift of thirteen was chosen over other values , such as three as in the original Caesar cipher , because thirteen is the value for which encoding and decoding are equivalent , thereby allowing the convenience of a single command for both . ROT13 is typically supported as a built @-@ in feature to newsreading software . Email addresses are also sometimes encoded with ROT13 to hide them from less sophisticated spam bots . ROT13 is an example of the encryption algorithm known as a Caesar cipher , attributed to Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC . In encrypted , normal , English @-@ language text of any significant size , ROT13 is recognizable from some letter / word patterns . The words " n " , " V " ( capitalized only ) , and " gur " ( ROT13 for " a " , " I " , and " the " ) , and words ending in " yl " ( " ly " ) are examples . ROT13 is not intended to be used where secrecy is of any concern — the use of a constant shift means that the encryption effectively has no key , and decryption requires no more knowledge than the fact that ROT13 is in use . Even without this knowledge , the algorithm is easily broken through frequency analysis . Because of its utter unsuitability for real secrecy , ROT13 has become a catchphrase to refer to any conspicuously weak encryption scheme ; a critic might claim that " 56 @-@ bit DES is little better than ROT13 these days " . Also , in a play on real terms like " double DES " , the terms " double ROT13 " , " ROT26 " , or " 2ROT13 " crop up with humorous intent , including a spoof academic paper " On the 2ROT13 Encryption Algorithm " . As applying ROT13 to an already ROT13 @-@ encrypted text restores the original plaintext , ROT26 is equivalent to no encryption at all . By extension , triple @-@ ROT13 ( used in joking analogy with 3DES ) is equivalent to regular ROT13 . In December 1999 , it was found that Netscape Communicator used ROT13 as part of an insecure scheme to store email passwords . In 2001 , Russian programmer Dimitry Sklyarov demonstrated that an eBook vendor , New Paradigm Research Group ( NPRG ) , used ROT13 to encrypt their documents ; it has been speculated that NPRG may have mistaken the ROT13 toy example — provided with the Adobe eBook software development kit — for a serious encryption scheme . Windows XP uses ROT13 on some of its registry keys . ROT13 is also used in the Unix fortune program to encrypt potentially offensive dicta . = = Letter games and net culture = = ROT13 provides an opportunity for letter games . Some words will , when transformed with ROT13 , produce another word . Examples of 7 @-@ letter pairs in the English language are abjurer and nowhere , and Chechen and purpura . Other examples of words like these are shown in the table . The pair gnat and tang is an interesting example which are both ROT13 reciprocals and ( taken together ) a palindrome . The 1989 International Obfuscated C Code Contest ( IOCCC ) included an entry by Brian Westley . Westley 's computer program can be encoded in ROT13 or reversed and still compiles correctly . Its operation , when executed , is either to perform ROT13 encoding on , or to reverse its input . The newsgroup alt.folklore.urban coined a word — furrfu — that was the ROT13 encoding of the frequently encoded utterance " sheesh " . " Furrfu " evolved in mid @-@ 1992 as a response to postings repeating urban myths on alt.folklore.urban , after some posters complained that " Sheesh ! " as a response to newcomers was being overused . = = Variants = = ROT5 is a practice similar to ROT13 that applies to numeric digits ( 0 to 9 ) . ROT13 and ROT5 can be used together in the same message . ROT47 is a derivative of ROT13 which , in addition to scrambling the basic letters , also treats numbers and common symbols . Instead of using the sequence A – Z as the alphabet , ROT47 uses a larger set of characters from the common character encoding known as ASCII . Specifically , the 7 @-@ bit printable characters , excluding space , from decimal 33 ' ! ' through 126 ' ~ ' , 94 in total , taken in the order of the numerical values of their ASCII codes , are rotated by 47 positions , without special consideration of case . For example , the character A is mapped to p , while a is mapped to 2 . The use of a larger alphabet produces a more thorough obfuscation than that of ROT13 ; for example , a telephone number such as + 1 @-@ 415 @-@ 839 @-@ 6885 is not obvious at first sight from the scrambled result Z` \ c`d \ gbh \ eggd . On the other hand , because ROT47 introduces numbers and symbols into the mix without discrimination , it is more immediately obvious that the text has been enciphered . Example : The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog . enciphers to % 96 " F : 4 < qC @ H ? u @ I yF > AD ~ G6C % 96 { 2KJ s @ 8 ] The GNU C library , a set of standard routines available for use in computer programming , contains a function — memfrob ( ) — which has a similar purpose to ROT13 , although it is intended for use with arbitrary binary data . The function operates by combining each byte with the binary pattern 00101010 ( 42 ) using the exclusive or ( XOR ) operation . This effects a simple XOR cipher . Like ROT13 , XOR ( and therefore memfrob ( ) ) is self @-@ reciprocal , and provides a similar , virtually absent , level of security . = = Implementation = = The ROT13 and ROT47 are fairly easy to implement using the Unix terminal application tr ; to encrypt the string " The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog " in ROT13 : and the same string for ROT47 : In Emacs , one can ROT13 the buffer or a selection with the following commands : M @-@ x toggle @-@ rot13 @-@ mode M @-@ x rot13 @-@ other @-@ window M @-@ x rot13 @-@ region and in the Vim text editor , one can ROT13 a selection with the command : g ?
= Hurricane Rick ( 2009 ) = Hurricane Rick is the third @-@ most intense Pacific hurricane on record . Developing south of Mexico on October 15 , 2009 , Hurricane Rick traversed an area favoring rapid intensification , allowing it to become a hurricane within 24 hours of being declared a tropical depression . An eye began to form during the afternoon of October 16 ; once fully formed , the storm underwent another period of rapid strengthening . During the afternoon of October 17 , the storm attained Category 5 status on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Several hours later , Rick attained its peak intensity as the third @-@ strongest Pacific hurricane on record with winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 906 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 75 inHg ) . After maintaining this intensity for several hours , Rick began to weaken in response to a combination of an eyewall replacement cycle and increasing wind shear . By October 19 , the storm was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane and the following day to a tropical storm . The long @-@ anticipated northeast turn took place near the end of this phase , also accompanied by a brief decrease in forward motion . On October 21 , Rick quickly moved northeast , brushing the tip of Baja California Sur before making landfall near Mazatlán with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ; 52 kn ) . Several hours after moving inland , the final advisory from the NHC was issued as the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated . Prior to landfall , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initially forecast Rick to make landfall in southern Baja California as a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane , prompting hurricane watches . Officials ordered several hundred residents to evacuate from low @-@ lying areas , although tropical storm warnings replaced the hurricane watches after the storm had weakened . Overall , the damage from Rick was significantly less than initially anticipated . In Mexico , three people were killed by the storm , one in Oaxaca and two in Baja California Sur . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Rick originated from a strong tropical disturbance wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on October 3 , 2009 . Convective activity was initially sparse as the system tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean . By October 8 , an area of low pressure developed within the disturbance wave and convection increased . The low eventually moved over South America and dissipated on October 11 . The wave , however , remained well @-@ defined and continued westward , entering the Pacific Ocean on October 12 . By the morning of October 15 , the wave began to regain convection and eventually spawned a new area of low pressure roughly 475 mi ( 764 km ; 413 nmi ) south @-@ southwest of Puerto Ángel , Mexico . By the afternoon , the NHC reported that the system had become increasingly organized and was likely to develop into a tropical depression later that day . Around 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the NHC declared that the low had developed into a tropical depression , the 20th of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season . The storm featured well @-@ developed outflow in all directions . Environmental conditions consisting of low wind shear , high moisture content and above average sea surface temperatures in the path of the system were exceptionally favorable for rapid development . Additionally , the storm was being steered through this region by a low- to mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico . Six hours after being declared a depression , the system quickly intensified into a tropical storm , at which time it was given the name Rick . Deep convection , an early indication of an eye forming , had begun wrapping around the center of the system . Early on October 16 , a ragged eyewall began to develop and several hours later , Rick intensified into a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ; 65 kn ) . The rapid intensification was fueled by waters of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , several degrees above average . By the evening of October 16 , microwave satellite imagery depicted a well @-@ defined eye ; however , this feature was not present on infrared images . Despite this , the NHC upgraded Rick to a Category 2 hurricane with winds now reaching 100 mph ( 161 km / h ; 87 kn ) . Early the next morning , the storm intensified into a major hurricane , a storm that ranks as a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The eye was clearly visible on satellite images and deep , very cold convection surrounded it , signifying a powerful cyclone . Less than 40 minutes after this upgrade , the NHC issued a special advisory stating that Rick had further strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane . Continuing to gain strength , Rick attained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ; 126 kn ) several hours later on October 17 . A possible outer eyewall , a second eye larger than the first that often forms at the beginning of an eyewall replacement cycle , was noted at this time . The eye of the storm became very well @-@ defined and nearly cloud free , measuring roughly 11 @.@ 5 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 km ; 10 @.@ 0 nmi ) in diameter . In addition to the rapid intensification , Rick was also growing in size . By the afternoon hours , tropical storm @-@ force winds extended up to 155 mi ( 249 km ; 135 nmi ) from the center of the storm , with a maximum gale diameter of 300 mi ( 483 km ; 261 nmi ) . At 3 : 10 pm PDT ( 2210 UTC ) , the NHC issued its second special advisory for Rick , this time stating that the storm had become a Category 5 hurricane , the first in the basin since Hurricane Kenna in 2002 . Around 8 : 00 pm PDT ( 0300 UTC on October 18 ) , Rick attained its peak intensity as the third @-@ strongest Pacific hurricane on record . Maximum sustained winds in the eyewall reached 180 mph ( 290 km / h ; 156 kn ) and the barometric pressure is estimated to have bottomed out at 906 mbar ( 906 @.@ 00 hPa ; 26 @.@ 75 inHg ) . The pressure was not directly measured as reconnaissance missions by Hurricane Hunter aircraft were not done because the storm was too far from land . Lixion Avila , a senior hurricane specialist at the NHC , described Rick 's satellite presentation at this time as " spectacular . " Rick maintained its peak intensity for roughly two hours between 7 : 00 pm and 9 : 00 pm PDT ( 0200 and 0400 UTC ) on October 17 , before it began to weaken in response to an eyewall replacement cycle and increasing wind shear . By the afternoon of October 18 , the storm had weakened to a low @-@ end Category 5 hurricane , with maximum winds of 160 mph ( 257 km / h ; 139 kn ) . Deep convection around the eye warmed slightly and a combination of dry air and wind shear restrained the extent of the storms ' outflow to the west . Later that day , Rick began to turn towards the northwest as the subtropical ridge north of the system began to weaken . Early on October 19 , Rick was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane as it began its approach to the southern end of the Baja California peninsula . Wind shear and dry air quickly entered the core of the system , with the eye disappearing from satellite imagery later that morning . During the evening of October 19 , the center of Rick became devoid of convective activity , resulting in the NHC downgrading it to a tropical storm . According to meteorologists at the NHC , the weakening was " ... almost as fast as it strengthened several days ago . " The first Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance mission into the storm took place during the afternoon of October 20 . During the mission , sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ; 56 kn ) and a surface pressure of 990 mbar ( 990 @.@ 00 hPa ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) were recorded . Several hours after this , convection rapidly increased , with a large area of deep convection developing northeast of the center of circulation ; however , this was not associated with intensification . Around 7 : 00 am PDT ( 1400 UTC ) on October 21 . Tropical Storm Rick made landfall near Mazatlán with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Following landfall , the storm rapidly weakened to a tropical depression and roughly seven hours after moving inland , the surface circulation of Rick dissipated over the high terrain of Mexico . = = Preparations = = Officials in Oaxaca shut down beaches and warned people not to venture out into the water . Residents were advised of potentially heavy rainfall . Along coastal areas of Mexico , specifically around Acapulco , officials closed ports to small crafts due to rough seas . Residents around the city were also warned about the possibility of mudslides from heavy rain associated with the cyclone 's outer bands . Upon Rick 's intensification to a Category 4 hurricane , officials in Mexico raised the alert level in Guerrero , Jalisco and Michoacán to severe . In Sonora , the local government placed 14 municipalities under a blue alert , the pre @-@ storm phase ; the alert was upgraded to a yellow alert for the municipalities of Álamos , Benito Juárez , Navojoa , Etchojoa and Huatabampo on October 18 . Early on October 19 , the Government of Mexico issued a hurricane watch for areas of Baja California Sur between Santa Fe and San Evaristo . Following the issuance of the watch , authorities in the region began planning to open shelters and begin evacuating residents from low @-@ lying areas . Later that day , the watch was replaced by a tropical storm warning as Rick weakened to a tropical storm . By October 20 , a new tropical storm watch was issued for mainland Mexico for areas between El Roblito and Altata . Shortly after , officials had opened nine shelters in the region ; however , schools remained open until further notice . Later in the day , the tropical storm warning for Baja California was discontinued while the watch for mainland Mexico was upgraded to a warning . This warning was later discontinued on October 21 as Rick dissipated over the mountains of Mexico . Several cruises were affected by the storm throughout southern Baja California . The Carnival Splendor made a sudden docking as the storm formed and delayed its arrival in Cabo San Lucas by several days . The Carnival Spirit , scheduled to dock in Acapulco on October 21 , delayed its arrival until October 22 . The Sapphire Princess rescheduled its course , remaining near San Francisco , California , for several additional days instead of traveling south . The Norwegian Star skipped its planned docking in Cabo San Lucas and remained at sea until the passage of Rick . Other cruises affected by the storm include Radiance of the Seas , Mariner of the Seas , MS Veendam and MS Statendam . = = Impact and aftermath = = = = = Mexico = = = Schools throughout southern Sinaloa were closed for two days beginning on October 21 due to the arrival of Tropical Storm Rick . Residents in low @-@ lying areas were urged to evacuate due to both storm surge and fresh water flooding from the anticipated 3 to 6 in ( 76 to 152 mm ) of rain . Although several hundred miles from land , wind gusts up to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) were felt along coastal areas in Mazatlán . Near the coast of Oaxaca , large seas capsized a boat carrying three people . Two of the passengers were rescued ; however , the third was found dead . Large swells killed one person along the southern end of Baja California Sur on October 19 . Another fatality took place in the same region after a boy was swept away from an eroded beach . Roughly 320 people near Cabo San Lucas were evacuated due to the threat of flooding . Reports near the city also indicated that there was structural damage and significant traffic issues from rain @-@ induced mudslides . In Mazatlán , near where Rick made landfall , high winds downed trees and signs , leaving numerous residents without power . Heavy rain was also reported during the passage of the storm . Throughout Mexico , damage from Rick amounted to 192 million pesos ( $ 14 @.@ 6 million USD ) . On December 29 , the Government of Mexico allocated 381 million pesos ( $ 29 @.@ 6 million USD ) to assist in recovery from both Hurricanes Jimena and Rick . = = = United States = = = Although no longer a tropical cyclone , remnant moisture from Rick enhanced a strong cold front over the Great Plains of the United States . Severe thunderstorms occurred over parts of the southern states , with at least three tornadoes touching down in Louisiana . Further north , the complex brought heavy rainfall to the northeast and parts of southern Canada . In Louisiana , the storm system spawned seven tornadoes , two of which were ranked as EF @-@ 1 . One of these tornadoes damaged more than 10 structures , destroyed a grain silo , flipped a tractor trailer and left numerous residents without power . In all , the tornadoes left nearly $ 1 million in losses and injured one person . In Texas , the remnants of Rick produced torrential rainfall , peaking at 9 @.@ 34 in ( 237 mm ) within a concentrated area . Meteorologists did not anticipate the severity of the precipitation in this area . One person was killed after being swept away in her Jeep on a flooded roadway . Several homes were also flooded during the event and an estimated 300 homes were left without power . Following the floods , numerous roads were closed and some schools had delayed openings . Throughout the state , flood damage amounted to $ 690 @,@ 000 , with most of this being in Travis County . Heavy rainfall in Louisiana contributed to widespread flooding that resulted in the closure of several major highways . In Union Parish , rainfall exceeding 6 in ( 150 mm ) led to flash flooding that inundated several homes and a local school , inflicting over $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage . = = Records and intensity forecasts = = On October 17 , Hurricane Rick was classified a Category 5 hurricane , becoming the first in the eastern Pacific basin since Hurricane Kenna in 2002 and the first east of the International Date Line since Hurricane Ioke in 2006 . The storm also became the thirteenth cyclone of this intensity east of the International Date Line since official records in the Eastern Pacific began in 1949 . Shortly after being upgraded to Category 5 , Rick attained its peak intensity with winds of 180 mph ( 290 km / h ; 156 kn ) and a barometric pressure of 906 mbar ( 906 @.@ 00 hPa ; 26 @.@ 75 inHg ) , making it the second @-@ strongest hurricane ever recorded in the East Pacific , surpassing Kenna . Only Hurricane Linda of 1997 was stronger than Rick , with minimum pressure of 902 mbar ( 902 hPa ; 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Hurricane Patricia in 2015 later far surpassed both Rick and Linda , attaining a pressure of 872 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 75 inHg ) . It also became the second storm in the basin to have sustained winds of 180 mph ( 290 km / h ; 156 kn ) or higher , the first being Linda with 185 mph ( 298 km / h ; 161 kn ) winds . Patricia surpassed both with 215 mph ( 346 km / h ; 187 kn ) winds . Upon being declared a tropical depression on October 15 , computer forecasting models already anticipated the likelihood of rapid intensification due to the unusually favorable environmental conditions ahead of the system . The Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting model ( HWRF ) showed the storm attaining a minimum pressure below 900 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 58 inHg ) , an intensity not attained by any Eastern Pacific hurricane on record at the time . The Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme ( SHIPS ) rapid intensification index , a storm 's probability of intensifying by 35 mph ( 56 km / h ; 30 kn ) or more within 24 hours , was set at 60 % . This percentage quickly increased to 82 % several hours later , 11 times higher than the sample mean . The official forecast from the NHC by their second advisory stated that Rick would become a Category 4 hurricane by October 19 ; however , they mentioned that due to the favorable environment , the storm could intensify faster than forecast . Once Rick had become a Category 2 storm on October 16 , the NHC increased their forecast peak intensity to 145 mph ( 233 km / h ; 126 kn ) , a mid @-@ range Category 4 hurricane . The first mention of Rick possibly becoming a Category 5 hurricane was in the seventh discussion released by the NHC on October 17 . In their advisory , it was noted that the storm had a 10 % chance of reaching this intensity within 36 hours . Several hours after this advisory was released , a special update advisory was issued . This new advisory placed the peak intensity of Rick just below Category 5 status , with maximum winds of 155 mph ( 249 km / h ; 135 kn ) . It was not until the late morning hours of October 17 that the NHC officially anticipated the storm to attain Category 5 status . Upon attaining winds of 180 mph ( 290 km / h ; 156 kn ) , Rick was forecast to peak with winds of 185 mph ( 298 km / h ; 161 kn ) , which would have tied the record intensity set by Hurricane Linda .
= Tithonus poem = The Tithonus poem , also known as the old age poem or ( with fragments of another poem by Sappho discovered at the same time ) the New Sappho , is a poem by the archaic Greek poet Sappho . It is part of fragment 58 in Eva @-@ Maria Voigt 's edition of Sappho . The poem is from Book IV of the Alexandrian edition of Sappho 's poetry . It has been partially known since 1922 , but in 2004 more papyrus fragments were published , drawing international media attention , which almost completed the poem . The poem is one of very few substantially complete poems by Sappho , and deals with the effects of ageing . There is scholarly debate about where the poem ends , as four lines previously thought to have been part of the poem are not found on the 2004 papyrus . = = Preservation = = = = = Oxyrhynchus papyrus = = = Part of the Tithonus poem was originally published in 1922 on a fragment of papyrus from Oxyrhynchus . This fragment preserved part of 27 lines of Sappho 's poetry , including the Tithonus poem . The papyrus appears to be part of a copy of Book IV of the Alexandrian edition of Sappho 's poetry , as all of the poems appear to be in the same metre . From the handwriting , the papyrus can be dated to the second century AD . Today the papyrus is part of the collection of the Sackler Library in Oxford University . = = = Cologne papyrus = = = In 2004 , Martin Gronewald and Robert Daniel published three fragments of papyrus from the Cologne Papyrus Collection , which taken with the existing fragment from Oxyrhynchus provided the almost complete text to five stanzas of the poem . The Cologne papyrus , preserved on cartonnage , is from the early third century BC , making it the oldest known papyrus containing a poem by Sappho . The papyrus is part of an anthology of poetry , with poems on similar themes grouped together . Along with the Tithonus poem , two others are preserved on the papyrus published by Gronewald and Daniel : one in the same metre , one written in a different hand and in a different metre . The metre of this last poem has characteristics which do not appear in any known metre used by the Lesbian poets . It also contains word forms which appear not to be in the Aeolic dialect used by Sappho , and refers to the myth of Orpheus in a form not known to have existed in Sappho 's time . For these reasons , the poem cannot be by Sappho . = = Poem = = The Tithonus poem is twelve lines long , and is in a metre called " acephalous Hipponacteans with internal double @-@ choriambic expansion " . It is the fourth poem by Sappho to be sufficiently complete to treat as an entire work , along with the Ode to Aphrodite , fragment 16 , and fragment 31 : a fifth , the Brothers Poem , was discovered in 2014 . The poem is written as an exhortation to a group of young women , putting forward the singer as an example to emulate . It discusses the singer 's old age , and tells the audience that while they too will grow old and lose their beauty , their musical abilities will be retained . It is one of a number of Sappho 's poems which discuss old age . The poem 's common name comes from the Greek myth of Tithonus , which is mentioned in lines 9 to 12 of the poem . The story of Tithonus was popular in archaic Greek poetry , though the reference to him in this poem seems out of place , according to Rawles . Martin Litchfield West considers that these lines seem like a weak ending to the poem , though Tithonus functions as a parallel to Sappho in her old age . = = = Metre = = = The metre of the Tithonus poem was already known , before the discovery of the Cologne papyrus , from four quotations of Sappho . Two of these are preserved in the Enchiridion of Hephaestion ; he describes the metre as aiolikon and says that Sappho used it frequently . The metre is of the form " × ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ ¯ " , which is part of the larger class of aeolic metres . The poems in this metre by Sappho are conventionally thought to have been from the fourth book of the Alexandrian edition , though no direct evidence either confirms or denies this . = = = Continuation after line 12 = = = Before the Cologne papyri were published in 2004 , lines 11 to 26 of Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1787 were considered to be a single poem , fragment 58 in the Lobel @-@ Page ( and subsequently Voigt ) numbering systems . The poem on the Cologne papyrus , however , only contains 12 lines . These begin with line 11 of P.Oxy 1787 , confirming the long @-@ standing suggestion that the poem began there . The Cologne version of the poem is thus missing what were long believed to be the final four lines of the poem . Scholars disagree about how this should be interpreted . André Lardinois lists possible explanations which have been put forward : firstly that the Cologne papyrus did not contain the full poem , but only the first twelve lines ; secondly that the poem does end after line twelve and the final lines on the Oxyrhynchus papyrus were part of another poem ; and thirdly that there were two different endings for the poem , one at line twelve and one continuing on to line sixteen . West argues that the four lines missing from the Cologne papyrus were part of a separate poem , though Lardinois comments that there is no evidence in the Oxyrhynchus papyrus to confirm or deny this . However , other scholars , including Gronewald and Daniel , who originally published the Cologne fragments , believe that the poem did continue for these four lines . Lardinois suggests that there may have been two versions of the poem current in antiquity , one ending after the twelfth line , the other continuing to line 16 . Gregory Nagy agrees , arguing that the two versions were appropriate for different performance contexts . If the four contested lines were part of the Tithonus poem , the poem 's tone would have changed significantly . The sixteen @-@ line version of the poem has a much more optimistic ending than the twelve @-@ line version , expressing hope for an afterlife . = = Reception = = The publication of the Cologne papyri in 2004 , making the Tithonus poem almost complete , drew international attention from both scholars and the popular press . The discovery was covered in newspapers in the US and the UK , as well as online . The Daily Telegraph described the discovery as " the rarest of gifts " , while Marylin Skinner said that the discovery was the find of a lifetime for classicists . Since the discovery , there has been a significant amount of scholarship on the poem . At the 138th annual meeting of the American Philological Association , two separate panels discussed the poems , and papers based on these panels were later published as The New Sappho on Old Age , edited by Marylin Skinner and Ellen Greene . At least two other collections of essays on the Cologne papyri have been published .
= Battle of the Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf = The Battle of the Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf was an engagement fought off the Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf near the Cotentin peninsula on the Normandy coast of France in May 1798 during the French Revolutionary Wars . In 1795 a British garrison was placed on the islands , which operated as a resupply base for Royal Navy ships cruising off the coast of Northern France . Seeking to eliminate the British presence on the islands and simultaneously test the equipment and tactics then being developed in France for a projected invasion of Britain , the French launched a massed amphibious assault on the southern island using over 50 landing ships and thousands of troops on 7 May 1798 . Although significant Royal Navy forces were in the area , a combination of wind and tide prevented them from intervening and the island 's 500 @-@ strong garrison was left to resist the attack alone . Despite the overwhelming French majority in numbers , the attack was a disaster : nearly 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers were killed as the boats were caught in open water under the island 's gun batteries : several were sunk with all hands . Heavy fire from batteries and Royal Marines prevented a single French soldier from landing and the retreating fleet was subject to heavy fire from the smaller island to the north , inflicting further losses . British casualties were negligible . Although this operation indicated the probable result of a full @-@ scale invasion of Britain , the threat remained and British forces began a close blockade of the surviving landing craft that were anchored in the Cotentin ports . A month after the battle this strategy resulted in a secondary success when a French frigate and corvette passing along the coast were intercepted and defeated by the blockade squadron . = = Background = = Throughout the French Revolutionary Wars , British warships patrolled the French coast , intercepting and destroying French maritime traffic and blockading French ports . In 1795 Captain Sir Sidney Smith , a prominent Royal Navy officer , recognised that if resupply points could be established on islands off the French coast then cruising warships could extend their time at sea . To this purpose , Smith seized the uninhabited Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf , which lie 3 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) off Ravenoville on the Cotentin peninsula in Normandy . Smith constructed barracks and gun batteries and manned the islands with 500 sailors and Royal Marines , including a large proportion of men unfit for ship @-@ board service , described as " invalids " . The Glengarry Fencibles offered to provide a garrison , but after the French captured Smith this fell through . The Royal Navy regularly supplied the islandswith food from Britain , and visiting vessels brought bags of earth that allowed the development of a vegetable garden . Smith supported the islands with several gunvessels , including the converted hoys Badger , Hawke , and Shark , the fireship Nancy , and the Musquito @-@ class floating battery Sandfly , which he had had purpose @-@ built for the defence of the islands . Lieutenant Charles Papps Price , captain of Badger and an unpopular officer who had repeatedly been passed over for promotion , commanded the British occupation ; Price spent most of his time on the islands with a prostitute he had brought from Portsmouth . Since the 1796 French victory in Italy over the Austrians , pressure had been growing in France for direct action against Britain . Command of an army deployed in Northern France and named the Armée d 'Angleterre was initially given to General Napoleon Bonaparte , but later passed to General Kilmaine . Bonaparte , and then Kilmaine , prepared for an invasion of Britain and Captain Muskein , a naval administrator from Antwerp , was instructed to develop a suitable fleet of landing craft to convoy the troops across the English Channel . The French Directory commissioned a Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman to design the invasion barges and by 1797 ships of his design were under construction along the Northern French coast under Muskein 's supervision : the boats were known to the French soldiers as " bateaux à la Muskein " ( Muskein @-@ type boats ) . In April 1798 , Muskein was ordered to prepare a squadron of his barges for an attack on the Saint Marcouf Islands . The operation was intended simultaneously to eradicate the British garrison and restore French control of the raiding base , test the effectiveness of the barges in a military amphibious operation , and focus British naval attention on the English Channel and away from Bonaparte 's preparations at Toulon for the invasion of Egypt . On 7 April 1978 , Muskein sailed from Le Havre with 33 barges under the command of General Point , but on 8 April he found his passage blocked by the British frigates HMS Diamond under Captain Sir Richard Strachan and HMS Hydra under Captain Sir Francis Laforey . At 16 : 00 the frigates cornered the barges in the mouth of the River Orne and opened fire , but Diamond grounded soon afterwards and although the frigate was brought off after darkness , neither side was able to inflict serious damage . On 9 April the French flotilla was able to leave the Orne River and anchor in the harbour of Bernières @-@ sur @-@ Mer , but the arrival of the fourth rate HMS Adamant under Captain William Hotham persuaded Muskein to return to the more sheltered anchorage at the mouth of the Orne . As he returned eastward , he again came under fire from Diamond and Hydra . The French flotilla then sheltered under the batteries at Sallenelles until the damage was repaired . Over the next two weeks , however , the situation changed – Rear @-@ Admiral Jean Lacrosse at Cherbourg had been informed of Muskein 's difficulties and sent reinforcements of 40 barges and armed fishing ships to Sallenelles . Late in April , Muskein had an opportunity to escape without interception by the British force offshore and sailed as far as Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue , to the west of the islands . There he waited for the right combination of wind and tide to allow the attack to go ahead uninterrupted by the British squadron that had followed his flotilla westwards . = = Battle = = On 6 May the conditions for Muskein 's attack were perfect : the calm winds prevented the British warships intercepting his flotilla , and the weak tides prevented disruption to his craft by heavy waves . The British also were aware of the conditions necessary for the attack , and made swift preparations to arm the batteries and line the shore with Royal Marines . A small boat from the islands watched as Muskein 's force rowed out of Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue and steadily approached the islands during the evening . The sixth rate HMS Eurydice under Captain John Talbot and the brig HMS Orestes under Commander William Haggitt , had joined Adamant , which was stranded 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) away from the islands by the calm . Despite strenuous efforts , the three vessels would not be able to reach the islands in time to take part in the action . At midnight , the island 's boat signaled the approach of the French and Lieutenant Price readied the defences . Muskein 's force mustered 52 vessels , including a number of brigs that mounted several large cannon and were intended to provide covering fire for the landing barges . The main body of the attacking troops numbered between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 French soldiers drawn largely from coastal defence units based around Boulogne . Unwilling to risk a night attack , Muskein waited until dawn , using the remaining cover of night to draw his craft in formation facing the western defences of the southern island . The gunbrigs lay 300 yards ( 270 m ) offshore , behind the landing barges whose approach they would cover during the attack . As dawn broke , Muskein ordered the advance and the gunbrigs and smaller cannon in the barges opened fire on the British defences . The West Island 's batteries , under Lieutenant Price , consisted of 17 cannon : four 4 , two 6 , and six 24 @-@ pounder long guns , and three 24 , and two 32 @-@ pounder carronades . Although eight of the guns were relatively light , the batteries inflicted devastating damage on the light invasion craft . Despite severe casualties the French barges continued their approach until they were within musket range , 50 yards ( 46 m ) . The garrison of Royal Marines opened fire and the artillery crews switched to canister shot . Six or seven boats sank with their entire crews and troops , and others were heavily damaged . Losses were so high that the French called off the attack ; even so , the return journey carried the barges past East Island , which was under the command of Lieutenant Richard Bourne of Sandfly and mounted a battery of two 68 pounder carronades , massive guns that inflicted additional severe losses . Although Hotham 's squadron made desperate efforts to reach the battle , the wind was too light and they were only able to chase the remaining ships back into Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue . = = Aftermath = = The battle was a disaster for the French . According to unofficial accounts , they lost approximately 900 men killed or drowned and at least 300 wounded , in addition to the loss of a number of the newly constructed landing craft . In France the newly appointed Minister of Marine Étienne Eustache Bruix ordered a second attempt on the islands soon afterwards but the orders were immediately countermanded by the French Directory , which did not want the embarrassment of a second disastrous attack . Instead , Lacrosse gave orders for most of the surviving ships to be sent to Cherbourg , detachments later reaching Saint Malo and Granville . Muskein was ordered to return to Le Havre with the remainder . In Britain the successful defence of the islands was highly praised and Price was promoted as a reward , although Bourne was not , despite a recommendation in the official report . British losses included a single marine killed and four other personnel wounded . The victory was seen in Britain as a foreshadowing of the likely fate of an attempted invasion and helped ease British fears about the threat of a French amphibious attack . Nearly five decades later the Admiralty issued the Naval General Service Medal with clasp " Isles St. Marcou " upon application to all British participants then still living . The British strengthened the islands ' defences , in case of further attacks , and a number of warships patrolled the area to observe French movements and intercept any flotillas of invasion craft . At the Action of 30 May 1798 , this strategy achieved an unexpected success when HMS Hydra intercepted the French frigate Confiante and a corvette off the mouth of the River Dives . The British drove Confiante ashore and boarding parties later burnt her . The islands remained under British occupation without any further French attacks until 1802 . The Peace of Amiens returned the islands to French control ; throughout the Napoleonic Wars of 1803 – 1815 they remained French , protected by a significant garrison .
= California State Route 174 = State Route 174 ( SR 174 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . The two @-@ lane 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) highway , added to the state highway system in 1933 , connects Interstate 80 in Colfax with SR 20 / SR 49 in Grass Valley , crossing the Bear River next to a 1924 concrete arch bridge . The majority of the highway is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System , but local residents have blocked its designation due to property rights concerns . = = Route description = = State Route 174 begins at exit 135 of I @-@ 80 in Colfax . Immediately after crossing I @-@ 80 , the route turns right on Auburn Street and right again on Central Street , which bypasses downtown ; a business route follows Auburn Street , Grass Valley Street , and Main Street through downtown . SR 174 follows the old Lincoln Highway ( US 40 ) north out of downtown to Rollins Lake Road , where the present state highway turns northwest along the Colfax Highway . It then crosses the Bear River from Placer County into Nevada County on a 1987 bridge , with the old 1924 bridge preserved for non @-@ motorized traffic . The land flattens out as SR 174 curves north and west through the Empire Mine State Historic Park into Grass Valley . Turning west on Colfax Avenue , the state highway passes under the SR 20 / SR 49 freeway before ending just beyond at Auburn Street , the former surface routing of SR 49 . = = History = = The Capital Construction Company began improving the county road between Colfax ( on Route 37 , signed as US 40 ) and Grass Valley ( on Route 17 ) under contract on September 29 , 1931 , and completed the work by mid @-@ September 1932 . The state legislature placed it on the state highway system in 1933 as an extension of the existing Nevada City @-@ Downieville Route 25 . In the 1964 renumbering , the highway received a signed designation , State Route 174 . Local residents created the Colfax Highway Association in 1967 at the Peardale firehouse , about halfway between the two ends , in order to preserve the rural nature of the road . When the 21 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 5 m ) wide 1924 concrete arch bridge that took SR 174 across the Bear River on the county line was set for replacement in the late 1980s , the group successfully lobbied to preserve it for non @-@ motorized traffic . The association also pushed for Nevada County 's Gold Country Stage bus service to add a route along the highway to Colfax , which was agreed to in late 1998 and still runs as Route 12 , connecting downtown Grass Valley with Colfax 's Amtrak station . After a request by Nevada County in 1988 , the state legislature designated the part of SR 174 in unincorporated Nevada County ( between the county line and the Grass Valley city limits ) as eligible for the State Scenic Highway System in 1991 . In 1999 , the Colfax Highway Association attempted to get the route officially declared a State Scenic Highway . They argued that the designation would " protect the scenic character and rural flavor of the highway " . A newly formed group , Concerned Citizens for 174 , opposed the designation because it would restrict the property rights of residents along the highway , for instance requiring them to use " natural colors " . The opposition was successful , and SR 174 remains eligible for State Scenic Highway status but is not a State Scenic Highway . = = Major intersections = = Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Sejm of the Estates = The Sejm of the Estates ( Polish : sejm stanowy ) or Estates of Galicia ( Polish : stany galicyjskie ) were the parliament in the first half of the 19th century Galicia region in Austrian Empire . The body existed from 1775 to 1845 . In the history of the Polish parliament , it succeeded the general sejm and local sejmik on the territories of the Austrian partition . The Estates were disbanded following the Kraków Uprising of 1846 . In 1861 they were succeeded by the Sejm of the Land ( Polish : sejm krajowy ) . The estates in question were primarily clergy and nobility , with a token townsfolk representation . Peasantry was not represented . = = History = = = = = Postulate Sejm = = = Parts of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Lesser Poland territories were included in the Austrian partition as early as the First Partition of Poland in 1772 . In order to reduce dissent , the Austrian Empire in 1775 allowed the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) of the newly acquired territories to continue their tradition of holding local parliament @-@ like meetings , and gave the permission for an advisory body , the Postulate Sejm ( Polish : sejm postulatowy ) , to be held every year . The implementation of the Postulate Sejm was delayed , and eventually it held only four sessions , all in Lviv ( Lwów ) : in 1782 , 1784 , 1786 and 1788 . The body had no real power ; it could only write petitions to the monarch , who had no obligation to act on them . Polish legal scholar Stanisław Grodziski noted that while the Sejm , on the surface , continued the Polish parliamentary tradition , the real goal of the powerless body , as intended by the Austrian court , was to drive a wedge between the various groups of Polish nobility , reducing their unity and influence . The Postulate Sejm was composed of wealthy nobility and two deputies from the city of Lviv . The sessions lasted a few days each . The 1788 session was the last one ; parts of the Austrian @-@ held Commonwealth territories were briefly included in the Duchy of Warsaw following the Polish – Austrian War in 1806 , and the populace represented at the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw , but this was short lived , as the territories in question were restored to Austria following the Duchy 's occupation and the terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1815 . = = = Estates of Galicia = = = Soon afterward , in 1817 , Francis I of Austria called for a new sejm , now named the Estates of Galicia ( Polish : Stany Galicyjskie ) , which met again in Lviv . Most scholars , like Jacek Jędruch , see this body as a continuation of the Postulate Sejm , and discuss both of them together . The Austrian Emperor decreed that the members have to wear a special uniform ; this made it the only Polish parliament @-@ like body in the history of Polish politics with a dress code requirement . Excepting the establishment of the Ossolineum as a center for Polish cultural study , the Sejm reflected the conservative attitudes of the body 's unelected members from the nobility and the landed gentry . From the late 1830s an influx of new members , such as Leon Sapieha , Władysław Badeni and Agenor Gołuchowski made the body more progressive and representative . In the 1840s the Sejm saw much debate on the subject of the abolition of serfdom . The Estates last met in 1845 , when they voted , 116 to 10 , on the proposal to abolish serfdom ; however they lacked the power to implement it and had to wait for the Emperor 's decision . The Estates were disbanded following the Kraków Uprising of 1846 , a mostly peasant rebellion aimed , ironically , at many of the nobles who were supportive of the abolition of serfdom . In 1848 , during the Spring of Nations unrest , when the Emperor tried to convene the Estates , the members refused , demanding a more representative composition , and increased powers ; the Emperor turned down their demand . In 1861 thee Estates were succeeded by the Country Sejm ( Polish : sejm krajowy ) . = = Composition and organization = = The number of the members was not fixed ; it varied from over 200 ( with 289 in 1782 and 213 in 1817 ) to as low as 41 ( in 1834 ) ; in most years the Sejm had averaged 60 to 80 deputies . They were composed of clergy , nobility ( either titled or above a certain , relatively high , income level ) , two deputies from the city of Lviv representing the burghers and later , chancellor of the University of Lwów . The members were not elective , holding the mandates due to their offices , titles or wealth . This made the Sejm not representative , and rather conservative . The Estates met for a few days each year , with some exceptions : they were not convened in the years 1831 and 1832 ( time of the November Uprising in the neighboring Polish statelet , the Congress Kingdom ) . The Estates had no dedicated location to meet . To evade Emperor 's limitation on the proceedings duration and topics to be discussed , the members met before each session at various locations . While in session , they met at the former monastery buildings , owned by the University of Lwów . = = Competences = = Just like the preceding Postulate Sejm , the Estates had very limited competences : they met to hear the Emperor decrees , distribute tax assessments , grant Galician titles of nobility to individuals who already held similar titles elsewhere in the Austrian Empire , prepare petitions and appeals to be heard by the Emperor . Polish 19th @-@ century historian , Henryk Schmitt , wrote that the role of the Estates was to listen to the government decisions , and file petitions , which often waited for the royal reply for several years ; he thus notes that the Estates were powerless , a " comedy " , their only purpose being to fulfill the Congress of Vienna requirement of having some form of " national representation " on the lands of the Austrian partition .
= Santa María de Óvila = Santa María de Óvila is a former Cistercian monastery built in Spain beginning in 1181 on the Tagus River near Trillo , Guadalajara , about 90 miles ( 140 km ) northeast of Madrid . During prosperous times over the next four centuries , construction projects expanded and improved the small monastery . Its fortunes declined significantly in the 18th century , and in 1835 it was confiscated by the Spanish government and sold to private owners who used its buildings to shelter farm animals . American publisher William Randolph Hearst bought parts of the monastery in 1931 with the intention of using its stones in the construction of a grand and fanciful castle at Wyntoon , California , but after some 10 @,@ 000 stones were removed and shipped , they were abandoned in San Francisco for decades . These stones are now in various locations around California : the old church portal has been reassembled at the University of San Francisco , and the chapter house is being reassembled by Trappist monks at the Abbey of New Clairvaux in Vina , California . Other stones are serving as simple decorative elements in Golden Gate Park 's botanical garden . To support the chapter house project , a line of Belgian @-@ style beers is being produced by Sierra Nevada Brewing Company under the Ovila Abbey brand . In Spain , the new government of the Second Republic declared the monastery a National Monument in June 1931 , but not in time to prevent the mass removal of stones . Today , the remnant buildings and walls stand on private farmland . = = History = = = = = Foundation = = = The monastery of Santa María de Óvila was founded in 1175 by a grant of land from King Alfonso VIII of Castile to the Cistercian monks of Valbuena Abbey in Valbuena de Duero , Valladolid Province , Castile @-@ Leon , Spain . In this endeavor , the king was following a general strategy of establishing Catholic institutions on land he had recently won in battle from the Moors of Iberia . The Cistercian " white monks " ( wearing undyed habits ) first chose a site in Murel ( now called Carrascosa de Tajo ) on the Tagus , but after a few years , had to relocate to more fertile zone a few miles nearer to Trillo , Guadalajara , where a flat hilltop by the river commanded a modest view . The construction began in 1181 . The monastic quarters and the church were built over the following three decades . The central cloister was bordered on the north by the church , on the west by a barrel @-@ vaulted great nave , on the east by the sacristy , the priory cell , and the chapter house , and on the south by the kitchen , the pantry and the refectory ( dining hall ) . Some of the buildings were given seven @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 2 m ) walls with slit windows , to serve as a refuge in case the Moors returned to the area . The church was built in the shape of a Latin cross with a nave divided into four sections , and a sanctuary with three square apses . Its presbytery had a central square topped by a pentagon . In 1191 , the king confirmed the monastery and its surrounding fields as belonging to the Cistercian Order . The aged abbot of Santa María de Huerta , bishop Martín de Finojosa ( later canonized ) , consecrated the church in September 1213 and died days later . The surrounding area of Murel and Trillo along the Tagus prospered , giving tithes and gifts of land to the monastery . The cartulary , Cartulario de Óvila is preserved at the University of Madrid . The first buildings were completed in the Gothic style , including the church . The refectory ( dining hall ) shows an architectural style in transition between earlier Romanesque and contemporary Gothic . A fine High Gothic chapter house was built of best quality hard limestone . The church was rebuilt sometime before 1650 in a late Gothic style with a prominent vaulted ceiling . The cloister was rebuilt around 1617 , and is of a simple design with little adornment surrounding a High Renaissance arcade . The final phase of building took place around 1650 , with a new doorway for the church , completed in late Renaissance and Plateresque style full of detail . Because of its prosperity and the repeated expansion projects , Santa María de Óvila exhibited examples of every Spanish religious architectural style used from 1200 to 1600 . However , even at its height , Óvila remained one of the smallest Cistercian monasteries in the region of Castile . = = = Decline = = = From the 15th century , changes to the areas surrounding Santa María de Óvila initiated a slow decline . Civil wars depopulated the villages of the upper Tagus valley . The monastery 's land holdings passed one by one into the hands of the new regional aristocracy : first the Count of Cifuentes , followed by Rui Gomes da Silva , Duke of Pastrana , and the Spanish Army . Neighbors looted more lands . A fire destroyed part of the monastery during the War of the Spanish Succession . During the Peninsular War , French troops looted the buildings and used them as barracks . The monks were forced to leave in 1820 because of confiscations by a new liberal government , but they returned in 1823 after King Ferdinand VII restored conservative institutions . However , the nearby villagers denied support to the monastery despite its protection by the king . The monastery ceased to operate in 1835 : the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal enforced a law declaring that minor religious holdings housing fewer than 12 residents were to be forfeit to the state ; the monastery had only four monks and one lay brother , who were cast out . = = = Vacancy = = = After the Confiscations , many of the furnishings and artistic treasures of Santa María de Óvila passed to the surrounding parish churches , especially Ruguilla , Huet , Sotoca de Tajo and Carrascosa de Tajo . Other valuables , such as books and historic documents , were stolen and sold . The remaining contents were auctioned , including wine @-@ making equipment and an oxcart . The precious 328 @-@ pages cartulary of the monastery ( Spanish : libro tumbo de Santa María de Óvila ) went to a private owner but was donated in 1925 to the Monastery of Santa María la Real of Oseira . The thick manuscript that hold copies of royal privileges granted to the monastery throughout its history and the Abadologio , a comprehensive and thorough history of the Cistercian abbots and monks who lived in the monastery , was written from March 1729 to February 1730 by Father Gerofeo , a Cistercian monk of the monastery of Valparaíso ( Zámora ) . The new owners of Santa María de Óvila were well @-@ to @-@ do farmers who cared little for the buildings . For a brief time , the former monastery was used as a hostel , but mainly , the buildings were subjected to hard agricultural use as barns sheltering livestock . The chapter house served as a manure pit . Other buildings were used as storage . In the early 20th century small trees were seen to be growing in the dirt packed atop the monastery roofs — the protective roof tiles had long since been taken down and sold . = = = Removal to California = = = In 1928 , the Spanish state sold the monastery to Fernando Beloso for a little more than 3 @,@ 100 pesetas , roughly $ 600 to $ 700 at the time . Beloso , director of the Spanish Credit Bank in Madrid , was the owner of Coto de San Bernardo in Óvila , which included expansive irrigated grain fields and forests surrounding the monastery . Arthur Byne , an art agent living in Madrid , whose biggest client was American newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst , was working for Hearst to acquire an old monastery in 1930 . In 1925 , Byne had bought Hearst the monastery of Santa María la Real de Sacramenia which was dismantled , crated and shipped to New York where it was stored in a warehouse in the Bronx . ( In 1954 it was re @-@ assembled in Florida as a tourist attraction , and was subsequently acquired by the Episcopal Diocese of South Florida and called the St. Bernard de Clairvaux Church . ) Byne signaled Beloso to help him locate one ; Beloso invited him to see the old Óvila monastery in December 1930 , and Byne subsequently sent photographs and sketches to Hearst for approval . Byne listed specific elements , mostly architectural details , to be removed , such as vault ribs , door frames , window embrasures , columns and capitals . Some entire walls of fine facing stones were recommended for removal . He referred to the proposal as " Mountolive " , possibly to misdirect the Spanish authorities who were in charge of protecting historical artifacts . After Hearst conveyed his enthusiasm for the project , Beloso sold Byne the stones for $ 85 @,@ 000 , including the cloister , the chapter house , the refectory and the dormitory for novices . With Byne 's commission , Hearst was to pay $ 97 @,@ 000 , a price roughly equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 34 million as of 2016 . Byne started immediately on the project , organizing men and materials , and beginning the removal of stones . Hearst 's main architect Julia Morgan sent her associate architect Walter T. Steilberg who arrived on March 9 , 1931 . Steilberg recommended that Hearst buy the old church portal , which he did , at Byne 's price of $ 1 @,@ 500 . Under the direction of Byne and Steilberg , the monastery was carefully labeled as it was dismantled stone by stone . Antonio Gomez , the local foreman praised by Byne and Steilberg , numbered the blocks on architectural drawings and painted the number in red on the back of each stone . To move all the stones , Byne and Steilberg had a road built to the Tagus , and a barge attached to a fixed cable was assigned to ferry stones across . An old World War I trench railway was brought in to transport stones from the monastery to the ferry ; its rails could be laid into any of the buildings . Men pushed the small rail cars along the narrow gauge tracks ; the stones were then lifted into the ferry by crane , and another crane lifted them out of the ferry into trucks . One of the biggest problems that Byne encountered was that Spain 's three excelsior factories could not make enough packing material to keep the crate @-@ packing crew supplied . At one point , realizing that the stones were likely to be used in California as external cladding for structural steel walls , Steilberg suggested the facing surface of each stone be sliced to a " veneer " of the thickness of 6 inches ( 150 mm ) for easier packing and shipping , but Hearst wanted to retain the authenticity of the full @-@ sized stones . Byne and Steilberg judged certain walls and utility buildings worthless and left them in Spain . Steilberg returned home at the end of March . Byne rushed the project in fear that it might be halted at any time by the authorities — Spanish law prohibited the removal of historic artifacts . However , the Spanish government was at that time in disarray and did not enforce the law . Government officials " simply looked the other way " as trucks hauled 700 @-@ year @-@ old stones through Valencia to the docks . When King Alfonso XIII abdicated in April 1931 , leaving the government in the control of the Second Republic , the new officials stopped the project . Byne 's lawyer persuaded the Minister of Labor to allow the work to continue on the grounds that the project employed more than a hundred men and put money into the severely depressed economy . Doctor Francisco Layna Serrano of nearby Ruguilla had for years tried to save the monastery but had failed to interest the government in the expensive preservation proposal . Realizing that this was his last chance to document the place as its stones were being removed , he wrote a monograph of its history and included a site plan of the layout of buildings , written from memory . As a result of his efforts , on June 3 , 1931 , Santa María de Óvila was listed as a National Monument of Spain , or Bien de Interés Cultural ( Cultural Property ) . Layna Serrano published his monograph in 1932 . In 1933 , the monastery 's historic cartulary was brought to the University of Madrid and published ; the original was archived at the University of Oviedo . By the time the dismantling was finished on July 1 , 1931 , some 10 @,@ 000 stones weighing a total of 2 @,@ 200 short tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) were shipped on 11 different freighters traveling through the Panama Canal to San Francisco . In 1931 currency , the monastery project had cost Hearst about one million dollars . = = = Spanish ruins = = = Today , a few buildings remain of the original monastery in Spain . These include the winery or bodega , now the oldest surviving building on the site . This was built in the 13th century during the reign of Henry I of Castile , with the upper floor built as a dormitory 27 by 90 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 by 27 @.@ 4 m ) with a long barrel @-@ vaulted ceiling . Outside of the bodega , crumbling walls , open yards and part of the Gothic roof of the church are visible . The double arches in the walls of the Renaissance @-@ era cloister are still standing , but the arched roof is lost . The foundation of the church can be seen . = = California = = = = = Wyntoon = = = Hearst first bought the monastery intending to replace the family retreat at Wyntoon , on the bank of the McCloud River near Mount Shasta in remote Northern California . The original building was his mother 's Bernard Maybeck @-@ designed fantasy chalet which burned down in 1929 . Hearst wanted to replace it with a great stone building fitted with towers and turrets — an eccentric castle folly that was to be larger than its predecessor . To prepare for the arrival of the Spanish stones , Morgan drew up plans with the monastery 's chapter house serving as the castle 's entrance hall , and the large church enclosing a swimming pool . Other stones were designated as cladding for walls and rooms on the ground floor . At the Port of San Francisco , Steilberg inspected each shipment of stones , several thousand crates in all . The Haslett warehouse , between Fisherman 's Wharf and the Hyde Street Pier , was used for storage . With groundbreaking set for July 1931 and the last freighter carrying stones still in transit , Hearst stopped his grand plan for Wyntoon because his fortunes were too far reduced from the Great Depression . The stones stayed in the warehouse , incurring annual storage fees of $ 15 @,@ 000 in 1930s dollars . = = = Golden Gate Park = = = In 1940 , Hearst decided to give the monastery away . The government of Francisco Franco requested that it be returned to Spain , but Hearst refused . In August 1941 , Herbert Fleishhacker , director of the M. H. de Young Memorial Museum , convinced Hearst to give the stones to the City of San Francisco in exchange for the city 's payment of his $ 25 @,@ 000 storage debt . Hearst stipulated the stones be used to construct a group of museum buildings adjoining the de Young Museum in Golden Gate Park . The city moved the crates from the warehouse to store them outdoors behind the museum and the Japanese Tea Garden , allotting only $ 5 @,@ 000 for trucking and for building rough sheds and protective covers . The museum plan was estimated to cost $ 500 @,@ 000 , but that amount was not available . Morgan prepared several layouts for the city to approve , each with a different arrangement of the buildings than in Spain . However , in December 1941 , the U.S. was drawn into World War II and the museum plans were shelved . Picking up the project in 1946 , the city paid Morgan to construct a scale model of the complex of buildings which was to be the Museum of Medieval Arts , a West Coast version of The Cloisters in New York . The city was unable to raise money to build the museum , and the stones were damaged in five fires . The first came soon after the crates were set down in Golden Gate Park . Morgan said that " piles of burning boxes were pulled over and down by the Fire Department , many hurled over a hundred and fifty feet . " Hearst died in 1951 , and Morgan died in 1957 ; neither of them saw anything built with the stones . Two fires in 1959 appeared to be arson , and many of the fire @-@ heated stones were weakened or cracked from sudden cooling by water . In 1960 , Steilberg was hired to inspect the stones once again ; he used a ball @-@ peen hammer to lightly strike each stone and listen for a solid ringing tone or a dull thud which indicated cracking . He found that a little more than half the stones were sound . In 1965 , the Museum Society raised $ 40 @,@ 000 to mount the grand portal of the old church . It was installed in the de Young Museum , the centerpiece of Hearst Court , the main exhibit hall . The rest of the stones were abandoned by the museum in May 1969 when they announced that there would be no reconstruction . After this , stones were occasionally taken by park workers and used to decorate Golden Gate Park . In 1989 or 1990 , a San Francisco city worker dumped an unused granite bollard amid the monastery stones ; the 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall bollard was once used as a traffic barrier . Some self @-@ styled Hindu park users led by performance artist Michael Bowen , calling himself Guru Baba Kali Das , began to worship the phallus @-@ shaped bollard as a lingam ; they wrestled some of the monastery 's stones into a religious circle , calling the circle Shiva Linga . The city sued to reclaim the area in 1993 , but lost the battle in court . In January 1994 the city arranged to move the traffic bollard to Bowen 's garage , serving as his temple . Bowen later offered the granite bollard for sale and admitted that the whole episode was a performance piece . In 1999 , some of the stones were used to construct an outdoor reading terrace adjoining the Helen Crocker Russell Library of Horticulture , part of the Strybing Arboretum and Botanical Gardens in Golden Gate Park . Other stones were used for various purposes around Golden Gate Park and the Japanese Tea Garden , taken unofficially by park workers as they saw fit . Some of these ended up in the park 's AIDS Memorial Grove , others on a scent @-@ based flower walkway named Garden of Fragrance . = = = University of San Francisco = = = In 2002 , the old church portal was donated by the de Young Museum to the University of San Francisco ( a Jesuit university ) , and in 2008 it was associated with the construction of Kalmanovitz Hall . It serves as the backdrop of the outdoor Ovila Amphitheater ( 37 @.@ 7757 ° N 122 @.@ 451 ° W / 37 @.@ 7757 ; -122.451 ) , near an older Romanesque portal from Northern Italy . = = = Abbey of New Clairvaux = = = The Abbot @-@ Emeritus of the Abbey of New Clairvaux , Fr.Thomas X.Davis , OCSO , first saw the stones and pictured them reassembled as a monastery on September 15 , 1955 — his first day in California . He arrived that day in San Francisco to serve as a new monk in Vina , California , at the monastery of Our Lady of New Clairvaux . The monastery belonged to Trappists of the order known as Cistercians of the Strict Observance . The monks farmed and worshiped on land once used by Leland Stanford to grow wine grapes . Davis 's superior met him at the airport and drove him through Golden Gate Park where he stopped to show Davis the stones sitting among the weeds . From time to time in subsequent years , Davis inspected the stones only to find them in increasingly poor condition . In 1981 , architectural historian Margaret Burke began working under a grant from the Hearst Foundation to inventory the remaining stones . She said it was " an excavation project " because of the weeds , blackberry brambles and tree roots growing over them . Burke identified about 60 % of the stones belonging to the chapter house , a rectangular building originally spanning 31 by 46 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) . She separated the chapter house stones , surrounded them with a fence and began creating templates for rebuilding the arched entrances . During 1980 – 1982 the museum board sought $ 45 million for an expansion project that included $ 3 million for rebuilding the chapter house . Meanwhile , Davis asked a museum staff member for permission to take several truckloads of stones to Vina to be used for architectural decoration . Park workers helped him load the most ornate pieces he could find , and they were hauled away . Not told of the arrangement , Burke discovered that Davis had taken some of the chapter house stones , and the museum board insisted these be returned . Davis was left with 58 stones from other monastery buildings . In 1983 and 1987 , Davis made unsuccessful requests for all of the chapter house stones . After the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake , the de Young museum was to be rebuilt , and the future of the stones was reconsidered . In September 1993 , museum director Harry Parker joined with Davis to sign an unconditional permanent loan of the chapter house stones to New Clairvaux . In 1994 , the city approved the loan with the stipulation that the building be restored accurately and that it be occasionally open to the public . The stones were transported in 20 truckloads to Vina . Inside an old brick barn built by Stanford to make brandy , the stones began to be fitted together , laid flat on Burke 's plywood templates . Ground was broken in 2003 on the site of an orchard ( 39 @.@ 9372 ° N 122 @.@ 0632 ° W / 39 @.@ 9372 ; -122.0632 ) next to the main cloister building . Architect Patrick Cole of Arcademe , overseeing the rebuilding project , said that there were more than half of the required stones for the chapter house . Of the missing stones , more than 90 % were repeating @-@ pattern stones with available templates to carve replacements . Stonemasons Oskar Kempf and Frank Helmholz used modern hydraulic lime as mortar rather than making their own as was done in the Middle Ages . Helmholz said of the opportunity offered by the project that it was " something most stonemasons don 't do in all their career . " The strength of the building is twice what it was in Spain , with the stones supporting their own weight as designed , augmented by a framework of steel and concrete to hold them together when the California ground shakes . Contractor Phil Sunseri said that the building foundation was earthquake resistant as well ; with a three @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 m ) mat of concrete and steel underneath , " the entire building will move as one unit . " When completed , the building will be the largest example of original Cistercian Gothic architecture in the Western Hemisphere , and the oldest building in America west of the Rocky Mountains . Nearby Sierra Nevada Brewing Company partnered with the monks of New Clairvaux to make a series of Belgian @-@ style beers under the Ovila Abbey brand . In late 2010 , the beer producer launched a website to tell about the making of the beer product line and the story of the restoration of the stones . Sierra Nevada founder Ken Grossman said he had long been interested in making a line of Belgian beers , and the abbey 's project provided a good opportunity . The first product , a Dubbel , was released in March 2011 , followed in July by a Saison and in November by a Quadrupel . Sierra Nevada has dedicated a percentage of the beer sales to assist in funding the rebuilding project .
= Bruce Chatwin = Charles Bruce Chatwin ( 13 May 1940 – 18 January 1989 ) was an English travel writer , novelist , and journalist . His first book , In Patagonia ( 1977 ) , established Chatwin as a travel writer , although he considered himself instead a storyteller , interested in bringing to light unusual tales . He won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his novel On the Black Hill ( 1982 ) and his novel Utz ( 1988 ) was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize . In 2008 The Times named Chatwin # 46 on their list of " 50 Greatest British Writers Since 1945 . " Chatwin was born near Sheffield , England . At 18 he went to work at Sotheby ’ s in London , where he gained an extensive knowledge of art and eventually ran the auction house ’ s Antiquities and Impressionist Art departments . In 1966 he left Sotheby ’ s to read archaeology at the University of Edinburgh , but he abandoned his studies after two years to pursue a career as a writer . The Sunday Times Magazine hired Chatwin in 1972 . He travelled the world for work and interviewed figures such as the politicians Indira Gandhi and André Malraux . He left the magazine in 1974 to visit Patagonia , which resulted in his first book . He produced five other books , including The Songlines ( 1987 ) , which was a bestseller . His work is credited with reviving the genre of travel writing , and his works influenced other writers such as William Dalrymple , Claudio Magris , Philip Marsden , Luis Sepúlveda , and Rory Stewart . Married and bisexual , Chatwin was one of the first prominent men in Great Britain known to have contracted HIV and to have died of an AIDS @-@ related illness , although he hid the details . Following his death , the gay community criticised Chatwin for keeping his diagnosis secret . = = Life = = = = = Early life = = = Bruce Chatwin was born on 13 May 1940 in the Shearwood Road Nursing Home in Sheffield , England to Margharita ( née Turnell ) and Charles Chatwin . His mother Margharita had grown up in Sheffield and worked for the local Conservative party prior to her marriage . His father Charles was a lawyer from Birmingham who joined the Royal Naval Reserve following the outbreak of World War II . Chatwin 's early years were spent moving regularly with his mother while his father was at sea . Prior to his birth , Chatwin 's parents had lived at Barnt Green , Worcestershire , but Margharita moved to her parents ' house in Dronfield , near Sheffield shortly before giving birth . Mother and son remained there for only a few weeks . Worried about Nazi bombs , she sought a safer place to stay . Margharita took her son with her as they travelled to stay with various relatives during the war . They would remain in one place until either Margharita decided to move out of concern for their safety , or because of friction among family members . Later in life Chatwin recalled of the war , " Home , if we had one , was a solid black suitcase called the Rev @-@ Robe , in which there was a corner for my clothes and my Mickey Mouse gas mask . " During the war Chatwin and his mother stayed at the home of his paternal grandparents , who had a curiosity cabinet that fascinated him . Among the items it contained was a " piece of brontosaurus " ( actually a mylodon , a giant sloth ) , which had been sent to Chatwin 's grandmother by her cousin Charles Milward . Travelling in Patagonia , Milward had discovered the remains of a giant sloth , which he later sold to the British Museum . He sent his cousin a piece of the animal 's skin , and members of the family mistakenly referred to it as a " piece of brontosaurus . " The skin was later lost but it inspired Chatwin decades later to visit and write about Patagonia . After the war , Chatwin lived with his parents and younger brother Hugh ( born in 1944 ) in West Heath in Birmingham , where his father had a law practice . He was educated at Old Hall School in Shropshire and Marlborough College , in Wiltshire . An unexceptional student , he garnered attention from his performances in school plays . While at Marlborough , Chatwin attained A @-@ levels in Latin , Greek , and Ancient History . Chatwin had hoped to read Classics at Merton College , Oxford , but the end of National Service in the United Kingdom meant there was more competition for university places . He was forced to consider other options . His parents discouraged the ideas he offered — an acting career or work in the Colonial Service in Kenya . Instead , Chatwin 's father asked one of his clients for a letter of introduction to the auction house Sotheby 's . An interview was arranged , and Chatwin secured a job there . = = = Art and archaeology = = = In 1958 , Chatwin moved to London to begin work as a porter in the Works of Art department at Sotheby 's . Chatwin was ill @-@ suited for this job , which included dusting objects that had been kept in storage . Sotheby 's moved him to a junior cataloger position working in both the Antiquities and Impressionist Art departments . This position enabled him to develop his eye for art , and he quickly became known for his ability to discern forgeries . His work as a cataloguer also taught him to describe objects in a concise manner and required that he research these objects . Chatwin advanced to become Sotheby 's expert on Antiquities and Impressionist art and would later run both departments . Many of Chatwin 's colleagues thought he would eventually become chairman of the auction house . During this period Chatwin travelled extensively for his job and also for adventure . Travel offered him a relief from the British class system , which he found stifling . An admirer of Robert Byron and his book , The Road to Oxiana , he travelled twice to Afghanistan . He also used these trips to visit markets and shops where he would buy antiques which he would resell at a profit in order to supplement his income from Sotheby 's . He became friends with artists and art collectors and dealers . One friend , Howard Hodgkin , painted Chatwin in The Japanese Screen ( 1962 ) . Chatwin said he was the " acid green smear on the left . " Chatwin was ambivalent about his sexual orientation and had affairs with both men and women during this period of his life . One of his girlfriends , Elizabeth Chanler , an American and a descendent of John Jacob Astor , was a secretary at Sotheby 's . Chanler had earned a degree in history from Radcliffe College and worked at Sotheby 's New York offices for two years before transferring to their London office in 1961 . Her love of travel and independent nature appealed to Chatwin . In the mid @-@ 1960s Chatwin grew unhappy at Sotheby 's . There were various reasons for his disenchantment . Both women and men found Chatwin attractive , and Peter Wilson , then chairman of Sotheby 's , used this appeal to the auction house 's advantage when using Chatwin to try to persuade wealthy individuals to sell their art collections . Chatwin became increasingly uncomfortable with the situation . Later in life Chatwin also spoke of having become " burnt out " and said , " In the end I felt I might just as well be working for a rather superior funeral parlour . One 's whole life seemed to be spent valuing for probate the apartment of somebody recently dead . " In late 1964 he began to suffer from problems with his sight , which he attributed to the close analysis of artwork entailed by his job . He consulted eye specialist Patrick Trevor @-@ Roper , who diagnosed a latent squint and recommended that Chatwin take a six @-@ month break from his work at Sotheby 's . Trevor @-@ Roper had been involved in the design of an eye hospital in Addis Ababa , and suggested Chatwin visit east Africa . In February 1965 , Chatwin left for Sudan . It was on this trip that Chatwin first encountered a nomadic tribe ; their way of life intrigued him . " My nomadic guide , " he wrote , " carried a sword , a purse and a pot of scented goat 's grease for anointing his hair . He made me feel overburdened and inadequate ... " Chatwin would remain fascinated by nomads for the rest of his life . Chatwin returned to Sotheby 's and , to the surprise of his friends , proposed marriage to Elizabeth Chanler . They married on 21 August 1965 . Chatwin was bisexual throughout their married life , a circumstance Elizabeth knew and accepted . Chatwin had hoped he would " grow out of " his homosexual behaviour and have a successful marriage like his parents . During their marriage , Chatwin had many affairs , mostly with men . Some who were aware of Chatwin 's affairs with men assumed the Chatwins had a chaste marriage but , according to Nicholas Shakespeare , the author 's biographer , this was not true . Both Chatwin and his wife had hoped to have children , but they remained childless . In April 1966 , at the age of 26 , Chatwin was promoted to a director of Sotheby 's , a position to which he had aspired . To his disappointment , he was made a junior director and lacked voting rights on the board . This disappointment , along with boredom and increasing discomfort over potentially illegal side deals taking place at Sotheby 's , including the sale of objects from the Pitt @-@ Rivers museum collection , led Chatwin to resign from his Sotheby 's post in June 1966 . Chatwin enrolled in October 1966 at the University of Edinburgh to study Archaeology . He had regretted not attending Oxford and had been contemplating going to university for a few years . A visit in December 1965 to the Hermitage in Leningrad sparked his interest in the field of archaeology . Despite winning the Wardrop Prize for the best first year 's work , he found the rigour of academic archaeology tiresome , and he left after two years without taking a degree . = = = The Nomadic Alternative = = = Following his departure from Edinburgh , Chatwin decided to pursue a career as a writer , successfully pitching a book proposal on nomads to Tom Maschler , publisher at Jonathan Cape . Chatwin tentatively titled the book The Nomadic Alternative and sought to answer the question " Why do men wander rather than stand still ? " Chatwin delivered the manuscript in 1972 , and Maschler declined to publish it , calling it a " chore to read . " Between 1969 and 1972 , as he was working on The Nomadic Alternative , Chatwin travelled extensively and pursued other endeavours in an attempt to establish a creative career . He co @-@ curated an exhibit on Nomadic Art of the Asian Steppes , which opened at Asia House Gallery in New York City in 1970 . He considered publishing an account of his 1969 trip to Afghanistan with Peter Levi . Levi published his own book about it , The Light Garden of the Angel King : Journeys in Afghanistan ( 1972 ) . Chatwin contributed two articles on nomads to Vogue and another article to History Today . In the early 1970s Chatwin had an affair with James Ivory , a film director . He pitched stories to him for possible films , which Ivory did not take seriously . In 1972 Chatwin tried his hand at film @-@ making and travelled to Niger to make a documentary about nomads . The film was lost while Chatwin was trying to sell it to European television companies . Chatwin also took photographs of his journeys and attempted to sell photographs from a trip to Mauritania to The Sunday Times Magazine . While The Times did not accept those photographs for publication , it did offer Chatwin a job . = = = The Sunday Times Magazine and In Patagonia = = = In 1972 , The Sunday Times Magazine hired Chatwin as an adviser on art and architecture . Initially his role was to suggest story ideas and put together features such as " One Million Years of Art , " which ran in several issues during the summer of 1973 . His editor , Francis Wyndham , encouraged him to write , which allowed him to develop his narrative skills . Chatwin travelled on many international assignments , writing on such subjects as Algerian migrant workers and the Great Wall of China , and interviewing such diverse people as André Malraux , Maria Reiche , and Madeleine Vionnet . In 1972 , Chatwin interviewed the 93 @-@ year @-@ old architect and designer Eileen Gray in her Paris salon , where he noticed a map she had painted of the area of South America called Patagonia . " I 've always wanted to go there , " Chatwin told her . " So have I , " she replied , " Go there for me . " Two years later , in November 1974 , Chatwin flew out to Lima in Peru and reached Patagonia a month later . He would later claim that he sent a telegram to Wyndham merely stating : " Have gone to Patagonia . " Actually he sent a letter : " I am doing a story there for myself , something I have always wanted to write up . " This marked the end of Chatwin 's role as a regular writer for The Sunday Times Magazine , although in subsequent years he contributed occasional pieces , including a profile of Indira Gandhi . Chatwin spent six months in Patagonia , travelling around gathering stories of people who came from elsewhere and settled there . This trip resulted in the book , In Patagonia ( 1977 ) . He used his quest for his own " piece of brontosaurus " ( the one from his grandparents ' cabinet had been thrown away years earlier ) to frame the story of his trip . Chatwin described In Patagonia as " the narrative of an actual journey and a symbolic one ... It is supposed to fall into the category or be a spoof of Wonder Voyage : the narrator goes to a far country in search of a strange animal : on his way he lands in strange situations , people or other books tell him strange stories which add up to form a message . " In Patagonia contains fifteen black and white photographs by Chatwin . According to Susannah Clapp , who edited the book , " Rebecca West amused Chatwin by telling him that these were so good they rendered superfluous the entire text of the book . " This work established Chatwin 's reputation as a travel writer . One of his biographers , Nicholas Murray , called In Patagonia " one of the most strikingly original postwar English travel books " and said that it revitalised the genre of travel writing . However , residents in the region contradicted the account of events depicted in Chatwin 's book . It was the first time in his career , but not the last , that conversations and characters which Chatwin presented as fact were later alleged to be fiction . For In Patagonia Chatwin received the Hawthornden Prize and the E. M. Forster Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters . Graham Greene , Patrick Leigh Fermor , and Paul Theroux praised the book . As a result of the success of In Patagonia , Chatwin 's circle of friends expanded to include individuals such as Jacqueline Onassis , Susan Sontag , and Jasper Johns . = = = Ouidah and the Black Hills = = = Upon his return from Patagonia , Chatwin discovered a change in leadership at The Sunday Times Magazine and his retainer was not continued . Chatwin intended his next project to be a biography of Francisco Félix de Sousa , a nineteenth @-@ century slave trader born in Brazil who became the Viceroy of Ouidah in Dahomey ( present day Benin ) . Chatwin had first heard of de Sousa during a visit to Dahomey in 1972 . He returned to the country , by then renamed the People 's Republic of Benin , in December 1976 to conduct research . In January 1977 a coup took place , and Chatwin was accused of being a mercenary , arrested , and detained for three days . Chatwin later wrote about this experience in " A Coup — A Story , " which was published in Granta and included in What Am I Doing Here ( 1989 ) . Following his arrest and release Chatwin left Benin and went to Brazil to continue his research on de Sousa . Frustrated by the lack of documented information on de Sousa , Chatwin chose instead to write a fictionalised biography of him . This book was published in 1980 , and Werner Herzog 's film , Cobra Verde ( 1987 ) , is based on it . Although The Viceroy of Ouidah received good reviews , it did not sell well . Nicholas Shakespeare said that the dismal sales caused Chatwin to pursue a completely different subject for his next book . In response to his growing reputation as a travel writer Chatwin said he " decided to write something about people who never went out . " His next book , On the Black Hill ( 1982 ) , is a novel of twin brothers who live all of their lives in a farmhouse on the Welsh borders . For this book Chatwin won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and the Whitbread Prize for Best First Novel , even though he considered his previous book , The Viceroy of Ouidah , a novel . It was made into a film in 1987 . In the late 1970s Chatwin spent an increasing amount of time in New York City . He continued to have affairs with men , but most of these affairs were short @-@ lived . In 1977 he began his first serious affair with Donald Richards , an Australian stockbroker . Richards introduced him to the gay nightclub scene in New York . During this period Chatwin became acquainted with Robert Mapplethorpe , who photographed him . Chatwin is one of the few men Mapplethorpe photographed fully clothed . Chatwin later contributed the introduction to a book of Mapplethorpe 's photographs , Lady , Lisa Lyon ( 1983 ) . Although Elizabeth Chatwin had accepted her husband 's affairs , their relationship deteriorated in the late 1970s , and in 1980 she asked for a separation . By 1982 Chatwin 's affair with Richards had ended and he began another serious affair with Jasper Conran . = = = The Songlines = = = In 1983 Chatwin returned to the topic of nomads and decided to focus on Aboriginal Australians . He was influenced by the work of Theodore Strehlow , author of Songs of Central Australia and a controversial figure . Strehlow had collected and recorded Aboriginal songs , and shortly before his death in 1978 , he sold photographs of secret Aboriginal initiation ceremonies to a magazine . Chatwin went to Australia to learn more about Aboriginal culture , specifically the songlines or dreaming tracks . Each songline is a personal story and functions as a creation tale and a map , and each Aboriginal Australian has their own songline . Chatwin thought the songlines could be a metaphor he could use to support his ideas about humans ' need to wander , which he believed was genetic . However , he struggled to fully understand and describe the songlines and their place in Aboriginal culture . This was due to Chatwin 's approach to learning about the songlines . He spent several weeks in 1983 and 1984 in Australia , during which he primarily relied on non @-@ Aboriginal people for information . Chatwin was limited by his inability to speak the Aboriginal languages . He interviewed people involved in the Land Rights movement , and he alienated many of them because he was oblivious to the politics and also because he was an admirer of Strehlow 's work . While in Australia , Chatwin , who had been experiencing some health problems , first read about AIDS , then known as the gay plague . It frightened him and compelled him to reconcile with his wife . The fear of AIDS also drove him to finish the book that became The Songlines ( 1987 ) . His friend the novelist Salman Rushdie said , " That book was an obsession too great for him ... His illness did him a favour , got him free of it . Otherwise , he would have gone on writing it for ten years . " The Songlines features a narrator named Bruce whose biography is almost identical to Chatwin 's . The narrator spends time in Australia trying to learn about Aboriginal culture , specifically the songlines . As the book goes on , it becomes a reflection on what Chatwin stated was " for me , the question of questions : the nature of human restlessness . " Chatwin also hinted at his preoccupation over his own mortality in the text : " I had a presentiment that the ' travelling ' phase of my life might be passing ... I should set down on paper a resume of the ideas , quotations , and encounters that amused me and obsessed me ... " Following this statement in The Songlines Chatwin included extensive excerpts from his moleskine notebooks . Chatwin published The Songlines in 1987 , and it became a bestseller in both the United Kingdom and the United States . The book was nominated for the Thomas Cook Travel Award , but Chatwin requested that it be withdrawn from consideration , saying the work was fictional . Following its publication , Chatwin became friends with composer Kevin Volans , who was inspired to base a theatre score on the book . The project evolved into an opera , The Man with Footsoles of Wind ( 1993 ) . = = = Illness and final works = = = While at work on The Songlines between 1983 and 1986 , Chatwin frequently came down with colds . He also developed skin lesions that may have been symptoms of Kaposi 's sarcoma . After finishing The Songlines in August 1986 , Chatwin went to Switzerland , where he collapsed on the street . At a clinic there , he was diagnosed as HIV @-@ positive . Chatwin provided different reasons to his doctors as to how he might have contracted HIV , including from a gang rape in Dahomey or possibly from Sam Wagstaff , the patron and lover of Robert Mapplethorpe . Chatwin 's case was unusual as he had a fungal infection , Penicillium marneffei , which at the time had rarely been seen and only in South Asia . It is now known as an AIDS @-@ defining illness , but in 1986 little was known about HIV and AIDS . Doctors were not certain if all cases of HIV developed into AIDS . The rare fungus gave Chatwin hope that he might be different and served as the basis of what he told most people about his illness . He gave various reasons for how he became infected with the fungus — ranging from eating a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old egg to exploring a bat cave in Indonesia . He never publicly disclosed that he was HIV @-@ positive because of the stigma at the time . He wanted to protect his parents , who were unaware of his homosexual affairs . Although he never spoke or wrote publicly about his disease , in one instance he did write about the AIDS epidemic in 1988 in a letter to the editor of the London Review of Books : " The word ' Aids ' is one of the cruellest and silliest neologisms of our time . ' Aid ' means help , succour , comfort — yet with a hissing sibilant tacked onto the end it becomes a nightmare ... HIV ( Human Immuno @-@ Deficiency Virus ) is a perfectly easy name to live with . ' Aids ' causes panic and despair and has probably done something to facilitate the spread of the disease . " During his illness , Chatwin continued to write . Elizabeth encouraged him to use a letter he had written to her from Prague in 1967 as an inspiration for a new story . During this trip , he had met Konrad Just , an art collector . This meeting and the letter to Elizabeth served as the basis for Chatwin 's next work . Utz ( 1988 ) was a novel about the obsession that leads people to collect . Set in Prague , the novel details the life and death of Kaspar Utz , a man obsessed with his collection of Meissen porcelain . Utz was well @-@ received and was shortlisted for the Booker Prize . Chatwin also edited a collection of his journalism , which was published as What Am I Doing Here ( 1989 ) . At the time of his death in 1989 , he was working on a number of new ideas for future novels , including a transcontinental epic provisionally titled Lydia Livingstone . Chatwin died at a hospital in Nice on 18 January 1989 . A memorial service was held in the Greek Orthodox Church of Saint Sophia in West London on 14 February 1989 , the same day that a fatwa was announced on Salman Rushdie , a close friend of Chatwin 's , who attended the service . Paul Theroux , who also attended the service , later commented on it and Chatwin in a piece for Granta . The novelist Martin Amis described the memorial service in the essay " Salman Rushdie " , included in his anthology Visiting Mrs Nabokov . Chatwin 's ashes were scattered near a Byzantine chapel above Kardamyli in the Peloponnese . This was close to the home of one of his mentors , the writer Patrick Leigh Fermor . Near here , Chatwin had spent several months in 1985 working on The Songlines . Chatwin 's papers , including 85 moleskine notebooks , were given to the Bodleian Library , Oxford . Two collections of his photographs and excerpts from the moleskine notebooks were published as Photographs and Notebooks ( US title : Far Journeys ) in 1993 and Winding Paths in 1999 . News of Chatwin 's AIDS diagnosis first surfaced in September 1988 . However , at the time of his death , obituaries referred to Chatwin 's statements about a rare fungal infection . Following his death , members of the gay community criticised Chatwin for lacking the courage to reveal the true nature of his illness , which some people think would have raised public awareness of AIDS , as he was one of the first high @-@ profile individuals in Great Britain known to have contracted HIV . = = Writing style = = John Updike described Chatwin 's writing as " a clipped , lapidary prose that compresses worlds into pages " , while one of Chatwin 's editors , Susannah Clapp , wrote , " Although his syntax was pared down , his words were not @-@ or at least not only @-@ plain . ... His prose is both spare and flamboyant . " Chatwin 's writing was shaped by his work as a cataloguer at Sotheby 's , which provided him with years of practice writing concise yet vivid descriptions of objects with the intention of enticing buyers . In addition , Chatwin 's interest in nomads also influenced his writing . One aspect of nomadic culture that interested him was the few possessions they had . Their spartan way of life appealed to his aesthetic sense , and it was something he sought to emulate in both his life and his writing . He strove to strip unnecessary objects from his life and unnecessary words from his prose . In his writing Chatwin experimented with format . With In Patagonia , Clapp said Chatwin described the book 's structure of 97 vignettes as " Cubist . " " [ I ] n other words , " she said , " lots of small pictures tilting away and toward each other to create this strange original portrait of Patagonia . " The Songlines was another attempt by Chatwin to experiment with format . The book begins as a novel narrated by a man named Bruce but about two @-@ thirds of the way through it becomes a commonplace book filled with quotations , anecdotes , and summaries of others ' research in an attempt to explore human restlessness . Some of Chatwin 's critics did not think he succeeded in The Songlines with this approach , although others applauded his effort at trying an unconventional structure . Several nineteenth and twentieth century writers influenced Chatwin 's work . The work of Robert Byron had an impact on Chatwin , who admitted to imitating his style when he first began making notes of his own travels . While in Patagonia he read In Our Time by Ernest Hemingway . Chatwin admired Hemingway for his spare prose . While writing In Patagonia , Chatwin strove to approach his writing as a " literary Cartier @-@ Bresson . " Chatwin 's biographer described the resulting prose as " quick snapshots of ordinary people . " Along with Hemingway and Cartier @-@ Bresson , Osip Mandelstam 's work strongly influenced Chatwin during the writing of In Patagonia . An admirer of Noël Coward , Chatwin found the breakfast scene in Private Lives helpful in learning to write dialogue . Once Chatwin began work on The Viceroy of Ouidah , he began studying the work of nineteenth @-@ century French authors , such as Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert . These writers would continue to influence Chatwin for the remainder of his life . = = Themes = = Chatwin explored several different themes in his work . They include human restlessness and wandering ; borders and exile ; and art and objects . Chatwin considered the question of human restlessness to be the focus of his writing . He ultimately aspired to explore this subject in order to answer what he believed was a fundamental question about human existence . He thought humans were meant to be a migratory species but once they settled in one place , their natural urges " found outlets in violence , greed , status @-@ seeking or a mania for the new . " In his first attempt at writing a book , The Nomadic Alternative , Chatwin had tried to compose an academic exposition on nomadic culture , which he believed was unexamined and unappreciated . With this volume Chatwin had hoped to answer the question " Why do men wander rather than sit still ? " In his book proposal he admitted that the interest in the subject was personal : " Why do I become restless after a month in a single place , unbearable after two ? " Although Chatwin did not succeed with The Nomadic Alternative , he returned to the topic of restlessness and wandering in his subsequent books . Writer Jonathan Chatwin ( no relation ) stated that Chatwin 's works can be grouped into two categories : " restlessness defined " and " restlessness explained . " Most of his work focuses on describing restlessness , such as in the case of one twin in On the Black Hill who longs to leave home . Another example is the protagonist of Utz , who feels restless to escape to Vichy each year but always returns to Prague . Chatwin attempted to explain restlessness in The Songlines , which focused on the Aboriginal Australians ' walkabout . For this work , he returned to his research from The Nomadic Alternative . Borders are another theme in Chatwin 's work . According to Elizabeth Chatwin , he " was interested in borders , where things were always changing , not one thing or another . " Patagonia , the subject of his first published book , is an area that is in both Argentina and Chile . The Viceroy of Ouidah is a Brazilian who trades slaves in Dahomey . On the Black Hills takes place on the borders of Wales and England . In The Songlines the characters the protagonist mostly interacts with are people who provide a bridge between the Aboriginal and white Australian worlds . The main character in Utz travels back and forth across the Iron Curtain . " The theme of exile , of people living at the margins ... is treated in a literal and metaphorical sense throughout Chatwin 's work , " stated Nicholas Murray . He identified several examples in Chatwin 's work . There were people who were actual exiles , such as some of those profiled in In Patagonia and the Viceroy of Ouidah , who was unable to return to Brazil . Murray also cited the main characters in On the Black Hill , " although not strictly exiles ... [ they ] were exiles from the major events of their time and its dominant values . " Similarly , Murray wrote , Utz is " trapped in a society whose values are not his own but which he cannot bring himself to leave . " Chatwin returned to the subject of art and objects during his career . In his early writing for the Sunday Times Magazine , he wrote about art and artists , and many of these articles Chatwin included in What Am I Doing Here . The main focus of Utz is on the impact the possession of art ( in this case porcelain figures ) has on a collector . Utz 's unwillingness to give up his porcelain collection kept him in Czechoslovakia even though he had the opportunity to live in the West . Chatwin constantly struggled with the conflicting desires to own beautiful items and to live in a space free of unnecessary objects . His distaste for the art world was the result of his days at Sotheby 's , and some of his final writing focused on this . The final section of What Am I Doing Here , " Tales from the Art World , " consists of four short stories on this topic . At the end of What Am I Doing Here , Chatwin shares an anecdote about advice he had received from Noël Coward , who told him " Never let anything artistic stand in your way . " Chatwin stated , " I 've always acted on that advice . " = = Influence = = With the publication of In Patagonia , Chatwin invigorated the genre of travel writing ; according to his biographer , Nicholas Murray , he " showed that an inventive writer could breathe new life into an old genre . " The combination of his clear yet vivid prose and an international perspective at a time when many English writers were more focused on home instead of abroad helped to set him apart . Aside from his writing , Chatwin was also good looking , and his image as a dashing traveller added to his appeal and helped make him a celebrity . In the eyes of younger writers such as Rory Stewart , Chatwin " made [ travel writing ] cool . " In The New York Times , Andrew Harvey wrote , " Nearly every writer of my generation in England has wanted , at some point , to be Bruce Chatwin ; wanted , like him , to talk of Fez and Firdausi , Nigeria and Nuristan , with equal authority ; wanted to be talked about , as he is , with raucous envy ; wanted above all to have written his books . " Chatwin 's books also inspired some readers to visit Patagonia and Australia . As a result of his work , Patagonia experienced an increase in tourism , and it became a common sight for tourists to appear in the region , carrying a copy of In Patagonia . The Songlines also inspired readers to travel to Australia and seek out the people Chatwin had based his characters on , much to their consternation , as he had failed to disclose to these individuals his intentions . Beyond travel , Chatwin influenced other writers , such as Claudio Magris , Luis Sepúlveda , Philip Marsden , and William Dalrymple . Nicholas Shakespeare stated that part of Chatwin 's impact was that his work was difficult to categorise and it helped " set free other writers ... [ from ] conventional boundaries . Although he was often called a travel writer , he did not identify as one nor did he consider himself a novelist . ( " I don 't quite know the meaning of the word novel , " he said ) . He preferred to call his writing stories or searches . He was interested in asking big questions about human existence , sharing unusual tales , and making connections between ideas from various sources . His friend and fellow writer Robyn Davidson said , " He posed questions we all want answered and perhaps gave the illusion they were answerable . " = = = Posthumous Influence = = = According to his biographer Nicholas Shakespeare , Chatwin 's work developed a cult @-@ like following in the years immediately following his death . By 1998 one million copies of his books had been sold . However , his reputation diminished following revelations about his personal life and questions about the accuracy of his work . Questions about the accuracy of his work existed prior to his death , and Chatwin had admitted to " counting up the lies " in In Patagonia , though he stated there were not many . While researching Chatwin 's life , Nicholas Shakespeare stated he found " few cases of mere invention " in In Patagonia . Mostly , these tended to be instances of embellishment , such as when Chatwin wrote of a nurse who loved the work of Osip Mandelstam - one of his favorite authors - when in fact she was a fan of Agatha Christie . When Michael Ignatieff asked Chatwin his opinion of what divided fact from fiction , he replied , " I don 't think there is [ a division ] . " Some individuals profiled in In Patagonia were unhappy with Chatwin 's portrayals of them . They included one man whom Chatwin insinuated was homosexual and a woman who thought her father was unjustly accused of killing Indians . However , Chatwin 's biographer found one farmer who was featured in the book who thought Chatwin 's depictions of himself and other members of his community were truthful . He stated , " No one likes looking at their own passport photograph , but I found it accurate . It 's not flattering , but it 's the truth . " Chatwin 's bestseller , The Songlines , has been the focus of much criticism . Some critics describe his viewpoint as " colonialist " , citing his lack of interviews with Aboriginals and his reliance instead on white Australians for information about Aboriginal culture . Other criticism comes from anthropologists and other researchers who spent years studying Aboriginal culture and who dismiss Chatwin 's work because he visited Australia briefly . There are others , such as writer Thomas Keneally , who believe The Songlines should be widely read in Australia , where many people had not previously heard of the songlines . The questions about the veracity of Chatwin 's writing are compounded by the revelation of his sexual orientation and the true cause of his death . Once it became known that Chatwin had been bisexual and had died of an AIDS @-@ related illness , some critics viewed him as a liar and dismissed his work . Nicholas Shakespeare said , " His denial [ of his AIDS diagnosis ] bred a sense that if he lied about his life , he must have lied about his work . Some readers have taken this as a cue to pass judgement on his books – or else not to bother with them . " In 2010 The Guardian 's review of Under the Sun : The Letters of Bruce Chatwin opened with the question , " Does anyone read Bruce Chatwin these days ? " However , Rory Stewart has stated , " His personality , his learning , his myths , and even his prose are less hypnotizing [ than they once were ] . And yet he remains a great writer , of deep and enduring importance . ” In 2008 The Times named Chatwin # 46 on their list of " 50 Greatest British Writers Since 1945 " . = = = Legacy = = = Chatwin 's name is used to sell Moleskine notebooks . Chatwin wrote in The Songlines of little black oilskin @-@ covered notebooks that he bought in Paris and which he called " moleskines " . The quotes and anecdotes he had compiled in these books serve as a major section of The Songlines . In this book Chatwin mourned the closing of the last producer of these books . In 1995 , Marta Sebregondi read The Songlines and proposed to her employer , Modo & Modo , an Italian design and publishing company , that they produce moleskine notebooks . In 1997 , the company began to sell these books and used Chatwin 's name to promote them . Modo & Modo was sold in 2006 , and the company became known as Moleskine SpA . In 2014 the clothing label Burberry produced a collection inspired by Chatwin 's books . The following year Burberry released a limited edition set of Chatwin 's books with specially designed covers . = = Works = = In Patagonia ( 1977 ) The Viceroy of Ouidah ( 1980 ) On the Black Hill ( 1982 ) The Songlines ( 1987 ) Utz ( 1988 ) What Am I Doing Here ( 1989 ) = = = Posthumously Published = = = Photographs and Notebooks ( 1993 ) Anatomy of Restlessness ( 1997 ) Winding Paths ( 1998 ) = = Documentaries = = Paul Yule , In The Footsteps of Bruce Chatwin ( 2x60 mins ) , BBC , 1999 – Berwick Universal Pictures
= Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom = Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom is a 1984 American action @-@ adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg . It is the second installment in the Indiana Jones franchise and a prequel to the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark and followed by Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade in 1989 and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull in 2008 respectively , featuring Harrison Ford reprising his role as the title character . After arriving in North India , Indiana Jones is asked by desperate villagers to find a mystical stone and rescue their children from a Thuggee cult practicing child slavery , black magic and ritual human sacrifice in honor of the goddess Kali . Executive producer and co @-@ writer George Lucas decided to make the film a prequel as he did not want the Nazis to be the villains again . After three rejected plot devices , Lucas wrote a film treatment that resembled the film 's final storyline . Lawrence Kasdan , Lucas 's collaborator on Raiders , turned down the offer to write the script , and Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz were hired as his replacements , with the screenplay partly based upon the 1939 film Gunga Din . The film was released to financial success but mixed reviews , which criticized its violence , later contributing to the creation of the PG @-@ 13 rating , as well as the character of Willie Scott for being annoying and useless . However , critical opinion has improved since 1984 , citing the film 's intensity and imagination . Some of the film 's cast and crew , including Spielberg , retrospectively view the film in a negative light , partly due to the film being the most overtly violent Indiana Jones film . The film has also been the subject of controversy due to its portrayal of India and Hinduism . = = Plot = = In 1935 , Indiana Jones narrowly escapes the clutches of Lao Che , a crime boss in Shanghai in the Republic of China . With his 11 @-@ year @-@ old Chinese sidekick Short Round and the nightclub singer Willie Scott in tow , Indy flees Shanghai on an airplane that , unknown to them , is owned by Lao . While the three of them sleep on the plane , the pilots parachute out , and they leave the plane to crash over the Himalayas while dumping its fuel . Indy , Shorty , and Willie discover this and narrowly manage to escape by jumping out of the plane on an inflatable raft , and then riding down the slopes into a raging river . They come to Mayapore , a desolate village in northern India , where the poor villagers believe them to have been sent by the Hindu god Shiva and enlist their help to retrieve the sacred Sivalinga stone stolen from their shrine , as well as the community 's children , from evil forces in the nearby Pankot Palace . During the journey to Pankot , Indy hypothesizes that the stone may be one of the five fabled Sankara stones that promise fortune and glory . The trio receive a warm welcome from the Prime Minister of Pankot Palace , Chattar Lal . The visitors are allowed to stay the night as guests , during which they attend a lavish but grotesque banquet given by the young Maharajah , Zalim Singh . Chattar Lal rebuffs Indy 's questions about the villagers ' claims and his theory that the ancient Thuggee cult is responsible for their troubles . Later that night , Indy is attacked by an assassin , leading Indy , Willie , and Shorty to believe that something is amiss . They discover a series of tunnels hidden behind a statue in Willie 's room and set out to explore them , overcoming a number of booby @-@ traps along the way . The trio eventually reach an underground temple where the Thugs worship the Hindu goddess Kali with human sacrifice . They discover that the Thugs , led by their evil , bloodthirsty high priest Mola Ram are in possession of three of the five Sankara stones , and have enslaved the children to mine for the final two stones , which they hope will allow them to rule the world . As Indy tries to retrieve the stones , he , Willie , and Shorty are captured and separated . Indy is whipped and forced to drink a potion called the " Blood of Kali " , which places him in a trance @-@ like state where he begins to mindlessly serve the Thugs . Willie , meanwhile , is kept as a human sacrifice , while Shorty is put to work in the mines alongside the enslaved children . Shorty breaks free and escapes back into the temple where he burns Indy with a torch , shocking him out of the trance . After defeating Chattar Lal , also a Thuggee worshiper , they go back to the mines to free the children , but Indy is caught up in a fight with a hulking overseer . The Maharajah , who was also forcibly entranced by the " Blood of Kali , " attempts to cripple Indy with a voodoo doll . Shorty spars with the Maharajah , ultimately burning him to snap him out of the trance . With his strength returned , Indy kills the overseer . The Maharajah then tells Shorty how to get out of the mines . While Mola Ram escapes , Indy and Shorty rescue Willie and retrieve the three Sankara stones , the village children escape . After a mine cart chase to escape the temple , the trio emerge above ground and are again cornered by Mola Ram and his henchmen on a rope bridge high above a crocodile @-@ infested river . Using a sword , Indy cuts the rope bridge in half , leaving everyone to hang on for their lives . Indy utters an incantation which causes the stones to glow red hot . Two of the stones fall into the river , while the last falls into Mola Ram 's hand , burning him . Indy catches the now @-@ cool stone , while Mola Ram falls into the river below , where he is devoured by a Mugger crocodile . The Thugs then attempt to shoot Indy with arrows , until a company of British Indian Army riflemen from Pankot arrive , having been summoned by the palace Maharajah . In the ensuing firefight , many of the Thuggee archers are killed and the remainder are surrounded and captured . Indy , Willie , and Shorty return victoriously to the village with the children and give the missing stone back to the villagers . = = Cast = = Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones : An archaeologist adventurer who is asked by a desperate Indian village to retrieve a mysterious stone and rescue the missing village children . Ford undertook a strict physical exercise regimen headed by Jake Steinfeld to gain a more muscular tone for the part . Kate Capshaw as Wilhelmina " Willie " Scott : An American nightclub singer working in Shanghai . Willie is unprepared for her adventure with Indy and Short Round , and appears to be a damsel in distress . She also forms a romantic relationship with Indy . Over 120 actresses auditioned for the role , including Sharon Stone . To prepare for the role , Capshaw watched The African Queen and A Guy Named Joe . Spielberg wanted Willie to be a complete contrast to Marion Ravenwood from Raiders of the Lost Ark , so Capshaw dyed her brown hair blonde for the part . Costume designer Anthony Powell wanted the character to have red hair . Amrish Puri as Mola Ram : A demonic Thuggee priest who performs rituals of human sacrifices . The character is named after a 17th @-@ century Indian painter . Lucas wanted Mola Ram to be terrifying , so the screenwriters added elements of Aztec and Hawaiian human sacrificers , and European devil worship to the character . To create his headdress , make @-@ up artist Tom Smith based the skull on a cow ( as this would be sacrilegious ) , and used a latex shrunken head . Jonathan Ke Quan as Short Round : Indy 's eleven @-@ year @-@ old Chinese sidekick , who drives the 1936 Auburn Boat Tail Speedster which allows Indy to escape during the opening sequence . Quan was chosen as part of a casting call in Los Angeles . Around 6000 actors auditioned worldwide for the part : Quan was cast after his brother auditioned for the role . Spielberg liked his personality , so he and Ford improvised the scene where Short Round accuses Indy of cheating during a card game . He was credited by his birthname , Ke Huy Quan . Roshan Seth as Chattar Lal : The Prime Minister of the Maharaja of Pankot . Chattar , also a Thuggee worshiper , is enchanted by Indy , Willie and Short Round 's arrival , but is offended by Indy 's questioning of the palace 's history and the archaeologist 's own dubious past . Philip Stone as Captain Philip Blumburtt : A British Indian Army Captain called to Pankot Palace for " exercises " . Alongside a unit of his riflemen , Blumburtt assists Indy towards the end in fighting off Thuggee reinforcements . David Niven was attached to the role but died before filming began . Roy Chiao as Lao Che : A Shanghai crime boss who , with his sons , hires Indy to recover the cremated ashes of one of his ancestors , only to attempt to kill him and cheat him out of his fee , a large diamond . David Yip as Wu Han : A friend of Indy . He is killed by one of Lao Che 's sons while posing as a waiter at Club Obi Wan . Raj Singh as Zalim Singh : The adolescent Maharajá of Pankot , who appears as an innocent puppet of the Thuggee faithful . In the end , he helps to defeat them . D. R. Nanayakkara as Shaman : The leader of a small village that recruits Indy to retrieve their stolen sacred Shiva lingam stone Actor Pat Roach plays the Thuggee overseer in the mines . Spielberg , Lucas , Marshall , Kennedy , and Dan Aykroyd have cameos at the airport . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = When George Lucas first approached Steven Spielberg for Raiders of the Lost Ark , Spielberg recalled , " George said if I directed the first one then I would have to direct a trilogy . He had three stories in mind . It turned out George did not have three stories in mind and we had to make up subsequent stories . " Spielberg and Lucas attributed the film 's tone , which was darker than Raiders of the Lost Ark , to their personal moods following the breakups of their relationships ( George with his wife , and Spielberg with his girlfriend ) . In addition , Lucas felt " it had to have been a dark film . The way Empire Strikes Back was the dark second act of the Star Wars trilogy . " Lucas made the film a prequel as he did not want the Nazis to be the villains once more . Spielberg originally wanted to bring Marion Ravenwood back , with Abner Ravenwood being considered as a possible character . Lucas created an opening chase scene that had Indiana Jones on a motorcycle on the Great Wall of China . In addition , Indiana discovered a " Lost World pastiche with a hidden valley inhabited by dinosaurs " . Chinese authorities refused to allow filming , and Lucas considered the Monkey King as the plot device . Lucas wrote a film treatment that included a haunted castle in Scotland , but Spielberg felt it was too similar to Poltergeist . The haunted castle in Scotland slowly transformed into a demonic temple in India . Lucas came up with ideas that involved a religious cult devoted to child slavery , black magic and ritual human sacrifice . Lawrence Kasdan of Raiders of the Lost Ark was asked to write the script . " I didn 't want to be associated with Temple of Doom , " he reflected . " I just thought it was horrible . It 's so mean . There 's nothing pleasant about it . I think Temple of Doom represents a chaotic period in both their [ Lucas and Spielberg ] lives , and the movie is very ugly and mean @-@ spirited . " Lucas hired Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz to write the script because of their knowledge of Indian culture . Gunga Din served as an influence for the film . Huyck and Katz spent four days at Skywalker Ranch for story discussions with Lucas and Spielberg in early @-@ 1982 . They later said the early plot consisted of two notions of Lucas ' : that Indy would recover something stolen from a village and decide whether to give it back , and that the picture would start in China and work its way to India . Huyck says Lucas was very single @-@ minded about getting through meetings , while " Steve would always stop and think about visual stuff . " Lucas 's initial idea for Indiana 's sidekick was a virginal young princess , but Huyck , Katz and Spielberg disliked the idea . Just as Indiana Jones was named after Lucas 's Alaskan Malamute , Willie was named after Spielberg 's Cocker Spaniel , and Short Round was named after Huyck 's dog , whose name was derived from The Steel Helmet . Lucas handed Huyck and Katz a 20 @-@ page treatment in May 1982 titled Indiana Jones and the Temple of Death to adapt into a screenplay . Scenes such as the fight scene in Shanghai , escape from the airplane and the mine cart chase came from original scripts of Raiders of the Lost Ark . Lucas , Huyck , and Katz had been developing Radioland Murders ( 1994 ) since the early 1970s . The opening music was taken from that script and applied to Temple of Doom . Spielberg reflected , " George 's idea was to start the movie with a musical number . He wanted to do a Busby Berkeley dance number . At all our story meetings he would say , ' Hey , Steven , you always said you wanted to shoot musicals . ' I thought , ' Yeah , that could be fun . ' " Lucas , Spielberg , Katz and Huyck were concerned how to keep the audience interest while explaining the Thugee cult . Huyck and Katz proposed a tiger hunt but Spielberg said , " There 's no way I 'm going to stay in India long enough to shoot a tiger hunt . " They eventually decided on a dinner scene involving eating bugs , monkey brains and the like . " Steve and George both still react like children , so their idea was to make it as gross as possible , " says Katz . Lucas sent Huyck and Katz a 500 @-@ page transcript of their taped conversations to help them with the script . The first draft was written in six weeks , in early @-@ August 1982 . " Steve was coming off an enormously successful movie and George didn 't want to lose him , " said Katz . " He desperately wanted him to direct ( Temple of Doom ) . We were under a lot of pressure to do it really , really fast so we could hold on to Steve . " A second draft was finished by September . Captain Blumburtt , Chattar Lal , and the boy Maharaja originally had more crucial roles . A dogfight was deleted , as well as those who drank the Kali blood turned into zombies with physical superhuman abilities . During pre @-@ production , the Temple of Death title was replaced with Temple of Doom . From March — April 1983 , Huyck and Katz simultaneously performed rewrites for a final shooting script . Huyck and Katz later said Harrison Ford took many of the one liners originally given to Short Round . = = = Filming = = = Huyck later recalled " at one point when we were writing it we told George “ We know a lot of Indians . We 've been there ... I don 't think they 're going to think this is really so cool . Do you think you 're going to have trouble shooting there ? ” He said , “ Are you kidding ? It 's me and Steve . " Months later they called and said , “ We can 't shoot in India . They 're really upset . ” So they shot in Sri Lanka and London , mostly . ” The filmmakers were denied permission to film in North India and Amer Fort due to the government finding the script offensive . The government demanded many script changes , rewritings and final cut privilege . As a result , location work went to Kandy , Sri Lanka , with matte paintings and scale models applied for the village , temple , and Pankot Palace . Budgetary inflation also caused Temple of Doom to cost $ 28 @.@ 17 million , $ 8 million more than Raiders of the Lost Ark . Filming began on April 18 , 1983 in Kandy , and moved to Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire , England on May 5 . Producer Frank Marshall recalled , " when filming the bug scenes , crew members would go home and find bugs in their hair , clothes and shoes . " Eight out of the nine sound stages at Elstree housed the filming of Temple of Doom . Lucas biographer Marcus Hearn observed , " Douglas Slocombe 's skillful lighting helped disguise the fact that about 80 percent of the film was shot with sound stages . " Danny Daniels choreographed the opening music number " Anything Goes " . Capshaw learned to sing in Mandarin and took tap dance lessons . However , when wearing her dress , which was too tight , Capshaw was not able to tap dance . Made of the 1920s and 1930s original beads , the dress was one of a kind . The opening dance number was actually the last scene to be shot , but the dress did feature in some earlier location shots in Sri Lanka , drying on a nearby tree . Unfortunately an elephant had started to eat it , but some was salvaged . Consequently , some emergency repair work had to be done with what remained of the original beads , and it was costume designer Anthony Powell who had to fill in the insurance forms . As to the reason for damage , he had no option but to put " dress eaten by elephant " . Norman Reynolds could not return for Temple of Doom because of his commitment to Return of the Jedi . Elliot Scott ( Labyrinth , Who Framed Roger Rabbit ) , Reynolds ' mentor , was hired . To build the rope bridge the filmmakers found a group of British engineers working on the nearby Balfour Beatty dam . Harrison Ford suffered a severe spinal disc herniation by performing a somersault while filming the scene with the assassin in Jones ' bedroom . A hospital bed was brought on set for Ford to rest between takes . Lucas stated , " He could barely stand up , yet he was there every day so shooting would not stop . He was in incomprehensible pain , but he was still trying to make it happen . " With no alternatives , Lucas shut down production while Ford was flown to Centinela Hospital on June 21 for recovery . Stunt double Vic Armstrong spent five weeks as a stand @-@ in for various shots . Wendy Leech , Armstrong 's wife , served as Capshaw 's stunt double . Macau was substituted for Shanghai , while cinematographer Douglas Slocombe caught fever from June 24 to July 7 and could not work . Ford returned on August 8 . Despite the problems during filming , Spielberg was able to complete Temple of Doom on schedule and on budget , finishing principal photography on August 26 . Various pick @-@ ups took place afterwards . This included Snake River Canyon , in Idaho , Mammoth Mountain , Tuolumne and American River , Yosemite National Park , San Joaquin Valley , Hamilton Air Force Base and Arizona . Producer Frank Marshall directed a second unit in Florida in January 1984 , using alligators to double as crocodiles . The mine chase was a combination of a roller coaster and scale models with dolls doubling for the actors . Minor stop motion was also used for the sequence . Visual effects supervisors Dennis Muren , Joe Johnston and a crew at Industrial Light & Magic provided the visual effects work , while Skywalker Sound , headed by Ben Burtt , commissioned the sound design . Burtt recorded Willie Scott 's scream and roller coasters at Disneyland Park in Anaheim for the mine cart scene . = = = Editing = = = " After I showed the film to George [ Lucas ] , at an hour and 55 minutes , we looked at each other , " Spielberg remembered . " The first thing that we said was , ' Too fast ' . We needed to decelerate the action . I did a few more matte shots to slow it down . We made it a little bit slower , by putting breathing room back in so there 'd be a two @-@ hour oxygen supply for the audience . " = = Release = = = = = Box office = = = Temple of Doom was released on May 23 , 1984 in America , accumulating a record @-@ breaking $ 45 @.@ 7 million in its first week . The film went on to gross $ 333 @.@ 1 million worldwide , with $ 180 million in North America and $ 153 @.@ 1 million in other markets . The film had the highest opening weekend of 1984 , and was that year 's highest grossing film ( third in North America , behind Beverly Hills Cop and Ghostbusters ) . It was also the tenth highest grossing film of all time during its release . It sold an estimated 53 @,@ 532 @,@ 800 tickets in the US . = = = Promotion = = = Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer David Michelinie and artists Jackson Guice , Ian Akin , Brian Garvey , and Bob Camp . It was published as Marvel Super Special # 30 and as a three @-@ issue limited series . LucasArts and Atari Games promoted the film by releasing an arcade game . Hasbro released a toy line based on the film in September 2008 . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = The film received mixed reviews upon its release , but over the years the film 's reception has shifted to a more positive tone . American Movie Classics considers Temple of Doom to be one of 1984 's best films . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 85 % , based on 63 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " It may be too " dark " for some , but Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom remains an ingenious adventure spectacle that showcases one of Hollywood 's finest filmmaking teams in vintage form . " On Metacritic the film has a rating of 57 out of 100 , based on 14 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . Roger Ebert gave the film a perfect four star rating , calling it " the most cheerfully exciting , bizarre , goofy , romantic adventure movie since Raiders , and it is high praise to say that it 's not so much a sequel as an equal . It 's quite an experience . " Vincent Canby felt the film was " too shapeless to be the fun that Raiders is , but shape may be beside the point . Old @-@ time , 15 @-@ part movie serials didn 't have shape . They just went on and on and on , which is what Temple of Doom does with humor and technical invention . " Neal Gabler commented that " I think in some ways , Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom was better than Raiders of the Lost Ark . In some ways it was less . In sum total , I 'd have to say I enjoyed it more . That doesn 't mean it 's better necessarily , but I got more enjoyment out of it . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune called the film " sillier , darkly violent and a bit dumbed down , but still great fun . " Pauline Kael , writing in The New Yorker , claimed it was " one of the most sheerly pleasurable physical comedies ever made . " Halliwell 's Film Guide described the film as a " slow @-@ starting adventure romp with much ingenuity and too much brutality and horror . " Dave Kehr gave a largely negative review ; " The film betrays no human impulse higher than that of a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy trying to gross out his baby sister by dangling a dead worm in her face . " Ralph Novak of People complained " The ads that say ' this film may be too intense for younger children ' are fraudulent . No parent should allow a young child to see this traumatizing movie ; it would be a cinematic form of child abuse . Even Harrison Ford is required to slap Quan and abuse Capshaw . There are no heroes connected with the film , only two villains ; their names are Steven Spielberg and George Lucas . " The Observer described it as " a thin , arch , graceless affair . " The Guardian summarized it as " a two @-@ hour series of none too carefully linked chase sequences ... sitting on the edge of your seat gives you a sore bum but also a numb brain . " Leonard Maltin gave the movie only 2 out of 4 stars , saying that the film " never gives us a chance to breathe " and chiding the " ' gross @-@ out ' gags . " Kate Capshaw called her character " not much more than a dumb screaming blonde . " Steven Spielberg said in 1989 , " I wasn 't happy with Temple of Doom at all . It was too dark , too subterranean , and much too horrific . I thought it out @-@ poltered Poltergeist . There 's not an ounce of my own personal feeling in Temple of Doom . " He later added during the Making of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom documentary , " Temple of Doom is my least favorite of the trilogy . I look back and I say , ' Well the greatest thing that I got out of that was I met Kate Capshaw . We married years later and that to me was the reason I was fated to make Temple of Doom . " The film 's depiction of Hindus caused controversy in India , and brought it to the attention of the country 's censors , who placed a temporary ban on it . The depiction of the goddess Kali as a representative of the underworld and evil was met with much criticism , as she is almost exclusively depicted as a goddess of change and empowerment ( Shakti ) , meaning that while she does destroy , she almost always does so in order to effect positive change . The depiction of Indian cuisine was also criticized , as dishes such as baby snakes , eyeball soup , beetles and chilled monkey brains are not actual Indian foods . Shashi Tharoor has condemned the film and has criticised numerous parts of the film as offensive and factually inaccurate . Yvette Rosser has criticized the film for contributing to negative stereotypes of Indians in Western society , writing " [ it ] seems to have been taken as a valid portrayal of India by many teachers , since a large number of students surveyed complained that teachers referred to the eating of monkey brains . " In 2014 , Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films . Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom was listed at 71st place on this list . = = = Awards = = = Dennis Muren and Industrial Light & Magic 's visual effects department won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 57th Academy Awards . Soundtrack composer John Williams was , as he had been for his work on Raiders of the Lost Ark , again nominated for Original Music Score . The visual effects crew won the same category at the 38th British Academy Film Awards . Cinematographer Douglas Slocombe , editor Michael Kahn , Ben Burtt and other sound designers at Skywalker Sound received nominations . Spielberg , the writers , Harrison Ford , Jonathan Ke Quan , Anthony Powell and makeup designer Tom Smith were nominated for their work at the Saturn Awards . Temple of Doom was nominated for Best Fantasy Film but lost to Ghostbusters .
= St Catherine 's Castle = St Catherine 's Castle ( Cornish : Kastel S. Kattrin ) is a Henrician castle in Cornwall , built by Thomas Treffry between approximately 1538 and 1540 , in response to fears of an invasion of England by France and the Holy Roman Empire . The D @-@ shaped , stone fortification , equipped with five gun @-@ ports for cannon , overlooked the mouth of the River Fowey in Cornwall . It was protected by a curtain wall and the surrounding cliffs . The castle remained in use for many years until it was closed at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 . Brought back into service in 1855 during the Crimean War , it was fitted with two new artillery positions , but it soon became obsolete and was abandoned . During the Second World War the castle was refortified and used to house a battery of naval guns , protecting the coast against the threat of German attack . At the end of the conflict the castle was restored to its previous condition and is now managed by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . = = History = = = = = Construction = = = St Catherine 's Castle was built as a consequence of the international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale . In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul his long @-@ standing marriage to Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England now appeared certain and Henry began to improve his coastal defences . In response to this situation , a small , D @-@ shaped stone fortification was built to protect Fowey Harbour in Cornwall , then an important centre for trade . The harbour was reached through the Fowey estuary , which the local town had protected in the previous century with two blockhouses positioned along the river 's edge — the Fowey and Polruan blockhouses — and a boom chain strung between them . The new castle replaced these and was located high on the headland overlooking the entrance to the estuary itself , St Catherine 's Point , from which it took its name . Construction work began on the castle at some point between 1538 and 1540 , under the direction of a member of the local Cornish gentry , Thomas Treffry . By 1540 , a map of the local defences described the castle as only " half @-@ made " ; when the antiquarian John Leland visited what he described as a blockhouse in 1542 , he was hosted by Treffry , and afterwards recorded that the construction had been funded partly by Treffry and partly by the local town . = = = Later use = = = St Catherine 's Castle remained in use for many years . During the English Civil War of the 1640s , it was held by the Royalist supporters of King Charles I against Parliament ; in 1684 the local burgesses reported that the fortification was in a " runious " state . The antiquarian Francis Grose visited the castle in 1786 and noted that the fortification was still being maintained at the expense of the local town . He praised its " picturesque and romantic " position but concluded that the building itself was of " little importance , either to antiquity or architecture " . At this time the castle was equipped with six cannons and it continued to be used as a battery until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 . After the Crimean War broke out in 1853 , fresh concerns of invasion were raised and the coastline was refortified . The castle was redeveloped as part of this work in 1855 , and two new gun positions built around the old blockhouse . In 1887 , the castle was equipped with 64 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) rifled , muzzle @-@ loading artillery pieces , supported by volunteer forces and used for training purposes , but the weaponry became obsolete and the site had fallen out of use again by the end of the century . The castle was brought back into use in the Second World War by the British Southern Command to defend the coast against German attack . In June 1940 it was re @-@ equipped as a gun battery and observation post , with additional concrete defences laid around the position . Two 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) naval guns were installed in one of the 19th century firing positions and in a new gun position built 50 metres ( 160 ft ) to the west of the castle ; these were supplemented by a French 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun , and the old blockhouse itself was used to control a minefield in the estuary below . The guns were manned first by the 364 Coast Battery of the Royal Artillery and then by the 379 Battery of the 557 Coast Regiment , but the battery was retired from active operations in November 1943 . After 1945 the entire fort was decommissioned and the newer defences removed . In the 21st century , the castle is operated by the heritage organisation English Heritage as a tourist attraction and is protected under UK law as a Grade 2 * listed building and scheduled monument . = = Architecture = = The 16th century blockhouse is a two @-@ storey , D @-@ shaped design , 5 by 4 @.@ 4 metres ( 16 by 14 ft ) internally , with walls of slate rubble up to 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 ft 5 in ) thick resting on a platform cut out of the bedrock . The ground floor originally had three semi @-@ circular gun @-@ ports overlooking the sea and the estuary , although one has since been blocked up . On the first floor were two more gun @-@ ports — one now filled in — and smaller windows that could have been used for smaller gunpowder weapons . The building had a fireplace and chimney , with a small guard chamber by the entrance , and was topped by a parapet walk . The blockhouse overlooks the sea and the estuary from its position on a rocky outcrop . It is surrounded by cliffs and a curtain wall , enclosing a semi @-@ circular area around 500 square metres ( 5 @,@ 400 sq ft ) in size , incorporating slits for firing muskets . A rectangular bastion , 5 @.@ 7 by 3 @.@ 2 metres ( 19 by 10 ft ) internally with 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 ft 6 in ) thick walls , protects the rear of the blockhouse . The original pathway to the blockhouse was blocked by later work , and the current steps up to the building are of 19th century origin . A flat @-@ roofed magazine was cut out of the rock just below the blockhouse in the 19th century , and a gun platform with two circular recesses for gun carriage rails was constructed , protected by a granite parapet . The curtain wall was reworked in this period and marked by plaques labelled " WD 1855 " . The recesses and marks from the additional defences in the Second War can still be seen in places along the gun platform .
= Cruachan Power Station = The Cruachan Power Station ( also known as the Cruachan Dam ) is a pumped @-@ storage hydroelectric power station in Argyll and Bute , Scotland . The turbine hall is located inside Ben Cruachan , and the scheme takes water between Cruachan Reservoir to Loch Awe , a height difference of 396 metres ( 1 @,@ 299 ft ) . It is one of only four pumped storage power stations in the UK , and is capable of providing a black start capability to the National Grid . Construction began in 1959 to coincide with the Hunterston A nuclear power station in Ayrshire . Cruachan uses cheap off @-@ peak electricity generated at night to pump water to the higher reservoir , which can then be released during the day to provide power as necessary . The power station is open to visitors , and around 50 @,@ 000 tourists visit it each year . = = Location = = The power station is on the A85 road , about 8 km or 5 miles west of Dalmally , on a branch of Loch Awe leading to the River Awe , which is the outflow from the loch , at its NW corner . There is a seasonally open Falls of Cruachan railway station nearby . = = History = = Construction commenced in 1959 , and the power station was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 15 October 1965 . The concept was designed by Sir Edward MacColl , who died before it opened . The civil engineering works of the scheme were by James Williamson & Partners of Glasgow , and the main project contractors were William Tawse of Aberdeen and Edmund Nuttall of Camberley . Consultant electrical engineers were Merz & McLellan of Newcastle on Tyne . At the peak of the construction , there were around 4 @,@ 000 people working on the project . Thirty @-@ six men died in the construction of the power station and dam , and the cost of the scheme was GB £ 24 @.@ 5 million . Cruachan was one of the first reversible pumped @-@ storage systems , where the same turbines are used as both pumps and generators . Previous pumped @-@ storage systems used separate pumps with a network of pipes to return water to the upper reservoir , making them much more expensive to build than conventional hydroelectric systems . Cruachan is predated by the smaller 232 megawatts ( 311 @,@ 000 hp ) Lünerseewerk ( de ) of 1958 and the 360 megawatts ( 480 @,@ 000 hp ) Ffestiniog Power Station of 1963 . It is one of four pumped storage schemes in the UK . Its construction was linked to that of Hunterston A nuclear power station , to store surplus night @-@ time nuclear generated electrical energy . The power station was originally operated by the North of Scotland Hydro @-@ Electric Board , before being transferred to the South of Scotland Electricity Board . It has been owned by Scottish Power since the privatisation of Britain 's electricity industry in 1990 , and they are looking to increase capacity to 1 @,@ 040 MW . Its early life was fraught with technical difficulties , but the size of the maintenance team has been reduced from 30 in 1989 to 12 in 2010 . Maintenance of the penstocks , which formerly required them to be drained , is now done using a remotely operated underwater vehicle . In 2015 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the station 's opening a BBC radio documentary " Inside the rock " covered the history of construction . BBC documentary ' Inside the Rock' = = Design = = The Cruachan station temporarily stores energy at times of low demand , and releases it at times of high demand , when electricity prices are higher , reducing the maximum power that must be provided by power stations . It is also used to cope with sudden surges in the demand for electricity , such as at the end of television programmes . Despite the use of some rainwater , Cruachan is not a net generator of electricity : it uses more energy for pumping water and spinning its turbines than it generates . Water is pumped from Loch Awe to the upper reservoir , 396 metres ( 1 @,@ 299 ft ) above , during periods of low energy use ( such as at night ) , and then released during the day . The upper reservoir also receives rainwater , supplemented by a network of 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) of tunnels . Around 10 % of the energy from the station is generated from rainwater ; the rest is from the water pumped up from Loch Awe . The station is capable of generating 440 megawatts ( 590 @,@ 000 hp ) of electricity from four turbines , two of 100 megawatts ( 130 @,@ 000 hp ) and two of 120 megawatts ( 160 @,@ 000 hp ) capacity , after two units were upgraded in 2005 . It can go from standby to full production in two minutes , or thirty seconds if compressed air is used to start the turbines spinning . When the top reservoir is full , Cruachan can operate for 22 hours before the supply of water is exhausted . At full power , the turbines can pump at 167 cubic metres ( 5 @,@ 900 cu ft ) per second and generate at 200 cubic metres ( 7 @,@ 100 cu ft ) per second . The power station is required to keep a 12 @-@ hour emergency water supply in order to provide a black start capability to the National Grid , to enable utilities to be restarted without access to external power . = = = Turbine hall = = = There are four Francis turbines , which operate as both pumps and generators . These are housed in a cavern within Ben Cruachan , which is 91 @.@ 5 metres ( 300 ft ) long , 23 @.@ 5 metres ( 77 ft ) wide and 38 metres ( 125 ft ) high , with an adjacent transformer hall . The chamber is at a depth of around 300 metres ( 980 ft ) , and is located within a hard granite intrusion . Construction of the power station required the removal of 220 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 7 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of rock . Access to the hall is gained by a road tunnel 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) long , 4 metres ( 13 ft ) high and 7 metres ( 23 ft ) wide , which is warm and humid enough to allow tropical plants to grow . The transformers step up the voltage from 16 kV to 275 kV for transmission . Six oil @-@ filled cables carry the electric current up a cable shaft to a point in front of the dam , and from there it is carried on pylons to Dalmally 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) to the east . The staircase in the cable shaft has 1 @,@ 420 steps , making it the tallest in Britain . After passing through the turbines , the water enters a surge chamber designed to balance fluctuations in the level of water before entering the tailrace tunnel to Loch Awe , which is 7 metres ( 23 ft ) in diameter and 935 metres ( 3 @,@ 068 ft ) long . = = = Reservoir = = = The Cruachan Reservoir is 396 metres ( 1 @,@ 299 ft ) above Loch Awe , and is contained by a dam 316 metres ( 1 @,@ 037 ft ) long . The reservoir has a catchment area of 23 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , and is capable of holding 7 gigawatt @-@ hours ( 25 TJ ) of energy . Environmental restrictions meant that the dam had to have a " clean " structure , so the operational equipment is located within the dam wall itself . The penstocks are a pair of tunnels , 260 metres ( 850 ft ) long and inclined at 56 ° from the horizontal with a 5 @.@ 3 metres ( 17 ft ) diameter , which then bifurcate into four steel lined 190 metres ( 620 ft ) long , 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) diameter shafts . The penstocks underwent a major inspection and refurbishment in 2003 . = = Tourist attraction = = The power station was listed by the conservation organisation DoCoMoMo as one of the sixty key monuments of post @-@ war Scottish architecture . In November 2012 , the power station received the Institution of Mechanical Engineers ' Engineering Heritage Award . A visitor centre , refurbished in 2009 , is situated at the outflow to Loch Awe and receives around 50 @,@ 000 visitors a year . The power station houses a three @-@ section 48 by 12 foot ( 14 @.@ 6 m × 3 @.@ 7 m ) modernist mural in wood , plastic and gold leaf by English artist Elizabeth Falconer . The mural includes Celtic crosses , pylons , mythical beasts , and men of industry . The first section depicts the mythical Cailleach Bheur , who guarded the spring underneath the mountain . The middle panel commemorates fifteen workers killed when the roof of the turbine hall collapsed , and the final section shows the station working .
= New Guinea crocodile = The New Guinea crocodile ( Crocodylus novaeguineae ) is a small species of crocodile found on the island of New Guinea where there are two geographically isolated populations to the north and south of the mountain ridge that runs along the centre of the island . In the past it included the Philippine crocodile , C. n. mindorensis , as a subspecies , but today they are regarded as separate species . The habitat of the New Guinea crocodile is mostly freshwater swamps and lakes . It is most active at night when it feeds on fish and a range of other small animals . A female crocodile lays a clutch of eggs in a nest composed of vegetation and she lies up nearby to guard the nest . There is some degree of parental care for newly hatched juveniles . This crocodile was over @-@ hunted for its valuable skin in the mid 20th century , but conservation measures have since been put in place , it is reared in ranches and the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) lists it as being of " Least Concern " . = = Taxonomy and etymology = = The New Guinea crocodile was first described by the American herpetologist Karl Patterson Schmidt in 1928 as Crocodylus novaeguineae . At one time it was thought that there were two subspecies , C. n. novaeguineae , the New Guinea crocodile native to Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea , and C. n. mindorensis , the Philippine crocodile , native to several islands including Busuanga , Luzon , Masbate , Mindoro , Negros , Samar and Mindanao . Most authorities now consider that the Philippine crocodile is an entirely separate species . In fact DNA sequencing data reported in 2011 has shown that the Philippine crocodile is paraphyletic with regard to the New Guinea crocodile , and that the latter constitutes a population within the Philippine crocodile . The genus name Crocodylus comes from the Greek kroko which means a pebble and deilos , a worm or man , referring to the knobbly appearance of the dorsal surface of the reptile . The specific epithet novaeguineae is from the Latin and means " of New Guinea " . Other common names for this crocodile include New Guinea freshwater crocodile , Singapore large grain , Puk Puk , Buaya air tawar and Wahne huala . = = = Phylogeny = = = The cladogram below follows the topology from a 2011 analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences by Robert W. Meredith , Evon R. Hekkala , George Amato and John Gatesy . = = Characteristics = = The New Guinea crocodile grows to a length of up to 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) for males and 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) for females , although most specimens are smaller . The body ranges from grey to brown in colour , with darker bandings on the tail and body which become less noticeable as the animal grows . Longitudinal ridges in front of the eyes and some granular scales on the back of the neck between four large scales are distinctive features of this species . There are some differences between the northerly and southerly populations in the morphology of the skull and the arrangement of the scales . The snout is pointed and relatively narrow during juvenile stages and becomes wider as the animal matures . The New Guinea crocodile bears a physical similarity to the nearby Philippine crocodile ( C. mindorensis ) and Siamese crocodile ( C. siamensis ) . The colouring is similar to that of the freshwater crocodile ( Crocodylus johnsoni ) of northern Australia , but the snout is somewhat shorter and broader . = = Distribution and habitat = = This crocodile is to be found in the freshwater swamps , marshes and lakes of New Guinea , particularly in the interior . It has been known to enter brackish waters such as those of the Fly River estuary but is very rare in coastal areas , and never found in the presence of the competing saltwater crocodile ( C. porosus ) . The animal was first described from the Sepik River area in the north of Papua New Guinea . A separate population is found in the southern half of the island , with a range that extends from southeastern Papua New Guinea to the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua . It is separated from the northern population by the mountain range that runs along the centre of the island . DNA analysis has revealed these to be genetically separate populations . There are estimated to be between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 New Guinea crocodiles in the wild . = = Behaviour = = New Guinea crocodiles have a mostly aquatic lifestyle and are largely nocturnal . They spend much of the day underwater , often with their nostrils and eyes above the surface . Powerful side @-@ to @-@ side movements of their tails propel them through the water and they use both tail and legs to steer . When on land , they favour shady , dense areas of undergrowth . They tend to bask in a group during the day , dispersing at night to feed . Females become sexually mature when about 1 @.@ 6 to 2 metres ( 5 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in ) long and males at about 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) . Eggs are laid about 14 days after mating . In the northern population , breeding takes place during the dry season between August and October . A floating nest composed of vegetation is made in a shallow water location such as in an overgrown channel , at the edge of a lake , on a scroll swale or beside a stream . A clutch of between 22 and 45 eggs is laid and covered with further vegetation . In the southern population , the wet season is chosen for reproduction . The nest is sometimes built in a similar locations to the northern nests , but is more often on land , and a smaller number of rather larger eggs is laid . In both populations , the mother stays near the nest during the incubation period , which lasts about 80 days . When the eggs start to hatch , the emerging young are quite vocal , and both male and female crocodiles have been observed transporting hatching and newly hatched young to open water , carrying them delicately in their mouths . Newly hatched New Guinea crocodiles feed on aquatic insects , spiders , tadpoles , freshwater snails , frogs , fish and small mammals . As they grow , so does the size of their prey and their consumption of fish rises , but they still will eat anything of a worthwhile size that they can find . An adult 's diet is largely fish , caught by sweeping the snout sideways and snapping at the prey , but also includes shrimps , crabs , frogs , snakes , birds and medium @-@ sized mammals . A crocodile catches its prey by stealth with a flick of its head , impaling it with its sharp teeth and gripping and crushing it . The jaws cannot move sideways to chew the food ; instead , the crocodile 's head is tossed to move the prey to the back of the mouth before the prey is swallowed whole . This crocodile is surprisingly agile and can lunge its body upward into the air to catch bats , flying birds , and leaping fish . It can also probe into the mud at the bottom of river or swamp with its snout to search for crabs and molluscs . Adult and young New Guinea crocodiles have a range of vocalisations . An adult female can produce a repeated throaty " roar " when approached by another adult . The young start communicating with each other while still in the egg ; this may help synchronise hatching . Newly hatched juveniles use various yelps and grunts . When startled , a warning sound emitted by one will send all the juveniles diving to the bottom of the water . Adults in the vicinity respond with growls , threats , and attacks . The distress noises of a youngster when handled at a ranching facility was observed to cause all the larger animals to become involved in frenzied activity , with some rushing towards the juvenile and others thrashing about in the water and slapping their heads down on the surface . = = Status and conservation = = The IUCN listed this crocodile as being " Vulnerable " in its Red List of Threatened Species in 1986 and 1988 , but changed the assessment to " Least Concern " in 1996 . At the time it was stated that the animal has a large area of suitable habitat and seemed to be plentiful . Its status has not been reassessed since then . It is included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) . The skin of the New Guinea crocodile is valuable and in the 1950s and 1960s the animals in the northern population were heavily hunted to a point where they might have become extinct . Around 1970 , legislation was put in place and they received some protection . In the period 1977 to 1980 , the harvest of wild skins was over 20 @,@ 000 per year but in the 1980s this declined to 12 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 . As well as this , some 2 @,@ 500 to 10 @,@ 000 eggs and hatchlings were collected annually to raise on ranches . However , in 1995 , the largest ranch on the island initiated a change of strategy to concentrate on raising the saltwater crocodile , and demand for the eggs and juveniles of the New Guinea crocodile dried up . Since then , cropping of wild animals has been controlled in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea . In the former it is limited to a belly width of 25 to 51 cm ( 10 to 20 in ) for wet skins and in the latter to salted skins with a belly width of 18 to 51 cm ( 7 to 20 in ) . Some eggs and hatchlings are still removed from the nest and raised in enclosures and a similar programme has more recently been initiated for southern populations .
= Britten family = The Brittens are a family of fictional characters featured in the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake . The Brittens are a nuclear family consisting of the married couple Michael and Hannah and their child son Rex . The family was involved in a car crash , which caused Michael , to live in two separate realities , one in which his wife Hannah was killed in the crash , and in the other his son Rex was killed . The main characters reside in Los Angeles , California , in the United States , and were created by series executive producer and writer Kyle Killen , who conceived the idea after creating and developing Lone Star for the Fox network . The portrayal of the Britten family was praised by television critics . Alongside the three main family members , several other characters were mentioned . = = Main family = = The Brittens are a family who live in Los Angeles , California , in the United States , at an unknown address . Michael , the father , works at the Los Angeles Police Department as a police detective , alongside his partner Isaiah Freeman , who he calls Bird . After a car crash , Michael , the father , has to live in two separate realities , one in which his wife Hannah was killed in the crash , and in the other his son Rex was the one killed . Also , in one reality , his now works with a new rookie partner Efrem Vega , where Isaiah goes to work in the Western Division with Ed Hawkins . In the other reality , he is still partnered with Bird . He see two two separate therapists : Dr. John Lee in one reality , and Dr. Judith Evans in the other . Michael is married to Hannah , an American housewife and mother . They have one son child : Rex , a school teenager who is very emotional , rude , and gets low grades after Hannah 's death in that reality . His best friend is Cole , whom he works on a motorbike with . The family owns a Chevrolet as a vehicle . = = = Creation = = = Killen conceived of the idea for the Brittens after creating and developing Lone Star for the Fox network . NBC had encouraged Killen to conceive a concept for a future television series after Lone Star 's cancellation . Within a few weeks , Killen sent a rough draft of the script to his agent Marc Korman . " It was 1 or 2 o 'clock in the morning , and I remember I was so freaked out by the script that I went upstairs to our guest bedroom where my wife was sick with the flu and I got into bed with her , " recalled Korman . " I called Jen and said : ' I 'm telling you , this script is remarkable . I 've never read a pilot like this , and for a guy who has never written a procedural show in his life , he 's actually making two cases work " . Initially , Salke and Korman looked to sell acquisition rights to Fox . The Britten family debuted on March 1 , 2012 , in " Pilot " , on the American police procedural drama television series Awake , which is a one @-@ hour series broadcast on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) . They last appeared on television on the same network , on May 24 , 2012 , in " Turtles All the Way Down " . = = = Casting = = = In February 2011 , Jason Isaacs obtained the role of Michael Britten , the central character of the series . Gordon summated the premise of the character : " He 's a guy who goes to sleep , wakes up , he ’ s with his wife , goes to sleep , wakes up , and he 's with his son . And so — and he 's a cop who sees clues and details that crossover from one world to the next , and he uses that insight to solve crimes . " Killen thought that the premise behind the series would be relatable to audiences , making it easier to broader his fanbase . " I think there were aspects of Lone Star that were more difficult to get a wider , broader audience interested in , " he articulated . " [ The main character ] was somebody that you couldn ’ t decide if you liked or hated , and I think that Britten 's dilemma is something that we ’ re not only sympathetic for , but somehow we want him to win . " The succeeding month , Laura Allen was approached by producers to play Hannah Britten . Michaela McManus initially received the role , but was later given the role of Tara , whom Allen originally auditioned to play . In March 2011 , Dylan Minnette was cast as Rex Britten . Minnette commended the episode 's script , and noted the auditioning sequence was fast . He stated , " The process of getting the job actually went by really fast because the first audition Kyle Killen [ ... ] was in the room , Jason [ Isaacs ] was in the room , the cast director was in the room and the director was in the room . David Slade . And they were all there , for the first audition and I was like ' Wow ! Okay . ' " Minnette received the role two weeks after his audition . = = = Michael Britten = = = Michael Britten , portrayed by Jason Isaacs , is the father of the Britten family . He is married to Hannah , and has to live in two separate realities , after a car crash , one in which his wife Hannah was killed in the crash , and in the other his son Rex was the one killed . Also , in one reality , his now works with a new rookie partner Efrem Vega , where Isaiah goes to work in the Western Division with Ed Hawkins . In the other reality , he is still partnered with Bird . He see two two separate therapists : Dr. John Lee in one reality , and Dr. Judith Evans in the other . He wears a green wrist band in one reality , where Rex is alive , and a red wrist band in the other reality , where Hannah . He is seen very emotional in " Say Hello to My Little Friend " , because he doesn 't see he son . Because of his two realities , Michael now has routine to help him maintain the illusions of control . = = = Hannah Britten = = = Hannah Britten , portrayed by Laura Allen , is the well @-@ meaning and emotional wife of Michael , and the mother of her son Rex . She is alive in Michael 's " red reality " . She began to renovate their home after the car crash . Though she hardly showed it , she felt great pain and grievance over the death of Rex and was saddened by the thought of his empty room upstairs . = = = Rex Britten = = = Rex Britten , portrayed by Dylan Minnette , is Michael 's son who is featured in Michael 's " green reality " . Green is Rex 's favorite color . He is a teenage school student . Outside of school , Rex claims he is going to the beach , although he is really going to his best friend Cole 's house to work on a motorbike with him . Like Hannah , Rex is also very emotional , and often gets angry , due to Hannah 's death in the crash . He kept a tennis racket to remain , and make him deal with Hannah 's death . However , Cole accidentally broke it , Rex fights with him because of this . He later apologizes to him . He hates " cereal and soda night " because Michael doesn not cook " actual food " for dinner . Rex has an aunt named Carol , who is mentioned in " Two Birds " , in Michael 's " green reality " . She wants to spend more time with Rex since the crash . = = Reception = = The portrayal of the Britten family was praised by television critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly was keen to Isaacs ' acting in the series . " It helps enormously to have Isaacs playing the lead . This actor knows how to convey a gravity that contrasts well with the series ' airy concept , but he avoids becoming heavy and morose . " West summated that the cast " really couldn 't be better on this series " ; " Isaacs [ delivered ] a stellar performance as the intelligent detective , and loving father and husband who ’ s just trying to make sense of what ’ s going on and probably not entirely regretful to be experiencing a split reality . Cinema Blend 's Kelly West claimed that " Laura Allen and Dylan Minnette also deliver strong performances as Michael 's wife and son respectively " . Critics IGN , TV Fanatic , and the Paste magazine all argued that Jason Isaacs performance deserves an Emmy .
= Quagga = The quagga ( / ˈkwɑːxɑː / or / ˈkwæɡə / ) ( Equus quagga quagga ) is an extinct subspecies of plains zebra that lived in South Africa until the 19th century . It was long thought to be a distinct species , but genetic studies have shown it to be the southernmost subspecies of plains zebra . It is considered particularly close to Burchell 's zebra . Its name is derived from its call , which sounds like " kwa @-@ ha @-@ ha " . The quagga is believed to have been around 257 cm ( 8 ft 5 in ) long and 125 – 135 cm ( 4 ft 1 in – 4 ft 5 in ) tall at the shoulder . It was distinguished from other zebras by its limited pattern of primarily brown and white stripes , mainly on the front part of the body . The rear was brown and without stripes , and therefore more horse @-@ like . The distribution of stripes varied considerably between individuals . Little is known about the quagga 's behaviour , but it may have gathered into herds of 30 – 50 individuals . Quaggas were said to be wild and lively , yet were also considered more docile than Burchell 's zebra . They were once found in great numbers in the Karoo of Cape Province and the southern part of the Orange Free State in South Africa . After the Dutch settlement of South Africa began , the quagga was heavily hunted as it competed with domesticated animals for forage . While some individuals were taken to zoos in Europe , breeding programs were unsuccessful . The last wild population lived in the Orange Free State , and the quagga was extinct in the wild by 1878 . The last captive specimen died in Amsterdam on 12 August 1883 . Only one quagga was ever photographed alive and only 23 skins are preserved today . In 1984 , the quagga was the first extinct animal to have its DNA analysed , and the Quagga Project is trying to recreate the phenotype of hair coat pattern and related characteristics by selectively breeding Burchell 's zebras . = = Taxonomy = = The name " quagga " is derived from the Khoikhoi word for zebra and is onomatopoeic , being said to resemble the quagga 's call , variously transcribed as " kwa @-@ ha @-@ ha " , " kwahaah " , or " oug @-@ ga " . The name is still used colloquially for the plains zebra . The quagga was originally classified as a distinct species , Equus quagga , in 1778 by Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert . Traditionally , the quagga and the other plains and mountain zebras were placed in the subgenus Hippotigris . There has been much debate over the status of the quagga in relation to the plains zebra . It is poorly represented in the fossil record , and the identification of these fossils is uncertain , as they were collected at a time when the name quagga referred to all zebras . Fossil skulls of Equus mauritanicus from Algeria have been claimed to show affinities with the quagga and the plains zebra , but they may be too badly damaged to allow definite conclusions to be drawn from them . Quaggas have also been identified in cave art attributed to the San . Reginald Innes Pocock was perhaps the first to suggest that the quagga was a subspecies of plains zebra in 1902 . As the quagga was scientifically described and named before the plains zebra , the trinomial name for the quagga becomes E. quagga quagga under this scheme , and the other subspecies of plains zebra are placed under E. quagga as well . Historically , quagga taxonomy was further complicated by the fact that the extinct southernmost population of Burchell 's zebra ( Equus quagga burchellii , formerly Equus burchellii burchellii ) was thought to be a distinct subspecies ( also sometimes thought a full species , E. burchellii ) . The extant northern population , the " Damara zebra " , was later named Equus quagga antiquorum , which means that it is today also referred to as E. q. burchellii , after it was realised they were the same taxon . The extinct population was long thought very close to the quagga , since it also showed limited striping on its hind parts . As an example of this , Shortridge placed the two in the now disused subgenus Quagga in 1934 . Most experts now suggest that the two subspecies represent two ends of a cline . Different subspecies of plains zebra were recognised as members of Equus quagga by early researchers , though there was much confusion over which species were valid . Quagga subspecies were described on the basis of differences in striping patterns , but these differences were since attributed to individual variation within the same populations . Some subspecies and even species , such as E. q. danielli and Hippotigris isabellinus , were only based on illustrations ( iconotypes ) of aberrant quagga specimens . Some authors have described the quagga as a kind of wild horse rather than a zebra , and one craniometric study from 1980 seemed to confirm its affiliation with the horse ( Equus caballus ) . It has been pointed out that early morphological studies were erroneous ; using skeletons from stuffed specimens can be problematical , as early taxidermists sometimes used donkey and horse skulls inside their mounts when the originals were unavailable . = = = Evolution = = = The quagga was the first extinct animal to have its DNA analysed , and this 1984 study launched the field of ancient DNA analysis . It confirmed that the quagga was more closely related to zebras than to horses , with the quagga and mountain zebra ( Equus zebra ) sharing an ancestor 3 – 4 million years ago . An immunological study published the following year found the quagga to be closest to the plains zebra . A 1987 study suggested that the mtDNA of the quagga diverged at a range of roughly 2 % per million years , similar to other mammal species , and again confirmed the close relation to the plains zebra . Later morphological studies came to conflicting conclusions . A 1999 analysis of cranial measurements found that the quagga was as different from the plains zebra as the latter is from the mountain zebra . A 2004 study of skins and skulls instead suggested that the quagga was not a distinct species , but a subspecies of the plains zebra . In spite of these findings , many authors subsequently kept the plains zebra and the quagga as separate species . A genetic study published in 2005 confirmed the subspecific status of the quagga . It showed that the quagga had little genetic diversity , and that it diverged from the other plains zebra subspecies only between 120 @,@ 000 and 290 @,@ 000 years ago , during the Pleistocene , and possibly the penultimate glacial maximum . Its distinct coat pattern perhaps evolved rapidly because of geographical isolation and / or adaptation to a drier environment . In addition , plains zebra subspecies tend to have less striping the further south they live , and the quagga was the most southern @-@ living of them all . Other large African ungulates diverged into separate species and subspecies during this period as well , probably because of the same climate shift . The simplified cladogram below is based on the 2005 analysis ( some taxa shared haplotypes and could therefore not be differentiated ) : = = Description = = The quagga is believed to have been 257 cm ( 8 ft 5 in ) long and 125 – 135 cm ( 4 ft 1 in – 4 ft 5 in ) tall at the shoulder . Its coat pattern was unique among equids : zebra @-@ like in the front but more like a horse in the rear . It had brown and white stripes on the head and neck , brown upper parts and a white belly , tail and legs . The stripes were boldest on the head and neck and became gradually fainter further down the body , blending with the reddish brown of the back and flanks , until disappearing along the back . It appears to have had a high degree of polymorphism , with some individuals having almost no stripes and others having patterns similar to the extinct southern population of Burchell 's zebra , where the stripes covered most of the body except for the hind parts , legs and belly . It also had a broad dark dorsal stripe on its back . It had a standing mane with brown and white stripes . The only quagga to have been photographed alive was a mare at the Zoological Society of London 's Zoo . Five photographs of this specimen are known , taken between 1863 and 1870 . On the basis of photographs and written descriptions , many observers suggest that the stripes on the quagga were light on a dark background , unlike other zebras . Reinhold Rau , pioneer of the Quagga Project , claimed that this is an optical illusion : that the base colour is a creamy white and that the stripes are thick and dark . Embryological evidence supports zebras being dark coloured with white as an addition . Living in the very southern end of the plains zebra 's range , the quagga had a thick winter coat that moulted each year . Its skull was described as having a straight profile and a concave diastema , and as being relatively broad with a narrow occiput . Like other plains zebras , the quagga did not have a dewlap on its neck as the mountain zebra does . The 2004 morphological study found that the skeletal features of the southern Burchell 's zebra population and the quagga overlapped , and that they were impossible to distinguish . Some specimens also appeared to be intermediate between the two in striping , and individuals of the extant Burchell 's zebra population still exhibit limited striping . It can therefore be concluded that the two subspecies graded morphologically into each other . Today , some stuffed specimens of quaggas and southern Burchell 's zebra are so similar that they are impossible to definitely identify as either , since no location data was recorded . The female specimens used in the study were larger than the males on average . = = Behaviour and ecology = = The quagga was the southernmost distributed plains zebra , mainly living south of the Orange River . It was a grazer , and its habitat range was restricted to the grasslands and arid interior scrubland of the Karoo region of South Africa , today forming parts of the provinces of Northern Cape , Eastern Cape , Western Cape and the Free State . These areas were known for distinctive flora and fauna and high amounts of endemism . Little is known about the behaviour of quaggas in the wild , and it is sometimes unclear what exact species of zebra is referred to in old reports . The only source that unequivocally describes the quagga in the Free State is that of the English military engineer and hunter Major Sir William Cornwallis Harris . His 1840 account reads as follows : The geographical range of the quagga does not appear to extend to the northward of the river Vaal . The animal was formerly extremely common within the colony ; but , vanishing before the strides of civilisation , is now to be found in very limited numbers and on the borders only . Beyond , on those sultry plains which are completely taken possession of by wild beasts , and may with strict propriety be termed the domains of savage nature , it occurs in interminable herds ; and , although never intermixing with its more elegant congeners , it is almost invariably to be found ranging with the white @-@ tailed gnu and with the ostrich , for the society of which bird especially it evinces the most singular predilection . Moving slowly across the profile of the ocean @-@ like horizon , uttering a shrill , barking neigh , of which its name forms a correct imitation , long files of quaggas continually remind the early traveller of a rival caravan on its march . Bands of many hundreds are thus frequently seen doing their migration from the dreary and desolate plains of some portion of the interior , which has formed their secluded abode , seeking for those more luxuriant pastures where , during the summer months , various herbs thrust forth their leaves and flowers to form a green carpet , spangled with hues the most brilliant and diversified . Quaggas have been reported gathering into herds of 30 – 50 individuals and sometimes travelled in a linear fashion . They may have been sympatric with Burchell 's zebra between the Vaal and Orange rivers . This is disputed , and there is no evidence that they interbred . It could also have shared a small portion of its range with Hartmann 's mountain zebra ( Equus zebra hartmannae ) . Quaggas were said to be lively and highly strung , especially the stallions . During the 1830s , quaggas were used as harness animals for carriages in London , the males probably being gelded to mitigate their volatile nature . Local farmers used them as guards for their livestock , as they were likely to attack intruders . On the other hand , captive quaggas in European zoos were said to be tamer and more docile than Burchell 's zebra . One specimen was reported to have lived in captivity for 21 years and 4 months , dying in 1872 . Since the practical function of striping has not been determined for zebras in general , it is unclear why the quagga lacked stripes on its hind parts . A cryptic function for protection from predators ( stripes obscure the individual zebra in a herd ) and biting flies ( which are less attracted to striped objects ) , as well as various social functions , have been proposed for zebras in general . Differences in hind quarter stripes may have aided species recognition during stampedes of mixed herds , so that members of one subspecies or species would follow its own kind . It has also been evidence that the zebras developed striping patterns as thermoregulation to cool themselves down , and that the quagga lost them due to living in a cooler climate , although one problem with this is that the mountain zebra lives in similar environments and has a bold striping pattern . A 2014 study strongly supported the biting @-@ fly hypothesis , and the quagga appears to have lived in areas with lesser amounts of fly activity compared to other zebras . = = Decline and extinction = = As it was easy to find and kill , the quagga was hunted by early Dutch settlers and later by Afrikaners to provide meat or for their skins . The skins were traded or used locally . The quagga was probably vulnerable to extinction due to its limited distribution , and it may have competed with domestic livestock for forage . The quagga had disappeared from much of its range by the 1850s . The last population in the wild , in the Orange Free State , was extirpated in the late 1870s . The last known wild individual died in 1878 . Individual quaggas were also captured and shipped to Europe , where they were displayed in zoos . Lord Morton tried to save the animal from extinction by starting a captive breeding program . He was only able to obtain a single male which , in desperation , he bred with a female horse . This produced a female hybrid with zebra stripes on its back and legs . Lord Morton 's mare was sold and was subsequently bred with a black stallion , resulting in offspring that again had zebra stripes . An account of this was published in 1820 by the Royal Society . This led to new ideas on telegony , referred to as pan @-@ genesis by Charles Darwin . The last captive specimen , a female in Amsterdam 's Natura Artis Magistra zoo , lived there from 9 May 1867 until it died on 12 August 1883 , but its origin and cause of death were not recorded . The specimen in London died in 1872 and the one in Berlin in 1875 . There are 23 known stuffed and mounted quagga specimens throughout the world . In addition , there is a mounted head and neck , a foot , seven complete skeletons , and samples of various tissues . A twenty @-@ fourth mounted specimen was destroyed in Königsberg , Germany , during World War II . = = = Breeding back project = = = After the very close relationship between the quagga and surviving zebras was discovered , Reinhold Rau started the Quagga Project in 1987 in South Africa to create a quagga @-@ like zebra population by selective breeding for a reduced stripe pattern from plains zebra stock , with the eventual aim of introducing them to the quagga 's former range . To differentiate between the quagga and the zebras of the project , they refer to it as " Rau quaggas " . The founding population consisted of 19 individuals from Namibia and South Africa , chosen because they had reduced striping on the rear body and legs . The first foal of the project was born in 1988 . Once a sufficiently quagga @-@ like population has been created , it will be released in the Western Cape . Introduction of these quagga @-@ like zebras could be part of a comprehensive restoration program including such ongoing efforts as eradication of non @-@ native trees . Quaggas , wildebeest , and ostriches , which occurred together during historical times in a mutually beneficial association , could be kept together in areas where the indigenous vegetation has to be maintained by grazing . In early 2006 , the third and fourth generation animals produced by the project were considered looking much like the depictions and preserved specimens of the quagga . This type of selective breeding is called breeding back . The practice is controversial , since the resulting zebras will resemble the quaggas only in external appearance , but will be genetically different . The technology to use recovered DNA for cloning does not yet exist .
= Liao dynasty = The Liao dynasty ( Khitan : Mos Jælud ; simplified Chinese : 辽朝 ; traditional Chinese : 遼朝 ; pinyin : Liáo cháo ) , officially the Great Liao ( Chinese : 大遼 ; pinyin : Dà Liáo ) , also known as the Khitan Empire ( Khitan : Mos diau @-@ d kitai huldʒi gur ; Chinese : 契丹国 ; pinyin : Qìdān guó ) and the Liao Empire , was an empire in East Asia that ruled from 907 to 1125 over present @-@ day Mongolia and portions of the Russian Far East , northern Korea , and northern China . The Liao dynasty was founded by Abaoji , Khagan of the Khitan people around the time of the collapse of Tang China . It was the first state to control all of Manchuria . Almost immediately after its founding , the Liao dynasty began a process of territorial expansion , with Abaoji leading a successful conquest of Balhae . Later emperors would gain the Sixteen Prefectures by fueling a proxy war that led to the collapse of the Later Tang ( 923 – 936 ) and would establish tributary relationships with Goryeo and Song China after failing to conquer Goryeo . Tension between traditional Khitan social and political practices and Chinese influence and customs was a defining feature of the dynasty . This tension led to a series of succession crises ; Liao emperors favored the Chinese concept of primogeniture , while much of the rest of the Khitan elite supported the traditional method of succession by the strongest candidate . So different were Khitan and Chinese practices that Abaoji set up two parallel governments . The Northern Administration governed Khitan areas following traditional Khitan practices , while the Southern Administration governed areas with large non @-@ Khitan populations , adopting traditional Chinese governmental practices . Differences between Chinese and Khitan society included gender roles and marital practices : the Khitans took a more egalitarian view towards gender , in sharp contrast to Chinese cultural practices that segregated men 's and women 's roles . Khitan women were taught to hunt , managed family property , and held military posts . Many marriages were not arranged , women were not required to be virgins at their first marriage , and women had the right to divorce and remarry . The Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen people of the Jin dynasty in 1125 with the capture of Emperor Tianzuo of Liao . However , the remnant Khitan , led by Yelü Dashi , established the Qara Khitai ( Western Liao dynasty ) , which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost a century before being conquered by the Mongols . Although cultural achievements associated with the Liao dynasty are considerable , and a number of various statuary and other artifacts exist in museums and other collections , major questions remain over the exact nature and extent of the influence of the Liao Khitan culture upon subsequent developments , such as the musical and theatrical arts . = = Name = = The Liao dynasty was officially known as the Khitan or Khitan state in 916 . The name " Great Liao " began to appear as the country name between 936 and 947 . The dynasty name " Liao " means " iron " , but it also refers to the Liao River in southern Manchuria , the traditional Khitan homeland . Since 983 the state became again known as the Khitan , but " Great Liao " reappeared as the country name in 1066 , which lasted until the end of the dynasty . = = History = = = = = Khitans before Abaoji = = = Neither the origins , ethnic makeup , nor early history of the Khitans are well documented in historical records . The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the Book of Wei , a history of the Northern Wei Dynasty ( 386 – 534 ) that was completed in 554 . Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans as being active during the late third and early fourth centuries . The Book of Jin ( 648 ) , a history of the Jin dynasty ( 265 – 420 ) , refers to the Khitans in the section covering the reign of Murong Sheng ( 398 – 401 ) . Samguk Sagi ( 1145 ) , a history of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378 . According to sinologists Denis C. Twitchett and Klaus @-@ Peter Tietze , it is generally held that the Khitans emerged from the Yuwen branch of the Xianbei people . Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345 , the Yuwen split into three tribes , one of which was called the Kumo Xi . In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split , with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans . This view is partially backed up by the Book of Wei , which describes the Khitans as being of Xianbei origins . There are also several competing theories on the origin of the Khitans . Beginning in the Song dynasty , some Chinese scholars suggested that the Khitans might have descended from the Xiongnu people . While modern historians have rejected the idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin , there is some support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu origin . Beginning with Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din Hamadani in the fourteenth century , several Western scholars have theorized that the Khitans were Mongolic in origin , and in the late 19th century Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans were Tungusic in origin — modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim . By the time the Book of Wei was written in 554 , the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China 's Jilin and Liaoning Provinces . The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region , as well as to the Chinese Northern Qi ( 550 @-@ 577 ) and Sui ( 589 @-@ 618 ) Dynasties . Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as the Uighurs and Chinese dynasties such as the Sui and Tang . This influence would significantly shape Khitan language and culture . In the Suishu ( Book of Sui , Volume 84 ) the Khitan are described as " bellicose in plundering and raiding borders " and " the most uncourteous and arrogant among all barbarians " . The Liaoshi ( LS , vol . 32 and 59 ) gives the following account of the early Khitan : Residing in the Great Desert ( 大漠 - dàmò ) , where there is much cold and much wind , they had livestock tending and fishing as food source , fur as dress and migrated with the seasons . Their specialty was carts and horses ... In the old Khitan custom , their wealth was horses , their strength was soldiers . Horses were released all through the open country and demobilized soldiers were spread throughout the people . When a matter of importance or battle arose they were called to arms . If the order was given at 5am they would all assemble forthwith at 7am . Horses followed water and grass . People relied on milk and kumiss . They bent the powerful bow and shot animals for their daily use . They had dried food and fodder . This was their Way ( 道 - dào ) . On account of this they maintain victory and wherever they look they encounter no opposition . The Liaoshi ( LS , vol . 32 ) names the ancient eight tribes of the Khitan ( who are also mentioned in the Weishu ) : These are the ancient eight tribes : the Xiwandan tribe , the Hedahe tribe , the Fufuyu tribe , the Yuling tribe , the Nilin tribe , the Pixie tribe , the Li ( Black ) tribe , the Tuliuyu tribe ... Soon after increasing in population they invaded the Northern Qi ( 北齐 - Běi Qí ) but lost a hundred thousand people to captivity . Then , being pressed by the Turks ( 突厥 - Tūjué ) , they temporarily resided in Korea ( 高麗 - Gāolí ) numbering not much more than ten thousand families . The tribes became scattered and were no longer the eight tribes of old . For most of the century between 630 and 730 , the Khitans were under the influence of the Tang dynasty . The arrangement was largely the doing of the Khitan Dahe clan . The Tang emperor bestowed the Chinese surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that Twitchett and Tietze described as " an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes " . Towards the turn of the century , however , Tang control of the north began to slip as it focused attention on its other borders . In 696 the Dahe leader , Li Jinzhong , launched a rebellion and led Khitan forces into Hebei . Although the rebellion was defeated , it took over fifteen years before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans , and that control would never be strong or long @-@ lived . Re @-@ disintegration of Khitan @-@ Liao relations in the 730s saw the Yaolian clan replace the Dahe as the Khitan ruling clan , forcing Tang governor An Lushan to launch two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755 . After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion , An Lushan was successful in the second , but he then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army . The An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty . Following the An Lushan Rebellion , the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs , while simultaneously paying tributes to the Tang , a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840 . From 840 until the rise of Aboji , the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang dynasty . = = = Abaoji and the rise of the Khitans = = = Abaoji , who later became Emperor Taizu of Liao , was born in 872 , the son of the chief of the Yila tribe . At that time , the Yila tribe was the largest and strongest of the eight affiliated Khitan tribes ; however , the Great Khan , the overall leader of the Khitans , was drawn from the Yaolian lineage . In 901 Abaoji was elected to be the chief of the Yila tribe by its tribal council . By 903 , Abaoji had been named the Yüyue , the overall military leader of the Khitans , subordinate only to the Great Khan . Four years later , in 907 , Abaoji became the Great Khan of the Khitans , ending nine generations of Yaolian rule . Abaoji acquired the prestige needed to secure the position of Khitan Great Khan through a combination of effective diplomacy and a series of successful military campaigns , beginning in 901 , against the Han Chinese forces to the south , the Xi and Shiwei to the west , and the Jurchens in the east . The same year that Abaoji became Great Khan , the Chinese warlord Zhu Wen , who in 904 had murdered the last legitimate emperor of the Tang dynasty , declared the Tang over and named himself emperor of China . His dynasty dissolved quickly , ushering in the fifty @-@ three @-@ year period of disunity known as the Five Dynasties period . One of the five dynasties , the Later Jin ( 936 – 947 ) , was a client state of the Khitans . For much of Chinese history , the position of Emperor was determined by primogeniture ; the position would pass from father to first @-@ born son upon the father 's death . While Khitan succession was also kept within families , an emphasis was placed on selecting the most capable option , with all of a leader 's brothers , nephews , and sons considered valid choices for succession . Khitan rulers were expected to hand over power to a paternal relative after serving a single three @-@ year term . Abaoji signaled his desire to become a permanent ruler at his accession in 907 , securing his position by killing most of the other Khitan chieftains . Between 907 and 910 Abaoji 's rule went unchallenged . It was only after 910 , when Abaoji disregarded the Khitan tradition that another member of the family assume the position of Great Khan , that his rule came under direct challenge . In both 912 and 913 members of Abaoji 's family , including most of his brothers , attempted armed insurrections . After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated , Abaoji pardoned the conspirators . After the second , only his brothers were pardoned , with the other conspirators suffering violent deaths . The brothers plotted additional rebellions in 917 and 918 , both of which were easily crushed . In 916 , at what would have been the end of his third term as Khitan Grand Khan , Abaoji made a number of changes moving the Khitan state closer to the model of governance used by the Chinese dynasties . He assumed the title of Celestial Emperor and designated an era name , named his oldest son Yelü Bei as his successor , and commissioned the construction of a Confucian temple . Two years later he established a capital city , Shangjing ( 上京 ) , which imitated the model of a Chinese capital city . Before his death in 926 , Abaoji greatly expanded the areas that the Khitans controlled . At its height , the Liao dynasty encompassed modern @-@ day Mongolia , parts of Kazakhstan and the Russian Far East , and the Chinese provinces of Hebei , Heilongjiang , Inner Mongolia , Jilin , Liaoning , and Shanxi . = = = Succession issues and the occupation of Kaifeng = = = In 916 Emperor Taizu ( Abaoji ) officially designated his eldest son , Yelü Bei , as his successor . Succession by primogeniture was a long @-@ held standard in Chinese culture but was not accepted among the Khitans , creating a friction between Taizu 's desires and the beliefs of the Khitan elites , including Taizu 's wife , Empress Shulü Ping . Taizu , sensing the possibility that the succession process would run into difficulty , forced the Khitan leadership to swear allegiance to Yelü Bei after he was installed as heir apparent . To the Khitans , this was considered a radical move . This friction between primogeniture and succession by the strongest candidate would lead to repeated succession crises , the first of which occurred after Taizu 's sudden and unexpected death in 926 . Yelü Bei was twenty @-@ six years old at the time of his father 's death . A polymath , Bei exemplified many of the values of the Chinese aristocracy ; he was an expert in music , medicine , fortune @-@ telling , painting , and writing ( in both Chinese and Khitan ) . He was also an accomplished warrior , leading troops into battle during his father 's conquest of Balhae . After the campaign ended in victory for the Liao in 926 , Emperor Taizu gave Bei command of the conquered territory – – which became known as the principality of Dongdan – – as well as the title of Prince of Dongdan . Empress Shulü Ping , who became known as Empress Dowager Yingtian following the death of her husband , was an exceptionally powerful figure both before and after Taizu 's death . While the latter was alive , Shulü Ping commanded an army of 200 @,@ 000 horsemen that was tasked with maintaining order while Taizu led military campaigns abroad . She also led campaigns herself . Following the death of her husband , the Empress rejected the traditional Khitan custom of being buried with him , and elected to cut off her right hand and bury that with the Emperor instead . Shulü Ping then seized full military and civil authority in order to oversee the imperial succession under her own terms . The Empress 's refusal to kill herself and be buried with Taizu effectively ended the longstanding custom . Precisely because Prince Yelü Bei exemplified both Chinese and Khitan values , Empress Shulü Ping objected to Bei assuming the role of Emperor . The Empress believed that Bei 's openness to Chinese culture detracted from his leadership ability as a Khitan , and she instead favored Emperor Taizu 's more traditionalist second son , Yelü Deguang . Deguang enjoyed not only the support of his mother , but also of the Khitan nobility . Realizing that he could not assume the throne , and that it would be dangerous to try , Bei campaigned in favor of allowing his younger brother to assume the throne , and by the end of 927 , formally stated to his mother that Deguang 's qualifications were superior to his own , functionally ending his ability to challenge Deguang 's ascension to the throne . Despite Bei voluntarily relinquishing his claim , Deguang , who had assumed the title of Emperor Taizong of Liao , viewed Bei as a threat . Bei still held the role of Prince of Dongdan , and moved back there after relinquishing his imperial claim . In order to break any potential power base Bei might form in Dongdan , Emperor Taizong ordered that the capital of Dongdan and all of its people move to what is now Liaoyang . Prince Bei himself was placed under surveillance by the Emperor . In 930 Prince Bei fled to the Later Tang , where he became an honored guest of Emperor Mingzong , who went as far as to bestow upon Prince Bei the Emperor 's own surname of Li ( 李 ) . There are two conflicting accounts of Prince Bei 's death : he was assassinated either in 936 by Emperor Mo of Later Tang in retaliation for the Khitans ' support in overthrowing the Tang and replacing it with the Later Jin , or in 937 by Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin ( Shi Jingtang ) as a show of loyalty to Emperor Taizong of Liao . After Emperor Mingzong died in 933 , the Later Tang began to crumble from its own succession crisis . Mingzong 's son and successor Li Conghou ruled for only five months before he was killed in 934 in a coup led by his adoptive brother Li Congke ( Emperor Mo of Later Tang ) . Prince Bei , who was still an honored guest at the Tang court at the time , wrote to his brother Emperor Taizong ( Yelü Deguang ) , advising him to invade the Tang . Instead , Taizong lent military support to a rebellion led by Shi Jingtang , a Tang governor and son @-@ in @-@ law of the former Emperor Mingzong . With Khitan help , in 936 Shi Jingtang succeeded in replacing the Later Tang with his own Later Jin . After some negotiation with the more powerful Khitans , he ceded sixteen border prefectures stretching from modern @-@ day Datong ( Shanxi province ) to the coast of the Bohai Sea east of what is now Beijing , to the Liao . Since the Sixteen Prefectures contained numerous strategic passes and fortifications , the Khitans now had unrestricted access to the plains of northern China . Shi Jingtang also agreed to treat Emperor Taizong of Liao as his own father , a move that symbolically elevated Taizong and the Liao to a superior position . The relationship between the Liao and the Later Jin soured after the death of Shi Jingtang in 942 and the elevation to the throne of Shi Chonggui , also known as Emperor Chudi of Later Jin . The new emperor surrounded himself with anti @-@ Khitan advisers , and in 943 he expelled the Liao envoy from the Jin capital of Kaifeng and seized the property owned by Khitan merchants in the city . By the end of the following year Emperor Taizong had launched an invasion of the Jin . Although the invasion took three years and the Liao faced several setbacks , by the end of 946 Emperor Taizong had secured the surrender of the head of the Later Jin forces and was able to march into Kaifeng unopposed . Emperor Taizong celebrated his victory with the adoption of the dynastic name " Greater Liao " . The invading Liao forces , who had not brought adequate supplies for their invasion , began looting the newly conquered territory and imposed high taxes on the ethnic Chinese population in the formerly Jin lands . This sparked a series of rebellions that culminated in 947 with the establishment of the Later Han by the former Jin governor Liu Zhiyuan . After occupying Kaifeng for only three months , Emperor Taizong and the Liao were forced to retreat north . During the retreat Emperor Taizong died of a sudden illness , just south of modern @-@ day Shijiazhuang , Hebei . The death of Taizong set up a second succession crisis , again instigated by Empress Dowager Yingtian and fueled by the conflict between Chinese primogeniture and Khitan succession customs . Yelü Ruan , oldest son of Prince Bei and nephew of Emperor Taizong , proclaimed himself Emperor while still in Hebei . Emperor Taizong raised Yelü Ruan , following Yelü Bei 's departure for the Later Tang , and the relationship between uncle and nephew was close . Yelü Ruan accompanied the emperor during his invasion of the Later Jin , and he earned the reputation as a capable warrior and commander , and as one of courteous and noble @-@ minded disposition . Empress Dowager Yingtian supported Emperor Taizong 's younger brother , Yelü Lihu , for the throne instead . The Empress Dowager sent two successive armies to face Yelü Ruan , who defeated them both . Ultimately Lihu , who the Khitan nobility viewed as cruel and spoiled , was unable to gain enough support to further challenge Yelü Ruan , and after a peace was brokered by a cousin of the Yelü clan , Yelü Ruan formally assumed the role of emperor and the title of Emperor Shizong of Liao . Emperor Shizong promptly exiled both Empress Dowager Yingtian and Yelü Lihu from the capital , ending their political ambitions . Emperor Shizong 's rule would be characterized by a series of rebellions from within his extended family . Although he would rule for only four years before being killed in 951 in a rebellion led by one of his nephews , Emperor Shizong oversaw a refinement of his grandfather 's dual system of government , which brought the structure of the Southern Administration closer to the model used by the Tang dynasty . Emperor Shizong would be succeeded by Emperor Taizong 's son Yelü Jing , also known as Emperor Muzong of Liao . Emperor Muzong , who died in 969 , would be the second and the last of the emperors to succeed Abaoji who was not a direct descendant of Yelü Bei . = = = Emperor Shengzong and the height of Liao power = = = The reign of Emperor Shengzong from 982 to 1031 represented the height of the Liao dynasty 's power . Shengzong oversaw successful military campaigns against the Chinese Song dynasty and the Korean Goryeo Dynasty , and both campaigns secured long @-@ term peace agreements with terms favorable to the Liao . In 990 Liao emperor recognizes a " king of Xia " . = = = = Goryeo – Khitan Wars = = = = When Abaoji conquered the Balhae state in 926 , most of the population was relocated to what is now Liaoning , China . At least three groups remained in the former Balhae territory , one of which formed the state of Ding 'an . Despite launching two invasions , in 975 and 985 , the Liao forces were unable to defeat the Ding 'an . Unable to eliminate the threat , and weary of Jurchen groups also inhabiting the region , the Liao established three forts with military colonies in the Yalu River valley area . With military action in close proximity to Goryeo territory , coupled with a cancelled Liao invasion of Goryeo in 947 and a strong diplomatic and cultural relationship between the Goryeo and Song dynasties , Liao @-@ Goryeo relations were exceedingly poor . Both Liao and Goryeo saw each other as posing a military threat ; the Khitans feared that Goryeo would attempt to foment rebellions among the Balhae population in Liao territory , while Goryeo feared invasion by the Liao . The Khitans did invade Goryeo in 992 , sending a force that the Liao commander claimed to be 800 @,@ 000 strong , and demanding that Goryeo cede to territories along the Yalu River . Goryeo appealed for assistance from the Song dynasty , with which they had a military alliance , but no Song assistance came . The Khitans made steady southward progress before reaching the Ch 'ongch 'on River , at which point they called for negotiations between Liao and Goryeo military leaders . While the Liao initially demanded total surrender from Goryeo , and Goryeo initially appeared willing to consider it , the Korean negotiator was eventually able to convince the Khitans to accept a resolution in which the Goryeo dynasty became a tributary state to the Liao dynasty . By 994 , regular diplomatic exchanges between Liao and Goryeo began , and the relationship between Goryeo and Song irrevocably chilled . The peace did not last two decades . In 1009 the Goryeo general Gang Jo murdered King Mokjong of Goryeo and put King Hyeonjong of Goryeo on the throne with the intention of serving as the boy 's regent . The Liao immediately sent an army of 400 @,@ 000 men to Goryeo to punish Gang Jo ; however , after an initial period of military success and the breakdown of several attempts at peace negotiations , Goryeo and Liao entered a decade of continuous warfare . In 1018 the Khitans faced the most significant military defeat in the dynasty 's history , but by 1019 they had already assembled another large army to march on Goryeo . At this point both sides realized that they could not defeat each other militarily , so in 1020 King Hyeonjong resumed sending tribute to the Liao , and in 1022 the Liao officially recognized the legitimacy of King Hyeonjong 's reign . Goryeo would remain a vassal , and the relationship between Liao and Goryeo would remain peaceful until the end of the Liao dynasty . = = = = The Song dynasty and the Chanyuan Treaty = = = = In 951 , the Later Zhou emerged , the last of the five short @-@ lived dynasties making up the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . The founding emperor of the Later Zhou died in 954 and was succeeded by his adopted son , who would rule with the name Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou . Shizong believed that the Liao dynasty was poised to invade the Zhou , and in 958 he launched a preemptive military campaign against the Liao , aiming to take the sixteen prefectures ceded to the Liao by Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin in 938 . Emperor Shizong died in 959 , before his army had even met the Liao forces . In 960 the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Later Zhou palace guard , Zhao Kuangyin , usurped the throne , then occupied by Emperor Shizong 's seven @-@ year @-@ old son , and proclaimed himself the founder of the Song dynasty . Relations between the Liao and the Song were initially peaceful , with the two dynasties exchanging embassies in 974 . Following the collapse of the Tang dynasty , several territories formed small , independent states that were never reunified during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . Additionally , several additional territories that were controlled by military governors during the Tang dynasty had fallen under the control of local warlords following the Tang collapse . Rather than focus on reclaiming land from the Liao dynasty , Zhao Kuangyin , who would take the title Emperor Taizu of Song , focused on reclaiming these smaller break @-@ off territories . He would die in 976 having reestablished control over all but one of these territories , the Northern Han kingdom . Despite the Northern Han 's status as a protectorate of the Liao dynasty , Emperor Taizu of Song launched an invasion of the kingdom in 976 , only months before his death . The Northern Han received assistance from the Liao , and the invasion was repelled . Emperor Taizong of Song , brother of the founding emperor and the second emperor of the Song dynasty , launched a second invasion in 979 . The Northern Han again received Liao assistance , but this invasion was successful ; the Northern Han crumbled , and the Song were able to assume control of the territory . Emperor Taizong of Song immediately followed this victory with an attempted invasion of the sixteen prefectures , but the unrested and undersupplied Song troops were thoroughly routed by the Liao in the Battle of Gaoliang River . Over the next two decades , the relationship between the Liao and Song continued to deteriorate . The Liao were continuously informed of Song attempts to create military alliances with other groups sharing a border with the Liao , and minor border skirmishes were common . Beginning in 999 Emperor Shengzong of Liao led a series of campaigns against the Song that , while generally successful on the battlefield , failed to secure anything of value from the Song . This changed in 1004 when Emperor Shengzong led a campaign that rapidly worked its way to right outside of the Song capital of Kaifeng by only conquering cities that quickly folded to the Liao army , while avoiding protracted sieges of the cities that resisted heavily . Emperor Zhenzong of Song marched out and met the Liao at Chanyuan , a small city on the Yellow River . In January 1005 the two dynasties signed the Chanyuan Treaty , which stipulated that the Song would give the Liao 200 @,@ 000 bolts of silk and 100 @,@ 000 ounces of silver each year , that the two emperors would address each other as equals , that they would finalize the location of their disputed border , and that the two dynasties would resume cordial relations . While the sums ( referred to as gifts by the Song and as tributes by the Liao ) were later increased to 300 @,@ 000 bolts of silk and 200 @,@ 000 ounces of silver per year out of Song fears that the Liao might form a military alliance with the Western Xia , no major wars were fought between the Liao and Song for over a century following the signing of the treaty . By signing the treaty the Song dynasty functionally ceded its claim over the sixteen prefectures . = = = Imperial infighting = = = Emperor Shengzong died in 1031 , leaving behind instructions that named his son Yelü Zongzhen as heir . Yelü Zongzhen , known historically by the name Emperor Xingzong of Liao , became the Emperor of the Liao dynasty at the age of fifteen , and his reign immediately became plagued with courtly infighting . Emperor Xingzong 's mother was a low @-@ ranking consort , Nuou Jin , but he was raised by Emperor Shengzong 's wife , Empress Ji Dian . Nuou Jin quickly moved to marginalize Ji Dian and her supporters , fabricating a coup and using it to justify exiling Ji Dian and executing most of her supporters in several months of purges . Nuou Jin eventually sent assassins to kill Ji Dian ; however , Ji Dian instead committed suicide . With her rival for power dead , Nuou Jin declared herself the regent and began personally conducting duties normally within the purview of the emperor . When it became clear that Emperor Xingzong was unhappy with his mother 's grab for power , Nuou Jin plotted to replace the emperor with another of her sons , Zhong Yuan , whom Nuou Jin raised herself . Zhong Yuan informed the emperor of their mother 's plans , however , and the emperor promptly exiled Nuou Jin . For the remainder of his reign , Emperor Xingzong would have to compete for power with his mother , whose supporters still held key postings , and whose influence was so great that she was eventually allowed to return to the capital and undergo a ceremony to symbolically de @-@ exile herself . Zhong Yuan , for his part , would be rewarded for revealing his mother 's plot by being given a succession of higher- and higher @-@ ranking positions , culminating with a governorship outside of the capital . Historian Frederick W. Mote explains the importance of this factional infighting and its relation to the Liao dynasty 's downfall by stating that it " shows to what extent the succession issue within the imperial clan still was the source of weakness in the leadership of the state . It wasted people , diverted energies , and deflected the attention of the rulers from the tasks of governing . " Emperor Xingzong died in 1055 . His eldest son , Yelü Hongji ( who would later be known by the name Emperor Daozong of Liao ) , assumed the throne having already gained experience in governing while his father was alive . Unlike his father , Emperor Daozong did not face a succession crisis . While both Ji Dian and Zhong Yuan remained alive , and both had the political influence to interfere with the succession process , neither did . While Emperor Daozong 's reign started off strong , it too was eventually plagued by factional infighting , aggravated by the emperor 's own general weakness . The emperor 's first major error was in ordering the execution of Xiao A La , a loyal minister and close friend of the emperor , whom the emperor was nonetheless convinced to execute by a rival minister . The 14th @-@ century History of Liao speculates that had Xiao A La not been killed , two major incidents that came to dominate Emperor Daozong 's reign would have been avoided . The first of these incidents was a rebellion in 1063 , when several high @-@ ranking members of the Yelü clan , led by a grandson of Emperor Shengzong , attempted to assassinate Emperor Daozong while he was on a hunting trip . He was saved with the assistance of troops led by his mother , Empress Dowager Ren Yi , and he retaliated by executing all of the people involved in the plot , as well as their immediate families . This major change in leadership solidified the power of the chancellor Yelü Yixin and his ally Yelü Renxian , a chancellor and military leader . When Yelü Renxian died in 1072 , Yelü Yixin began to view Emperor Daozong 's son and heir apparent , Prince Jun , as the only possible threat to Yelü Yixin 's power , and set in motion plans to eliminate the prince . He first eliminated Prince Jun 's mother , the emperor 's wife , by fabricating evidence that she had an affair with a palace musician . Believing Yelü Yixin 's trap , Emperor Daozong ordered his wife to commit suicide . Yelü Yixin then fabricated a coup by implicating his own enemies within the court of planning to depose of Emperor Daozong and place Prince Jun on the throne . While the emperor was initially unmoved , Yelü Yixin eventually convinced him to exile his son by creating a false confession . Prince Jun was immediately exiled , at which point Yelü Yixin sent assassins to eliminate the prince and his wife , preventing both the prince from being returned to power and Yelü Yixin 's plot from being discovered . Yelü Yixin 's treachery was eventually discovered when , in 1079 , he attempted to convince the emperor to leave the new heir at the palace during a hunting trip . When other members of the court protested that the young boy would be in mortal peril if left behind with Yelü Yixin , the emperor finally saw through Yelü Yixin . By 1080 Yelü Yixin was stripped of his rank and sent to a low @-@ ranking post outside of the capital . Shortly afterwards he was executed . Aside from the machinations of Yelü Yixin , the only other event of note from Emperor Daozong 's rule was a war fought between 1092 and 1102 between the Liao and a Mongolian , possibly Tatar tribe , group known as the Zubu . The Zubu were located at the northwest border of Liao territory and had fought several wars with the Liao when the Liao tried to expand in that direction . In 1092 the Liao attacked several other tribes in the northwest , and by 1093 the Zubu attacked the Liao , striking deep into Khitan territory . It took until 1100 for the Liao to capture and kill the Zubu chieftain , and another two years to fight off the remaining Zubu forces . The war against the Zubu was the last successful military campaign waged by the Liao dynasty . = = = Rise of the Jin and fall of the Liao = = = The 12th century saw the rapid rise of the Jurchen people , which culminated in 1115 with the foundation of the Jin dynasty by the Jurchen warlord Aguda . The Jurchens , led by Aguda , captured the Liao dynasty 's supreme capital in 1120 and its central capital in 1122 . The Liao emperor Tianzuo fled the southern capital Nanjing ( today 's Beijing ) to the western region , and his uncle Prince Yelü Chun then formed the short @-@ lived Northern Liao in the southern capital , but died soon afterwards . In 1125 , the Jurchens captured Emperor Tianzuo and ended the Liao dynasty . In 1124 , just before the final conquest of the Liao dynasty , a group of Khitans led by Yelü Dashi fled northwest to the border area and military garrison of Kedun ( Zhenzhou ) , in modern @-@ day northern Mongolia . Yelü Dashi convinced the people there , around 20 @,@ 000 Liao cavalry and their families , to follow him and attempt to restore the Liao dynasty . Yelü Dashi proclaimed himself emperor in 1131 , after which he moved further west into modern Kazakhstan and then occupied the Karakhanid city of Balasaghun ( in modern Kyrgyzstan ) . After a failed attempt in 1134 to reclaim the territory formerly held by the Liao , Dashi decided instead to stay where he was and establish a permanent Khitan state in Central Asia . The state , known as the Qara Khitai or the Western Liao dynasty , controlled several key trading cities , was multicultural , and showed evidence of religious tolerance . The state survived for nearly a century before being conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1218 . An analysis by F. W. Mote concluded that at the time of the Liao dynasty 's fall , " the Liao state remained strong , capable of functioning at reasonable levels and possessing greater resources of war than any of its enemies " and that " one cannot find signs of serious economic or fiscal breakdown that might have impoverished or crippled its ability to respond " . Mote also concluded that acculturation did not lead to the replacement of traditional Khitan values with Chinese culture , and that the Khitan commoners were " supremely able and willing to fight " , which Mote pointed to as evidence that Khitan society remained strong . Mote instead attributes the fall of the Liao to the leadership ability of Aguda and to the actions of the Khitan Yelü and Xiao clans , which used early defeats at the hand of Aguda as a pretext for plotting the overthrow of Emperor Tianzou . Historian Jacques Gernet disagrees with Mote , writing that " by the middle of the eleventh century the Khitan had lost their combative spirit and adopted a defensive attitude to their neighbors , building walls , ramparts for their towns , and fortified posts . " Gernet attributes this change to the influence of Buddhism , which abhors violence , as well as to Chinese wealth and culture in general . Like Mote , Gernet attributes the ultimate downfall of the Liao to the interference by the ruling clans , and he additionally credits a series of droughts and floods , as well as attacks by the Jurchen tribes on the north @-@ east edge of Liao territory , with weakening the Liao to a critical level . = = Government = = At its height , the Liao dynasty controlled what is now Shanxi , Hebei , Liaoning , Jilin , Heilongjiang , and Inner Mongolia provinces in China , as well as portions of the Korean peninsula , portions of the Russian Far East , and much of the country of Mongolia . The peak population is estimated at 750 @,@ 000 Khitans and two to three million ethnic Chinese . = = = Law and administration = = = The Liao employed two separate governments operating in parallel with one another : a Northern Administration in charge of Khitan and other nomadic peoples , most of whom lived in the northern side of Liao territory , and a Southern Administration in charge of the Chinese populace that lived predominantly in the southern side . When Abaoji first established the system , these two governments did not have strict territorial boundaries , but Emperor Shizong established formally delineated boundaries for the two administrations early in his reign . The newly delineated Northern Administration had large Chinese , Balhae , and Uighur populations , and was given its own set of parallel northern and southern governments . The governments of the Northern Administration and the Southern Administration operated very differently . The Northern Administration operated under a system which Twitchett and Tietze called " essentially a great tribal leader 's personal retinue " . Many of the governmental appointments dealt with tribal affairs , herds , and retainers serving the imperial house , and most powerful and high @-@ ranking positions dealt with military affairs . The overwhelming majority of officeholders were Khitans , mainly from the imperial Yelü clan and the Xiao consort clan . The Southern Administration was more heavily structured , with Twitchett and Tietze calling it " designed in imitation of a T 'ang model " . Unlike the Northern Administration , many of the low- and medium @-@ ranked officials in the Southern Administration were Chinese . The Liao dynasty was further divided into five " circuits " , each with a capital city . The general idea for this system was taken from the Balhae , although no captured Balhae cities were made into circuit capitals . The five capital cities were Shangjing ( 上京 ) , meaning Supreme Capital , which is located in modern @-@ day Inner Mongolia ; Nanjing ( 南京 ) , meaning Southern Capital , which is located near modern @-@ day Beijing ; Dongjing ( 东京 ) , meaning Eastern Capital , which is located near modern @-@ day Liaoning ; Zhongjing ( 中京 ) , meaning Central Capital , which is located in modern @-@ day Hebei province near the Laoha river ; and Xijing ( 西京 ) , meaning Western Capital , which is located near modern @-@ day Datong . Each circuit was headed by a powerful viceroy who had the autonomy to tailor policies to meet the needs of the population within his circuit . Circuits were further subdivided into administrations called fu ( 府 ) , which were metropolitan areas surrounding capital cities , and outside of metropolitan areas were divided into prefectures called zhou ( 州 ) , which themselves were divided into counties called xian ( 县 ) . Despite these administrative systems , important state decisions were still made by the emperor . The emperor met with officials from the Northern and Southern Administrations twice a year , but aside from that the emperor spent much of his time attending to tribal affairs outside of the capital cities . = = Society and culture = = = = = Spoken and written languages = = = The Khitan spoken language is most closely related to the Mongolic language family ; some broader definitions of the Mongolic family include Khitan as a member . More broadly , Khitan is an Altaic language , although scholars are divided on the question whether the Altaic is a true language family or linguistic area in which originally distinct languages have influenced each other over a long period . Khitan shares some terms with the Altaic but non @-@ Mongolic Turkic spoken by the Uighur peoples , who shared the steppes of North Asia with the Khitans for several hundred years . Prior to their conquest of north China and the establishment of the Liao dynasty , the Khitans had no written language . In 920 the first of two Khitan scripts , the Khitan large script , was developed . A second script , the Khitan small script , was developed in 925 . Both scripts are based on the same spoken language , and both contain a mix of logographs and phonographs . Despite the similarities to Chinese characters , the Khitan scripts were functionally different from Chinese . Few documents written in either the Khitan large or small script survive to this day . Most surviving specimens of both Khitan scripts are epitaph inscriptions on stone tablets , as well as a number of inscriptions on coins , mirrors and seals . Only a single manuscript text in the Khitan large script is known ( Nova N 176 ) , and no manuscripts in the Khitan small script are known . The Liao emperors could read Chinese , and while there were some Chinese works translated into Khitan during the Liao dynasty , the Confucian classics , which served as the core guide to the administration of government in China , are not known to have been translated into Khitan . = = = Status of women = = = The status of women in the Liao dynasty varied greatly , with the Khitan Liao ( like many other nomadic societies ] ] having much a more egalitarian view towards women than the Han Chinese did . Han Chinese living under the Liao dynasty were not forced to adopt Khitan practices , and while some Han Chinese did , many did not . Unlike Han society , which had a strict separation of responsibilities along gender lines , and placed women in a subservient role to men , the Khitan women of the Liao dynasty performed many of the same functions that the Khitan men did . Khitan women were taught how to hunt , and managed family herds , flocks , finances , and property when their husbands were at war . Upper @-@ class women were able to hold governmental and military posts . The sexual freedoms of Liao also stood in stark contrast from those of the Han Chinese . Women from the upper Liao classes , like those of the Han Chinese upper classes , had arranged marriages , in some cases for political purposes . However women from the lower classes of the Liao did not have arranged marriages , and would attract suitors by singing and dancing in the streets . The songs served as self @-@ advertisements , with the women telling of their beauty , familial status , and domestic skills . Virginity was not a requirement for marriage among the Liao , and many Liao women were sexually promiscuous before marriage , which stood in sharp contrast from the beliefs of the Han Chinese . Khitan women had the right to divorce their husbands and were able to remarry after being divorced . Abduction of marriage @-@ age women was common during the Liao dynasty . Khitans men of all social classes participated in the activity , and the abductees were both Khitan and Han . In some cases , this was a step in the courtship process , where the woman would agree to the abduction and the resulting sexual intercourse , and then the abductor and abductee would return to the woman 's home to announce their intention to marry . This process was known as baimen ( 拜門 ) . In other cases , the abduction would be non @-@ consensual and would result in a rape . = = = Marriage practices = = = In Liao custom betrothal was seen as being equally serious to , if not more serious than , marriage itself , and was difficult to annul . The groom would pledge to work for three years for the bride 's family , pay a bride price , and lavish the bride 's family with gifts . After the three years , the groom would be allowed to take the bride back to his home , and the bride would usually cut off all ties with her family . Khitan marriage practices differed from those of the Han Chinese in several ways . Men from the elite classes tended to marry women from the generation their senior . While this did not necessarily mean that there would be a large gap in ages between husband and wife , it was often the case . Among the ruling Yelü clan , the average age that boys married was sixteen , while the average age that girls married was between sixteen and twenty @-@ two . Although rare , ages as young as twelve were recorded , for both boys and girls . A special variety of polygamy known as sororate , in which a man would marry two or more women who were sisters , was practiced among the Liao elite . Polygamy was not restricted only to sororate , with some men having three or more wives , only some of whom were sisters . Sororate continued throughout the length of the Liao dynasty , despite laws banning the practice . Over the course of the dynasty , the Liao elite moved away from polygamy and towards the Han Chinese system of having one wife and one or more concubines . This was done largely to smooth over the process of inheritance . = = = Religion = = = By the time Abaoji assumed control over the Khitans in the early tenth century , a majority of the Khitan population had adopted Buddhism . Buddhism was practiced throughout the length of the Liao dynasty . Monasteries were constructed during the reign of the first emperor , Taizu , and Buddhism was especially prominent during the reigns of Emperors Shengzong , Xingzong , and Daozong . Buddhist scholars living during the time of the Liao dynasty predicted that the mofa ( 末法 ) , an age in which the three treasures of Buddhism would be destroyed , was to begin in the year 1052 . Previous dynasties , including the Sui and Tang , were also concerned with the mofa , although their predictions for when the mofa would start were different from the one selected by the Liao . As early as the Sui dynasty , efforts were made to preserve Buddhist teachings by carving them into stone or burying them . These efforts continued into the Liao dynasty , with Emperor Xingzong funding several projects in the years immediately preceding 1052 . Evidence from excavated Liao burial sites indicates that animistic or shamanistic practices were fused with Buddhism and other practices in marriage and burial ceremonies . Both animal and human sacrifices have been found in Liao tombs , alongside indications of Buddhist practice . Indications of Daoist , zodiac , and Zoroastrian influences have also been found in Liao burial sites . During the reign of the Liao dynasty the Niujie Mosque was designed by Nazaruddin , the son of a local Imam . = = = Cultural legacy = = = The influence of the Liao dynasty on subsequent culture includes a large legacy of statuary art works , with important surviving examples in painted wood , metal , and three @-@ color glazed sancai ceramics . The music and songs of the Liao dynasty are also known to have indirectly or directly influenced Mongol , Jurchen , and Chinese musical traditions . The rhythmic and tonal pattern of the ci ( 词 ) form of poetry , an important part of Song dynasty poetry , uses a set of poetic meters and is based upon certain definitive musical song tunes . The specific origin of these various original tunes and musical modes is not known , but the influence of Liao dynasty lyrics both directly and indirectly through the music and lyrics of the Jurchen Jin dynasty appears likely . At least one Han Chinese source considered the Liao ( and Jurchen ) music to be the vigorous and powerful music of horse @-@ mounted warriors , diffused through border warfare . Another influence of the Liao cultural tradition is seen in the Yuan dynasty 's zaju ( 杂剧 ) theater , its associated orchestration , and the qu ( 曲 ) and sanqu ( 散曲 ) forms of Classical Chinese poetry . One documented way in which this influence occurred was through the incorporation of Khitan officers and men into the service of the Mongol forces during the first Mongol invasion of 1211 to 1215 . This northern route of cultural transmission of the legacy of Liao culture was then returned to China during the Yuan dynasty .
= Squidward Tentacles = Squidward Tentacles is a fictional character voiced by actor Rodger Bumpass in the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . Squidward was created and designed by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg . He first appeared on television in the series ' pilot episode " Help Wanted " on May 1 , 1999 . Although his name has the word " Squid " in it and he has six arms ( Hillenburg designed Squidward with six arms , believing that " it was really just simpler for animation to draw him with six legs instead of eight " . ) , Squidward is an anthropomorphic octopus . He lives in a moai between SpongeBob SquarePants ' and Patrick Star 's houses . The character is portrayed as ill @-@ tempered , pretentious , and cynical who strongly despises his neighbors for their constant boisterous , noisy behavior . However , the pair are unaware of Squidward 's antipathy towards them and see him as a friend . Squidward works as a cashier at the Krusty Krab restaurant , a job that he is apathetic towards . The character 's critical reception from professionals and fans has been positive . Squidward has appeared in many SpongeBob SquarePants publications , toys , and other merchandise . He appears in the 2004 full @-@ length feature film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and in its sequel which was released in 2015 . = = Role in SpongeBob SquarePants = = Squidward is depicted as a bitter , very unfortunate , desperate , curt , arrogant , turquoise octopus . He lives in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom in a moai situated between SpongeBob SquarePants ' pineapple house and Patrick Star 's rock . Squidward detests his neighbors for their perpetual laughter and boisterous behavior , though SpongeBob and Patrick are oblivious to Squidward 's animosity towards them and regard him as a friend . Squidward lives in a constant state of self @-@ pity and misery ; he is unhappy with his humdrum lifestyle and yearns for celebrity status , wealth , hair , and a glamorous and distinguished career as a musician or painter with a passion for art and playing the clarinet . However , he is left to endure the lowly status as a fast @-@ food cashier at the Krusty Krab restaurant . Squidward resents his job and is irritated by his greedy employer Mr. Krabs and by having SpongeBob as a colleague . Squidward longs for peace but his wishes remain unsatisfied . He believes he is talented and deserves a higher social status . The populace of Bikini Bottom do not consider him talented , and frequently boo him and walk out on his performances . = = Development = = = = = Creation and design = = = Stephen Hillenburg first became fascinated with the ocean and began developing his artistic abilities as a child . During college , he majored in marine biology and minored in art . After graduating in 1984 , he joined the Ocean Institute , an ocean education organization , where he had the idea to create a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone , which led to the creation of SpongeBob SquarePants . In 1987 , Hillenburg left the Institute to pursue a career in animation . Several years after studying experimental animation at the California Institute of the Arts , Hillenburg met Joe Murray , creator of Rocko 's Modern Life , at an animation festival . Murray offered Hillenburg a job as a director of the series . Martin Olson , one of the writers for Rocko 's Modern Life , read The Intertidal Zone and encouraged Hillenburg to create a television series with a similar concept . At that point , Hillenburg had not considered creating his own series , but soon realized that this was his chance . Shortly after production on Rocko 's Modern Life ended in 1996 , Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants . Hillenburg used some character designs from his comic book . He designed " SpongeBob 's grumpy next door neighbor " as an octopus because the species ' large head ; octopi , he said , " have such a large bulbous head and Squidward thinks he 's an intellectual so of course , he 's gonna have a large bulbous head . " Hillenburg drew Squidward with six tentacles because " it was really just simpler for animation to draw him with six legs instead of eight " . Show writer and storyboard artist Vincent Waller said : Squidward is hard to draw — he has a very odd @-@ shaped head . Fortunately , his emotions are pretty even , but to get a whole lot of big emoting out of him is a challenge . His nose splits everything in half , so it 's always like , ' OK , how am I going to work this and still make it read ? ' Hillenburg thought of making jokes with Squidward ejecting ink but retired it because , according to him , " it always looks like he 's pooping his pants " . Conflicting statements from Hillenburg and Nickelodeon 's official website have led to some doubt over whether the character is an octopus or a squid . Hillenburg named him Squidward because the name Octoward — in the words of Squidward 's voice actor Rodger Bumpass — " just didn 't work " . The sound of Squidward 's footsteps is produced by rubbing hot water bottles . The footsteps , and those of the rest of the main characters , are recorded by the show 's foley crew . Sound designer Jeff Hutchins said that footstep sounds " [ help ] tell which character it is and what surface they 're stepping on " . Bumpass inspired the idea of having Squidward ride a recumbent bicycle ; Bumpass owns one of these bicycles , which he rides around Burbank , California . Bumpass described it as his " little inside joke " . = = = Voice = = = Squidward 's voice is provided by actor Rodger Bumpass , who voices several other SpongeBob SquarePants characters , including Squidward 's mother . While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997 , Hillenburg and the show 's then @-@ creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting voice auditions . Mr. Lawrence , who had worked with Hillenburg and Drymon on Rocko 's Modern Life , was Hillenburg 's first choice for the role . Hillenburg had invited Lawrence to audition for all the show 's characters . Instead of Squidward , Hillenburg decided to give Lawrence the part of Plankton , the series ' villain . According to Bumpass , Squidward was " a very nasally , monotone kind of guy " . He said the character became interesting to perform because of " his sarcasm , and then his frustration , and then his apoplexy , and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions " . Tom Kenny , the voice of SpongeBob , describes Bumpass recording his lines in the studio , saying , " I love watching Rodger ... He 's right next to me " . According to Kenny , when Bumpass " goes apoplectic " as Squidward while recording , his head turns red , " and you 're afraid he 's going to have an embolism " . Several of the show 's crew praise Bumpass for his performance and similitude to the character . Kenny called Bumpass " brilliant " and said , " [ he ] is sort of like Squidward " . Staff writer Kent Osborne said , " I remember thinking about how much Rodger talks and acts like Squidward . That 's why it 's such a good voice — he 's so connected to it " . However , Bumpass said , " I 'm not him and he 's not me , but what I 'm required to do for him and what I am enabled to do for him is what makes it like me . It fits my particular talents and skills very well . So in that respect , yeah , he is me , but I am not the cranky , sarcastic , underachieving kind of guy that he is . He 's easy to fall in , I will say that . " Squidward 's voice has been compared to that of Jack Benny 's . Kenny said , " To me , there 's something just so funny about that Jack @-@ Benny @-@ loyal @-@ to @-@ nobody character that Rodger Bumpass does such a great job of playing [ ... ] Squidward " . Arthur Brown , author of Everything I Need to Know , I Learned from Cartoons ! , said that Squidward " sounds a lot like Jack Benny " . Bumpass repudiated the relationship , saying " Jack Benny , no . Although he does have this observational sarcasm he occasionally brought out . " = = Reception = = Squidward has received positive reception from critics and fans . SpongeBob 's voice actor Tom Kenny named Squidward his favorite character on the show . He said , " He has an extra dimension where SpongeBob and Patrick 's capacity of play mystifies him , but he 's also jealous of it . When he tries to participate , he just fails utterly because he doesn 't believe in it . " Staff writer Casey Alexander said , " Squidward is the character I relate to the most . In an exaggerated way , he 's the most human character . If I knew a human like SpongeBob , I probably would react to him like Squidward does " . American singer Pharrell Williams , who says he is a fan of the show , said that " Squidward is my favorite , though . If he was a human , I would hang out with him . " Bill Treadway of DVD Verdict said that Squidward is " a cross between Bert [ of Sesame Street ] , Woody Allen , and Roger Addison [ of Mr. Ed ] ... but he has some heart , if you can find it " . Treadway called him " the straight man for his neighbor 's antics " . Film critic A. O. Scott of The New York Times said , in his review of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , that Squidward is one of his favorite secondary characters on the show , along with Sandy Cheeks and Mrs. Puff . He wrote , " I was sorry to see [ them ] pushed to the margins " . Also from the same publication , television critic Joyce Millman said that Squidward has " the nasal bitchiness of Paul Lynde and the artistic pretensions of Felix Unger . " Millman further wrote , " Hmmm , Squidward is one gay squid , I think . " " Band Geeks " , a second season episode that focuses on Squidward , is often considered by many critics and fans alike as one of the show 's best episodes . Writing for The Washington Post , Michael Cavna ranked " Band Geeks " as the fifth best episode of SpongeBob SquarePants . In his review , Cavna said , " Squidward 's mix of artistic aspiration in the face of goading , humiliation and unrelenting sub @-@ mediocrity made this a kids ' episode that adults can experience on a whole ' nother level . " On a less positive note , Squidward was listed among Common Sense Media 's " 10 Worst TV Role Models of 2012 " . Author Sierra Filucci said that the character 's selfishness is his " worst offense " , called Squidward " the mean and nasty cashier at the Krusty Krab " and said that " [ he ] is nice only when he wants something " . At the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards in 2012 , Bumpass was nominated for his vocal performance as Squidward in the Outstanding Performer in the Animated Program category — the first cast member to be nominated in this category . The award was won by June Foray of The Garfield Show . Bumpass has said he was proud of the certificate he received for the nomination , but " there wasn 't really a competition because one of the other nominees was June Foray and she is royalty in the animation world ... There was no way any of the other three guys had a chance . In fact , if any of us had one , there would have been a riot in that studio [ The Beverly Hilton ] . " He said he was " happy to lose to June Foray " and " very pleased and grateful to get a nomination " . = = In other media = = Squidward has been included in various SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ related merchandise , including board games , books , plush toys , and trading cards . Alongside the television series , Squidward appears in issues of SpongeBob Comics ( which were first published in February 2011 ) , in many SpongeBob SquarePants video games , and in various theme parks and theme park parades ( including Sea World and Universal 's Superstar Parade , respectively ) . In 2004 , Squidward appeared in the first feature @-@ length film adaptation of the show , The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , which was released on November 19 , 2004 , and was financially successful , grossing over US $ 140 million worldwide . He also appears in the film 's sequel , which was released in theaters on February 6 , 2015 . Episode " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was adapted in 2009 as a stage musical at the Liverpool Empire Theatre , and later in South Africa . Actor Charles Brunton originated the role of Squidward , later recalling that he loved the character , and the " fun [ of ] trying to re @-@ create a well established cartoon character into a live performance on stage . " Brunton prepared for the role by buying nine DVDs of the series , acting out Squidward 's part in each episode , in his bedroom . He said , " it took ages to perfect the voice and the way he used his arms " . Brunton 's performance and the musical were well received by most critics . A critic from The Public Reviews wrote , " Charles Brunton as Squidward really stole the show for us , his character was nailed to perfection , from his comic acting , voice and mannerisms this was a faultless performance " . In his review for The Northern Echo , Viv Hardwick said , " Charles Brunton makes a convincing Squidward " . The role was played by Chris van Rensburg in South Africa . In 2012 , Squidward became the center of a " creepypasta " ( a term describing urban legends or scary stories that have become Internet phenomena ) called " Squidward 's Suicide " , which alleged the existence of a lost episode of SpongeBob SquarePants in which Squidward kills himself . It was originally uploaded to YouTube but was immediately removed . The alleged episode consists of " strange and upsetting noises in the background " and " quick flashes of dead children and gore " . Show writer Casey Alexander debunked the actuality of the alleged lost episode , saying it is " 100 % hoax " .
= Do the Bartman = " Do the Bartman " is a pop rap song from the 1990 Simpsons album The Simpsons Sing the Blues . It was performed by The Simpsons cast member Nancy Cartwright ( the voice of Bart Simpson ) , with backing vocals from Michael Jackson , alongside additional vocals from Dan Castellaneta ( voice of Homer Simpson ) . It was produced and written by American recording artist Bryan Loren , and released as a single on November 20 , 1990 . Even though it received a lot of radio airplay in the United States , " Do the Bartman " was never officially released as a single in the United States . It topped the charts in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , Norway , and the United Kingdom . Additionally , it reached the top 10 in Sweden and the Netherlands , and was certified gold in the United Kingdom . A music video , which was directed by Brad Bird , was released for the song in 1991 . The video became a hit on the American network MTV and received a nomination at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards . = = Background = = The album The Simpsons Sing the Blues was released in September 1990 . The first single from it was the rap song " Do the Bartman " , performed by Bart Simpson 's voice actor Nancy Cartwright and released on November 20 , 1990 . Rumors began spreading in the summer of 1990 that Michael Jackson would write a song for Bart on the album . This song was reported early on to be " Do the Bartman " , but executive producer James L. Brooks issued a press release in September 1990 apologizing for the misunderstanding and stating that song was actually written by one of Jackson 's friends , Bryan Loren . However , The Simpsons creator Matt Groening later stated during an appearance at the 1998 World Animation Celebration convention in Pasadena , California that " Do the Bartman " was actually co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Jackson , but he could not receive credit for it because he was under contract to another record label . Groening told a crowd at the convention that had gathered for a " The Simpsons tribute " that it had " always [ been ] amazing to me that no one ever found out that Michael Jackson wrote that song . [ ... ] He was a big fan of the show . " Jackson was a fan of The Simpsons , especially Bart , and had called the producers one night offering to write Bart a number one single and do a guest spot on the show , which is how " Do the Bartman " came about . Jackson eventually guest @-@ starred in the episode " Stark Raving Dad " ( season three , 1991 ) under the pseudonym John Jay Smith . He also wrote a song for that episode called " Happy Birthday Lisa " , which was later included in the album Songs in the Key of Springfield . Bryan Loren has stated that Jackson had provided background vocals for " Do the Bartman " . In July 2015 , when Bryan Loren was selling the publishing and songwriting rights for the song , Loren stated that " despite Matt Groening 's repeated confessions , I am the sole writer of the song " . Loren stated that Jackson 's contributions included back up vocals , providing the title " Do the Bartman " and that Jackson insisted his own name to be mentioned in the lyrics . = = Critical reception = = Critical reviews of the song were mostly positive . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly described it as " not bad , " and commented that Bart 's high voice " echoes the beats nicely . " The Daily Vault 's Benny Balneg liked that the song disengaged itself from the album 's " blues tag " and incorporated more " contemporary elements " into its sound . He added that he thought the song had a " catchy beat " and an " infectious chorus . " The Long Beach Press @-@ Telegram 's Patricia Smith called " Do the Bartman " a " surprisingly funky tune . " Monika Bartyzel of Cinematical , however , thought the song was a " cheesy number . " " Do the Bartman " and its music video have become study material for sociology courses at the University of California Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . " = = Chart performance = = While the song was never officially released as a single in the United States , it did top the charts in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , Norway , and the United Kingdom . In the latter country , the song spent three weeks at the top of the UK Singles Chart , and became Britain 's seventh best @-@ selling song of 1991 . " Do The Bartman " has shipped at least 400 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry on February 1 , 1991 . The song 's success in the United Kingdom was remarkable , given that at that time The Simpsons was airing only on British satellite television station Sky One . It would be five years before it was first on terrestrial television in Britain , airing on BBC One and later BBC Two . In Ireland , " Do The Bartman " spent nine weeks at number one on the Irish Singles Chart from January 24 , 1991 to March 24 , 1991 . Only seven singles have ever managed a longer run at number one in that country . The song also charted at number @-@ one on New Zealands RIANZ Singles Chart on the issue date of January 25 , 1991 , and peaked at number @-@ one on the chart again , for a total of two weeks , from February 8 , 1991 to February 15 , 1991 . In March 1991 , " Do the Bartman " became the first single to reach number one in Australia that was not available on 7 inch vinyl . = = Music video = = The music video features the typical plot of Bart rebelling against authority when he decides to put his own spin on a rigidly choreographed dance presentation at Springfield Elementary School . The music video for " Do the Bartman " was directed by Brad Bird , with dance choreography by Michael Chambers . Nobody from the staff of The Simpsons wanted to direct it because they were busy doing the show , but Bird finally agreed to do it after having been asked four times . He had a very short amount of time to finish the video because it was supposed to coincide with the release of The Simpsons Sing the Blues . The entire music video was storyboarded in only two days in the United States . Bird then got on a plane to Budapest , Hungary , where the video was animated by Varga Studio . They thought the video was going to be animated as simply as the original The Simpsons shorts , shown on The Tracey Ullman Show , so when Bird told them that it was going to be done in full animation with no repeated scenes , they " went into deep shock " . The animators added the wraparound at the beginning to set Bart against the crowd and put the video in " some sort of context . " The video was nominated for Best Special Effects at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards . It was the number one music video on rotation on American MTV network between January and March 1991 . Following the death of Michael Jackson on June 25 , 2009 , the music video was broadcast by the Fox network on June 28 , 2009 — ahead of a rerun of the episode " Wedding for Disaster " — and featured a title card paying tribute to Jackson . = = Charts = = = = Track listing = = 7 " single : " Do the Bartman " ( 7 " House Mix / Edit ) – 3 : 54 " Do the Bartman " ( LP edit ) – 3 : 59 CD single : " Do the Bartman " ( 7 " House Mix / Edit ) – 3 : 54 " Do the Bartman " ( LP edit ) – 3 : 59 " Do the Bartman " ( Bad Bart House Mix ) – 4 : 49 " Do the Bartman " ( a cappella ) – 3 : 44
= Broad Ripple Park Carousel = Broad Ripple Park Carousel , also known as White City Carousel and Children 's Museum Carousel , is an antique carousel in The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis . It was installed in 1917 at an amusement park near the White River in Indianapolis , Indiana , where it remained until the building housing it collapsed in 1956 . The ride 's mechanism was destroyed , but the animals were relatively unscathed and put into storage by the park 's owners , the Indianapolis Department of Parks and Recreation . The animals were carved by the Dentzel Carousel Company some time before 1900 but were assembled by the William F. Mangels carousel company , which also supplied the engine powering the ride . The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis acquired its first two carved animals from the ride in 1965 , and the last few wooden animals in 1973 . The museum planned to sell some to finance the restoration of others until the director of the museum , Mildred Compton , was convinced by carousel enthusiasts that the museum should instead restore all the animals and recreate the working carousel . Restoration of the carved animals began in 1966 and was only finished with the restoration of the entire carousel in 1977 . No space had been allocated for the display of such a large exhibit in the museum 's planned new building , which meant some re @-@ designing was necessary to allow its installation on the fifth floor . A 1919 Wurlitzer organ model 146B , a type manufactured only for carousels , was also installed . As restored , the carousel is 42 feet ( 13 meters ) wide and has a total of 42 animals , including – as well as the usual horses – goats , giraffes , deer , a lion , and a tiger . It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987 . = = History = = = = = Background = = = The Broad Ripple Park Carousel was installed in 1917 in an amusement park on the outskirts of Indianapolis , Indiana . The White City Amusement Park had been established in 1906 in what is now Broad Ripple Village , alongside the White River . In 1908 a fire caused damage throughout the park , and only the swimming pool remained unscathed . The park closed for three years until its purchase by the Union Traction Company , which restored it and operated it for eleven years . The carousel was installed during the Union Traction Company 's ownership . The park was sold in May 1922 to the new Broad Ripple Amusement Park Association , and renamed Broad Ripple Park . In 1927 the park was sold again , and changed hands once more in 1938 . The Board of Parks Commission of Indianapolis bought the property on May 18 , 1945 , paying $ 131 @,@ 500 ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 73 million as of 2016 ) for the 60 @-@ acre ( 24 @-@ hectare ) tract , and turned the property into a general @-@ use park , destroying all rides it could not sell . The board 's original plan was to sell the carousel and the narrow @-@ gauge railway rides . Only the carousel remained in Indianapolis after it was unsold ; the steam locomotive is now at the Indiana Transportation Museum at Noblesville , Indiana . = = = Installation = = = The carousel was commissioned by William Hubbs , who had it installed in White City Amusement Park in 1917 . Built on a Mangel @-@ Illions mechanism , it used animals carved by the Dentzel carousel company of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , sometime before 1900 . The carousel was assembled by the William F. Mangels carousel company in 1917 . It was probably not the first carousel in the park , as there are indications of a previous ride that came from Hartford , Connecticut . Nothing is known of the history of the animals before their installation in the 1917 carousel assembly . During the 1960s newspaper reports stated that it was believed that the animals had arrived in Indianapolis in 1917 , imported from Germany by two brothers named Mangels , but later research revealed the animals were manufactured by the Dentzel carousel company . Also included in the installation were oil paintings on the canopy over the animals and mechanism . Part of the installation appears to have involved the retrofitting of some animals to fit the Mangels mechanism . During this process some of the animals , which were carved in stationary or standing positions and thus not meant to be " jumpers " ( animals that moved up and down ) , were modified to allow them to move . = = = Park usage = = = Between 1917 and 1938 the carousel was located near the White City park pool , in an enclosed building with numerous large windows . In 1938 , after the park was purchased by William McCurry , the ride was enclosed within an unwalled pavilion with a domed roof and moved to the area of the park set aside as a children 's playground . The carousel was operated as a concession , which one operator , William Hubbs , held for almost 10 years . The park district does not appear to have moved the carousel after taking over in 1945 , as a 1955 newspaper article noted it was still in the same spot it had occupied for 38 years . The carousel was again operated as a concession within the park , this time by the wife of Everett DuBois , the park superintendent . Like Hubbs , Mrs. DuBois operated the carousel for almost 10 years . Although the district did not change the ride 's location , it noted in 1955 that the equipment was showing its age . In 1955 the park district attempted to paint over the oil paintings on the canopy , which had deteriorated . The Indianapolis Art League objected , and volunteered to restore the original paintings rather than have them painted over with Disney characters . The domed pavilion housing the mechanism collapsed in 1956 , destroying the mechanism and the sweeps that supported the animals . The park district disposed of the destroyed mechanical parts and stored the animals . In 1961 the giraffes , along with other animals from the carousel , were used in a Christmas display at University Park in Indianapolis . During this time , discussions began between the park district and the Indianapolis Zoological Society about the possibility of the Zoological Society acquiring the animals for use in its children 's zoo section . In April 1962 newspaper reports stated that the animals were to be donated to the zoo , for installation in the main zoo ; the zoo planned to purchase a smaller merry @-@ go @-@ round for the children 's zoo . The animals were apparently still being offered to the zoo in December 1963 , as a newspaper story announced that the park district had just given the zoo authorization to use the carousel parts , and volunteers were being sought to restore the animals . The president of the Zoological Society described the animals as " bigger and more realistically colored , and more intricately detailed , sturdier , and they have more different kinds of animals than that aluminum junk they throw out today " . = = = Acquisition by the museum = = = In 1965 The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis , then located in a building at 30th and Meridian Streets , acquired two horses from the carousel . Mildred Compton , the museum director , had seen the carousel in Broad Ripple Park before 1952 , and hoped to secure the surviving animals , but the park district was initially unwilling to part with more than two , as the district was using five or six animals in the annual Christmas displays at Monument Circle . During the first half of 1966 , the two horses were refinished by a museum volunteer . Both were stripped of old paint , one was repainted , and the other was refinished with lemon oil to feature the carvings on the animal . Compton obtained real horse tails from an Indianapolis slaughterhouse to replace the lost originals . By September 1966 the two horses were ready for display in the museum 's front entrance . The park district allowed the museum to use one of the surviving giraffes in a booth at a fall festival held at the Indianapolis Museum of Art in 1968 . The museum subsequently acquired most of the remaining animals in 1969 , after a search through the storage building containing the animals . The animals and parts of animals had to be searched for in corners and under boxes in the park district storage building . Besides a large number of horses , 2 more giraffes , a lion , and a tiger were found . Photographs of the animals were sent to Frederic Fried , an expert in carousels , who confirmed that the animals were made in the United States , not Germany , probably before 1900 . He also confirmed that they were carved by the Dentzel company . The museum intended to keep a few of the animals and sell the others to finance its operations , but Mildred Compton returned from a visit to the 1973 National Carousel Roundtable convinced that it should instead restore all of them and recreate the working carousel in its planned new building . But no space had been allocated to allow the display of such a large exhibit , requiring the plans to be adjusted . Columns required in the original layout were removed to allow the carousel 's installation on the fifth floor . While plans were under way to secure funding for the restoration of the carousel , efforts were made to find some missing animals . By studying old photographs of the carousel , it was determined there had been three deer or stags which had not been found in the park district storage building . No one at the park district knew of their whereabouts , and some employees believed the animals had disintegrated . As well as the missing deer , two horses were missing . The museum contacted local newspapers , which published stories on the efforts to restore the carousel . The reports mentioned the missing animals , and that the museum was trying to locate them . An anonymous tip received in December 1973 revealed the deer were used in the annual Christmas Gift and Hobby Show , where they served as escorts for Santa Claus . Compton was able to secure the animals from the park district for the museum . = = = Restoration = = = The mechanical parts were assembled in the fifth @-@ floor area in November 1975 , using a non @-@ original Mangel @-@ Illions mechanism . A Wurlitzer carousel organ , which had belonged to an amusement park in San Francisco , was added . Before it was installed in the Children 's Museum , the organ was refurbished and rebuilt by Carval Stoots of Plainfield , Indiana , in 1976 . An artist from Pennsylvania recreated the upper outside panels in the style of the carousels of the period around the time of World War I. The carvings on the panels were provided by Allen and Rita Orre of Ohio and the International Amusement Devices Company of Ohio ; the mirrors were produced by an Indianapolis glass firm . The scenery panels were initially some discovered Dentzel company panels , and these were used in 1976 and 1977 while replica Mangels @-@ Illions @-@ style panels were built in the museum 's shops . The animals were restored between 1975 and 1977 by Bill and Caroline Von Stein of Cincinnati , Ohio . The Von Steins were experienced with other types of museum conservation work , but had never restored carousel animals . Because of the animals ' poor condition , no attempt was made to restore them to their original paintwork ; instead , the restorers were allowed to use their judgment on color choices and other decorations . The museum 's only requirements were that they use reasonably natural decorative schemes and no high @-@ gloss paint . = = = Changes since initial restoration = = = The original engine propelling the carousel was a belt @-@ driven mechanism , but after the initial restoration it was exchanged for a fluid drive provided by the Kissell Brothers Amusement Rides company of Cincinnati , Ohio , who suggested the platform for the carousel be improved . To provide crowd control , a pavilion was built over the carousel and a ticket booth was installed . Neither was based on any extant buildings , but each was a composite of several other structures . The animals are removed one at a time from the carousel for routine maintenance and refurbishment , which is carried out in the museum 's own shops . The carousel was designated a National Historic Landmark on February 27 , 1987 , and the National Historic Landmarks Program assessed its condition as " satisfactory " in 2008 . The carousel is one of the largest displayed artifacts in the museum , and is available to be ridden by visitors . = = = QRpedia = = = The carousel features a QR code as part of the museum 's involvement in the QRpedia project . Visitors may scan the code with a suitable mobile device and will be served the Wikipedia article about it , in whatever language their device is set to use , if available . = = Carousel composition = = The carousel is one of the three oldest surviving Dentzel menagerie carousels . Thirty @-@ one of its 42 wood @-@ carved animals are horses , 17 standing and 14 jumping . There are also three goats , three giraffes , three deer , one lion , and one tiger . The single lion and tiger are typical of Dentzel @-@ created carousels , as are the three giraffes ; Gustav Dentzel 's love of that animal resulted in all of his carousels including at least one row of giraffes . The animals are arranged in three circles around the central mechanism , alternating leaping or jumping horses with stationary animals . Typical for a Mangels @-@ Illions manufactured carousel , there are 18 jumping animals , all but one of which is original ; the horse that could not be found in 1975 was replaced with another Dentzel horse . Although the animals were not originally carved to display jewels , at some point they were so displayed at the amusement park , and thus the museum restored the animals on the outside circle with jewels . The mechanism powering the ride is a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 @-@ meter ) diameter Mangels @-@ Illions manufactured carousel , but it is uncertain whether this exactly matches the original Mangels @-@ Illions mechanism . The whole assembly has a diameter of 42 feet ( 13 meters ) . The organ , a 1919 Wurlitzer carousel organ model 146B , is of a type designed specifically for carousels .
= Bernard Quatermass = Professor Bernard Quatermass is a fictional scientist , originally created by the writer Nigel Kneale for BBC Television . An intelligent and highly moral British scientist , Quatermass is a pioneer of the British space programme , heading the British Experimental Rocket Group . He continually finds himself confronting sinister alien forces that threaten to destroy humanity . The role of Quatermass was featured in three influential BBC science fiction serials of the 1950s , and again in a final serial for Thames Television in 1979 . A remake of the first serial appeared on BBC Four in 2005 . The character also appeared in films , on the radio and in print over a fifty @-@ year period . Kneale picked the character 's unusual surname from a London telephone directory , while the first name was in honour of the astronomer Bernard Lovell . The character of Quatermass has been described by BBC News Online as Britain 's first television hero , and by The Independent newspaper as " A brilliantly conceived and finely crafted creation ... [ He ] remained a modern ' Mr Standfast ' , the one fixed point in an increasingly dreadful and ever @-@ shifting universe . " In 2005 , an article in The Daily Telegraph suggested , " You can see a line running through him and many other British heroes . He shares elements with both Sherlock Holmes and Ellen MacArthur . " = = Character = = Little is revealed of Quatermass 's early life during the course of the films and television series in which he appears . In The Quatermass Experiment , he at one point despairs that he should have stuck to his original career as a surveyor . In Nigel Kneale 's 1996 radio serial The Quatermass Memoirs , it is revealed that the Professor was first involved in rocketry experiments in the 1930s , and that his wife died at a young age . The unmade prequel serial Quatermass in the Third Reich , an idea conceived by Kneale in the late 1990s , would have shown Quatermass travelling to Nazi Germany during the 1936 Berlin Olympics and becoming involved with Wernher von Braun and the German rocket programme , before helping a young Jewish refugee to escape from the country . According to The Quatermass Memoirs , during World War II Quatermass conducted top secret work for the British war effort , which he subsequently refused ever to discuss . By 1953 Quatermass is the head of the British Experimental Rocket Group , which has a programme to launch a manned rocket into space from a base in Tarooma , Australia . Although Quatermass succeeds in launching a three @-@ man crew , the rocket vastly overshoots its projected orbit and returns to Earth much later than planned , crash @-@ landing in London . Only one of the crew , Victor Carroon , remains , and he has been taken over by an alien presence , eventually forcing Quatermass to destroy him and the other two crewmembers who have been absorbed into him in a climax set in Westminster Abbey . Despite this trauma , Quatermass continues with his space programme , and by Quatermass II ( 1955 ) is actively planning the establishment of Moon bases . In this serial we see his daughter , Paula Quatermass , who works as an assistant at the Rocket Group , but there is no sign of a wife or other children . In the fourth episode of the serial he mentions that he never reached his twenty @-@ fifth wedding anniversary , tying in with The Quatermass Memoirs ' later assertion of his wife 's early death . At the beginning of the third serial , Quatermass and the Pit ( 1958 – 59 ) , Quatermass 's funding is being cut back and the Rocket Group is being handed over to military control , much to his disgust . Command is to be handed over to Colonel Breen and Quatermass senses that he is being forced out : however , after the events of the serial , Breen is dead , Quatermass has helped to save the world , and London is in chaos . It is not clear what happens to the Rocket Group immediately after this : the next time Quatermass is seen on screen ( Quatermass , also released internationally as The Quatermass Conclusion and Quatermass IV , 1979 ) he has long been retired , living in retreat in the Scottish Highlands . He has recently become the guardian of his teenaged granddaughter , Hettie , after her parents were killed in a road accident in Germany . After Hettie runs away from home he travels to London in search of her , and finds a dystopian world there . Quatermass and the scientist Joe Kapp establish that an alien force is causing the collapse of society and Quatermass forms a plan to drive the intruder away by the detonation of a nuclear bomb . He presses the button to detonate it himself , with Hettie 's help , and they are killed in the blast as the planet is saved . = = History = = Nigel Kneale conceived the character of Quatermass in 1953 , when he was assigned in his capacity as a BBC television staff drama writer to create a new six @-@ part serial to run on Saturday nights in July and August . Kneale initially named his leading character Professor Charlton , but during the writing process decided he wanted something more striking and memorable . A native of the Isle of Man , he was inspired by the fact that surnames beginning with " Qu " were common on the island . The eventual name was picked from a London telephone directory ; there was a family of that name who traded as fruiterers in the city 's East End . The surname has its origins as a measurement of land assigned in the division of England by the Normans following their conquest of the country under William the Conqueror in 1066 . The Professor 's first name , Bernard , was in honour of the astronomer Bernard Lovell , founder of the Jodrell Bank observatory . = = = In television ( 1950s ) = = = The director assigned to the serial , which was eventually named The Quatermass Experiment , was Rudolph Cartier . A few months beforehand he had directed a play entitled It Is Midnight , Dr. Schweitzer for the BBC , and he offered the role of Quatermass to one of the stars of that play , André Morell . Morell considered the offer but declined the part , which Cartier then offered to another actor who had appeared in It Is Midnight , Dr. Schweitzer , Reginald Tate , who accepted . The serial was a success , with the British Film Institute later describing it as " one of the most influential series of the 1950s . " The following year the BBC 's Controller of Programmes , Cecil McGivern — who had initially feared that viewers would not accept such an unusual name for the leading character — noted in reference to the impending launch of the rival ITV network that : " Had competitive television been in existence then , we would have killed it every Saturday night while [ The Quatermass Experiment ] lasted . We are going to need many more ' Quatermass Experiment ' programmes . " A sequel , Quatermass II , was accordingly commissioned in 1955 , but Reginald Tate died of a heart attack only a month before production was due to begin . With very little time to find a replacement , John Robinson was picked as the only suitable actor available . Robinson was uncomfortable about taking over from Tate and with some of the technical dialogue he was required to deliver , and his performance has been criticised as " robotic " , although others such as Andrew Pixley in Time Screen Magazine praised Robinson for doing compelling work after the initial episode of the serial . By the summer of 1957 , Kneale was working on the scripts for a third and final BBC serial . Titled Quatermass and the Pit and again produced and directed by Cartier , this was eventually broadcast in December 1958 and January 1959 . John Robinson was no longer available to play Quatermass , so the role was offered instead to Alec Clunes . Clunes turned down the part , and it was offered once more to André Morell , who this time accepted . Morell has been praised by several reviewers as having given the definitive portrayal of Quatermass . The serial itself has been praised by the BBC 's own website as " simply the first finest thing the BBC ever made . It justifies licence fees to this day . " Despite this success , Kneale was unsure about whether the character would ever return , later telling an interviewer : " I didn 't want to go on repeating because Professor Quatermass had already saved the world from ultimate destruction three times , and that seemed to me to be quite enough . " Of the TV serials , Quatermass II and Quatermass and the Pit have been preserved in full . Only the first two episodes of The Quatermass Experiment now exist . = = = In film = = = At roughly the same time as Quatermass II was being transmitted by the BBC , Hammer Film Productions released their film adaptation of the first serial in British cinemas . Directed by Val Guest , it was retitled The Quatermass Xperiment , and starred American actor Brian Donlevy as part of a deal to help the film find US distribution . Kneale , who had little involvement with the film , was unimpressed with this casting . " I may have picked Quatermass 's surname out of a phone book , but his first name was carefully chosen : Bernard , after Bernard Lovell , the creator of Jodrell Bank . Pioneer , ultimate questing man . Donlevy played him as a mechanic , a creature with a completely closed mind . " Val Guest has praised Donlevy 's performance , saying that " he gave it absolute reality . " Despite Kneale 's reservations about the casting , The Quatermass Xperiment was the highest @-@ grossing film Hammer had made up to that point in their history , and has since been described by one academic as " the key British science fiction film of the 1950s . " Hammer were keen to make an immediate follow @-@ up , and wanted to use Quatermass in their 1956 film X the Unknown ; however , Kneale refused them the rights , and they created their own substitute character , Doctor Adam Royston . They did release an adaptation of Quatermass II in 1957 , called Quatermass 2 and this time with Kneale 's involvement in the script . To the writer 's displeasure , Donlevy returned as Quatermass . Hammer also purchased the film rights to Quatermass and the Pit ( released in the USA as Five Million Years to Earth ) , as it had done with the previous two TV serials , although they did not release their version until 1967 . This time the film was directed by Roy Ward Baker and starred Scottish actor Andrew Keir , after Morell had been offered and declined the chance to play the part again . Keir 's performance was well @-@ received , particularly in contrast to Donlevy 's portrayal . The Guardian newspaper wrote in 1997 that : " Keir also made many films ... most gratifyingly , perhaps , the movie version of Quatermass and the Pit ( 1967 ) , when he finally replaced the absurdly miscast Brian Donlevy . " Soon after the release of the Quatermass and the Pit film , Kneale was approached by Hammer about writing a fourth Quatermass story directly for them , but the idea came to nothing . Possible remakes of one or more of the Hammer film adaptations were also mooted at various points during the 1990s , with Dan O 'Bannon scripting a potential new version of The Quatermass Experiment in 1993 , but again nothing was eventually filmed . In February 2012 Simon Oakes , president of the revived Hammer Films , announced that a new Quatermass film was in active development . = = = In television ( 1970s onwards ) = = = By the early 1970s Kneale was once again regularly writing for the BBC , who announced plans to produce a fourth Quatermass serial in 1972 . This ultimately was not made by the BBC , but Kneale 's scripts were produced in 1979 as a four @-@ part serial for Thames Television , titled Quatermass . This time John Mills played Quatermass in an expensive and high @-@ profile production , which was screened on the ITV network . The production company Euston Films also released a 100 @-@ minute film version titled The Quatermass Conclusion or Quatermass IV , for distribution abroad . There was , however , little interest among film distributors , and it received only a limited theatrical release . Kneale was not keen to return to the character following this , telling one interviewer , " I blew him up ... and I don 't feel inclined to invent a ' Son of Quatermass ' either . " However , in the late 1990s he conceived an idea for a prequel serial , entitled Quatermass in the Third Reich set in Germany in the 1930s . The idea was submitted to the BBC , who turned it down . In 2005 , the digital television channel BBC Four produced a new version of The Quatermass Experiment , transmitted live as the original had been . Jason Flemyng starred as Quatermass . The Times 's television reviewer , Sarah Vine , commented of this production , " Jason Flemyng as Quatermass made a surprisingly good fist of things ... the live performance lent the drama an edge that might have been lost in re @-@ takes . " = = Other media = = In addition to the character 's various television and film appearances , Quatermass was also seen in a variety of other media between the 1950s and the 1990s . In 1955 Kneale was invited by the publishers of the Daily Express to write a new prose Quatermass story for serialisation in their newspaper ; as he was unable to think of a new storyline , they suggested he simply adapt Quatermass II , which he agreed to do . The serialisation ran in the Daily Express from 5 December 1955 to 20 December 1955 , although Kneale was forced to draw it to a rapid conclusion when the paper lost interest in the project and instructed him to complete the story as soon as possible . A script book for The Quatermass Experiment , including some photographs from the production , was released by Penguin Books in 1959 . This was followed by similar releases of Quatermass II and Quatermass and the Pit , both published in 1960 . All three of these releases were reprinted by Arrow Books in 1979 with new introductions by Kneale , to tie @-@ in with the television transmission of the fourth and final serial . Arrow Books also released a novelisation of the 1979 Quatermass serial , written by Kneale . This was written during production , and contained many additional scenes and extra background detail not included in the original scripts . Kneale offered many of these new scenes to the producers of the television version , but by this stage it was too late for them to be incorporated . In 1995 , BBC Radio producer Paul Quinn approached Kneale with the idea of making a new radio series about Quatermass , and the resulting project was produced and aired as the five @-@ part serial The Quatermass Memoirs on BBC Radio 3 in the spring of 1996 . The serial had three strands : a monologue from Kneale recounting the historical environment in which he created and wrote the original 1950s serials ; archive material from the original productions and contemporary news broadcasts ; and a dramatised strand set shortly before the 1979 serial , with Quatermass being visited in retreat in Scotland by a reporter eager to write his life story . Of the actors who had previously played Quatermass , only Keir and Mills were still alive ; Keir took the role , his final professional performance before his death the following year . The Quatermass Memoirs was repeated several times on digital radio station BBC7 from 2003 , and the serial was released on CD in 2006 . A live theatrical production of Quatermass and the Pit was staged , with the permission of Kneale , outdoors in a quarry at the village of Cropwell Bishop in Nottinghamshire in August 1997 . The adaptation was written by Peter Thornhill and mounted by Creation Productions , with David Longford starring as Quatermass . All of the various film and surviving television productions featuring Quatermass have been released on DVD . = = Themes = = Nigel Kneale explained in a 1990s interview the background that had led him to formulate Quatermass and the other characters of the original serial in 1953 . " I wanted to write some strong characters , but I didn 't want them to be like those horrible people in those awful American science fiction films , chewing gum and stating the obvious . Not that I wanted to do something terribly ' British ' , but I didn 't like all the flag @-@ waving you got in those films . I tried to get real human interest in the stories , and some good humour . " Writing in 2005 , the television history lecturer Dr Catherine Johnson felt that in the original three 1950s serials , Quatermass as a character represented the championing of science and rationality over the supernatural and the fantastic . " As a leading scientific innovator , Quatermass is invested with scientific and moral authority . Over the three serials , this authority is tested and undermined ... Despite this , the narrative structure of all three serials works to reinforce the authority invested in Quatermass and in science . Although scientific enterprise is responsible for disastrous consequences in the first two Quatermass serials , it is only through science that the alien invasions are overcome ... He is invested with the narrative authority to understand and explain the fantastic events depicted . " The writer and critic Kim Newman went further , explaining in a 2003 television documentary on Nigel Kneale 's career that he believed Quatermass to be not only a representation of science but of humanity itself . Referring to the conclusion of The Quatermass Experiment , he commented that : " It almost boils down to an editorial speech by Quatermass representing humanity , or the humane aspects of humanity . He talks to the monster , and so the monster is defeated by an intellectual argument or an emotional appeal . " Like Kneale , he contrasted this to American science @-@ fiction productions , where the alien adversary would be defeated by " it being blown up or electrocuted , or having the entire firepower of the army turned against it . " Hammer had altered their film version of the story so that the creature is in fact killed by being electrocuted . In contrast to Newman 's idea of Quatermass as the embodiment of humanity , writer and lecturer Peter Hutchings in his essay " We are the Martians " sees Quatermass as an isolated character . " In the 1950s Quatermass stories , Quatermass himself is someone who , while working to protect the nation , remains a curiously isolated figure , bereft of anything resembling a meaningful relationship . ( In the 1979 Quatermass , he has acquired a granddaughter ; possibly connected with this is the fact that here he seems a much weaker figure who can only defeat the aliens through the sacrifice of the lives of both himself and his granddaughter ) . " Hutchings also compared this to American productions of the era : " The standard , if not clichéd , figures of the clean @-@ cut square @-@ jawed hero and his girl , which are present in some form or other in most US sf films of this period ... are absent . " = = Outside references = = = = = Doctor Who = = = The BBC science @-@ fiction series Doctor Who has often been heavily influenced by the various Quatermass serials , and despite Kneale 's dislike of it ( " It sounded a terrible idea and I still think it was , " he commented in 1986 ) and his refusal to write for it , unofficial references to Quatermass have appeared in the programme and its spinoffs . Serials directly influenced include The Web of Fear , The Invasion , Spearhead from Space , The Ambassadors of Death , Inferno , The Seeds of Doom and Image of the Fendahl , as well as the 2007 " The Lazarus Experiment " , which echoes the first serial 's climax in Westminster Abbey , with the use of Southwark Cathedral . Former Doctor Who script editor and producer Derrick Sherwin admitted on a DVD documentary that the idea of setting more serials on contemporary Earth in the early 1970s was to recall a Quatermass feel . In episode three of the 1988 serial Remembrance of the Daleks , which is set in 1963 , military scientific advisor Dr Rachel Jensen remarks to her colleague Alison , " I wish Bernard was here . " Alison replies , " British Rocket Group 's got its own problems . " The 1994 Doctor Who novel Nightshade is about an actor who starred in a thinly disguised version of Quatermass , discovering that the events of the serials are becoming reality . The fictional Professor Nightshade was also mentioned in subsequent novels . Author Mark Gatiss described the Nightshade serial in his notes accompanying the e @-@ book release as " a TV series that isn 't quite Quatermass and isn 't quite Doctor Who " , adding " I was utterly obsessed by Quatermass at that time " . The 1997 Doctor Who novel The Dying Days , set in its year of release , features in one chapter an elderly character introduced halfway through a sentence as " -ermass " , and subsequently referred to as " Professor " and " Bernard " during his brief appearance . Author Lance Parkin confirmed in his notes accompanying the later e @-@ book release that this was a deliberate cameo from Quatermass , specifically the John Mills version from the final serial . The 2005 Doctor Who episode " The Christmas Invasion " featured the British Rocket Group , although the organisation was only identifiable by a logo not clearly seen on screen and never referred to in dialogue . It was , however , heavily referenced in a tie @-@ in website for the episode created by the bbc.co.uk Doctor Who webteam . In the 2008 Doctor Who novel Beautiful Chaos , the Doctor briefly mentions being invited to the Royal Planetary Society by " Bernard and Paula " . In the 2009 television episode " Planet of the Dead " , " Bernard " is used as the name for a unit of measurement , and it is explained that this is in reference to Quatermass — whether as a fictional or a real person is not stated . Neil Cross , the writer of the 2013 Doctor Who episode " Hide " , has stated in interviews that when he was working on his initial ideas for the episode , he took inspiration from the Quatermass serials , and even intended for the character of Bernard Quatermass to appear in the story . However , it was not possible to gain copyright clearance to use the character . = = = Other references = = = Quatermass also appears in a short segment of the 2007 graphic novel The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen : Black Dossier , in which he takes his niece and nephew to visit an interplanetary zoo . Here he is identified as Uncle Bernard , and is drawn to resemble George Bernard Shaw . The song " Mars Within " , the first track of Bruce Dickinson 's solo album Tyranny of Souls , features the line " Professor Quatermass , where are you ? " Quatermass appears in story written by Roman Leary published in the 2009 Tales of the Shadowmen , Volume 6 = = Parodies and homages = = In February 1959 the BBC radio comedy series The Goon Show broadcast a parody of Quatermass and the Pit , entitled " The Scarlet Capsule " . Harry Secombe played his regular character in The Goon Show , Neddie Seagoon , in turn playing " Professor Ned Cratermess , OBE . " This was followed later in the same year by a spoof on another BBC radio comedy show , That Man Chester , which launched a regular strand entitled " The Quite @-@ a @-@ Mess Three Saga " , with Deryck Guyler as " Professor Quite @-@ a @-@ Mess " . However , the " Quite @-@ a @-@ Mess " name and references were dropped after only three of the episodes under pressure from Kneale , who felt that a 13 @-@ week spoof would be to the detriment of the original character . In the early 1970s , a British progressive rock group named both themselves and their first album " Quatermass " . A television spoof appeared in a 1986 episode of the BBC sketch show The Two Ronnies , which featured a sketch entitled " It Came From Outer Hendon " , written by David Renwick . This spoof starred Ronnie Corbett as " Professor Martin Cratermouse " . The film director John Carpenter wrote the screenplay for his 1987 film Prince of Darkness under the pseudonym " Martin Quatermass " . Carpenter had previously worked with Nigel Kneale on the 1982 film Halloween III : Season of the Witch . In Joe Dante 's 1990 film Gremlins 2 : The New Batch , in a corridor of the Clamp Tower , one of the door nameplates is for " Dr. Quatermass " . Goa trance musicians Jason Gill & Simon Washington formed a group named Quatermass in 1995 . In the last episode of The Mask : Animated Series entitled " The Aceman Cometh " ( 1997 , guest featuring Ace Ventura ) , there is a character named Professor Quatermass . The DVD release of the 2004 remake of Dawn of the Dead includes a bonus feature in the form of a simulated newscast covering the rise of zombies across America . A doctor is interviewed about the zombies being dead people who have come back to life — his name is Dr. Quatermass .
= Stephen ( song ) = " Stephen " is a song by American recording artist and songwriter Kesha , taken from her debut studio album Animal ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Kesha in collaboration with David Gamson , Pebe Sebert , Oliver Leiber . It was produced by Gamson with additional production done by Leiber . The song 's instrumentation was by Gamson , with the exception of the accordion , which was played by Kesha . Kesha wrote the song about a boy that she had been stalking and who had refused to call the singer . Musically , Stephen is a dance @-@ pop song that incorporates elements of country music . The song received some positive reviews from music critics upon its release . After the release of Animal for download , Stephen charted on the lower regions of the South Korea Gaon International Chart . A music video for the song was released on the repackaging of the singer 's debut album , Animal + Cannibal . = = Writing and inspiration = = Stephen was written by Kesha Sebert , in collaboration with her mother Pebe Sebert , David Gamson , and Oliver Leiber . The song was produced by Gamson with additional production by Leiber . Gamson played all the instruments on the song , with the exception of the accordion which was performed by Kesha . The song 's recording was commenced at ACME Recording , Long Island , California , and at Ollywood Studios , Hollywood , California , by Gamson . Kesha told Rolling Stone that Stephen was one of her favorite tracks on the album . She explained that the song stemmed from her experiences with a man that she had been " stalking since [ she ] was 15 . " It was written when the singer was sixteen , in collaboration with her mother . She found David Gamson to produce the song . " He does all the keyboard stuff , he 's amazing , a crazy cynical genius guy , and he liked my voice and my thing , and I really liked his thing , so we decided to work together " she explained . Kesha was inspired to write the song after continual rejection from the protagonist in the song , Stephen , who refused to call the singer . She told MTV " I wrote [ it ] about this guy that I 've been stalking since I was , like , 15 , but he 's a total loser , so I don 't want to glorify him in any way , but I 'm really excited for the song . " In February 2010 , after the release of the song , Stephen attended one of the singer 's concerts . Speaking to Total Access on 96.4FM The Wave , the singer recalled the experience saying " he came to see my show at this huge gay bar in New York and it was totally off the chain . He gets up on stage , takes all his clothes off except his underwear and starts making out with a tranny . I was like , ' Wait a minute , have I been barking up the wrong genre of tree ? ' " = = Composition = = " Stephen " is a song composed in the dance @-@ pop genre that also incorporates elements of country music . According to digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony @-@ ATV Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of D major and the tempo moves at 100 beats per minute at a moderately fast rate . Kesha 's vocal range in the song spans from the lower note of E3 to the higher note of D5 . The lyrics begin with Kesha singing " Stephen , Stephen , why won 't you call me ? . " The song 's lyrics depict the tale of the singer stalking her then crush , Stephen , who ultimately would not call the singer . " Stephen " opens with layered a cappella harmonies , later transitioning into a dominantly driven pop song . According to the singer , " Stephen " showcases her more vulnerable side and encompasses humor throughout its lyrics : " ' Stephen ' shows the vulnerable side of me but it 's still a funny pop song . It 's me saying I 'm totally obsessive and in love with this guy , but he 's blowing me off in a pretty funny way . " Fraser McAlpine of BBC called the song " a vulnerable ode to an unreliable crush . " Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix thought that the song 's lyrics were " an ode to forcing your sexual advances on your high @-@ school history teacher . " According to Andrew Burgess of musicOMH , the song " tells the story of that one guy Ke $ ha can 't bag : ' What the hell ? I can charm the pants off anyone else , but you . ' " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times felt that the song was experimental , comparing it to the group Animal Collective . = = Critical reception = = Stephen received positive comments from music critics . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music used Stephen as an example of the songs on Animal ( 2010 ) that exemplified the singer 's vocals , saying it had " beautiful layered a cappella harmonies . Sure , it tumbles into clunky pop straight afterwards , but then , that also seems to be what she does : beautiful things are bashed against ugly things , pretty melodies ruined by silly noises , emotional lyrics stuffed with buzzwords . " Daniel Brockman of The Boston Phoenix wrote of the album that " in a post – ' Birthday Sex ' pop landscape , there 's plenty of room for dumb if it 's done well . " He described Stephen as " an ode to forcing your sexual advances on your high @-@ school history teacher . " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times listed the song as one of those that exemplified the album 's more experimental side , calling it a " country @-@ in @-@ space " rendition . musicOMH 's writer Andrew Burgess wrote that the album was composed of " obligatory ballads " and used Stephen as an example , saying it has " Kansas @-@ style vocal harmonies " . His consensus regarding the album 's ballads was that " Perhaps Ke $ ha is , in fact , a more complex and multi @-@ faceted party girl than she seems like on the surface . " Digital Spy commented that the Kesha uses the album " to show her vulnerable side " and that " she admits she can 't take rejection on the country @-@ tinged ' Stephen ' . " = = Music video = = A music video for " Stephen " was directed by the production team Skinny . The video was released on the deluxe repacking of her debut album Animal , under its re @-@ release entitled Animal + Cannibal . It was later uploaded to the singer 's Vevo account on April 4 , 2011 . The video is composed of still shots that show the singer " going to some extreme lengths to show ' Stephen ' how much she 's feeling him . " The video opens with the singer looking through a scrapbook ; following this the video then proceeds into depicting the singer 's interactions with the protagonist . The video 's first setting is located at a bar where the singer gets into a verbal altercation with the man 's girlfriend . Kesha , who later leaves with the then unconscious man , takes him back to her house to takes pictures of him and later cuts off some of his hair for her shrine . The singer then duct @-@ tapes the man and locks him in her closet ; which he later escapes from . Following this , the singer is distraught and then builds another man out of a dummy , and using the hair she had clipped earlier , proceeds to bring the dummy to a bar , getting into another altercation with it and later leaving it in the street – ending the video . = = Track listing = = Digital download " Stephen " – 3 : 32 = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded by David Gamson at ACME Recording , Long Island , California ; and at Ollywood Studios , Hollywood , California . Personnel Songwriting – Kesha Sebert , David Gamson , Pebe Sebert , Oliver Leiber Production – David Gamson , Oliver Leiber Instruments and programming – David Gamson Accordion – Kesha Credits adapted from the liner notes of Animal , Kemosabe Recordings , via RCA Records . = = Charts = = Upon the release of Animal , " Stephen " debuted and peaked at number at eighty @-@ nine on the issue date of January 3 , 2010 , on the South Korea Gaon International Songs Chart . The song was the ninth highest debuting album track from its parent album .
= Richie Powell = Richard Powell ( September 5 , 1931 – June 26 , 1956 ) was an American jazz pianist , composer , and arranger . He was not assisted in his musical development by Bud , his older and better known brother , but both played predominantly in the bebop style . After early work around Philadelphia and New York City , Richie Powell played in the bands of Paul Williams ( 1951 – 52 ) and Johnny Hodges ( 1952 – 54 ) . He switched in the spring of 1954 to being pianist and arranger for the quintet co @-@ led by trumpeter Clifford Brown and drummer Max Roach . This band toured extensively across the U.S. for two years , and released both studio and concert recordings , including the Grammy Hall of Fame inductee Clifford Brown & Max Roach . Powell , his wife , and Brown were killed in a car crash when traveling overnight from Philadelphia to Chicago . Powell was beginning to achieve recognition at the time of his death , but he never had the chance to record as a leader . He had a playful piano style , and was fond of using musical quotations . His relatively heavy touch and use of left @-@ hand fourths influenced fellow pianist McCoy Tyner . = = Early life = = Powell was born in New York City on September 5 , 1931 . He was the youngest of three sons , after William , Jr . , and Bud , seven years Richie 's elder . Their parents were William , Sr. and Pearl Powell . The family was musical : William , Sr. was a stride pianist ; William , Jr. led bands as a trumpeter and violinist ; and pianist Bud became one of the leaders of bebop . One account of why Richie took up the piano is that he pestered drummer Max Roach , who lived nearby , for drum lessons , and Roach , eventually fed up , suggested that he play the piano instead . Bud did not assist his brother at all in his musical endeavors ; instead , according to a biographer of saxophonist Jackie McLean , " it was an excellent but now forgotten pianist named Bob Bunyan who taught Richie Powell chords on the piano . Richie would study with Bunyan , and then go home and watch his brother practice . [ ... ] Richie and Jackie became tight friends and used to rehearse together " . Richie also studied music with Mary Lou Williams , and attended the City College of New York . = = Later life and career = = From 1949 to 1951 Powell worked around Philadelphia and New York City . He then played in the bands of Paul Williams ( 1951 – 52 ) and Johnny Hodges ( 1952 – 54 ) . With Williams ' R & B @-@ oriented band he recorded four tracks late in 1952 that were released as singles . Powell also played on a medley track for a 1954 Hodges album , Used to Be Duke . Powell was with Hodges ' band in Los Angeles in the spring of 1954 when Roach needed a new pianist for the quintet that he co @-@ led with trumpeter Clifford Brown . Powell was offered , and accepted , the job . He also became arranger for the quintet . They performed and rehearsed a lot , then had several recording sessions that August for EmArcy Records , which resulted in their first album , Brown and Roach Incorporated . In the same month , Powell was involved as pianist for some tracks at a session arranged for singer Dinah Washington that featured a studio audience . In September the quintet played for a fortnight at the Black Hawk in San Francisco , then began a tour of the eastern United States the following month . The band 's saxophonist , Harold Land , reported that , when touring , " Richie was a little busy with the ladies . He had harems in almost every city " . Further recording sessions for Powell with Brown and Roach took place in New York during January and February 1955 . The tracks cut in January , with arrangements by Neal Hefti , were released as Clifford Brown with Strings . The February sessions yielded the albums Study in Brown , and , combined with tracks from the previous year , Clifford Brown & Max Roach . The latter was added to the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999 . At the Newport Jazz Festival in July 1955 Powell played with Roach and others as backing for Washington . Recordings made of the Brown – Roach quintet at the same event were released decades later . The quintet with Sonny Rollins , who replaced Land on tenor saxophone , recorded what became their last official album early in 1956 . Clifford Brown and Max Roach at Basin Street contained playing at even faster tempos than on their earlier album releases . Several of the tunes were composed by Powell ; on one , " Time " , Powell played celeste in addition to his usual piano . Another was " Gertrude 's Bounce " , which Powell said was named following his admiration for the way in which artist Gertrude Abercrombie walked . The third of his originals , " Powell 's Prances " , was " a modal composition , with Brown and Rollins improvising on the scale rather than on the usual chord changes " , a form popularized three years later by Miles Davis . The band continued touring in 1956 , including to Toronto . In late February or early March , Powell and Rollins , traveling together near Philadelphia , were involved in a crash that destroyed Powell 's car , but they were not seriously injured . The quintet recorded under the leadership of Rollins in March for Prestige ; this was released as Sonny Rollins Plus 4 . They also had live national CBS Radio broadcasts from the Basin Street club in April and May . Two years of exposure with the Brown – Roach ensemble meant that Powell was beginning to achieve some recognition in his own right . On June 26 , 1956 , Powell and his wife , Nancy , together with Brown , were traveling overnight by car from Philadelphia to Chicago . On the Pennsylvania Turnpike outside Bedford , in heavy rain , Nancy lost control of the vehicle , which crashed off the road and rolled down an embankment . All three were killed instantly . Nancy was 19 ; Brown , 25 ; and Powell , 24 . = = Playing style = = Although he also played swing and R & B , Powell was known as a bebop player . This included using right @-@ hand single @-@ note lines . In his playing with Brown and Roach , he was fond of inserting musical quotes , including from nursery rhymes and opera . Powell usually played as part of a rhythm section in ensembles , so there are few recorded examples of him in smaller bands . In one 1954 session he recorded a trio version of " I 'll String Along with You " , on which he used " heavily chorded patterns with intriguing flourishes . " Another exception to Powell being in a supporting role is his extended introductory section to a 1954 Hodges recording of " Autumn in New York " . On this track , in the words of critic Marc Myers six decades later , Powell 's playing was " regal , bouncy and appropriately lush , with shades of Erroll Garner , Al Haig and Richie 's brother , Bud . [ ... ] In ' Autumn in New York ' , we clearly hear a dramatic , playful pianist who was fast becoming an extraordinary talent . " = = Influence = = Pianist McCoy Tyner , who grew up close to the Powell brothers in Philadelphia , was influenced by their relatively heavy keyboard touch and their liking of percussive piano sounds . Tyner also got some of his inspiration for chord voicings from hearing Richie 's use of left @-@ hand fourths . Tyner 's voicings became the norm for young jazz pianists . = = Discography = = Powell did not make any recordings as a leader . Bootlegs and other unofficial recordings are not included . = = = Albums as sideman = = =
= Max Bentley = Maxwell Herbert Lloyd " Max " Bentley ( March 1 , 1920 – January 19 , 1984 ) was a Canadian ice hockey forward who played for the Chicago Black Hawks , Toronto Maple Leafs , and New York Rangers in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) as part of a professional and senior career that spanned 20 years . He was a two @-@ time Art Ross Trophy winner as the NHL 's leading scorer , and in 1946 won the Hart Trophy as most valuable player . He played in four All @-@ Star Games and was twice named to a post @-@ season All @-@ Star team . Bentley was one of six hockey @-@ playing brothers , and at one point played with four of his brothers with the Drumheller Miners of the Alberta Senior Hockey League . In 1942 – 43 , he made NHL history when he played on the league 's first all @-@ brother line with Doug and Reg . He played five seasons in Chicago with Doug before a 1947 trade sent him to the Maple Leafs in one of the most significant transactions in NHL history to that point . Bentley won three Stanley Cup championships with the Maple Leafs before spending a final NHL season with the Rangers in 1953 – 54 . He then returned to his home in Saskatoon to finish his playing career . Considered one of the best players of his era , Bentley was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966 . = = Early life = = Bentley was born March 1 , 1920 , in Delisle , Saskatchewan . He was the youngest of six boys , and one of thirteen children . His father Bill was a native of Yorkshire , England who emigrated to the United States as a child and became a speed skating champion in North Dakota before settling in Delisle . He became mayor and helped build the town 's covered skating rink . All of the Bentley children were athletes , and all six brothers played hockey . Bill Bentley believed that all six boys could have played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , though responsibilities on the family farm resulted in the eldest four boys spending the majority of their careers playing senior hockey on the Canadian Prairies . His father taught Bentley to play hockey on their farm , where the family patriarch believed the daily chores would give his children the strength to have strong shots . Bentley 's father also taught him to use his speed to elude bigger and stronger opponents as he weighed only 155 pounds fully grown . He played two years in Rosetown , Saskatchewan between 1935 and 1937 where he led the Saskatchewan Intermediate league in scoring as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . He moved onto the Drumheller Miners of the Alberta Senior Hockey League ( ASHL ) in 1937 , leading that league in scoring while playing on a line with brothers Roy and Wyatt . The trio were joined in Drumheller by Doug and Reg for the 1938 – 39 season . The family operated a gas station in town when not playing hockey . = = Professional career = = = = = Chicago Black Hawks = = = While playing for Rosetown , Bentley attended a tryout camp for the Boston Bruins . Believing him too small to play in the NHL , the Bruins sent him home . He then traveled to Montreal for a tryout with the Canadiens . The team advised him to see a doctor who stated he had a heart condition , and that if he did not quit hockey , he would be dead within a year . Bentley chose to continue playing , but developed into a hypochondriac following the diagnosis . He constantly complained of aches , pains and ailments , and carried so many drugs and medications he was known as a " walking drug store " . He played two years of senior hockey in Drumheller , and one more with the Saskatoon Quakers in the Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League ( SSHL ) before playing his first professional games with the Providence Reds of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) in 1940 – 41 . He caught the attention of the Chicago Black Hawks , and while the team was impressed with his play , they wanted him to start with their American Hockey Association ( AHA ) affiliate in Kansas City . Bentley initially refused , and considered retiring . He was convinced to report by Kansas City 's coach , Johnny Gottselig , and played only five games before injuries in Chicago led the Black Hawks to request a call @-@ up . Gottselig sent Bentley up , reuniting him with brother Doug who had joined Chicago in 1939 . Max played his first NHL game on November 21 , 1940 , against the Bruins . He scored his first goal on December 1 against the New York Rangers . In his third NHL season , 1942 – 43 , Bentley scored 70 points to finish third in the league in scoring . He finished three points behind brother Doug , who won the scoring title . Max tied an NHL record by scoring four goals in one period of a 10 – 1 victory over the Rangers on January 28 , 1943 . He added three assists in the game , tying the league record at the time for points in one game with seven . He was called for only one penalty during the season , and as a result was voted the winner of the Lady Byng Trophy as the league 's most sportsmanlike player . World War II had decimated the rosters of all NHL teams , and with the Black Hawks searching for players , Max and Doug convinced the team to sign their brother Reg . The trio made history on January 1 , 1943 , when they became the first all @-@ brother line the NHL had seen . Two nights later , Max and Doug assisted on Reg 's first , and only , NHL goal , the only time in league history that a trio of family members recorded the goal and assists on a scoring play . While Max and Doug were established NHL stars , Reg played only 11 games in his NHL career . Bentley 's career was interrupted in 1943 when he joined the Canadian Infantry Corps . He was briefly stationed in Victoria , British Columbia , where he completed the 1942 – 43 season playing with the Victoria Navy team then spent the following two years stationed in Calgary where he played with the Calgary Currie Army team in the Canadian military leagues . He led the Alberta league in goals and points with 18 and 31 respectively in 1943 – 44 . Following the war , Bentley returned to the Black Hawks where he was reunited with his brother Doug and joined on a line by Bill Mosienko . The trio , who were all small and exceptionally fast , were dubbed the " Pony Line " and emerged as one of the top scoring lines in the league . Max led the league in scoring with 61 points , and was awarded the Hart Trophy as the league 's most valuable player . He was the first Black Hawk to ever win the award . Bentley again led the league in scoring in 1946 – 47 , recording 72 points in 60 games . He won the title on the final night of the season , finishing one point ahead of Montreal 's Maurice Richard . In doing so , he became only the third player in NHL history to win consecutive scoring titles after Charlie Conacher and Sweeney Schriner , both of whom accomplished the feat in the 1930s . He then played in the 1st National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game on October 13 , 1947 , for the NHL All @-@ Stars , a 4 – 3 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs . = = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = = Three weeks later and six games into the season , the Maple Leafs completed a deal to acquire Bentley . He was sent to Toronto with Cy Thomas in exchange for Gus Bodnar , Bud Poile , Gaye Stewart , Ernie Dickens and Bob Goldham , on November 2 , 1947 . The trade sent shockwaves throughout the league . The five players sent to Chicago essentially formed an entire starting unit ; NHL President Clarence Campbell stated he was " astounded " by the deal , and stated it ranked with the Maple Leafs ' purchase of King Clancy in 1930 as one of the most significant transactions in league history . The trade was still being discussed weeks later as observers throughout the league attempted to assess which team received the better deal . Bentley was initially disappointed to leave his brother in Chicago , but quickly adapted to Toronto where he was immediately popular . With the Leafs , Bentley challenged for his third consecutive scoring title . He eventually finished fifth with 54 points , seven behind Elmer Lach 's league @-@ leading 61 . The Leafs finished in first place in the regular season standings , then went on to win the Stanley Cup in a four @-@ game sweep over the Detroit Red Wings in the 1948 Stanley Cup Finals . Bentley was overjoyed , stating : " I waited a long time for this . A Stanley Cup championship at last ! " Bentley and the Leafs struggled in the 1948 – 49 regular season . He fell to 41 points on the year – 31 less than his total of two seasons previous – while the Leafs finished fourth out of six teams . The team recovered in the playoffs , eliminating the Red Wings in four consecutive games for the second year in a row to win the team 's third consecutive Stanley Cup . Bentley scored the third goal in a 3 – 1 win in the deciding contest . The Leafs ' championship streak came to an end in 1949 – 50 but Bentley showed a modest improvement offensively , leading the team with 23 goals . He contemplated retiring and returning to Saskatchewan , but chose to return to Toronto for the 1950 – 51 season . He finished the season with significantly improved scoring totals , finishing third in the league with 62 points , behind Maurice Richard 's 66 , and Gordie Howe 's league @-@ record 86 . The Leafs faced the Canadiens in the 1951 Stanley Cup Finals , which was won by Toronto in five games . Bentley finished with 13 points in the playoffs , tying him with Richard for the league lead . After finishing the 1951 – 52 season with 41 points , Bentley contemplated his future in hockey . He mused about an opportunity to coach the Calgary Stampeders of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and stated a desire to play again with his brother Doug , but ultimately returned to Toronto . He only played in 36 games in 1952 – 53 after suffering a back injury , but reached 500 career points on November 5 , 1952 , with two goals against the Rangers . = = = New York and Saskatoon = = = Following the season , the New York Rangers offered Max and Doug Bentley the opportunity to play together again . The Rangers acquired both players in cash transactions over the summer . Max finished the season with 32 points in 54 games , while Doug played only 20 games . Bentley 's rights reverted to the Maple Leafs in the fall of 1954 when he refused to report to the Rangers for the 1954 – 55 NHL season . From the Leafs , he demanded a C $ 20 @,@ 000 contract , more than the team was willing to pay . He was initially placed on the suspended list by Toronto after he refused to report to training camp and attempted to purchase his release from the team . Bentley expressed a desire to leave the NHL and play for the WHL 's Saskatoon Quakers , where Doug had become coach . The Maple Leafs ultimately supported Bentley 's request . At the time he was granted his release , he was second amongst all active players with 245 goals , behind only Richard . He joined the Quakers in November 1954 to great excitement in Saskatoon . Bentley finished the season with 41 points in 40 games . He began the 1955 – 56 season with Saskatoon , but retired on November 15 , 1955 , due to recurring back problems . He played his final game on that night , scoring his final goal in an 8 – 3 victory over the Winnipeg Warriors . In 1956 , Bentley joined his brother Doug in hockey management when the brothers launched a new Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League ( SJHL ) team in Saskatoon . He attempted to get into coaching , first offering his services to the WHL 's Vancouver Canucks in the winter of 1961 , before going south to coach the Burbank Stars of the California Hockey league in 1962 . His nephew Bev and son Lynn played with him in Burbank , while Doug was the player @-@ coach of the rival Long Beach Gulls . = = Playing style = = Max Bentley was known for his speed , passing and puck handling skills . He learned his trade with his brothers as they constantly played street hockey in the summers and on the ice in the winters . Bentley 's father flooded a sheet of ice that was the length of a regulation NHL hockey rink but much narrower , forcing the boys to develop the ability to maintain control of the puck while making fast , hard turns to reach the net . He was nicknamed the " Dipsy Doodle Dandy from Delisle " in reference to his ability to skate around opponents who often found that the only way to stop him was via rough play . Bentley was able to score from nearly any angle , an ability that confounded even his brother Doug . Long @-@ time prairie hockey promoter Bill Hunter said Bentley was " a phenomenal hockey player , an absolute artist with the puck " . Opponents occasionally attempted to use Bentley 's hypochondria against him , making remarks on how he looked ill in a bid to distract him during the game . Bentley was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966 , two years after his brother Doug . One year later , Max and Doug were inducted together into the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame . The Hockey News ranked him 48th on its 1998 list of the top 100 players of all time . = = Personal life = = In addition to hockey , Bentley and his brothers played baseball in the summers . Representing their hometown of Delisle , they participated in regional tournaments and were repeat winners . Bentley played summer baseball throughout the 1950s , and was a member of the Saskatoon Gems of the Western Canada Senior League . He was also a long @-@ time curler , often playing with his brothers , son and nephews . The majority of Bentley 's time away from the hockey rink was spent on the family farm outside Delisle . The Bentleys operated a large farm , raising cattle and growing wheat , and Max tended to return to the farm to recuperate during hockey seasons when he felt he needed to rest up . He and his wife Betty had a son , Lynn , who was also a hockey player and a younger son , Gary . Bentley died at his home in Saskatoon on January 19 , 1984 , at the age of 63 . = = Career statistics = =
= S & M ( song ) = " S & M " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The song was released on January 21 , 2011 , as the fourth single from the album . The American songwriter Ester Dean wrote " S & M " in collaboration with the producers Stargate and Sandy Vee . Backed by bass beats , a keyboard and guitars , it is an uptempo hi @-@ NRG @-@ Eurodance track with lyrics that revolve around sexual intercourse , sadomasochism , bondage , and fetishes . Critical response to " S & M " was mixed : some critics praised its sound and composition while others criticized its overtly sexual lyrics . After it reached number two on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart , a remix that features Britney Spears was released . When combined with sales of the solo version , it became Rihanna 's tenth and Spears ' fifth number @-@ one single on the chart . It has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " S & M " peaked at number one in Australia , Canada , Hungary , Israel , and Poland in addition to the United States while peaking within the top five in France , Germany , Ireland , Spain , and the UK . To promote " S & M " , Rihanna performed a shortened version at the 31st Brit Awards and sang the remix with Spears at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . Melina Matsoukas directed the song 's music video , which was , in part , Rihanna 's response to disparaging critics . It portrays softcore sadomasochist acts and fetishes . The music video was banned in many countries and restricted to nighttime television in others . Critics complimented Rihanna 's sensuality and the vibrant colors . Photographer David LaChapelle filed a lawsuit alleging that the video incorporates ideas from his photographs . Rihanna and LaChapelle settled the case for an undisclosed sum of money . = = Concept and development = = " S & M " was written by Ester Dean in collaboration with the song 's producers , Stargate and Sandy Vee . Dean explained its conception and the sexually suggestive lyrics to Gail Mitchell of Billboard : " The first thing that came to me was ' Come on , come on . ' I 'm thinking , ' I don 't know what in the hell this is about to be . ' And I remembered I 'd seen something that said , ' Sticks and stones may break my bones . ' Then came ' But chains and whips excite me . ' When people have a great track that speaks to me , it feels like it already has a story in it " . Rihanna told Rolling Stone about her interest in bondage and other sadomasochism activities , themes central to " S & M " : " I like to take charge , but I love to be submissive ... being submissive in the bedroom is really fun . You get to be a little lady , to have somebody be macho and in charge . " " S & M " was recorded during Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour : the instrumental parts for the song were recorded by Eriksen and Miles Walker at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and the Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , and by Vee at The Bunker Studios in Paris . Rihanna 's vocals were recorded by Kuk Harrell and were produced by Harrell , Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar ; Bobby Campbell assisted in the singer 's vocal recording . Veronika Bozeman provided additional vocal production . The song was mixed by Vee at The Bunker Studios and by Phil Tan at The Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta , Georgia ; additional and assistant engineering was carried out by Damien Lewis . All instrumental production was completed by Eriksen , Hermansen and Vee . = = Composition and lyrical interpretation = = " S & M " is an uptempo hi @-@ NRG @-@ Eurodance song that lasts four minutes and three seconds . The song is composed in the key of E @-@ flat minor using common time and a moderate dance tempo of 128 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by synthesizers , a keyboard and a guitar . Chris Ryan of MTV described the song as a " steady @-@ rocking dance track , with ominous , snarling keyboard sounds . " During the track , Rihanna 's vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of B3 to the high note of B4 . Proposing illicit acts , she uses a " sexually aggressive tone " in her vocal performance . The lyrics are about sex , sadomasochism , bondage and BDSM fetishes , including the sexual fantasies and turn @-@ ons of its protagonist . The song opens with the hook , " Na , na , na , c 'mon " . During the chorus the lyrics include , " ' Cause I may be bad , but I 'm perfectly good at it / Sex in the air , I don 't care , I love the smell of it . " In the song , Rihanna describes herself as " bad " and openly praises her own sexual prowess ; lyrics include , " Sticks and stones may break my bones / But chains and whips excite me . " Rihanna told Spin magazine that the lyrics are metaphoric . She said that she thought the song was mainly about having confidence in one 's identity , and about being impervious to rumors and criticism . According to Jake Conway of Q Magazine at Yale , the lyrics are guilty of " divesting sex of emotion " and re @-@ envisaging violence as fetish ; he went on to say that Rihanna pays homage to the sexual acts in an empowered dance and club mood . Chris Ryan described the song as being about " dirty , naughty , illicit bedroom activities " . = = Release and remixes = = " S & M " was the fourth single from the album Loud to be released in the US and the third in other countries . It was sent to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio stations in the US on January 23 , 2011 , and to urban playlists on February 27 , 2011 . The single was released on iTunes Stores throughout Europe and South America on February 11 , 2011 . In Argentina , Brazil and certain territories throughout Europe , the song was released as an extended play ( EP ) on February 18 , 2011 ; this consisted of the single version of " S & M " and two remixes by Audé and Samson . On February 28 , 2011 , a compilation was released worldwide as a digital package consisting of remixes by disc jockeys Audé , Samson and Joe Bermudez . " S & M " was released as a CD single in Germany on March 18 , 2011 . On April 11 , 2011 , the remix single featuring Britney Spears was made available to download worldwide . In the United Kingdom , " S & M " was deemed too explicit for daytime airplay ; it was edited to remove references to sex , chains and whips , and was renamed " Come On " for BBC Radio 1 . A remix of " S & M " featuring rapper J. Cole was released on the internet on January 17 , 2011 . After the release of the song 's album version , Rihanna asked her followers on Twitter about potential collaborators , of which Spears was the most popular choice . Twitter messages between the two artists caused speculation that they had recorded a remix of the song . The remix , featuring guest vocals by Spears , was released on April 11 , 2011 . = = Critical reception = = " S & M " received mixed responses from music critics . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described " S & M " as an ode to sadomasochism that compares to Janet Jackson 's The Velvet Rope . Conner felt that " S & M " , as well as other Loud tracks " What 's My Name ? " and " Skin " , were songs which allowed Rihanna to boast about how good she is in certain situations , as she did on Rated R. He chose the lyrics " I may be bad / but I 'm perfectly good at it ... Chains and whips excite me " as an example of her vaunt . USA Today 's Steve Jones opined that " Loud 's pulsating opener , ' S & M , ' makes it clear from the jump where [ Rihanna is ] headed as she acknowledges that ' chains and whips excite [ her ] ' " , while Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called " S & M " an " explicitly carnal opener " with " late @-@ night @-@ Cinemax naughtiness " . Jake Conway of Q Magazine at Yale agreed , writing that the lyrics of " S & M " display why the singer continues to be one of the most provocative recording artists in the music industry , highlighting how she " turns the tables on abusive ex @-@ lover Chris Brown . " Digital Spy 's Nick Levine gave the song a rating of four stars out of five , and wrote that the song makes the listener as " up @-@ for it " as Rihanna herself ; he went on to say that " S & M " consists of " ear @-@ frotting " hooks , synths and pounding beats . James Skinner of BBC Music wrote that Loud lacked the " chart @-@ friendly moments " of Rated R and criticized the overtly sexual lyrics which he found " at odds with " the flirtatious appeal for which Rihanna was aiming . Skinner described the singer 's vocal delivery as " forced " and criticized her for not projecting a " daring " or convincing sound on " S & M " = = Chart performance = = " S & M " made its first chart appearance in the United Kingdom on November 15 , 2010 , at number 55 . It peaked at number three on March 5 , 2011 , where it remained for three consecutive weeks . It was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it was number one for five consecutive weeks . The song the second @-@ biggest selling R & B or hip hop single of 2011 in the UK : by December that year , " S & M " had sold 643 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and was certified platinum by the BPI . Elsewhere in Europe , " S & M " was a commercial success and peaked within the top three in many countries . " S & M " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 87 on November 29 , 2010 , upon the release of Loud . When it was released as a single , it returned to the singles chart at number 27 on January 30 , 2011 . The song peaked at number one on February 13 , 2011 , for five non @-@ consecutive weeks . It has since been certified four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting shipments of over 280 @,@ 000 copies of the single . The song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number six on February 7 , 2011 . It peaked at number two the following week for two consecutive weeks , and returned to its peak position again in its fifth week on the chart . " S & M " was subsequently certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , denoting sales of over 15 @,@ 000 copies . In the US , the song debuted at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 4 , 2010 . The issue of Billboard published on April 30 , 2011 reported that the album version of " S & M " and its official remix featuring Spears had sold a combined total of 293 @,@ 000 downloads in the previous week ; it replaced Katy Perry 's " E.T. " on the Hot 100 . " S & M " became Rihanna 's tenth US number @-@ one single on the chart , tying her with Janet Jackson in fourth place for female soloists who have topped that chart ; with only four years , eleven months and two weeks between her first and tenth number one on the chart , Rihanna achieved the milestone faster than any other solo artist . It became Spears ' fifth number @-@ one single on the Hot 100 . " S & M " became Rihanna 's eighth number @-@ one song on the Pop Songs chart and she became the artist with the most number one songs in the chart 's nineteen @-@ year history . The song was number one on the Dance Club Songs chart , and number 33 on the Hot Latin Songs chart . It debuted at number 80 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs in the February 26 , 2011 issue of Billboard , and peaked at number 59 . " S & M " peaked at number 24 on the Adult Pop Songs chart , and at number 14 on the Latin Pop Songs chart . The song has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and has sold 3 @,@ 837 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US as of June 2015 . " S & M " ranked at number 15 on Billboard 's " Best of 2011 – Pop Songs " chart , and number two on its " Best of 2011 – Dance / Club Songs " chart . In Canada , the song peaked at number one for the week of April 21 , 2011 . = = Music video = = = = = Background and synopsis = = = The director Melina Matsoukas filmed the music video for " S & M " in Los Angeles on January 15 and 16 , 2011 . Matsoukas told Billboard that the video was inspired by Rihanna 's " sadomasochist relationship with the press ... it isn 't just about a bunch of whips and chains . " On January 27 , 2011 , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip was posted on Rihanna 's YouTube channel , and the full music video premiered on Vevo on February 1 , 2011 . As the video opens , Rihanna is dragged into a press conference , where she is covered with plastic wrap and taped to a wall . Microphones and gagged reporters surround her . In an outdoor scene , she wears a cream @-@ colored latex dress and leads a gagged Perez Hilton around by a dog leash . Rihanna is then shown seated and surrounded by CCTV surveillance cameras ; her chair begins to rotate , and she stands and begins to whip reporters , who are taped to the wall of the room . She then rolls on the floor , her hands and feet bound with rope . As the bridge of the song approaches , Rihanna wears a white latex bikini and rabbit ears , while images of headlines are projected against her body and the wall behind her . After the chorus , she appears in a newsroom . Reporters take photographs of her while she sprawls across a desk wearing a pink latex dress . Scenes of Rihanna and others in bondage gear are interspersed with images of the singer wearing a feather boa and a tube top with " censored " printed across it . The video then alternates between previous scenes and images in which Rihanna eats bananas , strawberries and cream , and jewel @-@ covered ice cream . In the final scene , she lies on a newsroom desk , with a smiley face emblem over one eye and a Rolling Stones tongue logo over her mouth . = = = Reception and ban = = = The music video was generally well received . A journalist for The Huffington Post wrote , " Rihanna is perfectly good at being bad – and this video proves it " , while a reviewer for OK ! called the video " red @-@ hot , kinky and totally tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " . Willa Paskin of New York similarly described it as a " goofy " take on the S & M @-@ themed music videos typical of Madonna and Lady Gaga , while Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone described the video as a " visual onslaught of candy @-@ colored kinkiness " that viewers would enjoy despite its bright colors and sexually suggestive activities . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly stated that Rihanna delivered the risque video he was expecting based on the song 's lyrical content , and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard praised the video 's " exquisite set pieces that offer a twisted take on hardcore sexuality " . The video was immediately banned in eleven countries due to its overtly sexual content . It was " flagged for content " by users on YouTube , which restricts access to its users under the age of 18 . Rihanna responded to the news via Twitter , writing , " They watched ' Umbrella ' ... I was full nude " . An unrestricted version of the video was later uploaded to Rihanna 's official website . Melina Matsoukas responded to the news in an interview with MTV News , stating : " When I go out to make something , I kind of go out with the intention to get it banned – [ well ] not to get it banned ... but to make something provocative ... it 's making an effect and people are having a dialogue about it , so , to me , that 's successful . " = = = Copyright infringement lawsuits = = = The video was involved in further controversy when photographer David LaChapelle sued Rihanna , Island Def Jam and related parties for copyright infringement . LaChapelle alleged that the video infringed upon eight of his photographs published between 1997 and 2010 in GQ , i @-@ D , Vogue Italia and elsewhere . The lawsuit , which claimed unspecified damages , alleged that the video was " directly derived " from LaChapelle 's pictures , copying their " composition , total concept , feel , tone , mood , theme , colors , props , settings , decors , wardrobe and lighting " . The lawsuit included claims of trade dress infringement under the Lanham Act , unfair competition under New York state law and unjust enrichment , all of which were later dismissed . Judge Shira A. Scheindlin of New York 's Southern District Court denied a motion to dismiss the copyright violation allegations , noting similarities between the works : Both works feature : hot @-@ pink and white striped walls ; two single @-@ hung windows in the middle of the back wall ; windows with glossy hot @-@ pink casings and interior framework , with opaque panes exhibiting a half @-@ vector pattern of stripes against a yellow background ; a solid hot @-@ pink ceiling ; hot @-@ pink baseboards ; a hot @-@ pink couch under the windows ; women wearing frizzy red wigs ; a woman posed on top of a piece of furniture ; black tape wrapped around a man ; and a generally frantic mood ... [ Both works are ] well @-@ lit and intensely saturated , with all of the details in sharp focus and almost no shadows . In August 2011 , a judge agreed that the " ' pink room scene ' , which shows Rihanna dominating a man in front of pink and white striped walls , was very similar to LaChapelle 's " Striped Face " photograph ; the judge pinpointed a scene where Rihanna is seen against a blue background , wearing pink latex and placing a sweet on her tongue . " Rihanna and LaChapelle settled the case out of court for an undisclosed sum . After the case , LaChapelle said the lawsuit was " not personal , it 's strictly business " , and that " musicians commonly pay to sample music or use someone 's beats and there should be no difference when sampling an artist 's visuals . " In June 2011 , German photographer Philipp Paulus sued Rihanna and her record labels , alleging further copyright violations with regard to a scene in the music video where Rihanna wears an expansive dress and is taped to the wall with a plastic sheet in front of her . According to Paulus , Rihanna and Matsoukas appropriated the image from his photographic series Paperworld . = = Live performances and covers = = Rihanna first performed " S & M " at the BRIT Awards on February 15 , 2011 , as part of a medley which incorporated two of her previous singles from Loud , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " . Rihanna had planned to perform " S & M " only , to coincide with its release as a single in the United Kingdom , but she was instructed by the BRIT Awards corporation to " tone down the sexual references in the song 's lyrics " . The singer was reported to be angered at being requested to change her act and that she was asked to consider performing a different song instead . She changed the arrangement because the BRIT Awards corporation wanted to avoid complaints similar to those received following the finale of the seventh series of The X Factor , on December 11 , 2010 . Rihanna was criticized for wearing a provocative outfit and for performing a suggestive dance routine on The X Factor , branded as " disgusting " , before the watershed , a system in the United Kingdom which does not allow adult content to be broadcast before 9 pm . Rihanna opened the Billboard Music Awards with a performance of the " S & M " remix with Spears on May 22 , 2011 , at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . Rihanna and Spears wore bondage @-@ style bodysuits ; Rihanna 's outfit was white , and she wore PVC thigh @-@ high boots . Spears wore a black outfit , a mask and rabbit ears ; both singers wore handcuffs . Rihanna began the performance seated and provocatively opened her legs as she simulated whipping sounds . The singers closed the performance with pole dancing , a pillow fight and a kiss on the cheek . Billboard magazine declared the performance as one of the 15 Awesome Performances at the Billboard Music Awards . Rihanna performed " S & M " on May 27 , 2011 , on NBC 's Today show 's " Summer Concert Series " , along with " Only Girl ( in the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " California King Bed " . She gave an interview about the album and about her controversial performance at the Billboard Music Awards with Spears . When Rihanna was asked if she was surprised at the controversial reaction the performance prompted , she responded : It was cool . Nothing popped out . We didn 't make out . I mean , I didn 't really hear [ that it was controversial ] , but I went up to Twitter to see what my fans thought about it and they were really enjoyed seeing [ me and Britney Spears ] up there together , so I mean , there will be some people who will think that that was too sexy but you 're always gonna find that , you know . People will always talk whether you 're doing bad or good . You just have to do you . " The song was included on the set list of the Loud Tour , which began with the stage decorated as a stylized S & M set . The singer performed Prince 's " Darling Nikki " with three semi @-@ nude female dancers whom she spanked , groped and pretended to smack with a cane . " Darling Nikki " then transitioned into " S & M " and she took off her white tuxedo , revealing a white bondage corset and handcuffs . " S & M " was featured on the set list of Spears ' Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) , as part of a medley with " ... Baby One More Time " . Rihanna performed " S & M " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the third song on the set list . The song was included on most of Rihanna 's 777 Tour in November 2012 ; a seven @-@ date and seven @-@ day @-@ long promotional tour in support of the release of her seventh studio album , Unapologetic . In 2011 , " S & M " was featured at the beginning of the seventeenth episode of the American police procedural drama TV series , Hawaii Five @-@ 0 . Lee Latchford @-@ Evans of the British group Steps covered the song as part of a medley with Maroon 5 and Christina Aguilera 's song " Moves like Jagger " in his solo section of The Ultimate Tour ( 2012 ) . In the 2012 musical comedy film Pitch Perfect , " S & M " was sung a cappella by Ester Dean , Alexis Knapp , Anna Kendrick , Rebel Wilson , Anna Camp and Brittany Snow . The ensemble 's performance of the song appears on the film 's soundtrack as part of a medley , " Riff Off " . " Riff Off " was released as a single in 2012 and reached number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . The soundtrack also became the number one album on the US Top Soundtracks . = = Formats and track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records . Management ASCAP / BMI Stargate and Miles Walker both appear on behalf of 45th & 3rd Music LLC Stargate 's management : Tim Blacksmith and Danny D. Sandy Vee appears on behalf of Empire Artist Management Kuk Harrell appears on behalf of Suga Wuga Music , Inc . Recording locations Music recording – Roc the Mic Studios ( New York ) ; Westlake Recording Studios ( Los Angeles ) ; The Bunker Studios ( Paris ) Mixing – The Bunker Studios ( Paris ) ; The Ninja Beat Club ( Atlanta ) Personnel = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Radio and release history = =
= Major League Baseball ( video game ) = Major League Baseball is a sports video game released in 1988 for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It is notable for being one of the first video games licensed by Major League Baseball , although it was not endorsed by the Major League Baseball Players Association . Without the backing of the Players Association , the game could not name the actual players , although it was able to use their numbers , thus accurately portraying the contemporary teams and their rosters . In doing so , it became the first baseball game for the Nintendo Entertainment System to carry official Major League Baseball licensing and lineups . Major League Baseball was developed by Atlus and published by LJN . It featured many facets of realistic gameplay and a focus on managerial details , which stressed the importance of choosing a well @-@ balanced team . Despite its graphical limitations , it was considered a three @-@ dimensional game at the time and was featured in the first issue of Nintendo Power as compared the system 's other baseball games of the era . = = Development = = Prior to 1988 there had been two games released with the official endorsement of Major League Baseball . In 1980 Mattel Electronics released Major League Baseball ( also known as Super Challenge Baseball and Big League Baseball ) for the Atari 2600 and the Intellivision . This version was developed by APh Technological Consulting . Four years later MicroLeague was licensed to develop and publish MicroLeague Baseball for the Amiga , Atari ST , Commodore 64 , and PC . This version contained contemporary and classic teams and players and MicroLeague released extra disks that featured additional lineups . In 1988 Atlus signed on to develop an " official " Major League Baseball game for the Nintendo Entertainment System , which would be a first for that particular console . In 1987 Tengen had released R.B.I. Baseball for the NES , which contained a Major League Baseball Players Association license , but no endorsement from Major League Baseball itself . This meant that , while the players were named in this version , the team names and logos were absent and replaced by generic place references such as Boston or St. Louis . An earlier version for the console , entitled Baseball was released in 1985 and contained no endorsement from either organization . American company LJN agreed to be the publisher and David Rolfe was brought on board as the game 's programmer . Rolfe had previously been a publisher with Activision and had been a chief contributor to the foundations of the Intellivision . = = Gameplay = = Officially licensed by Major League Baseball , the game features all twenty @-@ six teams that existed in 1987 . Additionally , the lineups and the player numbers are accurate to the team rosters that year . Since the game did not have the endorsement of the Major League Baseball Players Association at the time , the team members are only listed by number , not name . In addition to their numbers the players are represented by their statistics , abilities , throwing arm , and even placement in the batting order . 1988 's Major League Baseball was therefore the first NES game to be officially endorsed by Major League Baseball and to feature accurate contemporary lineups , albeit without the actual player names attached to their numbers . Managerial decisions are a focus and game players are allowed to select their own lineups , although the game lacks Sabermetrics statistics due to the limitations of the era . Instead , the " manager " must make their decisions based on data such as player 's average and home run totals . They also have the ability to change and decide who will be a pinch @-@ hitter and who will be a substitute pitcher . One is even allowed to pick out a designated hitter . The game prohibits one from putting out more team members in a certain part of the field than would normally be allowed , which makes deciding which player will be used where a part of the experience . There are three modes that can be played with teams from either the American League or the National League : regular season games , All @-@ star games or the World Series ( interleague ) . The World Series rounds , however , are only one match each , which is not accurate to the real World Series . Due to the licensing , the teams even appear complete in their official uniforms and colours and also have all the options that a real baseball player would have , including bunting , pitching out , base stealing and throwing errors . = = = Gameplay limitations = = = In Major League Baseball , the pitcher is unable to move around the pitcher 's mound and many are also able to perform the feat of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) pitches . The ball 's physics have been called into question , with the ball stopping on a dime after three or less bounces . The game 's camera system does not function properly and , when a ball is hit , the outfield camera follows the ball looking upwards , making it impossible for the game player to see where their fielders are . The ball can also be thrown and get stuck in the well between the stands and the field on an overthrow of a baseman , and cause inside the park home runs , which would not happen within a real game ( in that case a ground rule double and / or error would be scored instead ) . Another bug allows players to go into the stands past the wall with the ball if they enter at certain points in foul territory . There are also gameplay issues when the player takes their turn to bat . The AI is not developed and , when the player hits a pitch , it nearly always takes the longest possible route to the ball , making runs easier to score . It also lacks the capability to throw out a runner who is returning to a base ( instead of advancing ) or perform a double play after catching a fly ball . Furthermore , the batter can only move vertically , not horizontally , in the batter 's box . = = Technology = = = = = Graphics = = = The graphics themselves were considered to be three @-@ dimensional given the constraints of the technology at the time . All the players are Caucasian and each one 's batting stance is exactly the same . The game view is always top down ; when batting or pitching , it is centered above the catcher , behind the batter and with an overhead look of the pitcher . In the outfield , there is an aerial view of a portion of the field , with the team members represented by tiny sprites and an inset with red dots representing where the players are on base . Although the official colors are intact , the actual symbols on their uniforms are absent . The crowd is represented by a series of colored dots . = = = Music and sound effects = = = There are a limited number of effects and , aside from brief ballpark jingles , there is no real background music present during the game . For example , the charge fanfare is played at random points and the introductory screen begins with a different baseball tune while the player is loading up and selecting his team , along with a home run fanfare . Generic sound effects include the bat cracking upon contact with the ball , the sound of the ball flying through the air during a pitch , bouncing and throwing effects , and a stream of crowd noises . = = Reception = = Major League Baseball was featured in the first issue of Nintendo Power and compared to R.B.I. Baseball and Bases Loaded , although the magazine did not pass any judgment on which game was superior . Allgame 's review of Major League Baseball rated it three stars out of five , the same rating it gave to R.B.I. Baseball and half a star lower than it awarded to Bases Loaded .
= 2001 American Memorial = The 2001 American Memorial was a Championship Auto Racing Teams ( CART ) motor race held on September 15 , 2001 , at the EuroSpeedway Lausitz in Klettwitz , Germany . It was the 16th round of the 2001 CART season and the first race in the series to be held in Europe . Originally known as the German 500 , the race 's name was changed by CART in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks . Kenny Bräck won the race for Team Rahal ; his teammate Max Papis finished in second place , and Patrick Carpentier was third . The season points leader entering the race , Gil de Ferran , was awarded the pole position when qualifying was cancelled after a practice session was rained out . Bräck took the lead early in the race , and built a seven @-@ second advantage before going off course while trying to lap another car . Carpentier took his place after the lap 64 incident , and held the lead until Tony Kanaan passed him on lap 95 . After passing Carpentier for second , Alex Zanardi moved ahead of Kanaan after a series of pit stops between laps 121 to 123 . Zanardi held the top spot entering his final scheduled pit stop with 12 laps remaining . Upon leaving the pits , Zanardi lost control of his car , which turned sideways onto the circuit . Alex Tagliani crashed into Zanardi 's car , splitting the chassis into two pieces . The crash led to the amputation of both of Zanardi 's legs . The rest of the race was run under a caution flag , and Bräck , who had moved into second place before Zanardi 's pit stop , secured the victory . Zanardi and Tagliani were taken to a Berlin hospital ; Zanardi had a fractured pelvis and a concussion in addition to his amputations , while Tagliani was not severely injured . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = The German 500 was the first CART race ever to be held in Europe . It was the beginning of a two @-@ week European stretch for the series ; the Rockingham 500 was held at Rockingham Motor Speedway in Corby , England one week later . EuroSpeedway chairman Hans Joerg Fischer hoped for a crowd of 70 @,@ 000 at the track , which had a capacity of 90 @,@ 000 . Entering the German 500 , Gil de Ferran held the lead in the season 's points standings with 115 points . Bräck and Hélio Castroneves were joint second on 110 points , and Michael Andretti was fourth , seven points further back . Four days before the race , the September 11 attacks took place , causing most major American sporting events scheduled on the same weekend as the German 500 to be postponed , including National Football League ( NFL ) and Major League Baseball games , and a NASCAR Winston Cup Series race , the New Hampshire 300 , at New Hampshire Motor Speedway . The Italian Grand Prix , a Formula One race , was held that weekend . According to Ronald Richards , the vice president of CART , the series decided to continue with the race prior to the cancellation of that week 's NFL games , a decision followed by other American leagues . Richards acknowledged that " We wish we would have had the input regarding the NFL 's decision prior to making our decision . " In remembrance of the September 11 attacks ' victims , and in a desire to avoid criticism for holding the German 500 so soon afterward , CART changed the race 's name to the American Memorial . The series also held tributes on the day of the race , and made a $ 500 @,@ 000 donation to the World Trade Center Relief Fund , matching the event 's prize fund . = = = Practice and qualifying = = = The first day of practice for the American Memorial was scheduled on September 13 , but was cancelled because of rain . Practice was held the following day , and Tony Kanaan of Mo Nunn Racing recorded the fastest lap of 34 @.@ 624 seconds . Teammate Zanardi had a lap of 34 @.@ 991 seconds for the second @-@ fastest time ; he was followed by Carpentier , Bräck , and Bruno Junqueira . As of September 13 , Andretti was unable to travel to Germany from his Nazareth , Pennsylvania residence , since his planned September 11 flight had been grounded . Andretti was able to arrange a charter flight to Germany and landed in Dresden the next day . Due to the rainout and the racers ' lack of familiarity with the EuroSpeedway , CART cancelled qualifying for the American Memorial . The starting grid was determined by drivers ' order in the season points standings . The pole position went to de Ferran , though due to the lack of qualifying , he was not awarded a point in the standings as was customary for pole winners . Bräck earned second position since he held a tie @-@ breaker over Castroneves , who started third , and Andretti began the race in fourth . = = = Race = = = On race day , a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session was held before the event began ; Kanaan again posted the fastest time ( 35 @.@ 288 ) , followed by Zanardi and Paul Tracy . The 154 @-@ lap race began at 1 : 56 p.m. local time ; Bräck immediately took the lead , and Andretti went into second coming out of the first turn . They remained the top two in lap 20 , with Dario Franchitti in third . Six laps later , Andretti passed Franchitti to reclaim second when the latter was unable to pass a slower car . Drivers near the lead begin making their first round of pit stops on lap 35 , and continued doing so through lap 40 . By lap 60 , Bräck had built a lead of more than seven seconds . Carpentier had moved into second place , and Andretti , Tagliani , and Franchitti rounded out the top five . Bräck relinquished his lead on lap 64 , when he went off course while attempting to lap Junqueira . The first caution flag of the day came out , but not before Carpentier took the lead as Bräck regained control of his car and re @-@ entered the track in second place . Pit stops took place during the caution , with Carpentier , Bräck , and Andretti still in the top three positions . Green flag racing resumed on lap 70 , and Kanaan began moving toward the front of the field ; he passed Andretti for third place on lap 73 , and took second from Bräck four laps later . The second caution of the race occurred on lap 80 , when Junqueira and Tora Takagi collided ; Tagaki spun off the track , but was able to continue . Andretti and Franchitti pitted during the caution , and the green flag came out on lap 85 . Kanaan passed Carpentier on lap 95 , and Zanardi went into second shortly afterward , as Carpentier tried conserving fuel to complete the race with one fewer pit stop than the other contenders . Kanaan , Zanardi , and Bräck pitted from laps 105 to 113 , and Andretti inherited the lead . Franchitti suffered a " mechanical problem " on lap 116 , becoming the first driver to retire from the race . More pit stops occurred from laps 121 to 123 , and Zanardi claimed the lead over Kanaan . The two contested the lead , and Kanaan was two @-@ tenths of a second behind Zanardi when he pitted for the final time on lap 141 . Bräck moved up to second , and was followed by Carpentier and Tagliani . Zanardi went onto pit road for his last stop on lap 142 . When attempting to re @-@ enter the track , " he seemed to accelerate too early " , according to the Associated Press ' recap . Zanardi could not control his vehicle 's rear end , and the car slid sideways onto the track , after having gone through grass . After Carpentier veered up the track to narrowly miss Zanardi 's car , Tagliani drove straight into it at an estimated speed of 200 miles per hour . The impact split Zanardi 's chassis into two pieces and littered the circuit with debris . The drivers were taken by airlift to the Klinikum Berlin @-@ Marzahn hospital . Following the accident , the last 12 laps were run under a caution flag . There was one further retirement , on lap 153 ; Christian Fittipaldi pitted due to a fire in the back of his car and dropped out . Bräck won the race , finishing ahead of Papis and Carpentier , who were second and third respectively . Andretti took fourth place , followed by Oriol Servia in fifth , Takagi in sixth , and Kanaan in seventh . De Ferran , Scott Dixon , and Tracy rounded out the top ten . = = = Post @-@ race = = = According to CART physician Dr. Steve Olvey , Zanardi 's diagnosis when he left the track was " extremely critical " . His life had been endangered by the crash ; last rites were given to him afterward . Upon arriving at Klinikum Berlin @-@ Marzahn , Zanardi underwent a three @-@ hour operation in which his legs were both amputated above his knees . He also fractured his pelvis and suffered a concussion , and lost over 75 percent of his blood . Tagliani had a sore back as a result of the accident , and was released from the hospital after one day . On September 17 , one of Zanardi 's doctors said that his life was not in danger , although he had been placed under an induced coma in an attempt to prevent trauma shock . Doctors took Zanardi off the coma three days later , and left Klinikum Berlin @-@ Marzahn on October 30 . Johnny Herbert , who had previously been Zanardi 's teammate in Formula One , said of the incident , " It 's a big shock to everybody . You have accidents , yes , but you don 't expect something this gruesome . " Laz Denes , a spokesman for Zanardi 's Mo Nunn Racing team , said the impact was " immense , almost harder than anything I 've ever seen . " According to Denes , the point of contact " was about 12 inches past the cockpit , " and he called Zanardi 's survival a " miracle " . Tagliani commented several days after the crash that Zanardi was constantly in his thoughts . During his hospital stay , Zanardi contacted Tagliani and told him that he was not at fault . With his victory , Bräck claimed the lead in the points competition ; with five races left in the season , he had 131 points . De Ferran was in second , 11 points behind Bräck , and Andretti was five points further back . In 2002 , the German 500 was not held after the EuroSpeedway filed for insolvency . The race returned to EuroSpeedway the following year , as did Zanardi , who ran 13 laps to represent those that he never completed in 2001 . = = Classification = = = = = Race = = = = = Standings after the race = = Note : Only the top five positions are included for the drivers ' standings .
= Code of Honor ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) = " Code of Honor " is the fourth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on October 12 , 1987 , in broadcast syndication . The episode was written by Katharyn Powers and Michael Baron , and was directed by Russ Mayberry . Mayberry was replaced part way through the filming of the episode with first assistant director Les Landau . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , while the ship is visiting the planet Ligon II to retrieve a vaccine , crewman Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) is abducted by the leader of the Ligonians . The race abide by a strict code of honor , and their leader seeks to use Yar as a pawn to increase his own personal power . Powers and Baron pitched a story based on a reptilian race following a code of honor similar to the bushido code of the Samurai . This was developed into the final story , which was described as having a " 1940s tribal Africa " theme by staff writer Tracy Tormé . The episode wasn 't well received amongst the cast and crew , but Maurice Hurley thought that the basic premise held promise . The episode was received negatively by reviewers after the series ending , including being described by one as " quite possibly the worst piece of Star Trek ever made " . = = Plot = = The Enterprise arrives at the planet Ligon II to acquire a vaccine needed to combat an outbreak of Anchilles fever on Styris IV . The crew , possessing little information on the Ligonian culture , finds it follows strict customs of status similar to ancient Africa . Specifically , while the men in their culture rule society , the land itself is controlled by the women . Lutan ( Jessie Lawrence Ferguson ) , the Ligonian leader , transports up to the Enterprise to provide a sample of the vaccine , and is impressed by Lt. Tasha Yar 's status as head of security . Yar further demonstrates her aikido skills against a holographic opponent for Lutan on the holodeck . After a tour of the ship , Lutan and the Ligonians abduct Yar as they transport back to the surface . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) demands that Lutan return Yar , considering the kidnapping an act of war , but receives no response from the planet . After consultation with his officers , Picard determines that Lutan took Yar in a " counting coup " as a show of heroism . Picard contacts Lutan in a more peaceful manner , who grants permission for the Enterprise crew to beam down to the planet and promises to return Yar after a banquet in his honor . Lutan announces at the banquet that he wishes to make Yar his " First one " , surprising not only the Enterprise crew but also Yareena ( Karole Selmon ) who was already Lutan 's " First one . " Yareena challenges Yar to a fight to the death to claim back the position . When Picard objects to the fight , Lutan refuses to give the Enterprise the rest of the vaccine unless Yar participates . The crew investigates the combat ritual and find that the weapons used are coated with a lethal poison , and also that it is Yareena 's wealth to which Lutan owes his position . Picard prepares to have Yar beamed to the Enterprise should she be harmed in the battle . As the match progresses , both Yareena and Yar are equally skilled , but Yar eventually lands a strike on Yareena . Yar quickly covers Yareena and orders the transport of both of them to the Enterprise against the demands of Lutan . Aboard the ship , Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) reaches Yareena moments after death , but is able to counteract the poison and revive the woman 's body . When Lutan demands to know the fate of Yareena , Crusher reveals that Yareena died , thus ceding the match to Yar and breaking the " first one " bond . Yareena is now free to select a new mate ; she chooses Hagon ( James Louis Watkins ) , one of Lutan 's bodyguards , and effectively strips Lutan of his position of power . Hagon lets Yar go and gives the Enterprise their full supply of vaccine . = = Production = = Writer Katharyn Powers was invited to pitch a story for The Next Generation as she was friends with Star Trek writer D. C. Fontana . Alongside her writing partner Michael Baron , Powers pitched a story involving a reptilian race called the " Tellisians " who followed a code of honor similar to that of the samurai . However , the script and the aliens went through several changes before making it to the screen . Powers would go on to write the Season 1 episode " Emancipation " for Stargate SG @-@ 1 , which held similar themes to " Code of Honor " . The African theme of the episode was brought in by director Russ Mayberry , who had the Ligonians race cast entirely from African @-@ American actors . Mayberry was fired during production by the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry , and First Assistant Director Les Landau completed the episode . Star Trek novel author Keith DeCandido later recalled that this was because of the casting itself , while cast member Wil Wheaton ( Wesley Crusher ) thought that it was because Mayberry was racist towards the guest stars after they were cast . Staff writer Tracy Tormé was not pleased with the " 1940s tribal Africa " theme of the aliens , and because the combat scene towards the end of the episode resembled the Kirk versus Spock fight in The Original Series episode " Amok Time " . Fellow Star Trek writer Maurice Hurley said that it was " a good idea , but the execution just fell apart . Again , if you take that script and if the actors had been told to give it a different twist , that show would have been different . But it became too baroque and fell apart . But the concept of having a guy say ' I have to have somebody kill my wife and this is the person ' is a good idea . " Some of the cast , including Jonathan Frakes , sought to prevent the episode from being re @-@ aired . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly in 2012 , Patrick Stewart agreed with fans that considered the season 2 episode " The Measure of a Man " to be " the first truly great episode of the series " , stating that the first season " had several quite weak episodes " ; referring to " Code of Honor " in particular he said , " I can think of one very early on that involved a race of black aliens that we all felt quite embarrassed about . " The episode also saw the first appearance of the black and yellow grid structure of the empty holodeck . However , the interface unit used by Yar , which resembled a corded phone , was not seen again , with crew members using vocal commands to program the holodeck in future episodes . Captain Picard showed pride in his French heritage in this episode . This character quirk was only repeated in the following episode " The Last Outpost " before being removed from the character . = = Reception = = " Code of Honor " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing October 17 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 @.@ 5 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the lower than ratings received by the two episodes preceding it , but higher than the 8 @.@ 9 received by the following episode , " The Last Outpost " . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode following the end of the series . Cast member Wil Wheaton reviewed it in April 2008 for AOL TV . He couldn 't remember actually appearing in the episode , and it was the first time since it was originally broadcast that he had seen it . He said that it wasn 't good , but that it was " not as overtly racist as I recalled . I mean , it 's certainly not as racist as " Angel One " is sexist , and if the Ligonians hadn 't been arbitrarily determined to be entirely African American , it wouldn 't have even been an issue . " He said that the episode is an example of the type of episodes in the first season that would have resulted in the show being cancelled mid @-@ season if it hadn 't been so well supported by the fans and run directly into syndication . James Hunt , whilst writing for Den of Geek , differed from Wheaton 's assessment and asserted that the episode was racist . He said that " this isn 't just bad television , it 's openly offensive , and it seems to do its best effort to undo some of the most important lessons the original series imparted some 25 years after we 're supposed to have learned them . " Overall , he said that this was " quite possibly the worst piece of Star Trek ever made " . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in April 2010 . He said that the aliens in the episode were " one note " , and overall " Code of Honor " didn 't generate any emotional investment . He gave the episode a score of C − , summing it up as " I 'm not sure I 'd believe a great show could come out of TNG after watching ' Code ' , but I could at least say it had promise without sounding like a complete tool . " Keith DeCandido watched " Code of Honor " for Tor.com in May 2011 . He thought the episode was riddled with clichés , and says that the episode only seems racist because of the casting even though the script didn 't call for it . " If the Ligonians had been played by white people , none of the dialogue would change , and nobody would call it racist " , he said and gave it a score of two out of ten . Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation thought the episode was very slowly paced , and that the fight scene at the end was " clunky and awkward " , suggesting that this had something to do with the opposition of the cast and crew to the episode overall . She thought there were several plot holes , including why sickbay couldn 't replicate the vaccine , and that the only redeeming quality of the episode was the beginning of the friendship between Data and La Forge . Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , gave the episode half a star out of four , describing it as " absolutely terrible " . He thought that it represented a story closer to that of The Original Series saying , " It employs every cliche in the TOS rulebook , including goofy alien customs , a hand @-@ to @-@ hand fight to the death , clever captain trickery , and silly gender roles played stupidly . The fight to the death is particularly inept ; stunt sequences have rarely looked so cheesy . One of Trek 's worst episodes . " = = Home media release = = The first home media release of " Code of Honor " was on VHS cassette was on September 5 , 1991 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Eric McCormack = Eric James McCormack ( born April 18 , 1963 ) is a Canadian @-@ American actor , musician , and writer . Born in Toronto , he began his acting career performing in high school plays . He left Ryerson University in 1985 to accept a position with the Stratford Shakespeare Festival , where he spent five years performing in numerous play productions . For much of the late 1990s , he lived in Los Angeles and had minor roles . He made his feature film debut in the 1992 science @-@ fiction adventure film The Lost World . McCormack appeared in several television series , including Top Cops , Street Justice , Lonesome Dove : The Series , Townies , and Ally McBeal . McCormack later gained worldwide recognition for playing Will Truman in the American sitcom Will & Grace , which premiered in September 1998 . His performance earned him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series in 2001 . Aside from appearing in television , he made his Broadway debut in the 2001 production of The Music Man and starred in the 2005 film The Sisters . Following the series conclusion of Will & Grace in 2006 , McCormack starred as the leading role in the New York production of Some Girl ( s ) . He starred in the television miniseries The Andromeda Strain ( 2008 ) and returned to television in 2009 in the TNT drama Trust Me , which was cancelled after one season . Also in 2009 , McCormack was cast in the science @-@ fiction movie Alien Trespass . In addition , he starred as Dr. Daniel Pierce for three seasons of the TNT crime drama Perception , and provided the voice of " Lucky " on The Hub 's Pound Puppies . = = Early life = = McCormack was born in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , the son of Doris ( 1932 @-@ 2006 ) , a homemaker , and Keith McCormack , an oil company financial analyst . He is the oldest of three siblings . McCormack has Scottish ancestry . McCormack states while he was growing up , he was shy and did not play sports . McCormack attended Stephen Leacock Collegiate Institute High School in Scarborough , Ontario . There , he enrolled in theatre and performed in high school productions of Godspell and Pippin , and decided to pursue a career in acting . McCormack recalls after performing in Godspell , his feelings towards becoming an actor solidified . " ... I remember after the first performance of that ... I knew where to fit in . That was the beginning of my life as an actor . It changed me in that the concept of any other options disappeared . From that moment there was no question . I knew exactly what I was going to do . I 'm lucky that way . " He admits that he never felt cool growing up . " I was a bit of an outsider , but I discovered theatre very early on , which got me through . " He then transferred to Sir John A. Macdonald Collegiate Institute in Scarborough , where he went to school with David Furnish . He graduated in 1982 . McCormack enrolled at Ryerson University School of Theatre in Toronto to further improve his acting . He left Ryerson in 1985 , several months before graduating , to accept a position with the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford , Ontario , where he spent five seasons performing . " It was all I wanted , to be a classical actor for the rest of my life , but during the last couple of years I was there , I started to realise that it wasn 't for me . Perhaps I didn 't have to give my Hamlet before I died , that the world might be an OK place without my Hamlet , in fact . " McCormack appeared in the productions A Midsummer Night 's Dream , Henry V , Murder in the Cathedral and Three Sisters . McCormack later performed with the Manitoba Theatre Centre in a production of Burn This , as well as with Toronto 's Royal Alexandra Theatre in Biloxi Blues . = = Career = = = = = Early work = = = McCormack made his Canadian television debut in the 1986 movie The Boys from Syracuse . McCormack moved to Los Angeles , California , and made his US television debut in a 1991 episode of the CBS crime series Top Cops . He appeared in the 1992 theatrical film The Lost World , based on Conan Doyle 's novel of the same name and starred in The Lost World sequel , Return to the Lost World , also released in 1992 . By 1993 , he landed a recurring role as a detective in the crime drama Street Justice . Also in 1993 , McCormack appeared in the television movie Double , Double , Toil and Trouble , playing Mary @-@ Kate and Ashley Olsen 's father . He played the role of Colonel Francis Clay Mosby in 42 episodes of the Western television series Lonesome Dove : The Series ( 1994 ) and Lonesome Dove : The Outlaw Years ( 1995 ) . McCormack commented that it was a " fantastic role " . In an interview with The Guardian in 2003 , McCormack admitted to auditioning " two or three times " for the part of Ross Geller , which ultimately went to David Schwimmer , for the situation comedy Friends . In 1995 , he appeared in the television film The Man Who Wouldn 't Die . He was cast in the 1997 made @-@ for @-@ television movie Borrowed Hearts , where he portrayed a selfish businessman who learns to love , and in the HBO film Exception to the Rule , in which he played a cheating husband . Also in 1997 , he had minor roles in the comedy shows Townies , Veronica 's Closet , and Ally McBeal . Originally , McCormack was scheduled to appear as a series regular in the NBC sitcom Jenny , but was fired after the pilot due to the network cutting his character . = = = Will & Grace = = = McCormack received his break @-@ through role in 1998 when he was cast as gay lawyer Will Truman on the NBC sitcom Will & Grace . McCormack said that when the part came along , he was convinced he was right for the role . " At the end of the audition , Max Mutchnick , co @-@ creator and executive producer of the show ] said ' That was perfect . Just to let you know , you never have to be more gay than that . ' " He explained that when he first read the script , " what hit me immediately was that this was me . I mean , sexual orientation aside , Will was so much like me . He 's a great host , he 's relatively funny and he has great friends and he 's a good friend to them ... the gay issue just wasn 't really a big thing . " The show debuted on September 21 , 1998 and was watched by almost 8 @.@ 6 million American viewers . Will & Grace quickly developed a loyal audience , with the show and McCormack receiving strong reviews . John Carman of the San Francisco Chronicle commented that McCormack and costar Debra Messing ( who played Will 's best friend Grace Adler ) worked " nicely " together . Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times also praised McCormack , Messing , and the supporting cast as " very funny " . For this performance , he earned four Emmy Award nominations ( 2000 , 2001 , 2003 , 2005 ) , one of which resulted in a win ( 2001 ) , for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series . In addition , he received five Golden Globe Award nominations . Also in 1998 , McCormack appeared in Stephen Herek 's comedy film Holy Man . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . The following year he starred in the comedy movie Free Enterprise ( 1999 ) , a movie about two filmmakers ( McCormack and Rafer Weigel ) obsessed with actor William Shatner and Star Trek . Film critic Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that McCormack and Weigel " both make a strong impression " . In 2000 , McCormack appeared in the ABC television movie The Audrey Hepburn Story , portraying actor Mel Ferrer . During the 2001 Broadway season , McCormack briefly portrayed Professor Harold Hill ( replacing Craig Bierko ) in the Susan Stroman revival of The Music Man at the Neil Simon Theatre . In August 2002 , as part of the Hollywood Bowl 's summer concert series , he reprised the role of Harold Hill for a one @-@ night only appearance in which he and other actors recreated the songs from the production . McCormack hosted the fourth episode of the 28th season of the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live on November 2 , 2002 . In 2004 , he had a recurring role as Ray Summers on Showtime 's comedy drama Dead Like Me . The following year , McCormack starred in the film The Sisters , based on Anton Chekhov 's play Three Sisters . The film premiered at the 2005 Tribeca Film Festival . Will & Grace 's eighth and final season ended with the series finale on May 18 , 2006 . The finale garnered 18 million American viewers , making it the most @-@ watched entertainment telecast in six years . = = = After Will & Grace = = = Following the end of Will & Grace , McCormack starred on the New York stage opposite Fran Drescher , Judy Reyes , Brooke Smith , and Maura Tierney , in Neil LaBute 's Off Broadway play Some Girl ( s ) at the Lucille Lortel Theatre . He plays a writer who is ready to settle down and marry , but decides to visit four ex @-@ girlfriends first . For his performance , McCormack received critical reviews . New York Times contributor Ben Brantley , in review of the production , wrote : " Playing a thoughtless , woman @-@ despising heterosexual , Mr. McCormack isn 't much different from when he was playing a thoughtful , woman @-@ worshiping homosexual . As in Will & Grace , he italicizes every other line for maximum comic spin and punctuates his dialogue by earnestly furrowing his features " . Brantley went on to say that McCormack 's interpretation of the character is " certainly a more slickly sustained performance " than the one delivered by David Schwimmer in 2005 . Melissa Rose Bernardo of Entertainment Weekly commented that McCormack and Maura Tierney " have incredible chemistry " . In the same year , McCormack produced the Lifetime comedy Lovespring International , a show that revolves around six employees at Lovespring International , a dating agency located in California as an " elite Beverly Hills " company . The series debuted to ambivalent reviews , with Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe commenting that Lovespring International is " a lively little cable exercise in over @-@ the @-@ top characters , bad taste , satire , and political incorrectness . " The show was cancelled that same year . In 2008 , McCormack co @-@ starred in the A & E television miniseries The Andromeda Strain , a remake of the 1971 movie based on the novel by Michael Crichton . In the miniseries , he played Jack Nash , a television reporter who battles an addiction to cocaine . The Andromeda Strain received mixed reviews , and McCormack 's performance was criticized . Joanna Weiss of the Boston Globe wrote , " The presence of Eric McCormack , as an intrepid TV reporter , is especially extraneous ( no disrespect to intrepid reporters ) . " Robert Bianco of USA Today commented , " The central cast is completed by ... poor Eric McCormack as a crusading , coke @-@ addicted journalist who spends the second half of the movie playing Rambo in the desert . Let 's just say McCormack does the best he can with what he 's given , and leave it at that . " On September 5 , 2008 , McCormack made a guest appearance in the seventh season and 100th episode of the television series Monk , where he played an unctuous host of a television crime docudrama . In January 2009 , McCormack returned to television in the TNT drama Trust Me , co @-@ starring Tom Cavanagh . The series , set around a fictional advertising firm , starred McCormack as Mason McGuire , the firm 's newly promoted creative director , and deals with his best friend 's ( Cavanagh ) unpredictable behavior . In an interview with USA Weekend , McCormack revealed he was not afraid of being typecast . McCormack 's decision to do the show was due to " great writing " . The show debuted on January 26 , 2009 , and was watched by almost 3 @.@ 4 million viewers . Trust Me debuted to very positive reviews , with Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle writing , " ... the series is surprisingly solid . " Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times wrote that McCormack and Cavanagh " manage to keep their characters sharply defined but low @-@ key . They are opposites but not in an ash @-@ smudged , Windex @-@ wielding Felix and Oscar way . " The series , however , was cancelled after one season , due to poor ratings . McCormack starred in the science @-@ fiction film Alien Trespass ( 2009 ) , in which he played Doctor Ted Lewis , who gets possessed by an alien marshal , Urp , after he crash @-@ lands on Earth . When asked about his interpretation on the character , McCormack commented that his first instinct was to make Ted Lewis more alien , sounding like Spock . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . In May 2009 , he portrayed " El Gallo " in Reprise Theatre Company 's revival of the 1960s musical The Fantasticks at UCLA 's Freud Playhouse . McCormack had a supporting role in Richard Loncraine 's comedy My One and Only , which was released in August 2009 . On September 30 , 2009 , he guest @-@ starred on the police procedural drama Law & Order : Special Victims Unit in the second episode of its 11th season playing an owner of a dating website . In addition , McCormack had a recurring role in season five of the comedy series The New Adventures of Old Christine , in which he played a therapist and love interest for Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus 's character , Christine . McCormack portrayed con artist Clark Rockefeller in the Lifetime television movie Who Is Clark Rockefeller ? , which premiered on March 13 , 2010 . To prepare for the role , he read everything on the case , including coverage of the case and Rockefeller 's jailhouse interview . Who Is Clark Rockefeller ? received mixed reaction , but McCormack 's performance was favored by critics , with Variety 's Brian Lowry concluding , " ... the real kitsch factor resides in Eric McCormack 's performance as the suave charmer , which adds an element of high camp to the proceedings . " In June 2010 , McCormack received the NBC Universal Canada Award of Distinction at the Banff TV Festival . In October 2010 , McCormack received a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame . In October 2010 , it was reported that McCormack would star in a new TNT television drama , Perception , playing a crime @-@ solving neuroscientist named Dr. Daniel Pierce , who works with the federal government to solve cases using his knowledge and imaginative view of the world . Perception premiered on July 9 , 2012 . McCormack also serves as producer for the show . He also provides the voice of " Lucky " on The Hub 's Pound Puppies series , which premiered October 10 , 2010 In February 2015 , he guest @-@ starred on an episode of NBC 's The Mysteries of Laura which stars Debra Messing , his former co @-@ star on Will & Grace . = = Other projects = = McCormack has set up his own production company called Big Cattle Productions to develop ideas for television . The projects produced by the company include Lovespring International and Imperfect Union . In 2003 , it was confirmed that he would write , direct , and star in the romantic comedy What You Wish For . McCormack recorded a song , " The Greatest Discovery " , which was written by Elton John and Bernie Taupin in 1970 , for the 2006 album Unexpected Dreams – Songs From the Stars . He also wrote and sang a song called " Living with Grace " for the 2004 soundtrack to Will & Grace with piano music provided by Barry Manilow . = = Personal life = = McCormack has been married to Janet Leigh Holden , whom he met on the set of Lonesome Dove , since August 1997 . They have a son , Finnigan Holden McCormack , born on July 1 , 2002 , in Los Angeles . McCormack maintains residences in Los Angeles and Vancouver . He became a US citizen in 1999 and holds dual Canadian and US citizenship . McCormack is involved in many Los Angeles and Canadian @-@ based charitable organizations including Project Angel Food . The Wellness Community West Los Angeles Tribute to the Human Spirit Awards dinner presented an award to McCormack for his breast cancer awareness advocacy . He shared with the audience how his comedy helped his mother , Doris McCormack , endure her breast cancer treatments . Doris was honored at the Lifetime 's Breast Cancer Heroes Luncheon in 2004 . He serves as an honorary board member of the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation ( MMRF ) and was given the MMRF Spirit of Hope Award in October 2006 . McCormack sang both the American and Canadian national anthems at the 2004 NHL All @-@ Star game in Minnesota . McCormack is a supporter of same @-@ sex marriage and attended a march in Fresno , California , on May 30 , 2009 , after the Supreme Court of California upheld a ban on same @-@ sex marriage approved by voters in November by ballot Proposition 8 . McCormack identifies as a Democrat . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = Awards and nominations = =
= Pathlight School = Pathlight School is a special school for high @-@ functioning children with autism , located in Ang Mo Kio , Singapore . Founded in 2004 , it is run by the non @-@ profit Autism Resource Centre , and comprises one half of the national educational provision for autistic children . The school coaches students in social and life skills , teaches them mainstream curriculum subjects and prepares them for employment , in an autism friendly environment . With more than 500 pupils enrolled , the school is noted for its achievements in special education in Singapore . = = History = = In 2003 , the Autism Resource Centre ( ARC ) launched a project to provide comprehensive support for autistic Singaporeans , which included plans to set up the first autism @-@ focused special school in Singapore . The ARC collaborated with the Rainbow Centre over a period of five months to renovate the temporary campus , recruit school staff , decide on the school values and develop the school programmes . After opening in 2004 with 10 teachers and 41 students , Pathlight School conducted charity walks , merchandise sales and other events to raise funds for the introduction of more programmes for an expanding intake . In 2007 , two teachers from Pathlight School won the inaugural Most Outstanding Special Education Teacher Award and Most Innovative Special Education Teacher Award , given by the Singaporean Ministry of Education and National Council of Social Service . In 2009 , the Autism Association of Singapore launched a second autism @-@ focused special school , Eden School , and the two schools formed a partnership . The following year , Pathlight School moved to its permanent campus and announced plans to develop student internship programmes , build an information technology centre , and set up a lifelong learning club for alumni . = = Campus = = The permanent campus of Pathlight School at Ang Mo Kio Avenue 10 , which was constructed by W Architects and cost S $ 34 million to build , spans 1 @.@ 6 hectares ( 0 @.@ 016 km2 ; 0 @.@ 0062 sq mi ) . Its facilities include 45 classrooms , four computer labs , three courtyards , an industrial kitchen and a multi @-@ purpose area , as well as special art , music and design rooms . The campus was designed to offer students " dignity " and an autism friendly environment . For example , the walls and floors have a simple colour scheme , to avoid triggering sensory overload , while the taps in the canteen are slightly different from each other to help students learn to adopt less rigid routines . Due to limited facilities , some academic lessons , known as satellite classes , are conducted by Pathlight teachers at nearby mainstream schools , including Chong Boon Secondary School , Pierce Secondary School and Bishan Park Secondary School . In 2014 / 2015 will be introduced Yio Chu Kang Secondary School As of 2012 , they introduced two campuses as Primary 1 to 4 and Vocational Track were in Campus 1 while Primary 5 to 6 and Secondary School were in Campus 2 . In 2013 , Primary 4 was moved to Campus 2 and in 2015 the Primary 3 were moved to Campus 2 and for Secondary School moved to Campus 1 . = = Programmes = = Unlike most special schools in Singapore , which place little emphasis on academics , Pathlight School uses the same academic curriculum as mainstream primary and secondary schools . The sole exception is that mother tongue lessons are replaced with classes covering social and life skills . The school accommodates the needs of students with smaller class sizes , staff trained to handle autistic children , more visual teaching methods , more predictable environments and individual education plans for each student . Satellite classes and special events give students regular opportunities to interact with neurotypical ( non @-@ autistic ) peers from mainstream schools ; exceptional students are allowed to attend classes with mainstream students for some subjects . To prepare students for employment , Pathlight School runs computing courses , a design studio and a cafe staffed by students . The school also produces book compilations of thoughts written by students , conducts exhibitions of student artwork and sells merchandise made by students , to help students develop useful skills , raise funds for the school and raise awareness of autism . In addition , Pathlight School has hosted autism events such as the WeCAN Learning Congress 2010 , where over 20 international experts shared their best practices in autism care with about 560 delegates . If you 're taking N or O level , they will have 2 @-@ year programme , which will be taking 2 years in Secondary 4 for Express ( E ) and Normal Technical ( NT ) while Secondary 5 for Normal Academic ( NA ) . We will be breaking up into half on course and will be sitting in the second year . So Express and Normal Technical will be 5 @-@ year course . While Normal Academic will be 6 @-@ year course = = Students = = As of 2010 , Pathlight School had an enrolment of over 500 students , of whom about 40 % had their school fees of S $ 500 subsidised . The school caters to autistic Singaporeans aged six to 18 , who are able to access the mainstream curriculum because they are high @-@ functioning , but would have difficulty learning in a mainstream school . Most students take mainstream national examinations , such as the PSLE and O Levels , with results comparable to students from mainstream schools , and some enter mainstream tertiary institutions . About 10 % of students take a vocational track and may transfer to Eden School , which caters to lower @-@ functioning autistic children and focuses on vocational training . Students from Pathlight School have participated in — and won — national competitions such as the National Youth Business Challenge 2010 . In 2015 , the student enrolment had been upsized to 1 @,@ 000 students which their students had been growing and growing . From 2016 onwards , the Secondary school , Express course had been increased to five years and Normal Academic Course had been increased to six years for better understanding and Normal Technical will stayed the same . = = Management = = Pathlight School is run by the Autism Resource Centre , a non @-@ profit organisation that also offers early intervention , therapy and training for autistic Singaporeans . The school employs 81 staff , including teachers , therapists and autism consultants , and the school board is headed by founder , ARC president and Member of Parliament Denise Phua . Operating costs of the school are paid by the Ministry of Education and National Council of Social Service , while other costs , estimated at S $ 5 million per year , are funded through fees , donations , merchandise sales and fundraising events . Under the partnership between Pathlight School and Eden School , the two schools have a centralised admission system and share various resources ; together , they form the national provision of education for children across the autism spectrum . = = Transportation = = However , since the MRT stations were not near and only passes by , you can take 45 , 55 , 261 and CT8 in both campuses . Except the Townsville Primary School Stop does not serve CT8 . 55 will be accessed to Bishan MRT Station while 261 will be accessed to Ang Mo Kio MRT Station . Since no bus entered to Ang Mo Kio Street 44 for Campuse 2 , they have to walk .
= Laundry Service = Laundry Service ( Spanish : Servicio de Lavandería ) is the fifth studio album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , globally released on 13 November 2001 by Epic Records . It is her first album to be primarily recorded in English . After the release of her fourth studio album Dónde Están los Ladrones ? , which became a success in Latin America , Shakira was encouraged by American singer Gloria Estefan to record songs in English as she believed the singer had the potential to crossover into the English @-@ language pop market . Shakira was initially hesitant to undertake the project , but later decided to learn English well enough to be able to write songs in the language herself . The title of the album was chosen to reflect Shakira 's views on love and music . It was also released as Servicio de Lavandería in Hispanic regions in January 2002 . Musically , Laundry Service is primarily a pop rock record but it also experiments with a variety of other musical styles , including Andean music , dance @-@ pop , Middle Eastern music , rock and roll and tango . The lyrical theme of the album is mostly based around love and romance . Every song on the album was written and produced by Shakira . Six singles were released from the album . The lead single " Whenever , Wherever " became an international success and reached number one on record charts of countries like Australia , Austria , France , Germany , Italy and Spain . Follow @-@ up single " Underneath Your Clothes " repeated its success , topping the charts of Australia , Austria , and Belgium . Both singles charted inside the top ten in the United Kingdom and United States . The third single " Objection ( Tango ) " became a top ten hit in most countries around the world . Spanish @-@ language singles " Te Dejo Madrid " and " Que Me Quedes Tú " performed well in Hispanic regions , becoming hits in Spain and on the Latin record charts in the United States , respectively . " The One " was a moderate commercial success and became the last single to be released from Laundry Service . Shakira embarked on the Tour of the Mongoose in 2002 and 2003 to promote the album . It was her first major worldwide tour and visited numerous countries and cities . Upon its release , Laundry Service received favourable to mixed reviews from music critics . Many critics complimented Shakira 's incorporation of different musical styles in the production and her originality , while some critics argued that the album sounded too generic . Shakira 's vocal talent also attracted praise . Laundry Service topped the charts of countries including Australia , Austria , Belgium , Canada and Switzerland , while reaching the top five in other countries like Argentina , France , Germany , Spain and the United Kingdom . In the United States , Laundry Service peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 chart . The album received numerous record certifications in various countries , including quintuple @-@ platinum certifications in Australia , Canada , Spain and Switzerland . It was also certified multi @-@ platinum in the United Kingdom and the United States , proving to be a successful crossover for Shakira . Globally , Laundry Service was the seventh best @-@ selling album in 2002 . = = Background and recording = = In 1998 , Shakira released her second major label studio album Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ( Where Are the Thieves ? ) , which became a success in Latin America and received record certifications in various countries like Argentina , Colombia , Chile , Mexico and Spain . The rock en español @-@ influenced latin pop album drew comparisons to the work of Canadian @-@ American singer songwriter Alanis Morissette and " cracked the lucrative US market wide open " , spending a total of 11 weeks atop the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . It became Shakira 's first album to receive a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Dónde Están los Ladrones ? spawned the Arabian @-@ styled single " Ojos Así " ( " Eyes Like Yours " ) , which became a hit and was deemed the " signature track " of the album . The success of Dónde Están los Ladrones ? prompted American singer Gloria Estefan , whose husband Emilio Estefan was managing Shakira at that time , to persuade Shakira to attempt to crossover into the mainstream pop industry . However , Shakira was initially hesitant to record songs in English as it was not her first language , so Estefan offered to translate " Ojos Así " into English in order to show her that " it could translate well . " Shakira then began translating the song herself and showed it to Estefan , who responded " Quite honestly , I can 't do this better ! . " As Shakira wanted to have full control over her recordings , she decided to learn English better to enable her to write her own songs . Wanting to find a method to express her " day @-@ to @-@ day stories in English " , Shakira bought rhyming dictionaries , started analysing the lyrics of songs by Bob Dylan , reading poetry and the work of authors like Leonard Cohen and Walt Whitman and took English lessons from a private tutor . The first song she wrote was " Objection ( Tango ) " and in an interview with Faze , she revealed that writing songs in English proved to be challenging for her : " I prayed and asked God to send me a good song today , and I remember I started writing the song [ ' Objection ( Tango ) ' ] a couple of hours after . I wrote the music and lyrics at the same time , and when that happens it 's really magical to me . " After completing " Objection ( Tango ) " , Shakira decided to write ten more songs and began setting up portable recording studios in the rural region of Uruguay . She wrote various songs with a " dictionary in one hand and a thesaurus in the other . " Shakira collaborated with various writers and producers on the album including Estefan , Lester Mendez , Luis Fernando Ochoa and Tim Mitchell . Being " more in control than ever " , Shakira closely supervised the development of the album . The singer also served as the primary producer of the album . Shakira 's record label at that time , Epic Records , opposed the decision to release and commission Laundry Service as they " wanted her just to throw a couple of songs in English on a Latin record . " Estefan argued with Tommy Mottola , then head of Sony Music Entertainment ( the parent company of Epic Records ) , and convinced him to release the album , arguing that an " American audience " would not buy a Spanish record simply due to its inclusion of a few English tracks . In an interview with Latina , she said " I got in the trenches there with Tommy [ Mottola ] - I fought for that . Because they didn 't believe it . Just like they told us [ her and Emilio during the Miami Sound Machine days ] . They were trying to think in the box and I wanted to take her out of the box . And fortunately , Tommy , whom I love and adore and is a good friend , he really listened to me . " = = Composition = = Although primarily a pop rock album , Laundry Service also draws influences from a variety of musical genres . The singer credited this to her mixed ethnicity , saying " I am a fusion . That 's my persona . I 'm a fusion between black and white , between pop and rock , between cultures - between my Lebanese father and my mother 's Spanish blood , the Colombian folklore and Arab dance I love and American music . " Arabian and Middle Eastern elements , which had a high influence on Dónde Están los Ladrones ? , are also present in Laundry Service , most prominently on " Eyes Like Yours " ( Ojos Así ) . Musical styles from different South American countries surface on the album . Tango , a style of fast @-@ paced ballroom dance that originated in Argentina , is evident on " Objection ( Tango ) " , which also combines elements of rock and roll . The uptempo track features a guitar solo and a bridge in which Shakira delivers rap @-@ like vocals . " Whenever , Wherever " blends pop rock with Andean music and contains instrumentation from panpipes and the charango - traditional instruments generally associated with the genre . A few songs are also influenced by dance @-@ based genres ; the " feisty " " Rules " is laced with new wave and " Ready for the Good Times " is inspired by disco music . The power ballad " Underneath Your Clothes " has Shakira delivering " racked " vocals and features brass instrumentation influenced by English rock band The Beatles . It contains a melody similar to the one in " Eternal Flame " , a 1989 song by American all @-@ female band The Bangles . Similarly , the tune of " The One " , another power ballad on the album , is similar to that of " Michelle " , a 1965 song by The Beatles . " Fool " and " Poem to a Horse " are more directly influenced by rock music . The former received comparisons to the work of Alanis Morissette while the latter also displays indie elements and contains instrumentation from a soul music @-@ styled horn section and guitar riffs similar to the one present in songs by American grunge band Nirvana . Laundry Service also contains four Spanish tracks : " Que Me Quedes Tú " ( " That You Remain With Me " ) , " Te Dejo Madrid " ( " I Leave You Madrid " ) , " Suerte " ( " Luck " ) and " Te Aviso , Te Anuncio ( Tango ) " ( " I 'm Warning You , I 'm Announcing to You " ) ; the latter two are Spanish translations of " Whenever , Wherever " and " Objection ( Tango ) " , respectively . The lyrics of most songs in Laundry Service are based on issues and themes related to love , as they had been written after Shakira began a relationship Antonio de la Rúa , the son of former Argentine president Fernando de la Rúa . " Underneath Your Clothes " is an " ode " to the positivity one gains when pursuing a relationship with a good person . Shakira shows an " important side " in " The One " , which is a song about how " you love your guy so much that you ’ re actually going to learn to cook " and contains lines like " To buy more thongs and write more happy songs , it always takes a little help from someone . " In " Rules " , she aims to make her lover realise that he is " condemned " to her and lists " all the things your new boy can do . " Songs like " Objection ( Tango ) " and " Fool " also deal with issues related to love but in a different manner . The former is dramatic and humorous in approach as Shakira commands her partner to end a love triangle and choose between her and the other lady ; it was described as a " hell @-@ hath @-@ no @-@ fury it 's @-@ her @-@ or @-@ me steam train . " In the song , Shakira asserts that " Next to her cheap silicon I look minimal / That ’ s why in front of your eyes I 'm invisible " , which a reviewer commented was a " brave statement in these days of suspiciously ripe teenybop flesh peddlers [ sic ] . " " Fool " discusses how Shakira continues to try to build up a relationship with a " shitty [ sic ] , self @-@ absorbed man " even after suffering a " soul @-@ crushing defeat . " = = Release = = The album was globally released on 13 November 2001 in nations including Australia , France , Italy , Switzerland and the United States . In Latin American countries like Mexico , the album was released as Servicio de Lavandería on January 2002 . In the United Kingdom , Laundry Service was released on 11 March 2002 . On 12 November 2002 , a limited edition version of the album entitled Laundry Service : Washed and Dried was released ; this version of the album features three additional remixes and a bonus disc which contains multimedia content related to " Objection ( Tango ) " . Shakira chose to entitle the album " Laundry Service " as she wanted to represent her " two great passions : love and music " , which she compared to soap and water , saying " The reason I named it " Laundry Service " is because I 've spent the year dedicated to my two great passions : love and music . Those two elements are like soap and water . It was a deep cleansing , almost like being reborn . " The artwork of the album was also designed by Shakira and shows a close @-@ up of the back of a blonde @-@ haired Shakira ; a star and the name of the album are seen tattooed on her arm . = = Singles = = " Whenever , Wherever " was released as the lead single from Laundry Service in early October 2001 . The song was commercially successful , peaking at number one in countries including Australia , Austria , France , Germany Italy , and more than 14 countries worldwide . In the United States , " Whenever , Wherever " became Shakira 's first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and peaked at number six . It stood as the singer 's highest peaking single on the chart until " Hips Don 't Lie " reached number one in 2006 . " Whenever , Wherever " narrowly missed peaking atop the chart in the United Kingdom by reaching number two . " Suerte " , the Spanish @-@ language version of the song , was also released and peaked at number one in Spain and on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Whenever , Wherever " attained numerous record certifications around the world , including multi @-@ platinum certifications in Australia , Belgium , and Switzerland , platinum certifications in the United Kingdom , and a diamond certification in France . The accompanying music video of the song , which features Shakira belly dancing in various locations , was directed by Francis Lawrence and became popular on music video television channel MTV . " Underneath Your Clothes " was released as the second single from the album in May 2002 . The song peaked atop the charts in Australia , Austria , and Belgium ; it was certified platinum in the three countries . In other countries , it became a top five hit . " Underneath Your Clothes " entered the top ten of the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , peaking at number nine , while in the United Kingdom it reached number three . The accompanying music video for " Underneath Your Clothes " was directed by Herb Ritts and depicts Shakira 's life on tour . Shakira 's then boyfriend Antonio de la Rua makes an appearance in the video and this led to music retailer Tower Records Argentina banning sales of her albums in the country . The reason behind the ban was that Antonio de la Rua 's father Fernando de la Rúa , who was the President of Argentina at that time , had resigned " in the midst of profound economic and political turmoil in the country , " and the decision to ban sales of Shakira 's albums was a " direct protest against Antonio De la Rua -- not Shakira . " " Objection ( Tango ) " was released as the third single in July 2002 . Although it was not a commercial success as big as " Whenever , Wherever " or " Underneath Your Clothes " , the song performed well nonetheless . " Objection ( Tango ) " became a top ten hit in most countries and reached the top five in Australia and Netherlands . The song was certified platinum in Australia and gold in France . It became the last single from Laundry Service to chart on both the US Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart , on which it peaked at numbers 55 and 17 , respectively . Directed by Dave Meyers , the music video for " Objection ( Tango ) " features Shakira fighting her unfaithful lover and his mistress . " Te Dejo Madrid " was released as the fourth single from the album in August 2002 . It peaked at number seven in Spain but performed poorly on the Latin record charts in the United States , peaking at number 45 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . Spanish bullfighter Julián López Escobar , better known by his stage name El Juli , filed a lawsuit against Shakira for using scenes of one of his performances in the music video for " Te Dejo Madrid " without his permission . " Que Me Quedes Tú " was released as the fifth single in November 2002 and peaked at number 10 on the Spanish Singles Chart . It became a success on the Latin record charts in the United States , topping both the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts . " The One " was released as the final single from the album in March 2003 . It was a moderate chart success and reached the top 20 in most countries . " The One " became the only single from the album to not appear on any US Billboard chart . The music video for " The One " was directed by Esteban Sapir and Ramiro Agulla and shows Shakira singing the song while walking outside in the rain . = = Tour = = To promote Laundry Service , Shakira embarked on the Tour of the Mongoose from 2002 to 2003 . The tour was the singer 's first worldwide tour and visited 50 cities and 30 countries , with its kick @-@ off concert show held in San Diego , California . Various brands and franchises co @-@ sponsored the tour , including international clothing brand Reebok and soft drink brand Pepsi . Seven buses and ten trailers were also employed to transport all the staff members . A stage covering 350 square meters was set up and preparations to arrange 280 @,@ 000 watts of sound and light were made . A " solid nine @-@ piece band " was hired to provide live instrumentation . Regarding the title of the tour , Shakira explained her decision to name it after the mongoose , saying : " It 's called the Tour of the Mongoose , and the mongoose is basically one of the few animals who can defeat the most venomous snakes with just one bite . And that 's why I decided to name my tour that way , because I think that if we all have a little mongoose inside that can defeat the hatred and the resentment and the prejudice of everyday , we can probably win the battle . " Likewise , the theme of the tour was highly influenced by Shakira 's political views , and this was prominently seen during the performance of " Octavo Día " , a song from Dónde Están los Ladrones ? , during which a film showing puppet caricatures of George W. Bush , then @-@ President of the United States , and Saddam Hussein , then @-@ President of Iraq , playing chess with their moves being controlled by the Grim Reaper . During the opening of the concert shows , a " massive " stage curtain showing a " mongoose and a cobra preparing for battle " split and a giant cobra slowly began rising from the centre of the stage to reveal Shakira , who wore " black leather pants and a black bikini top " and performed barefoot . Shakira incorporated belly dancing moves in her performances and often played various instruments throughout the shows herself , including the harmonica . Eight songs from Laundry Service were included on the setlist of the tour . A more afro @-@ punk oriented version of " Objection ( Tango ) " was performed and featured instrumentation from bongos . As an intro to " Rules " , Shakira played the harmonica , guitar , and drums . She also played an electric guitar during the performance of " Fool " . " Whenever , Wherever " was included in the encore segment of the shows and was " made to feel even more celebratory by the massive amount of confetti shot on the crowd midway through . " Shakira also performed covers of " Dude Looks Like a Lady " , a song by American hard rock band Aerosmith , and " Back in Black " , a song by Australian hard rock band AC / DC . Many performances made use of pyrotechnics and " six @-@ foot flames that shot from the stage . " In 2004 , a live album of the tour was released as Live & Off the Record . Aside from recording of the performances , the album included an hour @-@ long documentary that shows Shakira " touring the world and doing such fun things as blowing bubbles , getting massages , and being serenaded by a mariachi band . " A promotional CD single featuring the live performances of " Poem to a Horse " and " Whenever , Wherever " was also released to promote Live & Off the Record . The live album was certified platinum in France and gold in the United States . = = Critical reception = = Critical reception towards Laundry Service ranged from favourable to mixed , with critics expressing different opinions regarding the production and composition of the album . Alex Henderson from AllMusic commended Shakira 's songwriting abilities in English , calling it a " challenge that she handles impressively well . Shakira , it turns out , sings quite convincingly in English , " and also praised her different mixes of musical styles , saying " Like Shakira 's Spanish @-@ language albums , this self @-@ produced CD is enjoyably eclectic ; she successfully combines pop / rock with everything from tango on " Objection ( Tango ) " and Andean music on " Whenever , Wherever " to Middle Eastern music on " Eyes Like Yours " . He concluded that " Dónde Están los Ladrones ? remains Shakira 's most essential album , but Laundry Service is an excellent English @-@ language debut for the South American vocalist . " A critic from Billboard also favoured the presence of various musical styles on the album and commented that " Laundry Service finds the 24 @-@ year @-@ old artist unafraid of merging musical flavors , " and complimented Shakira 's vocal talent . Similarly , the Entertainment.ie review of the album deemed the lyrical content " surreal " and the production " no less bizarre [ ... ] imposing breakneck tangos , twanging guitar solos and bizarre raps onto a familiar soft rock template . " They felt that Laundry Service could not be called a " great album " , reasoning that the " The line between fascinatingly strange and offputtingly weird is a thin one , and Laundry Service crosses it far too often , " but also stated that " Even so , Shakira 's star quality can hardly be denied - and in today 's increasingly conformist pop industry that deserves at least two cheers . " Alexis Petridis from The Guardian lauded Shakira 's originality , opining that " In an age of personality @-@ free pop idols , Shakira 's glorious eccentricity makes her a true star , " and commented that " Every song contains at least one non sequitur so eccentric that it could be the work of 1970s rock surrealist Captain Beefheart " and " The music on Laundry Service gives the lyrics a run for their money in the oddball handicap . " Although he felt that the use of samples on various songs " displays an attitude to plagiarism that Noel Gallagher would consider cavalier " and that " no one could claim Laundry Service was a groundbreaking work of art , " he concluded that " its ramshackle production and imponderable lyrics are striking and unique . And these days , it 's hard not to find any pop record that provokes those adjectives rather cheering . " Music critic Robert Christgau termed Laundry Service " the Cher album Cher never made " and attributed this to Shakira 's blend of Middle Eastern styles in her music ; he commented that the " stylistic appetite of this Colombian superstar is pure rock en Español " and appreciated Shakira 's confident songwriting . Christgau also noted Shakira 's strong vibrato and constant changing of timbre in her vocals . Lisa Oliver from Yahoo ! Music said that Shakira 's experimentation with different styles yield " results ranging from corking to minging , " but experienced difficulty with the formatting of the CD , saying " the biggest problem with ' Laundry Service ' is the anti @-@ copying device that renders the CD useless in anything other than a conventional CD player [ ... ] A shame then , because this Latino hottie could dilate the musical pupils of even the most ardent homebody if only they could get off the computer long enough to hear it . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly , however , called the album a " the ultimate in crossover nightmares " and opined that Shakira 's incorporation of different musical genres made it sound confusing , saying " Its wan ska @-@ pop , faux @-@ country ballads , and generic rock barely betray a Spanish accent or any musical heritage . ( She can 't decide if she wants to sound like Alanis or Shania ) " . Matt Cibula from PopMatters gave a more mixed view in his review of Laundry Service ; he complimented some of the lyrics of the songs but expressed disappointment in Shakira 's production of the album , writing it off as " generic " . He felt that the album was " extremely safe " and speculated that the reason behind the album 's " generic " sound was due to the Estefans ' involvement , saying " when I read that she 's [ Gloria Estefan ] helping you with lyrics and he 's [ Emilio Estefan ] ' executive producer ' , and I hear the unmistakable hum of ' moneymoneymoneymoney ' in the background [ sic ] . " Ernesto Lechner from Rolling Stone complimented the singer 's voice as a " wild and beautiful instrument [ ... ] capable of delivering scorching moments of musical passion , " but commented that the involvement of a " battalion of producers and songwriters " led to Shakira sounding " downright silly " on Laundry Service and also criticised " her efforts to spice things up with obvious touches of Latin American folklore . " = = Accolades = = Laundry Service garnered Shakira a number of awards . At the 2002 American Latino Media Arts Awards ( ALMA Awards ) ceremony , the album won the award for " Album of the Year " and Shakira won the award for " Outstanding Female Performer " . At the inaugural MTV Video Music Awards Latin America ( VMALA ) ceremony in 2002 , Shakira won a total of five awards , which included " Artist of the Year " , " Video of the Year " ( for " Suerte " ) , " Female Artist of the Year " , " Pop Artist of the Year " and " Best Artist - North Latin America " . At the inaugural Premios Oye ! in the same year , the album received a nomination in the category of " Record of the Year " , while Shakira won the awards for " International Female Artist of the Year " and " Latin Pop Female Artist of the Year " . At the 2002 Premio Lo Nuestro ceremony , Shakira won the " Premio del Pueblo " ( " People 's Choice Award " ) in the category of " Pop / Rock " for Laundry Service . At the 2003 NRJ Music Awards , Laundry Service was announced as the winner of " Best International Album " and Shakira was named the " Best International Female Artist " . The album was also nominated for " International Album of the Year " at the 2003 Juno Awards . Latina magazine included Shakira on their list of " 10 Latinas Who Broke Barriers " in 2013 , writing " This colombiana has used her singing talent , her energetic spirit , and of course , her sultry dance moves to become one of the most successful crossover artists of all time . " " Laundry Service " was listed on " The Definitive 200 albums of all time " compilated by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers in association with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame = = Commercial performance = = In Austria , Laundry Service entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 albums chart at number five and peaked at number one , spending a total of 71 weeks on the chart . The album was certified double @-@ platinum by the IFPI Austria for selling 80 @,@ 000 units . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , it reached number one on the Ultratop chart , while it peaked at number five in the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of the country . After debuting at number 40 on the Finnish Albums Chart , Laundry Service quickly ascended to number one and charted for a total of 49 weeks . By 2007 , the album had gone triple @-@ platinum in the country and had sold a total of 90 @,@ 140 units . In France , Laundry Service debuted at number nine on the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) albums chart and peaked at number five for three weeks ; its stay on the chart lasted for 89 weeks . It was certified double @-@ platinum by the SNEP for sales of 600 @,@ 000 units . It remained as Shakira 's greatest certified album in the country until her ninth studio album Sale el Sol was certified diamond in 2011 . In Germany , it peaked at number two on the Media Control chart and charted for 31 weeks . Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) certified Laundry Service quintuple @-@ gold in Germany for shipments of 750 @,@ 000 units . In Hungary , it peaked at number four on the MAHASZ chart and was her highest charting album in the country until Sale el Sol reached the same position in 2010 . The album was certified platinum in Hungary for selling 30 @,@ 000 copies . After debuting at number three on the Italian Albums Chart , Laundry Service ascended to number two the following week but was kept from attaining the top position by Alanis Morissette 's 2002 album Under Rug Swept . In Spain , Servicio de Lavanderia reached number two on the PROMUSICAE albums chart . It also charted in 2005 in the country along with Shakira 's fifth and sixth studio albums Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 , respectively . The album has been certified quintuple @-@ platinum by PROMUSICAE for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . In Sweden , Laundry Service debuted atop the Sverigetopplistan chart and stayed on the top position for three weeks . It was certified double platinum by IFPI Sweden in 2003 . In Switzerland , the album entered the Schweizer Hitparade chart at number 81 and peaked at number one , spending a total of 84 weeks on the chart . Laundry Service was later certified quintuple @-@ platinum by the IFPI for selling 200 @,@ 000 units in Switzerland . In the United Kingdom , Laundry Service debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart . It later peaked at number two . The album was certified double @-@ platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies . By 2002 , Laundry Service had sold more than four million copies in Europe alone and thus was certified quadruple @-@ platinum by IFPI Europe . In Australia , Laundry Service became Shakira 's first album to chart on the ARIA Albums Chart after debuting at number two . It later peaked at number one for two weeks and in total it spent 54 weeks on the charts . Consequently , it became the second best @-@ selling album of the year 2002 in the country , behind only American rapper Eminem 's album The Eminem Show . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified Laundry Service quintuple @-@ platinum for shipments of 350 @,@ 000 units , making it Shakira 's most successful album in the country . The album also performed well in New Zealand , peaking at number four on the national albums chart and appearing on the chart for 47 weeks . By 2003 , Laundry Service had been certified triple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipping 45 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , the album peaked atop the Billboard Canadian Albums Chart and is Shakira 's only album to reach number one in the country . Eventually , Laundry Service was certified quintuple @-@ platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 albums . In the United States , Laundry Service debuted and peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 200 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It stayed on the chart for a total of 61 weeks . The album also debuted and peaked at number six on the Billboard Top Internet Albums chart . After around six months since its release , Laundry Service had been certified triple @-@ platinum by the RIAA for shipments of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units in the United States . It is Shakira 's best @-@ selling album in the country , with sales of 3 @,@ 526 @,@ 000 units as of March 2014 . According to the IFPI , Laundry Service was the seventh best @-@ selling album in the world in 2002 . = = Impact and legacy = = The commercial success of the album led to Shakira being deemed one of the most successful Latin crossover artists of all time , with Steve Huey from AllMusic calling her " Latin pop 's biggest female crossover artist since Jennifer Lopez " and " an instant pop sensation , thanks to her quirky poetic sense and a sexy video image built on her hip @-@ shaking belly dance moves . " The success of the album also received considerable backlash , with many calling Shakira a " sellout " . This negative response was further heightened by the fact that Shakira , who was a natural brunette , had bleached her hair blonde at the time of the release of the album , which many viewed as a tactic to " fit into the US market . " Regarding this backlash , Shakira said , " I know my Latin people find this difficult . And I want [ my success ] to be good news to my country . But it 's typical that when you see somebody who is so close to you growing , you feel that the very word ' growing ' is synonymous with leaving . My hair is a coincidence . I dyed it more than two and a half years ago . " On the other hand , many viewed Shakira 's crossover success as a " strong cultural statement " as her musical style was representative of her mixed ethnicity . In 2002 , the singer was interviewed by Nobel Literature Prize @-@ winning Colombian novelist and journalist Gabriel García Márquez , who was " astonished by her fantastical work @-@ rate " and said that " Shakira 's music has a personal stamp that doesn 't look like anyone else 's and no one can sing or dance like her , at whatever age , with such an innocent sensuality , one that seems to be of her own invention . " In the United States and the United Kingdom , Shakira drew comparisons to American pop singer Britney Spears as they looked similar in appearance and sported " bleached blonde curls and butter @-@ wouldn 't @-@ melt smiles for the kids down the front . " However , critics argued that the Shakira 's vocal style was very different from Spears ' , with Ted Kessler from The Observer calling the former an " operatic diva " and writing that " as soon as she opens her mouth , she slips into gear and motors powerfully past Britney 's breathy bump 'n'grind . " In 2009 , Julia Llewellyn Smith from The Daily Telegraph commented that " Shakira makes comparable Spanish @-@ English ' crossover ’ acts such as Jennifer Lopez and Enrique Iglesias seem like minnows . " In an interview with Latina magazine in 2011 , Gloria Estefan was asked whether she felt another crossover artist like Shakira could emerge in her lifetime , to which she responded , " I 'm always hopeful that somebody , any Latino , is going to succeed in what they do . And of course in music , undoubtedly . " Shakira 's crossover success also inspired other Latin artists to foray into the English language market and many compared Mexican singer Paulina Rubio 's attempt to crossover with her English @-@ language debut album Border Girl to that by Shakira . Shakira 's ability to belly dance came into attention and gathered coverage during this period , especially due to the music video of the lead single " Whenever , Wherever " . The song also became famous for one of its lines in which Shakira sings " Lucky that my breasts are small and humble , so you don ’ t confuse them with mountains " ; it is often cited as an example of the unusual lyrical content of the singer 's songs . According to Steve Huey from AllMusic , many critics were " divided as to the effectiveness of Shakira 's English lyrics , but nearly all agreed on her unique poetic imagery . " Heuy further commented that the song and its video turned Shakira into a " star in the English @-@ speaking world almost overnight . " " Whenever , Wherever " , along with " Underneath Your Clothes " , is considered to be one of Shakira 's signature songs . = = Track listing = = Notes ^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer ^ [ b ] translated the song into English from the original Spanish @-@ language version " Ojos Así " ^ [ c ] remixed by Hani Kamai = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from AllMusic . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =
= Fancy rat = The fancy rat is a domesticated brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) , which is the most common type of pet rat . The name fancy rat derives from the idea of animal fancy ( promotion of domesticated animals ) or the phrase " to fancy " ( to like , or appreciate ) . Fancy rats have their origins as the targets for blood sport in 18th- and 19th @-@ century Europe . Specially bred as pets since then , fancy rats now come in a wide variety of colors and coat types and are bred and raised by several rat enthusiast groups around the world . Fancy rats are commonly sold as pets in stores and by breeders . Domesticated rats are physiologically and psychologically different from their wild relatives , and — when acquired from reputable breeders and shops — pose no more of a health risk than other common pets . For example , domesticated brown rats are not considered a disease threat , while exposure to wild rat populations could introduce pathogens like Salmonella into the home . Fancy rats experience different health risks from their wild counterparts , and thus are less likely to succumb to many of the same illnesses as wild rats . Fancy rats care for themselves , and are thus very affordable compared to even other small pets . This is one of the biggest draws to them . Additionally , fancy rats are quite independent , loyal and easily trained , earning them comparison to both cats and dogs . This comparison is merited given fancy rats are considered more intelligent than any other domesticated rodent . = = History = = The origin of the modern fancy rat begins with the rat @-@ catchers of the 18th and 19th centuries who trapped rats throughout Europe . These rat @-@ catchers would then either kill the rats , or , more likely , sell the rats to be used in blood sport . Rat @-@ baiting was a popular sport until the beginning of the 20th century . It involved filling a pit with several rats and then placing bets on how long it would take a terrier to kill them all . It is believed that both rat @-@ catchers and sportsmen began to keep certain , odd @-@ colored rats during the height of the sport , eventually breeding them and then selling them as pets . The two men thought to have formed the basis of rat fancy are Jack Black , rat @-@ catcher to Queen Victoria , and Jimmy Shaw , manager of one of the largest sporting public houses in London . These two men are responsible for beginning many of the color varieties present today . Black , specifically , was known for taming the " prettier " rats of unusual color , decorating them with ribbons , and selling them as pets . Rat fancy as a formal , organized hobby began when a woman named Mary Douglas asked for permission to bring her pet rats to an exhibition of the National Mouse Club at the Aylesbury Town Show in England on October 24 , 1901 . Her black @-@ and @-@ white hooded rat won " Best in Show " and ignited interest in the area . After Douglas ' death in 1921 , rat fancy soon began to fall back out of fashion . The original hobby formally lasted from 1912 to 1929 or 1931 , as part of the National Mouse and Rat Club , at which point Rat was dropped from the name , returning it to the original National Mouse Club . The hobby was revived in 1976 with the formation of the English National Fancy Rat Society ( NFRS ) . Pet rats are now commonly available in stores and from breeders , and there exist several rat fancier groups worldwide . = = Differences from wild rats = = While domesticated rats are not removed enough from their wild counterparts to justify a distinct subspecies ( compare Canis lupus familiaris ) , there are significant differences that set them apart ; the most apparent is coloring . Random color mutations may occur in the wild , but these are rare . Most wild R. norvegicus are a dark brown color , while fancy rats may be anything from white to cinnamon to blue . Behaviorally , domesticated pet rats are tamer than those in the wild . They are more comfortable around humans and known to seek out their owners while roaming freely . They have decreased reactions to light and sound , have less cautions to new food , and have better tolerance to overcrowding . Domesticated rats are shown to mate earlier , more readily , and for a longer period of time over their lifespan . Also , domesticated rats exhibit different behaviors when fighting with each other ; while wild rats almost always flee a lost battle , caged rats spend protracted amounts of time in a belly @-@ up or boxing position . These behavioral traits are thought to be products of environment as opposed to genetics . However , it is also theorized that there are certain underlying biological reasons for why some members of a wild species are more receptive to domestication than others , and that these differences are then passed down to offspring ( compare Domesticated silver fox ) . The body structure of domesticated rats differs from that of a wild rat as well . The body of a fancy rat is smaller , with larger ears and a longer tail than that of its undomesticated counterpart . They are generally smaller with sharper facial features as well . Domesticated rats have a longer lifespan than that of wild rats . Because domesticated rats are protected from predators and have ready access to food , water , shelter , and medical care , their average lifespan is around two to three years , in contrast to wild R. norvegicus which average a lifespan of less than one year . However , wild rats generally have larger brains , hearts , livers , kidneys , and adrenal glands than laboratory rats . The fancy rat and wild rat also both face a multitude of differing health concerns ; the former is at risk of developing a pneumococcal infection from exposure to humans , while the latter may harbor tapeworms after coming in contact with carriers like cockroaches and fleas . = = Social behavior = = Generally speaking , rats are quite sociable and function best with at least one cage mate . It is generally ill @-@ advised to keep a singular rat unless there are severe behavioral problems , such as those that can be seen in some older males . The earlier rats are introduced to one another , the better and oftentimes , rat breeders will encourage new owners to take two or more rats of the same gender from the same litter for starters . Particularly with males , there can be some fighting in the beginning , but once an alpha rat has been determined , the rats should get along well . Within two weeks to a month , the rats will most likely have adjusted and become friendlier with each other . Rats are generally very friendly to other cage mates , particularly with females . They will even sometimes help or take care of other sick rats . Generally when two or more rats from the same litter are of the same sex they live together with no disruptions but with the occasional friendly tussle and play fight . Although it is possible that rats from different litters can be integrated together , the integration process can be easy or hard . Several measures have to be taken to provide security for both rats . Techniques for integration include bringing them to neutral ground so they do not become territorial . The process of integrating is easiest with two rats of young age , generally less than six months old . The process of integrating is most difficult with two or more adult male rats , as adult males are the least likely to accept new cage mates , especially after an alpha has been established . Unless there is an issue integrating rats together , owners should always keep them in a group of at least three , as rats live in packs and a pack starts with three animals . = = Varieties = = As in other pet species , a variety of colors , coat types , and other features that do not appear in the wild have either been developed , or have appeared spontaneously . Any individual rat may be defined one or more ways by its color , coat , marking , and non @-@ standard body type . This allows for very specific classifications such as a ruby @-@ eyed cinnamon Berkshire rex Dumbo . = = = Coloring = = = While some pet rats retain the agouti coloring of the wild brown rat ( three tones on the same hair ) , others have solid colors ( a single color on each hair ) , a trait derived from the black rat . Agouti @-@ based colors include agouti , cinnamon , and fawn . Black @-@ based colors include black , beige , and chocolate . Eye color is considered a subset of coloring , and coat color definitions often include standards for the eyes , as many genes which control eye color will also affect the coat color or vice versa . The American Fancy Rat and Mouse Association ( AFRMA ) lists black , pink , ruby , and odd @-@ eyed ( two different @-@ colored eyes ) as possible eye colors , depending on the variety of rat shown . Ruby refers to eyes which at a glance appear black but which are on closer observation a deep , dark red . Color names can vary for more vaguely defined varieties , like lilac and fawn , while the interpretations of standards can fluctuate between ( and even within ) different countries or clubs . = = = Markings = = = Further dividing the varieties of fancy rats are the many different markings . Pet rats can appear in any combination of colors and markings . The markings are typically in reference to the patterns and ratios of colored hair versus white hair . Two extremes would be a self ( completely solid , non @-@ white color ) and a Himalayan ( completely white except blending into colored areas at the nose and feet , called points , as in a Himalayan cat 's markings ) . Markings have a strict standard , with detailed terminology , for showing in fancy rat pet shows . However , many domestic rats are not closely bred to any color standard ; many of those found in pet shops will have mismarkings from a formal breeding perspective , which are defined as variations in markings that are not recognized as conforming to a breed standard published by a rat fancier organisation . Commonly recognized standards include : Berkshire – colored top , white belly Hooded – color runs in a saddle , a single , unbroken line from full head down the spine and possibly partly down the tail Capped – color on full head only Blazed - Colored head ( Capped ) or body ( Irish , Berkshire or self ) , with a triangular wedge of white fur over the face . Variegated – Any form of mismatched , oddities in fur . Can be anything from broken or spotted hood or a misshaped blaze . Irish or English Irish – In England , the Irish is standardized by the NFRS as an equilateral triangle of white with a side that begins at the chest , or between the front legs , and where the point ends mid length . In the United States and elsewhere , clubs like the AFRMA distinguish this marking as the English Irish and allow for another standardized Irish in which the rat may have white of an even or symmetrical nature anywhere along its underside . Other marking varieties include spotted or Dalmatian ( named for the spotted Dalmatian dog ) , essex , masked , and Siamese ( typically a gradient of color along the body , darkest at the base of the tail and nose as in Siamese cats ) , and downunder or downunders ( an Australian variety which has a solid color stripe on the belly or a color marking there that corresponds to markings on top ) . = = = Body type = = = Two of the most prominent and standardized physical changes applied to rats through selective breeding are the development of the Manx and Dumbo . The Dumbo , whose origins are in the United States , is characterized by having large , low , round ears on the sides of its head , and was named for resemblance to the fictional Dumbo the Elephant . The Manx rat is tailless due to a genetic mutation , and was named for the Manx cat , which shares this feature , though not necessarily due to the same mutation . = = = Coat types = = = There is a relatively small variety of coats in relation to the number of colors and markings , and not all are internationally standardized . The most common type is the normal or standard , which is allowed variance in coarseness between the sexes ; males have a coarse , thick , rough coat , while females ' coats are softer and finer . Other standardized coats include : rex , in which all the hairs are curly , even the whiskers ; velveteen , a softer variation of the rex ; satin or silky coat , which is extra @-@ soft and fine , with a sheen ; and Harley , characterized by wispy long straight hairs . Remaining coat types are not defined by the hair itself , but rather by the lack of it , such as hairless rats . = = = = Hairless rats = = = = Hairless rats are a coat variety characterized by varying levels of hair loss . Hairless rats , bred from curly @-@ coated rexes , range from having areas of very short fur to being completely bare . Hairless rats are genetically produced by breeding different combinations of the genes that cause Rex coats . Since rex is a dominant trait , there only needs to be one rex parent to produce curly rex @-@ coated offspring . However , when two copies of the trait are present , by breeding two rexes together , the coat is affected differently — causing hairlessness , and earning the colloquial name , " double @-@ rex " . One subset of semi @-@ hairless rats , Patchwork rats , constantly lose hair and regrow it in different " patches " several times throughout their life . = = = Ethics of selective breeding = = = There is controversy among rat fanciers in regard to selective breeding . On one hand , breeding rats to " conform " to a specific standard or to develop a new one is a large part of what the fancy was founded on . On the other hand , the process results in many rats who do not " conform " , and are then either given away , sold as food , or killed — referred to as culling . There are concerns as to whether breeding hairless and tailless rats is ethical . The tail is vital for rats ' balance and for adjusting body temperature . Tailless rats have greater risk of heat exhaustion , poor bowel and bladder control , falling from heights , and can be at risk for life @-@ threatening deformities in the pelvic region like hind leg paralysis and megacolon . Similarly , hairless rats are less protected from scratches and the cold without their coat . Groups such as the NFRS prohibit the showing of these varieties at their events and forbid advertisement through affiliated services . = = = Availability = = = Because R. norvegicus and related species are seen as pests , their intentional import into foreign countries is often regulated . For example , the importation of foreign rodents is prohibited in Australia , and so various coat types , colors , and varieties have been bred separately from foreign lines , or are just not obtainable within that country ( for example , hairless and dumbo @-@ eared fancy rats do not exist in Australia ) . In other areas , like the Canadian province of Alberta , which is considered rat @-@ free , the ownership of domestic fancy rats outside of schools , laboratories , and zoos is illegal . = = Health = = Human @-@ raised R. norvegicus are more prone to specific health risks and diseases than their wild counterparts , but they are also far less likely to succumb to certain illnesses that are prevalent in the wild . The major considerations for susceptibility include exposure , living conditions , and diet . Rats that live their entire lives indoors usually are able to avoid disease @-@ causing bacteria such as Salmonella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ; the latter is absent in treated water . They may also more easily avoid vectors like cockroaches , beetles , and fleas which are essential for the spread of endemic typhus and intestinal parasites like the Rat tapeworm . Additionally , pet or laboratory rats enjoy the intrinsic benefits of having a consistent and well @-@ balanced diet , along with access to medical care . While living indoors decreases the risk of contracting certain diseases , living in close quarters with other rats , being unable to always seek proper protection from environmental factors ( e.g. temperature , humidity ) , being fed an unhealthy diet , and the stresses inherently associated with living in an unnatural habitat can all adversely affect a rat 's health to make them more prone to specific conditions . Specifically , Tyzzer 's disease , protozoic infections ( e.g. Giardia muris ) , and pseudotuberculosis are usually seen in stressed or young rats . Additionally , pet rats are exposed to Streptococcus pneumoniae , a zoonotic disease caught from humans , not the same bacteria associated with strep throat . A human @-@ associated fungus , Pneumocystis carinii ( also found in almost all domesticated animals ) is usually asymptomatic in the rat , unless the rat 's immune system is compromised by illness . If this occurs the infection can develop into pneumonia . Several diseases , like Rat Coronavirus Infection ( RCI ) , Sendai virus , and Murine Respiratory Mycoplasmosis ( MRM , Mycoplasma pulmonis ) , are prevalent simply because their highly contagious natures work in tandem with the way rats are kept in laboratories , pet stores , and by breeders . It should be noted , however , that MRM is far less likely to occur in laboratory rats than in those kept as pets . Pet rats can also develop pituitary tumors if they are given high @-@ calorie diets , and ringtail if they are placed in areas with low humidity or high temperatures . Staphylococcus spp. are a mostly benign group of bacteria that commonly reside on the top of the skin , but cuts and scratches from social and hierarchical fighting can open up the pathways for them to cause ulcerative dermatitis . There is some evidence that spayed female rats ( " does " ) are less likely to develop mammary and pituitary tumors than non @-@ spayed females . Research into prevention of common diseases and health issues in rats is on @-@ going . Dietary changes are among the main suggestions for improved health and longevity in fancy rats , such suggestions included are feeding rat @-@ friendly superfoods in moderation to reduce the risk of cancers , heart disease and stroke . = = = Risks to owners = = = Keeping rats as pets can come with the stigma that rats supposedly transmit dangerous diseases to their owners . One fear is that all rats carry plague , when in fact R. norvegicus is not among the list of species considered a threat . In 2004 , an outbreak of salmonella in the United States was connected to people who owned pet rats . However , it has been determined that a pet rat 's initial exposure to salmonella , along with many other zoonotic rat diseases , typically indicates exposure to wild rodent populations , either from an infestation in the owner 's home , or from the pet 's contaminated food , water , or bedding . Another risk to rat owners is Rat @-@ bite fever . This is a rare disease among domesticated rats and is most often found in rats from large chain pet stores who breed their stock of rats in masses ( usually with the intention of being snake food rather than pets ) or from breeders who fail to take good care of their rats . This disease is fairly unnoticeable in the rat , but is characterized by the swelling of the site of the bite or scratch where it was contracted , a fever , vomiting and body aches . It is contracted by being bitten or scratched by an infected rat . = = Fiction = = In fiction , pet brown rats are often depicted as tamed rather than domesticated , akin to when a character befriends a wolf . As tamed pets , they have been portrayed in roles that vary from evil to ambiguous to lovable . Samantha Martin , a professional animal trainer for films , commercials , and music videos , has claimed that rats are one of the easiest animals to train due to their adaptability , intelligence , and focus . The short novel Ratman 's Notebooks by Stephen Gilbert was the basis for the films Willard ( 1971 ) and Ben ( 1972 ) , and a 2003 remake of the first film . Here , the protagonist befriends the rats found in his home and builds up a close relationship , only to have it end tragically . While these movies generally emphasize the popular perception of malevolence — they kill people , cats , and ransack grocery stores — other wild rats who become pets are portrayed in more neutral to positive ways ; the television show , House , briefly featured " Steve McQueen " , the pet rat of the titular character . In many versions of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise , the master and adoptive father of the turtles is Splinter , who was once the pet rat of ninja Hamato Yoshi and learned his martial arts skills by imitating his owner . In the 1996 point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game Phantasmagoria : A Puzzle of Flesh , the protagonist Curtis Craig owns a pet rat named Blob , which is seen various times in the game and is even involved in one of the many puzzles that the player must decipher . = = = Organisations = = = American Fancy Rat and Mouse Association ( USA ) ( AFRMA ) The National Fancy Rat Society ( UK ) ( NFRS ) Rat and Mouse Club of America ( USA ) ( RMCA ) The Midlands Rat Club ( UK ) ( MRC ) Rat Club ( NZ ) ( RC )
= Mauritania at the 2012 Summer Olympics = Mauritania competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , which was held from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . The country 's participation at London marked its eighth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics . The delegation included two track and field athletes , Jidou El Moctar and Aicha Fall , who were selected to the team by wildcard places , as the nation had no athletes that met either the " A " or " B " qualifying standards . Moctar was selected as flag bearer for the opening ceremony while a LOCOG Games Maker carried it for the closing ceremony . Neither of the two athletes progressed beyond the heats . = = Background = = Mauritania participated in eight Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , United States and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . Mauritania would participate in the Summer Olympics from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . The Mauritania National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) selected two athletes via wildcards . Usually , an NOC would be able to enter up to 3 qualified athletes in each individual event as long as each athlete met the " A " standard , or 1 athlete per event if they met the " B " standard . However , since Mauritania had no athletes that met either standard , they were allowed to select two athletes , one of each gender , as wildcards . The two athletes that were selected to compete in the London games were Jidou El Moctar , in the Men 's 200 meters and Aicha Fall in the Women 's 800 meters . Moctar was flag bearer for the opening ceremony and a LOCOG Games Maker held it for the closing ceremony . = = Athletics = = Making his Summer Olympics debut , Jidou El Moctar was notable for carrying the Mauritania flag at the opening ceremony . He qualified for the Summer Olympics via a wildcard , as his best time , 23 @.@ 16 seconds , was 2 @.@ 51 seconds slower than the " B " qualifying standard for his event , the 200 meters . He competed on 7 August in Heat 1 against seven other athletes . He ran a time of 22 @.@ 94 seconds , finishing last but achieving a personal best time . Kazakhstan 's Vyacheslav Muravyev ranked ahead of him with a time of 21 @.@ 75 seconds in a heat led by eventual gold medalist of the event , Jamaica 's Usain Bolt ( 20 @.@ 39 seconds ) . Overall , Moctar ranked 53rd out of 55 athletes competing and was 2 @.@ 31 seconds behind the slowest athlete that progressed to the semi @-@ finals . Therefore , that was the end of his competition . Competing at her first Summer Olympics , Aicha Fall qualified for the London Games as a wildcard , as she had set no time for her event , the 800 meters . She was to compete in the 2012 World Junior Championships in Athletics 800 meters but did not start the event . She competed on August 8 in Heat 5 against seven other athletes . She posted a time of 2 minutes and 27 @.@ 97 seconds , finishing sixth and setting a national record in the process . She placed ahead of Palestine 's Woroud Sawalha ( 2 minutes and 29 @.@ 16 seconds ) and behind Canada 's Melissa Bishop ( 2 minutes and 09 @.@ 33 seconds ) in a heat led by Ukraine 's Nataliia Lupu ( 2 minutes and 8 @.@ 35 seconds ) . Overall , Fall was 24 @.@ 12 seconds behind the slowest athlete that progressed to the semi @-@ finals and therefore did not advance . Key Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only Q = Qualified for the next round q = Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target NR = National record N / A = Round not applicable for the event Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round Men Women
= The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II = The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II is a real @-@ time strategy video game developed and published by Electronic Arts . It is based on the fantasy novels The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien and its live @-@ action film trilogy adaptation . It is the sequel to Electronic Arts ' 2004 title The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth . The Windows version of the game was released on March 2 , 2006 and the Xbox 360 version was released on July 5 , 2006 . Along with the standard edition , a Collector 's Edition of the game was released , containing bonus material and a documentary about the game 's development . The online servers were shut down for Windows in 2010 and Xbox 360 in 2011 , however Windows users may still play online using Virtual Private Network programs . The story for The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II is divided into Good and Evil Campaigns . The Good Campaign focuses on Glorfindel , an Elf who is alerted to a planned attack on the Elven sanctuary of Rivendell . With help from the Dwarves and other Good forces , the Elves attempt to eliminate Sauron and his army to restore peace in Middle @-@ earth . In the Evil Campaign , Sauron sends the Mouth of Sauron and the Nazgûl to muster wild Goblins . With his army , Sauron moves forward with his plan to destroy the remaining Good forces in the North . The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II received generally favorable reviews from video game critics . Reviews praised the game 's integration of the Lord of the Rings universe into a real @-@ time strategy title , while criticism targeted the game 's unbalanced multiplayer mode . The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II received numerous awards , including the Editors ' Choice Award from IGN . At the end of March 2006 , The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II reached fourth in a list of the month 's best @-@ selling PC games . A Windows expansion pack for the game was released on November 28 , 2006 , called The Rise of the Witch @-@ king , which features a new faction known as Angmar , new units , and several gameplay improvements . = = Gameplay = = The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II is a real @-@ time strategy game . Similar to its predecessor , the game requires that the player build a base with structures to produce units , gather resources , research upgrades , and provide defenses . Units are used to attack the enemy and defend the player 's base . Players win matches by eliminating all enemy unit producing structures . Unlike the first game , the player can build an unlimited number of structures anywhere on the map , allowing for more freedom in base building and unit production . Players can build walls to defend their base ; however , the walls can only be constructed within a certain proximity to the players fortress . They can also construct arrow and catapult towers on building plots around a fortress to provide defensive support and basic protection . Along with this , each factions ' fortress is uniquely equipped with a special power reached only by purchasing necessary upgrades . The game 's HUD , called the Palantír , shows the player 's hero units and their abilities , a mini @-@ map , and objectives . Units are classified into one of several classes : infantry , ranged , pikemen , cavalry , or siege . Each unit class has unique strengths and weaknesses , emphasizing the importance of properly matching up units in battle to increase their effectiveness . Hero units are unique in that only one of each can be created ; they consist of characters from the novel , such as Aragorn , Legolas , Gimli , Saruman , Nazgûl , Mouth of Sauron , Arwen and Shelob , or are created via the game 's Hero Creator ( only accessible via the PC version ) . If the player kills Gollum , a non @-@ player character , they are rewarded with the One Ring . The item can be used to summon one of two ring heroes for a price of 10 @,@ 000 resources , Galadriel and Sauron , depending on the player 's faction . Ring heroes have extremely strong armor and powerful attacks , making them among the game 's most over @-@ powered units . The War of the Ring mode carried over from the first game in the series combines turn @-@ based strategy elements with real @-@ time skirmishes . Middle @-@ earth is divided into territories ; players can construct buildings to produce troops only in a claimed territory . During each turn , the player can move their armies into neutral and enemy territories to take control of them . While neutral territories are conquered by simply entering them , enemy territories must be wrested from the other player by defeating them in a skirmish . Troops can be garrisoned in conquered territories to defend against enemy attacks . When the player chooses to attack another territory , or one of their territories is being invaded by an enemy , they can either simulate the match and let the computer determine the outcome , or play the match by commanding the units in real time . The winner of the skirmish gains the territory , and all surviving units gain experience points . To win the game , players must either control the enemy 's capital territory , or take over a given number of territories in Middle @-@ earth . The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II introduces three new factions with unique units and heroes : Goblins , Dwarves , and Elves . Rohan and Gondor are combined into one faction called Men of the West . Along with Mordor and Isengard from the first game , there are six playable factions . The troops of Gondor provide a solid offense and defense with standard infantry and archers , and the Rohirrim of Rohan act as elite cavalry . The Elven archers are effective at inflicting damage from a distance , and their support units , the Ents , can perform a combination of melee and siege attacks , they are often considered the strongest defensive faction due to their strong missile units and powerful ' silverthorn arrows ' . Although slow and expensive , Dwarven infantry , pikemen , and axe @-@ throwers are very powerful and well @-@ armored allowing them to prevail in even the longest clashes with enemy troops . A collection of wild creatures and beasts of Middle @-@ earth make up the Goblin faction , this includes goblins , trolls , spiders , and dragons , which are effective in large numbers . Their only advantage is that the goblin archer and soldier units are cheap to make at only 75 resources and build faster than other basic infantry . Isengard troops are highly trained Uruk @-@ hai under Saruman 's command . Berserkers are used by Isengard as one @-@ man armies that move extremely fast and deal significant damage ( particularly to enemy buildings and heroes ) . Additionally , Isengard is the only Evil faction that can build walls . Mordor forces are a mixture of Orcs , Men , Trolls , Mumakil , and Sauron 's lieutenants . Mordor Orcs have tough armor , making them useful for absorbing enemy damage while stronger units attack enemies . Trolls contribute greatly to the Mordor offensives , having strong melee attacks and the ability to throw boulders or wield trees like swords . = = Plot = = Set in the regions of northern Middle @-@ earth , the game focuses on the events of the War in the North . For the sake of gameplay , the game takes several liberties with Tolkien 's works and the film trilogy . Some characters were altered in their appearances , abilities , and roles ; for instance , a combat role in the game is given to Tom Bombadil , a merry and mysterious hermit who appears in The Lord of the Rings but does not take part in the war . In addition , Tolkien 's earlier novel The Hobbit lends several elements to the game , including characters such as the Giant Spiders from Mirkwood . The story for The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II is divided into Good and Evil Campaigns . Both campaigns focus on the battles fought by the newly introduced factions : the Elves , Dwarves , and Goblins . The player goes through nine fixed missions in either easy , medium , or hard difficulty mode . Narrated cut scenes provide plot exposition between missions . The Evil Campaign follows an alternative version of the War in the North . Sauron sends the Mouth of Sauron and the Nazgûl to the North to muster wild Goblins . His lieutenants lead the Goblin army and launch an assault on the Elven forest of Lórien . Despite heavy resistance , the forest is overrun , with Celeborn slain and Galadriel having fled to Rivendell ; even Caras Galadhon collapses under the sheer force of the massive invasion . The Mouth peers eagerly into the captured Mirror of Galadriel for his next attack , as his Goblins celebrate their triumph over the Elves amidst the ruins of the once @-@ mighty ancient stronghold . Another group of Goblins , led by the Goblin King Gorkil , attacks the Grey Havens by land and sea . The Elven port is destroyed and captured , and the march across Eriador begins ; Hobbits of the Shire are chosen as the next target . Gorkil 's horde manages to crush the Hobbits and burn their country to the ground , but Saruman 's servant Gríma Wormtongue , suddenly appears with a large army of Isengard Uruks and claims the land for his master . The Goblins annihilate the well @-@ trained army and kill Wormtongue , taking the Shire for themselves . Gorkil continues marching west and besieges Fornost , the fortified ruins of the ancient capitol of Arnor . The defenders , consisting of the Dúnedain and Dwarves led by Glóin , crumble under the relentless Goblin attacks , and Eriador falls under Goblin control . Sauron launches a concurrent campaign east of the Misty Mountains . The orcs from Dol Guldur eliminate the Elves and the Ents that guard the Forest Road in Mirkwood , defeating the Elven lord Thranduil . After the fall of Mirkwood , the Mouth of Sauron leads his horde to Withered Heath to recruit the Dragon Lord Drogoth , after destroying the Dwarves in the area . To finally rid Sauron and Middle Earth of the Dwarves , The Mouth of Sauron attacks the human city of Dale and the Dwarven stronghold of Erebor , led by King Dain . For the final battle against the Good factions in the North , the Goblin horde and Sauron 's forces from Mordor converge at Rivendell , the last surviving stronghold against Sauron in Middle @-@ earth . Eagles , the Dead Men of Dunharrow , Galadriel and her surviving Elves , and the remnants of the Fellowship of the Ring arrive to help Arwen and Elrond , but Sauron ( having attained full power through recovering the One Ring from the dead Frodo ) and all his gathered forces enter the battle and completely destroy the remaining Good forces in the North . The Good Campaign opens after the Fellowship of the Ring has set out on their mission to unmake the One Ring of Power , with Elrond and Glóin planning the War in the North . The Elven hero Glorfindel discovers an impending attack on the Elven sanctuary of Rivendell . Thanks to the early warning , Elrond 's forces in Rivendell manage to repel the Goblins ' attacks . Following the battle , Elrond realizes that the Elves and Dwarves must join forces to purge the threat of Sauron 's forces in the North . The next battle takes place in the Goblin capital of Ettenmoors , where the Goblin fortress is destroyed , and Gorkil the Goblin King is killed . After their victory , the heroes are informed that the Goblins , on Sauron 's command , enlisted the service of a Dragon named Drogoth who is laying waste to the Dwarves of the Blue Mountains . The heroes make their way to the Blue Mountains and help the Dwarven army defeat Drogoth and his Goblins . The Grey Havens , an Elven port on the western shores , is attacked by the Corsairs of Umbar , allies of Sauron . The Dwarves , who have been reluctant to ally with the Elves , eventually decide to come to the aid of the Grey Havens . With the Goblins defeated and all of Eriador pacified , the Dwarven @-@ Elven alliance is tested by Sauron 's forces . Mordor 's overwhelming forces besiege the Lake Town of Esgaroth and the Dwarven city of Erebor . The Dwarven king Dáin leads a small group of Dwarves and men of Dale to defend their homeland and manage to eliminate the Mordor presence in Esgaroth but are forced to retreat back to Erebor to defend themselves against an overwhelming army led by the Mouth of Sauron . After a long battle against the Mouth of Sauron 's army , Elven reinforcements from Mirkwood led by the Elven king Thranduil arrive and save the Dwarves , defeating the Mouth of Sauron and his army . Elrond leads the first attack , but later , Thranduil , Glorfindel , Glóin , Arwen , and King Dáin all unite under the Dwarven @-@ Elven alliance for a final battle in Dol Guldur , the stronghold of Sauron in Mirkwood , aided by the Ents and Eagles . The Good forces and its three combined armies overcome the defenses and destroy the fortress , eliminating the last threat in the North . = = Development = = Tolkien Enterprises granted the publisher of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II , Electronic Arts , the rights to develop The Lord of the Games video games based on The Lord of the Rings books on July 22 , 2005 . This agreement was complementary to a separate arrangement made between the two companies in 2001 . That agreement gave Electronic Arts the rights to build video games based on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy . The new deal gives Electronic Arts the opportunity to create video games with original stories tied closely with the Lord of the Rings universe . In the same announcement , Electronic Arts revealed two games that its EA Los Angeles division would be developing with the license : The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II for Windows — a sequel to The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth — and The Lord of the Rings : Tactics for the PlayStation Portable . On November 10 , 2005 , Electronic Arts announced that Hugo Weaving , who played Elrond in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy , would reprise his role as Elrond and be the lead voiceover talent in The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II . During his voiceover session , he noted , " I always find voice work really fascinating because you are working on one element of your make up as an actor — focusing more intently on one part of your toolbox if you like — in a way so everything seems to go into producing that vocal effect . It really isn ’ t just an effect , because it actually comes from a source which is a true continuation of that character . " On January 13 , 2006 , Electronic Arts reported that an Xbox 360 version of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II was under development , and it was promised to feature a " unique and intuitive control scheme " developed by video game designer Louis Castle , co @-@ founder of the real @-@ time strategy developer Westwood Studios . Players would be able to play online via the Xbox Live service . Castle was excited to port the game to a console , stating , " Living these cinematic battles in high @-@ definition with stunning surround sound , all from the comfort of your living room couch on the Xbox 360 , is an extraordinary experience . [ ... ] Adding the ability to battle it out with friends via Xbox Live is also really exciting . " The game 's water effects received substantial upgrades because of the large role naval battles play in The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II . The developers endeavored to make the surface of oceans and lakes look realistic by using techniques similar to those applied in films when creating computer @-@ generated ocean water . The digital water simulates deep ocean water by reflecting its surroundings on the surface , and wave technology was used to create large waves along coastlines to immerse the player in the game experience . Lost towns , corals , and fish were added underwater to add to the effect . Water was chosen as the first graphical component of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II to take advantage of DirectX 9 programmable shaders . These additions were part of an overall Electronic Arts strategy to continue the Lord of the Rings experience that began with the trilogy film series . As cinematic director of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II , Richard Taylor was responsible for designing the game 's opening and closing sequences , as well as campaign and mission introductions and endings . As the first Electronic Arts video game to be given free rein on material from The Lord of the Rings universe , several lands , characters , and creatures from the books appear visually for the first time in the game 's cut scenes . Taylor considered it essential to use good graphical and audio combinations when telling a story , and he was pleased to have Weaving on the project as the primary storyteller . = = Release = = The game was released by Electronic Arts on March 2 , 2006 for Windows and July 5 , 2006 for Xbox 360 . Electronic Arts released a Collector 's Edition that includes a bonus DVD with supplemental high @-@ definition media such as the full original music score ; in @-@ game cinematics and trailers ; the documentary The Making of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II ; and The Art of the Game , a gallery featuring hundreds of cinematic paintings and concept art created for the game . It was given generally favorable reviews , receiving an aggregated score of 84 % at Metacritic for its Windows version . Praise focused on its successful integration of the Lord of the Rings franchise with the real @-@ time strategy genre , while criticism targeted the game 's unbalanced multiplayer mode . The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II was given the Editor 's Choice Award from IGN . At the end of its debut month of March 2006 , The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II reached fourth in a list of the month 's best @-@ selling PC games , while the Collector 's Edition peaked at eighth place . In the second month after the game 's release , The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II was the 12th best @-@ selling PC game , despite a 10 % slump in overall game sales for that month . After playing the game , PC Gamer found little fault with it , calling it a very well @-@ balanced game overall . The magazine also was pleased that the game 's " production values [ were ] sky @-@ high " , with which GamesRadar agreed , explaining , " It 's not often you come across an RTS with production values this high ; every part seems to be polished till it shines . " When compared to its predecessor , The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth , GamePro was convinced The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II had improved upon the original in several fundamental ways . GameSpot believed that The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II offered better gameplay and a much broader scope that encompassed more of Middle @-@ earth . Several critics praised the game 's real @-@ time strategy elements and graphics . IGN considered the high quality of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II proof that Electronic Arts was truly interested in building great real @-@ time strategy games . Despite a few minor issues , GameZone was happy with the gameplay of The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II , believing that the game did a good job of enabling the player to experience the turmoil of the fantasy world . They also admired the game 's conversion for the Xbox 360 version , calling it " one of the best PC @-@ to @-@ console conversions " and praising the developers for a " commendable job of assigning actions to the 360 controller ’ s eight buttons " . The graphics were appreciated by ActionTrip , which found it " really hard not to drool over this game " , commending the game 's design and art team for doing a fabulous job on every location that appeared in the single @-@ player campaign . Playing within the universe of The Lord of the Rings was appealing to a number of reviewers , which found that it generally increased the game 's entertainment value . PC Gamer shared this sentiment , calling Lord of the Rings " arguably the best fantasy universe ever " , and GameZone asked the question , " What self @-@ respecting Tolkien fan can be without this title ? " The results also pleased 1UP.com , which was convinced that fans of The Lord of the Rings could not afford to miss purchasing the game . Game Revolution complimented the game 's merge with the Lord of the Rings universe , observing that the franchise 's mythology and the game 's frenetic battles came together in a very satisfying bundle . The integration of The Lord of the Rings into a video game satisfied Game Informer , and the magazine predicted the game would be " another winner for Electronic Arts " . Despite positive reactions , reviewers brought up several issues with the game . The British video game publication PC Gamer UK was unhappy with the game , claiming that Electronic Arts chose to release a formulaic game because it was a safer choice than taking The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II in another direction . PC Zone agreed with this view , claiming that although the game looked impressive , it took a by @-@ the @-@ numbers approach towards the real @-@ time strategy genre in a " mindless sort of way " , concluding that " in no way is it anywhere near the game we hoped for . " The game 's multiplayer portion disappointed GameSpy , which found it too unbalanced compared to the heroes , whom they considered to be too strong . Eurogamer considered the game to be of average quality , noting that there were no truly redeeming qualities . Electronic Arts announced on July 27 , 2006 that its EA Los Angeles studio would be releasing an expansion pack to The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II titled The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II : The Rise of the Witch @-@ king . It was slated for release during the 2006 holiday season . The game , produced by Amir Rahimi , promised players the opportunity to fight in wars that precedes the events of the Lord of the Rings novels . The Rise of the Witch @-@ king adds a new single @-@ player campaign , new units , a new faction , and improved features . Its story follows the Witch @-@ king of Angmar 's " ascent to power , his domination of Angmar , and eventual invasion of Arnor , Aragorn 's ancestral home " . The game was sent to manufacturers on November 15 , 2006 , and was released on November 28 . On January 9 , 2011 , Electronic Arts announced that the online game servers would be shut down on January 11 , 2011 for the Xbox 360 format of the game . The PC version of the game was shut down on December 31 , 2010 . Electronic Arts noted that their discontinuation of support for the game was partly because the licensing deal with New Line Cinema ( holders of the Lord of the Rings license ) had expired , which led them to no other option than to shut down all online services for the game .
= Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets = Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is the second novel in the Harry Potter series , written by J. K. Rowling . The plot follows Harry 's second year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry , during which a series of messages on the walls of the school 's corridors warn that the " Chamber of Secrets " has been opened and that the " heir of Slytherin " would kill all pupils who do not come from all @-@ magical families . These threats are found after attacks which leave residents of the school " petrified " ( frozen like stone ) . Throughout the year , Harry and his friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger investigate the attacks . The book was published in the United Kingdom on 2 July 1998 by Bloomsbury and in the United States on 2 June 1999 by Scholastic Inc . Although Rowling found it difficult to finish the book , it won high praise and awards from critics , young readers and the book industry , although some critics thought the story was perhaps too frightening for younger children . Much like with other novels in the series , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets triggered religious debates ; some religious authorities have condemned its use of magical themes , while others have praised its emphasis on self @-@ sacrifice and on the way in which a person 's character is the result of the person 's choices . Several commentators have noted that personal identity is a strong theme in the book , and that it addresses issues of racism through the treatment of non @-@ magical , non @-@ human and non @-@ living characters . Some commentators regard the diary as a warning against uncritical acceptance of information from sources whose motives and reliability cannot be checked . Institutional authority is portrayed as self @-@ serving and incompetent . The book is also known to have some connections to the sixth novel of the series , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince . The film adaptation of the novel , released in 2002 , became ( at that time ) the seventh highest grossing film ever and received generally favourable reviews . Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets were also released for several platforms , and most obtained favourable reviews . = = Plot = = While the Dursley family--his uncle Vernon , aunt Petunia , and cousin Dudley--entertain a potential client for Vernon ’ s drill @-@ manufacturing company Grunnings , Harry Potter reminisces upon the events of the previous year , including his enrollment in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and confrontation with Lord Voldemort ( the Dark wizard whose reign seemingly ended when he killed Harry ’ s parents and attempted but failed to kill Harry himself ) , and laments the fact that the best friends he made at the institution have not written to him , even for his birthday , on which the novel opens . Just as Harry is starting to anticipate his return to Hogwarts School , an impish house @-@ elf named Dobby arrives out of nowhere to warn Harry against the decision to return to the wizarding world , citing grave danger as the reason and inciting Harry ’ s gravest punishment yet when he smashes a dessert crafted by Petunia for the dinner party and frames it on Harry himself . Ron Weasley arrives with his twin brothers Fred and George to perform a jailbreak in their father Arthur ’ s enchanted Ford Anglia and to deposit him at their family home the Burrow for the remainder of his holidays . Harry and the rest of the Weasleys--mother Molly , third eldest son Percy , and daughter Ginny--travel to Diagon Alley , where they are reunited with Hermione Granger and introduced to Lucius Malfoy , father of Harry ’ s school nemesis Draco , and Gilderoy Lockhart , a conceited autobiographer who has been appointed Defense Against the Dark Arts professor . As Harry and Ron plan to depart with the rest for Hogwarts School , the barrier within King ’ s Cross station that separates Muggles from wizards refuses to allow them passage , forcing them to fly Arthur ’ s car to the school , where they crash into a sentient willow tree on the grounds . The crash lands them in hot water with headmaster Albus Dumbledore and Minerva McGonagall , Head of Gryffindor House and the Transfiguration professor , who doesn ’ t expel them in spite of the clear breach of magical law but does assign them to detentions : Ron must clean the school trophies in the trophy room , and Harry must help the lunatic Professor Lockhart with addressing his fan mail . Lockhart ’ s classes turn out to be as obsessed with the man as he is with himself , as proven by a “ hands @-@ on ” training experience with a pack of destructive pixies ( small , bluish creatures that exist to cause mayhem ) , and Harry learns that prejudice exists in the wizarding world by the way of blood status : Those with “ pure ” blood ( only wizarding heritage ) have the advantage over and condescend to those with Muggle parentage . Harry also begins hearing an unnerving voice ( one only he can hear ) seemingly coming from the walls of the school itself , and during a “ death @-@ day party ” for the Gryffindor ghost , the trio happens upon a petrified Mrs. Norris , the cat belonging to school caretaker Argus Filch , and a warning scrawled across one of the walls : “ The chamber has been opened . Enemies of the heir , beware . ” Rumours fly around the school regarding the history of the Chamber of Secrets , and for Harry and his friends , the answer comes by way of Cuthbert Binns , the ghostly professor of History of Magic : The Chamber of Secrets , which houses a terrible monster , was created by one of the school ’ s founders , Salazar Slytherin , after a fundamental disenfranchisement with the others ( Godric Gryffindor , Helga Hufflepuff , and Rowena Ravenclaw ) , believing that students of non @-@ magical parentage should be refused entry to the school . When a Bludger , one of the balls involved in Quidditch , chases after Harry instead of zigzagging toward any player it can hit , breaking his arm , Dobby returns in the middle of the night to visit Harry in the hospital wing , revealing that it was he who charmed the Bludger and sealed the gateway at King ’ s Cross and that the Chamber of Secrets had been opened before . Another attack occurs , this time to a first @-@ year Gryffindor named Colin Creevey who idolizes Harry , and the school enters panic mode , setting up a dueling class for the students ( led by Lockhart and Potions master / Head of Slytherin House Severus Snape ) , during which it is revealed that Harry can speak to snakes . This sparks the rumour mill yet again , as students around the school suspect Harry of being the Heir of Slytherin , and circumstantial evidence to support this theory arrives in the form of another attack , this time on Hufflepuff second @-@ year Justin Finch Fletchley and the Gryffindor ghost . Harry , Ron , and Hermione begin to suspect that Draco is behind the attacks , given his family history of remaining well within Slytherin ranks and open hostility toward Muggle @-@ born students , and so Hermione concocts Polyjuice potion , which allows them to become Draco ’ s boorish lackeys , Vincent Crabbe and Gregory Goyle , for an hour to interrogate him . This comes to nothing , as Draco ’ s father only told his son the general facts of the previous opening of the Chamber and that it occurred fifty years previously . Meanwhile , Myrtle Warren , an existentially mopey ghost that haunts a bathroom , unwittingly provides a new clue in the form of a diary deposited in her stall — a diary , moreover , that belonged to Tom Riddle , a student who knows all too well about the Chamber , having been witness to a fellow student ’ s death fifty years ago . The culprit , he reveals to Harry , was none other than Rubeus Hagrid , now gamekeeper for Hogwarts School ; when Hermione is attacked next , alongside a Ravenclaw prefect , the school is put on lockdown , and Dumbledore and Hagrid are forced to leave the premises . Fortunately for Harry and Ron , Hagrid left a set of instructions : to follow the spiders currently fleeing into the Forbidden Forest , which they do , only to find the monster blamed for the attacks fifty years before , a massive spider named Aragog , who explains to the duo that the real monster is one that spiders fear above all others . Hermione provides the last set of clues that inform them of the monster ’ s identity : It is a basilisk , which is a giant serpent ( hence Harry ’ s ability to understand it ) that kills with a stare ( although no one is dead because of various devices through which they indirectly saw the monster ) and which spiders ( such as Aragog and his offspring ) fear above all others . Harry figures out from hints Aragog dropped that a student who died during the previous attacks is Myrtle , and when Ginny is apparently taken by the monster into the Chamber , they discover that the entrance is in the bathroom they ’ ve been using to make Polyjuice Potion . Harry , Ron , and Lockhart enter the Chamber , but the dunderheaded professor ( who reveals that he ’ s a fraud ) causes a rockfall upon attempt to modify the boys ’ memories with Ron ’ s damaged wand , and Harry must enter alone . He arrives to find Ginny in a weakened state being watched over by a shadowy , ghostly Riddle , who explains that he is the boy who will become Voldemort in the future before setting the basilisk upon Harry ; Harry defeats the monster and destroys the diary , which makes Riddle disappear . Harry , Ron , Ginny , and Lockhart return to the main castle and reunite with McGonagall , Dumbledore , and Mr. and Mrs. Weasley . Ginny , whose entrancement by Voldemort caused all of the petrification and troubles over the course of the year , is given a reprieve by Dumbledore , who reasons that greater wizards have been duped by Voldemort before and takes great interest in the qualities of the diary , which Harry gives to him . Lucius Malfoy bursts in after this meeting , demanding to know why and how Dumbledore has returned to the school and accompanied by Dobby , revealing the family to whom he is enslaved . The house @-@ elf also provides Harry with unspoken cues regarding the diary ’ s ownership : While it was Tom Riddle ’ s , it had been in the Malfoys ’ possession , and Harry returns it , devising a scenario involving his own sock that frees Dobby from the Malfoys ’ employment . The petrified students are cured , the end @-@ of @-@ year exams are cancelled ( much to Hermione ’ s chagrin ) , Hagrid comes back in the middle of the final feast , and Harry returns to Privet Drive in higher spirits than he last left it . = = Publication and reception = = = = = Development = = = Rowling found it difficult to finish Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets because she was afraid it would not live up to the expectations raised by Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the U.S. ) . After delivering the manuscript to Bloomsbury on schedule , she took it back for six weeks of revision . In early drafts of the book , the ghost Nearly Headless Nick sang a self @-@ composed song explaining his condition and the circumstances of his death . This was cut as the book 's editor did not care for the poem , which has been subsequently published as an extra on J. K. Rowling 's official website . The family background of Dean Thomas was removed because Rowling and her publishers considered it an " unnecessary digression " , and she considered Neville Longbottom 's own journey of discovery " more important to the central plot " . = = = Publication = = = Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999 . It immediately took first place in UK best @-@ seller lists , displacing popular authors such as John Grisham , Tom Clancy , and Terry Pratchett , and making Rowling the first author to win the British Book Awards Children 's Book of the Year for two years in succession . In June 1999 , it went straight to the top of three US best @-@ seller lists , including The New York Times ' . First edition printings had several errors , which were fixed in subsequent reprints . Initially Dumbledore said that Voldemort was the last remaining ancestor of Salazar Slytherin , instead of his descendant . Gilderoy Lockhart 's book on werewolves is entitled Weekends with Werewolves at one point and Wanderings with Werewolves later in the book . = = = Critical response = = = " Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets " was met with near universal acclaim . In The Times , Deborah Loudon described Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as a children 's book that would be " re @-@ read into adulthood " and highlighted its " strong plots , engaging characters , excellent jokes and a moral message which flows naturally from the story " . Fantasy author Charles de Lint agreed , and considered the second Harry Potter book as good as Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , a rare achievement among series of books . Thomas Wagner regarded the plot as very similar to that of the first book , based on searching for a secret hidden under the school . However , he enjoyed the parody of celebrities and their fans that centres round Gilderoy Lockhart , and approved of the book 's handling of racism . Tammy Nezol found the book more disturbing than its predecessor , particularly in the rash behaviour of Harry and his friends after Harry withholds information from Dumbledore , and in the human @-@ like behaviour of the mandrakes used to make a potion that cures petrification . Nevertheless , she considered the second story as enjoyable as the first . Mary Stuart thought the final conflict with Tom Riddle in the Chamber was almost as scary as in some of Stephen King 's works , and perhaps too strong for young or timid children . She commented that " there are enough surprises and imaginative details thrown in as would normally fill five lesser books . " Like other reviewers , she thought the book would give pleasure to both children and adult readers . According to Philip Nel , the early reviews gave unalloyed praise while the later ones included some criticisms , although they still agreed that the book was outstanding . Writing after all seven books had been published , Graeme Davis regarded Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as the weakest of the series , and agreed that the plot structure is much the same as in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . He described Fawkes 's appearance to arm Harry and then to heal him as a deus ex machina : he said that the book does not explain how Fawkes knew where to find Harry ; and Fawkes 's timing had to be very precise , as arriving earlier would probably have prevented the battle with the basilisk , while arriving later would have been fatal to Harry and Ginny . = = = Awards and honours = = = Rowling 's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was the recipient of several awards . The American Library Association listed the novel among its 2000 Notable Children 's Books , as well as its Best Books for Young Adults . In 1999 , Booklist named Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as one of its Editors ' Choices , and as one of its Top Ten Fantasy Novels for Youth . The Cooperative Children 's Book center made the novel a CCBC Choice of 2000 in the " Fiction for Children " category . The novel also won Children 's Book of the Year British Book Award , and was shortlisted for the 1998 Guardian Children 's Award and the 1998 Carnegie Award . Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize 1998 Gold Medal in the 9 – 11 years division . Rowling also won two other Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban . The Scottish Arts Council awarded their first ever Children ’ s Book Award to the novel in 1999 , and it was also awarded Whitaker 's Platinum Book Award in 2001 . In 2003 , the novel was listed at number 23 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read . = = Themes = = Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets continues the examination of what makes a person who he or she is , which began in the first book . As well as maintaining that Harry 's identity is shaped by his decisions rather than any aspect of his birth , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets provides contrasting characters who try to conceal their true personalities : as Tammy Nezol puts it , Gilderoy Lockhart " lacks any real identity " because he is nothing more than a charming liar . Riddle also complicates Harry 's struggle to understand himself by pointing out the similarities between the two : " both half @-@ bloods , orphans raised by Muggles , probably the only two Parselmouths to come to Hogwarts since the great Slytherin . " Opposition to class , death and its impacts , experiencing adolescence , sacrifice , love , friendship , loyalty , prejudice , and racism are constant themes of the series . In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Harry 's consideration and respect for others extends to the lowly , non @-@ human Dobby and the ghost Nearly Headless Nick . According to Marguerite Krause , achievements in the novel depend more on ingenuity and hard work than on natural talents . Edward Duffy , an associate professor at Marquette University , says that one of the central characters of Chamber of Secrets is a book , Tom Riddle 's enchanted diary , which takes control of Ginny Weasley – just as Riddle planned . Duffy suggests that Rowling intended this as a warning against passively consuming information from sources that have their own agendas . Although Bronwyn Williams and Amy Zenger regard the diary as more like an instant messaging or chat room system , they agree about the dangers of relying too much on the written word , which can camouflage the author , and they highlight a comical example , Lockhart 's self @-@ promoting books . Immorality and the portrayal of authority as negative are significant themes in the novel . Marguerite Krause states that there are few absolute moral rules in Harry Potter 's world , for example Harry prefers to tell the truth , but lies whenever he considers it necessary – very like his enemy Draco Malfoy . At the end of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , Dumbledore retracts his promise to punish Harry , Ron , and Hermione if they break any more school rules – after Professor McGonagall estimates that they have broken over 100 – and lavishly rewards them for ending the threat from the Chamber of Secrets . Krause further states that authority figures and political institutions receive little respect from Rowling . William MacNeil of Griffith University , Queensland , Australia states that the Minister for Magic is presented as a mediocrity . In his article " Harry Potter and the Secular City " , Ken Jacobson suggests that the Ministry as a whole is portrayed as a tangle of bureaucratic empires , saying that " Ministry officials busy themselves with minutiae ( e.g. standardising cauldron thicknesses ) and coin politically correct euphemisms like ' non @-@ magical community ' ( for Muggles ) and ' memory modification ' ( for magical brainwashing ) . " This novel implies that it begins in 1992 : the cake for Nearly @-@ Headless Nick 's 500th deathday party bears the words " Sir Nicholas De Mimsy Porpington died 31 October 1492 " . = = = Connection to Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince = = = Chamber of Secrets has many links with the sixth book of the series , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince . In fact , Half @-@ Blood Prince was the working title of Chamber of Secrets and Rowling says she originally intended to present some " crucial pieces of information " in the second book , but ultimately felt that " this information 's proper home was book six " . Some objects that play significant roles in Half @-@ Blood Prince first appear in Chamber of Secrets : the Hand of Glory and the opal necklace that are on sale in Borgin and Burkes ; a Vanishing Cabinet in Hogwarts that is damaged by Peeves the Poltergeist ; and Tom Riddle 's diary , which is later shown to be a Horcrux . Additionally , these two novels are the ones with the most focus on Harry 's relationship with Ginny Weasley . = = Adaptations = = = = = Film = = = The film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was released in 2002 . Chris Columbus directed the film , and the screenplay was written by Steve Kloves . It became the third film to exceed $ 600 million in international box office sales , preceded by Titanic , released in 1997 , and Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , released in 2001 . The film was nominated for a Saturn Award for the Best Fantasy Film , According to Metacritic , the film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets received " generally favourable reviews " with an average score of 63 % , and another aggregator , Rotten Tomatoes , gave it a score of 82 % . = = = Video games = = = Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2002 and 2003 by Electronic Arts , loosely based on the book :
= U.S. Route 30 in New Jersey = U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) is a U.S. highway running from Astoria , Oregon east to Atlantic City , New Jersey . In the U.S. state of New Jersey , US 30 runs 58 @.@ 26 miles ( 93 @.@ 76 km ) from the Benjamin Franklin Bridge at the Delaware River in Camden , Camden County while concurrent with Interstate 676 ( I @-@ 676 ) southeast to Virginia Avenue in Atlantic City , Atlantic County . Most of the route in New Jersey is known as the White Horse Pike and is four lanes wide . The road runs through mostly developed areas in Camden County , with surroundings becoming more rural as the road approaches Atlantic County . US 30 runs through several towns including Collingswood , Berlin , Hammonton , Egg Harbor City , and Absecon . Most of US 30 in New Jersey follows the White Horse Pike , a turnpike chartered in 1854 to run from Camden to Stratford and eventually toward Atlantic City . In 1917 , pre @-@ 1927 Route 3 was legislated to run from Camden to Absecon on the White Horse Pike , while US 30 was designated in New Jersey in 1926 to connect Camden and Atlantic City via the White Horse Pike . A year later , pre @-@ 1927 Route 3 was replaced by Route 43 , which ran between US 130 near Camden and US 9 ( now Route 157 ) in Absecon , and Route 25 was designated along the portion of US 30 between the Ben Franklin Bridge and US 130 . The segment of US 30 past Route 43 into Atlantic City became Route 56 in 1938 . In 1953 , the state highway designations were removed from US 30 . A freeway was proposed for US 30 in Camden County during the late 1960s , running from Camden to Berlin ; however , it was never built . = = Route description = = = = = Camden County = = = US 30 crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey on the Ben Franklin Bridge from Philadelphia along with I @-@ 676 and the PATCO Speedline . The road continues east into the downtown area of Camden in Camden County as a seven @-@ lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River Port Authority that passes to the north of Campbell 's Field and comes to the westbound toll plaza for the bridge . Past the toll plaza , US 30 splits from I @-@ 676 at an interchange and heads southeast on the six @-@ lane , divided Admiral Wilson Boulevard maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) and named for Henry Braid Wilson . This portion , formerly known as Bridge Approach Boulevard , is an early example of a roadway designed for the automobile , and was home to the first drive @-@ in movie theatre . Along Admiral Wilson Boulevard , the route passes under New Jersey Transit 's River Line and interchanges with CR 537 before widening to eight lanes and crossing the Cooper River . The road runs east through urbanized sections of Camden along the north bank of the Cooper River , interchanging with CR 608 . After this interchange , US 30 enters suburban Pennsauken Township and comes to the Airport Circle , which has been modified to include ramps . Here , US 30 meets US 130 and the western terminus of Route 38 and turns south to form a concurrency with US 130 on Crescent Boulevard , a six @-@ lane divided highway that narrows to four lanes . The road crosses the Cooper River into Collingswood , running to the east of Harleigh Cemetery before interchanging with CR 561 and passing under the PATCO Speedline . At the former Collingswood Circle , US 30 splits from US 130 by heading south @-@ southeast on two @-@ lane , undivided White Horse Pike . The road passes homes and some businesses before crossing the Newton Creek into Oaklyn , where it passes suburban residential and commercial development . US 30 forms the border between Oaklyn to the west and Haddon Township to the east before heading into Audubon . At the border of Audubon and Haddon Heights , the route crosses CR 551 Spur . In this town , the White Horse Pike reaches an intersection with Route 41 at a modified traffic circle and an interchange with I @-@ 295 within a close distance of each other in Barrington . At this point , the route is four lanes wide , with a short divided portion immediately south of I @-@ 295 . US 30 continues into Lawnside , becoming a four @-@ lane undivided road . It passes under the New Jersey Turnpike , but there is no interchange present between the two roads . Past here , the road enters Magnolia , where it crosses CR 544 . Following this intersection , the route heads through Somerdale before turning more southeast and forming the border between Stratford to the southwest and Somerdale to the northeast . US 30 entirely enters Stratford as it intersects CR 673 and passes near the Lindenwold Station , which is a stop on New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line and the terminus of the PATCO Speedline . The White Horse Pike turns back to the south @-@ southeast and forms the border between Laurel Springs to the west and Lindenwold to the east before continuing fully into Lindenwold . The route later turns southeast and enters Clementon . After a turn to the east , US 30 runs along the border of Lindenwold to the north and Clementon to the south and fully enters Lindenwold again prior to the border with Berlin . In Berlin , the White Horse Pike becomes concurrent with CR 534 and then CR 561 a short distance later . US 30 turns to the south @-@ southeast and passes through the downtown area of Berlin as a two @-@ lane road . Past the downtown area , CR 534 and CR 561 split from US 30 at the same intersection , with CR 534 heading east on Jackson Road and CR 561 heading southeast on Tansboro Road , and US 30 widens back to four lanes . The White Horse Pike encounters Route 73 and CR 536 Spur at a cloverleaf interchange . Following the interchange , US 30 enters Waterford Township , as it passes near the community of Atco . The road turns south as it passes Atco Lake and continues into more wooded areas with some development , eventually heading south @-@ southeast again . New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line runs a short distance to the northeast of the route at this point . US 30 continues through Chesilhurst before it enters Winslow Township . Here , the route intersects CR 536 and forms a short concurrency with that route before it heads to the east . From this point , the road continues into a mix of woodland , farmland , and development . US 30 intersects Route 143 and passes over the Atlantic City Line as it turns southeast . The road makes another turn to the south as it crosses CR 723 . = = = Atlantic County = = = US 30 heads southeast into Hammonton , Atlantic County , continuing through rural areas with increasing development . The road comes to its intersection with the southern terminus US 206 and the northern terminus of Route 54 . A short distance later , the route has a concurrency with CR 542 that begins adjacent to the former Atlanticare - Kessler Memorial Hospital that closed in 2009 and passes by Hammonton Lake . US 30 turns south @-@ southwest past the CR 542 concurrency before heading south . The route crosses CR 561 and turns southeast again , entering Mullica Township . Here , the White Horse Pike enters more forested areas with a few buildings , running a short distance to the northeast of the Atlantic City Line . Past the intersection with CR 623 in the developed community of Elwood , US 30 becomes a divided highway with grass median and jughandles . This configuration continues until Egg Harbor City , when the median ends . In Egg Harbor City , US 30 passes a mix of homes and businesses , intersecting Route 50 and CR 563 in the center of town . At this point , CR 563 forms a concurrency with US 30 and the two routes continue through more of the town before crossing into Galloway Township at the intersection with CR 674 . The road passes through rural areas with some development , reaching the community of Cologne . In this area , there is a crossroads with CR 614 before CR 563 splits from US 30 by turning south onto Tilton Road . Past Cologne , the road reaches a junction with CR 575 in the developed community of Pomona . Following this intersection , US 30 continues southeast past wooded residential neighborhoods to the northeast , becoming a divided highway again . The route comes to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway , with access to and from the northbound direction of the parkway . Past this interchange , the road heads through commercial areas and continues into Absecon . In Absecon , the White Horse Pike widens to six lanes and crosses CR 651 before intersecting US 9 . After passing near the Absecon Station , US 30 crosses Shore Road , which heads north as Route 157 and south as CR 585 . The road turns south , narrowing back to four lanes before entering marshland to the west of Absecon Bay . There is a northbound exit and southbound entrance to CR 646 before US 30 crosses the Jonathans Thorofare into Atlantic City , where the name becomes Absecon Boulevard as it turns to the east . Absecon Boulevard crosses Newfound Thorofare before heading south and passing over Duck Thorofare . The road passes by the Jersey @-@ Atlantic Wind Farm and heads southeast across Beach Thorofare . At this point , US 30 widens to six lanes and passes to the north of residential neighborhoods , with maintenance of the road switching from the New Jersey Department of Transportation to the South Jersey Transportation Authority . After crossing the Penrose Canal , the route passes over the tunnel carrying the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector and intersects the southern terminus of Route 87 , where there is a ramp to the northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector . The road passes areas of development and intersects an access road to the southbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector as well as Route 187 . Two blocks later , US 30 ends at the intersection with Virginia Avenue . = = History = = The White Horse Turnpike Company was incorporated January 27 , 1854 with the authority to convert White Horse Road into a turnpike , running from Camden to Stratford and eventually to Atlantic City . By 1913 , maintenance of the White Horse Pike became public . The route of US 30 today in New Jersey was designated as pre @-@ 1927 Route 3 from 1916 to 1927 between Camden and Absecon . On October 30 , 1925 , plans were made for a cross @-@ country route from Salt Lake City , Utah to Atlantic City , New Jersey as part of the U.S. Highway System . This road was designated U.S. Route 30 in 1926 . It entered New Jersey from Pennsylvania in Camden and followed the entire length of pre @-@ 1927 Route 3 to Absecon before continuing into Atlantic City . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 43 replaced the Route 3 designation along US 30 between US 130 and US 9 ( now Route 157 ) in Absecon while Route 25 was designated along with US 30 between the Ben Franklin Bridge and US 130 . In 1938 , the portion of US 30 from the terminus of Route 43 in Absecon into Atlantic City was designated as Route 56 . Prior to the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , spur routes of Route 43 and Route 56 were planned . Route S43 was planned in 1938 to be a route running from Route 43 in Germania to Route 4 in Northfield ; this was never built as a state highway but the alignment is now followed by CR 563 . Route S56 was legislated in 1945 to be a spur of Route 56 to Brigantine along what had also been legislated as Route S4A ; this road became Route 87 in 1953 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated several concurrencies between U.S. and state routes , the designations of routes 25 , 43 , and 56 were removed from US 30 . Prior to the completion of I @-@ 676 across the Ben Franklin Bridge in the 1970s , US 30 used Penn Street eastbound and Linden Street westbound to travel between the bridge and Admiral Wilson Boulevard . In the late 1960s , a freeway was proposed for US 30 in Camden County by the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission . The freeway , which was to cost $ 40 million , was to run from the Ben Franklin Bridge to I @-@ 295 in Barrington with a $ 16 million extension to the planned Route 90 freeway in Berlin . The segment between Camden and Barrington was to be complete by 1975 while the extension to Berlin was to be finished by 1985 . However , the NJDOT did not build this US 30 freeway . In 2009 , the Collingswood Circle at the eastern end of the US 130 concurrency was replaced with an at @-@ grade intersection with jughandles . = = Major intersections = =
= Hap Holmes = Harry George " Hap " Holmes ( February 21 , 1892 – June 27 , 1941 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . As a professional , Holmes won the Stanley Cup four times , with four different teams . He tied the record of his 1914 Stanley Cup winning Toronto Blueshirts teammate Jack Marshall , who also won Cups with four different teams . No other player has duplicated this record . Holmes played as an amateur for three season with the Parkdale Canoe Club of the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) from 1908 to 1911 , before joining the professional Toronto Blueshirts of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) in 1912 – 13 . Holmes won the first of his four Stanley Cups in 1914 . Although being under contract to the Blueshirts , Holmes joined the Seattle Metropolitans of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) for the 1915 – 16 season , winning his second Stanley Cup ( 1917 ) in his second season with the Metropolitans . For the 1917 – 18 season , Holmes ended up playing for the Torontos ( the following year renamed as the Toronto Arenas ) of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) through a series of loans by other teams . Holmes won his third Stanley Cup in his only full season with the Torontos . After playing two games in the 1918 @-@ 19 season for the Toronto Arenas , Holmes would be recalled by the Metropolitans . Holmes played for the Metropolitans for the next six seasons , until the team folded . In the 1924 – 25 season , Holmes joined the Victoria Cougars of the West Coast Hockey League ( WCHL / WHL ) . Holmes played for the Cougars for two seasons , winning the Stanley Cup for his fourth and last time . After the WCHL / WHL league folded , Holmes joined the Detroit Cougars of the NHL , playing with the Cougars for two seasons before retiring . Holmes was a stand @-@ up style goaltender ; later on in his career , Holmes wore a cap when in goal to protect his head from objects thrown by spectators , as it presented a tempting target to them . Holmes coached minor @-@ league teams after his retirement , notably the Toronto Millionaires of the Canadian Professional Hockey League ( CPHL ) and the Cleveland Indians of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) . Holmes died on June 27 , 1941 , near Fort Lauderdale , Florida and was inducted posthumously into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1972 . = = Amateur career = = Harry " Hap " Holmes , alternatively nicknamed " Happy " , started playing ice hockey as an amateur with the Parkdale Canoe Club in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) in the 1908 – 09 season . He played with Parkdale for three seasons , for 11 regular season games and two playoff games . In his first season with the Parkdale Canoe Club , Holmes lost all three games in which he appeared , giving up 22 goals over that stretch . The following season , Holmes appeared in four games , winning and losing two games apiece . Over the 1909 – 10 season , Holmes gave up 26 goals . In 1910 – 11 , his last season with the Parkdale Canoe Club , he appeared in four regular season games once more , winning three and losing one , while giving up only 12 goals over those games . In the playoffs , Holmes played two games , losing one and tying the other , surrendering nine goals . In the 1911 – 12 season , Holmes appeared in only one exhibition game , as the Toronto Blueshirts were unable to play due to the slow completion of their artificial ice . Holmes played a game for the Toronto Tecumsehs , conceding three goals in a victory . = = Professional career = = = = = Toronto Blueshirts = = = Holmes began his professional career playing for the Toronto Blueshirts of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) in 1912 – 13 . Holmes played with the Blueshirts for three seasons . In his first season with the Blueshirts , Holmes had a 6 – 7 ( win @-@ loss ) record over 15 games with a shutout , and a 4 @.@ 47 goals @-@ against average . The Blueshirts ended up missing the playoffs . In the 1913 – 14 season , Holmes ' second season with the Blueshirts , he won the Stanley Cup for the first time . It was the first time a Toronto @-@ based team won the Stanley Cup . In the NHA playoffs , Holmes won one out of two games , and recorded a 1 @.@ 00 goals @-@ against average and one shutout ; in the Stanley Cup final , Holmes won all three games and finished with a 2 @.@ 59 goals @-@ against average . The next season , the Blueshirts missed the playoffs , as Holmes had only eight victories over 20 games , ending up with a 4 @.@ 18 goals @-@ against average . = = = First stint with the Seattle Metropolitans = = = In the 1915 – 16 season , Holmes signed with the Seattle Metropolitans of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) , although he was still under contract to the Blueshirts . In his first season with the Metropolitans , Holmes played 18 games . He finished with a 9 – 9 record , with no shutouts and a 3 @.@ 67 goals @-@ against average . That season , the Metropolitans missed the playoffs . In his sophomore season , Holmes posted a 16 – 8 record over 24 games , with two shutouts and a 3 @.@ 28 goals @-@ against average . In the Stanley Cup finals , Holmes posted a 3 – 1 record with a 2 @.@ 75 goals @-@ against average , en route to the Metropolitans ' only Stanley Cup win . The Metropolitans became the first American @-@ based team to win the Stanley Cup . = = = Torontos / Toronto Arenas = = = In November 1917 , Holmes signed as a free agent with the Montreal Wanderers . The Wanderers , in turn , loaned Holmes back to Seattle on December 12 , 1917 . On January 4 , 1918 , the Metropolitans returned Holmes under loan to the Torontos , now in the newly formed NHL . In his only full season with the Torontos / Arenas , Holmes appeared in 16 regular season games , posting a 9 – 7 record , with a 4 @.@ 73 goals @-@ against average and no shutouts . In the NHL playoffs , Holmes played two games , winning and losing one apiece . In the Stanley Cup finals , Holmes had a 3 – 2 record over five games , with a 4 @.@ 00 goals @-@ against average , en route to Holmes ' third Stanley Cup win . He is the only member of both the Blueshirts ' 1914 Stanley Cup win and the Torontos ' 1917 Stanley Cup win . After playing only two games with the Toronto Arenas the following season , surrendering nine goals in two losses , Holmes was recalled by the Metropolitans on December 27 , 1918 . = = = Second stint with the Seattle Metropolitans = = = In the 1918 – 19 season Holmes appeared in 20 regular season games for the Metropolitans , winning 11 and losing nine , with no shutouts and a 2 @.@ 25 goals @-@ against average . In the PCHA playoffs , Holmes played two games , winning and losing one apiece , and surrendering five goals in total . The Metropolitans made the Stanley Cup finals once more . Playing against the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , the series was abandoned tied at two wins apiece , because of the Spanish Influenza pandemic . Montreal could not continue the series because one of their players , Joe Hall , was severely ill with influenza ; however , the Metropolitans did not wish to accept the Cup by default . Hall eventually died on April 5 , 1919 , five days after the end of the series , in a Seattle hospital . The only draw of the series was a scoreless affair ; after playing 20 minutes of overtime , referee Mickey Ion called the game off . In the 1919 – 20 season , Holmes appeared in 22 games , winning 12 games , and losing 10 . He finished the season with four shutouts and a 2 @.@ 46 goals @-@ against average . In the PCHA playoffs , Holmes played two games , surrendering three goals , and ending up with a loss and a win . The Metropolitans made the Stanley Cup finals for the second straight season , playing against the Ottawa Senators of the NHL . The Metropolitans lost , and Holmes posted a 2 – 3 record with a 3 @.@ 00 goals @-@ against average . Holmes played the next four seasons with the Metropolitans , but failed to make the Stanley Cup final . Over that stretch , Holmes and the Metropolitans won about half the games each season . The Metropolitans missed the playoffs in only the 1922 – 23 season . In the 1920 – 21 season , Holmes appeared in 24 games . He posted a 12 – 11 – 1 ( win @-@ loss @-@ tie ) record , with a 2 @.@ 63 goals @-@ against average and no shutouts . In the playoffs , he lost both games he appeared in , and let in 13 goals . The following season , he posted an identical win @-@ loss @-@ tie record in both the regular season . The only difference was a 2 @.@ 60 goals @-@ against average in the regular season , with four shutouts , and the reduction of his playoffs goals @-@ against by 11 goals . In the 1922 – 23 season , Holmes appeared in 30 games , posting a 15 – 15 record , with two shutouts and a 3 @.@ 45 goals @-@ against average ; however , the Metropolitans missed the playoffs that season . In the 1923 – 24 , Holmes ' last with the Metropolitans , he appeared in 30 regular @-@ season games , posting a 14 – 16 record , with two shutouts and a 3 @.@ 26 goals @-@ against average . Despite an extra loss , the Metropolitans made the playoffs that season . Holmes played two games , losing one and tying one , ending up with a 1 @.@ 79 goals @-@ against average . = = = Victoria Cougars = = = In 1924 – 25 , after the Metropolitans folded and the rest of the PCHA merged with the WCHL , Holmes joined the Victoria Cougars . In his first season with the Cougars , Holmes posted a 16 – 12 regular season record , with three shutouts and a 2 @.@ 25 goals @-@ against average . In the WCHL playoffs , Holmes was undefeated in four games . He had two wins and ties each , with one shutout and a 1 @.@ 75 goals @-@ against average . In the Stanley Cup final , Holmes posted a 3 – 1 record with a 2 @.@ 00 goals @-@ against average against the Montreal Canadiens . It was the last time a non @-@ NHL team won the Stanley Cup . It was Holmes ' fourth and last Stanley Cup victory . The following season , Holmes had a 15 – 11 – 4 regular season record , with four shutouts and a 1 @.@ 68 goals @-@ against average . In the WHL playoffs , Holmes nearly duplicated his results from the previous season , posting a 2 – 0 – 2 record , with one shutout and a 1 @.@ 45 goals @-@ against average . In the 1926 Stanley Cup final , the Cougars lost the series 3 – 1 against the Montreal Maroons . That marked the last time a non @-@ NHL team appeared in the Stanley Cup finals , as the WHL folded after the 1926 Stanley Cup final , and its players were absorbed by the NHL . It was Holmes ' seventh and final Stanley Cup final appearance . = = = Detroit Cougars = = = A new NHL franchise in Detroit bought the rights to the Victoria Cougars players , and named the team the Cougars . Holmes played his last two professional seasons with the Detroit Cougars . Holmes , playing for Detroit , posted 17 shutouts in 85 appearances . Detroit failed to make the playoffs in both of Holmes ' seasons with them , as Holmes only won 30 of his 85 appearances . In Holmes ' first season with Detroit , he posted an 11 – 26 – 4 record , over 41 games played . Holmes had six shutouts and overall , his goals @-@ against average that season was 2 @.@ 23 . In the 1927 – 28 season , Holmes ' final one as a professional player , he appeared in all 44 of Detroit 's games . He posted at 19 – 19 – 6 record , with 11 shutouts and a 1 @.@ 73 goals @-@ against average . = = Playing style = = As a player , Holmes wore a baseball cap in net to protect his head from spectators spitting tobacco or throwing other objects at it . Holmes was bald , and as described by the Windsor Star , " his shining bald dome presented a tempting target " . Holmes played a stand @-@ up style , and relied on proper positioning to stop the puck . Holmes ' play was consistent , and he was relaxed and nonchalant in the nets , leading some to describe his play as almost lazy . = = Post @-@ retirement = = After his playing career , Holmes coached minor @-@ league teams . He coached the Toronto Millionaires of the Canadian Professional Hockey League ( CPHL ) to a 19 – 6 – 7 record in the 1928 – 29 season , and the Cleveland Indians of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) to a 24 – 18 – 6 record in the 1930 – 31 season . The American Hockey League ( AHL ) named their award for the top goaltender , the Hap Holmes Memorial Award , after him . Holmes died on June 27 , 1941 . He was inducted posthumously into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1972 . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season = = = = = = Playoffs = = =
= Bernadette Peters = Bernadette Peters ( born Bernadette Lazzara ; February 28 , 1948 ) is an American actress , singer and children 's book author . Over the course of a career that has spanned five decades , she has starred in musical theatre , films and television , as well as performing in solo concerts and recordings . She is one of the most critically acclaimed Broadway performers , having received nominations for seven Tony Awards , winning two ( plus an honorary award ) , and nine Drama Desk Awards , winning three . Four of the Broadway cast albums on which she has starred have won Grammy Awards . Regarded by many as the foremost interpreter of the works of Stephen Sondheim , Peters is particularly noted for her roles on the Broadway stage , including in the musicals Mack and Mabel , Sunday in the Park with George , Song and Dance , Into the Woods , Annie Get Your Gun and Gypsy . Peters first performed on the stage as a child and then a teenage actor in the 1960s , and in film and television in the 1970s . She was praised for this early work and for appearances on The Muppet Show , The Carol Burnett Show and in other television work , and for her roles in films like Silent Movie , The Jerk , Pennies from Heaven and Annie . In the 1980s , she returned to the theatre , where she became one of the best @-@ known Broadway stars over the next three decades . She also has recorded six solo albums and several singles , as well as many cast albums , and performs regularly in her own solo concert act . In the 2010s , Peters continues to act on stage , in films and on television , where she has been nominated for three Emmy Awards and three Golden Globe Awards , winning once . = = Early life and career = = Peters was born Bernadette Lazzara to a Sicilian American family in Ozone Park , Queens , New York , the youngest of three children . Her siblings are casting director Donna DeSeta and Joseph Lazzara . Her father , Peter , drove a bread delivery truck , and her mother , Marguerite ( née Maltese ) , started her in show business by putting her on the television show Juvenile Jury at the age of three and a half . She appeared on the television shows Name That Tune and several times on The Horn and Hardart Children 's Hour at age five . In January 1958 , at age nine , she obtained her Actors Equity Card in the name Bernadette Peters to avoid ethnic stereotyping , with the stage name taken from her father 's first name . She made her professional stage debut the same month in This is Goggle , a comedy directed by Otto Preminger that closed during out @-@ of @-@ town tryouts before reaching New York . She then appeared on NBC television as Anna Stieman in A Boy Called Ciske , a Kraft Mystery Theatre production , in May 1958 , and in a vignette entitled " Miracle in the Orphanage " , part of " The Christmas Tree " , a Hallmark Hall of Fame production , in December 1958 with fellow child actor Richard Thomas and veteran actors Jessica Tandy and Margaret Hamilton . She first appeared on the New York stage at age 10 as Tessie in the New York City Center revival of The Most Happy Fella ( 1959 ) . In her teen years , she attended the Quintano 's School for Young Professionals , a now defunct private school that several famous people , such as Steven Tyler , attended . At age 13 , Peters appeared as one of the " Hollywood Blondes " and was an understudy for " Dainty June " in the second national tour of Gypsy . During this tour , Peters first met her long @-@ time accompanist , conductor and arranger Marvin Laird , who was the assistant conductor for the tour . Laird recalled , " I heard her sing an odd phrase or two and thought , ' God that 's a big voice out of that little girl , ' " The next summer , she played Dainty June in summer stock , and in 1962 she recorded her first single . In 1964 , she played Liesl in The Sound of Music and Jenny in Riverwind in summer stock at the Mt . Gretna Playhouse ( Pennsylvania ) , and Riverwind again at the Bucks County Playhouse in 1966 . Upon graduation from high school , she started working steadily , appearing Off @-@ Broadway in the musicals The Penny Friend ( 1966 ) and Curley McDimple ( 1967 ) and as a standby on Broadway in The Girl in the Freudian Slip ( 1967 ) . She made her Broadway debut in Johnny No @-@ Trump in 1967 , and next appeared as George M. Cohan 's sister Josie opposite Joel Grey in George M ! ( 1968 ) , winning the Theatre World Award . Peters ' performance as " Ruby " in the 1968 Off @-@ Broadway production of Dames at Sea , a parody of 1930s musicals , brought her critical acclaim and her first Drama Desk Award . She had appeared in an earlier 1966 version of Dames at Sea at the Off @-@ Off @-@ Broadway performance club Caffe Cino . Peters had starring roles in her next Broadway vehicles — Gelsomina in La Strada ( 1969 ) and Hildy in On the Town ( 1971 ) , for which she received her first Tony Award nomination . She played Mabel Normand in Mack and Mabel ( 1974 ) , receiving another Tony nomination . Clive Barnes wrote : " With the splashy Mack & Mabel ... diminutive and contralto Bernadette Peters found herself as a major Broadway star . " Although these had short runs , Peters was singled out for praise by the critics , and the Mack and Mabel cast album became popular among musical theatre fans . She moved to Los Angeles in the early 1970s to concentrate on television and film work . = = Film appearances = = Peters has appeared in 33 feature films or television movies beginning in 1973 , including Mel Brooks ' 1976 film Silent Movie ( for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award ) , the musical Annie ( 1982 ) , Pink Cadillac ( 1989 ) , in which she co @-@ starred with Clint Eastwood , and Woody Allen 's Alice ( 1990 ) . Peters starred opposite Steve Martin in The Jerk ( 1979 ) , in a role that he wrote for her , and Pennies From Heaven ( 1981 ) , for which she won the Golden Globe Award as Best Motion Picture Actress in a Comedy or Musical . In Pennies from Heaven , she played Eileen Everson , a schoolteacher turned prostitute . Of her performance in Pennies From Heaven , John DiLeo wrote that she " is not only poignant as you 'd expect but has a surprising inner strength . " Pauline Kael wrote in The New Yorker : " Peters is mysteriously right in every nuance . " Kael further noted that " The dance numbers are funny , amazing , and beautiful all at once ; several of them are just about perfection . " A review of the DVD reissue noted , " Peters brought a cocky attitude and a sexy exuberance to the musical numbers . " Peters appeared with three generations of the Kirk Douglas family in the 2003 film It Runs in the Family , in which she played the wife of Michael Douglas 's character . In May 2006 , she appeared in the movie Come le formiche ( Wine and Kisses ) with F. Murray Abraham , filmed in Italy , playing a rich American who becomes involved with an Italian family that owns a vineyard . The DVD was released in 2007 in Italy . She starred in a film titled Coming Up Roses , playing a former musical comedy actress with two daughters . The movie , directed by Lisa Albright , was released in 2012 . = = Theatre roles , 1980s to present = = In 1982 , Peters returned to the New York stage after an eight @-@ year absence in one of her few non @-@ musical stage appearances , the Off @-@ Broadway Manhattan Theatre Club production of the comedy @-@ drama Sally and Marsha , for which she was nominated for a Drama Desk Award . She then returned to Broadway as Dot / Marie in the Stephen Sondheim – James Lapine musical Sunday in the Park with George in 1984 , for which she received her third Tony Award nomination . The New York Times theatre critic Frank Rich called her performance " radiant " . She recorded the role for PBS in 1986 , winning a 1987 ACE Award . Her next role was in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Song and Dance ( 1985 ) , winning her first Tony for Best Leading Actress in a Musical for her performance in the role of Emma . Frank Rich wrote in an otherwise negative review of the show that Peters " has no peer in the musical theater right now . " She then created the role of the Witch in Sondheim @-@ Lapine 's Into the Woods ( 1987 ) . Peters is " considered by many to be the premier interpreter of [ Sondheim 's ] work , " according to writer Alex Witchel . Raymond Knapp wrote that Peters " achieved her definitive stardom " in Sunday in the Park With George and Into the Woods . Sondheim has said of Peters , " Like very few others , she sings and acts at the same time , " he says . " Most performers act and then sing , act and then sing ... Bernadette is flawless as far as I 'm concerned . I can 't think of anything negative . " Peters continued her association with Sondheim by appearing in a 1995 benefit concert of Anyone Can Whistle , playing the role of Fay Apple . Additionally , she appeared in several concerts featuring Sondheim 's work , and performed for him at his 1993 Kennedy Center Honors ceremony . She next starred in the musical adaptation of Neil Simon 's The Goodbye Girl with music by Marvin Hamlisch ( 1993 ) . Peters won her second Tony for her performance as Annie Oakley in the 1999 revival of Annie Get Your Gun opposite Tom Wopat . Among many glowing notices for this role , critic Lloyd Rose of the Washington Post commented : " [ Peters ] banishes all thoughts of Ethel Merman about two bars into her first number , ' Doin ' What Comes Natur 'lly . ' Partly this is because Merman 's Annie was a hearty , boisterous gal , while Peters plays an adorable , slightly goofy gamine ... For anyone who cares about the American musical theater , the chance to see Peters in this role is reason enough to see the show . " Playbill went even further : " Arguably the most talented comedienne in the musical theatre today , Peters manages to extract a laugh from most every line she delivers . " In 2003 , Peters took on the role of Mama Rose in the Broadway revival of Gypsy , earning another Tony nomination . Ben Brantley in his New York Times review wrote , " Working against type and expectation under the direction of Sam Mendes , Ms. Peters has created the most complex and compelling portrait of her long career , and she has done this in ways that deviate radically from the Merman blueprint . " In 2006 , she participated in a reading of the Sondheim - Weidman musical Bounce . In 2007 , Peters participated in a charity reading of the play Love Letters with John Dossett . After an absence from the Broadway stage of six years ( Gypsy closed in 2004 ) , Peters starred in the Broadway revival of Sondheim 's A Little Night Music , as Desiree Armfeldt from July 2010 to January 2011 . She replaced Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones in the role . The New York Times reviewer wrote of her performance , [ F ] or theater lovers there can be no greater current pleasure than to witness Bernadette Peters perform the show 's signature number , " Send In the Clowns , " with an emotional transparency and musical delicacy that turns this celebrated song into an occasion of transporting artistry . I 'm not sure I 've ever experienced with such palpable force – or such prominent goose bumps – the sense of being present at an indelible moment in the history of musical theater . Peters next appeared in the role of Sally Durant Plummer in the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts production of the Sondheim – Goldman musical Follies in May and June 2011 . Of her performance , one critic wrote : " Peters may not be the most traditional casting for Sally , now an ultraneurotic housewife in Phoenix , but she exquisitely captures the character 's unfathomable sadness and longing . It 's a star turn , for sure , but one that brings attention to itself because of its truthfulness . Not surprisingly , her rendition of ' Losing My Mind ' is simply shattering . " She reprised her role of Sally in the Broadway limited engagement , at the Marquis Theatre , from August 2011 to January 2012 . She received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award , Outstanding Actress in a Musical , for this role . Peters starred in the Sondheim and Wynton Marsalis staged concert revue titled A Bed and a Chair : A New York Love Affair at New York City Center in November 2013 . This collaboration between Encores ! and Jazz at Lincoln Center was directed by John Doyle , with jazzy arrangements of Sondheim 's songs . It also featured Norm Lewis , Jeremy Jordan and Cyrille Aimée . Peters sang " Broadway Baby " , " The Ladies Who Lunch " , " Isn 't He Something ? " , " I Remember " and " With So Little to Be Sure Of " , among others . Jesse Green , in his review in New York Magazine 's Vulture site , commented : " [ W ] hat a wrenching ( and funny ) actress Peters remains , not on top of her voice but through it . " Brantley , in his New York Times review wrote : " As a singer and actress , she just can 't help being ardent , full @-@ throated and sincere . She also reminds us here of her considerable and original comic gifts . " = = = Theatre awards = = = Peters has been nominated for the Tony Award seven times and won twice . She has also been nominated for the Drama Desk Award nine times and won three times , for Annie Get Your Gun , Song and Dance and Dames at Sea . At the 66th Tony Awards ( 2012 ) , Peters was presented with the honorary Isabelle Stevenson Award for " making a substantial contribution of volunteered time and effort on behalf of one or more humanitarian , social service or charitable organizations , regardless of whether such organizations relate to the theatre " , specifically for her work with Broadway Barks . In making the announcement for this award , the Tony official site noted " With a rich generosity of spirit , Bernadette Peters ' devotion to charitable causes is perhaps only outweighed by her much fêted dedication to performing .... Peters ' efforts are held in the highest regard on Broadway and beyond . To quote BC / EFA 's Tom Viola , ' Bernadette 's boundless compassion and generosity represent the best in all of us . ' " = = Television appearances = = Peters was nominated for Emmy Awards for her guest @-@ starring roles on The Muppet Show ( 1977 ) and Ally McBeal ( 2001 ) . On The Muppet Show , Peters sang the song " Just One Person " to Robin the Frog . She was one of the Muppets ' guests when they hosted The Tonight Show in 1979 , again singing " Just One Person " to Robin , and she appeared in other episodes with the Muppets . Peters was also nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award , Outstanding Performer in a Children 's Special , for her work in the 2002 made @-@ for @-@ television movie Bobbie 's Girl . She won the 1987 " CableACE Award " for her role as Dot in the television version of Sunday in the Park with George . She has appeared in many variety shows with stars such as Sonny and Cher and George Burns . She has both performed and presented on the Academy Awards broadcasts in 1976 , 1981 , 1983 , 1987 and 1994 . Peters has been a presenter at the annual Tony Awards ceremony and co @-@ hosted the ceremony with Gregory Hines in June 2002 . She also hosted Saturday Night Live in November 1981 . She made 12 guest appearances on The Carol Burnett Show as well as appearing with Burnett in the made @-@ for @-@ television version of Once Upon a Mattress and the 1982 film Annie . She also performed at the Kennedy Center Honors ceremony for Burnett in 2003 . Peters appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and on the day @-@ time talk show Live with Regis and Kelly , both as a co @-@ host and a guest . Peters voiced Rita the stray cat in the " Rita and Runt " segments of the animated series Animaniacs in the 1990s . Peters , as Rita , sang both original songs written for the show and parodies of Broadway musical numbers . She appeared on Inside the Actor 's Studio in November 2000 , discussing her career and craft . Peters has co @-@ starred in a number of television movies , including The Last Best Year ( 1990 ) with Mary Tyler Moore , Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Cinderella ( 1997 ) with Brandy ( receiving a nomination for the " Golden Satellite Award " for her role ) , and Prince Charming ( 2003 ) with Martin Short . She co @-@ starred in her own television series , All 's Fair , with Richard Crenna in 1976 – 77 . She played a young , liberal photographer , who becomes romantically involved with an older , conservative columnist . Although Peters was praised for her charismatic performance , the show ran for only one season . Peters was nominated for a Golden Globe award as Best TV Actress – Musical / Comedy . In March 2005 , she made a pilot for an ABC situation comedy series titled Adopted , co @-@ starring with Christine Baranski , but it was not picked up . Peters appeared in the Lifetime television movie Living Proof , which was first broadcast on October 18 , 2008 . She played the role of Barbara , an art teacher with breast cancer , who is initially reluctant to participate in the study for the cancer drug Herceptin . Andrew Gans of Playbill wrote , " Peters is able to choose from an expansive emotional palette to color the character , and her performance ... is moving , humorous and ultimately spirit @-@ raising " . Peters ' television work also includes guest appearances on several television series . She appeared as the sharp @-@ tongued sister of Karen Walker ( Megan Mullally ) on the penultimate episode of the NBC series Will & Grace , " Whatever Happened to Baby Gin ? " ( May 2006 ) ; as a defense attorney on the NBC series , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ( November 2006 ) ; as a judge on the ABC series Boston Legal ( May 2007 ) ; and as an accident victim in Grey 's Anatomy ( September 2008 ) . Of her role in Grey 's Anatomy , TV Guide wrote : " Peters is especially fine as she confronts a life spinning out of control . I 'd make her an early contender for a guest @-@ actor Emmy nomination . " In January , February and May 2009 , she appeared in the ABC series Ugly Betty in five episodes as Jodie Papadakis , a magazine mogul running the YETI ( Young Editors Training Initiative ) program that Betty and Marc are in . Her appearance at the Adelaide Cabaret Festival in June 2009 was filmed and broadcast in Australia later that month . Peters first appeared in the NBC series Smash in the March 2012 episode " The Workshop " , as Leigh Conroy , Ivy 's mother , a retired Broadway star , who feels competitive because of her daughter 's blossoming career . She visits the workshop and sings Everything 's Coming Up Roses ( from Gypsy ) at the urging of the workshop cast . She also appeared in the season 1 finale , " Bombshell " ( May 2012 ) , to celebrate Ivy 's presumed role as Marilyn , in " The Parents " episode ( April 2013 ) , where , as Leigh , she sings an original Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman song , " Hang the Moon " , and in the episodes " Opening Night " ( April 2013 ) and " The Phenomenon " ( May 2013 ) . Since 2014 , Peters has played Gloria , the chairwoman of the orchestra board in Mozart in the Jungle , a web video series by Amazon Studios based on Blair Tindall 's memoir of the same name . The show was picked up for a second season . She was a guest star in the 2014 Bravo television series Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce , playing the mother of the character played by Janeane Garofolo . The episode she appeared in is titled " Rule # 21 : Leave Childishness to Children " . = = Recordings = = Peters has recorded six solo albums and several singles . Three of her albums have been nominated for the Grammy Award . Peters ' 1980 single " Gee Whiz " , remaking Carla Thomas ' 1960 Memphis soul hit , reached the top forty on the U.S. Billboard pop singles charts . She has recorded most of the Broadway and off @-@ Broadway musicals she has appeared in , and four of these cast albums have won Grammy Awards . Peters ' debut album in 1980 ( an LP ) , entitled Bernadette Peters contained 10 songs , including " If You Were The Only Boy " , " Gee Whiz " , " Heartquake " , " Should 've Never Let Him Go " , " Chico 's Girl " , " Pearl 's a Singer " , " Other Lady " , " Only Wounded " , " I Never Thought I 'd Break " and " You 'll Never Know " . The original cover painting by Alberto Vargas , pictured at left , was one of his last works , created at the age of 84 . According to The New York Daily News , Peters " persuaded him to do one last ' Vargas Girls ' portrait ... She just went to his California retreat , asked him to do one more , he looked at her and said , ' You ARE a Vargas girl ! ' " She kept the original painting . The original title planned for the album was Decades . Rolling Stone wrote of her debut album : Her next solo album , Now Playing ( 1981 ) , featured songs by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller , Carole Bayer Sager and Marvin Hamlisch , and Stephen Sondheim ( for example , " Broadway Baby " ) . Bernadette Peters was re @-@ released on CD in 1992 as Bernadette , with the 1980 Vargas cover art , and included some of the songs from Now Playing . In 1996 , she was nominated for a Grammy Award for her best @-@ selling album , I 'll Be Your Baby Tonight , which includes popular songs by John Lennon , Paul McCartney , Lyle Lovett , Hank Williams , Sam Cooke and Billy Joel , as well as Broadway classics by Leonard Bernstein and Rodgers and Hammerstein . The live recording of her 1996 Carnegie Hall concert , Sondheim , Etc . - Bernadette Peters Live At Carnegie Hall , also was nominated for a Grammy Award . Peters ' next studio album , in 2002 , Bernadette Peters Loves Rodgers and Hammerstein , consisted entirely of Rodgers and Hammerstein songs , including two that she often sings in her concerts , " Some Enchanted Evening " and " There Is Nothin ' Like a Dame " . This album , which reached position 14 on the Billboard " Top Internet Albums " chart , was her third album in a row nominated for a Grammy Award . It formed the basis of her Radio City Music Hall solo concert debut in June 2002 . Her last solo album , titled Sondheim Etc . , Etc . Live At Carnegie Hall : The Rest of It , was released in 2005 . It consists of all of the songs ( and patter ) from her 1996 Carnegie Hall concert that were not included in the earlier recording . Additionally , Peters has recorded songs on other albums , such as " Dublin Lady " on John Whelan 's Flirting with the Edge ( Narada , 1998 ) . On the Mandy Patinkin Dress Casual 1990 album , Patinkin and Peters recorded the songs from Stephen Sondheim 's 1966 television play , Evening Primrose . On the tribute album Born to the Breed : A Tribute to Judy Collins Peters sings " Trust Your Heart " . In The New York Times review of the 1986 Broadway cast recording of Song and Dance ( titled Bernadette Peters in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's ' Song & Dance ' ) , Stephen Holden wrote that the recording was " a personal triumph for a singer and actress who is rapidly establishing herself as the first lady of the Broadway musical . Performing material whose music borders on kitsch and whose lyrics and story suggest a verbose soap opera , Miss Peters nevertheless projects an astounding emotional generosity and conviction . Almost singlehandedly she turns the inconsequential erotic misadventures of Emma ... into a touching romantic fable about love and its defenses and the loss of innocence . ... Miss Peters has always oozed a cuddlesome Shirley Temple @-@ like sweetness and vulnerability . This quality , which used to seem more like an adorable child @-@ star affectation than a deep @-@ seated trait , has proved to be an essential ingredient of Miss Peters 's personality . A delivery that once seemed coy and cutesy has deepened and ripened into an honesty and compassion that pour out in singing that is childlike but also resilient . " In 2003 , Andrew Gans wrote in Playbill.com of Peters ' recording sessions for Gypsy : " What is it about her voice that is so moving ? Part womanly and part girlish , it is a powerful instrument , not only in volume ( though that is impressive ) but in the wealth of emotion it is able to convey . ... her voice – that mix of husky , sweet , rounded , vibrato @-@ filled tones – induces a response that spans the emotional scale . " Of her " Rose 's Turn " , Gans wrote : " ... her rendition of this song may be the highlight of a career already filled with many highlights : She has taken a song that has been delivered incredibly by others and brought it to a new level . " Of her performance on the recording of Follies ( 2011 ) , Steven Suskin wrote in Playbill.com : " This is a fine Sally , the sort of Sally you 'd expect to get from an actress like – well , Bernadette Peters . The performance on the CD is compelling ; either this is simply the magic of the recording studio or Peters has changed what she does and how she does it . " = = Concert performances = = Peters has been performing her solo concert in the United States and Canada for many years . She made her solo concert debut at Carnegie Hall in New York City in 1996 , devoting the second half to the work of Stephen Sondheim . She performed a similar concert in London , which was taped and released on video , and also aired on U.S. Public Television stations in 1999 . She continues to perform her solo concert at venues around the U.S. , such as the Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in Miami , and with symphony orchestras such as the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra , the Dallas Symphony , and the Los Angeles Philharmonic at Walt Disney Hall . In a review of her 2002 Radio City Music Hall concert , Stephen Holden of The New York Times described Peters as " the peaches @-@ and @-@ cream embodiment of an ageless storybook princess ... inside a giant soap bubble floating toward heaven . A belief in the power of the dreams behind Rodgers and Hammerstein 's songs , if not in their reality , was possible . " Peters made her solo concert debut at Lincoln Center in New York City in 2006 . Holden , reviewing this concert , noted , " Even while swiveling across the stage of Avery Fisher Hall like a voluptuous Botticelli Venus in Bob Mackie spangles ... she radiated a preternatural innocence .... For the eternal child in all of us , she evokes a surrogate childhood playmate " . Peters was the headliner at the 2009 Adelaide Cabaret Festival in Adelaide , Australia . The Sunday Mail wrote that Peters showed " the verve , vigour and voice of someone half her age . " Peters ' concert performances often benefit arts organizations or help them to mark special occasions , such as her performance on an overnight cruise on the Seabourn Odyssey in a benefit for the Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in Miami in 2009 . She was one of the performers to help celebrate the Center 's grand opening in 2006 . She headlined The Alliance of The Arts Black Tie Anniversary Gala at Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza in Thousand Oaks , California , on November 21 , 2009 . She had helped to celebrate the opening of the Arts Plaza with concerts fifteen years earlier . In 2015 , Peters performed in the concert Sinatra : Voice for a Century at Lincoln Center , a fundraiser for the new David Geffen Hall in celebration of Frank Sinatra 's 100th birthday . She sang " It Never Entered My Mind " . It was hosted by Seth MacFarlane and featured the New York Philharmonic Orchestra , Sting , Billy Porter , Sutton Foster and Fantasia Barrino . PBS plans to broadcast it as part of its " Live from Lincoln Center " series in December 2015 . Since 2013 , she has been touring intermittently with her cabaret act , An Evening with Bernadette Peters , and a concert series , " Bernadette Peters in Concert " . In April 2014 she gave concert performances in Australia . The reviewer for The Sydney Morning Herald wrote : " Perhaps it is a matter of personality as much as voice : a natural warmth and an instinct for never exaggerating the emotional content of a song . Whatever the case , it is easy to see and hear why , for 30 years , Bernadette Peters has probably been musical theatre 's finest performer . ... She even breathed new life into ' Send In the Clowns ' . ... Rather than make it emotionally swollen ( as so many do ) , Peters contracted it , delicately squeezing out its essence like toothpaste from a near @-@ empty tube . " Her 2016 concert plans include UK engagements at the Royal Festival Hall , Manchester Opera House and Edinburgh Playhouse . = = Children 's books = = Peters sings four songs on the CD accompanying a 2005 children 's picture book Dewey Doo @-@ it Helps Owlie Fly Again , the proceeds of which benefit the Christopher Reeve Foundation . Her co @-@ star from Sunday in the Park with George , Mandy Patinkin , also sings on the CD . To support the animal adoption charity that she co @-@ founded with Mary Tyler Moore , Broadway Barks , Peters has written three children 's books , illustrated by Liz Murphy . The first is about a scrappy dog , named after her dog Kramer , and the pleasure of adopting a pet . Titled Broadway Barks , the book is published by Blue Apple Books ( 2008 ) . Peters wrote the words and music to a lullaby , titled " Kramer 's Song " , which is included on a CD in the book . The book reached # 5 on The New York Times Children 's Best Sellers : Picture Books list for the week of June 8 , 2008 . Her second children 's book is the story of a pit bull , named after Peters ' dog Stella . The character would rather be a pig ballerina , but she learns to accept herself . Titled Stella is a Star , the book includes a CD with an original song written and performed by Peters and was released in April 2010 by Blue Apple Books . According to Publishers Weekly , " Turning the pages to Peters ' spirited narration , which is provided in an accompanying CD , makes for a more rewarding reading experience . The story and disc end with a sneakily affecting self @-@ esteem anthem , which , like the familiar tale itself , is buoyed by the author 's lovely vocals . " Peters introduced the book at a reading and signing where she also sang part of the song , at the L.A. Times Festival of Books , Los Angeles , California , on April 24 , 2010 . The third book , released in 2015 , titled Stella and Charlie Friends Forever , is about her rescue dog Charlie joining her household , and how Charlie got along with her older dog , Stella . = = Other activities = = Broadway Barks Peters contributes to various charitable , celebratory and civic efforts . In 1999 , Peters and Mary Tyler Moore co @-@ founded Broadway Barks , an annual animal adopt @-@ a @-@ thon held in New York City . Each July , she and Moore act as co @-@ hosts and presenters for the Broadway Barks event . Peters held a concert , " A Special Concert for Broadway Barks Because Broadway Cares " , at the Minskoff Theatre , New York City , on November 9 , 2009 as a benefit for both Broadway Barks and Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS . The concert raised an estimated $ 615 @,@ 000 for the two charities . Also in support of Broadway Barks , Peters has appeared on the daytime talk show Live With Regis and Kelly . Other Peters serves on the Board of Trustees of Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS and participates in that organization 's events , such as the annual Broadway Flea Market and Grand Auction , and the " Gypsy of the Year " competition . She is also a member of the Board of Directors of Standing Tall , a non @-@ profit educational program offering an innovative program for children with multiple disabilities , based in New York City . Her late husband was the Director and Treasurer of Standing Tall . The 1995 benefit concert Anyone Can Whistle and Peters ' " Carnegie Hall " 1996 concert were benefits for the Gay Men 's Health Crisis . In 2007 , Peters helped the Broadway community celebrate the end of the stagehand strike in a " Broadway 's Back " concert at the Marquis Theatre . In 2008 , she was one of the participants in a fund @-@ raiser for the Westport Country Playhouse , and in the opening ceremony and dedication of the renovated TKTS discount ticket booth in Times Square . That year , she also presented New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg with the Humanitarian Award at the Breast Cancer Research Foundation awards . On March 8 , 2009 , she helped celebrate the last birthday of Senator Ted Kennedy ( singing " There Is Nothin ' Like a Dame " ) in a private concert and ceremony held at the Kennedy Center , hosted by Bill Cosby , with many Senators , Representatives , and President Barack and First Lady Michelle Obama in attendance . On November 19 , 2009 , she helped to celebrate the opening of The David Rubenstein Atrium at Lincoln Center . On February 8 , 2010 , Peters was one of the many to honor Angela Lansbury at the annual Drama League of New York benefit , singing " Not While I 'm Around " . In March 2010 , Peters helped Stephen Sondheim celebrate his 80th birthday in the Roundabout Theatre Company " Sondheim 80 " benefit . She was one of the Honorary Chairs . She had been part of the Roundabout Theatre 's Sondheim gala for his 75th birthday . In 2012 , Peters became a Patron of The Stephen Sondheim Society . She performed at the Olivier Awards ceremony in 2014 , singing the song " Losing My Mind " . A review in The Arts Desk read : " The tradition of bringing over a Broadway baby or two ... presumably explained a late appearance by a still @-@ luminous Bernadette Peters , who reached the very high note at the end of ' Losing My Mind ' often not attempted by interpreters of that particular Sondheim song . " = = Personal life = = Peters and Steve Martin began a romantic relationship in 1977 that lasted approximately four years . By 1981 , her popularity led to her appearing on the cover and in a spread in the December 1981 issue of Playboy Magazine , in which she posed in lingerie designed by Bob Mackie . Peters married investment adviser Michael Wittenberg on July 20 , 1996 at the Millbrook , New York home of long @-@ time friend Mary Tyler Moore . Wittenberg died at age 43 on September 26 , 2005 in a helicopter crash in Montenegro while on a business trip . Peters has a mixed @-@ breed dog named Charlie . Her mixed @-@ breed dog Kramer , the model of a character in her first children 's book , died in 2012 , and her American pit bull terrier Stella , the inspiration for her second book , died in 2013 . She adopted all three from shelters . = = Honorary awards = = Peters has received many honorary awards , including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1987 . She was named the Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year in 1987 . Other honors include the Sarah Siddons Award for outstanding performance in a Chicago theatrical production ( 1994 ) ; the American Theatre Hall of Fame at the Gershwin Theatre in New York City ( 1996 ) , as the youngest person so honored ; The Actors ' Fund Artistic Achievement Medal ( 1999 ) ; an Honorary Doctorate from Hofstra University ( 2002 ) ; the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame in 2002 and the National Dance Institute 2009 Artistic Honoree . She was the recipient of the " Sondheim Award " , presented by the Signature Theatre in 2011 . In 2012 , New Dramatists , an organization that supports beginning playwrights , presented Peters with their Lifetime Achievement Award , stating : " She has brought a new sound into the theatre and continues to do so , in surprising and miraculous ways . By some sleight of magic , her singularity always manages to bring out the best and richest in the work of her composers and writers . " In 2013 the Drama League gave Peters its Special Award of Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award for " her contribution to the musical theatre . " Peters was the Centennial Honoree at the Drama League Centennial Gala in 2015 . A musical tribute was presented by many of Peters ' costars over the years , including the original and current casts of Dames at Sea . The League said that Peters " exemplifies the absolute best of what American musical theater can be . " She received the 2016 John Willis Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre , presented at the Theatre World Awards on May 23 , 2016 . = = Work = = = = = Stage ( selected ) = = = = = = Filmography = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Concerts = = = Major concerts Various venues , summer of 1989 : 10 @-@ city concert tour with Peter Allen . Hollywood Bowl , Los Angeles , California on September 6 and 7 , 1996 ( solo concert ) . Carnegie Hall , New York City on December 9 , 1996 ( solo concert with guest singers / dancers , recorded on CD ) . Sydney Opera House , Sydney , Australia on January 7 and 8 , 1998 ( solo concert ) . Royal Festival Hall , London on September 17 , 1998 ( solo concert with guest singers / dancers , recorded on video ) . Radio City Music Hall , New York City on June 19 , 2002 ( solo concert with guest singers ) . Lincoln Center ( Avery Fisher Hall ) , New York City , on May 1 , 2006 ( solo concert ) . Adelaide Cabaret Festival , Adelaide , Australia , on June 6 and 7 , 2009 ( solo concert ) . Peters headlined , and the concert was televised on June 27 , 2009 on Foxtel . A DVD of the concert was released in Australia in June 2010 . Benefit concert , " Bernadette Peters : A Special Concert for Broadway Barks Because Broadway Cares " , Minskoff Theatre , New York City on November 9 , 2009 . Other notable concerts " Sondheim : A Celebration at Carnegie Hall " – June 10 , 1992 ( broadcast on PBS Great Performances in 1993 ) , singing " Not a Day Goes By " and " Sunday " " Hey Mr. Producer ! The Musical World of Cameron MacKintosh " – June 7 , 1998 , singing , among others , " Unexpected Song " , " Being Alive " and " You Gotta Have a Gimmick " Hollywood Bowl Sondheim Concert – July 8 , 2005 , performing in the " Opening Doors Medley " and " Being Alive " . " Sondheim : The Birthday Concert " , the New York Philharmonic at Lincoln Center 's Avery Fisher Hall , a celebration of Sondheim 's 80th birthday – March 15 and 16 , 2010 . Peters sang " Move On " with Mandy Patinkin and " Not a Day Goes By " . = = = Discography = = = Solo recordings Bernadette Peters ( 1980 ) MCA . Billboard 200 # 114 ( retitled and expanded as Bernadette in a 1992 CD reissue ) " Gee Whiz ! " ( " Look at His Eyes " ) ( 1980 ) Billboard Hot 100 # 31 ( single ) Now Playing ( 1981 ) MCA US Billboard 200 # 151 I 'll Be Your Baby Tonight ( 1996 ) Angel Records – Grammy Award nominee Sondheim , Etc . – Bernadette Peters Live At Carnegie Hall ( 1997 ) Angel Records – Grammy Award nominee Bernadette Peters Loves Rodgers and Hammerstein ( 2002 ) Angel Records – Grammy Award nominee Sondheim Etc . , Etc . Live At Carnegie Hall : The Rest of It ( 2005 ) Angel Records " Kramer 's Song " ( 2008 ) Blue Apple Books ( single ) " Stella 's Song " ( 2010 ) Blue Apple Books ( single ) Cast recordings George M ! – Sony ( 1968 ) Dames At Sea – Columbia Masterworks ( 1969 ) Mack and Mabel – MCA ( 1974 ) Sunday in the Park with George – RCA Records ( 1984 ) – Grammy Award winner ( Best Cast Show Album , 1985 ) Song and Dance – The Songs – RCA Victor ( 1985 ) Into The Woods – RCA Victor Records ( 1988 ) – Grammy Award winner ( Best Musical Cast Show Album , 1989 ) The Goodbye Girl – Columbia Records ( 1993 ) Anyone Can Whistle Live At Carnegie Hall – Columbia Records ( 1995 ) Annie Get Your Gun The New Broadway Cast Recording – Angel Records ( 1999 ) – Grammy Award winner ( Best Musical Show Album , 2000 ) Gypsy The New Broadway Cast Recording – Angel Records ( 2003 ) – Grammy Award winner ( Best Musical Show Album , 2004 ) Sherry ! – Studio Cast Recording – Angel Records ( 2004 ) Legends Of Broadway @-@ Bernadette Peters Compilation ( 2006 ) – Sony Masterworks Broadway ( Original versions of songs from Dames At Sea , Annie Get Your Gun , Anyone Can Whistle , Sunday in the Park with George , Mack and Mabel , Song and Dance , Into The Woods and Gypsy ) Follies – PS Classics ( 2011 ) Other recordings Dress Casual – selections from Evening Primrose with Mandy Patinkin – CBS Records ( 1990 ) Sondheim – A Celebration at Carnegie Hall ( Concert Cast ) – RCA Victor Broadway ( 1992 ) Hey Mr. Producer ! : The Musical World of Cameron Mackintosh – Philips Records ( 1998 ) Flirting with the Edge – John Whelan – Narada ( 1998 ) Dewey Doo @-@ It Helps Owlie Fly Again – Randall Fraser Publishing ( 2005 ) Born to the Breed : A Tribute to Judy Collins – Wildflower Records ( 2008 ) – " Trust Your Heart " " Eloise Stories " – audiobook , Simon & Schuster Audio ( 2015 ) = = Awards and Nominations = = = = = Theatre = = = = = = Music = = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = =
= Domhnall mac Raghnaill = Domhnall mac Raghnaill was a Hebridean noble in the late 12th- and early 13th @-@ century . He is the eponymous progenitor of Clan Donald ( Clann Dhòmhnaill , " Children of Donald " ) . For this reason some traditions accumulated around him in the Later Middle Ages and Early Modern period . Despite his role as the historical figurehead of one of the world 's most famous kindreds and surnames , there is almost no contemporary evidence yielding certain information about his life . His place in the genealogical tradition of the MacDonalds is the only reason for believing in his existence , a genealogical tradition that not all historians have accepted . Beyond his actual existence , there is little that is certain . Three entries in Irish annals may discuss him , though he is never named ; a praise poem surviving from the Early Modern period may be descended from a poem originally written for him ; a miracle in a Manx chronicle may or may not have Domhnall as its subject ; and a doubtful charter surviving from a similarly late era was allegedly issued by him . = = Origins = = Domhnall was , reputedly , the son of Raghnall ( fl . 1192 ) son of Somhairle ( died 1164 ) . The 17th @-@ century History of the Macdonalds by Hugh MacDonald of Sleat claimed that Domhnall 's father Raghnall had married a daughter or sister of the early 14th @-@ century hero Thomas Randolph , Earl of Moray . Sellar suggested that this tradition may have derived from a garbled version of reality . Perhaps , Sellar argued , his mother was a daughter of William fitz Duncan . The latter was another famous Earl of Moray , but one who lived in the 12th- rather than the 14th @-@ century . In a charter to Paisley Abbey Domhnall 's father Raghnall is given a wife named Fonia ( Fionnghuala ? ) , though there is no direct proof that this was the name of Domhnall 's mother . Domhnall 's father Raghnall , carrying the legacy of his own father Somhairle , was a powerful Argyll and Hebridean magnate who , depending on context , bore the titles " King of the Isles " , " Lord of Argyll and Kintyre " , and " lord of the Hebrides ( Inchegal ) . His father 's legacy was such that he became the ancestor figure of both Clann Ruaidhri and Clan Donald . = = Possible evidence of life = = = = = Annals of Ulster = = = There are no certain contemporary notices of Domhnall , and Domhnall 's existence is not explicitly attested in any reliable contemporary source datable to any particular year . However , in 1212 , Domhnall may have been one of the " sons of Raghnall " who suffered some kind of military defeat at the hands of the men of the Isle of Skye . The Annals of Ulster , reporting for the year 1209 , recorded that : A battle was fought by the sons of Raghnall , son of Somhairle , against the men of Skye , wherein slaughter was inflicted upon them . A similar report from the same source has the " sons of Raghnaill " join in a raid on the Irish city of Derry led by Tomás Mac Uchtraigh , brother of Alan , Lord of Galloway . Under the year 1212 it related that : Tomás Mac Uchtraigh , with the sons of Raghnall , son of Somhairle , came to Derry of St. Colum @-@ Cille with six and seventy ships and the town was greatly destroyed by them and Inis @-@ Eogain was completely destroyed by them and by the Cenél Conaill . Two years later , a similar raid by Tomás is mentioned by the same source , though the only " son of Raghnall " reported as present that time was Domhnall 's older brother , Ruaidhri mac Raghnaill . = = = Domhnall mac Raghnaill , Rosg Mall = = = A recently rediscovered poem — though from a 17th @-@ century manuscript written by Niall MacMhuirich — was addressed to one Domhnall mac Raghnaill , Rosg Mall ( " Domhnall mac Raghnaill , of the Stately Gaze " ) . It is possible that this may refer to the same Domhnall mac Raghnaill , a claim made by its recent editor . The poem gives little information . Besides associating him with Lennox , a quatrain addressed him as : Gall is a word that originally meant " Foreigner " or " Norseman " ( later " Lowlander " ) , and might be meant to refer to someone from the region of Innse Gall , i.e. from the Hebrides . It is not clear who Gofraidh or Amhlaibh Fionn are , but they may refer to some of the Norse @-@ Gaelic rulers of Mann and Dublin , possibly Amhlaibh Conung and Gofraidh Crobhán . = = = Miracle from the Manx chronicle = = = The Chronicle of the Kings of Man related a story that may have involved Domhnall . In 1249 , according to the text , following the death of Haraldr Óláfsson King of Mann , the new ruler Haraldr Guðrøðarson persecuted one of the old king 's favourite vassals . This persecuted vassal , described as an " aged man " , was named as Dofnaldus , i.e. Domhnall . Domhnall and his young son were subsequently imprisoned . Owing to the intervention of St Mary , Domhnall and his son managed to escape , and brought their thanks and story to the Abbey of St Mary of Rushen , the monastic house at which the Chronicle was kept . = = = Possible charter = = = There is a charter allegedly issued by Domhnall to Paisley Abbey , found in the cartulary of that abbey . In this charter Domhnall is given no title , instead merely described by his genealogy : Douenaldus filius Reginaldi filii Sumerledi , " Domhnall , son of Raghnall , son of Somhairle " . This charter is thought by some historians to be spurious , mainly because the witness list and wording of the charter are , in the words of Alex Woolf , " suspiciously similar " to those in a genuine charter of Domhnall 's son Aonghus Mór . Presumably , the explanation is that the monks of Paisley Abbey at some later stage may have thought it in their interest to replicate Aonghus Mór 's charter in order to add the authority of the founder of Clan Donald to their land rights . = = Death = = In 1247 Maurice fitz Gerald , Justiciar of Ireland , invaded the territory of Maoilsheachlainn Ó Domhnaill , King of Tír Chonaill , defeating and killing this Irish king at the Battle of Ballyshannon . According to the Annals of Loch Cé , one of Maoilsheachlainn 's allies who died at Ballyshannon was a Mac Somhairle , a " Descendant of Somhairle " : Mac Somhairle , king of Argyll , and the nobles of the Cenel @-@ Conaill besides , were slain . The Irish historian Seán Duffy suggested that this " Mac Somhairle " was Domhnall mac Raghnall . Duffy 's main argument is that the 17th @-@ century Book of Clanranald relayed a tradition that Domhnall had been invited by the Irish at Tara to come " to take the headship of the Western Isles and the greater part of the Gaels " . McDonald believed that this " Mac Somhairle " referred to Donnchadh mac Dubhghaill , while Sellar thought that the clear favourite for this " Mac Somhairle " should be Domhnall 's older brother Ruaidhri . Alex Woolf more recently offered an extended case for the latter view , arguing on a number of grounds that Ruaidhri is by far the best candidate . Assuming that Domhnall is not the " dead man at Ballyshannon " , the date of Domhnall 's death cannot be fixed . MacDonald tradition placed it in 1289 , a tradition usually rejected by modern historians as falling far too late . R. Andrew McDonald suggested that Domhnall 's death must have taken place before 1263 , when King Haakon collected the allegiance of Aonghus Mór in the Hebrides . Alex Woolf argued that it very likely must have occurred before February 1256 , when Domhnall 's son Aonghus Mór made a grant to Paisley Abbey is his own name as " Lord of Islay " , suggesting at the very least that Domhnall had retired . = = Legacy = = Domhnall 's main legacy is being the eponymous founding figure of the famous MacDonald kindred of Islay . Early modern MacDonald tradition thought of Domhnall as a " Lord of the Isles " , like his descendants . One such tradition related that King Alexander II of Scotland sent a messenger to Domhnall , requesting that he hold the Isles from Alexander rather than the " King of Denmark " ; Domhnall was said to have responded that his predecessors Had their rights of the Isles from the crown of Denmark , which were renewed by the present king thereof . This anachronistic portrayal of the struggle between King Haakon IV of Norway and the Scottish crown for overlordship of the western seaboard of Scotland , giving Domhnall such a senior role , does not fit with the contemporary evidence . When it was written down , Denmark ruled Norway and the MacDonalds were well established as the rulers the Isles . However , during most of his life Domhnall was probably subordinate to his older brother , Ruaidhri mac Raghnaill , and as Alex Woolf has said " there is little or no explicit contemporary evidence that Domhnall was a significant figure during his lifetime " . Nevertheless , Domhnall appears to have left his son Aonghus Mór a lordship of respectable size centred on Islay , while his reputedly younger son Alasdair Mór appears to have been left lands in Kintyre . According to a praise @-@ poem written for this son , the realm the latter inherited from Domhnall included " every house from Mull to Kintyre " ( gach teach ó Mhuile go Maoil ) .
= Ayyubid dynasty = The Ayyubid dynasty ( Arabic : الأيوبيون al @-@ Ayyūbīyūn ; Kurdish : دووگەلی ئەییووبی Dûgela Eyûbiyan ) was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin , founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt . The dynasty ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries CE . Saladin had been the vizier of Fatimid Egypt before he brought an end to Fatimid rule in 1171 . In 1174 , he proclaimed himself sultan following the death of the Ayyubids ' former master , Zengid ruler Nur al @-@ Din . The Ayyubids spent the next decade launching conquests throughout the region and by 1183 , the territories under their control included Egypt , Syria , northern Mesopotamia , Hejaz , Yemen , and the North African coast up to the borders of modern @-@ day Tunisia . Most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187 . However , the Crusaders regained control of Palestine 's coastline in the 1190s . After the death of Saladin , his sons contested control over the sultanate , but Saladin 's brother al @-@ Adil eventually established himself as sultan in 1200 and all of the later Ayyubid sultans of Egypt descended from him . In the 1230s , the Ayyubid emirs of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Sultan as @-@ Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria , except Aleppo , by 1247 . By then , local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen , the Hejaz , and parts of Mesopotamia . After his death in 1249 , as @-@ Salih Ayyub was succeeded in Egypt by al @-@ Mu 'azzam Turanshah . However , the latter was soon overthrown by the Mamluk generals who had successfully repelled a Crusader invasion of the Nile Delta . This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt and a number of attempts by the emirs of Syria , led by an @-@ Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo , to wrest back control of Egypt failed . In 1260 , the Mongols sacked Aleppo and conquered the remaining territories of the Ayyubids soon after . The Mamluks , who forced out the Mongols after the destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty , maintained the Ayyubid principality of Hama until deposing its last ruler in 1341 . During their relatively short tenure , the Ayyubids ushered in an era of economic prosperity in the lands they ruled and the facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in the Islamic world . This period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of vigorously strengthening Sunni Muslim dominance in the region by constructing numerous madrasas ( schools of Islamic law ) in their major cities . = = History = = = = = Origins = = = The progenitor of the Ayyubid dynasty , Najm ad @-@ Din Ayyub bin Shadhi , belonged to a Kurdish tribe whose ancestors settled in the town of Dvin , in northern Armenia . He belonged to the tribe of Rawadiya , itself a branch of the Hadhabani tribe . The Rawadiya were the dominant Kurdish group in the Dvin district . They were a member of the political @-@ military elite of the town . Circumstances became unfavorable in Dvin when Turkish generals seized the town from its Kurdish prince . Shadhi left with his two sons Najm al @-@ Din Ayyub and Asad ad @-@ Din Shirkuh . His friend Mujahed al @-@ Din Bihruz — the military governor of northern Mesopotamia under the Seljuks — welcomed him and appointed him governor of Tikrit . After Shadhi 's death , Ayyub succeeded him in governance of the city with the assistance of his brother Shirkuh . Together they managed the affairs of the city well , gaining them popularity from the local inhabitants . In the meantime , Imad ad @-@ Din Zangi , the ruler of Mosul , was defeated by the Abbasids under Caliph al @-@ Mustarshid and Bihruz . In his bid to escape the battlefield to Mosul via Tikrit , Zangi took shelter with Ayyub and sought his assistance in this task . Ayyub complied and provided Zangi and his companions boats to cross the Tigris River to safely reach Mosul . As a consequence for assisting Zangi , the Abbasid authorities sought punitive measures against Ayyub . Simultaneously , in a separate incident , Shirkuh killed a close confidant of Bihruz on charges that he had sexually assaulted a woman in Tikrit . The Abbasid court issued arrest warrants for both Ayyub and Shirkuh , but before the brothers could be arrested , they departed Tikrit for Mosul in 1138 . When they arrived in Mosul , Zangi provided them with all the facilities they needed and he recruited the two brothers into his service . Ayyub was made commander of Ba 'albek and Shirkuh entered the service of Zangi 's son , Nur ad @-@ Din . According to historian Abdul Ali , it was under the care and patronage of Zangi that the Ayyubid family rose into prominence . = = = Establishment in Egypt = = = In 1164 , Nur al @-@ Din dispatched Shirkuh to lead an expeditionary force to prevent the Crusaders from establishing a strong presence in an increasingly anarchic Egypt . Shirkuh enlisted Ayyub 's son , Saladin , as an officer under his command . They successfully drove out Dirgham , the vizier of Egypt , and reinstated his predecessor Shawar . After being reinstated , Shawar ordered Shirkuh to withdraw his forces from Egypt , but Shirkuh refused , claiming it was Nur al @-@ Din 's will that he remain . Over the course of several years , Shirkuh and Saladin defeated the combined forces of the Crusaders and Shawar 's troops , first at Bilbais , then at a site near Giza , and in Alexandria , where Saladin would stay to protect while Shirkuh pursued Crusader forces in Lower Egypt . Shawar died in 1169 and Shirkuh became vizier , but he too died later that year . After Shirkuh 's death , Saladin was appointed vizier by the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Adid because there was " no one weaker or younger " than Saladin , and " not one of the emirs obeyed him or served him " , according to medieval Muslim chronicler Ibn al @-@ Athir . Saladin soon found himself more independent than ever before in his career , much to the dismay of Nur al @-@ Din who attempted to influence events in Egypt . He permitted Saladin 's elder brother , Turan @-@ Shah , to supervise Saladin in a bid to cause dissension within the Ayyubid family and thus undermining its position in Egypt . Nur al @-@ Din satisfied Saladin 's request that he be joined by his father Ayyub . However , Ayyub was sent primarily to ensure that Abbasid suzerainty was proclaimed in Egypt , which Saladin was reluctant to undertake due to his position as the vizier of the Fatimids . Although Nur al @-@ Din failed to provoke the Ayyubids into rivalry , the extended Ayyubid family , particularly a number of local governors in Syria , did not entirely back Saladin . Saladin consolidated his control in Egypt after ordering Turan @-@ Shah to put down a revolt in Cairo staged by the Fatimid army 's 50 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Nubian regiments . After this success , Saladin began granting his family members high @-@ ranking positions in the country and increased Sunni Muslim influence in Shia Muslim @-@ dominated Cairo by ordering the construction of a college for the Maliki school of jurisprudence of Sunni Islam in the city , and another for the Shafi 'i school , to which he belonged , in al @-@ Fustat . In 1171 , al @-@ Adid died and Saladin took advantage of this power vacuum , effectively taking control of the country . Upon seizing power , he switched Egypt 's allegiance to the Baghdad @-@ based Abbasid Caliphate which adhered to Sunni Islam . = = = Expansion = = = = = = = Conquest of North Africa and Nubia = = = = Saladin went to Alexandria in 1171 – 72 and found himself facing the dilemma of having many supporters in the city , but little money . A family council was held there by the Ayyubid emirs of Egypt where it was decided that al @-@ Muzaffar Taqi al @-@ Din Umar , Saladin 's nephew , would launch an expedition against the coastal region of Barqa ( Cyrenaica ) west of Egypt with a force of 500 cavalry . In order to justify the raid , a letter was sent to the Bedouin tribes of Barqa , rebuking them for their robberies of travelers and ordering them to pay the alms @-@ tax ( zakat ) . The latter was to be collected from their livestock . In late 1172 , Aswan was besieged by former Fatimid soldiers from Nubia and the governor of the city , Kanz al @-@ Dawla — a former Fatimid loyalist — requested reinforcements from Saladin who complied . The reinforcements had come after the Nubians had already departed Aswan , but Ayyubid forces led by Turan @-@ Shah advanced and conquered northern Nubia after capturing the town of Ibrim . Turan @-@ Shah and his Kurdish soldiers temporarily lodged there . From Ibrim , they raided the surrounding region , halting their operations after being presented with an armistice proposal from the Dongola @-@ based Nubian king . Although Turan @-@ Shah 's initial response was hawkish , he later sent an envoy to Dongola , who upon returning , described the poverty of the city and of Nubia in general to Turan @-@ Shah . Consequently , the Ayyubids , like their Fatimid predecessors , were discouraged from further southward expansion into Nubia due to the poverty of the region , but required Nubia to guarantee the protection of Aswan and Upper Egypt . The Ayyubid garrison in Ibrim withdrew to Egypt in 1175 . In 1174 , Sharaf al @-@ Din Qaraqush , a commander under al @-@ Muzaffar Umar , conquered Tripoli from the Normans with an army of Turks and Bedouins . = = = = Conquest of Arabia = = = = In 1173 , Saladin sent Turan @-@ Shah to conquer Yemen and the Hejaz . Muslim writers Ibn al @-@ Athir and later al @-@ Maqrizi wrote that the reasoning behind the conquest of Yemen was an Ayyubid fear that should Egypt fall to Nur al @-@ Din , they could seek refuge in a faraway territory . In May 1174 , Turan @-@ Shah conquered Zabid from a Kharijite dynasty and executed its leader Mahdi Abd al @-@ Nabi , and later that year Aden was taken from the Shia Banu Karam tribe . Aden became the principal maritime port of the dynasty in the Indian Ocean and the principal city of Yemen , although the official capital of Ayyubid Yemen was Ta 'iz . The advent of the Ayyubids marked the beginning of a period of renewed prosperity in the city which saw the improvement of its commercial infrastructure , the establishment of new institutions , and the minting of its own coins . Following this prosperity , the Ayyubids implemented a new tax which was collected by galleys . Turan @-@ Shah drove out the Hamdanid rulers of Sana 'a , conquering the mountainous city in 1175 . With the conquest of Yemen , the Ayyubids developed a coastal fleet , al @-@ asakir al @-@ bahriyya , which they used to guard the sea coasts under their control and protect them from pirate raids . The conquest held great significance for Yemen because the Ayyubids managed to unite the previous three independent states ( Zabid , Aden , and Sana 'a ) under a single power . However , when Turan @-@ Shah was transferred from his governorship in Yemen in 1176 , uprisings broke out in the territory and were not quelled until 1182 when Saladin assigned his other brother Tughtekin Sayf al @-@ Islam as governor of Yemen . From Yemen , as from Egypt , the Ayyubids aimed to dominate the Red Sea trade routes which Egypt depended on and so sought to tighten their grip over the Hejaz , where an important trade stop , Yanbu , was located . To favor trade in the direction of the Red Sea , the Ayyubids built facilities along the Red Sea @-@ Indian Ocean trade routes to accompany merchants . The Ayyubids also aspired to back their claims of legitimacy within the Caliphate by having sovereignty over the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina . The conquests and economic advancements undertaken by Saladin effectively established Egypt 's hegemony in the region . = = = = Conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia = = = = Although still nominally a vassal of Nur al @-@ Din , Saladin adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy . This independence became more publicly pronounced after Nur al @-@ Din 's death in 1174 . Thereafter , Saladin set out to conquer Syria from the Zengids , and on November 23 he was welcomed in Damascus by the governor of the city . By 1175 , he had taken control of Hama and Homs , but failed to take Aleppo after besieging it . Control of Homs was handed to the descendants of Shirkuh in 1179 and Hama was given to Saladin 's nephew , al @-@ Muzaffar Umar . Saladin 's successes alarmed Emir Saif al @-@ Din of Mosul , the head of the Zengids at the time , who regarded Syria as his family 's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al @-@ Din . He mustered an army to confront Saladin near Hama . Although heavily outnumbered , Saladin and his veteran soldiers decisively defeated the Zengids . After his victory , he proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of as @-@ Salih Ismail al @-@ Malik ( Nur al @-@ Din 's adolescent son ) in Friday prayers and Islamic coinage , replacing it with his own name . The Abbasid caliph , al @-@ Mustadi , graciously welcomed Saladin 's assumption of power and gave him the title of " Sultan of Egypt and Syria " . In the spring of 1176 , another major confrontation occurred between the Zengids and the Ayyubids , this time at the Sultan 's Mound , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Aleppo . Saladin again emerged victorious , but Saif al @-@ Din managed to narrowly escape . The Ayyubids proceeded to conquer other Syrian cities in the north , namely Ma 'arat al @-@ Numan , A 'zaz , Buza 'a , and Manbij , but failed to capture Aleppo during a second siege . An agreement was laid out , however , whereby Gumushtigin , the governor of Aleppo , and his allies at Hisn Kayfa and Mardin , would recognize Saladin as the sovereign of the Ayyubids ' possessions in Syria , while Saladin allowed for Gumushtigin and as @-@ Salih al @-@ Malik to continue their rule over Aleppo . While Saladin was in Syria , his brother al @-@ Adil governed Egypt , and in 1174 – 75 , Kanz al @-@ Dawla of Aswan revolted against the Ayyubids with the intention of restoring Fatimid rule . His main backers were the local Bedouin tribes and the Nubians , but he also enjoyed the support of a multitude of other groups , including the Armenians . Coincidental or possibly in coordination , was an uprising by Abbas ibn Shadi who overran Qus along the Nile River in central Egypt . Both rebellions were crushed by al @-@ Adil . For the rest of that year and throughout early 1176 , Qaraqush continued his raids in western North Africa , bringing the Ayyubids into conflict with the Almohads who ruled the Maghreb . In 1177 , Saladin led a force of some 26 @,@ 000 soldiers , according to Crusader chronicler William of Tyre , into southern Palestine after hearing that most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem 's soldiers were besieging Harim north of Aleppo . Suddenly attacked by the Templars under Baldwin IV of Jerusalem near Ramla , the Ayyubid army was defeated at the Battle of Montgisard , with the majority of its troops killed . Saladin encamped at Homs the following year and a number of skirmishes between his forces , commanded by Farrukh Shah , and the Crusaders occurred . Undeterred , Saladin invaded the Crusader states from the west and defeated Baldwin at the Battle of Marj Ayyun in 1179 . The following year , he destroyed the newly built Crusader castle of Chastellet at the Battle of Jacob 's Ford . In the campaign of 1182 , he sparred with Baldwin again in the inconclusive Battle of Belvoir Castle in Kawkab al @-@ Hawa . The Ayyubid na 'ib ( deputy governor ) of Yemen , Uthman al @-@ Zandjili , conquered the greater part of Hadramaut in 1180 , upon Turan @-@ Shah 's return to Yemen . In May 1182 , Saladin captured Aleppo after a brief siege ; the new governor of the city , Imad al @-@ Din Zangi II , had been unpopular with his subjects and surrendered Aleppo after Saladin agreed to restore Zangi II 's previous control over Sinjar , al @-@ Raqqah , and Nusaybin , which would thereafter serve as vassal territories of the Ayyubids . Aleppo formally entered Ayyubid hands on 12 June . The day after , Saladin marched to Harim , near the Crusader @-@ held Antioch and captured the city when its garrison forced out their leader , Surhak , who was then briefly detained and released by al @-@ Muzaffar Umar . The surrender of Aleppo and Saladin 's allegiance with Zangi II had left Izz al @-@ Din al @-@ Mas 'ud of Mosul the only major Muslim rival of the Ayyubids . Mosul had been subjected to a short siege in the autumn of 1182 , but after mediation by the Abbasid caliph an @-@ Nasir , Saladin withdrew his forces . Mas 'ud attempted to align himself with the Artuqids of Mardin , but they became allies of Saladin instead . In 1183 , Irbil too switched allegiance to the Ayyubids . Mas 'ud then sought the support of Pahlawan ibn Muhammad , the governor of Azerbaijan , and although he did not usually intervene in the region , the possibility of Pahlawan 's intervention made Saladin cautious about launching further attacks against Mosul . An arrangement was negotiated whereby al @-@ Adil was to administer Aleppo in the name of Saladin 's son al @-@ Afdal , while Egypt would be governed by al @-@ Muzaffar Umar in the name of Saladin 's other son Uthman . When the two sons were to come of age they would assume power in the two territories , but if any died , one of Saladin 's brothers would take their place . In the summer of 1183 , after ravaging eastern Galilee , Saladin 's raids there culminated in the Battle of al @-@ Fule in the Jezreel Valley between him and the Crusaders under Guy of Lusignan . The mostly hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ended indecisively . The two armies withdrew to a mile from each other and while the Crusaders discussed internal matters , Saladin captured the Golan Plateau , cutting the Crusaders off from their main supplies source . In October 1183 and then on 13 August 1184 , Saladin and al @-@ Adil besieged Crusader @-@ held Karak , but were unable to capture it . Afterward , the Ayyubids raided Samaria , burning down Nablus . Saladin returned to Damascus in September 1184 and a relative peace between the Crusader states and the Ayyubid empire subsequently ensued in 1184 – 1185 . Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185 , hoping for an easy victory over a presumably demoralized Mas 'ud , but failed due to the city 's unexpectedly stiff resistance and a serious illness which caused Saladin to withdraw to Harran . Upon Abbasid encouragement , Saladin and Mas 'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul , but under the obligation to supply the Ayyubids with military support when requested . = = = = Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan = = = = Saladin besieged Tiberias in the eastern Galilee on 3 July 1187 and the Crusader army attempted to attack the Ayyubids by way of Kafr Kanna . After hearing of the Crusaders ' march , Saladin led his guard back to their main camp at Kafr Sabt , leaving a small detachment at Tiberias . With a clear view of the Crusader army , Saladin ordered al @-@ Muzaffar Umar to block the Crusaders ' entry from Hattin by taking a position near Lubya , while Gokbori and his troops were stationed at a hill near al @-@ Shajara . On 4 July the Crusaders advanced toward the Horns of Hattin and charged against the Muslim forces , but were overwhelmed and defeated decisively . Four days after the battle , Saladin invited al @-@ Adil to join him in the reconquest of Palestine . On 8 July the Crusader stronghold of Acre was captured by Saladin , while his forces seized Nazareth and Saffuriya ; other brigades took Haifa , Caesarea , Sebastia and Nablus , while al @-@ Adil conquered Mirabel and Jaffa . On 26 July Saladin returned to the coast and received the surrender of Sarepta , Sidon , Beirut , and Jableh . In August , the Ayyubids conquered Ramla , Darum , Gaza , Bayt Jibrin , and Latrun . Ascalon was taken on 4 September . In September – October 1187 , the Ayyubids besieged Jerusalem , taking possession of it on 2 October after negotiations with Balian of Ibelin . Karak and Mont Real in Transjordan soon fell , followed by Safad in the northeastern Galilee . By the end of 1187 the Ayyubids were in control of virtually the entire Crusader kingdom in the Levant with the exception of Tyre , which held out under Conrad of Montferrat . In December , an Ayyubid army consisting of the garrisons of Saladin and his brothers from Aleppo , Hama , and Egypt besieged Tyre . Half of the Muslim naval fleet was seized by Conrad 's forces on 29 December , followed by an Ayyubid defeat on the shoreline of the city . On 1 January 1188 , Saladin held a war council where a withdrawal from Tripoli was agreed . While they fought the Crusaders in the Levant , the Ayyubids under Sharaf al @-@ Din wrested control of Kairouan from the Almohads in North Africa . = = = = Third Crusade = = = = Pope Gregory VIII called for a Third Crusade against the Muslims in early 1189 . Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire , Philip Augustus of France , and Richard the Lionheart of England formed an alliance to reconquer Jerusalem . Meanwhile , the Crusaders and the Ayyubids fought near Acre that year and were joined by the reinforcements from Europe . From 1189 to 1191 , Acre was besieged by the Crusaders , and despite initial Muslim successes , it fell to Richard 's forces . A massacre of 2 @,@ 700 Muslim inhabitants ensued , and the Crusaders then planned to take Ascalon in the south . The Crusaders , now under the unified command of Richard , defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf , allowing for the Crusader conquest of Jaffa and much of coastal Palestine , but they were unable to recover the interior regions . Instead , Richard signed a treaty with Saladin in 1192 , restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to a coastal strip between Jaffa and Beirut . It was the last major war effort of Saladin 's career , as he died the next year , in 1193 . = = = Quarrels over the sultanate = = = Rather than establishing a centralized empire , Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands , dividing his empire among his kinsmen , with family members presiding over semi @-@ autonomous fiefs and principalities . Although these princes ( emirs ) owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan , they maintained relative independence in their own territories . Upon Saladin 's death , az @-@ Zahir took Aleppo from al @-@ Adil per the arrangement and al @-@ Aziz Uthman held Cairo , while his eldest son , al @-@ Afdal retained Damascus , which also included Palestine and much of Mount Lebanon . Al @-@ Adil then acquired known as al @-@ Jazira ( upper Mesopotamia ) , where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay . In 1193 , Mas 'ud of Mosul joined forces with Zangi II of Sinjar and together the Zengid coalition moved to conquer al @-@ Jazira . However , before any major results could be achieved , Mas 'ud fell ill and returned to Mosul , and al @-@ Adil then compelled Zangi to make a quick peace before the Zengids suffered territorial losses at the hands of the Ayyubids . Al @-@ Adil 's son al @-@ Mu 'azzam took possession of Karak and Transjordan . Soon , however , Saladin 's sons squabbled over the division of the empire . Saladin had appointed al @-@ Afdal to the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the jihad ( holy struggle ) against the Crusader states . Al @-@ Afdal , however , found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing . Several of his father 's subordinate emirs left the city for Cairo to lobby Uthman to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and intended to oust the Ayyubid old guard . Al @-@ Adil further encouraged Uthman to act in order prevent al @-@ Afdal 's incompetence putting the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy . Thus , in 1194 , Uthman openly demanded the sultanate . Uthman 's claim to the throne was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196 , forcing al @-@ Afdal to leave for a lesser post at Salkhad . Al @-@ Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of Uthman , but wielded great influence within the empire . When Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo , al @-@ Afdal was again made sultan ( although Uthman 's son al @-@ Mansur was the nominal ruler of Egypt ) , al @-@ Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast . Al @-@ Adil returned and managed to occupy the Citadel of Damascus , but then faced a strong assault from the combined forces of al @-@ Afdal and his brother az @-@ Zahir of Aleppo . These forces disintegrated under al @-@ Afdal 's leadership and in 1200 , al @-@ Adil resumed his offensive . Upon Uthman 's death , two clans of mamluks ( slave soldiers ) entered into conflict . They were the Asadiyya and Salahiyya , both of which Shirkuh and Saladin had purchased . The Salahiyya backed al @-@ Adil in his struggles against al @-@ Afdal . With their support , al @-@ Adil conquered Cairo in 1200 , and forced al @-@ Afdal to accept internal banishment . He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al @-@ Mu 'azzam and al @-@ Jazira to his other son al @-@ Kamil . Also around 1200 , a sharif ( tribal head related to the Islamic prophet Muhammad ) , Qatada ibn Idris , seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the emir of the city by al @-@ Adil . Al @-@ Afdal strove to retrieve Damascus a final time , but failed . Al @-@ Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201 . Thereafter , al @-@ Adil 's line , rather than Saladin 's line , dominated the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule . However , az @-@ Zahir still held Aleppo and al @-@ Afdal was given Samosata in Anatolia . Al @-@ Adil redistributed his possessions between his sons : al @-@ Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt , al @-@ Ashraf received al @-@ Jazira , and al @-@ Awhad was given Diyar Bakr , but the latter territory shifted to al @-@ Ashraf 's domain after al @-@ Awhad died . Al @-@ Adil aroused open hostility from the Hanbali lobby in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders , having launched only one campaign against them . Al @-@ Adil believed that the Crusader army could not be defeated in a direct fight . Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Muslim coalition . The trend under al @-@ Adil was the steady growth of the empire , mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al @-@ Jazira and Armenia . The Abbasids eventually recognized al @-@ Adil 's role as sultan in 1207 . A Crusader military campaign was launched on 3 November 1217 , beginning with an offensive towards Transjordan . Al @-@ Mu 'azzam urged al @-@ Adil to launch a counter @-@ attack , but he rejected his son 's proposal . In 1218 , the fortress of Damietta in the Nile Delta was besieged by the Crusaders . After two failed attempts , the fortress eventually capitulated on 25 August . Six days later al @-@ Adil died of apparent shock at Damietta 's loss . Al @-@ Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo , while his brother al @-@ Mu 'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus . Al @-@ Kamil attempted to retake Damietta , but was forced back by John of Brienne . After learning of a conspiracy against him , he fled , leaving the Egyptian army leaderless . Panic ensued , but with the help of al @-@ Mu 'azzam , al @-@ Kamil regrouped his forces . By then , however , the Crusaders had seized his camp . The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for a withdrawal from Damietta , offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem , with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Karak . This was refused by the leader of the Fifth Crusade , Pelagius of Albano , and in 1221 , the Crusaders were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at Mansura . = = = Disintegration = = = = = = = Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem = = = = In the east , the Khwarezemids under Jalal ad @-@ Din Mingburnu captured the town of Khilat from al @-@ Ashraf , while the normally loyalist Rasulids began to encroach on Ayyubid territorial holdings in Arabia . In 1222 the Ayyubids appointed the Rasulid leader Ali Bin Rasul as governor of Mecca . Ayyubid rule in Yemen and the Hejaz was declining and the Ayyubid governor of Yemen , Mas 'ud bin Kamil , was forced to leave for Egypt in 1223 . He appointed Nur ad @-@ Din Umar as his deputy governor while he was absent . In 1224 the local al @-@ Yamani dynasty gained control of Hadramaut from the Ayyubids who had held it loosely due to the troubled situation of their administration in Yemen proper . Following Mas 'ud bin Kamil 's death in 1229 , Nur ad @-@ Din Umar declared himself the independent ruler of Yemen and discontinued the annual tribute payment to the Ayyubid sultanate in Egypt . Under Frederick II , a Sixth Crusade was launched , capitalizing on the ongoing internal strife between al @-@ Kamil of Egypt and al @-@ Mu 'azzam of Syria . Subsequently , al @-@ Kamil offered Jerusalem to Frederick to avoid a Syrian invasion of Egypt , but the latter refused . Al @-@ Kamil 's position was strengthened when al @-@ Mu 'azzam died in 1227 and was succeeded by his son an @-@ Nasir Dawud . Al @-@ Kamil continued negotiations with Frederick II in Acre in 1228 , leading to a truce agreement signed in February 1229 . The agreement gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years , but also guaranteed Muslims control over Islamic holy places in the city . Although the treaty was virtually meaningless in military terms , an @-@ Nasir Dawud used it to provoke the sentiments of Syria 's inhabitants and a Friday sermon by a popular preacher at the Umayyad Mosque " reduced the crowd to violent sobbing and tears " . The settlement with the Crusaders was accompanied by a proposed redistribution of the Ayyubid principalities whereby Damascus and its territories would by governed by al @-@ Ashraf , who recognized al @-@ Kamil 's sovereignty . An @-@ Nasir Dawud resisted the settlement , incensed by the Ayyubid @-@ Crusader truce . Al @-@ Kamil 's forces reached Damascus to enforce the proposed agreement in May 1229 . The siege put great pressure on the city , but the inhabitants rallied to an @-@ Nasir Dawud , supportive of al @-@ Mu 'azzam 's stable rule and angered at the treaty with Frederick . After one month , however , an @-@ Nasir Dawud sued for a peaceful outcome and was given a new principality centered around Karak , while al @-@ Ashraf , the governor of Diyar Bakr , assumed the governorship of Damascus . Meanwhile , the Seljuks were advancing towards al @-@ Jazira , and the descendants of Qatada ibn Idris fought with their Ayyubid overlords over control of Mecca . The conflict between them was taken advantage of by the Rasulids of Yemen who attempted to end Ayyubid suzerainty in the Hejaz and bring the region under their control which they accomplished in 1238 when Nur al @-@ Din Umar captured Mecca . = = = = Syro @-@ Egyptian divide = = = = Al @-@ Ashraf 's rule in Damascus was stable , but he and the other emirs of Syria sought to assert their independence from Cairo . Amid these tensions , al @-@ Ashraf died in August 1237 after a four @-@ month illness and was succeeded by his brother as @-@ Salih Ismail . Two months later , al @-@ Kamil 's Egyptian army arrived and besieged Damascus , but as @-@ Salih Ismail had destroyed the suburbs of the city to deny al @-@ Kamil 's forces shelter . In 1232 , al @-@ Kamil installed his eldest son as @-@ Salih Ayyub to govern Hisn Kayfa , but upon al @-@ Kamil 's death in 1238 , as @-@ Salih Ayyub disputed the proclamation of younger brother al @-@ Adil II as sultan in Cairo . As @-@ Salih Ayyub eventually occupied Damascus in December 1238 , but his uncle Ismail retrieved the city in September 1239 . Ismail 's cousin an @-@ Nasir Dawud had Ismail detained in Karak in a move to prevent the latter 's arrest by al @-@ Adil II . Ismail entered into an alliance with Dawud who released him the following year , allowing him to proclaim himself sultan in place of al @-@ Adil II in May 1240 . Throughout the early 1240s , as @-@ Salih Ayyub carried out reprisals against those who supported al @-@ Adil II , and he then quarreled with an @-@ Nasir Dawud who had reconciled with as @-@ Salih Ismail of Damascus . The rival sultans as @-@ Salih Ayyub and Ismail attempted to ally with the Crusaders against the other . In 1244 , the breakaway Ayyubids of Syria allied with the Crusaders and confronted the coalition of as @-@ Salih Ayyub and the Khwarizmids at Hirbiya , near Gaza . A large battle ensued , resulting in a major victory for as @-@ Salih Ayyub and the virtual collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . = = = = Restoration of unity = = = = In 1244 – 1245 , as @-@ Salih Ayyub had seized the area approximate to the modern @-@ day West Bank from an @-@ Nasir Dawud ; he gained possession of Jerusalem , then marched on to take Damascus , which fell with relative ease in October 1245 . Shortly afterward , Sayf al @-@ Din Ali surrendered his exposed principality of Ajlun and its fortress to as @-@ Salih Ayyub . The rupture of the alliance between the Khwarizmids and as @-@ Salih Ayyub ended with the virtual destruction of the former by al @-@ Mansur Ibrahim , the Ayyubid emir of Homs , in October 1246 . With the Khwarizimid defeat , as @-@ Salih Ayyub was able to complete the conquest of southern Syria . His general Fakhr ad @-@ Din went on to subdue an @-@ Nasir Dawud 's territories . He sacked the lower town of Karak , then besieged its fortress . A stalemate followed with neither an @-@ Nasir Dawud or Fakhr ad @-@ Din strong enough to dislodge the other 's forces . A settlement was eventually reached whereby an @-@ Nasir Dawud would retain the fortress , but cede the remainder of his principality to as @-@ Salih Ayyub . Having settled the situation in Palestine and Transjordan , Fakhr ad @-@ Din moved north and marched to Bosra , the last place still held by Ismail . During the siege , Fakhr ad @-@ Din fell ill , but his commanders continued the assault against the city , which fell in December 1246 . By May 1247 , as @-@ Salih Ayyub was master of Syria south of Lake Homs , having gained control over Banyas and Salkhad . With his fellow Ayyubid opponents subdued , except for Aleppo under an @-@ Nasir Yusuf , as @-@ Salih Ayyub undertook a limited offensive against the Crusaders , sending Fakhr ad @-@ Din to move against their territories in the Galilee . Tiberias fell on 16 June , followed by Mount Tabor and Kawkab al @-@ Hawa soon thereafter . Safad with its Templar fortress seemed out of reach , so the Ayyubids marched south to Ascalon . Facing stubborn resistance from the Crusader garrison , an Egyptian flotilla was sent by as @-@ Salih Ayyub to support the siege and on 24 October , Fakhr ad @-@ Din 's troops stormed through a breach in the walls and killed or captured the entire garrison . The city was razed and left deserted . As @-@ Salih Ayyub returned to Damascus to keep an eye on developments in northern Syria . Al @-@ Ashraf Musa of Homs had ceded the important stronghold of Salamiyyah to as @-@ Salih Ayyub the previous winter , perhaps to underline their patron @-@ client relationship . This troubled the Ayyubids of Aleppo who feared it would be used as a base for a military take @-@ over of their city . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf found this intolerable and decided to annex Homs in the winter of 1248 . The city surrendered in August and an @-@ Nasir Yusuf 's terms forced al @-@ Ashraf Musa to hand over Homs , but he was allowed to retain nearby Palmyra and Tell Bashir in the Syrian Desert . As @-@ Salih Ayyub sent Fakhr ad @-@ Din to recapture Homs , but Aleppo countered by sending an army to Kafr Tab , south of the city . An @-@ Nasir Dawud left Karak for Aleppo to support an @-@ Nasir Yusuf , but in his absence , his brothers al @-@ Amjad Hasan and az @-@ Zahir Shadhi detained his heir al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa and then personally went to as @-@ Salih Ayyub 's camp at al @-@ Mansourah in Egypt to offer him control of Karak in return for holdings in Egypt . As @-@ Salih Ayyub agreed and sent the eunuch Badr al @-@ Din Sawabi to act as his governor in Karak . = = = Fall = = = = = = = Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt = = = = In 1248 , a Crusader fleet of 1 @,@ 800 boats and ships arrived in Cyprus with the intent of launching a Seventh Crusade against the Muslims by conquering Egypt . Their commander , Louis IX , attempted to enlist the Mongols to launch a coordinated attack on Egypt , but when this failed to materialize , the Crusader force sailed to Damietta and the local population there fled as soon as they landed . When as @-@ Salih Ayyub , who was in Syria at the time , heard of this , he rushed back to Egypt , avoiding Damietta , instead reaching Mansurah . There , he organized an army and raised a commando force which harassed the Crusaders . As @-@ Salih Ayyub was ill and his health deteriorated further due to the mounting pressure from the Crusader offensive . His wife Shajar al @-@ Durr called a meeting of all the war generals and thus became commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Egyptian forces . She ordered the fortification of Mansurah and then stored large quantities of provisions and concentrated her forces there . She also organized a fleet of war galleys and scattered them at various strategic points along the Nile River . Crusader attempts to capture Mansurah were thwarted and King Louis found himself in a critical position . He managed to cross the Nile to launch a surprise attack against Mansurah . Meanwhile , as @-@ Salih Ayyub died , but Shajar al @-@ Durr and as @-@ Salih Ayyub 's Bahri Mamluk generals , including Rukn al @-@ Din Baybars and Aybak , countered the assault and inflicted heavy losses on the Crusaders . Simultaneously , Egyptian forces cut off the Crusader 's line of supply from Damietta , preventing the arrival of reinforcements . As @-@ Salih Ayyub 's son and the newly proclaimed Ayyubid sultan al @-@ Mu 'azzam Turan @-@ Shah reached Mansurah at this point and intensified the battle against the Crusaders . The latter ultimately surrendered at the Battle of Fariskur , and King Louis and his companions were arrested . Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Turan @-@ Shah alienated the Mamluks soon after their victory at Mansurah and constantly threatened them and Shajar al @-@ Durr . Fearing for their positions of power , the Bahri Mamluks revolted against the sultan and killed him in April 1250 . Aybak married Shajar al @-@ Durr and subsequently took over the government in Egypt in the name of al @-@ Ashraf II who became sultan , but only nominally . = = = = Dominance of Aleppo = = = = Intent on restoring the supremacy of Saladin 's direct descendants within the Ayyubid family , an @-@ Nasir Yusuf was eventually able to enlist the backing of all of the Syria @-@ based Ayyubid emirs in a common cause against Mamluk @-@ dominated Egypt . By 1250 , he took Damascus with relative ease and except for Hama and Transjordan , an @-@ Nasir Yusuf 's direct authority stood unbroken from the Khabur River in northern Mesopotamia to the Sinai Peninsula . In December 1250 , he attacked Egypt after hearing of al @-@ Mu 'azzam Turan @-@ Shah 's death and the ascension of Shajar al @-@ Durr . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf 's army was much larger and better @-@ equipped than that of the Egyptian army , consisting of the forces of Aleppo , Homs , Hama , and those of Saladin 's only surviving sons , Nusrat ad @-@ Din and Turan @-@ Shah ibn Salah ad @-@ Din . Nonetheless , it suffered a major defeat at the hands of Aybak 's forces . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf subsequently returned to Syria , which was slowly slipping out of his control . The Mamluks forged an alliance with the Crusaders in March 1252 and agreed to jointly launch a campaign against an @-@ Nasir Yusuf . King Louis , who had been released after al @-@ Mu 'azzam Turan @-@ Shah 's murder , led his army to Jaffa , while Aybak intended to send his forces to Gaza . Upon hearing of the alliance , an @-@ Nasir Yusuf immediately dispatched a force to Tell al @-@ Ajjul , just outside Gaza , in order to prevent the junction of the Mamluk and Crusader armies . Meanwhile , the rest of the Ayyubid army was stationed in the Jordan Valley . Realizing that a war between them would greatly benefit the Crusaders , Aybak and an @-@ Nasir Yusuf accepted Abbasid mediation via Najm ad @-@ Din al @-@ Badhirai . In April 1253 , a treaty was signed whereby the Mamluks would retain control over all of Egypt and Palestine up to , but not including , Nablus , while an @-@ Nasir Yusuf would be confirmed as the ruler of Muslim Syria . Thus , Ayyubid rule was officially ended in Egypt . After conflict arose between the Mamluks and the Ayyubids reignited , al @-@ Badhirai arranged another treaty , this time giving an @-@ Nasir Yusuf control of the Mamluks ' territories in Palestine and al @-@ Arish in Sinai . Instead of placing Ayyubids in charge , however , an @-@ Nasir Yusuf handed Jerusalem to a Mamluk named Kutuk while Nablus and Jenin were given to Baibars . For over a year after the settlement with the Mamluks , calm settled over an @-@ Nasir Yusuf 's reign , but on 11 December 1256 he sent two envoys to the Abbasids in Baghdad seeking formal investiture from the caliph , al @-@ Musta 'sim , for his role as " Sultan " . This request was connected to an @-@ Nasir 's rivalry with Aybak , as the title would be useful in future disputes with the Mamluks . However , the Mamluks had sent their envoys to Baghdad previously to precisely ensure that an @-@ Nasir Yusuf would not gain the title , putting al @-@ Musta 'sim in a difficult position . In early 1257 , Aybak was killed in a conspiracy , and was succeeded by his 15 @-@ year @-@ old son , al @-@ Mansur Ali , while Saif ad @-@ Din Qutuz held an influential position . Soon after al @-@ Mansur Ali 's ascendancy rumors of another conspiracy to which an @-@ Nasir Yusuf had an alleged connection emerged . The accused conspirator , al @-@ Mansur Ali 's vizier , Sharaf ad @-@ Din al @-@ Fa 'izi , was strangled by Egyptian authorities . The Bahri Mamluks in Syria led by Baibars pressured an @-@ Nasir Yusuf to intervene by invading Egypt , but he would not act , fearing the Bahri dynasty would usurp his throne if they gained Egypt . = = = = Karak asserts independence = = = = Relations between an @-@ Nasir Yusuf and the Bahri Mamluks grew tense after the former refused to invade Egypt . In October 1257 , Baibars and his fellow Mamluks left Damascus or were expelled from the city and together they moved south to Jerusalem . When the governor Kutuk refused to aid them against an @-@ Nasir Yusuf , Baibars deposed him and had al @-@ Mugith Umar , the emir of Karak , pronounced in the khutba at the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque ; over the years , al @-@ Mugith Umar had allowed the political dissidents of Cairo and Damascus , who sought protection from either the Mamluk and Ayyubid authorities , a safe haven within his territory . Soon after gaining Jerusalem , Baibars conquered Gaza and an @-@ Nasir Yusuf sent his army to Nablus in response . A battle ensued and the Mamluks ultimately fled across the Jordan River to the Balqa area . From there they reached Zughar at the southern tip of the Dead Sea where they sent their submission to Karak . Al @-@ Mughith Umar 's new relationship with Baibars solidified his independence from an @-@ Nasir Yusuf 's Syria . To ensure his independence , al @-@ Mughith Umar began to distribute the territories of Palestine and Transjordan among the Bahri Mamluks . The new allies assembled a small army and headed for Egypt . In spite of initial gains in Palestine and al @-@ Arish , they withdrew after seeing how overwhelmingly outnumbered they were by the Egyptian army . Al @-@ Mughith Umar and Baibars were not discouraged , however , and launched an army 1 @,@ 500 regular cavalry to Sinai at the beginning of 1258 , but again were defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt . = = = = Mongol invasion and fall of the empire = = = = The Ayyubids had been under the nominal sovereignty of the Mongol Empire after a Mongol force targeted Ayyubid territories in Anatolia in 1244 . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf sent an embassy to the Mongol capital Karakorum in 1250 , shortly after assuming power . These understandings did not last , however , and the Mongol Great Khan , Möngke , issued a directive to his brother Hulagu to extend the realms of the empire to the Nile River . The latter raised an army of 120 @,@ 000 and in 1258 , sacked Baghdad and slaughtered its inhabitants , including Caliph al @-@ Musta 'sim and most of his family after the Ayyubids failed to assemble an army to protect the city . That same year the Ayyubids lost Diyar Bakr to the Mongols . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf sent a delegation to Hulagu afterward , repeating his protestations to submission . Hulagu refused to accept the terms and so an @-@ Nasir Yusuf called on Cairo for aid . This plea coincided with a successful coup by the Cairo @-@ based Mamluks against the remaining symbolic Ayyubid leadership in Egypt , with strongman Qutuz officially taking power . Meanwhile , an Ayyubid army was assembled at Birzeh , just north of Damascus to defend the city against the Mongols who were now marching towards northern Syria . Aleppo was soon besieged within a week and in January 1260 it fell to the Mongols . The Great Mosque and the Citadel of Aleppo were razed and most of the inhabitants were killed or sold into slavery . The destruction of Aleppo caused panic in Muslim Syria ; The Ayyubid emir of Homs , al @-@ Ashraf Musa , offered to ally with Mongols at the approach of their army and was allowed to continue governance of the city by Hulagu . Hama also capitulated without resisting , but did not join forces with the Mongols . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf opted to flee Damascus to seek protection in Gaza . Hulagu departed for Karakorum and left Kitbuqa , a Nestorian Christian general , to continue the Mongol conquest . Damascus capitulated after the arrival of the Mongol army , but was not sacked like other captured Muslim cities . However , from Gaza , an @-@ Nasir Yusuf managed to rally the small garrison he left in the Citadel of Damascus to rebel against the Mongol occupation . The Mongols retaliated by launching a massive artillery assault on the citadel and when it became apparent that an @-@ Nasir Yusuf was unable to relieve the city with a newly assembled army , the garrison surrendered . The Mongols proceeded by conquering Samaria , killing most of the Ayyubid garrison in Nablus , and then advanced south , as far as Gaza , unhindered . An @-@ Nasir Yusuf was soon captured by the Mongols and used to persuade the garrison at Ajlun to capitulate . Afterward , the junior Ayyubid governor of Banyas allied with the Mongols , who had now gained control of most of Syria and al @-@ Jazira , effectively ending Ayyubid power in the region . On 3 September 1260 , the Egypt @-@ based Mamluk army led by Qutuz and Baibars challenged Mongol authority and decisively defeated their forces in the Battle of Ain Jalut , outside of Zir 'in in the Jezreel Valley . Five days later , the Mamluks took Damascus and within a month , most of Syria was in Bahri Mamluk hands . Meanwhile , an @-@ Nasir Yusuf was killed in captivity . = = = Remnants of the dynasty = = = Many of the Ayyubid emirs of Syria were discredited by Qutuz for collaborating with the Mongols , but since al @-@ Ashraf Musa defected and fought alongside the Mamluks at Ain Jalut , he was allowed to continue his rule over Homs . Al @-@ Mansur of Hama had fought alongside the Mamluks from the start of their conquest and because of this , Hama continued to be ruled by the Ayyubid descendants of al @-@ Muzaffar Umar . After al @-@ Ashraf Musa 's death in 1262 , the new Mamluk sultan , Baibars , annexed Homs . The next year , al @-@ Mughith Umar was tricked into surrendering Karak to Baibars and was executed soon after for having previously sided with the Mongols . The last Ayyubid ruler of Hama died in 1299 and Hama briefly passed through direct Mamluk suzerainty . However , in 1310 , under the patronage of the Mamluk sultan al @-@ Nasir Muhammad , Hama was restored to the Ayyubids under the well @-@ known geographer and author Abu al @-@ Fida . The latter died in 1331 and was succeeded by his son al @-@ Afdal Muhammad , who eventually lost the favor of his Mamluk overlords . He was removed from his post in 1341 and Hama was formally placed under Mamluk rule . In southeastern Anatolia , the Ayyubids continued to rule the principality of Hisn Kayfa and managed to remain an autonomous entity , independent of the Mongol Ilkhanate , which ruled northern Mesopotamia until the 1330s . After the breakup of the Ilkhanate , their former vassals in the area , the Artuqids , waged war against the Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa in 1334 , but were decisively defeated , with the Ayyubids gaining the Artuqids ' possessions on the left bank of the Tigris River . In the 14th century , the Ayyubids rebuilt the castle of Hisn Kayfa which served as their stronghold . The Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa were vassals of the Mamluks and later the Dulkadirids until being supplanted by the Ottoman Empire in the early 16th century . = = Culture = = = = = Government = = = = = = = Structure = = = = Saladin structured the Ayyubid empire around the concept of collective sovereignty i.e. a confederation of principalities held together by the idea of family rule . Under this arrangement there existed numerous " petty sultans " while one family member , as @-@ Sultan al @-@ Mu 'azzam , reigned supreme . After the death of Saladin , this coveted position became open to whomever was strong enough to seize it . Subsequent rivalry between the Ayyubids of Syria and Egypt reached a point where the rulers of each territory would at times collude with Crusaders against the other . Ayyubid rule differed in these two regions . In Syria , each major city was ruled as a relatively independent principality under an Ayyubid family member , while in Egypt the long tradition of centralized rule enabled the Ayyubids to maintain direct control over the province from Cairo . It was Baghdad , seat of the Caliphate , however , that exercised cultural and political hegemony over the Ayyubid territories , particularly those in Southwest Asia . For instance , the qadi ( " chief justice " ) of Damascus was still appointed by the Abbasids during Ayyubid rule . Political power was concentrated in the Ayyubid household which was not necessarily characterized only by blood relation ; slaves and intimates could acquire great , and even supreme power within it . It was a common occurrence for the mothers of young Ayyubid rulers to act as independent powers or in a few cases , rulers in their own right . Eunuchs exercised substantial power under the Ayyubids , serving as attendants and atabegs within the household or as emirs , governors , and army commanders outside the household . One of Saladin 's most important supporters was the eunuch Baha ad @-@ Din ibn Shaddad who helped him depose the Fatimids , dispossess their properties , and construct the wall of Cairo 's citadel . Following the death of al @-@ Aziz Uthman , he became the regent of his son al @-@ Mansur and effectively ruled over Egypt for a short time before the arrival of al @-@ Adil . Later sultans appointed eunuchs as deputy sultans and even awarded them sovereignty over certain cities , such as Shams al @-@ Din Sawab who was given the Jaziran cities of Amid and Diyar Bakr in 1239 . The Ayyubids had three principal means of recruiting the educated elites whom they needed to administer their cities and towns . Some of these local leaders , known as shaykhs , entered the service of an Ayyubid ruling household and thus their bids for power were supported from Ayyubid household revenues and influence . Others were paid directly out of revenues made from the diwan , a high governmental body of the state . The third method was assignment to the shaykhs of the revenues of charitable endowments , known as waqfs . The Ayyubids , like their various predecessors in the region , had relatively few state agencies by which they could penetrate their cities and towns . To link themselves with the educated elite of their cities , they relied on the political usage of patronage practices . The assignment of waqf revenue to this elite was similar to the assignment of fiefs ( iqta 'at ) to the commanders and generals of the army . In both cases , it enabled the Ayyubids to recruit a dependent , but not administratively subordinate elite . Following their conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 , the Ayyubids under Saladin may have been the first to establish the position of Amir al @-@ Hajj to protect the annual Hajj caravans leaving Damascus for Mecca with the appointment of Tughtakin ibn Ayyub to the office . = = = = Seat of government = = = = The seat of Ayyubid government from Saladin 's rule from the 1170s up to al @-@ Adil 's reign in 1218 had been Damascus . The city provided a strategic advantage in the constant war with the Crusaders and allowed the sultan to keep an eye on his relatively ambitious vassals in Syria and al @-@ Jazira . Cairo was too remote to serve as a base of operations , but had always served as the economic foundation of the empire . This rendered the city a critical constituent in the repertoire of the Ayyubid possessions . When Saladin was proclaimed sultan in Cairo in 1171 , he chose the Fatimid @-@ built Lesser Western Palace ( part of a larger palace complex in Cairo isolated from the urban sprawl ) as the seat of government . Saladin himself resided in the former Fatimid vizier palace , Turan @-@ Shah took up a former Fatimid prince 's living quarter , and their father occupied the Pearl Pavilion which was situated outside of Cairo overlooking the city 's canal . The successive Ayyubid sultans of Egypt would live in the Lesser Western Palace . After al @-@ Adil I seized the throne in Cairo and with it the sultanate of the Ayyubid oligarchy , the period of rivalry between Damascus and Cairo to become capital of the Ayyubid empire commenced . Under al @-@ Adil and al @-@ Kamil , Damascus continued as an autonomous province whose ruler reserved the right to designate his own heir , but during as @-@ Salih Ayyub 's rule , military campaigns against Syria reduced Damascus to a vassal of Cairo . In addition , Ayyub established new rules both in administration and government in order to centralize his regime ; he conferred the most prominent positions of the state to his close confidants , instead of his Ayyubid relatives . His wife Shajar al @-@ Durr , for example , managed the affairs of Egypt while he was in Syria . Ayyub officially delegated his authority to his dead son Khalil and made al @-@ Durr act formally on Khalil 's behalf . = = = Demographics = = = = = = = Religion , ethnicity and language = = = = By the 12th century , Islam was the dominant religion in the Middle East . It is not certain , however , if it was the religion of the majority outside the Arabian Peninsula . Arabic was the language of high culture and of the urban population , although other languages dating to pre @-@ Islamic rule were still being used to a certain extent . Most Egyptians were speaking Arabic by the time the Ayyubids took power there . Kurdish was the mother tongue of the early Ayyubids , at the time of their departure from Dvin . Sultan Saladin spoke both Arabic and Kurdish , and likely Turkish as well . According to Yasser Tabbaa , an anthropologist specializing in medieval Islamic culture , the Ayyubid rulers who reigned in the late 12th @-@ century were far removed from their Kurdish origins , and unlike their Seljuq predecessors and their Mamluk successors , they were firmly " Arabized . " Arabic culture and language formed the main component of their identity instead of their Kurdish heritage . Arabic surnames were much more prevalent among the Ayyubids , a tribe that had already been partially assimilated into the Arabic @-@ speaking world before its members came to power , than non @-@ Arabic names . Some exceptions included the non @-@ Arabic surname Turan @-@ Shah . Most of the Ayyubid rulers spoke fluent Arabic and a number of them , such as az @-@ Zahir Ghazi , al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa and the minor emirs of Hama , composed Arabic poetry . The Arabization of the Ayyubid ruling families differed starkly from the ranks of their armies , which lacked cultural cohesion , with Turks and Kurds dominating the cavalry and nomadic Turcomans and Arabs filling the ranks of the infantry . These groups typically settled in the pastoral areas outside of the cities , the centers of cultural life , and as such they were relatively isolated from the Arabic @-@ dominant urban environment . This isolation allowed them to preserve their traditions . It is thought that Saladin spoke Turkish to his military commanders . Like their Fatimid predecessors , the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt maintained a substantial force of mamluks ( military slaves ) . By the first half of the 13th century mamluks were mostly drawn from Kipchak Turks and Circassians and there is strong evidence that these forces continued to speak Kipchak Turkish . The majority of Syria 's population in the 12th century consisted of Sunni Muslims , typically from Arab or Kurdish backgrounds . There were also sizable Muslim communities of Twelver Shias , Druzes , and Alawites . The Ismaili presence was small and most were of Persian origin , having migrated from Alamut . They mostly resided in the mountainous area near the northern Syrian coastline . Large Christian communities existed in northern Syria , Palestine , Transjordan and Upper Mesopotamia . They were Aramaic @-@ speaking and indigenous to the area , mostly belonging to the Syriac Orthodox Church . They lived in villages of Christian or mixed Christian and Muslim population , monasteries , and in small towns where they appear to have been on friendly terms with their Muslim neighbors . Ideologically , they were led by the Patriarch of Antioch . In Yemen and Hadramaut , much of the population adhered to Shia Islam in its Zaydi form . The inhabitants of Upper Mesopotamia were made up of Sunni Muslim Kurds and Turks , although there was a significant Yazidi minority in that region as well . Jews were spread throughout the Islamic world and most Ayyubid cities had Jewish communities due to the important roles Jews played in trade , manufacture , finance , and medicine . In Yemen and some parts of Syria , Jews also lived in rural towns . The Ayyubid emir of Yemen in 1197 – 1202 , al @-@ Malik Mu 'izz Isma 'il , attempted to forcibly convert the Jews of Aden , but this process ceased after his death in 1202 . Within the Jewish community , particularly in Egypt and Palestine , there existed a minority of Karaites . In Egypt , there were large communities of Coptic Christians , Melkites , Turks , Armenians , and Black Africans — the latter two groups had a large presence in Upper Egypt . Under the Fatimids , non @-@ Muslims in Egypt generally prospered , with the exception of Caliph al @-@ Hakim 's reign . However , with Shirkuh 's ascendancy to the vizier position , a number edicts were enacted against the non @-@ Muslim population . With the advent of the Syrian expeditionary force ( consisting of Oghuz Turks and Kurds ) into Egypt , waves of maltreatment of minorities occurred , irrespective of religion . These incidents occurred while Shirkuh and Saladin were viziers to the Fatimid caliph . At the beginning of Saladin 's reign as sultan in Egypt , upon the encouragement of his adviser , Qadi al @-@ Fadil , Christians were prohibited from employment in the fiscal administration , but various Ayyubid emirs continued to allow Christians to serve in their posts . A number of other regulations were imposed , including the bans on alcohol consumption , religious processions , and the ringing of church bells . Conversion of formerly high @-@ ranking Christians and their families to Islam took place throughout the early period of Ayyubid rule . According to historian Yaakov Lev , the persecution of non @-@ Muslims had some permanent effects on them , but nonetheless , the effects were local and contained . To manage Mediterranean trade , the Ayyubids permitted Europeans — mainly Italians , but also French and Catalans — to settle in Alexandria in large numbers . However , in the aftermath of the Fifth Crusade , 3 @,@ 000 merchants from the area were arrested or expelled . The Ayyubids generally employed Kurds , Turks , and people from the Caucasus for the higher @-@ ranking posts of the military and bureaucratic fields . Not much is known about the foot soldiers of the Ayyubid army , but the numbers of cavalrymen are known to have fluctuated between 8 @,@ 500 and 12 @,@ 000 . The cavalry was largely composed of free @-@ born Kurds , Turks , and Turkomans whom Ayyubid emirs and sultans purchased as slaves ( mamluks ) . In addition , there existed Arab auxiliaries , former Fatimid units such as the Nubians , and separate Arab contingents — notably from the Kinaniyya tribe , who were largely devoted to the defense of Egypt . Rivalry between Kurdish and Turkish troops occurred occasionally when leading positions were at stake and towards the end of Ayyubid rule , Turks outnumbered Kurds in the army . Despite their Kurdish background , the sultans remained impartial to both groups . = = = = Population = = = = There is no accurate figure for the population of the various territories under Ayyubid rule . Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones suggest that in the 12th century , Syria had a population of 2 @.@ 7 million , Palestine and Transjordan had 500 @,@ 000 inhabitants , and Egypt had a population of under 5 million . Josiah C. Russel states that in this same period there were 2 @.@ 4 million people in Syria living in 8 @,@ 300 villages , leaving a population of 230 @,@ 000 – 300 @,@ 000 living in ten cities , eight of which were Muslim cities under Ayyubid control . The largest were Edessa ( pop . 24 @,@ 000 ) , Damascus ( pop . 15 @,@ 000 ) , Aleppo ( pop . 14 @,@ 000 ) , and Jerusalem ( pop . 10 @,@ 000 ) . Smaller cities included Homs , Hama , Gaza , and Hebron . Russel estimated the Egyptian village population to be 3 @.@ 3 million in 2 @,@ 300 villages , a high density for rural populations in the time period . He attributes it to the high productivity of Egyptian soil which allowed for increased agricultural growth . The urban population was much lower , 233 @,@ 100 , consisting of 5 @.@ 7 % of the total Egyptian population . The largest cities were Cairo ( pop . 60 @,@ 000 ) , Alexandria ( pop . 30 @,@ 000 ) , Qus ( pop . 25 @,@ 000 ) , Damietta ( pop . 18 @,@ 000 ) , Fayyum ( pop . 13 @,@ 000 ) , and Bilbeis ( pop . 10 @,@ 000 ) . Numerous smaller cities dotted the Nile River . Among the latter were Damanhur , Asyut , and Tanta . Cities in Egypt were also densely populated , mainly because of greater urbanization and industrialization than elsewhere . = = = Economy = = = Having pushed the Crusaders out of most of Syria , the Ayyubids generally adopted a policy of peace with them . The war with the Crusaders did not prevent Muslims under Ayyubid governance from developing good commercial relations with European states . This led to fruitful interaction between both sides in different fields of economic activity , particularly in agriculture and trade . Numerous measures were undertaken by the Ayyubids to increase agricultural production . Canals were dug to facilitate the irrigation of agricultural lands throughout the empire . Cultivation of sugarcane was officially encouraged to meet the great demand of it by both the local inhabitants and the Europeans . Several new plants were introduced to Europe in trade with both the Zengids and Ayyubids , including sesame , carob , millet , rice , lemons , melons , apricots , and shallots . The main factor which boosted industry and trade under the Ayyubids was the new interests Europeans developed when they came into contact with the Muslims . Commodities included incense , scents , fragrant oils , and aromatic plants from Arabia and India , as well as ginger , alum , and aloes . Likewise , Europeans developed new tastes in the matter of fashions , clothing , and home furnishing . Rugs , carpets , and tapestries manufactured in the Middle East and Central Asia were introduced to the West through Crusader @-@ Ayyubid interaction . Christian pilgrims visiting Jerusalem returned with Arab reliquaries for the keeping of relics . In addition , eastern works of art in glass , pottery , gold , silver , etc . , were highly prized in Europe . The European demand for agricultural products and industrial commodities stipulated maritime activity and international trade to an unprecedented extent . The Ayyubids played a leading role in this as they controlled sea @-@ trade routes which passed through the ports of Yemen and Egypt via the Red Sea . The trade policy of the Ayyubids placed them in a position of great advantage ; although they cooperated with the Genoans and Venetians in the Mediterranean Sea , they prevented them from having access to the Red Sea . Thus , they kept the trade of the Indian Ocean exclusively in their hands . In the Mediterranean trade , the Ayyubids drew large benefits in the form of taxes and commissions which they learned from the Italians . Upon the development of international trade , the elementary principles of credit and banking were developed . Both Jewish and Italian merchants had regular banking agents in Syria , who transacted business on behalf of their masters . Bills of exchange were also used by them in their dealings with one another and money was deposited in various banking centers throughout Syria . The encouragement of trade and industry provided the Ayyubid sultans with the funds needed for military expenditure as well as for developmental and everyday lifestyle works . Special attention was made to the economic state of the empire under al @-@ Adil and al @-@ Kamil . The latter maintained a strict control over expenditure ; it is said that on his death he left a treasury which was equivalent to the budget of one full year . = = = Education = = = Being well @-@ educated themselves , the Ayyubid rulers became munificent patrons of learning and educational activity . Different madrasa @-@ type schools were built by them throughout the empire , not only for education , but also to popularize knowledge of Sunni Islam . According to Ibn Jubayr , under Saladin , Damascus had 20 schools , 100 baths , and a large number of Sufi dervish monasteries . He also built several schools in Aleppo , Jerusalem , Cairo , Alexandria , and in various cities in the Hejaz . Similarly , many schools were built by his successors also . Their wives and daughters , commanders , and nobles established and financed numerous educational institutions as well . Although the Ayyubids were from the Shafi 'i denomination , they built schools for imparting instruction in all four of the Sunni systems of religious @-@ juridical thought . Before the Ayyubid takeover , there were no schools for the Hanbali and Maliki denominations in Syria , but the Ayyubids founded separate schools for them . In the mid @-@ 13th century , Ibn Shaddad counted in Damascus 40 Shafi 'i , 34 Hanafi , 10 Hanbali , and three Maliki schools . When Saladin restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt , 10 madrasas were established during his reign , and an additional 25 during the entire Ayyubid period of rule . Each of their locations had religious , political , and economic significance , in particular those in al @-@ Fustat . Most of the schools were dedicated to the Shafi 'i denomination , but others belonged to the Maliki and Hanafi madhabs . The madrasas built near the tomb of Imam al @-@ Shafi 'i were located adjacent to the important centers of pilgrimage and were a major focus of Sunni devotion . About 26 schools were built in Egypt , Jerusalem and Damascus by high @-@ ranking government officials , and unusual for the time , commoners also founded in Egypt about 18 schools , including two medical institutions . Most schools were residential whereby both teachers and students resided as a rule . The teachers appointed were jurists , theologians , and traditionalists who received their salary from endowments to the institutions they taught in . Each student was offered a lodging where he would resort , a teacher to instruct him in whatever art he requested , and regular grants to cover all his needs . Madrasas were considered prestigious institutions in society . Under the Ayyubids , it was not possible to obtain a job in the government without receiving an education from a madrasa . = = = Science and medicine = = = The facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in different branches of knowledge and learning throughout the territories they controlled . They took special interest in the fields of medicine , pharmacology , and botany . Saladin built and maintained two hospitals in Cairo emulating the well @-@ known Nuri Hospital in Damascus which not only treated patients , but also provided medical schooling . Many scientists and physicians flourished in this period in Egypt , Syria , and Iraq . Among them were Maimonides , Ibn Jami , Abdul Latif al @-@ Baghdadi , al @-@ Dakhwar , Rashidun al @-@ Suri , and Ibn al @-@ Baitar . Some of these scholars served the Ayyubid household directly , becoming the personal physicians of sultans . = = = Architecture = = = Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period , as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam , especially in a previously Shia @-@ dominated Egypt by constructing Sunni madrasas . The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al @-@ Fustat within one city wall . Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the Crusaders , such as curtain walls following the natural topography . Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like machicolations and round towers , while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids , particularly concentric planning . Muslim women , particularly those from the Ayyubid family , the families of local governors , and the families of the ulema ( " religious scholars " ) took an active role in Ayyubid architecture . Damascus witnessed the most sustained patronage of religious architecture by women . They were responsible for the construction of 15 madrasas , six Sufi hospices , and 26 religious and charitable institutions . In Aleppo , the Firdaws Madrasa , known as the most impressive Ayyubid building in Syria , had regent queen Dayfa Khatun as its patron . In September 1183 , construction of the Cairo Citadel began under Saladin 's orders . According to al @-@ Maqrizi , Saladin chose the Muqattam Hills to build the citadel because the air there was fresher than anywhere else in the city , but its construction was not so much determined by the salubrious atmosphere ; rather it was out of defensive necessity and example of existing fortresses and citadels in Syria . The walls and towers of the northern section of the citadel are largely the works of Saladin and al @-@ Kamil . Two of Saladin 's towers were totally encased by semi @-@ circular units . Al @-@ Kamil completed the citadel ; he strengthened and enlarged some of the existing towers , and also added a number of square towers which served as self @-@ contained keeps . According to Richard Yeomans , the most impressive of al @-@ Kamil 's structures was the series of massive rectangular keeps which straddled the walls of the northern enclosure . All of al @-@ Kamil 's fortifications can be identified by their embossed , rusticated masonry , whereas Saladin 's towers have smooth dressed stones . This heavier rustic style became a common feature in other Ayyubid fortifications , and can be seen in the Citadel of Damascus and that of Bosra in Syria . Aleppo underwent major transformations in the Ayyubid period , specifically during the reign of az @-@ Zahir Ghazi . Ayyubid architectural achievements focused on four areas : the citadel , the waterworks , fortifications , and the extramural developments . The total rebuilding of the city enclosure began when az @-@ Zahir Ghazi removed the vallum of Nur ad @-@ Din — which by then outlived its temporary need — and rebuilt the northern and northwestern walls — the most susceptible to outside attack — from Bab al @-@ Jinan to Bab al @-@ Nasr . He parceled out the building of the towers on this stretch of the wall to his princes and military officers ; each tower was identified with a particular prince who inscribed his name into it . Later , az @-@ Zahir Ghazi extended the eastern wall to the south and east , reflecting his desire to incorporate a dilapidated fortress , Qala 'at al @-@ Sharif , outside the city into Aleppo 's enclosure . Bab Qinnasrin was completely rebuilt by an @-@ Nasir Yusuf in 1256 . This gate stands today as a masterpiece of medieval Syrian military architecture . Cumulatively , Ayyubid architecture left a lasting impression in Aleppo . The citadel was rebuilt , the water network was expanded , and streets and quarters were provided fountains and baths . In addition , dozens of shrines , mosques , madrasas , and mausoleums were built throughout the city . The Ayyubid period in Jerusalem following its conquest by Saladin was marked by a huge investment in the construction of houses , markets , public bathes , and pilgrim hostels . Numerous works were undertaken at the Temple Mount . Saladin ordered all the inner walls and pillars of the Dome of the Rock to be covered in marble and he initiated the renovation of the mosaics on the dome 's drum . The mihrab of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was repaired and in 1217 , al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates . The Dome of the Ascension was also built and restoration work was done to the existing free @-@ standing domes of the Temple Mount .
= Ontario Highway 59 = King 's Highway 59 , commonly referred to as Highway 59 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It connected Long Point Provincial Park in Norfolk County to the town of Shakespeare in Perth County , passing through the city of Woodstock in Oxford County en route . Several smaller towns also lined the highway , notably Courtland , Delhi and Norwich . Highway 59 featured junctions with Highway 3 , Highway 2 , Norfolk County Highway 24 and the concurrent routes of Highway 7 and Highway 8 . Highway 59 was established in 1937 between Highway 3 and Highway 2 . In 1961 , several highways were renumbered , establishing the final alignment of the route and tripling its length . As part of the mass highway transfers performed during the late 1990s , Highway 59 was decommissioned entirely in 1998 . = = Route description = = The route of Highway 59 followed what is now Norfolk Highway 59 , Oxford County Road 59 and Perth County Road 107 . The majority of this route travels through rural farmland , which dominates southwestern Ontario , although there are several notable towns encountered along the highway , including Courtland , Delhi , Norwich , Woodstock and Shakespeare . In the south , the highway begins at the entrance to Long Point Provincial Park , an important bird sanctuary that serves as a migratory waypoint before and after birds cross Lake Erie . Several National Wildlife Areas are also located along the surrounding shoreline . The highway passes through he community of Long Point , then curves northwest . It intersects Norfolk County Highway 24 , formerly Highway 24 , midway between Long Point and the town of Langton . It encounters Highway 3 approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Tillsonburg in the community of Courtland where it turns east and travels concurrently with it for 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the town of Delhi . At an intersection just west of that town , the route continues northwest to the community of Summerville , then curves north to pass through the town of Norwich . Five kilometres ( 3 mi ) north of there , the route curves west and bisects the community of Burgessville . It then curves back to the north and travels straight towards Woodstock . After crossing Highway 401 , the route enters Woodstock , where it is known as Norwich Avenue , Dundas Street and Vansittart Avenue . Dundas Street was also formerly Highway 2 , but it was transferred to the County of Oxford at the same time as Highway 59 . North of Woodstock , Highway 59 proceeds due north through the communities of Perry Lane , Tollgate , Willow Lake , Huntingford , Strathallan and Hickson before eventually curving northeast near the Oxford – Perth boundary to pass through the town of Tavistock , turning north . Approximately 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Tavistock , the route ends in the town of Shakespeare at an intersection with Highway 7 and Highway 8 . North of this intersection , the roadway continues as Perth County Road 107 . = = History = = Highway 59 was established in 1937 when the Department of Highways ( DHO ) assumed the Delhi – Woodstock Road . This 41 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 25 @.@ 5 mi ) road was designated on August 25 . The route remained unchanged until the early 1960s , when several highways were renumbered effective December 19 , 1961 . Highway 19 between Woodstock and Shakespeare was redesignated as Highway 59 , while Highway 100 between Thamesford and St. Marys was redesignated as Highway 19 . On July 20 , 1961 , Highway 59 was extended south from Courtland to Long Point Provincial Park along Norfolk County roads 8 and 8A , which the DHO rebuilt in the years prior . A concurrency was also established along Highway 3 between Courtland and Delhi . These extensions nearly tripled the length of the highway to 120 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 74 @.@ 6 mi ) . The route remained this way for nearly four decades . However , on January 1 , 1998 , as part of budget cutbacks , several highways were transferred to local jurisdiction . Highway 59 was transferred the counties of Norfolk , Oxford and Perth , decommissioning the route entirely . = = Major intersections = = The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 59 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Sealyham Terrier = The Sealyham Terrier is a rare Welsh breed of small to medium @-@ sized terrier that originated in Wales as a working dog . It is principally a white @-@ bodied , rough coated breed , developed in the mid to late 19th century by Captain John Edwardes at Sealyham House , Pembrokeshire . Following the First World War , it surged in popularity and was associated with Hollywood stars and members of the British Royal Family . Its numbers have dropped significantly since then , with the breed listed as a Vulnerable Native Breed by the Kennel Club ; an all time low was recorded in 2008 when only 43 puppies were registered in the United Kingdom . This decline has been blamed on an influx of foreign and designer breeds , and the Sealyham 's reduced usefulness as a working dog . This breed is equally suitable as a family dog or a working terrier , given the right training . It is affected by few breed specific breed disorders , with the only two prevalent conditions being lens luxation and canine degenerative myelopathy . = = History = = The breed was developed between 1850 and 1891 by Captain John Edwardes , at Sealyham House , near Wolfscastle in the Welsh county of Pembrokeshire . Originally the breed was used for pest control , to hunt small game and to eliminate vermin particularly badgers which he usually relocated . The Welsh Corgi , Fox Terrier ( Wire ) , and the now extinct English White Terrier all played a part in the make up of the Sealyham , although Edwardes did not keep records . He wanted a small white dog with a strong jaw , and a wiry coat . The white coat was particularly prized , as it meant that the hunter in the field could distinguish the dogs from the quarry . Edwardes culled weak dogs , and bred the stronger ones . After Edwardes ' death in 1891 , other breeders began to work with Sealyhams , including Fred Lewis who promoted the breed . The breed was shown for the first time in 1903 , and the Sealyham Terrier club was created in 1908 ; the breed was officially recognised by the Kennel Club in 1911 . The Sealyham Terrier now is recognised by all of the major kennel clubs in the English @-@ speaking world . During the early stages of its recognition , the breed was alternatively known as the Welsh Border Terrier , or the Cowley Terrier . The American Sealyham Terrier Club was founded in 1913 . During the 1920s and 1930s , Sir Jocelyn Lucas used the dogs to hunt badgers which he usually relocated . At this time he also used Sealyham Terriers for hunting otters , stoats and squirrels . Deciding that he wanted a better hunting dog than the Sealyhams , bred for conformation showing , he cross @-@ bred the dogs with the Norfolk Terrier . This resulted in an unrecognised breed of dog he called the Lucas Terrier , which he described as " death to rats and rabbits " . The Sealyham surged in popularity after the First World War in the UK and the United States . Within the Hollywood film industry , the Sealyham became a fashionable dog to own by the Hollywood elite . The terrier was owned by actors Humphrey Bogart , Bette Davies , Elizabeth Taylor , and by writer Agatha Christie . Cary Grant owned one which he named Archie Leach – Grant 's real name . Alfred Hitchcock had one of his Sealyham terriers seen in his 1941 film Suspicion . Alfred Hitchcock can also be seen at the start of his 1963 film , The Birds , walking two of his Sealyham Terriers in a cameo appearance , although he also owned a third Sealyham not featured in the movie . The British Royal Family also favoured these dogs ; King George V owned a dog named Jack . In 1959 one Sunday newspaper reported in the UK : " A notice has been posted in Clarence House and Windsor Castle giving explicit instructions that when Princess Margaret has breakfast in bed , her two Sealyhams must be brought to the room along with her breakfast tray . " These two dogs were called Pippin and Johnny , and were looked after by the Queen Mother when Princess Margaret fell ill . In the 1960s , children 's author Maurice Sendak owned a Sealyham named Jennie , which he featured in his 1967 work Higglety Pigglety Pop ! . The Sealyham was once one of the more popular terriers , with over 2 @,@ 000 puppies registered in the UK during the 1920s , and one of the best known Welsh breeds . Today , however , the Kennel Club ( UK ) lists the Sealyham as amongst the most endangered native breeds . In 2008 , registrations of new puppies with the Kennel Club dropped to an all time low of 43 , placing it among the bottom three on the list of Vulnerable Native Breeds . In October 2011 , British magazine Country Life highlighted the breed on its front cover , with the heading " SOS : Save our Sealyhams " , and launched a campaign to save the breed . End of year figures for 2011 showed that 49 puppies were registered with the Kennel Club in the UK , keeping them within the bottom three on the list of most endangered breeds . Another notable Sealyham Terrier , Ch . Efbe 's Hidalgo At Goodspice , also known as Charmin , won Best In Show at Crufts in 2009 , but his victory was not televised as the BBC had dropped the coverage of the competition earlier that year , following the controversy after the channel showed the documentary Pedigree Dogs Exposed . He had previous won the AKC / Eukanuba National Championship in the United States in 2007 , and the World Dog Show in 2008 . Harry Parsons , founder of the Working Sealyham Terrier Club , has stated that , " To sustain a breed ... you need between 300 to 500 puppies a year " . The Kennel Club has blamed the decline of the breed on the availability of designer dogs and newer breeds such as the Shih Tzu , and the banning of tail docking which has reduced their ability as working dogs . Paul Keevil , formerly of the Kennel Club 's vulnerable breeds committee explains : " Traditionally , soon after Sealyhams were born , their tails were docked by half their length , because they were small working dogs and they quite often got stuck down holes , meaning that they required short , strong tails for the owner to be able to pull them out . " As of 2010 , the breed is ranked 152nd out of 168 breeds according to registrations by the American Kennel Club . = = Appearance = = Sealyhams measurements vary by breed standard according to particular countries . The Kennel Club breed standard states that the height of a Sealyham Terrier should not exceed 12 inches ( 30 cm ) , measured at the withers or at the top of the shoulder blade . The ideal weight for a Sealyham is 8 kilograms ( 18 lb ) for females , or 9 kilograms ( 20 lb ) for males . They have a white double coat which requires regular brushing with a wire comb in order to prevent matting . It has a dense undercoat , while the outer coat is wiry and weather resistant . Markings on the face can be in a variety of colours including lemon , black , brown , blue , and badger , which is a mix of brown and black . Heavy body markings or patches or excessive ticking on the coat are discouraged . Sealyhams are low to the ground , and in muddy weather their long coats can become quite dirty . Sealyham coats are groomed by hand stripping , in order to keep the coat from becoming too soft . = = Temperament = = Although happy in the company of others , they are fine if left alone . Sealyham Terriers are suited for both the town and country . They can be stubborn , vocal , and boisterous but also full of personality . Whilst they make for loyal family companions , they can be trained to be working dogs , making them excellent mousers or ratters . They can also be taught as a puppy to get along with other animals , including cats and birds . Harry Parsons , described his Sealyhams thus : " They make great companions , and the way they bond with their owners is almost magical . I keep six indoors , and if someone rings about an infestation and asks us to go ratting , they will know and are out of the door in a millisecond . If you train them , they 'll retrieve . They 'll do anything to please you . " = = Health = = This is a hardy breed with few breed specific health problems . The main hereditary problem highlighted by the American Sealyham Terrier Club is an eye condition called lens luxation , for which there are DNA tests . Lens luxation is a condition in which the lens slips out of position in the eyeball due to the weakening of the fibers that holds it in place . This in turn blocks the flow of fluids in the eye , leading to a painful increase in intra @-@ ocular pressure glaucoma and often irreparable optic nerve damage , leading to visual field loss and eventual blindness . As of November 2011 , the Kennel Club has not highlighted any specific concerns regarding the breed 's health to conformation show judges . Due to the low numbers of the breed , two of the most prevalent problems facing the breed today is the popular sire effect and the general problem of genetic diversity within the breed .
= Blackwater fire of 1937 = On August 18 , 1937 , a lightning strike started the Blackwater fire in Shoshone National Forest , approximately 35 miles ( 56 km ) west of Cody , Wyoming , United States . Fifteen firefighters were killed by the forest fire when a dry weather front caused the winds to suddenly increase and change direction . The fire quickly spread into dense forest , creating spot fires that trapped some of the firefighters in a firestorm . Nine firefighters died during the fire and six more died shortly thereafter from severe burns and respiratory complications and another 38 firefighters were injured . More wildland firefighters were killed in the Blackwater fire than in any other in a United States National Forest in the 103 year interval between the Great Fire of 1910 and the Yarnell Hill Fire of 2013 . The Blackwater fire consumed 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 690 ha ) of old @-@ growth forest dominated by Douglas fir trees on the west slopes of Clayton Mountain . At the time the firestorm occurred , the temperatures were about 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the relative humidity was only 6 percent . Though most of the firefighters consisted of Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) employees , they were led by more experienced United States Forest Service ( USFS ) fire managers . Firefighters in the first half of the 20th century used mostly hand tools to suppress wildfires , and all gear was carried by the firefighters or by pack animals . Weather forecasting and radio communication were generally poor or nonexistent . Investigations and analysis of the event led the USFS to develop better ways to provide a more immediate response to combat fires ; one of them was the development of the smokejumper program in 1939 . Additionally , the Ten Standard Firefighting Orders , a standardized set of wildland firefighting principles , were developed in 1957 . A year after the tragedy , survivors and their fellow employees constructed several memorials at the scene of the incident . = = Geographical setting = = Blackwater Creek originates on the north slope of Sheep Mesa at an altitude of 11 @,@ 400 feet ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) in Shoshone National Forest and flows north through Blackwater Canyon . The creek is 12 mi ( 19 km ) long and descends a steep gradient before it empties into the North Fork Shoshone River , across from U.S. Routes 14 / 16 / 20 immediately west of Mummy Cave and 15 mi ( 24 km ) east of the border of Yellowstone National Park . The firestorm deaths occurred on the west slopes of Clayton Mountain , approximately 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south by trail into the canyon . The canyon consists of numerous ravines and small ridges , which form a washboard landscape shaped by extensive erosion of the volcanic igneous rock that constitutes the Absaroka Range . The canyon has moderate to steep slopes with a gradient of 20 to 60 percent . The regional flora is an upper montane mixed @-@ conifer forest dominated by Douglas fir trees . When the fire swept through the area the forest was dense and mature with heavy fuel loads from dead trees , which also had dead limbs extending to the ground , providing a fuel ladder for fire to easily spread into the tree tops . = = Early 20th @-@ century firefighting = = In 1937 , firefighters did not have portable radios for rapid on @-@ scene communication or helicopters to bring supplies and provide water drops . Firefighters had some access to gas @-@ powered portable water pumps ( two were set up on the Blackwater fire ) , but most used backpack pumps that were manually operated and held limited water . Firelines were dug by handcrews using shovels , axes and pulaskis ( a tool that could be used as either an axe or a hoe ) . Most firefighters wore cotton and wool clothing , which provided poor protection from flames . Additionally , they did not have fire shelters , which first became available in the 1960s but were not mandatory until 1977 . Later researchers believe the use of shelters might have saved lives depending on where the firefighters were when the firestorm occurred . The steepness and ruggedness of the terrain in Blackwater Canyon meant firefighters had to access the fire on foot , carrying all their supplies . On the Blackwater fire , pack horses were used to ferry supplies from the access roads to an upper base camp . Many of the firefighters were employed by the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) and had limited training in wildfire suppression and behavior , as the CCC was mainly engaged in construction projects . After a series of severe and deadly forest fire events in the early 20th century , officials established the 10 am rule in 1935 , which recommended aggressive attack on all fires and to have them controlled by 10 am , the day after they are first detected . This was intended to prevent fires from remaining active into the afternoon when the rising temperatures and more turbulent air caused fires to expand and become more erratic . A scientific publication about fire behavior that could be used for widespread training of firefighters first became available in 1951 . = = Fighting the Blackwater fire = = = = = Detection and firefighter response = = = The Blackwater fire was started by a lightning strike on August 18 , 1937 , but it remained undetected until early August 20 , at which time it was estimated to be about 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) in size . By the evening , it had expanded to 200 acres ( 81 ha ) , and 65 firefighters from the United States Forest Service ( USFS ) , which included CCC company 1852 from the Wapiti Ranger District of Shoshone National Forest and employees of the Bureau of Public Roads ( BPR ) , were constructing fire lines along two flanks of the fire . A gas @-@ powered portable pump was delivered and set up using water from Blackwater Creek by midnight . Another pump arrived after that and firefighters installed 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) of hose line on the north flank of the fire and another 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) on the west flank . CCC workers from the National Park Service arrived at 2 : 30 am on August 21 and started construction of fire line along the north flank of the fire . Meanwhile , increasing winds had begun expanding the fire to the east . Fire officials believed they needed more manpower , so CCC crews from Bighorn National Forest , 165 mi ( 266 km ) to the east , and other districts of Shoshone National Forest started responding by the morning of August 21 . By 12 : 30 pm , more than 200 firefighters were on duty and involved in digging fire line or in support of the firefighting effort . Along one of the small creeks flowing into Blackwater Creek , a small dam was constructed to pocket water supplies for use in backpack water pumps . Due to a long overnight journey , the CCC members from the Tensleep District of Bighorn National Forest did not commence response to the fire until after noon on August 21 . As they arrived , the Tensleep CCC unit were told to relieve the Wapiti CCC unit that had been fighting the fire since the previous evening . More than 50 firefighters commenced construction of a new fire line along Clayton Creek and Clayton Gulch , a ravine extending east from Blackwater Creek . The construction was led by USFS Rangers Alfred Clayton and Urban Post , and their crews consisted mainly of the Tensleep CCC camp and some from other entities . Radio transmissions from Idaho to a weather service office in Riverton , Wyoming , indicated a dry weather front had pushed through and was heading east . It is believed that forest managers at the Wapiti ranger station received this information , but it did not reach the men on the fire lines because of a lack of radio lines . The USFS did have spotters in an aircraft providing aerial observation of the fire behavior that was radioed to the Wapiti ranger station . At 12 : 40 pm on August 21 , several spot fires were reported near the fire lines by aerial observers . At 1 pm , the weather at Wapiti was 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) with an extremely low relative humidity of 6 percent . Winds blowing generally from the southwest increased to 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) as the dry front approached at 3 : 30 pm . At 3 : 45 pm , they shifted abruptly from southwest to west , causing increased crowning and spot fires over the fire lines . Convectional winds also increased and the fire front started up the drainage heading east . = = = Firefighters trapped by firestorm = = = USFS fire manager Urban Post was leading the Tensleep CCC crews in and passed USFS crew fire crew boss Alfred Clayton , who had only one firefighter with him . Post left six men to assist Clayton and the other firefighter so they could help suppress small fires that were spotting over the fire lines . Post then led his crews east up a ridge but saw more spot fires below where Clayton and his crew were . Clayton also saw the spot fires and moved to suppress them . At 4 pm , the spot fires started to crown and Clayton sent a handwritten note to Post requesting additional manpower . By the time the note reached Post , the firestorm commenced , racing east up the ravines and gullies and trapping Clayton and his crew near the dam they had built . There , Clayton and six others died . The eighth firefighter in his crew was rescued but died later in the hospital . Post led more than 40 firefighters , consisting of USFS , CCC , and BPR employees , up the ridge seeking an opening in the forest to take refuge . Spot fires blew ahead of Post and his crews preventing them from advancing further up the ridge , but they found a rocky outcropping and laid prone on the ground as the fire engulfed them . Crammed together on the outcropping , Post 's men moved around to avoid the flames and USFS employee Paul Tyrrell ( who later died ) used his own body to keep several CCC firefighters from panicking and to shield them from the fire . The flames and heat nevertheless drove five firefighters to charge the flames in an attempt to escape to the other side of the firefront , but only one of them survived . A total of nine firefighters were killed on the fire lines and six more died later from their burns , while another 38 suffered various injuries . The Blackwater fire is tied for fourth involving the greatest loss of life by firefighters on a wildfire in U.S. history . It killed more professional wildland firefighters in the U.S. than any other in the 103 years between the Great Fire of 1910 and the Yarnell Hill Fire in 2013 . = = = Rescue and body recovery = = = News of the deaths and injuries started reaching the fire camps by 6 pm on August 21 ; by then the fire had calmed down as the dry front had passed and the wind decreased . Post led his party down through the burned area and calls went out for medical assistance . By that night , another 150 firefighters and rescue personnel had reached the fire . Rescue efforts commenced as soon as reports arrived and by the morning of August 22 , almost 500 firefighters and rescue workers were on scene . The fire consumed 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 690 ha ) but was not fully controlled until August 24 . After 7 pm on August 21 , the first fatalities were discovered by a team led by Paul Krueger of the USFS . They came upon a surviving member of Clayton 's crew , finding him badly burned . Before succumbing to his injuries , he was able to direct rescuers to where Clayton and the other crew members were last seen . Post informed the rescue team that two of his party would have to be carried out and his men were too weary to do so ; these two also died at the hospital . The following morning , the bodies of two other members of Post 's crew that had tried to run through the flames were found . The rugged terrain made it necessary for the deceased to be carried out on either stretchers or slung over pack horses . The procession of pack horses carrying the recovered bodies passed through the fire camps where other firefighters were preparing to combat the fire . = = Aftermath = = = = = Fire investigation and results = = = The fatalities on the Blackwater fire led the federal government to initiate their earliest rigorous investigation on such an event . The USFS investigation of the Blackwater fire incident was led by David Godwin , Assistant Chief of Fire Control for the USFS . His conclusions were that the firefighters were in good physical condition and most had some experience fighting forest fires . Godwin also determined that the managers on the incident were all fully trained and experienced firefighting professionals . Godwin stated that no fault should be assigned to the fire managers as the situation was beyond their control . He indicated that because of the distances involved in getting enough manpower to combat the fire while it was still relatively small ( the Tensleep CCC crews had to travel 165 mi ( 266 km ) ) , the fire was not contained enough to prevent the rapid spread that occurred when the weather front approached . Godwin 's findings indicated that rapid deployment of firefighters was critical to successful fire suppression . These findings were reinforced by A. A. Brown , head of the Division of Fire Control in the Forest Service ’ s Rocky Mountain Region , who studied the fire behavior and the responses to the Blackwater fire . In an era when all fire was considered detrimental and with limited studies that documented the important ecological role of fire , immediate suppression using aggressive attack was considered the best way to protect the forests . Godwin believed that parachuting firefighters from airplanes as soon as fires were detected and as near to the fire as possible would provide the fastest way to get firefighters in place before a fire raged out of control . Consequently , by 1939 the first stages of the parachuting smokejumper program were initiated at Winthrop , Washington , and at two locations in Montana . A later review of 16 fatal fires , from the Blackwater fire in 1937 through 1956 , led managers of the USFS to implement the Ten Standard Firefighting Orders in 1957 , which were later changed to FIREORDERS in 1987 , with each letter designating one of the ten orders . Not long after the Ten Standard Firefighting Orders were implemented , 18 Watchout Situations were also developed to increase firefighter safety . Decades after the Blackwater fire , forest managers had developed a better understanding of the ecological role of fire . Consequently , in 1977 , the USFS dropped the 10 am rule from their firefighting strategic planning , and shifted their emphasis away from wildfire suppression to wildfire management . = = = Memorials = = = In 1938 , several monuments were erected by members of the CCC to honor those killed and injured during the Blackwater fire . The largest and most accessible is along U.S. Route 14 / 16 / 20 . Another memorial was erected the same year near the location where Alfred Clayton and his crew perished . A third memorial was placed where Urban Post and his crews waited out the firestorm on the rocky ledge that was later named Post Point . Clayton also had several geographic locations named in his honor , including Clayton Mountain . Though only the roadside monument can be reached by car , the other two monuments can be visited by trail , which is a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) round @-@ trip hike .
= Wilt Chamberlain = Wilton Norman " Wilt " Chamberlain ( August 21 , 1936 – October 12 , 1999 ) was an American basketball player . He played for the Philadelphia / San Francisco Warriors , the Philadelphia 76ers , and the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) ; he played for the University of Kansas and also for the Harlem Globetrotters before playing in the NBA . The 7 foot 1 inch Chamberlain weighed 250 pounds as a rookie before bulking up to 275 and eventually to over 300 pounds with the Lakers . He played the center position and is widely considered one of the greatest and most dominant players in NBA history . Chamberlain holds numerous NBA records in scoring , rebounding , and durability categories . He is the only player to score 100 points in a single NBA game or average more than 40 and 50 points in a season . He also won seven scoring , eleven rebounding , nine field goal percentage titles and led the league in assists once . Chamberlain is the only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points and 20 rebounds per game in a season , a feat he accomplished seven times . He is also the only player to average at least 30 points and 20 rebounds per game over the entire course of his NBA career . Although he suffered a long string of professional losses , Chamberlain had a successful career , winning two NBA championships , earning four regular @-@ season Most Valuable Player awards , the Rookie of the Year award , one NBA Finals MVP award , and being selected to 13 All @-@ Star Games and ten All @-@ NBA First and Second teams . Chamberlain was subsequently enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1978 , elected into the NBA 's 35th Anniversary Team of 1980 , and chosen as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History of 1996 . Chamberlain was known by various nicknames during his basketball playing career . He hated the ones that called attention to his height such as " Goliath " and " Wilt the Stilt " , which was coined during his high school days by a Philadelphia sportswriter . He preferred " The Big Dipper " , which was inspired by his friends who saw him dip his head as he walked through doorways . After his basketball career ended , Chamberlain played volleyball in the short @-@ lived International Volleyball Association , was president of this organization , and is enshrined in the IVA Hall of Fame for his contributions . Chamberlain was also a successful businessman , authored several books , and appeared in the movie Conan the Destroyer . He was a lifelong bachelor , and became notorious for his claim to have had sexual intercourse with as many as 20 @,@ 000 women . = = Early years = = Wilton Norman Chamberlain was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , into a family of nine children , the son of Olivia Ruth Johnson , a domestic worker and homemaker , and William Chamberlain , a welder , custodian , and handyman . He was a frail child , nearly dying of pneumonia in his early years and missing a whole year of school as a result . In his early years Chamberlain was not interested in basketball , because he thought it was " a game for sissies " . Instead , he was an avid track and field athlete : as a youth , he high jumped 6 feet , 6 inches , ran the 440 yards in 49 @.@ 0 seconds and the 880 yards in 1 : 58 @.@ 3 , put the shot 53 feet , 4 inches , and broad jumped 22 feet . But according to Chamberlain , " basketball was king in Philadelphia " , so he eventually turned to the sport . Because Chamberlain was a very tall child , already measuring six feet at age 10 and six feet 11 inches when he entered Philadelphia 's Overbrook High School , he had a natural advantage against his peers ; he soon was renowned for his scoring talent , his physical strength and his shot blocking abilities . According to ESPN journalist Hal Bock , Chamberlain was " scary , flat @-@ out frightening ... before he came along , most basketball players were mortal @-@ sized men . Chamberlain changed that . " It was also in this period of his life when his three lifelong nicknames " Wilt the Stilt " , " Goliath " , and his favorite , " The Big Dipper " , were allegedly born . = = High school career = = As a player for the Overbrook Panthers , Chamberlain averaged 31 points a game during the 1953 high school season and led his team to a 71 @-@ 62 win against the Northeast High School of his future NBA teammate Guy Rodgers . He scored 34 points , won Overbrook the Public League title and a berth for the Philadelphia city championship game against the winner of the rival Catholic league , West Catholic . In that game , West Catholic quadruple @-@ teamed Chamberlain the entire game , and despite the center 's 29 points , the Panthers lost 54 @-@ 42 . In his second Overbrook season , Chamberlain continued his prolific scoring , among them scoring a high school record 71 points against Roxborough . The Panthers comfortably won the Public League title after again beating Northeast in which Chamberlain scored 40 points , and later won the city title by defeating South Catholic 74 @-@ 50 . Chamberlain scored 32 points and led Overbrook to a flawless 19 – 0 season . During summer vacations Chamberlain worked as a bellhop in Kutsher 's Hotel . Subsequently , owners Milton and Helen Kutsher kept up a lifelong friendship with Wilt , and according to their son Mark , " They were his second set of parents . " Red Auerbach , the coach of the Boston Celtics , spotted the talented teenager at Kutscher 's and had him play 1 @-@ on @-@ 1 against Kansas University standout and national champion , B. H. Born , elected the Most Valuable Player of the 1953 NCAA Finals . Chamberlain won 25 @-@ 10 ; Born was so dejected that he gave up a promising NBA career and became a tractor engineer ( " If there were high school kids that good , I figured I wasn 't going to make it to the pros " ) , and Auerbach wanted Chamberlain to go to a New England university , so he could draft him as a territorial pick for the Celtics , but Chamberlain did not respond . In Chamberlain 's third and final Overbrook season , he continued his high scoring , once logging 74 , 78 and 90 points in three consecutive games . The Panthers won the Public League a third time , beating West Philadelphia 78 @-@ 60 , and in the city championship game , they met West Catholic once again . Scoring 35 points , Chamberlain led Overbrook to an easy 83 @-@ 42 victory . After three years , Chamberlain had led Overbrook to two city championships , logged a 56 – 3 record and broken Tom Gola 's high school scoring record by scoring 2 @,@ 252 points , averaging 37 @.@ 4 points per game . After his last Overbrook season , over 200 universities wanted to recruit the basketball prodigy . Among others , UCLA offered Chamberlain the opportunity to become a movie star , the University of Pennsylvania wanted to buy him diamonds , and Chamberlain 's Panthers coach Mosenson was even offered a coaching position if he could persuade the center . In his 2004 biography of Chamberlain , Robert Cherry has described that Chamberlain wanted a change and therefore did not want to go to or near Philadelphia ( also eliminating New York ) , was not interested in New England , and snubbed the South because of segregation ; leaving the Midwest . In the end , after visiting the University of Kansas with renowned college coach Phog Allen , Chamberlain then proclaimed he was going to play college basketball at Kansas . = = College career = = In 1955 , Chamberlain joined KU . At KU , Chamberlain became a player for the Kansas Jayhawks freshman team under coach Phog Allen , whom he admired , and also a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity , where he was the president of his pledge class . Announced as " looking lighter than his 240 pounds , [ able to ] reach 9 ' 6 " up in the air [ flatfooted ] , and [ with a wingspan of ] 7 ' 2 " , his debut was highly anticipated , and he delivered : in Chamberlain 's debut game for the freshman squad , the freshman Jayhawks were pitted against the varsity Jayhawks , who were favored to win their conference that year . Chamberlain dominated his older college mates by scoring 42 points ( 16 – 35 from the field , 10 – 12 on free throws ) , grabbing 29 rebounds and registering four blocks . Chamberlain 's prospects of playing under Allen ended , however , when the coach turned 70 shortly after and was forced to retire by KU regulation . Chamberlain had a bad relationship with Allen 's successor , Dick Harp , fueled by resentment and disappointment : Cherry has doubted whether Chamberlain would have chosen KU if he had known that Allen was going to retire . On December 3 , 1956 , Chamberlain made his varsity debut . In his first varsity game the center scored 52 points and grabbed 31 rebounds , breaking both all @-@ time Kansas records in an 87 – 69 win against the Northwestern team of future NBA teammate Joe Ruklick . Teammate Monte Johnson testified to his athleticism : " Wilt ... had unbelievable endurance and speed ... and was never tired . When he dunked , he was so fast that a lot of players got their fingers jammed [ between Chamberlain 's hand and the rim ] . " Reportedly , Chamberlain also broke Johnny Kerr 's toe with a slam dunk . By this time , Chamberlain had developed several offensive weapons that became his trademarks : his finger roll , his fade @-@ away jump shot , which he could also hit as a bank shot , his passing and his shot @-@ blocking . Leading a talented squad of starters , including Maurice King , Gene Elstun , John Parker , Ron Lonesky and Lew Johnson , the Jayhawks went 13 – 1 until they lost a game 56 – 54 versus Oklahoma State , who held the ball the last three and a half minutes without any intention of scoring a basket , which was still possible in the days before the shot clock ( introduced 1984 in the NCAA ) . As he did at Overbrook , Chamberlain again showcased his diverse athletic talent . He ran the 100 @-@ yard dash in 10 @.@ 9 seconds , shot @-@ putted 56 feet , triple jumped more than 50 feet , and won the high jump in the Big Eight track and field championships three straight years . In 1957 , 23 teams played for the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship . The Midwest regional tourney was held in Dallas , Texas , which at the time was segregated . In the first game , the Jayhawks played the all @-@ white SMU team , and KU player John Parker later said : " The crowd was brutal . We were spat on , pelted with debris , and subjected to the vilest racial epithets possible . " KU won 73 – 65 in overtime , after which police had to escort the Jayhawks out . The next game against Oklahoma City was equally unpleasant , with KU winning 81 – 61 under intense racist abuse . In the semi @-@ finals , Chamberlain 's Jayhawks handily defeated the two time defending national champion San Francisco , 80 – 56 , with Wilt scoring 32 points , grabbing 11 rebounds , and having at least seven blocked shots . ( Game film is unclear whether an 8th block occurred , or the ball just fell short due to Chamberlain 's withering defensive intimidation ) . Chamberlain demonstrated his growing arsenal of offensive moves , including jump shots , put @-@ backs , tip @-@ ins , and his turnaround jump shot . He was far more comfortable and effective at the foul line than he would later be during his pro career . He had outstanding foot speed throughout the game , and several times led the fast break , including blocking a shot near the basket and then outracing the field for a layup . His stellar performance led Kansas to an insurmountable lead , and he rested on the bench for the final 3 : 45 remaining in the game . Chamberlain made the First Team of the All @-@ America squad and led his Jayhawks into the NCAA finals against the Tar Heels of North Carolina . In that game , Tar Heels coach Frank McGuire used several unorthodox tactics to thwart Chamberlain . For the tip @-@ off , he sent his shortest player , Tommy Kearns , in order to rattle Chamberlain , and the Tar Heels spent the rest of the night triple @-@ teaming him , one defender in front , one behind , and a third arriving as soon as he got the ball . With their fixation on Chamberlain , the Jayhawks shot only 27 % from the field , as opposed to 64 % of the Tar Heels , and trailed 22 – 29 at halftime . Later , North Carolina led 40 – 37 with 10 minutes to go and stalled the game : they passed the ball around without any intention of scoring a basket . After several Tar Heel turnovers , the game was tied at 46 at the end of regulation . In the first overtime each teams scored two points , and in second overtime Kansas froze the ball in return , keeping the game tied at 48 . In the third overtime , the Tar Heels scored two consecutive baskets , but Chamberlain executed a three @-@ point play , leaving KU trailing 52 – 51 . After King scored a basket , Kansas was ahead by one point , but then Tar Heel Joe Quigg was fouled on a drive with 10 seconds remaining and made his two foul shots . For the final play , Dick Harp called for Ron Loneski to pass the ball into Chamberlain in the low post . The pass was intercepted , however , and the Tar Heels won the game . Nonetheless , Chamberlain , who scored 23 points and 14 rebounds , was elected the Most Outstanding Player of the Final Four . Cherry has speculated , however , that this loss was a watershed in Chamberlain 's life , because it was the first time that his team lost despite him putting up impressive individual stats . Chamberlain later admitted that this loss was the most painful of his life . In Chamberlain 's junior year ( 1957 – 58 NCAA season ) , the Jayhawks ' matches were even more frustrating for him . Knowing how dominant Chamberlain was , the opponents resorted to freeze @-@ ball tactics and routinely used three or more players to guard him . Teammate Bob Billings commented : " It was not fun basketball ... we were just out chasing people throwing the basketball back and forth . " Nevertheless , Chamberlain averaged 30 @.@ 1 points for the season and led the Jayhawks to an 18 – 5 record , losing three games while he was out with a urinary infection : because KU came second in the league and at the time only conference winners were invited to the NCAA tourney , the Jayhawks ' season ended . It was a small consolation that he was again named an All @-@ American , along with future NBA Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers Elgin Baylor and Oscar Robertson plus old rival Guy Rodgers . Having lost the enjoyment from NCAA basketball and wanting to earn money , he left college and sold the story named " Why I Am Leaving College " to Look magazine for $ 10 @,@ 000 , a large sum when NBA players earned $ 9 @,@ 000 in a whole season . In two seasons at Kansas , Chamberlain averaged 29 @.@ 9 points and 18 @.@ 3 rebounds per game while totaling 1 @,@ 433 points and 877 rebounds , and led Kansas to one Big Seven championship . By the time Chamberlain was 21 , he had already been featured in Time , Life , Look , and Newsweek magazines , even before he turned professional . For many years following Chamberlain 's departure from the University of Kansas , critics claimed that he either wanted to leave the very white Midwest or was embarrassed by not being able to bring home the NCAA basketball tournament victory . In 1998 , Chamberlain returned to Allen Field House in Lawrence , Kansas to participate in a jersey @-@ retiring ceremony for his # 13 . Around this time , he has been quoted as saying : " There 's been a lot of conversation , since people have been trying to get my jersey number retired , that I have some dislike for the University of Kansas . That is totally ridiculous . " = = Professional career = = = = = Harlem Globetrotters ( 1958 – 1959 ) = = = After his frustrating junior year , Chamberlain wanted to become a professional player before finishing his senior year . However , at that time , the NBA did not accept players who had not finished their last year of studies . Therefore , Chamberlain was prohibited from joining the NBA for a year , and decided to play for the Harlem Globetrotters in 1958 for a sum of $ 50 @,@ 000 ( equal to about $ 410 @,@ 000 today ) . Chamberlain became a member of the Globetrotters team which made history by playing in Moscow in 1959 , enjoyed a sold out tour of the USSR and prior to the start of a game at Moscow 's Lenin Central Stadium , were greeted by the General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev . One particular Trotter skit involved Trotters captain Meadowlark Lemon collapsing to the ground , and instead of helping him up , Chamberlain threw him several feet high up in the air and caught him like a doll . " [ Chamberlain ] was the strongest athlete who ever lived " , the 210 @-@ pound Lemon later recounted . In later years , Chamberlain frequently joined the Trotters in the off @-@ season and fondly recalled his time there , because he was no longer jeered at or asked to break records , but just one of several artists who loved to entertain the crowd . On March 9 , 2000 , Chamberlain 's number 13 was retired by the Trotters . = = = Philadelphia / San Francisco Warriors ( 1959 – 1965 ) = = = On October 24 , 1959 , Chamberlain finally made his NBA debut , starting for the Philadelphia Warriors . Chamberlain immediately became the NBA 's best paid player , earning $ 30 @,@ 000 ( equal to about $ 244 @,@ 000 today ) in his rookie contract ; in comparison , the previous top earner was Bob Cousy of the Boston Celtics with $ 25 @,@ 000 ; in fact , Gottlieb bought the whole Warriors franchise for $ 25 @,@ 000 seven years earlier . In the 1959 – 60 NBA season , Chamberlain joined a Warriors squad that was coached by Neil Johnston and contained Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guards Tom Gola and Paul Arizin , plus Ernie Beck and his old rival , Guy Rodgers ; remarkably , all five starters were Philadelphians . In his first NBA game , against the New York Knicks , the rookie center scored 43 points and grabbed 28 rebounds . In his fourth game , Philadelphia met the reigning champions , the Boston Celtics of Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame coach Red Auerbach , whose offer Chamberlain had snubbed several years before , and Bill Russell , who was now lauded as one of the best defensive pivots in the game . In what was the first of many Chamberlain @-@ Russell match @-@ ups , Chamberlain outscored Russell with 30 points versus 28 points , but Boston won the game . Chamberlain and his perennial nemesis would grow to become one of the NBA 's greatest on @-@ court rivalries of all time . Nevertheless , the two also became friends off the court , similar to later rivals Magic Johnson and Larry Bird . In his first NBA season , Chamberlain averaged 37 @.@ 6 points and 27 rebounds , convincingly breaking the previous regular @-@ season records . He needed only 56 games to score 2 @,@ 102 points , which broke the all @-@ time regular season scoring record of Bob Pettit , who needed 72 games to score 2 @,@ 101 points . Chamberlain broke eight NBA records , and was named NBA MVP and Rookie of the Year that season , a feat matched only by fellow Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Wes Unseld in the 1968 – 69 NBA season . Chamberlain capped off his rookie season by winning the 1960 NBA All @-@ Star Game MVP award with a 23 @-@ point , 25 @-@ rebound performance for the East . However , it also became evident that he was an atrocious free @-@ throw shooter , making hardly half of his foul shots . As time progressed , Chamberlain grew even worse , and acknowledged he was simply a " psycho case " on that matter . The Warriors entered the 1960 NBA Playoffs and beat the Syracuse Nationals , setting up a meeting versus the Eastern Division champions , the Boston Celtics . Cherry described how Celtics coach Red Auerbach ordered his forward Tom Heinsohn to commit personal fouls on Chamberlain : whenever the Warriors shot foul shots , Heinsohn grabbed and shoved Chamberlain to prevent him from running back quickly ; his intention was that the Celtics would throw the ball in so fast that the prolific shotblocker Chamberlain was not yet back under his own basket , and Boston could score an easy fastbreak basket . The teams split the first two games , but in Game 3 , Chamberlain got fed up with Heinsohn and punched him . In the scuffle , Wilt injured his hand , and Philadelphia lost the next two games . In Game 5 , with his hand healthy , Chamberlain scored 50 points . But in Game 6 , Heinsohn got the last laugh , scoring the decisive basket with a last @-@ second tip @-@ in . The Warriors lost the series 4 – 2 . The rookie Chamberlain then shocked Warriors ' fans by saying he was thinking of retiring . He was tired of being double- and triple @-@ teamed , and of teams coming down on him with hard fouls . Chamberlain feared he might lose his cool one day . Celtics forward Heinsohn said : " Half the fouls against him were hard fouls ... he took the most brutal pounding of any player ever " . In addition , Chamberlain was seen as a freak of nature , jeered at by the fans and scorned by the media . As Chamberlain often said , quoting coach Alex Hannum 's explanation of his situation , " Nobody loves Goliath . " Eddie Gottlieb coaxed Chamberlain back into the NBA , sweetening his return with a salary raise to $ 65 @,@ 000 ( equal to about $ 520 @,@ 000 today ) . The following season , Chamberlain surpassed his rookie season statistics as he averaged 38 @.@ 4 points and 27 @.@ 2 rebounds per game . He became the first player to break the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ point barrier and the first and still only player to break the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ rebound barrier for a single season , grabbing 2 @,@ 149 boards . Chamberlain also won his first field goal percentage title , and set the all @-@ time record for rebounds in a single game with 55 . Chamberlain was so dominant on the team that he scored almost 32 % of his team 's points and collected 30 @.@ 4 % of their rebounds . Chamberlain again failed to convert his play into team success , this time bowing out against the Syracuse Nationals in a three @-@ game sweep . Cherry noted that Chamberlain was " difficult " and did not respect coach Neil Johnston , who was unable to handle the star center . In retrospect , Eddie Gottlieb remarked : " My mistake was not getting a strong @-@ handed coach .... [ Johnston ] wasn 't ready for big time . " In Chamberlain 's third season , the Warriors were coached by Frank McGuire , the coach who had masterminded Chamberlain 's painful NCAA loss against the Tar Heels . In that year , Wilt set several all @-@ time records which have never been threatened . In the 1962 season , he averaged 50 @.@ 4 points and grabbed 25 @.@ 7 rebounds per game . On March 2 , 1962 , in Hershey , Pennsylvania , Wilt scored 100 points , shot 36 of 63 from the field , and made 28 of 32 free throws against the New York Knicks . Chamberlain 's 4 @,@ 029 regular @-@ season points made him the only player to break the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ point barrier ; the only other player to break the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ point barrier is Michael Jordan , with 3 @,@ 041 points in the 1986 – 87 NBA season . Chamberlain once again broke the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ rebound barrier with 2 @,@ 052 . Additionally , he was on the hardwood for an average of 48 @.@ 53 minutes , playing 3 @,@ 882 of his team 's 3 @,@ 890 minutes . Because Chamberlain played in overtime games , he averaged more minutes per game than the regulation 48 ; in fact , Chamberlain would have reached the 3 @,@ 890 @-@ minute mark if he had not been ejected in one game after picking up a second technical foul with eight minutes left to play . His extraordinary feats in the 1962 season were later subject of the book Wilt , 1962 by Gary M. Pomerantz ( 2005 ) , who used Chamberlain as a metaphor for the uprising of Black America . In addition to Chamberlain 's regular @-@ season accomplishments , he scored 42 points in the 1962 NBA All @-@ Star Game , still the all @-@ time record . In the 1962 NBA Playoffs , the Warriors met the Boston Celtics again in the Eastern Division Finals , a team which Bob Cousy and Bill Russell called the greatest Celtics team of all time . Each team won their home games , so the series was split at three after six games . In a closely contested Game 7 , Chamberlain tied the game at 107 with 16 seconds to go , but Celtics shooting guard Sam Jones hit a clutch shot with two seconds left to win the series for Boston . In later years , Chamberlain was criticized for averaging 50 points , but not winning a title . In his defense , Warriors coach Frank McGuire said " Wilt has been simply super @-@ human " , and pointed out that the Warriors lacked a consistent second scorer , a playmaker , and a second big man to take pressure off Chamberlain . In the 1962 – 63 NBA season , Eddie Gottlieb sold the Warriors franchise for $ 850 @,@ 000 ( equal to about $ 6 @.@ 65 million today ) to a group of businessmen led by Marty Simmons from San Francisco , and the team relocated to become the San Francisco Warriors under a new coach , Bob Feerick . This also meant , however , that the team broke apart , as Paul Arizin chose to retire rather than move away from his family and his job at IBM in Philadelphia , and Tom Gola was homesick , requesting a trade to the lowly New York Knicks halfway through the season . With both secondary scorers gone , Chamberlain continued his array of statistical feats , averaging 44 @.@ 8 points and 24 @.@ 3 rebounds per game that year . Despite his individual success , the Warriors lost 49 of their 80 games and missed the playoffs . In the 1963 – 64 NBA season , Chamberlain got yet another new coach , Alex Hannum , and was joined by a promising rookie center , Nate Thurmond , who eventually entered the Hall of Fame . Ex @-@ soldier Hannum , who later entered the Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach , was a crafty psychologist who emphasized defense and passing . Most importantly , he was not afraid to stand up to the dominant Chamberlain , who was known to " freeze out " ( not communicate with ) coaches he didn 't like . Backed up by valuable rookie Thurmond , Chamberlain had another good season with 36 @.@ 9 ppg and 22 @.@ 3 rpg , and the Warriors went all the way to the NBA Finals . In that series they succumbed to Russell 's Boston Celtics yet again , this time losing 4 – 1 . But as Cherry remarked , not only Chamberlain , but in particular Hannum deserved much credit because he had basically had taken the bad 31 – 49 squad of last year plus Thurmond and made it into a NBA Finalist . In the summer of 1964 Chamberlain , one of the prominent participants at the famed Rucker Park basketball court in New York City , made the acquaintance of a tall , talented 17 @-@ year @-@ old teenager who played there . Soon , the young Lew Alcindor was allowed into his inner circle , and quickly idolized the ten @-@ year older NBA player . Unfortunately , Chamberlain and Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , as Alcindor would name himself later , would develop an intensely personal antipathy . In the following 1964 – 65 NBA season , the Warriors got off to a terrible start and ran into financial trouble . At the 1965 All @-@ Star break Chamberlain was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers , the new name of the relocated Syracuse Nationals . In return the Warriors received Paul Neumann , Connie Dierking , Lee Shaffer ( who opted to retire rather than report to the Warriors ) , and $ 150 @,@ 000 ( equal to about $ 1 @.@ 13 million today ) . When Chamberlain left the Warriors , owner Franklin Mieuli said : " Chamberlain is not an easy man to love [ and ] the fans in San Francisco never learned to love him . Wilt is easy to hate [ ... ] people came to see him lose . " = = = Philadelphia 76ers ( 1965 – 1968 ) = = = After the trade Chamberlain found himself on a promising Sixers team that included guards Hal Greer , a future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer , and talented role players Larry Costello , Chet Walker and Lucious Jackson . Cherry remarks that there was a certain tension within the team : Greer was the formerly undisputed leader and was not willing to give up his authority , and Jackson , a talented center , was now forced to play power forward because Chamberlain blocked the center spot ; however , as the season progressed , the three began to mesh better . Chamberlain did not care for the Sixers ' coach , Dolph Schayes , because Schayes , according to him , had made several disrespectful remarks when they were rival players in the NBA . Statistically , Chamberlain was again outstanding , posting 34 @.@ 7 ppg and 22 @.@ 9 rpg for the second half of the season . After defeating the Cincinnati Royals led by Oscar Robertson in the 1965 NBA Playoffs , the Sixers met Chamberlain 's familiar rival , the Boston Celtics . The press called it an even matchup in all positions , even at center , where Bill Russell was expected to give Chamberlain a tough battle . Indeed , the two teams split the first six games , and because of the better season record , the last game was held in the Celtics ' Boston Garden . In that Game 7 , both centers were marvelous : Chamberlain scored 30 points and 32 rebounds , and Russell logged 16 points , 27 rebounds and eight assists . In the final minute , Chamberlain hit two clutch free throws and slam dunked on Russell , bringing Boston 's lead down to 110 – 109 with five seconds left . Russell botched the inbounds pass , hitting a guy @-@ wire over the backboard and giving the ball back to the Sixers . Coach Schayes called timeout , and decided to run the last play over Hal Greer rather than Chamberlain , because he feared the Celtics would intentionally foul him because he was a poor foul shooter . But when Greer attempted to inbound the ball , John Havlicek stole it to preserve the Celtics ' lead . For the fifth time in seven years , Russell 's team deprived Chamberlain of the title . According to Chamberlain , that was the time that people started calling him " loser " . Additionally , in an April 1965 issue of Sports Illustrated Chamberlain conducted an interview entitled " My Life in a Bush League " where he criticized his fellow players , coaches , and NBA administrators . Chamberlain later commented that he could see in hindsight how the interview was instrumental in damaging his public image . In the 1965 – 66 NBA season the Sixers experienced tragedy when Ike Richman , the Sixers ' co @-@ owner as well as Chamberlain 's confidant and lawyer , died of a coronary . The Sixers would post a 55 – 25 regular season record , and for his strong play , Chamberlain won his second MVP award . In that season , the center again dominated his opposition by recording 33 @.@ 5 points and 24 @.@ 6 rebounds a game , leading the league in both categories . In one particular game , Chamberlain blocked a dunk attempt by Gus Johnson so hard that he dislocated Johnson 's shoulder . Off the court , however , Chamberlain 's commitment to the cause was doubted , as Chamberlain was a late sleeper , lived in New York and preferred to commute to Philadelphia rather than live there , and he was only available during the afternoon for training . Because Schayes did not want to risk angering his best player , he scheduled the daily workout at 4 pm ; this angered the team , who preferred an early schedule to have the afternoon off , but Schayes just said : " There is no other way . " Irv Kosloff , who now owned the Sixers alone after Richman 's death , pleaded to him to move to Philadelphia during the season , but he was turned down . In the 1966 NBA Playoffs , the Sixers again met the Celtics , and for the first time had home @-@ court advantage . However , Boston easily won the first two games on the road , winning 115 – 96 and 114 – 93 ; Chamberlain played within his usual range , but his supporting cast shot under 40 % . This caused sports journalist Joe McGinnis to comment : " The Celtics played like champions and the Sixers just played . " In Game 3 , Chamberlain scored 31 points and 27 rebounds for an important road win , and the next day , coach Schayes planned to hold a joint team practice . However , Chamberlain said he was " too tired " to attend , and even refused Schayes ' plea to at least show up and shoot a few foul shots with the team . In Game 4 , Boston won 114 – 108 . Prior to Game 5 , Chamberlain was nowhere to be found , skipping practice and being non @-@ accessible . Outwardly , Schayes defended his star center as " excused from practice " , but his teammates knew the truth and were much less forgiving . In Game 5 itself , Chamberlain was superb , scoring 46 points and grabbing 34 rebounds , but the Celtics won the game 120 – 112 and the series . Cherry is highly critical of Chamberlain : while conceding he was the only Sixers player who performed in the series , he pointed out his unprofessional , egotistical behavior as being a bad example for his teammates . Prior to the 1966 – 67 NBA season , the friendly but unassertive Schayes was replaced by a familiar face , the crafty but firm Alex Hannum . In what Cherry calls a tumultuous locker room meeting , Hannum addressed several key issues he observed during the last season , several of them putting Chamberlain in an unfavorable light . Sixers forward Chet Walker testified that on several occasions , players had to pull Chamberlain and Hannum apart to prevent a fistfight . Fellow forward Billy Cunningham observed that Hannum " never backed down " and " showed who was the boss " . By doing this , he won Chamberlain 's respect . When emotions cooled off , Hannum pointed out to Chamberlain that he was on the same page in trying to win a title ; but to pull this off , he – like his teammates – had to " act like a man " both on and off the court . Concerning basketball , he persuaded him to change his style of play . Loaded with several other players who could score , such as future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers Hal Greer and newcomer Billy Cunningham , Hannum wanted Chamberlain to concentrate more on defense . As a result , Chamberlain was less dominant , taking only 14 % of the team 's shots ( in his 50 @.@ 4 ppg season , it was 35 @.@ 3 % ) , but extremely efficient : he averaged a career @-@ low 24 @.@ 1 points , but he led the league in rebounds ( 24 @.@ 2 ) , ended third in assists ( 7 @.@ 8 ) , had a record breaking .683 field goal accuracy , and played strong defense . For these feats , Chamberlain earned his third MVP award . The Sixers charged their way to a then @-@ record 68 – 13 season , including a record 46 – 4 start . In addition , the formerly egotistical Chamberlain began to praise his teammates , lauding hardworking Luke Jackson as the " ultimate power forward " , calling Hal Greer a deadly jumpshooter , and point guard Wali Jones an excellent defender and outsider scorer . Off the court , the center invited the team to restaurants and paid the entire bill , knowing he earned 10 times more than all the others . Greer , who was considered a consummate professional and often clashed with the center because of his attitude , spoke positively of the new Chamberlain : " You knew in a minute the Big Fella [ Chamberlain ] was ready to go ... and everybody would follow . " In the 1967 NBA Playoffs , the Sixers yet again battled the Boston Celtics in the Eastern Division Finals , and again held home court advantage . In Game 1 , the Sixers beat Boston 127 – 112 , powered by Hal Greer 's 39 points and Chamberlain 's unofficial quadruple double , with 24 points , 32 rebounds , 13 assists and ( unofficially counted ) 12 blocks . In Game 2 , the Sixers won 107 – 102 in overtime , and player @-@ coach Russell grudgingly praised Chamberlain for intimidating the Celtics into taking low percentage shots from further outside . In Game 3 , Chamberlain grabbed 41 rebounds and helped the Sixers win 115 – 104 . The Celtics prevented a sweep by winning Game 4 with a 121 – 117 victory , but in Game 5 , the Sixers simply overpowered the Celtics 140 – 116 , which effectively ended Boston 's historic run of eight consecutive NBA titles . The Sixers ' center scored 29 points , 36 rebounds and 13 assists and was highly praised by Celtics Russell and K.C. Jones . In the 1967 NBA Finals , the Sixers were pitted against Chamberlain 's old team , the San Francisco Warriors of his one @-@ time backup Nate Thurmond and star forward Rick Barry . The Sixers won the first two games , with Chamberlain and Greer taking credit for respectively defensive dominance and clutch shooting , but San Francisco won two of the next three games , so Philadelphia was up 3 – 2 prior to Game 6 . In Game 6 , the Warriors were trailing 123 – 122 with 15 seconds left . For the last play , Thurmond and Barry were assigned to do a pick and roll against Chamberlain and whoever would guard Barry . However , the Sixers foiled it : when Barry ran past Thurmond 's pick and drove to the basket , he was picked up by Chet Walker , making it impossible to shoot ; Thurmond was covered by Chamberlain , which made it impossible to pass . Barry botched his shot attempt , and the Sixers won the championship . Chamberlain said : " It is wonderful to be a part of the greatest team in basketball ... being a champion is like having a big round glow inside of you . " He contributed with 17 @.@ 7 ppg and 28 @.@ 7 rpg against fellow future Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame pivot Nate Thurmond , never failing to snare at least 23 rebounds in the six games . Chamberlain himself described the team as the best in NBA history . In 2002 , writer Wayne Lynch wrote a book about this remarkable Sixers season , Season of the 76ers , centering on Chamberlain . In the 1967 – 68 NBA season , matters began to turn sour between Chamberlain and the Sixers ' sole surviving owner , Irv Kosloff . This conflict had been going along for a while : in 1965 , Chamberlain asserted that he and the late Richman had worked out a deal which would give the center 25 % of the franchise once he ended his career . Although there is no written proof for or against , ex @-@ Sixers coach Dolph Schayes and Sixers lawyer Alan Levitt assumed Chamberlain was right ; in any case , Kosloff declined the request , leaving Chamberlain livid and willing to jump to the rival ABA once his contract ended in 1967 . Kosloff and Chamberlain worked out a truce , and later signed a one @-@ year , $ 250 @,@ 000 contract . On the hardwood , Chamberlain continued his focus on team play and registered 24 @.@ 3 points and 23 @.@ 8 rebounds a game for the season . The 76ers had the best record in the league for the third straight season . Chamberlain made history by becoming the only center in NBA history to finish the season as the leader in assists , his 702 beating runner @-@ up , Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame point guard Lenny Wilkens ' total by 23 . Chamberlain likened his assist title to legendary home run hitter " Babe Ruth leading the league in sacrifice bunts " , and he dispelled the myth that he could not and would not pass the ball . For these feats , Chamberlain won his fourth and last MVP title . Another landmark was his 25,000th point , making him the first ever player to score these many points : he gave the ball to his team physician Dr. Stan Lorber . Winning 62 games , the Sixers easily took the first playoff berth of the 1968 NBA Playoffs . In the 1968 Eastern Division Semifinals , they were pitted against the Knicks . In a physically tough matchup , the Sixers lost sixth man Billy Cunningham with a broken hand , and Chamberlain , Greer and Jackson were struggling with inflamed feet , bad knees , and pulled hamstrings respectively . Going ahead 3 – 2 , the Sixers defeated the Knicks 115 – 97 in Game 6 after Chamberlain scored 25 points and 27 rebounds : he had a successful series in which he led both teams in points ( 153 ) , rebounds ( 145 ) and assists ( 38 ) . In the 1968 Eastern Division Finals , the Sixers yet again met the Boston Celtics , again with home court advantage , and this time as reigning champions . Despite the Sixers ' injury woes , coach Hannum was confident to " take the Celtics in less than seven games " : he pointed out the age of the Celtics , who were built around Bill Russell and guard Sam Jones , both 34 . But then , national tragedy struck as Martin Luther King was assassinated on April 4 , 1968 . With eight of the ten starting players on the Sixers and Celtics being African @-@ American , both teams were in deep shock , and there were calls to cancel the series . In a game called " unreal " and " devoid of emotion " , the Sixers lost 127 – 118 on April 5 . After attending Dr. King 's funeral , Chamberlain called out to the angry rioters who were setting fires all over the country , stating Dr. King would not have approved . In Game 2 , Philadelphia evened the series with a 115 – 106 victory , and won Games 3 and 4 , with Chamberlain suspiciously often played by Celtics backup center Wayne Embry , causing the press to speculate Russell was worn down . Prior to Game 5 , the Celtics seemed dead : no NBA team had overcome a 3 – 1 series deficit before . However , the Celtics rallied back , winning Games 5 and 6 122 – 104 and 114 – 106 respectively , powered by a spirited John Havlicek and helped by the Sixers ' terrible shooting . What followed was the first of three consecutive controversial and painful Game 7s in which Chamberlain played . In that Game 7 , the Sixers could not get their act together : 15 @,@ 202 stunned Philadelphia fans witnessed a historic 100 – 96 defeat , making it the first time in NBA history a team lost a series after leading three games to one . Although Cherry points out that the Sixers shot badly ( Hal Greer , Wali Jones , Chet Walker , Luke Jackson and Matt Guokas hit a combined 25 of 74 shots ) and Chamberlain grabbed 34 rebounds and shot 4 @-@ of @-@ 9 , the center himself scored only 14 points . In the second half of Game 7 , Chamberlain did not attempt a single shot from the field . Cherry observes a strange pattern in that game : in a typical Sixers game , Chamberlain got the ball 60 times in the low post , but only 23 times in Game 7 , and only seven times in the third and only twice in the fourth quarter . Chamberlain later blamed coach Hannum for the lack of touches , a point which the coach conceded himself , but Cherry points out that Chamberlain , who always thought of himself as the best player of all time , should have been outspoken enough to demand the ball himself . The loss meant that Chamberlain was now 1 – 6 in playoff series against the Celtics . After that season , coach Alex Hannum wanted to be closer to his family on the West Coast ; he left the Sixers to coach the Oakland Oaks in the newly founded American Basketball Association . Chamberlain then asked for a trade , and Sixers general manager Jack Ramsay traded him to the Los Angeles Lakers for Darrall Imhoff , Archie Clark and Jerry Chambers . The motivation for this move remains in dispute . According to sportswriter Roland Lazenby , a journalist close to the Lakers , Chamberlain was angry at Kosloff for breaking the alleged Richman @-@ Chamberlain deal , but according to Dr. Jack Ramsay , who was the Sixers general manager then , Chamberlain also threatened to jump to the ABA after Hannum left , and forced the trade himself . Cherry finally adds several personal reasons : the center felt he had grown too big for Philadelphia , sought the presence of fellow celebrities ( which were plenty in L.A. ) and finally also desired the opportunity to date white women , which was possible for a black man in L.A. but hard to imagine elsewhere back then . = = = Los Angeles Lakers ( 1968 – 1973 ) = = = On July 9 , 1968 , Chamberlain was the centerpiece of a major trade between the 76ers and the Los Angeles Lakers , who sent center Darrall Imhoff , forward Jerry Chambers and guard Archie Clark to Philadelphia , making it the first time a reigning NBA Most Valuable Player was traded the next season . Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke gave Chamberlain an unprecedented contract , paying him $ 250 @,@ 000 after taxes ( about $ 1 @.@ 7 million in real value ) ; in comparison , previous Lakers top earner Jerry West was paid $ 100 @,@ 000 before taxes ( about $ 680 @,@ 000 in real value ) . Chamberlain joined a squad which featured Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame forward Elgin Baylor and Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Jerry West , along with backup center Mel Counts , forwards Keith Erickson and Tom Hawkins and talented 5 ' 11 " guard Johnny Egan . The lack of a second guard next to West ( and thus , the lack of speed and quickness ) concerned coach Butch Van Breda Kolff ; after losing Clark and Gail Goodrich , who joined the Phoenix Suns after the 1968 expansion draft , he said : " Egan gets murdered on defense because of his [ lack of ] size ... but if I don 't play him , we look like a bunch of trucks . " In addition , Cherry observed that Chamberlain was neither a natural leader nor a loyal follower , which made him difficult to fit in . While he was on cordial terms with Jerry West , he often argued with team captain Elgin Baylor ; regarding Baylor , he later explained : " We were good friends , but ... [ in ] black culture ... you never let the other guy one @-@ up you . " The greatest problem was his tense relationship with Lakers coach Butch Van Breda Kolff : pejoratively calling the new recruit " The Load " , he later complained that Chamberlain was egotistical , never respected him , too often slacked off in practice and focused too much on his own statistics . In return , the center blasted Van Breda Kolff as " the dumbest and worst coach ever " . Laker Keith Erickson observed that " Butch catered to Elgin and Jerry ... and that is not a good way to get on Wilt 's side ... that relationship was doomed from the start . " Chamberlain experienced a problematic and often frustrating season . Van Breda Kolff benched him several times , which never happened in his career before ; in mid @-@ season , the perennial scoring champion had two games in which he scored only six and then only two points . Playing through his problems , Chamberlain averaged 20 @.@ 5 points and 21 @.@ 1 rebounds a game that season . However , Jack Kent Cooke was pleased , because since acquiring Chamberlain , ticket sales went up by 11 % . In the 1969 NBA Playoffs , the Lakers dispatched Chamberlain 's old club , the San Francisco Warriors 4 – 2 after losing the first two games , and then defeated the Atlanta Hawks and met Chamberlain 's familiar rivals , Bill Russell 's Boston Celtics . Going into the series as 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 favorites , the Lakers won the first two games , but dropped the next two . Chamberlain was criticized as a non @-@ factor in the series , getting neutralized by Bill Russell with little effort . But in Game 5 , the Lakers center scored 13 points and grabbed 31 rebounds , leading Los Angeles to a 117 – 104 win . In Game 6 , the Celtics won 99 – 90 , and Chamberlain only scored eight points ; Cherry accuses him of choking , because if " Chamberlain had come up big and put up a normal 30 point scoring night " , L.A. would have probably won its first championship . Game 7 featured a surreal scene : in anticipation of a Lakers win , Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke put up thousands of balloons in the rafters of the Forum in Los Angeles . This display of arrogance motivated the Celtics . In Game 7 , the Lakers trailed 91 – 76 after three quarters . The Lakers mounted a comeback ; then Chamberlain twisted his knee after a rebound and had to be replaced by Mel Counts . With three minutes to go the Lakers trailed 103 – 102 . The Lakers committed costly turnovers and lost the game 108 – 106 , despite a triple @-@ double from West , who had 42 points , 13 rebounds and 12 assists . West became the only player in NBA history to be named Finals MVP despite being on the losing team . After the game , many wondered why Chamberlain sat out the final six minutes . At the time of his final substitution , he had scored 18 points ( hitting seven of his eight shots ) and grabbed 27 rebounds , significantly better than the 10 points of Mel Counts on 4 @-@ of @-@ 13 shooting . Among others , Bill Russell didn 't believe Chamberlain 's injury was grave , and openly accused him of being a malingerer : " Any injury short of a broken leg or a broken back is not enough . " Ironically , Van Breda Kolff came to Chamberlain 's defense , insisting the often @-@ maligned Lakers center hardly was able to move in the end . He himself was perceived as " pig @-@ headed " for benching Chamberlain , and soon resigned as Lakers coach . Cherry comments that according to some journalists , that Game 7 " destroyed two careers : Wilt 's because he wouldn 't take over and Van Breda Kolff because he wouldn 't give in " . In his second year with the Lakers under new coach Joe Mullaney , Chamberlain seriously injured his knee . He was injured in the ninth game of the schedule , suffering a total rupture of the patellar tendon at the base of his right kneecap , and missed the next several months before appearing in the final three games of the 82 @-@ game regular season . Owing to a great start , he managed to average 27 @.@ 3 points , 18 @.@ 4 rebounds and 4 @.@ 1 assists per game . Again , the Lakers charged through the playoffs , and in the 1970 NBA Finals , the Lakers were pitted against the New York Knicks , loaded with future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers Willis Reed , Dave DeBusschere , Bill Bradley , and Walt Frazier . Cherry observed that Reed , a prolific midrange shooter , was a bad matchup for Chamberlain : having lost lateral quickness due to his injury , the Lakers center was often too slow to block Reed 's preferred high post jump shots . In Game 1 , New York masterminded a 124 – 112 win in which Reed scored 37 points . In Game 2 , Chamberlain scored 19 points , grabbed 24 rebounds , and blocked Reed 's shot in the final seconds , leading the Lakers to a 105 – 103 win . Game 3 saw Jerry West famously hit a 60 @-@ foot shot at the buzzer to tie the game at 102 ; however , the Knicks took the game 111 – 108 . In Game 4 , Chamberlain scored 18 points and grabbed 25 rebounds and helped tie the series at 2 . In Game 5 , with the Knicks trailing by double digits , Reed pulled his thigh muscle and seemed to be done for the series . By conventional wisdom , Chamberlain now should have dominated against little @-@ used Knicks backup centers Nate Bowman and Bill Hosket or forwards Bradley and DeBusschere , who gave up more than half a foot against the Lakers center . Instead , the Lakers gave away their 13 @-@ point halftime lead and succumbed to the aggressive Knicks defense : L.A. committed 19 second half turnovers , and the two main scorers Chamberlain and West shot the ball only three and two times , respectively , in the entire second half . The Lakers lost 107 – 100 in what was called one of the greatest comebacks in NBA Finals history . In Game 6 , Chamberlain scored 45 points and almost single @-@ handedly equalized the series in a 135 – 113 Lakers win , and with Reed out , the Knicks seemed doomed prior to Game 7 in New York . However , the hero of that Game 7 was Willis Reed . He famously hobbled up court , scored the first four points , and inspired his team to one of the most famous playoff upsets of all time . The Knicks led by 27 at halftime , and despite scoring 21 points , Chamberlain couldn 't prevent a third consecutive loss in a Game 7 . The Lakers center himself was criticized for his inability to dominate his injured counterpart , but Cherry pointed out that Chamberlain 's feat – coming back from a career @-@ threatening injury himself – was too quickly forgotten . In the 1970 – 71 NBA season , the Lakers made a notable move by signing future Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Gail Goodrich , who came back from the Phoenix Suns after playing for L.A. until 1968 . Chamberlain averaged 20 @.@ 7 points , 18 @.@ 2 rebounds and 4 @.@ 3 assists , once again led the NBA in rebounding and the Lakers won the Pacific Division title . After losing Elgin Baylor to an Achilles tendon rupture that effectively ended his career , and especially after losing Jerry West after a knee injury , the handicapped Lakers were seen as underdogs against the Milwaukee Bucks of freshly crowned MVP Lew Alcindor , and veteran Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Oscar Robertson in the Western Conference Finals . Winning the regular season with 66 wins , the Bucks were seen as favourites against the depleted Lakers ; still , many pundits were looking forward to the matchup between the 34 @-@ year @-@ old Chamberlain and the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Alcindor . In Game 1 , Abdul @-@ Jabbar outscored Chamberlain 32 – 22 , and the Bucks won 106 – 85 . In Game 2 , the Bucks won again despite the Lakers center scoring 26 points , four more than his Milwaukee counterpart . Prior to Game 3 , things became even worse for the Lakers when Keith Erickson , West 's stand @-@ in , had an appendectomy and was out for the season ; with rookie Jim McMillian easing the scoring pressure , Chamberlain scored 24 points and grabbed 24 rebounds in a 118 – 107 victory , but the Bucks defeated the Lakers 117 – 94 in Game 4 to take a 3 – 1 series lead . Milwaukee closed out the series at home with a 116 – 98 victory in Game 5 . Although Chamberlain lost , he was lauded for holding his own against MVP Alcindor , who was not only 10 years younger , but healthy . After the 1971 playoffs , Chamberlain had yet another offer to fight heavyweight boxing legend Muhammad Ali . The 15 @-@ round fight would have taken place on July 26 , 1971 in the Houston Astrodome but Chamberlain refused . The potential Chamberlain @-@ Ali match was predicated on Ali beating Joe Frazier in a fight scheduled for early 1971 . However , Frazier defeated Ali to hand Ali his first professional loss . As a result , Chamberlain declined the fight through a contractual escape clause . In a 1999 interview , Chamberlain stated that boxing trainer Cus D 'Amato wanted to train him for the fight , and they offered Ali and him $ 5 million each to battle each other . Chamberlain checked back with his father and finally said no . Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke had also offered Chamberlain a record @-@ setting contract on the condition that Chamberlain agree to give up what Cooke termed " this boxing foolishness . " This was not the first time a Chamberlain @-@ Ali fight had been explored , as offers had also been made in both 1965 and 1967 . In 1967 , recently retired NFL star Jim Brown acted as Chamberlain 's manager , but Ali 's manager Jabir Herbert Muhammad backed out of the Chamberlain @-@ Ali match which was slated to take place at Madison Square Garden . In the 1971 – 72 NBA season , the Lakers hired former Celtics star guard Bill Sharman as head coach . Sharman introduced morning shoot @-@ arounds , in which the perennial latecomer Chamberlain regularly participated ( in contrast to earlier years with Dolph Schayes ) and transformed him into a defensive @-@ minded , low @-@ scoring post defender in the mold of his old rival Bill Russell . Furthermore , he told Chamberlain to use his rebounding and passing skills to quickly initiate fastbreaks to his teammates . While no longer being the main scorer , Chamberlain was named the new captain of the Lakers : after rupturing his Achilles tendon , perennial captain Elgin Baylor retired , leaving a void the center now filled . Initially , Sharman wanted Chamberlain and West to share this duty , but West declined , stating he was injury @-@ prone and wanted to solely concentrate on the game . Chamberlain accepted his new roles and posted an all @-@ time low 14 @.@ 8 points , but also won the rebound crown with 19 @.@ 2 rpg and led the league with a .649 field goal percentage . Powered by his defensive presence , the Lakers embarked on an unprecedented 33 @-@ game win streak en route to a then @-@ record 69 wins in the regular season . Yet the streak led to one strangely dissonant event . According to Flynn Robinson , after the record @-@ setting streak , Lakers owner Cooke sought to reward each of his players — who were expecting perhaps a " trip to Hawaii " — with a $ 5 pen set . In response , Chamberlain " had everybody put all the pens in the middle of the floor and stepped on them . " In the post @-@ season , the Lakers swept the Chicago Bulls , then went on to face the Milwaukee Bucks of young superstar center and regular @-@ season MVP Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar ( formerly Lew Alcindor ) . The matchup between Chamberlain and Abdul @-@ Jabbar was hailed by LIFE magazine as the greatest matchup in all of sports . Chamberlain would help lead the Lakers past Abdul @-@ Jabbar and the Bucks in six games . Particularly , Chamberlain was lauded for his performance in Game 6 , which the Lakers won 104 – 100 after trailing by 10 points in the fourth quarter : he scored 24 points and 22 rebounds , played all 48 minutes and outsprinted the younger Bucks center on several late Lakers fast breaks . Jerry West called it " the greatest ball @-@ busting performance I have ever seen . " Chamberlain performed so well in the series that TIME magazine stated , " In the N.B.A. ' s western division title series with Milwaukee , he ( Chamberlain ) decisively outplayed basketball 's newest giant superstar , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , eleven years his junior . " In the 1972 NBA Finals , the Lakers again met the New York Knicks ; the Knicks were shorthanded after losing 6 ' 9 " Willis Reed to injury , and so , undersized 6 ' 8 " Jerry Lucas had the task to defend against the 7 ' 1 " Chamberlain . However , prolific outside shooter Lucas helped New York to win Game 1 , hitting nine of his 11 shots in the first half alone ; in Game 2 , which the Lakers won 106 – 92 , Chamberlain put Lucas into foul trouble , and the Knicks lost defensive power forward Dave DeBusschere to injury . In Game 3 , Chamberlain scored 26 points and grabbed 20 rebounds for another Lakers win , and in a fiercely battled Game 4 , the Lakers center was playing with five fouls late in the game . Having never fouled out in his career – a feat that he was very proud of – he played aggressive defense despite the risk of fouling out , and blocked two of Lucas ' shots in overtime , proving those wrong who said he only played for his own stats ; he ended scoring a game @-@ high 27 points . But in that game , he fell on his right hand , and was said to have " sprained " it ; it was actually broken . For Game 5 , Chamberlain 's hands were packed into thick pads normally destined for defensive linesmen in American Football ; he was offered a painkilling shot , but refused because he feared he would lose his shooting touch if his hands became numb . In Game 5 , Chamberlain recorded 24 points , 29 rebounds , eight assists and eight blocked shots . ( While blocked shots were not an official NBA stat at that time , announcer Keith Jackson counted the blocks during the broadcast . ) Chamberlain 's outstanding all @-@ around performance helped the Lakers win their first championship in Los Angeles with a decisive 114 – 100 win . Chamberlain was named Finals MVP , and was admired for dominating the Knicks in Game 5 while playing injured . The 1972 – 73 NBA season was to be Chamberlain 's last , although he didn 't know this at the time . In his last season , the Lakers lost substance : Happy Hairston was injured , Flynn Robinson and LeRoy Ellis had left , and veteran Jerry West struggled with injury . Chamberlain averaged 13 @.@ 2 points and 18 @.@ 6 rebounds , still enough to win the rebounding crown for the 11th time in his career . In addition , he shot an NBA record .727 % for the season , bettering his own mark of .683 from the 1966 – 67 season . It was the ninth time Chamberlain would lead the league in field goal percentage . The Lakers won 60 games in the regular season and reached the 1973 NBA Finals against the New York Knicks . This time , the tables were turned : the Knicks now featured a healthy team with a rejuvenated Willis Reed , and the Lakers were now handicapped by several injuries . In that series , the Lakers won Game 1 115 – 112 , but the Knicks won Games 2 and 3 ; things worsened when Jerry West injured his hamstring yet again . In Game 4 , the shorthanded Lakers were no match for New York , and in Game 5 , the valiant , but injured West and Hairston had miserable games , and despite Chamberlain scoring 23 points and grabbing 21 rebounds , the Lakers lost 102 – 93 and the series . After the Knicks finished off the close fifth game with a late flourish led by Earl Monroe and Phil Jackson , Chamberlain made a dunk with one second left , which turned out to be the last play of his NBA career . = = = San Diego Conquistadors ( 1973 ) = = = In 1973 , the San Diego Conquistadors of the NBA rival league ABA signed Chamberlain as a player @-@ coach for a $ 600 @,@ 000 salary . However , the Lakers sued their former star and successfully prevented him from actually playing , because he still owed them the option year of his contract . Barred from playing , Chamberlain mostly left the coaching duties to his assistant Stan Albeck , who recalled : " Chamberlain ... has a great feel for pro basketball ... [ but ] the day @-@ to @-@ day things that are an important part of basketball ... just bored him . He did not have the patience . " The players were split on Chamberlain , who was seen as competent , but often indifferent and more occupied with promotion of his autobiography Wilt : Just Like Any Other 7 @-@ Foot Black Millionaire Who Lives Next Door than with coaching . He once skipped a game to sign autographs for the book . In his single season as a coach , the Conquistadors went a mediocre 37 – 47 in the regular season and lost against the Utah Stars in the Division Semifinals . However , Chamberlain was not pleased by the Qs ' meager attendance : crowds averaged 1 @,@ 843 , just over half of the Qs ' small San Diego 3 @,@ 200 @-@ seat sports arena . After the season , Chamberlain retired from professional basketball . = = NBA career statistics = = = = = Regular season = = = = = = Playoffs = = = = = Post @-@ NBA career = = After his stint with the Conquistadors , Chamberlain successfully went into business and entertainment , made money in stocks and real estate , bought a popular Harlem nightclub , which he renamed Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise , and invested in broodmares . Chamberlain also sponsored his personal professional volleyball and track and field teams , and also provided high @-@ level teams for girls and women in basketball , track , volleyball and softball , and made money by appearing in ads for TWA , American Express , Volkswagen , Drexel Burnham , Le Tigre Clothing and Foot Locker . After his basketball career , volleyball became Chamberlain 's new passion : being a talented hobby volleyballer during his Lakers days , he became board member of the newly founded International Volleyball Association in 1974 and became its president one year later . As a testament to his importance , the IVA All @-@ Star game was televised only because Chamberlain also played in it : he rose to the challenge and was named the game 's MVP . He played occasional matches for the IVA Seattle Smashers before the league folded in 1979 . Chamberlain promoted the sport so effectively that he was named to the Volleyball Hall of Fame : he became one of the few athletes who were enshrined in different sports . In 1976 Wilt turned to his interest in movies , forming a film production and distribution company to make his first film , entitled " Go For It " . Starting in the 1970s , he formed Wilt 's Athletic Club , a track and field club in southern California , coached by then UCLA assistant coach Bob Kersee in the early days of his career . Among the members of the team were : Florence Griffith before she set the current world records in the 100 meters and 200 meters ; Three time world champion Greg Foster ; future Olympic Gold medalists Andre Phillips ; Alice Brown ; Jeanette Bolden . In all , he claimed 60 athletes with aspirations of expanding to 100 . While actively promoting the sport in 1982 , Chamberlain claimed he was considering a return to athletic competition , but not in basketball , in Masters athletics . At the time he claimed he had only been beaten in the high jump once , by Olympic champion Charles Dumas , and that he had never been beaten in the shot put , including beating Olympic legend Al Oerter . Chamberlain played a villainous warrior and counterpart of Arnold Schwarzenegger in the film Conan the Destroyer ( 1984 ) . In November 1998 , Wilt signed with Ian Ng Cheng Hin , CEO of Northern Cinema House Entertainment ( NCH Entertainment ) , to do his own bio @-@ pic , wanting to tell his life story his way . He had been working on the screenplay notes for over a year at the time of his death . " He was more inquisitive than anybody I ever knew . He was writing a screenplay about his life . He was interested in world affairs , sometimes he 'd call me up late at night and discuss philosophy . I think he 'll be remembered as a great man . He happened to make a living playing basketball but he was more than that . He could talk on any subject . He was a Goliath , " said Sy Goldberg , Chamberlain 's longtime attorney . When million @-@ dollar contracts became common in the NBA , Chamberlain increasingly felt he had been underpaid during his career . A result of this resentment was the 1997 book Who 's Running the Asylum ? Inside the Insane World of Sports Today ( 1997 ) , in which he harshly criticized the NBA of the 1990s for being too disrespectful of players of the past . Even far beyond his playing days , Chamberlain was a very fit person . In his mid @-@ forties , he was able to humble rookie Magic Johnson in practice , and even in the 1980s , he flirted with making a comeback in the NBA . In the 1980 – 81 NBA season , coach Larry Brown recalled that the 45 @-@ year @-@ old Chamberlain had received an offer from the Cleveland Cavaliers . When Chamberlain was 50 , the New Jersey Nets had the same idea , and Chamberlain declined again . However , he would continue to epitomize physical fitness for years to come , including participating in several marathons . = = Legacy = = = = = Individual achievements and recognition = = = Chamberlain is regarded as one of the most extraordinary and dominant basketball players in the history of the NBA . The 1972 NBA Finals MVP is holder of numerous official NBA all @-@ time records , establishing himself as a scoring champion , all @-@ time top rebounder and accurate field goal shooter . He led the NBA in scoring seven times , field goal percentage nine times , minutes played eight times , rebounding eleven times , and assists once . He was also responsible for several rule changes , including widening the lane from 12 to 16 feet , as well as changes to rules regarding inbounding the ball and shooting free throws . Chamberlain is most remembered for his 100 @-@ point game , which is widely considered one of basketball 's greatest records . Decades after his record , many NBA teams did not even average 100 points as fewer field goals per game were being attempted . The closest any player has gotten to 100 points was the Los Angeles Lakers ' Kobe Bryant , who scored 81 in 2006 . Bryant afterwards said Chamberlain 's record was " unthinkable ... It 's pretty exhausting to think about it . " Chamberlain 's main weakness was his notoriously poor free throw shooting , where he has the third lowest career free throw percentage in NBA history with 51 @.@ 1 % ( based on a minimum of 1 @,@ 200 attempts ) . Chamberlain claimed that he intentionally missed free throws so a teammate could get the rebound and score two points instead of one , but later acknowledged that he was a " psycho case " in this matter . On the other hand , he committed surprisingly few fouls during his NBA career , despite the rugged play in the post . Chamberlain never fouled out of a regular season or playoff game in his 14 @-@ year NBA career . His career average was only two fouls per game , despite having averaged 45 @.@ 8 minutes per game over his career . He had five seasons where he committed less than two fouls per game , with a career low of 1 @.@ 5 fouls during the 1962 season , in which he also averaged 50 @.@ 4 points per game . His fouls per 36 minutes ( a stat used to compare players that average vastly different minutes ) was a remarkable 1 @.@ 6 per game . " First he was a scorer . Then he was a rebounder and assist man . Then with our great Laker team in 1972 , he concentrated on the defensive end , " said Sharman . In his two championship seasons , Chamberlain led the league in rebounding , while his scoring decreased to 24 and 15 points per game . By 1971 – 72 at age 35 and running less , his game had transformed to averaging only nine shots per game , compared to the 40 in his record @-@ setting 1961 – 62 season . He also has a signature ' Dipper ' move , whereby he would fake a hook shot , and extends his arm to a short @-@ range finger roll to shoot under a block attempt . For his feats , Chamberlain was enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1978 , named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History , ranked # 2 in SLAM Magazine 's Top 50 NBA Players of All @-@ Time and # 13 in the ESPN list " Top North American athletes of the century " and voted the second best center of All @-@ Time by ESPN behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar on March 6 , 2007 . During his career , Chamberlain competed against future Hall of Famers including Russell , Thurmond , Lucas , and Walt Bellamy . He later faced Unseld , Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Dave Cowens , and Elvin Hayes . = = = Chamberlain – Russell rivalry = = = From a historical NBA perspective , the rivalry between Chamberlain and his perennial nemesis Bill Russell is cited as the greatest on @-@ court rivalry of all time . There were three NBA Finals matchups in the rivalry between Larry Bird and Magic Johnson , but they played different positions and did not guard each other . Russell 's Celtics won seven of eight playoff series against Chamberlain 's Warriors , 76ers , and Lakers teams , and went 57 – 37 against them in the regular season and 29 – 20 in the playoffs . Russell 's teams won all four seventh games against Chamberlain 's — the combined margin was nine points . Chamberlain outscored Russell 30 to 14 @.@ 2 per game and outrebounded him 28 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 9 in the regular season , and also in the playoffs , he outscored him 25 @.@ 7 to 14 @.@ 9 and outrebounded him 28 to 24 @.@ 7 . The comparison between the two is often simplified to a great player ( Chamberlain ) versus a player who makes his team great ( Russell ) , an individualist against a team player . In 1961 – 62 when Chamberlain averaged 50 @.@ 4 points per game , he noted that Boston did not rely on Russell 's scoring , and he could concentrate on defense and rebounding . He wished people would understand that their roles were different . Chamberlain said , " I 've got to hit forty points or so , or this team is in trouble . I must score — understand ? After that I play defense and get the ball off the boards . I try to do them all , best I can , but scoring comes first . " Russell won 11 NBA titles in his career while Chamberlain won two . Chamberlain was named All @-@ NBA first team seven times to Russell 's three , but Russell was named league MVP — then selected by players and not the press — five times against Chamberlain 's four . Russell and Chamberlain were friends in private life . Russell never considered Chamberlain his rival and disliked the term , instead pointing out that they rarely talked about basketball when they were alone . When Chamberlain died in 1999 , Chamberlain 's nephew stated that Russell was the second person he was ordered to break the news to . The two did not speak for two decades after Russell criticized Chamberlain after Game 7 of the 1969 Finals . Russell apologized privately to Chamberlain and later publicly . = = = Rule changes = = = Chamberlain 's impact on the game is also reflected in the fact that he was directly responsible for several rule changes in the NBA , including widening the lane to try to keep him farther away from the hoop , instituting offensive goaltending and revising rules governing inbounding the ball and shooting free throws ( such as making it against the rules to inbound the ball over the backboard ) . Chamberlain , who reportedly had a 50 @-@ inch vertical leap , was physically capable of converting foul shots via a slam dunk without a running start ( beginning his movement at the top of the key ) . When his dunks practically undermined the difficulty of a foul shot , both the NCAA and the NBA banned his modus operandi . In basketball history , pundits have stated that the only other player who forced such a massive change of rules is 6 ' 10 " Minneapolis Lakers center George Mikan , who played a decade before Chamberlain and also caused many rule changes designed to thwart so @-@ called " big men " . = = = Reputation = = = Although Chamberlain racked up some of the most impressive statistics in the history of Northern American professional sports , because he won " just " two NBA championships and lost seven out of eight playoff series against the Celtics teams of his on @-@ court nemesis Bill Russell , Chamberlain was often called " selfish " and a " loser " . Frank Deford of ESPN said that Chamberlain was caught in a no @-@ win situation : " If you win , everybody says , ' Well , look at him , he 's that big . ' If you lose , everybody says , ' How could he lose , a guy that size ? ' " Chamberlain himself often said : " Nobody roots for Goliath . " Like later superstar Shaquille O 'Neal , Chamberlain was a target of criticism because of his poor free throw shooting , an abysmal .511 career average , with a low of .380 over the 1967 – 68 season . Countless suggestions were offered ; he shot them underhanded , one @-@ handed , two @-@ handed , from the side of the circle , from well behind the line , and even banked in . Sixers coach Alex Hannum once suggested he shoot his famous fadeaway jumper as a free throw , but Chamberlain feared drawing more attention to his one great failing . Despite his foul line woes , Chamberlain set the NBA record ( 28 ) for free throws made in a regular season game in his 1962 100 @-@ point game . Furthermore , Chamberlain damaged his reputation in an April 1965 article with Sports Illustrated . In an interview entitled " My Life in a Bush League " , he criticized his fellow players , coaches , and NBA administrators . Chamberlain later commented that he could see in hindsight how the interview could have been instrumental in hurting his public image . However , contemporary colleagues were often terrified to play against Chamberlain . Bill Russell regularly feared being embarrassed by Chamberlain , Walt Frazier called his dominance on the court " comical " , and when 6 ft 11 in 250 @-@ pound ( in his early years ) Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame center Bob Lanier was asked about the most memorable moment of his career , Lanier answered : " When Wilt Chamberlain lifted me up and moved me like a coffee cup so he could get a favorable position . " = = Personal life = = = = = Star status = = = Wilt Chamberlain was the first big earner of basketball : immediately becoming the highest paid player upon entering the NBA , Chamberlain was basketball 's first player to earn at least $ 100 @,@ 000 a year , and earned an unprecedented $ 1 @.@ 5 million during his Lakers years . As a Philadelphia 76er , he could afford to rent a New York apartment and commute to Philadelphia . In addition , he would often stay out late into the night and wake up at noon , a point that became notorious in the 1965 – 66 NBA season . When he became a Laker , Chamberlain built a million @-@ dollar mansion he called the " Ursa Major " in Bel @-@ Air , as a play on his nickname " The Big Dipper " . It had a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ pound pivot as a front door and contained great displays of luxury . Robert Allen Cherry , journalist and author of the biography Wilt : Larger than Life , describes his house as a miniature Playboy Mansion , where he regularly held parties and lived out his later @-@ notorious sex life . This was also helped by the fact that Chamberlain was a near @-@ insomniac who often simply skipped sleeping . Designed according to his preferences , the house was constructed with no right angles , and had an " X @-@ rated " room with mirrored walls and a fur @-@ covered waterbed . Chamberlain lived alone , relying on a great deal of automated gadgets , with two cats named Zip and Zap and several Great Dane dogs as company . In addition , Chamberlain drove a Ferrari , a Bentley , and had a Le Mans @-@ style car called Searcher One designed and built at a cost of $ 750 @,@ 000 in 1996 . Following his death , in 2000 Chamberlain 's estate was valued at $ 25 million . = = = Love life = = = Although shy and insecure as a teenager , adult Chamberlain became well known for his womanizing . As his lawyer Seymour " Sy " Goldberg put it : " Some people collect stamps , Wilt collected women . " Swedish Olympic high jumper Annette Tånnander , who met him when he was 40 and she 19 , remembers him as a pick @-@ up artist who was extremely confident yet respectful : " I think Wilt hit on everything that moved ... [ but ] he never was bad or rude . " Many of Chamberlain 's personal friends testified that he once had 23 women in 10 days , had no problems organizing a threesome ( or more ) , and particularly enjoyed a TV skit on the television show In Living Color in which a mother and her daughter approach a Vietnam Wall @-@ like list of women who slept with him , both of them pointing out that their names are on it , as well as a 1991 Saturday Night Live sketch where MC Hammer played Chamberlain in " Remembrances of Love " , where Chamberlain spoofs a soap opera with romances with women that are usually over in five minutes . However , Los Angeles Times columnist David Shaw claimed that during a dinner with Shaw and his wife , Chamberlain was " rude and sexist toward his own date , as he usually was " , adding that at one point Chamberlain left the table to get the phone number of an attractive woman at a nearby table . According to Rod Roddewig , a contemporary of Wilt 's , Chamberlain documented his love life using a Day @-@ Timer . Every time Chamberlain went to bed with a different woman , he put a check in his Day @-@ Timer . Over a 10 day period , there were 23 checks in the book , which would be a rate of 2 @.@ 3 women per day . Chamberlain divided that number in half , to be conservative and to correct for degrees of variation . He then multiplied that number by the number of days he had been alive at the time minus 15 years . That was how the 20 @,@ 000 number came into existence . In response to public backlash regarding his promiscuity , Chamberlain later emphasized that " the point of using the number was to show that sex was a great part of my life as basketball was a great part of my life . That 's the reason why I was single . " In a 1999 interview shortly before his death , Chamberlain regretted not having explained the sexual climate at the time of his escapades , and warned other men who admired him for it , closing with the words : " With all of you men out there who think that having a thousand different ladies is pretty cool , I have learned in my life I 've found out that having one woman a thousand different times is much more satisfying . " Chamberlain also acknowledged that he never came close to marrying and had no intention of raising any children . = = = Relationships = = = Although Cherry points out that Chamberlain was an egotist , he added that he had good relationships with many contemporaries and enjoyed a great deal of respect . He was especially lauded for his good rapport with his fans , often providing tickets and signing autographs . Dr. Jack Ramsay recalled that Chamberlain regularly took walks in downtown Philadelphia and acknowledged honking horns with the air of a man enjoying all the attention . Jerry West called him a " complex ... very nice person " , and NBA rival Jack McMahon even said : " The best thing that happened to the NBA is that God made Wilt a nice person ... he could have killed us all with his left hand . " Celtics contemporary Bob Cousy even assumed that if Chamberlain had been less fixated on being popular , he would have been meaner and able to win more titles . During most of his NBA career , Chamberlain was good friends with Bill Russell . Chamberlain often invited Russell over to Thanksgiving , and at Russell 's place , conversation mostly concerned Russell 's electric trains . But as the championship count became increasingly lopsided , the relationship got strained , and turned hostile after Russell accused Chamberlain of " copping out " in the notorious Game 7 of the 1969 NBA Finals . The two men did not talk to each other for over 20 years , until Russell apologized privately , then publicly in a 1997 joint interview with Bob Costas : " There was a thing almost 30 years ago ... I was wrong . " Still , Chamberlain maintained a level of bitterness , regretted that he should have been " more physical " with Russell in their games and privately continued accusing his rival for " intellectualizing " basketball in a negative way . More hostile was Chamberlain 's relationship with fellow center Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , ten years his junior . Although Abdul @-@ Jabbar idolized him as a teenager and was once part of his inner circle , the student / mentor bond deteriorated into intense mutual loathing , especially after Chamberlain retired . Chamberlain often criticized Abdul @-@ Jabbar for a perceived lack of scoring , rebounding , and defense . Abdul @-@ Jabbar accused Chamberlain of being a traitor to the black race for his Republican political leanings , support of Richard Nixon , and relationships with white women . When Abdul @-@ Jabbar broke Chamberlain 's all @-@ time scoring record in 1984 , Chamberlain repeatedly called on Kareem to retire . When Abdul @-@ Jabbar published his autobiography in 1990 , he retaliated by writing a paper titled " To Wilt Chumperlane [ sic ] " in which he stated " Now that I am done playing , history will remember me as someone who helped teammates to win , while you will be remembered as a crybaby , a loser , and a quitter . " Their relationship remained mostly strained until the end . = = = Politics = = = Chamberlain denounced the Black Panthers and other black nationalist movements in the late 1960s , and supported Republican Richard Nixon in the 1968 and 1972 presidential elections . Chamberlain accompanied Nixon to the funeral of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr . He considered himself a Republican . = = Death = = Chamberlain had a history of heart trouble . In 1992 , Chamberlain was briefly hospitalized for an irregular heartbeat . According to those close to him , he eventually began taking medication for his heart troubles . In 1999 , his condition deteriorated rapidly . During this time , he lost 50 pounds . After undergoing dental surgery in the week before his death , he was in great pain and seemed unable to recover from the stress . On October 12 , 1999 , Chamberlain died in Bel @-@ Air , California , at the age of 63 . He was cremated . His agent Sy Goldberg stated Chamberlain died of congestive heart failure . He was survived by his sisters Barbara Lewis , Margaret Lane , Selina Gross and Yvonne Chamberlain , and brothers Wilbert and Oliver Chamberlain . NBA players and officials were saddened at the loss of a player they universally remembered as a symbol of the sport . His lifelong on @-@ court rival and personal friend Bill Russell stated " the fierceness of our competition bonded us together for eternity " , and Celtics coach Red Auerbach praised Chamberlain as vital for the success of the entire NBA . Ex @-@ Lakers teammate Jerry West remembered him as an utterly dominant , yet friendly and humorous player , and fellow Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Johnny Kerr , Phil Jackson and Wes Unseld called Chamberlain one of the greatest players in the history of the sport .
= 2012 Scottish Cup Final = The 2012 Scottish Cup Final was the 127th final of the Scottish Cup . The match took place at Hampden Park on 19 May 2012 and was contested by the Edinburgh derby rivals , Hibernian ( Hibs ) and Heart of Midlothian ( Hearts ) . It was Hibs ' 12th Scottish Cup Final and Hearts ' 14th . It was also the first time the clubs had met in a Scottish Cup Final since 1896 . As Scottish Premier League ( SPL ) clubs , Hibs and Hearts both entered the competition in the fourth round . Hibs won all four of their ties at the first attempt , defeating two other SPL clubs and two Scottish Football League clubs . After winning against Junior club Auchinleck Talbot in the fourth round , Hearts defeated three other SPL clubs to reach the final . Hearts needed replays to eliminate St Johnstone and St Mirren , then beat cup holders Celtic in the semi @-@ final . The match was Hibs ' 12th appearance in the Scottish Cup final and Hearts ' 14th . Hibs had previously won two finals and Hearts had won seven . Because both teams were from Edinburgh , many of the city councillors requested that the final be held in Edinburgh at Murrayfield Stadium , instead of the traditional venue of Hampden , in Glasgow . The previous final between the two clubs in 1896 had been held in Edinburgh but on this occasion it stayed in Glasgow . Hearts won a one @-@ sided match 5 – 1 . They took an early 2 – 0 lead by goals from Darren Barr and Rudi Skácel . Hibs reduced the deficit to 2 – 1 at half @-@ time through captain James McPake . Soon after half @-@ time , however , Pa Kujabi was sent off and conceded a penalty kick , which was converted by Danny Grainger . Hearts scored two further goals with their one @-@ man advantage to complete the scoring . = = Route to the final = = = = = Hibernian = = = Scottish Premier League club Hibernian entered the competition in the fourth round . They began their campaign against Second Division leaders Cowdenbeath at Central Park , which was suggested as a possible cup upset due to Hibs ' poor league form . Cowdenbeath took the lead after just 15 seconds , but Hibs recovered to win 3 – 2 . Hibs then took on fellow SPL club Kilmarnock at their home ground , Easter Road , having made several signings in January 2012 . An early goal by Irish striker Eoin Doyle was enough to give Hibs a 1 – 0 win . In the quarter @-@ final Hibs were drawn against the other senior club from Ayrshire , away to Ayr United . Again the match was tipped as a possible cup upset , as Ayr had beaten Hibs ( after a replay ) in the 2010 – 11 Scottish Cup competition . Hibs scored two early goals and progressed to the semi @-@ final with a 2 – 0 victory . In the semi @-@ final , Hibs took on Aberdeen at Hampden Park . Garry O 'Connor scored an early goal , and Rory Fallon equalised for Aberdeen in the second half with a spectacular looping volley . Hibs won 2 – 1 thanks to a late winning goal by Leigh Griffiths . = = = Hearts = = = Heart of Midlothian , also a Scottish Premier League club , entered the competition in the fourth round . They began their campaign against Junior club Auchinleck Talbot in a home match at Tynecastle Stadium . A late goal by Gordon Smith gave Hearts a 1 – 0 victory . Hearts then faced fellow SPL side St Johnstone in the fifth round . Hearts led 1 @-@ 0 after a David Templeton goal . Despite St Johnstone defender Dave Mackay being sent off after 74 minutes , Cillian Sheridan equalised to force a replay . In the replay , Murray Davidson put St Johnstone in the lead with an 83rd @-@ minute goal . Jamie Hamill then converted a controversial stoppage @-@ time penalty to force extra time . Suso Santana had won the penalty but was accused of diving by the St Johnstone players and manager . During extra time Marius Zaliukas scored the winning goal from a corner . In the quarter final Hearts faced another SPL side , St Mirren . Hearts conceded early on after a Graham Carey free @-@ kick before Craig Beattie scored and then set up Rudolf Skácel to put Hearts in front . Zaliukas then scored a late own goal after deflecting a Nigel Hasselbaink shot into his own net to level the match . In the replay at St Mirren Park , Carey had an early penalty saved , after a handball by Zaliukas , and Hasselbaink then scored a goal which was ruled out because the referee had not given St Mirren an advantage . Hearts then came back into the match as Hamill and Skácel scored to give Hearts a 2 @-@ 0 win . In the semi @-@ final at Hampden Park , Hearts were drawn against cup holders Celtic . Skácel scored shortly after half @-@ time for Hearts before Gary Hooper scored a late equaliser for Celtic . Hearts were then awarded a stoppage @-@ time penalty which former Celtic striker Beattie converted . There was controversy around both Hooper 's goal and Beattie 's penalty after the match as Hooper had looked offside when he scored his goal and Hearts ' penalty was considered to have been wrongly awarded by the referee . = = Pre @-@ match = = This was Hibs 12th appearance in the Scottish Cup Final . They had previously won two Scottish Cups ( in 1887 and 1902 ) , and been beaten in nine finals ( in 1896 , 1914 , 1923 , 1924 , 1947 , 1958 , 1972 , 1979 and 2001 ) . Hearts were appearing in their 14th Scottish Cup Final . They had won seven Scottish Cups ( in 1891 , 1896 , 1901 , 1906 , 1956 , 1998 and 2006 ) and been beaten in the final six times ( in 1903 , 1907 , 1968 , 1976 , 1986 and 1996 ) . The only previous meeting of the two clubs in a Scottish Cup Final was in 1896 , when the match was played at New Logie Green ( home of St Bernard 's ) in Edinburgh . With two clubs from Edinburgh qualifying for the final , some City of Edinburgh Council members called for the match to be played at Murrayfield Stadium instead of Hampden Park , the traditional venue for Scottish Cup Finals . A survey by the Edinburgh Evening News found that 37 of 58 councillors favoured Murrayfield , with nine favouring Hampden . Supporters of moving the game to Murrayfield cited its greater capacity , convenience for the majority of fans and the precedent of the 1896 Scottish Cup Final . The Scottish Football Association stated that no venue other than Hampden would be considered . Supporters of keeping the game at Hampden cited that the players would prefer to play at the national football stadium and that some fans had already begun to make arrangements for the tie being in Glasgow . First ScotRail provided additional capacity on their routes between Edinburgh and Glasgow . Both clubs received an allocation of approximately 20 @,@ 000 tickets , out of a total capacity of 52 @,@ 063 . The remaining seats are accounted for by Hampden Park debenture holders , hospitality , sponsors , media and segregation areas . In excess of 1 @,@ 000 unused debentures were distributed to each club . The allocation was enough to provide for the season ticket holders of each club , with Hearts having 10 @,@ 000 and Hibs 7 @,@ 500 approximately , although both clubs anticipated that there would be little or no need for a general public sale . Hearts decided to sell tickets using their loyalty points system , while Hibs connected their allocation to sales of season tickets and memberships . Due to high demand , Hearts tightened the criteria needed for a ticket during the sales process . Regular tickets cost £ 35 or £ 28 for adults and £ 10 for children under 15 years old . = = Match = = Hibs suffered an injury during the semi @-@ final , when their regular goalkeeper Graham Stack had to be substituted due to a thigh injury . A scan following the match showed that he would be unable to play for between 10 and 12 weeks , and therefore would miss the final . Hibs secured their place in the Scottish Premier League with one game to spare and rested several players for the final game of their league programme . Defender Matt Doherty suffered a foot injury in that league game , but manager Pat Fenlon said he was confident Doherty would be able to play in the final . Fenlon then took his squad to his home town of Dublin to prepare for the cup final and told the media that he had almost finalised his team selection . Having finished in the top half of the 2011 – 12 Scottish Premier League , Hearts were involved in the battle to qualify for the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League competition . A victory against St Johnstone in their penultimate league match lifted Hearts into fifth place , a qualifying position . Hearts then rested some players for their final league match , a 5 – 0 defeat by Celtic . Entering the week before the cup final , Hearts had concerns about the fitness of striker Craig Beattie , who was unable to train due to a hamstring injury . Craig Thomson was appointed to referee the match . Thomson decided to donate his match fee of £ 1 @,@ 000 to a hospice in Paisley , where his late mother had been treated . = = = Report = = = Hearts started the match as the brighter of the two teams . Rudolf Skácel headed wide early on from an Andrew Driver cross . Hearts took the lead through Darren Barr in the 15th minute , scoring from close range . Hearts continued to control the match and Pa Kujabi picked up a booking for fouling Suso Santana . Skácel then doubled Hearts ' lead after receiving the ball on the edge of the area and turning to hit a shot which deflected off James McPake before going in . Hibs then had an opportunity as Kujabi 's cross came to Garry O 'Connor , but he hit his shot over the bar . McPake then made a goal @-@ line clearance from a Suso shot which had beaten Hibs ' keeper Mark Brown . McPake got Hibs back into the game from a corner . Tom Soares ' initial delivery was cleared but he got the ball back out on the wing and put in a low cross which McPake converted . Almost immediately after the start of the second @-@ half Hearts were awarded a penalty kick . Kujabi fouled Suso by pulling his jersey and catching his heel , but television replays showed that the foul had taken place outside the penalty area . Hibs were also reduced to ten men as Kujabi received his second yellow card , resulting in a red . Danny Grainger converted the penalty , which was also his first goal for Hearts . Soon afterwards , Ryan McGowan scored with a header after Hibs keeper Brown had initially saved from Stephen Elliott . Skácel finished the scoring with another shot from just outside the box to make it 5 @-@ 1 for Hearts . = = = Details = = = = = Aftermath = = Hibernian manager Pat Fenlon received a four @-@ match ban for being sent to the stands during the match . He later described the result as a ' disaster ' and that he would look to address some of the problems highlighted in the Hibs team during his summer rebuilding of the squad . = = Media coverage = = In the United Kingdom , the match was broadcast live on BBC One Scotland and Sky Sports . Radio commentary of the match was aired on BBC Radio Scotland .
= Battle of Valcour Island = The naval Battle of Valcour Island , also known as the Battle of Valcour Bay , took place on October 11 , 1776 , on Lake Champlain . The main action took place in Valcour Bay , a narrow strait between the New York mainland and Valcour Island . The battle is generally regarded as one of the first naval battles of the American Revolutionary War , and one of the first fought by the United States Navy . Most of the ships in the American fleet under the command of Benedict Arnold were captured or destroyed by a British force under the overall direction of General Guy Carleton . However , the American defense of Lake Champlain stalled British plans to reach the upper Hudson River valley . The Continental Army had retreated from Quebec to Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point in June 1776 after British forces were massively reinforced . They spent the summer of 1776 fortifying those forts , and building additional ships to augment the small American fleet already on the lake . General Carleton had a 9 @,@ 000 man army at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , but needed to build a fleet to carry it on the lake . The Americans , during their retreat , had either taken or destroyed most of the ships on the lake . By early October , the British fleet , which significantly outgunned the American fleet , was ready for launch . On October 11 , Arnold drew the British fleet to a position he had carefully chosen to limit their advantages . In the battle that followed , many of the American ships were damaged or destroyed . That night , Arnold sneaked the American fleet past the British one , beginning a retreat toward Crown Point and Ticonderoga . Unfavorable weather hampered the American retreat , and more of the fleet was either captured or grounded and burned before it could reach Crown Point . Upon reaching Crown Point Arnold had the fort 's buildings burned and retreated to Ticonderoga . The British fleet included four officers who later became admirals in the Royal Navy : Thomas Pringle , James Dacres , Edward Pellew and John Schank . Valcour Bay , the site of the battle , is now a National Historic Landmark , as is USS Philadelphia , which sank shortly after the October 11 battle , and was raised in 1935 . The underwater site of USS Spitfire , located in 1997 , is on the National Register of Historic Places . = = Background = = The American Revolutionary War , which began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord , widened in September 1775 when the Continental Army embarked on an invasion of the British Province of Quebec . The province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies , and was at the time lightly defended . The invasion reached a peak on December 31 , 1775 , when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans . In the spring of 1776 , 10 @,@ 000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec , and General Guy Carleton , the provincial governor , drove the Continental Army out of Quebec and back to Fort Ticonderoga . Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River , whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City . Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York , recently captured in the New York campaign by Major General William Howe . This strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those farther south and potentially quash the rebellion . Lake Champlain , a long and relatively narrow lake formed by the action of glaciers during the last ice age , separates the Green Mountains of Vermont from the Adirondack Mountains of New York . Its 120 @-@ mile ( 190 km ) length and 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) maximum width creates more than 550 miles ( 890 km ) of shoreline , with many bays , inlets and promontories . More than 70 islands dot the 435 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 130 km2 ) surface , although during periods of low and high water , these numbers can change . The lake is relatively shallow , with an average depth of 64 feet ( 20 m ) . Running roughly from south to north , the lake 's waters empty into the Richelieu River , where waterfalls at Saint @-@ Jean in Quebec mark the northernmost point of navigation . The American strongholds of Fort Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga near the lake 's southern end protected access to uppermost navigable reaches of the Hudson River . Elimination of these defenses required the transportation of troops and supplies from the British @-@ controlled St. Lawrence Valley 90 miles ( 150 km ) to the north . Roads were either impassable or nonexistent , making water transport on the lake the only viable option . The only ships on the lake following the American retreat from Quebec were a small fleet of lightly armed ships that Benedict Arnold had assembled following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 . This fleet , even if it had been in British hands , was too small to transport the large British Army to Fort Ticonderoga . = = Prelude = = During their retreat from Quebec , the Americans carefully took or destroyed all ships on Lake Champlain that might prove useful to the British . When Arnold and his troops , making up the rear guard of the army , abandoned Fort Saint @-@ Jean , they burned or sank all the boats they could not use , and set fire to the sawmill and the fort . These actions effectively denied the British any hope of immediately moving onto the lake . The two sides set about building fleets : the British at Saint @-@ Jean and the Americans at the other end of the lake in Skenesborough ( present @-@ day Whitehall , New York ) . While planning Quebec 's defenses in 1775 , General Carleton had anticipated the problem of transportation on Lake Champlain , and had requested the provisioning of prefabricated ships from Europe . By the time Carleton 's army reached Saint @-@ Jean , ten such ships had arrived . These ships and more were assembled by skilled shipwrights on the upper Richelieu River . Also assembled there was HMS Inflexible , a 180 @-@ ton warship they disassembled at Quebec City and transported upriver in pieces . In total , the British fleet ( 25 armed vessels ) had more firepower than the Americans ' 15 vessels , with more than 80 guns outweighing the 74 smaller American guns . Two of Carleton 's ships , Inflexible ( 18 12 @-@ pounders ) and HMS Thunderer ( six 24 @-@ pound guns , six 12 @-@ pound guns , and two howitzers ) , by themselves outgunned the combined firepower of the American fleet . In addition to Inflexible and Thunderer , the fleet included the schooners Maria ( 14 guns ) , Carleton ( 12 guns ) , and Loyal Convert ( 6 guns ) , and 20 single @-@ masted gunboats each armed with two cannons . The American generals leading their shipbuilding effort encountered a variety of challenges . Shipwright was not a common occupation in the relative wilderness of upstate New York , and the Continental Navy had to pay extremely high wages to lure skilled craftsmen away from the coast . The carpenters hired to build boats on Lake Champlain were the best @-@ paid employees of the navy , excepting only the Navy 's Commodore , Esek Hopkins . By the end of July there were more than 200 shipwrights at Skenesborough . In addition to skilled help , materials and supplies specific to maritime use needed to be brought to Skenesborough , where the ships were constructed , or Fort Ticonderoga , where they were fitted out for use . The shipbuilding at Skenesborough was overseen by Hermanus Schuyler ( possibly a relation of Major General Philip Schuyler ) , and the outfitting was managed by military engineer Jeduthan Baldwin . Schuyler began work in April to produce boats larger and more suitable for combat than the small shallow @-@ draft boats known as bateaux that were used for transport on the lake . The process eventually came to involve General Arnold , who was an experienced ship 's captain , and David Waterbury , a Connecticut militia leader with maritime experience . Major General Horatio Gates , in charge of the entire shipbuilding effort , eventually asked Arnold to take more responsibility in the effort , because " I am intirely uninform 'd as to Marine Affairs . " Arnold took up the task with relish , and Gates rewarded him with command of the fleet , writing that " [ Arnold ] has a perfect knowledge in maritime affairs , and is , besides , a most gallant and deserving officer . " Arnold 's appointment was not without trouble ; Jacobus Wynkoop , who had been in command of the fleet , refused to accept that Gates had authority over him , and had to be arrested . The shipbuilding was significantly slowed in mid @-@ August by an outbreak of disease among the shipwrights . Although the army leadership had been scrupulous about keeping smallpox sufferers segregated from others , the disease that slowed the shipbuilding for several weeks was some kind of fever . While both sides busied themselves with shipbuilding , the growing American fleet patrolled the waters of Lake Champlain . At one point in August , Arnold sailed part of the fleet to the northernmost end of the lake , within 20 miles ( 32 km ) of Saint @-@ Jean , and formed a battle line . A British outpost , well out of range , fired a few shots at the line without effect . On September 30 , expecting the British to sail soon , Arnold retreated to the shelter of Valcour Island . During his patrols of the lake Arnold had commanded the fleet from the schooner Royal Savage , carrying 12 guns and captained by David Hawley . When it came time for the battle , Arnold transferred his flag to Congress , a row galley . Other ships in the fleet included Revenge and Liberty , also two @-@ masted schooners carrying 8 guns , as well as Enterprise , a sloop ( 12 guns ) , and 8 gundalows outfitted as gunboats ( each with three guns ) : New Haven , Providence , Boston , Spitfire , Philadelphia , Connecticut , Jersey , New York , the cutter Lee , and the row galleys Trumbull and Washington . Liberty was not present at the battle , having been sent to Ticonderoga for provisions . Arnold , whose business activities before the war had included sailing ships to Europe and the West Indies , carefully chose the site where he wanted to meet the British fleet . Reliable intelligence he received on October 1 indicated that the British had a force significantly more powerful than his . Because his force was inferior , he chose the narrow , rocky body of water between the western shore of Lake Champlain and Valcour Island ( near modern Plattsburgh , New York ) , where the British fleet would have difficulty bringing its superior firepower to bear , and where the inferior seamanship of his relatively unskilled sailors would have a minimal negative effect . Some of Arnold 's captains wanted to fight in open waters where they might be able to retreat to the shelter of Fort Crown Point , but Arnold argued that the primary purpose of the fleet was not survival but the delay of a British advance on Crown Point and Ticonderoga until the following spring . = = Battle = = Carleton 's fleet , commanded by Captain Thomas Pringle and including 50 unarmed support vessels , sailed onto Lake Champlain on October 9 . They cautiously advanced southward , searching for signs of Arnold 's fleet . On the night of October 10 , the fleet anchored about 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the north of Arnold 's position , still unaware of his location . The next day , they continued to sail south , assisted by favorable winds . After they passed the northern tip of Valcour Island , Arnold sent out Congress and Royal Savage to draw the attention of the British . Following an inconsequential exchange of fire with the British , the two ships tried to return to Arnold 's crescent @-@ shaped firing line . However , Royal Savage was unable to fight the headwinds , and ran aground on the southern tip of Valcour Island . Some of the British gunboats swarmed toward her , as Captain Hawley and his men hastily abandoned ship . Men from the HMS Loyal Convert boarded her , capturing 20 men in the process , but were then forced to abandon her under heavy fire from the Americans . Many of Arnold 's papers were lost with the destruction of Royal Savage , which was burned by the British . The British gunboats and Carleton then maneuvered within range of the American line . Thunderer and HMS Maria were unable to make headway against the winds , and did not participate in the battle , while Inflexible eventually came far enough up the strait to participate in the action . Around 12 : 30 pm , the battle began in earnest , with both sides firing broadsides and cannonades at each other , and continued all afternoon . Revenge was heavily hit ; Philadelphia was also heavily damaged and eventually sank around 6 : 30 pm . Carleton , whose guns wrought havoc against the smaller American gundalows , became a focus of attention . A lucky shot eventually snapped the line holding her broadside in position , and she was seriously damaged before she could be towed out of range of the American line . Her casualties were significant ; eight men were killed and another eight wounded . The young Edward Pellew , serving as a midshipman aboard Carleton , distinguished himself by ably commanding the vessel to safety when its senior officers , including its captain , Lieutenant James Dacres , were injured . Another lucky American shot hit a British gunboat 's magazine and the vessel exploded . Toward sunset , Inflexible finally reached the action . Her big guns quickly silenced most of Arnold 's fleet . The British also began landing Indians on both Valcour Island and the lakeshore , in order to deny the Americans the possibility of retreating to land . As darkness fell , the American fleet retreated , and the British called off the attack , in part because some boats had run out of ammunition . Lieutenant James Hadden , commanding one of the British gunboats , noted that " little more than one third of the British Fleet " saw much action that day . = = Retreat = = When the sun set on October 11 , the battle had clearly gone against the Americans . Most of the American ships were damaged or sinking , and the crews reported around 60 casualties . The British reported around 40 casualties on their ships . Aware that he could not defeat the British fleet , Arnold decided to try reaching the cover of Fort Crown Point , about 35 miles ( 56 km ) to the south . Under the cover of a dark and foggy night , the fleet , with muffled oars and minimal illumination , threaded its way through a gap about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide between the British ships and the western shore , where Indian campfires burned . By morning , they had reached Schuyler Island , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) up the lake . Carleton , upset that the Americans had escaped him , immediately sent his fleet around Valcour Island to find them . Realizing the Americans were not there , he regrouped his fleet and sent scouts to find Arnold . Adverse winds as well as damaged and leaky boats slowed the American fleet 's progress . At Schuyler Island , Providence and Jersey were sunk or burned , and crude repairs were effected to other vessels . The cutter Lee was also abandoned on the western shore and eventually taken by the British . Around 2 : 00 pm , the fleet sailed again , trying to make headway against biting winds , rain , and sleet . By the following morning , the ships were still more than 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Crown Point , and the British fleet 's masts were visible on the horizon . When the wind finally changed , the British had its advantage first . They closed once again , opening fire on Congress and Washington , which were in the rear of the American fleet . Arnold first decided to attempt grounding the slower gunboats at Split Rock , 18 miles ( 29 km ) short of Crown Point . Washington , however , was too badly damaged and too slow to make it , and she was forced to strike her colors and surrender ; 110 men were taken prisoner . Arnold then led many of the remaining smaller craft into a small bay on the Vermont shore now named Arnold 's Bay 2 miles south of Buttonmold Bay , where the waters were too shallow for the larger British vessels to follow . These boats were then run aground , stripped , and set on fire , with their flags still flying . Arnold , the last to land , personally torched his flagship Congress . The surviving ships ' crews , numbering about 200 , then made their way overland to Crown Point , narrowly escaping an Indian ambush . There they found Trumbull , New York , Enterprise , and Revenge , all of which had escaped the British fleet , as well as Liberty , which had just arrived with supplies from Ticonderoga . = = Aftermath = = Arnold , convinced that Crown Point was no longer viable as a point of defense against the large British force , destroyed and abandoned the fort , moving the forces stationed there to Ticonderoga . General Carleton , rather than shipping his prisoners back to Quebec , returned them to Ticonderoga under a flag of truce . On their arrival , the released men were so effusive in their praise of Carleton that they were sent home to prevent the desertion of other troops . With control of the lake , the British landed troops and occupied Crown Point the next day . They remained for two weeks , pushing scouting parties to within three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of Ticonderoga . The battle @-@ season was getting late as the first snow began to fall on October 20 and his supply line would be difficult to manage in winter , so Carleton decided to withdraw north to winter quarters ; Arnold 's plan of delay had succeeded . Baron Riedesel , commanding the Hessians in Carleton 's army , noted that , " If we could have begun our expedition four weeks earlier , I am satisfied that everything could have ended this year . " The 1777 British campaign , led by General John Burgoyne , was halted by Continental forces , some led with vigor by General Arnold , in the Battles of Saratoga . Burgoyne 's subsequent surrender paved the way for the entry of France into the war as an American ally . The captains of Maria , Inflexible , and Loyal Convert wrote a letter criticizing Captain Pringle for making Arnold 's escape possible by failing to properly blockade the channel , and for not being more aggressive in directing the battle . Apparently the letter did not cause any career problems for Pringle or its authors ; he and John Schank , captain of the Inflexible , became admirals , as did midshipman Pellew and Lieutenant Dacres . Carleton was awarded the Order of the Bath by King George III for his success at Valcour Island . On December 31 , 1776 one year after the Battle of Quebec , a mass was held in celebration of the British success , and Carleton threw a grand ball . The loss of Benedict Arnold 's papers aboard Royal Savage was to have important consequences later in his career . For a variety of reasons , Congress ordered an inquiry into his conduct of the Quebec campaign , which included a detailed look at his claims for compensation . The inquiry took place in late 1779 , when Arnold was in military command of Philadelphia and recuperating from serious wounds received at Saratoga . Congress found that he owed it money since he could not produce receipts for expenses he claimed to have paid from his own funds . Although Arnold had already been secretly negotiating with the British over a change of allegiance since May 1779 , this news contributed to his decision to resign the command of Philadelphia . His next command was West Point , which he sought with the intention of facilitating its surrender to the British . His plot was however exposed in September 1780 , at which time he fled to the British in New York City . = = Legacy = = In the 1930s , Lorenzo Hagglund , a veteran of World War I and a history buff , began searching the strait for remains of the battle . In 1932 he found the remains of Royal Savage 's hull , which he successfully raised in 1934 . Stored for more than fifty years , the remains were sold by his son to the National Civil War Museum . As of March 2009 , the remains were in a city garage in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania . The city of Plattsburgh , New York , has claimed ownership of the remains and would like them returned to upstate New York . In 1935 Hagglund followed up his discovery of Royal Savage with the discovery of Philadelphia 's remains , sitting upright on the lake bottom . He raised her that year ; she is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C. , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is designated a National Historic Landmark . The site of the battle , Valcour Bay , was declared a National Historic Landmark on January 1 , 1961 , and added to the National Register on October 15 , 1966 . In 1997 another pristine underwater wreck was located during a survey by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum . Two years later it was conclusively identified as the gundalow Spitfire ; this site was listed on the National Register in 2008 , and it has been named as part of the U.S. government 's Save America 's Treasures program . = = Order of battle = =
= Aki Toyosaki = Aki Toyosaki ( 豊崎愛生 , Toyosaki Aki , born October 28 , 1986 ) is a Japanese actress , voice actress and singer from Tokushima Prefecture , Japan . She had her first major voice acting roles in 2007 , voicing Amuro Ninagawa in Kenkō Zenrakei Suieibu Umishō and Su in Shugo Chara ! . She was named " Best New Actress " at the 4th Seiyu Awards in 2010 for her role as Yui Hirasawa in K @-@ On ! and Kana Nakamachi in Kanamemo , and received the " Best Lead Actress " and " Best Personality " awards at the 5th Seiyu Awards in 2011 . Her career as a musician began with her performance of the opening and ending themes of the anime series K @-@ On ! in April 2009 . In the same month , she and three other voice actresses debuted as the musical group Sphere with their single " Future Stream " . Later , K @-@ On ! ' s ending theme was given Animation Kobe 's " Best Song " award . She released her first solo single " love your life " in October 2009 , and has since released two albums and eleven singles that have placed in the top 20 of Oricon 's weekly charts . She was awarded " Best Musical Performance " at the 4th Seiyu Awards for her performance on the K @-@ On ! mini @-@ album Hōkago Tea Time with four other actresses . = = Acting career = = Toyosaki had her first major role as voice actor in 2007 , providing the voice of Amuro Ninagawa , the main character of the anime series Kenkō Zenrakei Suieibu Umishō . She was then featured in Minami @-@ ke and Shugo Chara ! as Yoshino and Su , respectively . In 2008 , Toyosaki reprised the two roles in Minami @-@ ke : Okawari and Shugo Chara ! ! Doki — . She is also the voice of Charlotte in the new movie adaptations of Kentaro Miura 's dark @-@ fantasy manga Berserk . She went on to voice Najimi Tenkūji in the 2009 series Akikan ! and held the leading role in K @-@ On ! , providing the voice of protagonist Yui Hirasawa . She later took the roles of Koyoi Bessho , in First Love Limited , and Kana Nakamachi , the protagonist of Kanamemo . In Minami @-@ ke : Okaeri , she reprised her role as Yoshino a second time . In 2012 , she voiced Chiyuri Kurashima in Accel World , and title character Medaka Kurokami in the two seasons of the high school anime Medaka Box . In 2013 , she voiced Kon , the main character 's Familiar in Tokyo Ravens . In 2014 , she voiced Seitenshi in Black Bullet , and was the third gender main character Izana Shinatose in Knights of Sidonia , which was also broadcast as a Netflix @-@ exclusive series . In addition to voice acting , Toyosaki has also appeared on camera . Her first acting job was on Shikoku Broadcasting 's informational variety show Saturday Naisho ! ! ( 土曜はナイショ ! ! , Doyō ha Naisho ! ! ) from 2003 to 2004 . She , Ayahi Takagaki , Haruka Tomatsu , and Minako Kotobuki appeared twice on the Anime Song Plus ( アニソンぷらす , Anison Purasu ) television show as the musical group Sphere on April 20 , 2009 , and July 27 , 2009 . During its run in July 2009 , Toyosaki also narrated the show . At the 2010 Seiyu Awards , she was named as a " Best New Actress " for her role as Yui Hirasawa and Kana Nakamachi . At the 2011 Seiyu Awards , she won Best Lead Actress for her work in K @-@ ON ! ! and Best Personality for her work on Radion ! ! , Pl @ net Sphere , and Toyosaki Aki no Okaeri Radio In Animage 's annual Anime Grand Prix awards , Toyosaki placed first overall for Best Voice Actor in 2009 . Her character Yui Hirasawa also placed first overall among Best Characters . She would also place tenth overall in 2012 and eighth overall in 2014 . = = Musical career = = Toyosaki 's first musical performance was with fellow voice actress Eri Kitamura on the Minami @-@ ke Weather ( みなみけびより , Minami @-@ ke Biyori ) image song CD on April 23 , 2008 . She then performed the opening and ending themes of the 2009 anime series K @-@ On ! , " Cagayake ! Girls " and " Don 't say ' lazy ' " respectively , with voice actresses Yōko Hikasa , Satomi Satō , and Minako Kotobuki . Both themes were released as singles on April 22 , 2009 . The " Cagayake ! Girls " single sold about 62 @,@ 000 copies during its debut week , ranking fourth on Oricon 's latest weekly singles chart , while the " Don 't say ' lazy ' " single sold about 67 @,@ 000 copies during its debut week , placing second on the chart . The opening and ending singles remained on the chart during the week of April 27 to May 3 , falling to sixth and fifth , while selling an additional 19 @,@ 963 and 22 @,@ 094 copies . On June 23 , 2009 , " Don 't say ' lazy ' " was awarded Animation Kobe 's " Best Song " award . Toyosaki then performed the opening theme of the 2009 First Love Limited series , titled " Future Stream " with Ayahi Takagaki , Haruka Tomatsu , and Minako Kotobuki . Shortly after , the four formed the musical group Sphere . They are affiliated with Music Ray 'n , an artist management and publishing group of Sony Music Entertainment Japan . The theme was released as the group 's first single on April 22 , 2009 . Toyosaki , Hikasa , Satō , and Kotobuki performed the insert song , a song that occurs within the episodes of the anime , " Fuwa Fuwa Time " for K @-@ On ! . It was released as a single on May 20 , 2009 . On June 17 , 2009 , Toyosaki released a K @-@ On ! image song single named after her K @-@ On ! character Yui Hirasawa . The single ranked third on Oricon 's weekly singles chart during the week of June 15 to 21 , selling 31 @,@ 384 copies . Shortly after , Toyosaki , Kaoru Mizuhara , and Rie Kugimiya performed " Heart Connected to You " , the opening theme of Kanamemo , which was released August 5 , 2009 . On June 25 , 2009 , she provided the narration of a television advertisement for the performance of " Blue Feather " , a single by the musical group Binecks . The First Love Limited Character File Vol . 3 image album , released July 23 , 2009 , includes a song featuring Toyosaki . In July , the anime series Sora no Manimani debuted with the Sphere performed opening theme " Super Noisy Nova " , which was released as a single on July 29 , 2009 . Toyosaki , Hikasa , Satomi Satō , Kotobuki and Ayana Taketatsu performed on K @-@ On ! ' s Hōkago Tea Time ( 放課後ティータイム , lit . " After School Tea Time " ) mini @-@ album released July 22 , 2009 . The mini @-@ album sold over 67 @,@ 000 copies to debut at the number one spot on Oricon 's latest weekly album chart . It is the first album credited to fictional anime characters to do so . On October 27 , 2009 , Toyosaki released her first solo single " love your life " . Sphere released their third single " It Raises the Wind / Brave my heart " on November 25 , 2009 . The group released their first album A.T.M.O.S.P.H.E.R.E on December 23 , 2009 . After , the group performed the opening theme of Ichiban Ushiro no Daimaō , " REALOVE : REALIFE " , which began airing in April 2010 . The theme was released as a single April 21 , 2010 . Sphere next performed on the first day of Animelo Summer Live 2010 , at Saitama Super Arena on August 28 , 2010 . At the 2010 Seiyu Awards , Toyosaki and her collaborators were awarded " Best Musical Performance " for their performance on Hōkago Tea Time . On May 28 , 2010 , Toyosaki released her second solo single , titled " Looking for Me " . In July 2010 , the Asobi ni Ikuyo : Bombshells from the Sky anime series began airing with " Now loading ... SKY ! ! " by Sphere as its opening theme . The theme was later released as a single on July 28 , 2010 . In October , the Otome Yōkai Zakuro anime premiered with Sphere 's " MOON SIGNAL " as the opening theme . Toyosaki 's voice is also featured in " Junjō Masquerade " ( 純情マスカレイド , " Pure Heart Masquerade " ) , one of the series ' three ending themes . " MOON SIGNAL " was released as a single on October 20 , 2010 , and " Junjō Masquerade " was released with the other endings on November 24 , 2010 . Toyosaki was the fourth top @-@ selling voice actress in 2011 . = = Filmography = = = = = Anime = = = 2006 Red Garden : Female Student = = = = 2007 = = = = Kenkō Zenrakei Suieibu Umishō : Amuro Ninagawa Minami @-@ ke : Yoshino Shugo Chara ! : Su = = = = 2008 = = = = Bihada Ichizoku : Ai Shiratori Dolly ☆ Variety : Sora Aoki Minami @-@ ke : Okawari : Yoshino Net Ghost PiPoPa : Siren , Kyoko Urasawa Shugo Chara ! ! Doki — : Su To Love @-@ Ru : Momo Velia Deviluke Touhou Musou Kakyou : Suika Ibuki = = = = 2009 = = = = Akikan ! : Najimi Tenkūji Aoi Hana : Miwa Mogi Arad Senki : Slap Up Party : Stella Asura Cryin ' : An Ōhara First Love Limited : Koyoi Bessho Kanamemo : Kana Nakamachi K @-@ On ! : Yui Hirasawa Minami @-@ ke : Okaeri : Yoshino The Sacred Blacksmith : Lisa Spice and Wolf II : Merta A Certain Scientific Railgun : Kazari Uiharu Umi Monogatari : Anata ga Ite Kureta Koto : Oshima Umineko When They Cry : Asmodeus = = = = 2010 = = = = Asobi ni Iku yo : Bombshells from the Sky : Melwin Book Girl : Chia Takeda Heaven 's Lost Property : Forte : Chaos Ichiban Ushiro no Daimaō : Keena Soga Junod : Mii Hyakka Ryōran Samurai Girls : Kanetsugu Naoe Jewelpet Twinkle : Angela Maid Sama ! : Satsuki Mitsudomoe : Yuki Yoshioka K @-@ On ! ! : Yui Hirasawa Ōkami @-@ san to Shichinin no Nakama @-@ tachi : Otohime Ryūgū Otome Yōkai Zakuro : Bonbori Seikon no Qwaser : Tomo Yamanobe Motto To Love @-@ Ru : Momo Velia Deviluke Toaru Majutsu no Index II : Kazari Uiharu Princess Resurrection OVA : Reiri Kamura = = = = 2011 = = = = Anohana : The Flower We Saw That Day : Child Tetsudō Hisakawa Beelzebub : Aoi Kunieda Fate / Prototype : Manaka Sajyou Hanasaku Iroha : Nako Oshimizu Hourou Musuko : Momoko Shirai Jewelpet Sunshine : Angela K @-@ On ! : The Movie : Yui Hirasawa Last Exile : Fam , The Silver Wing : Fam Fan Fan Manyū Hiken @-@ chō : Kaede Mawaru @-@ Penguindrum : Momoka Oginome Mitsudomoe Zōryōchū ! : Yuki Yoshioka Nekogami Yaoyorozu : Shamo Pokémon the Movie : Black — Victini and Reshiram and White — Victini and Zekrom : Choroneko Seikon no Qwaser II : Tomo Yamanobe Softenni : Yura Hiratsuka The World God Only Knows II : Jun Nagase Un @-@ Go : Inga YuruYuri : Chitose Ikeda = = = = 2012 = = = = Accel World : Chiyuri Kurashima / Lime Bell Busou Shinki : Valona Hyōka : Rie Zenna Inu x Boku SS : Chino Kotomura Jewelpet Kira ☆ Deco — ! : Angela Medaka Box : Medaka Kurokami Medaka Box Abnormal : Medaka Kurokami Natsuiro Kiseki : Rinko Tamaki Queen 's Blade : Rebellion : Mirim Kokoro Connect : Iori Nagase To Love @-@ Ru Darkness : Momo Velia Deviluke Touhou Musou Kakyou 2 : Suika Ibuki = = = = 2013 = = = = Jewelpet Happiness : Angela Minami @-@ ke : Tadaima : Yoshino Hyakka Ryōran : Samurai Bride : Kanetsugu Naoe Valvrave the Liberator : Lieselotte W. Dorssia Servant x Service : Megumi Chihaya A Certain Scientific Railgun S : Kazari Uiharu Kami @-@ sama no Inai Nichiyōbi : Ai Astin The Pervert Prince and the Stony Cat : Mrs. Azuki Tokyo Ravens : Kon / Hishamaru Yuushibu : Herself = = = = 2014 = = = = D @-@ Frag ! : Funabori Noragami : Kofuku Black Bullet : Seitenshi Knights of Sidonia : Izana Shinatose If Her Flag Breaks : Tsumugi Ryukishihara Monster Retsuden Oreca Battle : Data Uchiki Sora no Method : Yuzuki Mizusaka Terra Formars : Yaeko Yanasegawa Girl Friend Beta : Raimu Nejikawa Lady Jewelpet : Angela , Lady Diana = = = = 2015 = = = = Fairy Tail : Seilah Jewelpet : Magical Change : Angela Ultimate Otaku Teacher : Kōtarō Araki , female student A Knights of Sidonia : War of the Ninth Planet : Izana Shinatose Mikagura School Suite : Senior To Love @-@ Ru Darkness 2nd : Momo Velia Deviluke Ushio and Tora : Yuu Hiyama YuruYuri Nachuyachumi ! + : Chitose Ikeda Kami @-@ sama Minarai : Himitsu no Cocotama : Meloly Noragami Aragato : Kofuku Concrete Revolutio : Emi Kino YuruYuri San Hai ! : Chitose Ikeda = = = = 2016 = = = = Time Travel Shōjo : Mari Waka to 8 @-@ nin no Kagakusha @-@ tachi : Mari Hayase Ange Vierge : Elel = = = Video games = = = Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 HD : Cinque Granblue Fantasy : Melleau J @-@ Stars Victory VS : Medaka Kurokami K @-@ On ! Hōkago Live ! ! : Yui Hirasawa Killer Is Dead : Mika Persona 5 – Caroline and Justine Phantom Breaker : Yuzuha Fujibayashi Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 - Mei / Rosa ( Black 2 White 2 Animated Trailer ) Record of Agarest War Zero : Apli To Love @-@ Ru : Exciting Beach School Version : Momo Velia Deviluke To Love @-@ Ru Darknes : Idol Revolution : Momo Velia Deviluke To Love @-@ Ru Trouble Darkness : Battle Ecstasy : Momo Velia Deviluke To Love @-@ Ru Trouble Darkness : True Princess : Momo Velia Deviluke Zero Escape : Zero Time Dilemma - Q Lego Dimensions - Blossom = = = Tokusatsu = = = Tokumei Sentai Go @-@ Busters ( 2012 ) : Tiaraloid = = = Overseas dubbing = = = Bates Motel ( Emma Decody ( Olivia Cooke ) ) The Powerpuff Girls ( Blossom ( Amanda Leighton ) ) Sucker Punch ( Blondie ( Vanessa Hudgens ) ) The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 ( Renesmee Cullen ( Mackenzie Foy ) ) We Are What We Are ( Iris Parker ( Ambyr Childers ) ) = = = Other = = = Television appearances Saturday Naisho ! ! ( 2003 ) : Herself = = Discography = = = = = Solo singles = = = = = = Solo albums = = =
= USS New Jersey ( BB @-@ 62 ) = USS New Jersey ( BB @-@ 62 ; " Big J " or " Black Dragon " ) is an Iowa @-@ class battleship , and was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the US state of New Jersey . New Jersey earned more battle stars for combat actions than the other three completed Iowa @-@ class battleships , and was the only US battleship providing gunfire support during the Vietnam War . During World War II , New Jersey shelled targets on Guam and Okinawa , and screened aircraft carriers conducting raids in the Marshall Islands . During the Korean War , she was involved in raids up and down the North Korean coast , after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets , better known as the " mothball fleet " . She was briefly reactivated in 1968 and sent to Vietnam to support US troops before returning to the mothball fleet in 1969 . Reactivated once more in the 1980s as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , New Jersey was modernized to carry missiles and recommissioned for service . In 1983 , she participated in US operations during the Lebanese Civil War . New Jersey was decommissioned for the last time in 1991 ( after serving a total of 21 years in the active fleet ) , having earned a Navy Unit Commendation for service in Vietnam and 19 battle and campaign stars for combat operations during World War II , the Korean War , the Vietnam War , the Lebanese Civil War , and service in the Persian Gulf . After a brief retention in the mothball fleet , she was donated to the Home Port Alliance in Camden , New Jersey , and began her career as a museum ship 15 October 2001 . = = Construction = = New Jersey was one of the Iowa @-@ class " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . She was launched on 12 December 1942 and commissioned on 23 May 1943 . The ship was the second of the Iowa class to be commissioned by the U.S. Navy . The ship was christened at her launching by Carolyn Edison , wife of Governor Charles Edison of New Jersey , himself a former Secretary of the Navy ; and commissioned at Philadelphia 23 May 1943 , Captain Carl F. Holden in command . New Jersey 's main battery consisted of nine 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 guns in three three @-@ gun turrets , which could fire 2 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 225 kg ) armor @-@ piercing shells some 23 miles ( 37 km ) . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 " / 38 caliber guns mounted in twin @-@ gun dual purpose ( DP ) turrets , which could hit targets up to 9 miles ( 14 km ) away . With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of allied aircraft carriers , so New Jersey was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . When reactivated in 1968 , New Jersey had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed and was tailored for use as a heavy bombardment ship . When reactivated in 1982 , New Jersey had four twin 5 " / 38 caliber DP mounts removed . She was outfitted with four Phalanx CIWS mounts for protection against missiles and aircraft , and eight Armored Box Launchers and eight Quad Cell Launchers designed to fire Tomahawk missiles and Harpoon missiles , respectively . Unlike the other Iowa @-@ class battleships , New Jersey was named by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to repay a political debt , to then @-@ New Jersey Governor Charles Edison . During his time in the Navy department , Edison pushed to build the Iowas , and to build one at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , which secured votes for Roosevelt in Pennsylvania and New Jersey in the 1940 presidential election . = = World War II ( 1944 – 1945 ) = = = = = Shakedown and service with the 5th Fleet , Admiral Spruance = = = New Jersey completed fitting out and trained her initial crew in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean Sea . On 7 January 1944 she passed through the Panama Canal war @-@ bound for Funafuti , Ellice Islands . She reported there 22 January for duty with the United States Fifth Fleet , and three days later rendezvoused with Task Group 58 @.@ 2 for the assault on the Marshall Islands . New Jersey screened the aircraft carriers from Japanese attack as planes from Task Group 58 @.@ 2 flew strikes against Kwajalein and Eniwetok 29 January – 2 February , softening up the latter for its invasion and supporting the troops who landed on 31 January . New Jersey began her career as a flagship 4 February in Majuro Lagoon when Admiral Raymond A. Spruance , commanding the 5th Fleet , broke his flag from her main . Her first action as a flagship was in Operation Hailstone , a two @-@ day surface and air strike by her task force against the major Japanese fleet base on Truk in the Carolines . This attack was coordinated with the assault on Kwajalein , and effectively interdicted the Japanese naval retaliation to the conquest of the Marshalls . On 17 and 18 February , the task force accounted for two Japanese light cruisers , four destroyers , three auxiliary cruisers , two submarine tenders , two submarine chasers , an armed trawler , a plane ferry , and 23 other auxiliaries , not including small craft . New Jersey destroyed a trawler and , with other ships , sank the destroyer Maikaze . New Jersey also fired on an enemy aircraft that attacked her formation . The task force returned to the Marshalls 19 February . Between 17 March and 10 April , New Jersey first sailed with Rear Admiral Marc A. Mitscher 's flagship Lexington for an air and surface bombardment of Mille , then rejoined Task Group 58 @.@ 2 for a strike against shipping in the Palaus , and bombarded Woleai . Upon his return to Majuro , Admiral Spruance transferred his flag to Indianapolis . New Jersey 's next war cruise , 13 April – 4 May 1944 , began and ended at Majuro . She screened the carrier striking force which gave air support to the invasion of Aitape , Tanahmerah Bay and Humboldt Bay , New Guinea , 22 April , then shelled shipping and shore installations at Truk 29 April – 30 April . New Jersey and her formation shot down two enemy torpedo bombers at Truk . Her 16 inch salvos pounded Ponape 1 May , destroying fuel tanks , badly damaging the airfield , and demolishing a headquarters building . After rehearsing in the Marshalls for the invasion of the Marianas , New Jersey put to sea 6 June in the screening and bombardment group of Admiral Mitscher 's Task Force . On the second day of preinvasion air strikes , 12 June , New Jersey shot down an enemy torpedo bomber , and during the next two days her heavy guns battered Saipan and Tinian , in advance of the marine landings on 15 June . The Japanese response to the Marianas operation was an order to its main surface fleet to attack and annihilate the American invasion force . Shadowing American submarines tracked the Japanese fleet into the Philippine Sea as Admiral Spruance joined his task force with Admiral Mitscher 's to meet the enemy . New Jersey took station in the protective screen around the carriers on 19 June 1944 as American and Japanese pilots dueled in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . That day and the next would cripple Japanese naval aviation ; in what would become known as the " Marianas Turkey Shoot " , the Japanese lost some 400 planes for less than two dozen American aircraft in return . This loss of trained pilots and aircraft was equaled in disaster by the sinking of the Japanese aircraft carriers Taihō and Shōkaku by the submarines Albacore and Cavalla , respectively , and the loss of Hiyō to aircraft launched from the light aircraft carrier Belleau Wood . In addition to these losses , Allied forces succeeded in damaging two Japanese carriers and a battleship . The anti @-@ aircraft fire of New Jersey and the other screening ships proved virtually impenetrable ; two American ships were slightly damaged during the battle . Only 17 American planes were lost in combat . = = = Service with the 3rd Fleet , Admiral Halsey = = = New Jersey 's final contribution to the conquest of the Marianas was in strikes on Guam and the Palaus from which she sailed for Pearl Harbor , arriving 9 August . Here she broke the flag of Admiral William F. Halsey , Jr . , 24 August , becoming flagship of the United States Third Fleet . On 30 August New Jersey set sail from Pearl Harbor , and for the next eight months was based at Ulithi to lend support to Allied forces operating in the Philippines . In this span of the Pacific War , fast carrier task forces ranged the waters off the Philippines , Okinawa , and Formosa , making repeated strikes at airfields , shipping , shore bases , and invasion beaches . In September the targets were in the Visayas and the southern Philippines , then Manila and Cavite , Panay , Negros , Leyte , and Cebu . Early in October raids to destroy enemy air power based on Okinawa and Formosa were begun in preparation for the Leyte landings of 20 October 1944 . This invasion brought on the last great sortie of the Imperial Japanese Navy . Its plan for the Battle of Leyte Gulf included a feint by a northern force of planeless heavy attack carriers to draw away the battleships , cruisers and fast carriers with which Admiral Halsey was protecting the landings . This was to allow the Japanese Center Force to enter the gulf through San Bernardino Strait . At the opening of the battle planes from the carriers guarded by New Jersey struck hard at both the Japanese Southern and Center Forces , sinking a battleship 23 October . The next day Halsey shaped his course north after the decoy force had been spotted . Planes from his carriers sank four of the Japanese carriers , as well as a destroyer and a cruiser , while New Jersey steamed south at flank speed to meet the newly developed threat of the Center force . It had been turned back in a stunning defeat when she arrived . New Jersey rejoined her fast carriers near San Bernardino 27 October 1944 for strikes on central and southern Luzon . Two days later , the force came under suicide attack . In a melee of anti @-@ aircraft fire from the ships and combat air patrol , New Jersey shot down a plane whose pilot maneuvered it into the port gun galleries of Intrepid , while machine gun fire from Intrepid wounded three of New Jersey 's men . During a similar action 25 November three Japanese planes were shot down by the combined fire of the force , part of one flaming onto the flight deck of Hancock . Intrepid was again attacked ; she shot down one would @-@ be kamikaze aircraft , but was crashed by another despite hits scored on the attacker by New Jersey gunners . New Jersey shot down a plane diving on Cabot and hit another plane which smashed into Cabot 's port bow . On 18 December 1944 the ships of Task Force 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force — seven fleet and six light carriers , eight battleships , 15 cruisers , and about 50 destroyers — during their attempt to refuel at sea . At the time the ships were operating about 300 miles ( 500 km ) east of Luzon in the Philippine Sea . The carriers had just completed three days of heavy raids against Japanese airfields , suppressing enemy aircraft during the American amphibious operations against Mindoro in the Philippines . The task force rendezvoused with Captain Jasper T. Acuff and his fueling group 17 December with the intention of refueling all ships in the task force and replacing lost aircraft . Although the sea had been growing rougher all day , the nearby cyclonic disturbance gave relatively little warning of its approach . Each of the carriers in the Third Fleet had a weatherman aboard , and as the fleet flagship New Jersey had a highly experienced weatherman : Commander G. F. Kosco , a graduate of the aerology course at Massachusetts Institute of Technology who had also studied hurricanes in the West Indies ; despite this , none of these individuals or staffs were able to give Third Fleet due warning of the impending typhoon . On 18 December , the small but violent typhoon overtook the Task Force while many of the ships were attempting to refuel . Many of the ships were caught near the center of the storm and buffeted by extreme seas and hurricane @-@ force winds . Three destroyers — Hull , Monaghan and Spence — capsized and sank with nearly all hands , while a cruiser , five aircraft carriers , and three destroyers suffered serious damage . Approximately 790 officers and men were lost or killed , with another 80 injured . Fires occurred in three carriers when planes broke loose in their hangars , and some 146 planes on various ships were lost or damaged beyond economical repair by fires , impact damage , or by being swept overboard . As with the other battleships of TF 38 , skillful seamanship brought New Jersey through the storm largely unscathed . She returned to Ulithi on Christmas Eve to be met by Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz . = = = Service with Battleship Division Seven , Admiral Badger = = = New Jersey ranged far and wide from 30 December 1944 to 25 January 1945 on her last cruise as Admiral Halsey 's flagship . She guarded the carriers in their strikes on Formosa , Okinawa , and Luzon , on the coast of Indo @-@ China , Hong Kong , Swatow and Amoy , and again on Formosa and Okinawa . At Ulithi 27 January Admiral Halsey lowered his flag in New Jersey , but it was replaced two days later by that of Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger II commanding Battleship Division 7 . In support of the assault on Iwo Jima , New Jersey screened the Essex group in air attacks on the island 19 February – 21 February , and gave the same crucial service for the first major carrier raid on Tokyo 25 February , a raid aimed specifically at aircraft production . During the next two days , Okinawa was attacked from the air by the same striking force . New Jersey was directly engaged in the conquest of Okinawa from 14 March until 16 April . As the carriers prepared for the invasion with strikes there and on Honshū , New Jersey fought off air raids , used her seaplanes to rescue downed pilots , defended the carriers from suicide planes , shooting down at least three and assisting in the destruction of others . On 24 March 1945 she again carried out the role of heavy bombardment , preparing the invasion beaches for the assault a week later . During the final months of the war , New Jersey was overhauled at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard , from which she sailed 4 July for San Pedro , Pearl Harbor , and Eniwetok bound for Guam . Here on 14 August she once again became flagship of the 5th Fleet under Admiral Spruance . Brief stays at Manila and Okinawa preceded her arrival in Tokyo Bay 17 September , where she served as flagship for the successive commanders of Naval Forces in Japanese waters until relieved 28 January 1946 by Iowa ( BB @-@ 61 ) . As part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet New Jersey took aboard nearly a thousand homeward @-@ bound troops with whom she arrived at San Francisco 10 February . = = Post World War II ( 1946 – 1950 ) = = After west coast operations and a normal overhaul at Puget Sound , New Jersey 's keel once more cut the Atlantic as she came home to Bayonne , New Jersey , for a rousing fourth birthday party 23 May 1947 . Present were Governor Alfred E. Driscoll , former Governor Walter E. Edge and other dignitaries . Between 7 June and 26 August , New Jersey formed part of the first training squadron to cruise Northern European waters since the beginning of World War II . Over two thousand United States Naval Academy and NROTC midshipmen received seagoing experience under the command of Admiral Richard L. Connolly , Commander Naval Forces Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean , who broke his flag in New Jersey at Rosyth , Scotland 23 June . She was the scene of official receptions at Oslo , where King Haakon VII of Norway inspected the crew 2 July , and at Portsmouth , England . The training fleet was westward bound 18 July for exercises in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic . After serving at New York as flagship for Rear Admiral Heber H. McLean , Commander , Battleship Division 1 , 12 September – 18 October , New Jersey was inactivated at the New York Naval Shipyard . She was decommissioned at Bayonne 30 June 1948 and assigned to the New York Group , Atlantic Reserve Fleet . = = The Korean War ( 1950 – 1953 ) = = In 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea , prompting the United States to intervene in the name of the United Nations . President Harry S. Truman was caught off guard when the invasion struck , but quickly ordered U.S. Forces stationed in Japan into South Korea . Truman also sent U.S. based troops , tanks , fighter and bomber aircraft , and a strong naval force to Korea to support the Republic of Korea . As part of the naval mobilization New Jersey was recalled from the mothball fleet to provide seaborne artillery support for U.N. and South Korean troops . New Jersey was recommissioned at Bayonne on 21 November 1950 , Captain David M. Tyree in command , and proceeded to the Caribbean , where she welded her crew into an efficient body which would meet the demanding requirements of the Korean War . She sailed from Norfolk , Virginia 16 April 1951 and arrived from Japan off the east coast of Korea 17 May . Vice Admiral Harold M. Martin , commanding the United States Seventh Fleet , placed his flag in New Jersey for the next six months . New Jersey 's guns opened the first shore bombardment of her Korean career at Wonsan 20 May . During her two tours of duty in Korean waters , she was again and again to play the part of seaborne mobile artillery . In direct support to United Nations troops ; or in preparation for ground actions , in interdicting Communist supply and communication routes , or in destroying supplies and troop positions , New Jersey used her 16 inch guns to fire far beyond the capacity of land artillery , moved rapidly and free from major attack from one target to another , and at the same time could be immediately available to guard aircraft carriers should they require her protection . It was on this first such mission at Wonsan that she received her only combat casualties of the Korean War . One of her men was killed and two severely wounded when she took a hit from a shore battery on her number one turret and received a near miss aft to port . Between 23 and 27 May and again 30 May 1951 , New Jersey pounded targets near Yangyang and Kansong , dispersing troop concentrations , dropping a bridge span , and destroying three large ammunition dumps . Air spotters reported Yangyang abandoned at the end of this action , while railroad facilities and vehicles were smashed at Kansong . On 24 May , she lost one of her helicopters after the crew pushed their chopper to the limit of its fuel searching for a downed aviator . The helicopter crew was able to reach friendly territory and were later returned to their ship . With Admiral Arthur W. Radford , Commander in Chief Pacific Fleet , and Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy , Commander Naval Forces Far East aboard , New Jersey bombarded targets at Wonsan 4 June . At Kansong two days later she fired her main battery at an artillery regiment and truck encampment , with 7th Fleet aircraft spotting targets and reporting successes . On 28 July off Wonsan the battleship was again taken under fire by shore batteries . Several near misses splashed to port , but New Jersey 's precision fire silenced the enemy and destroyed several gun emplacements . Between 4 and 12 July , New Jersey supported a United Nations push in the Kansong area , firing at enemy buildup and reorganization positions . As the Republic of Korea 's First Division hurled itself on the enemy , shore fire control observers saw New Jersey 's salvos hit directly on enemy mortar emplacements , supply and ammunition dumps , and personnel concentrations . New Jersey returned to Wonsan 18 July for an exhibition of perfect firing : five gun emplacements demolished with five direct hits . New Jersey sailed to the aid of troops of the Republic of Korea once more 17 August , returning to the Kansong area where for four days she provided harassing fire by night , and broke up counterattacks by day , inflicting a heavy toll on enemy troops . She returned to this general area yet again 29 August , when she fired in an amphibious demonstration staged behind enemy lines to ease pressure on the Republic of Korea 's troops . The next day she started a three @-@ day saturation of the Changjon area , with one of her own helicopters spotting the results : four buildings destroyed , road junctions smashed , railroad marshaling yards afire , tracks cut and uprooted , coal stocks scattered , and many buildings and warehouses set blazing . Aside from a brief break in firing 23 September to take aboard wounded from the Korean frigate Apnok ( PF @-@ 62 ) , damaged by gunfire , New Jersey was heavily engaged in bombarding the Kansong area , supporting the movement of the U.S. X Corps . The pattern again was harassing fire by night , destruction of known targets by day . Enemy movement was restricted by the fire of her big guns . A bridge , a dam , several gun emplacements , mortar positions , pillboxes , bunkers , and two ammunition dumps were demolished . On 1 October 1951 , General Omar Bradley , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and General Matthew B. Ridgeway , Commander in Chief Far East , came on board to confer with Admiral Martin . Between 1 and 6 October New Jersey was in action daily at Kansong , Hamhung , Hungnam , Tanchon , and Songjin . Enemy bunkers and supply concentrations provided the majority of the targets at Kansong ; at the others New Jersey fired on railroads , tunnels , bridges , an oil refinery , trains , and shore batteries . She also engaged an enemy gun emplacement with her five @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) gun mounts , which New Jersey successfully destroyed . The Kojo area was her target 16 October as she sailed in company with HMS Belfast , pilots from HMAS Sydney spotting . The operation was well @-@ planned and coordinated , and excellent results were obtained . Another highly satisfactory day was 16 October , when the spotter over the Kansong area reported " beautiful shooting every shot on target @-@ most beautiful shooting I have seen in five years . " This five @-@ hour bombardment leveled ten artillery positions , and in smashing trenches and bunkers inflicted some 500 enemy casualties . New Jersey dashed up the North Korean coast raiding transportation facilities from 1 to 6 November . She struck at bridges , road , and rail installations at Wonsan , Hungnam , Tanchon , Iowon , Songjin , and Chongjin , leaving four bridges destroyed , others badly damaged , two marshaling yards badly torn up , and many feet of track destroyed . With renewed attacks on Kansong and near the Chang @-@ San @-@ Got Peninsula 11 and 13 November , New Jersey completed her first tour of duty in Korea . Relieved as flagship by Wisconsin , New Jersey cleared Yokosuka for Hawaii , Long Beach and the Panama Canal , and returned to Norfolk 20 December for a six @-@ month overhaul . Between 19 July 1952 and 5 September , she sailed as flagship for Rear Admiral H. R. Thurber , who commanded the NROTC midshipman training cruise to Cherbourg , Lisbon , and the Caribbean . Now New Jersey prepared and trained for her second Korean tour , for which she sailed from Norfolk 5 March 1953 . Shaping her course via the Panama Canal , Long Beach , and Hawaii , New Jersey reached Yokosuka 5 April , and next day relieved Missouri as flagship of Vice Admiral Joseph H. Clark , Commander 7th Fleet . On 12 April New Jersey returned to action by shelling Chongjin ; in seven minutes she scored seven direct hits , blowing away half the main communications building there . At Pusan two days later , New Jersey manned her rails to welcome the President of the Republic of Korea and Madame Rhee , and American Ambassador Ellis O. Briggs . New Jersey fired on coastal batteries and buildings at Kojo 16 April ; on railway track and tunnels near Hungnam 18 April ; and on gun emplacements around Wonsan Harbor 20 April , silencing them in five areas after she had herself taken several near misses . Songjin provided targets 23 April . Here New Jersey scored six direct 16 inch ( 406 mm ) hits on a railroad tunnel and knocked out two rail bridges . New Jersey provided artillery support for a major air and surface strike on Wonsan 1 May , as 7th Fleet planes both attacked the enemy and spotted for the battleship . She knocked out eleven Communist shore guns that day , and four days later destroyed the key observation post on the island of Hodo Pando , commanding the harbor . Two days later Kalmagak at Wonsan was her target . New Jersey 's tenth birthday , 23 May 1953 , was celebrated at Incheon with President and Madame Rhee , Lieutenant General Maxwell D. Taylor , and other dignitaries on board . Two days later New Jersey returned to action along the west coast at Chinampo to knock out harbor defense positions . The battleship was under fire at Wonsan 27 May – 29 May , but her five @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns silenced the counter @-@ fire , and her 16 inch shells destroyed five gun emplacements and four gun caves . She also hit a target that flamed spectacularly : either a fuel storage area or an ammunition dump . New Jersey returned to the key task of direct support to troops at Kosong 7 June . On her first mission , she completely destroyed two gun positions , an observation post , and their supporting trenches , then stood by on call for further aid . She then sailed back to Wonsan for a day @-@ long bombardment 24 June , aimed at guns placed in caves . The results were excellent , with eight direct hits on three caves , one cave demolished , and four others closed . Next day she returned to troop support at Kosong , her assignment until 10 July , aside from necessary withdrawal for replenishment . At Wonsan 11 July – 12 July , New Jersey fired one of the most concentrated bombardments of her Korean duty . For nine hours the first day , and for seven the second , her guns opened fire on gun positions and bunkers on Hodo Pando and the mainland with telling effect . At least ten enemy guns were destroyed , many damaged , and a number of caves and tunnels sealed . New Jersey smashed radar control positions and bridges at Kojo 13 July , and was once more on the east coast bombline 22 July – 24 July to support South Korean troops near Kosong . These days found her gunners at their most accurate : A large cave , housing an important enemy observation post was closed , the end of a month @-@ long United Nations effort , and a great many bunkers , artillery areas , observation posts , trenches , tanks and other weapons were destroyed . At sunrise on 25 July 1953 New Jersey was off the key port , rail and communications center of Hungnam , pounding coastal guns , bridges , a factory area , and oil storage tanks . She sailed north that afternoon , firing at rail lines and railroad tunnels as she made for Tanchon , where she launched a whaleboat in an attempt to spot a train known to run nightly along the coast . Her big guns were trained on two tunnels between which she hoped to catch the train , but in the darkness she could not see the results of her six @-@ gun salvo . = = = Post Korean War ( 1953 – 1967 ) = = = New Jersey 's mission at Wonsan , the next day , was her last . Here she destroyed large @-@ caliber guns , bunkers , caves and trenches . Two days later , she learned of the truce . Her crew celebrated during a seven @-@ day visit at Hong Kong , where she anchored 20 August . Operations around Japan and off Formosa were carried out for the remainder of her tour , which was highlighted by a visit to Pusan . Here president Rhee came aboard on 16 September to present the Korean Presidential Unit Citation to the 7th Fleet . Relieved as flagship at Yokosuka by Wisconsin 14 October , New Jersey was homeward bound the next day , reaching Norfolk on 14 November . During the next two summers she crossed the Atlantic with midshipmen on board for training , and during the rest of the year sharpened her skills with exercises and training maneuvers along the Atlantic coast and in the Caribbean . New Jersey stood out of Norfolk 7 September 1955 for her first tour of duty with the United States Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean . Her ports of call included Gibraltar , Valencia , Cannes , Istanbul , Souda Bay ; and Barcelona . She returned to Norfolk 7 January 1956 for the spring program of training operations . That summer she again carried midshipmen to Northern Europe for training , bringing them home to Annapolis 31 July . New Jersey sailed for Europe once more 27 August as flagship of Vice Admiral Charles Wellborn , Jr . , Commander United States Second Fleet . She called at Lisbon , participated in NATO exercises off Scotland , and paid an official visit to Norway where Crown Prince Olav was a guest . She returned to Norfolk 15 October , and 14 December arrived at New York Naval Shipyard for inactivation . She was decommissioned and placed in reserve at Bayonne 21 August 1957 . = = The Vietnam War ( 1967 – 1969 ) = = Due to heavy loss rates of U.S. aircraft ( commencing with Operation Rolling Thunder in 1965 ) , studies were conducted on ways of alleviating those air losses while at the same time delivering the ordnance payloads required by the escalation of the war . On 31 May 1967 the Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara authorized a study aimed at determining what would be required to get New Jersey reactivated in her present condition , and when the results of the submitted study proved favorable toward the reactivation he took action . In August 1967 the Secretary of Defense made the decision to recommission a battleship " for employment in the Pacific Fleet to augment the naval gunfire support force in Southeast Asia " . New Jersey was selected for this task because she was in better material condition than her sisters , having received an extensive overhaul prior to decommissioning . Upon her reactivation she underwent a period of modernization during which the 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns on the battleship were removed , and she received improved electronic warfare systems and improvements to her radar . Armed as such New Jersey was formally recommissioned 6 April 1968 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , Captain J. Edward Snyder in command . New Jersey , then the world 's only active battleship , departed Philadelphia 16 May , calling at Norfolk and transiting the Panama Canal 4 June before arriving at her new home port of Long Beach , California , 11 June . Further training off Southern California followed . On 24 July New Jersey received 16 inch shells and powder tanks from Mount Katmai by conventional highline transfer and by helicopter lift , the first time heavy battleship ammunition had been transferred by helicopter at sea ( now known as vertical replenishment ) . Departing Long Beach 2 September , New Jersey touched at Pearl Harbor and Subic Bay before sailing 25 September for her first tour on the gun line along the Vietnamese coast . Near the 17th parallel on 30 September , the battleship fired her first shots in battle in over sixteen years , expending a total of 29 sixteen inch rounds against People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) targets in and near the Demilitarized Zone ( DMZ ) at the 17th parallel . New Jersey took up station off Tiger Island 1 October and fired at targets north of the DMZ before moving south that afternoon to engage Viet Cong targets . She accounted for six bunkers , a supply truck and an anti @-@ aircraft site that day ; additionally , she helped rescue the crew of a Marine spotting plane forced down at sea by anti @-@ aircraft fire . On 3 October New Jersey fired on targets south of Tiger Island , and on 4 October the battleship fired on a Communist troop concentration and destroyed several bunkers . On the evening of 7 October New Jersey received reports that a number of waterborne logistics craft were moving south near the mouth of the Song Giang River . New Jersey responded by closing on the formation , and succeeded in sinking eleven of the craft before they could beach . On 11 October New Jersey engaged a coastal installation with her guns ; however , she shifted her fire when a recon plane spotting for the battleship reported an enemy truck concentration north of Nha Ky . New Jersey gunners quickly retrained the battleship 's big guns and managed to inflict heavy damage on six of the vehicles . Early on the morning of 12 October New Jersey trained her guns in anticipation of shelling the heavily fortified and well protected Vinh caves . For the next three days New Jersey pounded the area with her 16 in shells in an effort to eliminate the Viet Cong presence in the region . Aided by spotter aircraft from the aircraft carrier America , New Jersey engaged enemy targets , setting several enemy positions on fire and sealing one cave . On 14 October New Jersey shifted her gunfire to the coastal artillery sites on Hon Matt Island , destroying one battery on the island . On 16 October New Jersey took up station in support of the U.S. 3rd Marine Division . Using both the 16 in and 5 in guns New Jersey engaged and destroyed 13 structures and an artillery site , in the process halting an enemy platoon moving through the DMZ . New Jersey continued to lend firepower support on the 17th until departing to lend her gunfire to the First Field Force . Foul weather prevented spotter aircraft from flying until 20 October ; however , New Jersey quickly made up for lost time on the gun line by destroying a Viet Cong command post and nine bunkers in support of the 173rd Airborne Brigade , who were operating about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Nha Trang . The next day New Jersey maneuvered into the waters of the Baie de Van Fong to fire at Viet Cong command posts , but poor visibility of the target area prevented any damage estimates . On the night of 23 October New Jersey steamed north to rearm before taking up position in support of the 3rd Marine Division 25 October . That day she shelled enemy troops located by a spotter plane . The next day New Jersey engaged targets of opportunity , destroying 11 structures , seven bunkers , a concrete observation tower , and an enemy trench line . She also received hostile fire when North Vietnamese gunners attempted to strike at New Jersey with artillery positioned near Cap Lay . Some ten to twelve rounds were launched at New Jersey ; however , the rounds fired landed well short of the battleship . Aerial spotters were called in to look at the suspected gun position ; they reported no artillery present but fresh tire tracks leading to a concealed area , suggesting that there had been artillery there earlier . Armed with this information New Jersey fired five 16 inch shells at the site , but in the darkness spotters were unable to confirm any hits . On 28 October New Jersey steamed south to engage Communist targets . During the shelling aircraft spotting for the battleship reported taking heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire to the extreme north of the target zone ; subsequently , New Jersey altered her fire to silence the site with her big guns . The next day New Jersey leveled 30 structures , destroyed three underground bunkers , and shelled a Viet Cong trench line . That afternoon an aerial observer located an enemy artillery position on a hilltop southwest of Cap Lay . New Jersey responded by firing six 16 inch rounds at the site , destroying it . Follow up assaults on 30 October destroyed a Communist resupply area and an anti @-@ aircraft site . Upon completion of this mission New Jersey steamed south , taking a position off Da Nang and Point DeDe to lend naval gunfire support to the U.S. 1st Marine Division operating in the area . On 2 November New Jersey commenced firing operations against nine positions , but the heavy foliage in the area prevented spotters from seeing the results of the shelling . On 4 November New Jersey received orders to reinforce southern II Corps near Phan Thiết ; she arrived on station later that night . The next day she answered eight call for fire support missions from the 173rd Airborne Brigade , in the process destroying eight Viet Cong bunkers and five structures . On 11 November New Jersey departed Vietnamese waters to replenish ; she returned to the gunline 23 November and relieved Galveston , taking up position in support of the U.S. Army 's Americal Division . That afternoon New Jersey 's 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns shelled enemy buildings , destroying 15 structures and inflicted heavy damage on 29 others . On 25 November New Jersey launched the most destructive shore bombardment of her Vietnam tour . For the next two days the battleship concentrated her fire at Viet Cong storage areas near Quảng Ngãi , destroying 182 structures and 54 bunkers , inflicting heavy damage to 93 structures , and demolishing several tunnel complexes before departing for Point Betsy near Hue 27 November to support the 101st Airborne Division . Between 2 and 8 December New Jersey returned to aid the 3rd Marine Division , shelling Viet Cong bunker complexes for the Marines operating around the Da Nang area before departing for Singapore 9 December . On 26 December New Jersey returned to the gunline , taking up station off Tuy Hoa in support of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam 47th Division . For the next three days New Jersey fired her guns to support the II Corps , in the process destroying Viet Cong bunkers and supply depots and neutralizing enemy cave posts . New Jersey would remain in the waters of the DMZ until after New Years , shelling Communist bunkers for ground troops until leaving to support the 1st Marine Division 3 January . Throughout January and into February New Jersey operated in support of the Marines . On 10 February the battleship left to reinforce the Korean 2nd Marine Brigade operating near Da Nang . The battleship 's target was a suspected subterranean staging area for a Viet Cong regiment . New Jersey 's big guns went to work on the complex , firing 16 inch shells into tunnels and bunkers to aid the ground troops . On 14 February the battleship steamed south of the DMZ to provide support for the 3rd Marine Division , in the process destroying an anti @-@ aircraft site with her big guns . The next day New Jersey fired on an enemy rocket site northeast of Con Thien , destroying the facility , then trained her guns on known Communist positions to harass PAVN forces . On 22 February New Jersey responded to an urgent request for fire support from the besieged Oceanview observation post near the DMZ . For the next six hours New Jersey fired her guns , ultimately repelling the attacking force . For the remainder of February and into March New Jersey shelled targets along the DMZ . On 13 March the battleship departed the gunline bound for Subic Bay . She returned to action on 20 March , operating near Cam Ranh Bay in support of the Korean 9th Infantry Division . For the next week New Jersey patrolled the waters between Phan Thiet and Tuy Hoa , shelling targets of opportunity along the coast . On 28 March New Jersey took up station south of the DMZ to aid the 3rd Marine Division , remaining there until 1 April , whereupon New Jersey departed for Japan . During the battleship 's tour of duty along the gunline in Vietnam , New Jersey had fired 5 @,@ 688 rounds of 16 inch shells , and 14 @,@ 891 rounds of 5 @-@ inch shells . = = = Post Vietnam War ( 1969 – 1982 ) = = = Her first Vietnam combat tour completed , New Jersey departed Subic Bay 3 April 1969 for Japan . She arrived at Yokosuka for a two @-@ day visit , sailing for the United States 9 April . Her homecoming , however , was to be delayed . On the 15th , while New Jersey was still at sea , North Korean jet fighters shot down an unarmed EC @-@ 121 Constellation electronic surveillance plane over the Sea of Japan , killing its entire crew . A carrier task force was formed and sent to the Sea of Japan , while New Jersey was ordered to come about and steam toward Japan . On the 22nd she arrived once more at Yokosuka , and immediately put to sea in readiness for what might befall . As the crisis eased , New Jersey was released to continue her interrupted voyage . She anchored at Long Beach 5 May 1969 , her first visit to her home port in eight months . Through the summer months , New Jersey 's crew toiled to make her ready for another deployment , and deficiencies discovered on the gun line were remedied . According to official reports , though , reasons of economy were to dictate otherwise : on 22 August 1969 the United States Secretary of Defense released a list of names of ships to be inactivated ; at the top of the list was New Jersey . Five days later , Captain Snyder was relieved of command by Captain Robert C. Peniston . Assuming command of a ship already earmarked for the " mothball fleet " , Captain Peniston and his crew prepared for their task . New Jersey got underway on the voyage 6 September , departing Long Beach for Puget Sound Naval Shipyard . She arrived on the 8th , and began preinactivation overhaul to ready herself for decommissioning . On 17 December 1969 New Jersey 's colors were hauled down and she entered the inactive fleet , following the words of her last commanding officer : " Rest well , yet sleep lightly ; and hear the call , if again sounded , to provide fire power for freedom . " = = Reactivation ( 1982 ) = = As part of president Ronald Reagan 's and Navy Secretary John Lehman 's effort to create a 600 @-@ ship Navy , New Jersey was selected for reactivation in the spring of 1981 , and she was towed from Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to Long Beach Naval Shipyard at the end of July 1981 for modernization / reactivation . At the time of the reactivation the Navy envisioned using New Jersey and her sister ship Iowa to meet sustained global requirements and relieve the strain on the Navy created by an increase in U.S. commitments to the Indian Ocean and Caribbean Sea regions . During this time the Navy developed several proposals to update their battleships to carry cruise missiles and anti @-@ ship missiles , as well as point defense system mounts . Preliminary modernizations schemes included the removal of four of the ten 5 inch gun mounts on New Jersey to make room for the armored box launchers that would be required to carry and launch the BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk missiles . At one point the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships ; however , it was determined that the system could not withstand the overpressure effects when firing the main battery . On 28 December 1982 New Jersey was formally recommissioned at Long Beach , California , her new homeport . The recommissioning of New Jersey marked a return of the world 's last battleships after a 13 @-@ year absence from the world 's oceans . New Jersey 's modernization was unique in that she was to be the only reactivated Iowa @-@ class battleship to lose a gun turret . At the time the Navy made the announcement plans were underway to remove New Jersey 's No. 3 16 in gun turret ( located aft of the superstructure ) . In its place the Navy planned to install one of two systems : a vertical launching missile magazine which would have enabled New Jersey to carry an additional 48 Tomahawk or Harpoon missiles , or using the space generated by a removed gun turret for aircraft related updates centering on VTOL or V / STOL type aircraft ; however these ideas were ultimately dropped , and New Jersey retained her No. 3 Gun Turret during her 1980s career . Over the next several months the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available ; among the new weapons systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles , eight Armored Box Launcher ( ABL ) mounts for 32 BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk missiles , and a quartet of the United States Navy 's Phalanx Close in Weapon System ( CIWS ) Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti @-@ ship missiles and enemy aircraft . New Jersey also received eight RQ @-@ 2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicles , which are remotely controlled drones that replaced the helicopters previously used to spot for her nine 16 " / 50 Mark 7 guns . Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles , and improved electronic warfare capabilities . Because New Jersey had been recalled for service in the Vietnam War her modernization differed from her sisters for a number of reasons . When reactivated in 1967 New Jersey had her 20 mm Oerlikon and 40 mm Bofors anti @-@ aircraft guns removed , and received improved electronic warfare capabilities . This alteration helped reduce the time it took get New Jersey recommissioned : since she was not in her World War II format the only major physical alteration to New Jersey involved the removal of four of her ten 5 inch gun mounts to make room for the Armored Box Launchers . In addition to saving time , this also made New Jersey cheaper to reactivate since the cost needed to modernize the battleship only included the addition of missile and gun system mounts , electronic warfare suites , and improved radar and gun spotter technology . Since the Tomahawk missile system had not yet been adopted for use during New Jersey 's original update the Navy announced plans to divert assets from two of their Spruance @-@ class destroyers to install the necessary Tomahawk launchers . Similarly , assets were diverted from two Farragut @-@ class guided missile destroyers to allow for the installation of Harpoon launchers on New Jersey . = = Lebanese Civil War ( 1983 – 1984 ) = = In 1983 , a bloody civil war was raging in Lebanon . In an effort to stop the violence in the region a Multinational Force of peacekeepers composed largely of U.S. , Italian and French armed service members was created and sent to the region to attempt a restoration of order . As part of the multinational force the United States mobilized an expeditionary force composed of members of the United States Marine Corps and elements of the United States Sixth Fleet which operated out of the Mediterranean Sea . On 18 April 1983 a van carrying a 2 @,@ 000 pound load of explosives , slammed into the U.S. embassy in West Beirut , killing 63 . In August 1983 , Israel withdrew its Defense Forces from the Chouf District ( southeast of Beirut ) , thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and triggering another round of brutal fighting . In August 1983 militiamen began to bombard United States Marines positions near Beirut International Airport with mortar and rocket fire as the Lebanese Army fought Druze and Shia forces in the southern suburbs of Beirut . On 29 August 1983 , two Marines were killed and fourteen wounded , and in the ensuing months the Marines came under almost daily attack from artillery , mortar , rocket , and small @-@ arms fire . After this attack the Marines began returning fire . The Reagan Administration decided to dispatch New Jersey , a decision the Marines cheered . On 16 September 1983 Druze forces massed on the threshold of Suk El Gharb , a village defended by the Lebanese Army . Suk El Gharb was a village with strategic importance : the militias coming up from the south had to traverse Suk El Gharb to get to the Beirut – Aley road . Moreover , Suk El Gharb controlled a ridge that overlooked Baabda , Yarze , which was the location of the Ministry of Defence , and East Beirut . From that ridge , the Militia gunners could shoot directly downhill at those locations with artillery . United States Navy warships shelled Druze positions and helped the Lebanese Army hold the town of Suk El Gharb until a cease @-@ fire was declared on 25 September , on which day the battleship New Jersey arrived on the scene . The arrival of New Jersey was one of several factors contributing to a reduction in the number of attacks on the Marines . On 28 November — after 23 October 1983 Beirut barracks bombing — the U.S. government announced that New Jersey would be retained off Beirut although her crew would be rotated . On 14 December , New Jersey fired 11 projectiles from her 16 inch ( 406 mm ) guns at hostile positions inland of Beirut . These were the first 16 inch ( 406 mm ) shells fired for effect anywhere in the world since New Jersey ended her time on the gunline in Vietnam in 1969 . This shelling was in response to attacks on U.S. reconnaissance planes by Syrian / Druze antiaircraft batteries . Carrying on a tradition he had begun in World War II of spending Christmas with U.S. forces overseas , Bob Hope and his troupe of entertainers gave a show on board the New Jersey on 24 December 1983 . Four hundred Marines stationed in Beirut attended the show . On 8 February 1984 , New Jersey fired almost 300 shells at Druze and Shi 'ite positions in the hills overlooking Beirut . Some 30 of these massive projectiles rained down on a Syrian command post in the Bekaa Valley east of Beirut , killing the general commanding Syrian forces in Lebanon and several other senior officers . This was the heaviest shore bombardment since the Korean War . Although New Jersey performed her job expertly during the intervention in Lebanon some have criticized the decision to have New Jersey shell Druze and Syrian forces . Members of this camp allege that this action forced a shift in the previously neutral U.S. forces by convincing local Lebanese Muslims that the United States had taken the Christian side ; New Jersey 's shells had killed hundreds of people , mostly Shiites and Druze . In his memoir , General Colin Powell ( at the time an assistant to Caspar Weinberger ) noted that " When the shells started falling on the Shiites , they assumed the American ‘ referee ’ had taken sides . " The accuracy of New Jersey 's guns was also called into question . An investigation into New Jersey 's gunfire effectiveness in Lebanon , led by Marine Colonel Don Price , found that many of the ship 's shells had missed their targets by as much as 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 140 m ) and therefore may have inadvertently killed civilians . Tim McNulty , a correspondent for the Chicago Tribune based in Lebanon said , " Everybody loved the New Jersey until she fired her guns . Once she fired , it was obvious she couldn 't hit anything . " The inaccuracy is believed to have resulted because the ship 's main gunpowder had been remixed by the Navy , under the direction of Captain Joseph Dominick Miceli at the Naval Weapons Support Center , and rebagged . Powder lots ( an individual production of powder ) burn at different rates . Therefore , remixing the powder lots could cause the guns to fire inconsistently . The problem was apparently resolved after the Navy was able to locate additional powder supplies which had not been remixed . = = = Post @-@ Lebanese deployment ( 1984 – 1990 ) = = = In 1986 New Jersey began her next deployment , this time operating as part of the Pacific Fleet and as the centerpiece of her own battle group . This was first time that New Jersey had operational control of her own group of escorts since the Korean War , and she cruised from Hawaii to Thailand in 1986 , freeing up U.S. aircraft carriers for other missions and in the process becoming the only major U.S. naval presence in the region from May to October . Although in command of her own Battleship Battlegroup New Jersey did sail with the aircraft carriers USS Ranger ( CV @-@ 61 ) and USS Constellation ( CV @-@ 64 ) and USS Thach ( FFG @-@ 43 ) while deployed in 1986 . According to a declassified command history for the nuclear @-@ armed battleship New Jersey , during her transit through the Sea of Okhotsk on 27 – 28 September 1986 , " close passes " were made by Soviet Bear and Badger bombers , a Hormone helicopter , and a May maritime patrol airplane . A Kara @-@ class cruiser and two Grisha III frigates also shadowed the U.S. ships . The maneuver , according to the command history , " marked the first time a U.S. battleship had operated in the Soviet Navy 's backyard . " Following an overhaul at Long Beach which lasted into 1988 New Jersey returned to the Pacific Ocean , this time operating as part of a surface action group . The battleship operated near the coast of Korea prior to the opening of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , then departed for Australia to participate in the Australian bicentennial celebrations . In April 1989 , as New Jersey was preparing for her last operational cruise , sister ship Iowa suffered a catastrophic explosion in her No. 2 gun turret ; fallout from the incident led U.S. Naval officials to freeze live fire exercises with the guns until the investigation into the explosion was concluded . Eventually , the ban was lifted and New Jersey was allowed to use her big guns again . New Jersey 's final cruise began in 1989 as part of Pacific Exercise ' 89 . Upon completion of the exercise , New Jersey sailed through the Indian Ocean and into the Persian Gulf , in the process becoming the centerpiece for various battle groups and surface action groups . New Jersey remained in the Persian Gulf for the rest of the year , returning to the United States in February 1990 . = = Reserve fleet and museum ship ( 1991 – present ) = = With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the lack of a perceived threat against the United States came drastic cuts to the defense budget , and the high cost of maintaining battleships as part of the active fleet became uneconomical ; as a result , New Jersey was decommissioned for the final time at Naval Station Long Beach , California , on 8 February 1991 , with the ship serving a total of 21 years ( the most of the four Iowa 's ) in active service . The decision to decommission New Jersey robbed the battleship of the chance to participate in Operation Desert Storm in 1991 , a military campaign to forcibly remove Iraqi invasion troops from Kuwait . Hostilities had commenced on or about 15 January 1991 and sister ships Missouri and Wisconsin were engaging Iraqi targets with Tomahawk missiles at the time of New Jersey 's decommissioning . Following her decommissioning New Jersey was towed to Bremerton , Washington , where she remained in reserve until struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1995 . Section 1011 of the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 required the United States Navy to reinstate to the Naval Vessel Register two of the Iowa @-@ class battleships that had been struck by the Navy in 1995 ; these ships were to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets ( or " mothball fleet " ) . The Navy was to ensure that both of the reinstated battleships were in good condition and could be reactivated for use in the Marine Corps ' amphibious operations . Due to Iowa 's damaged Turret 2 the Navy selected New Jersey for placement into the mothball fleet , even though the training mechanisms on New Jersey 's 16 @-@ in guns had been welded down . The cost to fix New Jersey was considered less than the cost to fix Iowa ; as a result , New Jersey and Wisconsin were reinstated to the Naval Vessel Register and placed back in the reserve fleet . New Jersey remained in mothball fleet until the Strom Thurmond National Defense Authorization Act of 1999 passed through the United States Congress 18 October 1998 . Section 1011 required the United States Secretary of the Navy to list and maintain Iowa and Wisconsin on the Naval Vessel Register , while Section 1012 required the Secretary of the Navy to strike New Jersey from the Naval Vessel Register and transfer the battleship to a not @-@ for @-@ profit entity in accordance with section 7306 of Title 10 , United States Code . Section 1012 also required the transferee to locate the battleship in the State of New Jersey . The Navy made the switch in January 1999 , and on 12 September , New Jersey was towed by the tug Sea Victory from Bremerton , Washington to Philadelphia , for restoration work in the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in advance of her planned donation for use as a museum . Two competing requests for the battleships were filed , one by the USS New Jersey Battleship Commission of Bayonne , New Jersey , and one by the Home Port Alliance of Camden , New Jersey . Both teams worked hard to develop a comprehensive plan to operate and maintain the battleship as a museum . After a review of both of the submitted plans , the Navy selected the Home Port Alliance as the battleship 's final resting place . Secretary of the Navy Richard Danzig made the announcement on 20 January 2000 , and on 15 October of that year New Jersey arrived at her final resting place on the Camden Waterfront . Shortly after her arrival New Jersey was opened to the public , officially beginning her new career as a museum ship with the name Battleship New Jersey Museum and Memorial . Self @-@ guided tours , guided group tours , and overnight encampments are offered on the floating museum . Overnight encampments , typically for the benefit of Scouting organizations , offer the opportunity to sleep and eat in the original berths and mess decks . New Jersey has been placed on several historic registers . In 1997 , while the ship was still in the mothball fleet , the New Jersey State Review Board for Historic Sites recommended that it " be listed in the New Jersey Register of Historic Places , contingent upon the transfer of the battleship to New Jersey waters . " In 2004 , the State of New Jersey officially designated the battleship as an historical place . This cleared New Jersey for placement on the National Register of Historic Places , a list to which New Jersey was officially added in 2004 . In early 2012 there was debate on whether or not the USS New Jersey should be moved to Liberty State Park . Ultimately , nothing came from the debate and the ship remains in Camden . = = Awards = = Among other awards , New Jersey earned the Navy Unit Commendation for Vietnam service , the Presidential Unit Citation from the Republic of the Philippines , and the Presidential Unit Citation from the Republic of Korea . She received nine battle stars for her World War II service , four for her service in the Korean War , two for her service in the Vietnam War , and four for service in Lebanon and the Persian Gulf region . Due to her outstanding service record , New Jersey holds the distinction of being the most decorated battleship in US history .
= French battleship Vérité = Vérité was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Liberté class built by the French Navy . She had three sister ships : Liberté , Justice , and Démocratie . Vérité was laid down in April 1903 , launched in May 1907 , and completed in June 1908 , over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought made ships like Vérité obsolete . She was armed with a main battery of four 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , compared to the ten guns of the same caliber mounted on Dreadnought . Vérité took the French President on a goodwill trip to Russia in 1908 and visited America in September 1909 . In September 1911 , she was damaged by the explosion that destroyed her sister Liberté in Toulon . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she covered troop convoys from North Africa to France along with the rest of the French Mediterranean Fleet . She spent the rest of the war based at Corfu and later Mudros , without seeing any action at either location . After the end of the war , she was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap in 1922 . = = Design = = Vérité was laid down at the Forges et Chantiers de la Gironde shipyard in Bordeaux in April 1903 , launched on 28 May 1907 , and completed in June 1908 , over a year after the radically innovative British battleship HMS Dreadnought , which rendered the pre @-@ dreadnoughts like Vérité outdated before they were completed . The ship was 133 @.@ 81 meters ( 439 ft 0 in ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 24 @.@ 26 m ( 79 ft 7 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) . She displaced up to 14 @,@ 489 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 260 long tons ; 15 @,@ 971 short tons ) at full load . The ship had a crew of between 739 and 769 officers and enlisted men . Vérité was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines with twenty @-@ two Belleville boilers . They were rated at 18 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 1 @,@ 800 t ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Vérité 's main battery consisted of four Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of ten Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1902 guns ; six were mounted in single turrets , and four in casemates in the hull . She also carried thirteen 9 @-@ pounder guns and ten 3 @-@ pounders . Additionally , the ship was armed with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . The ship 's main belt was 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 350 mm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides . = = Service history = = Vérité 's first major assignment was received in late July 1908 , a month after she joined the French fleet . She carried the President of France Armand Fallières to Reval , Russia , arriving on 27 July . There , Fallières visited with the Russian Tsar , Nicholas II , who inspected Vérité . She joined Liberté and Justice for a visit to the United States for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in September 1909 . The three ships , representing France during the celebrations and commanded by Admiral Jules le Pord , were the first foreign ships to arrive . The ships departed from Brest and reached New York seven days later , having run at an average of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) ; the performance of the ships ' propulsion systems was regarded as satisfactory by contemporary naval experts , including the United States Naval Institute . In early 1911 , the French Navy conducted experiments with wireless telegraphy , and used Vérité and Justice for the tests . The wireless transmitters could pick up messages as far as 72 miles ( 116 km ) away . On 25 September 1911 , Liberté was destroyed by an accidental explosion in Toulon , the result of the spontaneous combustion of nitrocellulose gel in her ammunition magazines . Debris hurled by the explosion damaged several nearby battleships , including Vérité . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Vérité was assigned to the 1st Division of the 2nd Squadron in the Mediterranean , along with République and Patrie . The French fleet was initially used to cover the movement of French troops — the XIX Corps — from Algeria to metropolitan France . As a result , the fleet was far out of position to catch the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben , which , contrary to French expectations , steamed to Constantinople rather than attempt to interfere with the troop transports . For the majority of the war , the French used their main fleet to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet bottled up in the Adriatic Sea . In 1914 she participated in the Battle of Antivari , where the battle line caught the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta by surprise and sank her . The French battleships then bombarded Austrian fortifications at Cattaro in an attempt to draw out the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , which refused to take the bait . The French operations in the area were hampered by a lack of a suitable base close to the mouth of the Adriatic ; the British had given the French free access to Malta , but it was hundreds of miles away . The Austrians also possessed several submarines , one of which torpedoed the dreadnought Jean Bart in December 1914 . The threat from underwater weapons greatly limited French naval activities in the Adriatic . As the war progressed , the French eventually settled on Corfu as their primary naval base in the area . Later in the war , Vérité was sent to Mudros along with her sister ships . After the end of the war , Vérité was stricken from the naval register in 1922 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Captain America : The First Avenger = Captain America : The First Avenger is a 2011 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Captain America , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is the fifth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Joe Johnston , written by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely , and stars Chris Evans , Tommy Lee Jones , Hugo Weaving , Hayley Atwell , Sebastian Stan , Dominic Cooper , Neal McDonough , Derek Luke and Stanley Tucci . Set predominantly during World War II , Captain America : The First Avenger tells the story of Steve Rogers , a sickly man from Brooklyn who is transformed into super @-@ soldier Captain America and must stop the Red Skull , who intends to use an artifact called the " Tesseract " as an energy @-@ source for world domination . Captain America : The First Avenger began as a concept in 1997 and was scheduled for distribution by Artisan Entertainment . However , a lawsuit , not settled until September 2003 , disrupted the project . In 2005 , Marvel Studios received a loan from Merrill Lynch , and planned to finance and release it through Paramount Pictures . Directors Jon Favreau and Louis Leterrier were interested in directing the project before Johnston was approached in 2008 . The principal characters were cast between March and June 2010 . Production of Captain America : The First Avenger began in June 2010 , and filming took place in London , Manchester , Caerwent , and Liverpool in the United Kingdom , and Los Angeles in the United States . The film was converted to 3D in post @-@ production . Captain America : The First Avenger premiered in Hollywood on July 19 , 2011 , and was released in the United States on July 22 , 2011 . The film became a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 370 million worldwide . The Blu @-@ ray and DVD were released on October 25 , 2011 . A sequel titled Captain America : The Winter Soldier was released on April 4 , 2014 , and a third film titled Captain America : Civil War was released on May 6 , 2016 . = = Plot = = In the present day , scientists in the Arctic uncover an old , frozen aircraft . In March 1942 , Nazi officer Johann Schmidt and his men steal a mysterious relic called the Tesseract , which possesses untold powers , from the town of Tønsberg in German @-@ occupied Norway . In New York City , Steve Rogers is rejected for World War II military recruitment because of various health and physical problems . While attending an exhibition of future technologies with his friend , Sgt. James " Bucky " Barnes , Rogers again attempts to enlist . Overhearing Rogers ' conversation with Barnes about wanting to help in the war , Dr. Abraham Erskine allows Rogers to enlist . He is recruited into the Strategic Scientific Reserve as part of a " super @-@ soldier " experiment under Erskine , Col. Chester Phillips , and British agent Peggy Carter . Phillips is unconvinced by Erskine 's claims that Rogers is the right person for the procedure but relents after seeing Rogers commit an act of self @-@ sacrificing bravery . The night before the treatment , Erskine reveals to Rogers that Schmidt underwent an imperfect version of the procedure and suffered permanent side @-@ effects . Schmidt and Dr. Arnim Zola harness the energies of the Tesseract , intending to use the power to fuel Zola 's inventions , mounting an offensive that will change the world . Schmidt discovers Erskine 's location and dispatches assassin Heinz Kruger to kill him . Erskine subjects Rogers to the super @-@ soldier treatment , injecting him with a special serum and dosing him with " vita @-@ rays " . After Rogers emerges from the experiment taller and more muscular , an undercover Kruger kills Erskine and flees . Rogers pursues and captures Kruger , but the assassin avoids interrogation by committing suicide with a cyanide capsule . With Erskine dead and his super @-@ soldier formula lost , U.S. Senator Brandt has Rogers tour the nation in a colorful costume as " Captain America " to promote war bonds while scientists study him and attempt to rediscover the formula . In 1943 , while on tour in Italy performing for active servicemen , Rogers learns that Barnes 's unit was MIA in a battle against Schmidt 's forces . Refusing to believe that Barnes is dead , Rogers has Carter and engineer Howard Stark fly him behind enemy lines to mount a solo rescue attempt . Rogers infiltrates the fortress of Schmidt 's Nazi division Hydra , freeing Barnes and the other prisoners . Rogers confronts Schmidt , who removes a mask to reveal a red , skull @-@ like visage that earned him the sobriquet " the Red Skull " . Schmidt escapes and Rogers returns to base with the freed soldiers . Rogers recruits Barnes , Dum Dum Dugan , Gabe Jones , Jim Morita , James Montgomery Falsworth , and Jacques Dernier to attack other known Hydra bases . Stark outfits Rogers with advanced equipment , most notably a circular shield made of vibranium , a rare , nearly indestructible metal . Rogers and his team sabotage various Hydra operations . The team later assaults a train carrying Zola . Rogers and Jones succeed in capturing Zola , but Barnes falls from the train to his assumed death . Using information extracted from Zola , the final Hydra stronghold is located , and Rogers leads an attack to stop Schmidt from using weapons of mass destruction on major cities around the world . Rogers climbs aboard Schmidt 's aircraft as it takes off , and during the subsequent fight the Tesseract 's container is damaged . Schmidt physically handles the Tesseract , causing him to dissolve in a bright light . The Tesseract burns through the plane and is lost in the ocean . Seeing no way to land the plane without the risk of detonating its weapons , Rogers crashes it in the Arctic . Stark later recovers the Tesseract from the ocean floor but is unable to locate Rogers or the aircraft , presuming him dead . Rogers awakens in a 1940s @-@ style hospital room . Deducing from an anachronistic radio broadcast that something is wrong , he flees outside and finds himself in present @-@ day Times Square , where S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury informs him that he has been " asleep " for nearly 70 years . In a post @-@ credits scene , Fury approaches Rogers and proposes a mission with worldwide ramifications . = = Cast = = Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America : A frail , sickly young man who is enhanced to the peak of human ability by an experimental serum in order to aid the United States war effort . Evans , who previously worked with Marvel as the Human Torch in the Fantastic Four film series , said he declined the part three times before signing a six @-@ picture deal with Marvel , explaining that , " At the time , I remember telling a buddy of mine , ' If the movie bombs , I 'm f — -ed [ sic ] . If the movie hits , I 'm f — -ed ! ' I was just scared . I realized my whole decision @-@ making process was fear @-@ based , and you never want to make a decision out of fear . I can 't believe I was almost too chicken to play Captain America " . He ultimately agreed to the role , saying , " I think Marvel is doing a lot of good things right now , and it 's a fun character . ... I think the story of Steve Rogers is great . He 's a great guy . Even if it [ were ] just a script about anybody , I would probably want to do it . So it wasn 't necessarily about the comic itself . " Regarding the extent of the character 's abilities Evans remarked , " He would crush the Olympics . Any Olympic sport he 's gonna dominate . He can jump higher , run faster , lift stronger weight , but he can be injured . He could roll an ankle and be out for the season . He 's not perfect , he 's not untouchable . So a lot of the effects , if I 'm going to punch someone they 're not going to put them on a cable and fly them back 50 feet , but he 's going to go down , probably not getting back up , which I think humanizes it . It makes it something that , again , I think everyone can relate to a little bit more , which I really like . " Theater actor Leander Deeny was the body double in some shots for Steve Rogers ' pre @-@ transformation physique as well as appearing as a bartender . Tommy Lee Jones as Chester Phillips : A colonel in the United States Army and member of the Strategic Scientific Reserve who heads the project to create super soldiers . The character was updated from the comics , where Phillips was the one to recruit Rogers to join Project Rebirth that made him Captain America . Jones described the character as " the one you 've seen in a thousand movies : the gruff , skeptical officer overseeing a team of talented , slightly sarcastic , specially talented soldiers " . Hugo Weaving as Johann Schmidt / Red Skull : Adolf Hitler 's head of advanced weaponry and commander of the terrorist organization Hydra , whose own plan for world domination involves harnessing the power of the magical object known as the Tesseract . Weaving stated that he patterned Red Skull 's accent on those of Werner Herzog and Klaus Maria Brandauer . About the character , Weaving remarked , " I think the major difference between Skull and Cap , they 've both had the serum , and the serum seems to augment certain qualities that each of them have . Cap is much more in tune with other people I think . Schmidt is in tune with himself , and his own needs , and his own ego , so I suppose it augments that . From that point of view , they 're quite opposite . " Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter : An officer with the Strategic Scientific Reserve who works with Phillips on the super soldier project and the love interest of Rogers . Regarding her preparation for the role , she said , " I 'm training at the moment six days a week to make her a bit more military and make it convincing that I could kick butt . " About the character , Atwell stated , " I likened her character to that famous Ginger Rogers quote . She can do everything Captain America can do , but backwards and in high heels . She 's an English soldier through and through , although she always looks fabulous . She might stand there with a machine @-@ gun shooting Nazis , but she 's obviously gone to the loo beforehand and applied a bit of lipstick . She doesn 't need to be rescued . That 's exciting to me – her strength " . She added , " I think she 's quite stubborn , a slightly frustrated woman who struggles with being a woman in that time . But more importantly she 's a modern woman and she sees something in Captain America that she relates to , and becomes kindred spirits . He treats her very differently to how she 's been treated by lots of men , in this kind of dominated world she lives in . So she 's very much a fighter . " Sebastian Stan as James " Bucky " Barnes : A sergeant in the United States Army , Rogers ' best friend and member of his squad of commandos . Stan has signed on for " five or six pictures " . He revealed that he did not know anything about the comic books , but watched a lot of documentaries and films about World War II in preparation for the role , calling Band of Brothers " very helpful " . About the role , Stan stated , " Steve Rogers and Bucky are both orphans and kind of like brothers . They kind of grow up together and look after each other . It 's a very human , relatable thing ... I also wanted to look out for how their relationship changes once Steve Rogers becomes Captain America . There 's always a competition and they 're always one @-@ upping each other . I paid attention to how Bucky is affected by Steve 's change and suddenly Steve is this leader " . Dominic Cooper as Howard Stark : The father of Tony Stark , who worked on various government projects dating back to the World War II era . About the role , Cooper stated , " It 's an opportunity where you can see his future because I know the guy who becomes my son and I see myself as an older version in Iron Man 2 which is great for an actor to have those tools . All I know of him is that he 's a fantastic engineer and inventor and a very slick Howard Hughes type that 's into aviation and women ! " Neal McDonough as Timothy " Dum Dum " Dugan : A member of Steve Rogers ' squad of commandos . McDonough said he grew Dugan 's trademark mustache and wore the character 's signature bowler hat . About his role in film he remarked , " Oh , I 'm going to see a lot of action . [ I 'm ] the go @-@ to guy , so I 'm very happy with that . " Derek Luke as Gabe Jones : A member of Rogers ' squad of commandos . Luke said he was cast without a script or much of a description of the character . As to why he took the part , " I just believed that Marvel was doing some really great work , great messages in films . The good versus evil and I was just like , ' How can I be down ? ' " Stanley Tucci as Abraham Erskine : The scientist who created the Super Soldier Serum . Tucci said that what drew him to the role was the opportunity to do a German accent , which was something he always wanted to try . Samuel L. Jackson reprises his role as Nick Fury , the director of the super @-@ spy agency , S.H.I.E.L.D. Kenneth Choi appears as Jim Morita , a Japanese @-@ American member of Rogers ' squad of commandos . Choi said he was the last actor to audition for the part and that he read sides from Saving Private Ryan . About his preparation for the role , Choi said , " [ I ] did a lot of WWII research especially in regards to the ' Nisei ' soldiers , or Japanese @-@ American soldiers . I wanted to get as much true , real @-@ life information for a guy like Jim Morita fighting in WWII . I felt that if I had built a factual basis for him , I could then let go and permit the character to exist in the Marvel Universe , which allows for a lot of imaginative circumstances . " Bruno Ricci stars as Jacques Dernier , a French member of Rogers ' squad of commandos . Ricci auditioned for and got the part while filming the French series The Hawk . JJ Feild appears as James Montgomery Falsworth , a British member of Rogers ' squad of commandos . Feild called his part in the film " a very physical job . I play one of the Captain 's sidekicks so I 've been running around shooting things and blowing things up and trying to look cool for about a year . " Additionally , Toby Jones was cast as Arnim Zola , a biochemist for the Nazi party , Richard Armitage portrays Heinz Kruger , the Red Skull 's top assassin , Lex Shrapnel portrays Gilmore Hodge , a candidate for the super soldier program , Michael Brandon portrays Brandt , a United States Senator who recognizes the PR potential of Captain America , Natalie Dormer portrays Lorraine , a private who attempts to seduce Rogers , and Jenna Coleman appears as Connie , Bucky 's date at the World Expo . Stan Lee has a cameo appearance as a general . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = In April 1997 , Marvel was in negotiations with Mark Gordon and Gary Levinsohn to produce Captain America , and Larry Wilson and Leslie Bohem were set to write a script . In May 2000 , Marvel teamed with Artisan Entertainment to help finance the film . However , a lawsuit arose between Marvel Comics and Joe Simon over the ownership of Captain America copyrights , disrupting the development process of the film . The lawsuit was eventually settled in September 2003 . In 2005 , Marvel received a $ 525 million investment from Merrill Lynch , allowing them to independently produce ten films , including Captain America . Paramount Pictures agreed to distribute the film . Originally , the film would stand alone ; producer Kevin Feige said " about half " the movie would be set during World War II before moving into the modern day . Producer Avi Arad said , " The biggest opportunity with Captain America is as a man ' out of time ' , coming back today , looking at our world through the eyes of someone who thought the perfect world was small @-@ town United States . Sixty years go by , and who are we today ? Are we better ? " He cited the Back to the Future trilogy as an influence , and claimed he had " someone in mind to be the star , and definitely someone in mind to be the director " . In February 2006 , Arad hoped to have a summer 2008 theatrical release date . Jon Favreau approached Arad to direct the film as a comedy , but he chose to make Iron Man instead . In April 2006 , David Self was hired to write the script . He explained that Captain America was his favorite superhero as a child because " my dad told me I could one day be Captain America " . Joe Johnston met with Marvel to discuss directing the film . Captain America was put on hold during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . However , in January 2008 , Marvel Entertainment reached an interim comprehensive agreement with the Writers Guild of America that would put writers immediately back to work on various projects that were under the company 's development . On May 5 , 2008 ( after the success of Iron Man ) , Marvel announced the film The First Avenger : Captain America ( the working title ) for release in May 6 , 2011 ( before being pushed back to July 22 ) . Louis Leterrier , director of The Incredible Hulk , viewed some of the concept art being created for the film and was impressed enough to offer his services , but Marvel turned him down . Johnston finally signed on in November 2008 , and he hired Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely to rewrite . Feige cited Johnston 's directorial work on October Sky and The Rocketeer and his special effects work on the original Star Wars trilogy to explain why he was an appropriate choice . Raiders of the Lost Ark was an influence on the film , because they hoped the film would not feel like a period piece . When asked whether anti @-@ US sentiments would affect the film 's box office , Feige said , " Marvel is perceived pretty well around the world right now , and I think putting another uber @-@ Marvel hero into the worldwide box office would be a good thing . ... We have to deal with much the same way that Captain America , when thawed from the Arctic ice , entered a world that he didn 't recognize , " similar to the way Stan Lee and Jack Kirby reintroduced the character in the 1960s . Likewise , Arad noted , " Captain America stands for freedom for all democracies , for hope all around the world . He was created to stop tyranny and the idea of stopping tyranny is important today as it was then . So I think that we will have some interesting challenges but at the end of the day if the movie is terrific and the movie talks to the world , it 's not about one place , it 's about the world and I think [ on ] that basis it will be very successful . " Later , after the election of US President Barack Obama , Feige commented , " The idea of change and hope has permeated the country , regardless of politics , and that includes Hollywood . Discussions in all our development meetings include the Zeitgeist and how it 's changed in the last two weeks . Things are being adjusted " . = = = Pre @-@ production = = = In December 2009 , director Joe Johnston indicated that he planned to start filming in April 2010 . In a separate interview that month , he described the film 's pre @-@ production : " Rick Heinrichs is production @-@ designing and we 're set up down in Manhattan Beach , California . ... We have eight or ten really talented artists , and we all just sit around all day and draw pictures and say , ' Hey , wouldn 't it be cool if we could do this ? ' It 's that phase of the production where money doesn 't matter : ' Let 's put all the greatest stuff up on the wall and [ then later ] see what we can afford . ' " The film , he said , will begin " in 1942 , 1943 " during World War II . " The stuff in the ' 60s and ' 70s [ comic books ] we 're sort of avoiding . We 're going back to the ' 40s , and then forward to what they 're doing with Captain America now . " In February 2010 , Johnston stated that the Invaders will appear in " the entire second half " of the film , leading fans to speculate this was the World War II @-@ era Marvel superhero team of that name , and in November Johnston refuted speculation that the Sub @-@ Mariner , an Invaders team @-@ member in the comics , would be included . Johnston later explained that " the Invaders " had been discussed simply as a possible name for the squad of commandos Captain America leads in the film . Christopher Markus , one of the screenwriters , said the unnamed group was " called the Howling Commandos in the script , but no one says that out loud . " The design as a whole tried to create technology that could be built in the 1940s , though with the added Cube technology in Hydra 's case . Abandoned Nazi projects or actual vehicles from the period were used as inspiration . Daniel Simon , who was previously responsible for many vehicle designs in TRON : Legacy , was appointed Lead Vehicle Designer . Director Johnston cited Simon 's book Cosmic Motors as a reason to trust his influence , saying " he 's sort of the guy I wanted to be when I was designing stuff for Star Wars " . The Red Skull 's car , for instance , was based on two Mercedes @-@ Benz vehicles from the 1930s , the 540K and the G4 . Variety reported in March 2010 that Chris Evans was cast as Captain America and Hugo Weaving as the Red Skull ; Marvel Studios confirmed the latter in May . Ryan Phillippe and John Krasinski were also considered for the role of Captain America . In April 2010 , Sebastian Stan , who had been mentioned in media accounts as a possibility for the title role , was cast as Bucky Barnes . Stan is contracted for multiple films . Also in April , Marvel announced that Hayley Atwell had been cast as Peggy Carter , and that the film 's name had been changed from The First Avenger : Captain America to Captain America : The First Avenger . The next day it was reported that Joss Whedon would be rewriting the script as part of his negotiation to write and direct The Avengers . Whedon said in August , " I just got to make some character connections . The structure of the thing was really tight and I loved it , but there were a couple of opportunities to find his voice a little bit — and some of the other characters ' — and make the connections so that you understood exactly why he wanted to be who he wanted to be . And progressing through the script to flesh it out a little bit " . Samuel L. Jackson revealed in an interview that he would reprise his role as Nick Fury in the film . In May , Toby Jones entered final negotiations to play Arnim Zola . Iron Man director Jon Favreau said a younger Howard Stark would appear in the film , played by Dominic Cooper . Atwell revealed that Tommy Lee Jones would have a role in the film . By June , Neal McDonough was in talks to play Dum Dum Dugan . Four days later , he confirmed he was taking the part . The same day , Stanley Tucci joined the cast as Dr. Abraham Erskine , the scientist who created the super @-@ soldier serum . In November 2013 , McDonough revealed that he is signed to appear in multiple projects for Marvel , not limited to films . = = = Filming = = = Production began on June 28 , 2010 . On the same day , Marvel confirmed that Tommy Lee Jones had been cast to play US Army Colonel Chester Phillips . The next day Marvel confirmed that Dominic Cooper would portray the younger version of Howard Stark , the character played by John Slattery in Iron Man 2 . It was announced that the film would shoot in London in late July and was expected to include scenes featuring key London landmarks . War scenes were filmed in September at the former Royal Navy Propellant Factory in the Welsh village of Caerwent . Filming was scheduled to take place that month in the Northern Quarter of Manchester , where parts of the 2004 film Alfie and the 2009 Sherlock Holmes had been shot , followed by the Stanley Dock area of Liverpool , both doubling for the period 's Lower East Side of Manhattan . Further scenes were scheduled to be shot in Liverpool 's Albert Dock . Johnston included a scene of a technology fair that includes in passing a display case containing the 1940s android superhero known as the original Human Torch , another character , like Captain America , in comics published by Marvel Comics ' predecessor , Timely Comics . In July 2010 , Marvel Studios head Kevin Feige said that both this film and Thor would be released in 3 @-@ D. Johnston did a one @-@ day test shooting with a 3 @-@ D rig , rather than shooting in 2 @-@ D and converting , and found it " a nightmare " due to bulky gear , calibration issues and restricted filmmaking options . Nevertheless , he said he believes 3 @-@ D is " a new challenge and it 's exciting " . Feige insisted that the conversion would not compromise the film 's image quality , as the decision to release the film in 3 @-@ D was made early in development , and that " an unprecedented amount of time " would be devoted to the conversion process , to render all the film 's visual effects in true 3 @-@ D. = = = Post @-@ production = = = In November 2010 , Stanley Tucci stated that he had completed filming his scenes and that the rest of the production would wrap in about three weeks . In February 2011 , it was announced that Alan Silvestri had been chosen to compose the film score . In March 2011 , CraveOnline reported that Captain America : The First Avenger would be undergoing reshoots in the United Kingdom and in Los Angeles in April 2011 . A scene was also filmed in New York City 's Times Square on April 23 , 2011 . The film features nearly 1 @,@ 600 visual effects shots , which were split between thirteen different companies . To achieve the appearance of the skinny , pre @-@ serum Steve Rogers , director Joe Johnston stated that he used two major techniques : Most of the shots were done by an L.A. company called LOLA that specializes in digital " plastic surgery . " The technique involved shrinking Chris in all dimensions . We shot each skinny Steve scene at least four times ; once like a normal scene with Chris and his fellow actors in the scene , once with Chris alone in front of a green screen so his element could be reduced digitally , again with everyone in the scene but with Chris absent so that the shrunken Steve could be re @-@ inserted into the scene , and finally with a body double mimicking Chris 's actions in case the second technique were required . When Chris had to interact with other characters in the scene , we had to either lower Chris or raise the other actors on apple boxes or elevated walkways to make skinny Steve shorter in comparison . For close @-@ ups , Chris ' fellow actors had to look at marks on his chin that represented where his eyes would be after the shrinking process , and Chris had to look at marks on the tops of the actor 's head to represent their eyes . ... The second technique involved grafting Chris 's head onto the body double . This technique was used mostly when Chris was sitting or lying down , or when a minimum of physical acting was required .... Captain America 's shield , which serves as both a defensive tool and a weapon , came in four types : metal , fiberglass , rubber , and computer graphics ( CG ) . Prop master Barry Gibbs specified that " We had the ' hero shield , ' which was made of aluminum , for our beauty shots [ and ] close @-@ up work . We then created a lighter shield that was aluminum @-@ faced with a fiberglass back , for use on a daily basis . ... And then we had a stunt shield made of polyurethane , which is sort of a synthetic rubber ... and we made an ultrasoft one we put on [ Evans ' ] back , so that if there were an accident , it wouldn 't hurt him . " Visual effects supervisor Christopher Townsend said Evans " would practice swinging the practical shield so he knew the arc and the speed at which he should move . We would take the shield from him and shoot the scene with him miming it . Then we would add in a CG shield " . Hugo Weaving , who portrayed the Red Skull , wore a latex mask conceived by prosthetic makeup designer David White . The visual effects team had to manipulate his face considerably , as the mask was bulky and they wanted to make it look like tight skin wrapped around a very bony structure . They thinned out Weaving 's cheeks and lower lip , hollowed out his eyes , and removed his eyelashes and nose to make him appear more like the Red Skull character . Closing credits were created by visual effects firm Rok ! t by means of 3 @-@ D and stereoscopic processing that used iconic American war propaganda , such as James Montgomery Flagg 's Uncle Sam recruitment poster from World War I and J. Howard Miller 's " We Can Do It ! " poster from World War II . = = Music = = The soundtrack album for Captain America : The First Avenger includes the original score by Alan Silvestri , as well as an original song " Star Spangled Man " with music composed by Alan Menken and lyrics by David Zippel . The soundtrack was recorded at Air Studios in London and released by Walt Disney Records on July 19 , 2011 . = = Release = = The world premiere of Captain America : The First Avenger was held on July 19 , 2011 , at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California . The film was screened at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 21 , 2011 . It was commercially released in the United States and Canada on July 22 , 2011 . Paramount opted against altering the American @-@ centric title when distributing to foreign territories , instead offering international markets a choice between the official title and the alternative The First Avenger . Many international distributors chose to retain the original title , believing the franchise name to be more identifiable than the alternative , and that the latter would risk losing ticket sales . Three countries chose the alternative title : Russia , South Korea , and Ukraine . An " insider " speaking to The New York Times explained that the name change in these countries stemmed from cultural and political concerns , though Marvel and Paramount both declined to state an official reason . In July 2011 , it was thought that the film would not be released in China because of a policy limiting the number of foreign films screened there each year , but it eventually opened there in the second weekend of September . Days before the film 's release , a teaser trailer for The Avengers that served as a post @-@ credits scene of Captain America : The First Avenger was briefly leaked online . Entertainment Weekly speculated it came from a preview screening and described the footage as " shaky , fuzzy , flickering and obviously filmed on a cell phone " . = = = Marketing = = = At the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , some footage that had been shot in the previous week was shown at the San Diego Convention Center . The first television advertisement aired during Super Bowl XLV on the Fox network in the United States . Paramount paid $ 3 million to run the 30 @-@ second advertisement . The first full trailer was released in March 2011 . In May 2011 , the USO girls from the film performed aboard the USS Intrepid at the Intrepid Sea @-@ Air @-@ Space Museum as a part of the 2011 Fleet Week celebration in New York City . In June 2011 , Dunkin ' Donuts and Baskin @-@ Robbins teamed with Marvel to search for real @-@ life super @-@ soldiers . The contest sought nominations for veterans or active U.S. servicepersons making a difference where they live or serve . In July 2011 , Paramount Pictures promoted the film during an Independence Day celebration hosted by the Chicago White Sox . Promotional partners include Harley @-@ Davidson , Dunkin ' Donuts and Baskin @-@ Robbins . In February 2011 , Marvel Comics launched the eight @-@ issue digital comic Captain America : First Vengeance , on the same day as the first trailer aired . Written by Fred Van Lente and featuring a rotation of artists , the story is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Each of the eight issues focuses on a specific character from the movie , heroes and villains alike , and what brought them to the point where the movie begins . Sega announced a video game tie @-@ in titled Captain America : Super Soldier , that was released in 2011 for the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Wii and Nintendo DS . Marvel released the mobile game , Captain America : Sentinel of Liberty , in July 2011 . A toy line was released as well . = = = Home media = = = Captain America : The First Avenger was released on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D and DVD on October 25 , 2011 . The three @-@ disc set includes the film on Blu @-@ ray in high @-@ definition 3D and in high definition 2D , as well as on standard definition DVD with a digital copy . The two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray / DVD combo pack includes a high @-@ definition presentation of the film and a standard @-@ definition presentation with a digital copy . Both sets include over an hour of bonus material , including the short film A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer , a sneak peek of The Avengers , six behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , and deleted scenes with commentary by director Joe Johnston , director of photography Shelly Johnson and editor Jeff Ford . In its first week of release , Captain America : The First Avenger topped the Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales charts , selling 1 @.@ 54 million Blu @-@ ray units and 726 @,@ 000 DVD units and making a combined total of $ 52 @.@ 6 million . The film was also collected in a 10 @-@ disc box set titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase One – Avengers Assembled " which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on April 2 , 2013 . = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = Captain America : The First Avenger earned $ 176 @.@ 7 million in North America and $ 193 @.@ 9 million internationally , for a worldwide total of $ 370 @.@ 6 million . Captain America : The First Avenger opened on July 22 , 2011 , in the United States and earned $ 4 million in midnight showings , outgrossing other 2011 original superhero films like Thor and Green Lantern as well as the prequel X @-@ Men : First Class , which all made between $ 3 @.@ 25 million and $ 3 @.@ 5 million in Friday midnights . On Friday , the film opened at the number one spot at the American and Canadian box office with $ 25 @.@ 7 million . It then went on to make $ 65 @.@ 1 million in what was the second highest @-@ grossing opening weekend for a superhero film in 2011 , behind Thor ( $ 65 @.@ 7 million ) . Captain America : The First Avenger is the third highest @-@ grossing motion picture set during the World War II era , after Saving Private Ryan and Pearl Harbor . = = = Critical response = = = The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 244 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " With plenty of pulpy action , a pleasantly retro vibe , and a handful of fine performances , Captain America is solidly old @-@ fashioned blockbuster entertainment . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score , rated the film 66 out of 100 based on 36 reviews from critics indicating " generally favorable " reviews . Audiences surveyed by Cinemascore gave the film an " A- " rating . Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave Captain America : The First Avenger a positive review , saying , " Johnston has delivered a light , clever and deftly balanced adventure picture with real lump in the throat nostalgia , with Nazis – who make the best villains , and with loving references to Star Wars and Raiders of the Lost Ark . ' " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times remarked , " I enjoyed the movie . I appreciated the 1940s period settings and costumes , which were a break with the usual generic cityscapes . I admired the way that director Joe Johnston propelled the narrative . I got a sense of a broad story , rather than the impression of a series of sensational set pieces . If Marvel is wise , it will take this and Iron Man as its templates " . A. O. Scott of The New York Times declared it " pretty good fun " . Karina Longworth of The Village Voice gave the film a negative review , calling it " [ A ] hokey , hacky , two @-@ hour @-@ plus exercise in franchise transition / price gouging , complete with utterly unnecessary post @-@ converted 3 @-@ D " . Peter Debruge of Variety said , " Captain America : The First Avenger plays like a by @-@ the @-@ numbers prequel for Marvel Studios ' forthcoming The Avengers movie " . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter had mixed feelings about the film , writing , " As the last Marvel prequel that includes two Iron Man and Incredible Hulk movies before next summer 's The Avengers , this one feels perhaps a little too simplistic and routine " . = = = Accolades = = = = = Sequels = = = = = Captain America : The Winter Soldier = = = A sequel , Captain America : The Winter Soldier , directed by Anthony and Joseph Russo , was released on April 4 , 2014 . Evans , Stan , Atwell , Jones , and Jackson reprise their roles as Captain America , the Winter Soldier , Peggy Carter , Arnim Zola and Nick Fury , respectively . They are joined by Scarlett Johansson , Anthony Mackie , and Robert Redford as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow , Sam Wilson / Falcon , and Alexander Pierce , respectively . = = = Captain America : Civil War = = = Captain America : Civil War was released on May 6 , 2016 , and again is directed by the Russo brothers . Evans , Johansson , Stan and Mackie reprise their roles from The Winter Soldier , and they are joined by Robert Downey , Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man , Paul Bettany as Vision , Jeremy Renner as Clint Barton / Hawkeye , Don Cheadle as James " Rhodey " Rhodes / War Machine , Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch , Paul Rudd as Scott Lang / Ant @-@ Man and William Hurt as Thaddeus " Thunderbolt " Ross all reprising roles from previous MCU films .
= Carcinus maenas = " Shore crab " redirects here . This may also be used for crabs in the superfamily Grapsoidea . Carcinus maenas is a common littoral crab , and a widespread invasive species , listed among the 100 " world 's worst alien invasive species " . It is native to the north @-@ east Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea , but has colonised similar habitats in Australia , South Africa , South America and both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America . It grows to a carapace width of 90 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) , and feeds on a variety of molluscs , worms and small crustaceans , potentially impacting a number of fisheries . Its successful dispersion has occurred via a variety of mechanisms , such as on ships ' hulls , packing materials , and bivalves moved for aquaculture . C. maenas is known by different names around the world . In the British Isles , it is generally referred to as the shore crab , or green shore crab . In North America and South Africa , it bears the name green crab or European green crab . In Australia and New Zealand , it is referred to as either the European green crab or European shore crab . = = Description = = C. maenas has a carapace up to 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) wide , but can be larger outside its native range , reaching 101 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) wide in British Columbia . The carapace has five short teeth along the rim behind each eye , and three undulations between the eyes . The undulations , which protrude beyond the eyes , are the simplest means of distinguishing C. maenas from the closely related C. aestuarii , which can also be an invasive species . In C. aestuarii , the carapace lacks any bumps and extends forward beyond the eyes . Another characteristic for distinguishing the two species is the form of the first and second pleopods ( collectively the gonopods ) , which are straight and parallel in C. aestuarii , but curve outwards in C. maenas . The colour of C. maenas varies greatly , from green to brown , grey or red . This variation has a genetic component , but is largely due to local environmental factors . In particular , individuals which delay moulting become red – coloured rather than green . Red individuals are stronger and more aggressive , but are less tolerant of environmental stresses , such as low salinity or hypoxia . Juvenile crabs on average display greater patterning than adults . = = Native and introduced range = = C. maenas is native to European and North African coasts as far as the Baltic Sea in the east , and Iceland and Central Norway in the north , and is one of the most common crabs throughout much of its range . In the Mediterranean Sea , it is replaced by the closely related species Carcinus aestuarii . C. maenas was first observed on the east coast of North America in Massachusetts in 1817 , and may now be found from South Carolina northwards ; by 2007 , this species had extended its range northwards to Placentia Bay , Newfoundland . In 1989 , the species was found in San Francisco Bay , California , on the Pacific coast of the United States . Until 1993 , it was not able to extend its range , but reached Oregon in 1997 , the state of Washington in 1998 and British Columbia in 1999 , thus extending its range by 750 kilometres ( 470 mi ) in ten years . By 2003 , C. maenas had extended to South America with specimens discovered in Patagonia . In Australia , C. maenas was first reported " in the late 1800s " in Port Phillip Bay , Victoria , although the species was probably introduced as early as the 1850s . It has since spread along the south @-@ eastern and south @-@ western seaboards , reaching New South Wales in 1971 , South Australia in 1976 and Tasmania in 1993 . One specimen was found in Western Australia in 1965 , but there have been no further discoveries in the area since . C. maenas first reached South Africa in 1983 , in the Table Docks area near Cape Town . Since then , it has spread at least as far as Saldanha Bay in the north and Camps Bay in the south , over 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) apart . There have been appearances of C. maenas recorded in Brazil , Panama , Hawaii , Madagascar , the Red Sea , Pakistan , Sri Lanka and Myanmar ; however , these have not resulted in invasions , but remain isolated findings . Japan has been invaded by a related crab , either C. aestuarii or a hybrid of C. aestuarii and C. maenas . It is believed , based on the ecological conditions , that C. maenas could eventually extend its range to colonise the Pacific coast of North America from Baja California to Alaska . Similar ecological conditions are to be found on many of the world 's coasts , with the only large potential area not to have been invaded yet being New Zealand ; the New Zealand government has taken action , including the release of a Marine Pest Guide in an effort to prevent colonisation by C. maenas . = = Ecology = = C. maenas can live in all types of protected and semi @-@ protected marine and estuarine habitats , including habitats with mud , sand , or rock substrates , submerged aquatic vegetation , and emergent marsh , although soft bottoms are preferred . C. maenas is euryhaline , meaning that it can tolerate a wide range of salinities ( from 4 to 52 ‰ ) , and survive in temperatures of 0 to 30 ° C ( 32 to 86 ° F ) . The wide salinity range allows C. maenas to survive in the lower salinities found in estuaries , and the wide temperature range allows it to survive in extremely cold climates beneath the ice in Winter . A molecular biological study using the COI gene found genetic differentiation between the North Sea and the Bay of Biscay , and even more strongly between the populations in Iceland and the Faroe Islands and those elsewhere . This suggests that C. maenas is unable to cross deeper water . Females can produce up to 185 @,@ 000 eggs , and larvae develop offshore in several stages before their final moult to juvenile crabs in the intertidal zone . Young crabs live among seaweeds and seagrasses , such as Posidonia oceanica , until they reach adulthood . C. maenas has the ability to disperse by a variety of mechanisms , including ballast water , ships ' hulls , packing materials ( seaweeds ) used to ship live marine organisms , bivalves moved for aquaculture , rafting , migration of crab larvae on ocean currents , and the movement of submerged aquatic vegetation for coastal zone management initiatives . Thresher et al. found C. maenas dispersed in Australia mainly by rare long @-@ distance events , possibly caused by human actions . C. maenas is a predator , feeding on many organisms , particularly bivalve molluscs ( such as clams , oysters , and mussels ) , polychaetes and small crustaceans . They are primarily nocturnal , although activity also depends on the tide , and crabs can be active at any time of day . In California , preferential predation of C. maenas on native clams ( Nutricola spp . ) resulted in the decline of the native clams and an increase of a previously introduced clam ( the amethyst gem clam , Gemma gemma ) . C. maenas has been implicated in the destruction of the soft @-@ shell clam ( Mya arenaria ) fisheries on the east coast of the United States and Canada , and the reduction of populations of other commercially important bivalves ( such as scallops , Argopecten irradians , and northern quahogs , Mercenaria mercenaria ) . The prey of C. maenas includes the young of bivalves and fish , although the effect of its predation on winter flounder , Pseudopleuronectes americanus is minimal . C. maenas can , however , have substantial negative impacts on local commercial and recreational fisheries , by preying on the young of species , such as oysters and the Dungeness crab , or competing with them for resources . = = Control = = Due to its potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , various efforts have been made to control introduced populations of C. maenas around the world . In Edgartown , Massachusetts , a bounty was levied in 1995 for catching C. maenas , to protect local shellfish , and 10 tons were caught . There is evidence that the native blue crab in eastern North America , Callinectes sapidus , is able to control populations of C. maenas ; numbers of the two species are negatively correlated , and C. maenas is not found in the Chesapeake Bay , where Callinectes sapidus is most frequent . On the west coast of North America , C. maenas appears to be limited to upper estuarine habitats , in part because of predation by native rock crabs ( Romaleon antennarium and Cancer productus ) and competition for shelter with a native shore crab , Hemigrapsus oregonensis . Host specificity testing has recently been conducted on Sacculina carcini , a parasitic barnacle , as a potential biological control agent of C. maenas . In the laboratory , Sacculina settled on , infected , and killed native California crabs , including the Dungeness crab , Metacarcinus magister ( formerly Cancer magister ) , and the shore crabs Hemigrapsus nudus , Hemigrapsus oregonensis and Pachygrapsus crassipes . Dungeness crabs were the most vulnerable of the tested native species to settlement and infection by the parasite . Although Sacculina did not mature in any of the native crabs , developing reproductive sacs were observed inside a few Metacarcinus magister and Hemigrapsus oregonensis . Any potential benefits of using Sacculina to control C. maenas on the west coast of North America would need to be weighed against these potential non @-@ target impacts . = = = Use as a food = = = Legal Sea Foods , an East Coast of the United States restaurant chain has arranged to purchase green crabs in season from local fishermen , in the first known commercial use for the crabs in the US food industry . Legal plans to test crab and shrimp etouffee , crab risotto with spring vegetables , and crab minestrone , all made with green crab stock , in their test kitchen during the winter of 2015 and offer the dishes in their other restaurant locations during the crab season . = = Fishery = = C. maenas is fished on a small scale in the north @-@ east Atlantic Ocean , with approximately 1200 tonnes being caught annually , mostly in France and the United Kingdom . In the northwest Atlantic , C. maenas was the subject of fishery in the 1960s , and again since 1996 , with up to 86 tonnes being caught annually . = = Taxonomic history = = Carcinus maenas was first given a binomial name , Cancer maenas , by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae . An earlier description was published by Georg Eberhard Rumphius in his 1705 work De Amboinsche Rariteitkamer , calling the species Cancer marinus sulcatus , but this predates the starting point for zoological nomenclature . A number of later synonyms have also been published : Monoculus taurus Slabber , 1778 Cancer granarius Herbst , 1783 Cancer viridis Herbst , 1783 Cancer pygmaeus Fabricius , 1787 Cancer rhomboidalis Montagu , 1804 Cancer granulatus Nicholls , 1943 Megalopa montagui Leach , 1817 Portunus menoides Rafinesque @-@ Schmaltz , 1817 Portunus carcinoides Kinahan , 1857 The lectotype chosen for the species came from Marstrand , Sweden , but it is assumed to have been lost . In 1814 , writing for The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia , William Elford Leach erected a new genus , Carcinus to hold this species alone ( making it the type species of the genus , by monotypy ) . In 1847 , Nardo described a distinct subspecies occurring in the Mediterranean Sea , which is now recognised as a distinct species , Carcinus aestuarii .
= Pete Muldoon = Linton Muldoon Treacy ( June 4 , 1887 – March 13 , 1929 ) , better known as Pete Muldoon , was a Canadian ice hockey coach and pioneer in the western United States , particularly known for bringing a Stanley Cup championship to Seattle , Washington . He is best known for reportedly putting a curse on the Chicago Black Hawks , as well as team owner Major Frederic McLaughlin , after he was fired at the end of the 1926 @-@ 27 season ; however , it has been alleged that a Toronto sportswriter had come up with the " curse " due to a bout of writer 's block in 1943 . Muldoon was the Black Hawks ' first head coach . = = Early life = = Muldoon was born in St. Marys , Ontario , as Linton Muldoon Treacy . He played hockey in the OHA in the 1900s before moving to the Pacific coast in order to pursue a boxing career . He changed his name to Pete Muldoon because the pursuit of a professional sports career was discouraged in Ontario at the time . Muldoon won regional titles in both the middleweight and light heavyweight divisions while boxing . = = Ice hockey career = = Muldoon was accomplished at other sports , including lacrosse . He played professionally for a Vancouver club in 1911 . He was also an ice dancer who was able to skate , as well as play hockey , while on stilts . In 1914 , he took over as the coach and manager of the Portland Rosebuds . For the 1915 season , he changed teams , and went to Seattle to manage a new team in the PCHA , the Metropolitans . He spent eight seasons coaching in Seattle , and amassed a record of 115 wins , 105 losses , and four ties . The Metropolitans competed several times for the Stanley Cup . The Mets played for the Stanley Cup three times under his leadership , and winning it once in 1917 during their first trip . Muldoon was the first and , at age 30 , youngest coach of a Stanley Cup Championship team based in the United States . In 1919 , the Metropolitans made it to the finals for the second time in three years , this time against the Montreal Canadiens . The series was to have been a five @-@ game series , but the fourth game ended in a scoreless draw . However , local health officials called off the deciding sixth game just hours before it was due to start when several players on both teams were stricken by Spanish flu . With virtually his entire team either hospitalized or confined to bed and efforts to find replacements vetoed by the PCHA , Canadiens owner George Kennedy announced he was forfeiting the game--and the Cup--to Seattle . However , Muldoon felt it would be unsportsmanlike to accept what would have been his second Cup , seeing as it would have been at the expense of a team decimated by illness . Seattle lost in the Stanley Cup finals in the next year against the Ottawa Senators . Muldoon returned to the Rosebuds after the Metropolitans folded in the spring of 1924 . He followed most of his players to the NHL when most of the Rosebuds were sold to Major Frederic McLaughlin to start the Chicago Black Hawks . He accepted the position because his wife Dorothy was a Chicago native and pregnant with the family 's second child . After the Black Hawks ended the 1926 – 27 season with a playoff berth after finishing in third place in the American Division with a 19 – 22 – 3 record , he resigned because of constant meddling from McLaughlin . Muldoon returned to Seattle and became involved in efforts to bring a professional team back to the city , as a new arena was constructed in 1928 . Muldoon , with the help of a group of investors , established the Seattle Ice Skating and Hockey Association , while aiding to establish the PCHL . This new league had its first season in 1928 , and the Seattle team was dubbed the Seattle Eskimos . = = = Curse of Muldoon = = = According to a longstanding NHL legend , McLaughlin felt the Blackhawks should have won the American Division in their first season , and fired Muldoon when he disagreed . Muldoon was then reported to have placed an Irish curse on the Hawks that would keep them out of first place forever . As it turned out , the Hawks would not finish first , in any format , until 1966 @-@ 67--their 41st year in the league . It is unknown if Muldoon ever actually cursed the team , as it has been alleged that it was a hoax by a Toronto sportwriter , yet other sources maintain that " 41 years is plenty long enough for any " curse , " real or imagined " . = = Death = = In the spring of 1929 , Muldoon went to Tacoma with co @-@ owner and local boxing promoter Nate Druxman to search for a location to build a new rink in order to establish a team . While in Tacoma , on March 13 , 1929 , Muldoon died due to a heart attack . Without their coach , the Seattle Eskimos were able to win a playoff series against Portland , before losing to Vancouver in the league finals . The following season the Eskimos established the Pete Muldoon Trophy , presented to the player " deemed most inspirational by his teammates " . It was awarded for a few seasons , and disappeared from records during the Great Depression years . = = Coaching record = =
= Living in the Material World ( song ) = " Living in the Material World " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the title track to his 1973 solo album . In the song 's lyrics , Harrison presents a contrast between the world of material things and his spiritual goals , and the conflicting themes are represented in the musical arrangement , via juxtaposing sections in the rock genre and an Indian music setting . Inspired by Gaudiya Vaishnava teacher A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , the song promotes the need to recognise the illusory nature of human existence and escape the constant cycle of reincarnation , and thereby attain moksha in the Hindu faith . The contrasts presented in " Living in the Material World " inspired both a photograph by Ken Marcus that appeared inside the album 's gatefold cover , and designer Tom Wilkes 's incorporation of Krishna @-@ related symbolism elsewhere in the packaging . Harrison references his Beatles past as one of the trappings of the material world and refers by name to former bandmates John Lennon , Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr . The latter played drums on the track , recording for which took place in England between October 1972 and February 1973 , while the other contributing musicians include Jim Horn , Gary Wright and Jim Keltner . In a production that is highly regarded by some commentators , the rock portions of " Living in the Material World " include a slide guitar solo by Harrison , saxophone , two drummers and prominent Hammond organ , whereas the meditative Indian interludes feature flute , Zakir Hussain on tabla , and a rare post @-@ Beatle sitar performance by Harrison . Amid the favourable critical reception to the song on release , Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone termed it " an incantatory , polyrhythmic rocker with a falsetto @-@ on @-@ sitar refrain " . In addition to providing the title for the Living in the Material World album , the song inspired Harrison 's choice for a name for his charity , the Material World Charitable Foundation , to which he donated his publishing royalties from the composition . The 2006 reissue of the album includes a film clip of " Living in the Material World " , featuring archival footage of the vinyl LP 's manufacturing process . Film @-@ maker Martin Scorsese used the song 's title for that of his 2011 documentary on the life of George Harrison . = = Background = = In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , George Harrison credits the influence for his song " Living in the Material World " to A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , founder and leader of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) , commonly known as the Hare Krishna movement . Harrison adds that the song specifically espouses the message that " we are not these bodies , we are in these material bodies in the physical world . " His friend Ravi Shankar once observed that Harrison exhibited tyagi , a trait meaning non @-@ attachment or renunciation , a point to which Shankar added : " He had everything – all the wealth , the fame , whatever he wanted . But he was not attached to it ... because he was searching for something much higher , much deeper . It does seem like he already had some Indian background in him [ from a previous life ] . " Harrison later said of life in the material world , referring to the need to break the cycle of rebirth associated with reincarnation : " The whole point to being here , really , is to figure a way to get out . " Author Gary Tillery draws parallels between Harrison 's approach to " [ going ] through the motions of living in the material world " and the way someone in the 21st century might play a virtual reality game . Tillery writes that " what we see and experience during the game is actually an illusion " – or maya in the Hindu belief to which Harrison subscribed – and that " [ w ] hat does matter in the great scheme of things is to wake up from the dreamlike state we mistake for reality . " Speaking at a 1974 press conference , in reply to whether there was a " paradox " between his spiritualism and the lifestyle of a musician , Harrison conceded : " It is difficult ... You can go to the Himalayas and miss it completely and [ yet ] be stuck in the middle of New York and be very spiritual ... I think one by one we all free ourselves from the chains that we have chained ourselves to , whatever we 're chained to . " = = Composition = = As reproduced in I , Me , Mine , Harrison wrote the lyrics to " Living in the Material World " on portions of a torn @-@ up envelope , which was previously addressed to Terry Doran at Apple Corps in central London , its postmark dated 7 November 1971 . The song contrasts the world of material things against spiritual concerns . The verses describing the material world are set to rock music , over what Harrison biographer Simon Leng terms " George 's favourite ' Get Back ' rhythm " . The two sections describing the spiritual world – serving as the song 's middle eights – use a more gentle melody backed by Indian instrumentation and so recall Harrison 's 1967 composition " Within You Without You " , in Leng 's view . While admiring how other Harrison lyrics from this period " resembled Vedic sutras " , author Joshua Greene writes that in " Living in the Material World " he " condensed a lengthy passage from the Bhagavad Gita into a dozen simple words " . In the song 's opening verse , Harrison admits that he " Can 't say what I 'm doing here " in the material world , a statement that theologian Dale Allison identifies as Kafkaesque until Harrison offers " eschatological hope " with the subsequent line , " But I hope to see much clearer " . Harrison then states that he uses his body " like a car / Taking me both near and far " . Author Ian Inglis regards this as an apt metaphor , since our bodies " are merely the vehicles that carry us on our journeys " . Harrison refers to his years as a member of the Beatles , naming former bandmates John Lennon , Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr in a verse that commentators recognise for its humorous content : Met them all here in the material world John and Paul here in the material world Though we started out quite poor We got Richie on a tour . Inglis comments on Harrison 's pun on the word " Richie " , which can refer to the Beatles ' financial success from 1963 onwards , on one hand , and to the improvements in musicianship brought about by the arrival of drummer Richard Starkey , also known as Ringo Starr , when he replaced Pete Best in late 1962 . While noting Harrison 's " laconic humour " in the song , Leng describes him as " still caught in the yin @-@ yang of his Beatles identity " , further to the various " instalments of ' the Beatles soap opera ' " Harrison provided on his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . In the Indian @-@ styled middle eight , Harrison sings about his " sweet memories " of " the spiritual sky " and prays not to " get lost or go astray " . Allison writes that Harrison 's " true home " is here in the mediative spiritual sky , since " however grand and glorious " his achievements with the Beatles might be to others , they brought him no " meaningful contentment " . After returning to the rock @-@ music setting , Harrison sings of his frustrations in the material world , which rather than satisfying human desires , merely leaves the senses " swelling like a tide " . Tillery writes of Harrison not being immune to " the siren call of the world " despite his spiritual goals , and Harrison would refer to the years 1973 – 74 as " the naughty period " , a reaction to the failure of his marriage to Pattie Boyd . In line with teachings that Harrison had absorbed from both Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1967 and the Bhagavad Gita , Allison suggests , the lines " Got a lot of work to do / Try to get a message through " demonstrate " a sort of prophetic self @-@ conception " on the singer 's part . In the final verse , Harrison expresses his desire for moksha , or release from the cycle of reincarnation , with the words : " I hope to get out of this place / By the Lord Sri Krsna 's Grace . " Inglis writes that " Living in the Material World " contrasts not only the physical with the spiritual , but also a number of other issues for Harrison , including " past and present , West and East , noise and calm " . Leng notes the irony in the fact that although Harrison 's experience with the Beatles " cast him into the material world " , his exposure to Eastern philosophy came through that same experience , and thus the Beatles were " both his nemesis and his saviors " . While citing the Bhagavad Gita as a significant influence on " Living in the Material World " , Allison views the " dualistic anthropology " expressed in the song as " central to [ Harrison 's ] self @-@ conception and worldview " . Harrison himself attributed this dualism to his Pisces astrological sign , an issue he addresses in the posthumously released " Pisces Fish " . He acknowledged in one interview : " I am an extreme person ... I was always extremely up or extremely down , extremely spiritual or extremely drugged . " = = Production = = Harrison began recording his long @-@ awaited follow @-@ up to All Things Must Pass in October 1972 , having been sidetracked with issues relating to the Concert for Bangladesh for over a year . The Magic Is Here Again and The Light That Has Lighted the World were each rumoured to be the new album 's title until Apple Records announced it as Living in the Material World . Inglis views " Living in the Material World " as an ideal title track for the album , given " the internal dialogue in which he was engaging at the time " . Leng describes Harrison as " a man positively pregnant with vision " following the " overwhelming success " of his solo career since the Beatles ' break @-@ up , and suggests that a visit he made to India with American musician Gary Wright in early 1972 was a contributing factor . = = = Initial recording = = = Keen to pare down the production after the Wall of Sound excesses employed by Phil Spector on All Things Must Pass , Harrison used a small group of backing musicians throughout the sessions . Aside from himself on electric guitar , the line @-@ up on the basic track for " Living in the Material World " was Nicky Hopkins ( piano ) , Wright ( Hammond organ ) , Klaus Voormann ( bass ) and Starr and Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) . Inglis describes the music as " a powerful rock backing " , while Leng views " Living in the Material World " as " the one time in his career that Harrison deliberately set out to create a big , showpiece rock number " . The recording took place at the Beatles ' Apple Studio , according to the album 's sleeve credits , although Voormann maintains that Harrison 's new home studio , FPSHOT , was the main location . Harrison had intended to co @-@ produce with Spector as before , but he became the album 's sole producer due to Spector 's unreliability . Session tapes , since made available unofficially on the Living in the Alternate World bootleg , reveal that the rock instrumentation on " Living in the Material World " continued , at a reduced volume , over the " spiritual sky " portions originally . With Phil McDonald as recording engineer , the basic tracks for most of the album were completed by December 1972 , before Hopkins departed for Jamaica to work on the Rolling Stones ' new album , Goats Head Soup ( 1973 ) . Harrison , McDonald and Indian tabla player Zakir Hussain then produced the recording of a recent New York performance by Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan , released on Apple Records in January 1973 as the double live album In Concert 1972 . = = = Overdubbing = = = Work resumed on Living in the Material World over January and February , with Hussain and Jim Horn among those making contributions to the overdubs on the title track . Over the two " spiritual sky " sections , Hussain added tabla , replacing the rock rhythm section , while Horn played flute and Harrison played sitar . Author Alan Clayson likens Harrison 's production style on Material World to that of Beatles producer George Martin and notes that " this moderation resulted in arrangements flexible enough for the title track to flit smoothly " between the contrasting rock and " celestial " Indian sections . The use of Indian instrumentation recalls Harrison 's work with the Beatles during 1966 – 68 , following which , Harrison admitted , he rarely played the sitar . Adding to the pun behind the " Richie " line in the verse referencing the Beatles , Starr provides a drum fill ; later in the track , Horn 's flute similarly acknowledges the mention of Krishna – flute being synonymous with Krishna in the Hindu faith . For the solos on " Living in the Material World " , Harrison and Horn overdubbed slide guitar and tenor saxophone , respectively . Leng likens Harrison 's soloing to the " passionate , rocking slide guitar " he supplied on " Edward " for Hopkins 's The Tin Man Was a Dreamer album , also recorded at Apple in late 1972 . The recording ends with what Clayson terms " a syncopated blues run @-@ down " , emphasising the song 's " big production " status . = = Release and album artwork = = Apple Records released Living in the Material World at the end of May 1973 , with the title track sequenced to end side one in the original , LP format . " Living in the Material World " followed another Harrison composition reflecting on his years with the Beatles , " Who Can See It " . In keeping with the album content , Tom Wilkes 's design for the record 's face labels contrasted a devout spiritual existence with life in the material world , by featuring a painting of Krishna and his warrior prince Arjuna on side one and a picture of a Mercedes stretch limousine on the reverse . The painting of Krishna and Arjuna came from a version of the Bhagavad Gita published by Prabhupada . Author Elliot Huntley views Living in the Material World as a concept album on which the material – spiritual " quandary " evident in the title track is " eloquently expressed " through the artwork 's mix of religious symbolism and an inner @-@ gatefold photograph that showed " [ Harrison 's ] band indulging in a gratuitously sumptuous feast " . The stretch @-@ limousine image was a detail taken from this photo , the concept for which reflected Harrison 's view that the material world is not only related to money and possessions , but to " everything which is gross , physical , or material as opposed to the subtle , astral or casual " , as he puts it in I , Me , Mine when discussing the song . NME critic Bob Woffinden also commented on the symbolism of this picture showing " Harrison with his musicians ( Nicky Hopkins , Klaus Voormann , Jim Keltner , Ringo – the usual lot ) enjoying a hearty repast , passing the no @-@ doubt vintage wine , while in the background the longest limousine in the world awaits their convenience " . A parody of da Vinci 's The Last Supper , the picture was taken by Hollywood glamour photographer Ken Marcus . Clayson has speculated on the symbolism and hidden messages within the photo : whether the nurse with a pram , set back from and to the left of the dining table , was a reference to Boyd 's inability to conceive a child ; and the empty , distant wheelchair in memory of Harrison 's late mother . Allison finds evidence of Harrison 's antipathy towards organised religion in this inner @-@ gatefold photo , following on from the lyrics to his 1970 song " Awaiting on You All " . In order to add to Harrison 's " mystique " , author Bruce Spizer writes , Wilkes placed a colour image of him over the main , black @-@ and @-@ white print . The same detail echoed the contrast in " Living in the Material World " between the illusory nature of human existence and what Allison describes as the " vital , eternal reality " offered by spiritual enlightenment . The song also provided the inspiration for the title of Harrison 's charity , the Material World Charitable Foundation , launched in April 1973 . Harrison donated the copyright to " Living in the Material World " and eight other tracks on the album to the foundation , one of the stated aims of which was " to encourage the exploration of alternative life views and philosophies " . = = Reception = = In his album review for Rolling Stone , Stephen Holden wrote of Harrison having " inherited the most precious Beatle legacy – the spiritual aura that the group accumulated " and suggested that he had " maintained its inviolability with remarkable grace " . Holden described " Living in the Material World " as " an incantatory , polyrhythmic rocker with a falsetto @-@ on @-@ sitar refrain " and viewed the music as " some of the most complex on the album " . Billboard magazine listed the song first among the " best cuts " on a collection whose themes included " the Beatles and their mish @-@ mash " and a " spiritual undercoat " . In Melody Maker , Michael Watts described " Living in the Material World " as " brilliant " and suggested that it might have made a superior lead single to " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " . In his 1981 book The Beatles Apart , Bob Woffinden wrote admiringly of Harrison " grappling with the problem " of " striving for spiritual goals when you 're a young and famous multi @-@ millionaire " . Woffinden dismissed the title track as a " flop " , however , citing Harrison 's failed attempts " to elide the syllables of ' material ' " with the melody . More recently , AllMusic critic Lindsay Planer has described " Living in the Material World " as " one of the more profound observations to be made about the somewhat schizophrenic struggle between universal existence and monetary @-@ driven survival " . Planer praises the recording as " a testament to the artist 's ability to deliver the goods [ as a guitarist ] , with searing albeit brief interaction with saxophonist Jim Horn " and similarly compliments the playing of Starr and Hopkins . While opining that Material World " suffers from a more anonymous tract " next to All Things Must Pass , Zeth Lundy of PopMatters pairs " Living in the Material World " with " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " as the album 's " most uptempo rock songs " , which " fare much better [ than some of the ballads ] as eager bids for secession from this life , or at least from the clutches of its material concerns " . Writing in 2014 , Joe Marchese of The Second Disc highlights " Living in the Material World " among tracks that combine to form the album 's " earnest and intensely personal , yet wholly accessible , statement " . While describing Material World as " meticulously produced " , Blogcritics writer Chaz Lipp considers the " galloping title track " to be a song that " rank [ s ] right alongside Harrison 's best work " . In another 2014 review , for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , Walter Tunis includes the track among the " stunners " found on Material World , and labels it a " comparatively whimsical title tune " . Among Beatles and Harrison biographers , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter describe " Living in the Material World " as " superb " and Robert Rodriguez views Harrison 's " deft blending of Western and Eastern sounds " as a " production marvel " . Although he admires the " vaguely Indian middle eight [ s ] " , Elliot Huntley bemoans the " complex , powerhouse arrangement " used elsewhere and finds Horn 's sax playing " a little overbearing " . Simon Leng calls " Living in the Material World " a " musical Roman Candle " , and a " highly effective track " that is " the work of a very confident musician " . Ian Inglis praises Harrison 's " inventive " lyrics , of which the " got Richie on a tour " line is " one of his cleverest puns " , and notes that the song 's positioning in the running order " echoes George Martin 's policy of always selecting a strong track to close each side of every Beatles album " . = = Subsequent releases and legacy = = The song was remastered in 2006 for EMI 's reissue of Living in the Material World , five years after Harrison 's death . The final selection on the DVD accompanying this reissue featured " Living in the Material World " set to archival footage of the manufacturing process behind the album . The footage had been commissioned by Harrison in 1973 , and it includes an executive undertaking a test pressing , preparation of the face labels , vinyl cutting , and the album being hand @-@ packaged in EMI 's warehouse . During the first " spiritual sky " section , the film cuts to footage of Harrison raising a yellow and red Om flag on the roof of his Friar Park home – a demonstration he adopted in the early 1970s to reflect when he was living true to his spiritual goals . The clip ends with a colorised still of Marcus 's inner gatefold photo . With production credited to Abbey Road Interactive , this film of " Living in the Material World " also appears on the DVD included in Harrison 's 2014 The Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set . The song provided the title for Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World and for Olivia Harrison 's book accompanying the film . During her interview in the documentary , Olivia discusses her late husband 's determination to " work out " all his karma in the one lifetime rather than have his soul return to earth in a new incarnation . Writing for The Huffington Post at the time of the film 's release , Religion News Service reporter Steve Rabey referred to " Living in the Material World " as a song that " illuminates [ Harrison 's ] theology and sense of artistic vocation " , and he said of the former Beatle : " his greatest legacy may be the way his decades @-@ long spiritual quest shaped the ways the West looks at God , gurus and life . " On Harrison 's official website , the Material World Charitable Foundation page continues to use " Living in the Material World " as its featured audio . = = Personnel = = George Harrison – vocals , electric guitar , slide guitar , sitar , backing vocals Jim Horn – tenor saxophone , flute Gary Wright – organ Nicky Hopkins – piano Klaus Voormann – bass Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine Jim Keltner – drums , maracas Zakir Hussain – tabla
= Delaware Route 1 = Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) is a 103 @.@ 02 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 165 @.@ 79 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Delaware . The route runs from the Maryland border in Fenwick Island , Sussex County , where it continues into that state as Maryland Route 528 ( MD 528 ) , north to an interchange with DE 58 in Christiana , New Castle County , where the road continues north as DE 7 . Between Fenwick Island and Dover Air Force Base in Dover , Kent County , DE 1 is a four- to six @-@ lane surface divided highway with occasional interchanges . The route heads north past the Delaware Beaches along the Atlantic Ocean before it runs northwest through rural areas , turning north at Milford to continue to Dover . Upon reaching Dover , DE 1 becomes the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway , a four- to six @-@ lane freeway that is tolled . Between Dover and Tybouts Corner , DE 1 parallels U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) , crossing over and featuring interchanges with it multiple times . Past Tybouts Corner , the freeway heads north to Christiana , reaching an interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) a short distance before its terminus . DE 1 was first designated in the 1970s between Fenwick Island and US 113 in Milford , replacing a portion of DE 14 and following the newly constructed Milford Bypass . DE 14 between Fenwick Island and Milford had been built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s and was widened into a divided highway between the 1950s and 1970s . In the 1980s , a limited @-@ access Relief Route for US 13 was proposed between Dover and the Wilmington area in order to relieve that route of beach traffic . This relief route would be incorporated into DE 1 in 1988 , with the route extended up US 113 between Milford and Dover to connect to the Relief Route . The tolled DE 1 freeway between Dover Air Force Base and Christiana opened in multiple stages between 1991 and 2003 , and at a cost of $ 900 million was the largest public works project in Delaware history . The concurrent US 113 designation north of Milford was removed in 2004 . Upgrades continue to be made to DE 1 such as the construction and improvement of interchanges as well as widening portions of the road . = = Route description = = = = = Fenwick Island to Lewes = = = DE 1 begins at the Maryland border in the Delaware Beaches community of Fenwick Island in Sussex County , where the road continues south into Ocean City , Maryland as MD 528 . From this point , DE 1 heads north on four @-@ lane divided Coastal Highway . A block after the state line , the route intersects the eastern terminus of DE 54 . The road continues north through business areas with some residences a short distance to the west of the Atlantic Ocean . DE 1 leaves Fenwick Island and heads into Fenwick Island State Park , running along a narrow strip of land with the Little Assawoman Bay to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the east . The route passes a small area of residential development before it goes through more of the state park . The road enters South Bethany , where it passes through residential areas . DE 1 heads into commercial areas in Middlesex Beach and briefly curves northwest before turning north again and continuing into Bethany Beach , where the road name changes to Delaware Avenue . The route runs past residences and comes to an intersection with DE 26 , which heads east into the commercial center of Bethany Beach . The road curves northeast and leaves Bethany Beach as it passes to the east of a Delaware National Guard training site . Continuing north , DE 1 becomes Coastal Highway again and runs between wooded areas to the west and beachfront homes to the east . Farther north , the route crosses into Delaware Seashore State Park , where it travels along a strip of land between the Indian River Bay to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the east . DE 1 comes to a right @-@ in / right @-@ out access point to the park before it crosses over the Indian River Inlet on the cable @-@ stayed Indian River Inlet Bridge . Past the bridge , the road passes to the east of a United States Coast Guard station and continues north through more of the state park between the Rehoboth Bay to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the east . The route travels near the Indian River Life Saving Service Station and two fire control towers from World War II before it leaves Delaware Seashore State Park and enters Dewey Beach . At this point , DE 1 passes homes prior to running through business areas . The route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 1A , which heads north towards Rehoboth Beach . At this intersection , DE 1 turns northwest away from the Atlantic Ocean and passes through residential areas with some commercial development . The road leaves Dewey Beach and continues to a right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange with DE 1B , which heads north into Rehoboth Beach . Immediately after , the route crosses over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal on a high @-@ level , twin span crossing and enters commercial areas . DE 1 intersects the northern terminus of DE 1A access road to Rehoboth Beach , at which point it widens to six lanes . The road passes more businesses and runs between two sections of the Tanger Outlets Rehoboth Beach outlet mall . Farther northwest , the route comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of DE 24 and the southern terminus of DE 1D in Midway . DE 1 passes to the northeast of another part of the Tanger Outlets as it is lined with more businesses . In Carpenters Corner , the route intersects US 9 , which travels northeast to provide access to Lewes and the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry across the Delaware Bay . At this point , DE 1 becomes concurrent with US 9 , and the two routes run through woods before curving west past businesses . In Five Points , US 9 splits from DE 1 by heading west concurrent with DE 404 , with access to the northern termini of DE 23 and DE 1D , while US 9 Bus. heads northeast towards Lewes . Past Five Points , DE 1 narrows back to four lanes and bypasses Nassau to the southwest , curving northwest to pass over a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line on a bridge . = = = Lewes to Dover Air Force Base = = = After the bridge over the railroad line , DE 1 leaves the Delaware Beaches area and heads into a mix of farm fields and residential and commercial development , traveling to the northeast of Red Mill Pond . The road continues through more agricultural areas with some residential subdivisions and woods . The route crosses over the Broadkill River and passes to the southwest of a golf course before it comes to a junction with DE 16 , which heads west to Milton and east to Broadkill Beach . Following this , DE 1 continues through farmland and woodland to the southwest of the Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge , reaching an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 5 . Immediately after this intersection , the road travels to the east of Waples Pond and runs north @-@ northwest through more agricultural areas . The route curves northwest as it bypasses the community of Argos Corner to the southwest . Past here , DE 1 crosses Cedar Creek and passes near a couple residential subdivisions before intersecting DE 30 Alt . A short distance later , the road reaches an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 30 . After this interchange , the route comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with DE 1 Bus . , which heads northwest into Milford . At this point , DE 1 curves north and becomes the Milford Bypass , which heads around the eastern part of the city . The route passes between residential development to the west and farmland to the east before turning northwest into wooded areas and coming to a diamond interchange with DE 36 . Past this interchange , DE 1 crosses the Mispillion River into Kent County and continues northwest to an intersection with the eastern terminus of DE 14 . The road runs between commercial development to the southwest and a wooded residential neighborhood to the northeast , crossing Northeast 10th Street . The route passes near more development before it comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance with the northern terminus of US 113 and DE 1 Bus. at the northern end of Milford . Past this interchange , DE 1 becomes Bay Road and travels to the east of Tub Mill Pond before it runs through a mix of farmland and residential and commercial development . The route intersects Thompsonville Road and continues through farmland with some woods and development . The road curves northwest and comes to an intersection with Frederica Road , which heads to the town of Frederica . DE 1 bends to the north and bypasses Frederica to the east , crossing over the Murderkill River . The route has an interchange with the eastern terminus of DE 12 , which heads south into Frederica . The road runs north through agricultural areas , passing to the west of Barratt 's Chapel , before it reaches the community of Little Heaven . Here , DE 1 intersects Bowers Beach Road , which travels east to Bowers Beach along the Delaware Bay . The route passes near homes and businesses and reaches an intersection with Clapham Road , which heads northwest towards Magnolia and Rising Sun . Following this , the road runs through farmland with some woods before coming to a right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange with Trap Shooters Road that provides access to Magnolia . DE 1 crosses over the St. Jones River and continues north to a diamond interchange with the southern terminus of DE 9 , at which point it enters the city limits of Dover . At this interchange , the route turns northwest and passes between an asphalt plant to the southwest and the runways of Dover Air Force Base to the northeast . = = = Dover Air Force Base to Christiana = = = Along the Dover Air Force Base boundary , DE 1 transitions from a four @-@ lane divided surface road to a freeway called the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway , which is a toll road . The first interchange is a northbound exit and entrance which serves the commercial gate of Dover Air Force Base . The freeway passes between the air base golf course to the southwest and various base buildings to the northeast before it reaches a diamond interchange serving the main gate to the northeast and base housing to the southwest . After this , the route continues between base residences and the main part of the base prior to reaching a northbound exit and southbound entrance at the eastern terminus of DE 10 and Bay Road that also serves the north gate of Dover Air Force Base . DE 1 runs north along the west side of Bay Road before it passes over it , where there is a southbound exit and entrance and a northbound entrance that serves to provide access to DE 10 from southbound DE 1 and to northbound DE 1 . Immediately after this is a southbound exit and northbound entrance with the Puncheon Run Connector , which heads west towards US 13 . The freeway continues north along the eastern edge of Dover and comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance at DE 8 , which provides access to downtown Dover . Past this interchange , the highway turns northwest through rural areas before it comes to the Dover mainline toll plaza . DE 1 passes to the northeast of Dover International Speedway and comes to a trumpet interchange that provides access to US 13 and Scarborough Road , serving the northern part of Dover . This interchange has a toll plaza on the southbound exit and northbound entrance . Following this interchange , the toll road leaves Dover and continues through wooded areas with some fields and nearby development . The route heads to the east of the Cheswold area , passing under DE 42 without an interchange , and curves north , crossing the Leipsic River . DE 1 continues thorough rural areas a short distance to the east of US 13 before it reaches Smyrna . Here , the freeway comes to a trumpet interchange serving US 13 at the southern edge of town , with tolls on the southbound exit and northbound entrance . The highway runs to the east of Smyrna with residential development to the west and rural land to the east , passing under DE 6 with no access . DE 1 curves northwest and crosses the Duck Creek into New Castle County , where it heads through farmland with some woods . The route crosses US 13 at an interchange to the north of Smyrna , with access to the Smyrna Rest Area along US 13 . The tollway continues northwest through rural areas to the west of US 13 , curving north and crossing over the highway once to briefly travel along its east side prior to another bridge over it to again run to the west of it as it passes to the east of the Townsend area . DE 1 heads north and closely follows along the west side of US 13 as it runs through more rural areas with residential development to the east . The freeway turns northwest away from US 13 and crosses the Appoquinimink River , passing to the northeast of a residential neighborhood before coming to a diamond interchange with DE 299 , which provides access to Middletown to the west and Odessa and US 13 to the east . Past this interchange , DE 1 curves northeast and passes over US 13 again before it turns north and crosses Drawyer Creek . The freeway continues north a short distance to the east of US 13 past residential subdivisions as it comes to a diamond interchange with Pole Bridge Road , which heads west to intersect US 13 and the southern terminus of DE 896 in Boyds Corner . This interchange has tolls on the northbound exit and southbound entrance . After this interchange , DE 1 curves northwest and crosses over US 13 , turning north and reaching the Biddles Corner mainline toll plaza , which marks the north end of tolling along DE 1 . After the toll plaza , DE 1 widens to six lanes and comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance providing access to US 13 in St. Georges . The freeway turns northwest and crosses the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the cable @-@ stayed Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge . The highway passes through a mix of fields and residential subdivisions and curves north to come to a diamond interchange with US 13 and DE 72 to the west of Delaware City . At this point , US 13 becomes concurrent with DE 1 , with the freeway running through farmland and passing over Norfolk Southern 's Reybold Running Track railroad line and DE 7 to the west of the Delaware City Refinery . US 13 and DE 1 continue concurrent to Tybouts Corner , where DE 1 splits at an interchange to continue as a freeway and US 13 heads northeast as a surface divided highway . Within this interchange is the northern terminus of DE 71 , which southbound DE 1 has a direct ramp to . Past Tybouts Corner , DE 1 narrows to four lanes and travels north past residential subdivisions , passing over Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary before coming to the US 40 interchange in Bear . The highway continues north and reaches an interchange with DE 273 in Christiana . The freeway runs through wooded areas and crosses the Christina River before it comes to an interchange with DE 7 that serves the Christiana Mall to the east of the road . At this point , DE 7 joins DE 1 on the freeway , passing to the west of the mall before coming to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) that has flyover ramps from between northbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound I @-@ 95 and between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 1 / DE 7 . Past I @-@ 95 , the freeway heads through commercial areas before it comes to an interchange with DE 58 . At this point , DE 1 and the freeway end while DE 7 continues north as a divided surface road . DE 1 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 97 @,@ 964 vehicles at the US 40 interchange to a low of 11 @,@ 539 vehicles at the northern boundary of Fenwick Island . The entire length of DE 1 is part of the National Highway System . = = Tolls = = As of August 1 , 2014 , DelDOT charges a total of $ 2 on weekdays ( $ 6 on weekends ) for the entire 51 @-@ mile ( 82 km ) length of the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway portion of DE 1 , with mainline toll plazas at Dover and Biddles Corner which each charge $ 1 on weekdays ( $ 3 on weekends ) . Weekend tolls are in effect from 7 : 00 pm Friday until 11 : 00 pm Sunday . In addition , DelDOT charges a $ 0 @.@ 50 toll at exit 104 for US 13 in North Dover ( southbound off , northbound on ) and exit 142 for DE 896 in Boyds Corner ( northbound off , southbound on ) , and a $ 0 @.@ 25 toll at exit 114 for US 13 in South Smyrna ( southbound off , northbound on ) . Tolls may be paid with cash or E @-@ ZPass . A discount is available for motorists with E @-@ ZPass exiting northbound and entering southbound at exits 104 and 114 north of the Dover toll plaza as well as entering northbound and exiting southbound at exit 142 south of the Biddles Corner toll plaza . This discount is $ 0 @.@ 50 at exits 104 and 142 and $ 0 @.@ 25 at exit 114 . There is also a frequent user plan in which E @-@ ZPass users who make at least 30 trips in 30 days receive a 50 % discount on tolls . Tolls at the Dover and Biddles Corner mainline toll plazas were originally $ 1 the whole week . On October 1 , 2007 , tolls on weekends were increased to $ 2 in order to fund statewide transportation projects . Commercial vehicle tolls also increased by $ 1 on weekdays and $ 2 on weekends at this time . On August 1 , 2014 , the weekend tolls at Dover and Biddles Corner increased to $ 3 in order to again provide funding to transportation projects across the state . = = History = = = = = South of Dover = = = The portion of DE 1 between Milford and Little Heaven was initially built as part of the DuPont Highway , a highway that spanned the state from Selbyville to Wilmington . The highway was proposed as a modern road that was part of a philanthropic measure . This roadway was planned to improve travel and bring economic development to Kent and Sussex counties . The DuPont Highway was to be modeled after the great boulevards of Europe and was to have a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) wide right @-@ of @-@ way consisting of a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide roadway for automobiles flanked by dual trolley lines , 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide roadways for heavy vehicles , 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide unpaved roadways for horses , and sidewalks . Utilities were to be buried underground below the horse roadways . The highway was also to include agricultural experimental stations and monuments for future surveying . Trolley revenues would help pay for the construction of the roadway . After portions of the DuPont Highway were built , these portions were planned to be turned over to the state at no charge . In 1911 , the Coleman DuPont Road , Inc. was established and construction on the highway began . By 1912 , construction was interrupted by litigation challenging both the constitutionality of the law establishing the road building corporation and the need for DuPont to acquire such a large right @-@ of @-@ way . DuPont would narrow the proposed right @-@ of @-@ way to 100 feet ( 30 m ) in order to compromise with opponents of the highway in addition to offering landowers whose properties were affected by the highway five times the assessed value of the land five years after the highway was completed . The DuPont Highway would end up being built on a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) alignment with a 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) wide roadway . The DuPont Highway north of Milford would be both designed and constructed by Delaware State Highway Department ( DSHD ) . A portion of the road north of Milford and from Frederica to Little Heaven were completed by 1920 . The portion of the DuPont Highway from north of Milford to Frederica was under construction in 1920 and completed by 1923 , the same year the last section of the entire Selbyville – Wilmington highway was completed near Odessa . When the U.S. Highway System was designated in 1926 , this portion of the DuPont Highway became a part of US 113 . The portion of DE 1 between Little Heaven and Dover Air Force Base was built as part of a Dover bypass for US 113 . This bypass was built atop existing Bay Road north of the present @-@ day DE 9 interchange and on a new alignment south of there . The new highway between Little Heaven and Bay Road would cross the St. Jones River at a site called Barkers Landing . Between December 1931 and the end of 1933 , DSHD constructed a causeway across 3 @,@ 150 feet ( 960 m ) of the marsh on the east bank of the river , a process that required multiple applications of fill dirt and dynamite to create a stable surface for a modern highway . A Scherzer rolling lift bascule bridge was constructed across the St. Jones River in 1934 . Bay Road was widened and the new sections of highway were built with 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide concrete pavement starting in 1934 . US 113 was relocated to the bypass when the new highway opened for Memorial Day in 1935 . US 113 was widened into a divided highway from north of Milford to south of Frederica and around Dover Air Force Base in 1959 . A four @-@ lane divided bypass to the east of Frederica was constructed in 1965 . US 113 between Frederica and Little Heaven was expanded in 1975 . US 113 between Little Heaven and Dover Air Force Base was expanded to a divided highway in 1984 and 1985 ; this project included replacing the two @-@ lane drawbridge over the St. Jones River with a four @-@ lane girder bridge . What would become DE 1 between Milford and Rehoboth Beach was originally a county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was proposed as a state highway between Nassau and Rehoboth Beach . A year later , the state highway was completed between Milford and Cedar Creek and from Nassau to just west of Rehoboth Beach , with the sections between Cedar Creek and Nassau and into Rehoboth Beach under proposal . In 1927 , the state highway between Milford and Rehoboth Beach was completed with the construction of a bascule bridge over the Broadkill River . In 1931 , a state gravel road was extended from Bethany Beach to the Indian River Inlet , providing access to the inlet for recreational purposes . In January 1933 , bids were made for construction of a gravel road from Dewey Beach south to the Indian River Inlet as well as for a timber bridge across the inlet , connecting with the gravel road between the Indian River Inlet and Bethany Beach . This gravel road would provide a direct connection between Bethany Beach and Rehoboth Beach and would provide better access to the Atlantic coast for recreation . The Ocean Highway between Bethany Beach and Rehoboth Beach was completed in 1933 . In fall of that year , the roadway between Bethany Beach and Indian River Inlet was paved , with recommendations to pave the road north from the Indian River Inlet toward Rehoboth Beach . In 1934 , the Ocean Highway between the Indian River Inlet and Rehoboth Beach was paved . The same year , recommendations were made to extend the Ocean Highway south from Bethany Beach to Fenwick Island , where it would lead to a Maryland state highway continuing to Ocean City . When Delaware designated its state highway system by 1936 , the state highway between Milford and Bethany Beach became a part of DE 14 , which continued west from Milford to the Maryland border near Burrsville , Maryland . In 1939 , a southern extension of DE 14 was built between Bethany Beach and the Maryland border in Fenwick Island as a gravel road . In 1940 , a swing bridge opened across the Indian River Inlet . The same year , work began for a bypass of the route between Dewey Beach and west of Rehoboth Beach , which included a bascule bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal . In 1942 , the Rehoboth Beach bypass for DE 14 was completed . In addition , the roadway was paved between Fenwick Island and Bethany Beach by that year . In 1952 , a new swing bridge opened across the Indian River Inlet after the previous bridge was destroyed by ice and tides in 1948 . The route was widened into a divided highway between DE 18 ( now US 9 ) in Nassau and Rehoboth Beach in 1954 in order to provide relief to traffic heading to the beaches . Channelized intersections were built at DE 18 and the entrance to Rehoboth Beach . As part of this widening , DE 14 was moved to a new alignment to bypass Wescoats Corner , removing a concurrency with DE 18 ( now US 9 Bus . ) . In 1965 , a new dual bridge was constructed across the Indian River Inlet . By 1966 , DE 14A was designated onto the former alignment of DE 14 through Rehoboth Beach . The divided highway portion of DE 14 was extended north to DE 16 , which included a bypass of Nassau , and between the Indian River Inlet and South Bethany in 1967 . By 1967 , a divided bypass of Milford running from DE 14 southeast of Milford to US 113 north of Milford was under proposal . Structural design on the Milford Bypass began in 1968 . In 1969 , design work began on widening DE 14 into a divided highway between DE 16 and the Milford Bypass . The route was widened into a divided highway between Dewey Beach and the Indian River Inlet the same year . In 1971 , the divided Miford Bypass between DE 14 southeast of Milford and US 113 north of Milford was completed . In 1971 , a contract was awarded to widen DE 14 to a divided highway between Fenwick Island and South Bethany . This widening project was completed a year later . In 1973 , construction was underway to make DE 14 a divided highway from the Milford Bypass to DE 16 , which included a bypass of Argos Corner ; this was completed in 1974 . In 1974 , DE 1 was signed concurrent with DE 14 east of Milford and on the Milford Bypass . Work began in 1975 to widen the portion of DE 14 bypassing Rehoboth Beach , which included a new bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal . In 1977 , DE 14 was truncated to Milford , with DE 1 replacing the route between Fenwick Island and the south end of the Milford Bypass . As a result of this , DE 14A was renumbered to DE 1A . A new high @-@ level bridge carrying DE 1 over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal opened in 1978 . By 1981 , DE 1 was widened to a divided highway between Dewey Beach and southwest of Rehoboth Beach except for the crossing of the canal . In 1985 , the crossing over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal was dualized with a high @-@ level bridge constructed for northbound traffic . DE 1 was designated along US 113 between Milford and Dover in 1988 . In 2004 , the concurrent US 113 designation along DE 1 between Milford and Dover Air Force Base was removed . On September 11 , 2006 , work began on a $ 9 @.@ 7 million project to widen DE 1 between DE 24 in Midway and US 9 in Five Points by adding a third southbound lane and a multi @-@ use lane in both directions . The project was completed on June 9 , 2008 . In 2009 , work began to replace the steel @-@ girder Indian River Inlet Bridge with a cable @-@ stayed span due to scouring that had occurred to the steel girder bridge . The new Indian River Inlet Bridge opened to southbound traffic on January 20 , 2012 . Delaware Governor Jack Markell , U.S. Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT Secretary Shailen Bhatt rode in the first car across the bridge . On January 30 , 2012 , one northbound lane of the new bridge opened . All four lanes of the bridge as well as the pedestrian and bicycle walkway opened in spring 2012 . Demolition of the 1965 bridge began in spring 2012 and was completed in spring 2013 . In September 2014 , a $ 7 @.@ 2 million project began for pedestrian improvements to the stretch of DE 1 between the bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal in Rehoboth Beach and Nassau , which sees heavy pedestrian and bicycle traffic during the summer months . The project added a continuous sidewalk along this segment of road , multiple new crosswalks , and new and improved bus stops . The pedestrian improvement project was completed on June 13 , 2016 , with Governor Markell , DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan , State Representative Peter Schwartzkopf , and State Senator Ernesto Lopez in attendance at a ceremony to mark the completion of the project . DelDOT has replaced several at @-@ grade intersections along DE 1 south of Dover with grade @-@ separated interchanges . The intersection with DE 9 near Dover Air Force Base was rebuilt into an interchange in 2009 . In November 2009 , construction began for a grade @-@ separated interchange with DE 12 in Frederica ; the interchange was completed in June 2011 . In November 2012 , construction began on an interchange at DE 30 southeast of Milford . The interchange between DE 1 and DE 30 was completed in July 2014 . On January 31 , 2015 , groundbreaking took place for an interchange at Thompsonville Road north of Milford , with Governor Markell and DelDOT secretary Bhatt in attendance . Completion of this interchange is expected by winter 2016 . On November 9 , 2015 , construction began on an interchange at Bowers Beach Road in Little Heaven , with Governor Markell , DelDOT secretary Cohan , U.S. Senators Carper and Chris Coons , and Speaker of the Delaware House of Representatives Peter Schwartzkopf in attendance at the groundbreaking ceremony . Work on the interchange at Bowers Beach Road will build service roads to the east and west of the current route with a bridge carrying DE 1 over Bowers Beach Road ; construction is expected to last until 2018 . On March 18 , 2016 , a groundbreaking ceremony took place to build an interchange at Frederica Road south of Frederica , with Governor Markell , Senator Carper , and Kent County Administrator Michael J. Petit de Mange present at the ceremony . Construction of this interchange is expected to be finished in mid @-@ 2018 . There are plans to replace two more at @-@ grade intersections along the route with grade separated interchanges . The two intersections to be upgraded to interchanges are DE 14 in Milford and DE 16 east of Milton . Construction on the interchange at DE 14 in Milford is expected to begin in fall 2017 and be completed in 2019 . The proposed interchange at DE 16 is in the early design stage with construction not projected to begin until 2020 . = = = Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway = = = Between 1958 and 1971 , studies were conducted for a bypass of the segment of US 13 through Dover along with a connector between Dover and Frederica . The proposed routing began at US 113 and DE 12 north of Frederica and continued northwest to Woodside , where it was planned to cross US 13 . From here , the bypass was to run to the west of Dover and head north to its terminus at US 13 north of Cheswold . As part of planning of the Dover Bypass , an archaeological survey had to be conducted along part of the proposed route between 1972 and 1975 . By 1976 , construction of the Dover Bypass was postponed indefinitely . From 1971 to 1978 , a north @-@ south extension of the Delaware Turnpike between Wilmington and Dover was studied . This extension was proposed to run from north of I @-@ 95 in Ogletown south to US 13 near Camden . The toll road would head south from Ogletown and cross the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the Summit Bridge to reach a connector to US 301 near the Maryland border . From here , the turnpike would bypass Middletown , Clayton , Smyrna , and Dover to the west before coming to US 13 . Intermediate interchanges were to be located west of Dover , at DE 6 west of Smyrna , west of Middletown , at DE 896 south of the Summit Bridge , DE 71 north of the Summit Bridge , US 40 , and I @-@ 95 . The north @-@ south extension of the Delaware Turnpike was to have a combination of ramp tolls and mainline toll barriers . Three mainline toll barriers were to be located between I @-@ 95 and US 40 , between Middletown and Smyrna , and north of Camden . The projected cost of the project in 1972 was $ 107 million . In 1983 , studies began for a " Relief Route " of US 13 between Dover and Wilmington . The new highway was proposed in order to relieve US 13 of traffic heading to the Delaware Beaches in the summer . The Relief Route for US 13 was planned as a toll road in order to help pay for the cost of the construction of the highway . Prior to the beginning of construction , an archaeological survey was conducted along the proposed route of the freeway in 1986 . The same year , plans were unveiled for the route , which would begin at US 113 south of Dover and head north to US 13 in Tybouts Corner . The Relief Route would cross US 13 several times , passing to the east of Dover and Smyrna and to the west of Odessa . The section of DE 1 between Tybouts Corner and Christiana had originally been planned as relief route for DE 7 , a two @-@ lane road that connected US 13 to I @-@ 95 that saw a lot of congestion . In July 1987 , construction began on the first segment of the freeway between US 40 in Bear and DE 273 in Christiana . In 1988 , the US 13 Relief Route was given the DE 1 designation . DE 1 was extended from its northern terminus in Milford to follow US 113 between Milford and Dover and US 13 between Dover and Tybouts Corner . Construction on the freeway between US 13 in Tybouts Corner and US 40 in Bear began in March 1988 . In August of that year , groundbreaking took place for the section of the DE 1 toll road between Dover and Smyrna . Construction commenced on DE 1 between DE 273 and I @-@ 95 in Christiana in August 1990 . The first section of the DE 1 freeway opened in August 1991 between US 13 in Tybouts Corner and US 40 in Bear . Three months later , the freeway opened north to DE 273 in Christiana . In April 1992 , groundbreaking took place for the section of DE 1 across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal . It was decided that the highway would cross the canal on a cable @-@ stayed bridge . The section of DE 1 between DE 273 and I @-@ 95 in Christiana opened in April 1993 . The section of the tollway between US 113 at Dover Air Force Base and US 13 north of Smyrna opened on December 21 , 1993 , with Governor Tom Carper in attendance at the opening ceremony . This section opened with a mainline toll barrier and ramp tolls . Following the completion of this section , DE 1 was rerouted off US 113 and US 13 between Dover and Smyrna . When the portion of DE 1 between Dover and Smyrna opened , road signs , with the exception of speed limit signs , were in metric units in anticipation of the United States converting to the metric system . The section of DE 1 between Dover and Smyrna had exit numbers based on kilometerposts while the section between Tybouts Corner and Christiana originally had exit numbers based on mileposts . In 1997 , the exit numbers along the portion of the route between Tybouts Corner and Christiana were changed to reflect kilometerposts . In December 1995 , the section of DE 1 between US 13 in St. Georges and US 13 in Tybouts Corner opened , which included the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge . Prior to the opening of this section , a bridge walk was held over the canal . Following the completion of this segment , DE 1 was rerouted off the surface alignment of US 13 that crossed the St. Georges Bridge . Subsequently , US 13 was rerouted to follow the new DE 1 between the DE 72 interchange and Tybouts Corner . Construction of the new DE 1 had severed US 13 south of Tybouts Corner , with part of the former alignment north of the DE 7 intersection becoming a two @-@ lane road while the section south of there became an extended DE 7 to the intersection with US 13 and DE 72 . In building DE 1 across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal , there were initially plans to demolish the aging St. Georges Bridge that carried US 13 over the canal . The plan drew concerns from residents in St. Georges who feared the community would be split in half . The St. Georges Bridge was instead kept and was refurbished . A southbound exit and northbound entrance at US 13 south of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge along DE 1 was built as required by federal legislation that gave the state $ 115 million toward construction of the new canal bridge . Construction of an interchange at the Dover Air Force Base main gate commenced in February 1996 . This project resulted in the relocation of the main gate further back in order to build the interchange and the overpass linking the main gate to base housing . This construction resulted in facilities having to be constructed at the north gate in order to be able to handle base traffic . In May of that year , groundbreaking took place for the DE 1 toll road between Odessa and St. Georges . The segment of DE 1 between US 13 south of Odessa and US 13 in St. Georges opened in November 1999 . DE 1 was subsequently rerouted off US 13 between those two points . In March 2000 , groundbreaking took place for the final segment of the DE 1 freeway between Smyrna and Odessa . The interchange at the Dover Air Force Base main gate was completed in July of that year . The construction of the final segment resulted in a portion of US 13 south of Odessa being shifted further east as DE 1 would be built on top of the road . A service road would serve properties on the southbound side of US 13 . In October 2001 , northbound US 13 was realigned to the new alignment south of Odessa in order to build DE 1 in that area . In May 2002 , US 13 was shifted to a new southbound alignment south of Odessa , with the former portion of the route in that area becoming a service road known as Harris Road . On September 5 , 2002 , a partial interchange opened at DE 8 in Dover , utilizing existing emergency vehicle ramps . This interchange was included in the initial plans for the highway but was dropped due to low traffic volumes . As part of building the interchange , DelDOT purchased development rights to adjacent land parcels in order to prevent additional development in the area of the interchange . On May 19 , 2003 , Governor Ruth Ann Minner cut the ribbon for the final section of the DE 1 toll road between US 13 north of Smyrna and US 13 south of Odessa . This section opened to traffic two days later . As a result , DE 1 was moved off US 13 between Smyrna and Odessa . The total cost to build the toll road was $ 900 million and it was the largest public works project in Delaware history . As part of building DE 1 , DelDOT created new wetlands to replace the ones that were lost in construction of the highway . As a result of the completion of the final section , the northbound exit and southbound entrance with US 13 south of Odessa was removed . Traffic congestion at the cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 in Christiana led to DelDOT to improve the interchange . The project included adding flyover connecting ramps from northbound DE 1 to northbound I @-@ 95 and from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 which allowed for easier merging patterns and the elimination of lengthy backups on the former ramp design . Construction of a new " ring access road " around Christiana Mall began in February 2011 and was completed in March 2012 , with a newly built bridge over DE 1 , just south of the I @-@ 95 interchange . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 / DE 7 opened on August 27 , 2013 and the ramp from northbound DE 1 / DE 7 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened on October 17 , 2013 , with a ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Governor Markell and DelDOT secretary Bhatt . DelDOT has plans to widen DE 1 by an additional lane in each direction between the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge and the DE 273 interchange in Christiana . The project will involve widening bridges and reconfiguring interchanges . Construction is currently delayed due to funding issues . A project began on September 21 , 2015 to construct a northbound auxiliary lane between the US 40 and DE 273 interchanges in order to reduce congestion , which was completed shortly before Thanksgiving 2015 . On April 29 , 2016 , Governor Markell , DelDOT secretary Cohan , and local officials attended a groundbreaking ceremony for a $ 7 million project that will rebuild the DE 72 interchange into a diverging diamond interchange , the first such interchange in Delaware . = = Major intersections = = = = Bannered and suffixed routes = = = = = DE 1A = = = Delaware Route 1A ( DE 1A ) is a state highway in Sussex County . The route runs 2 @.@ 92 mi ( 4 @.@ 70 km ) from DE 1 in Dewey Beach to another intersection with DE 1 west of Rehoboth Beach . The route provides access to Rehoboth Beach from DE 1 , heading north before turning to the west . DE 1A follows King Charles Avenue , Bayard Avenue , 2nd Street ( southbound ) , Christian Street ( northbound ) , and Rehoboth Avenue . What is now DE 1A was originally a part of DE 14 between 1936 and 1942 . The road was designated DE 14A by 1966 . In the 1970s , DE 1A was designated along DE 14A for a few years before DE 14A was decommissioned in favor of DE 1A . Between 2002 and 2006 , a streetscape project revitalized the Rehoboth Avenue portion of the route and a roundabout was added at the entrance to Rehoboth Beach . = = = DE 1B = = = Delaware Route 1B ( DE 1B ) is a 1 @.@ 11 miles ( 1 @.@ 79 km ) state highway spur of DE 1 that allows access to and from Rehoboth Beach . DE 1B starts at the southern approach to the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal bridge on DE 1 , with right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps providing access to both directions of DE 1 . From this point , DE 1B heads west from DE 1 as a two @-@ lane undivided road , curving north and passing under the DE 1 bridge over the canal . The route intersects State Road , which provides access to and from the northbound lanes of DE 1 , at which point it heads northeast away from the canal on State Road . DE 1B continues into Rehoboth Beach and passes homes before reaching its terminus at DE 1A . At this intersection , left turns are prohibited from DE 1B to DE 1A northbound . Major intersections The entire route is in Rehoboth Beach , Sussex County . = = = DE 1D = = = Delaware Route 1D ( DE 1D ) is an auxiliary route of DE 1 in Sussex County . The route begins at DE 1 in Midway , where it heads southwest concurrent with DE 24 on four @-@ lane divided John J. Williams Highway . The road passes homes and businesses as it transitions into a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . DE 1D splits from DE 24 by heading northwest onto two @-@ lane undivided Plantation Road concurrent with DE 24 Alt . The road heads through a mix of farmland and residential development . Upon reaching Five Points , the road curves southwest and comes to an intersection with DE 23 . At this point , DE 1D ends while the road continues southwest as DE 23 and DE 24 Alt . DE 23 heads north at this point to immediately intersect US 9 / DE 404 , which head east to provide access to DE 1 . DE 1D was designated by 1996 . The portion of the route along Plantation Road became concurrent with DE 24 Alt. by 2006 . Major intersections The entire route is in Sussex County . = = = DE 1 Business = = = Delaware Route 1 Business ( DE 1 Bus . ) is a business route of DE 1 that runs through Milford . DE 1 Bus. starts at a partial interchange with DE 1 southeast of Milford in Sussex County , with access to southbound DE 1 and from northbound DE 1 . From this interchange , the route heads northwest into Milford as two @-@ lane undivided Rehoboth Boulevard , passing residential subdivisions . The road continues past homes and some businesses , passing to the east of Marshall Millpond before reaching an intersection with DE 36 . DE 1 Bus. curves north before it heads northwest into wooded areas and passes over the Mispillion River on a drawbridge , at which point it enters Kent County . The route heads into business areas and crosses DE 14 . The road continues past commercial establishments and turns north onto North Walnut Street . DE 1 Bus. passes to the west of Milford High School and heads north to an intersection with US 113 , at which point it becomes concurrent with that route on four @-@ lane divided Dupont Boulevard . US 113 and DE 1 Bus. continue north for a short distance and end at which point the road merges onto northbound DE 1 at a partial interchange at the north end of Milford . What is now DE 1 Bus. south of DE 36 and along North Walnut Street and US 113 was completed as a state highway by 1925 . In 1926 , suggestions were made to build a bypass east of Milford connecting DuPont Boulevard ( US 113 ) north of town to the state highway leading southeast to Rehoboth Beach in order to provide a better route to the beaches and reduce traffic congestion in Milford during the summer months . In 1928 , plans were made to build the bypass , which included a drawbridge over the Mispillion River . Construction on the drawbridge was underway in 1929 . The bypass to the east of Milford , along with the drawbridge , were completed in 1930 . When Delaware designated its state highways by 1936 , DE 14 was designated along Rehoboth Boulevard south of Northeast Front Street , where the route turned to the west . The divided Milford Bypass to the east of the city was completed in 1971 . In 1977 , DE 1 Bus. was designated onto its current alignment , running concurrent with DE 14 southeast of Northeast Front Street . The DE 14 concurrency was removed by 1984 when that route was realigned to follow Northeast Front Street to DE 1 . Major intersections The entire route is in Milford . = = Work cited = =
= Action of 15 November 1810 = The Action of 15 November 1810 was a minor naval engagement fought during the British Royal Navy blockade of the French Channel ports in the Napoleonic Wars . British dominance at sea , enforced by a strategy of close blockade , made it difficult for the French Navy to operate even in their own territorial waters . In the autumn of 1810 , a British squadron assigned to patrol the Baie de la Seine was effectively isolating two French squadrons in the ports of Le Havre and Cherbourg . On 12 November , the squadron in Le Havre , consisting of frigates Elisa and Amazone attempted to reach Cherbourg at night in order to united the squadrons . This squadron was spotted in the early hours of 13 November by the patrolling British frigates HMS Diana and HMS Niobe , which gave chase . The French ships took shelter at the heavily fortified Iles Saint @-@ Marcouf , sailing the following morning for the anchorage at Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue . For two days the British frigates kept watch , until two ships of the line from the blockade of Cherbourg , HMS Donegal and HMS Revenge , arrived . On 15 November , the British squadron attacked the anchored French ships , which were defended by shore batteries at La Hougue and Tatihou . After four attempts to close with the French the British squadron , under heavy fire , withdrew . During the night , the British commander , Captain Pulteney Malcolm , sent his ship 's boats close inshore to attack the French ships with Congreve rockets , a newly issued weapon . None are recorded as landing on target , but by morning both frigates had been forced to change position , becoming grounded on the shore . The French ships were later refloated , and Malcolm 's squadron maintained the blockade until 27 November when Amazone successfully escaped back to Le Havre . The damaged Elisa remained at anchor until 6 December , when an attack by a British bomb vessel forced the frigate to move further inshore , becoming grounded once more . Elisa remained in this position until 23 December , when the boats of Diana entered the anchorage at night and set the beached ship on fire , destroying her . = = Baie de la Seine in 1810 = = By 1810 the French Navy fleet based in the Atlantic ports had been prevented from launching any major operations for four years , penned into harbour by the British strategy of close blockade . A failed attempt by a French fleet to sail had been defeated at the Battle of Basque Roads in 1809 , and the main operations still carried out by the Navy were undertaken by privateers and frigate squadrons operating commerce raiders operating from smaller ports , such as those on the English Channel . In November 1810 squadrons were based at Cherbourg , with two ships of the line and the newly built frigate Iphigénie , and Le Havre , with the frigates Elisa and Amazone , commanded by Captains Louis @-@ Henri Fraycinet @-@ Saulce and Bernard @-@ Louis Rosseau respectively . To blockade these squadrons , the Royal Navy 's Channel Fleet had assigned the ships of the line HMS Donegal under Captain Pulteney Malcolm and HMS Revenge under Captain Charles Paget to patrol the entrance to Cherbourg , while frigates HMS Diana under Captain Charles Grant and HMS Niobe under Captain John Wentworth Loring kept watch on Le Havre . The blockade had achieved some minor successes ; in October 1810 Revenge had captured the privateer Vengeur from Dieppe , and on 6 November Donegal ran down and seized the privateer Surcouf from Cherbourg . = = = Pursuit of Amazone and Elisa = = = At 22 : 00 on 12 November Amazone and Elisa sailed from Le Havre to unite with the force at Cherbourg , hoping to evade the blockade in the darkness . They successfully passed the patrolling Diana and Niobe but were spotted sailing northwest at 00 : 30 by the British ships which gave chase , Niobe turning inshore in an attempt to cut off the French line of advance . With the wind in the northeast , the French frigates were unable to pass Cape Barfleur under pursuit , and Rosseau instead turned his squadron towards the Iles Saint @-@ Marcouf at 04 : 00 , using superior local knowledge to bypass the pursuing British ships . The heavily fortified islands had been under British control during the French Revolutionary Wars , but reverted to the French at the Peace of Amiens in 1802 . Diana and Niobe attempted to intercept the French frigates before they came under the shelter of the guns , but were only able to fire two long @-@ distance broadsides at the trailing Elisa . At 11 : 00 , Rosseau gave orders for the French frigates to sail once more , slipping away from the British ships which had drifted to the north and anchoring safely between the batteries at Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue and the island of Tatihou . Observing the strong position the French frigates had taken up , Grant sent messages to Malcolm 's force at Cherbourg requesting reinforcements . Malcolm brought Donegal and Revenge to support the frigates on 14 November , maintaining position off the anchorage despite a strong gale which caused Elisa to drag her anchors . Captain Fraycinet @-@ Saulce was forced to throw much of the ship 's stores overboard to prevent his frigate from being wrecked on the shore . The following day , Diana took advantage of the rising tide to attack the anchored Amazone , Captain Rosseau withdrawing deeper into the sheltered anchorage under protection from the batteries . Twice more Grant launched probing attacks on the French frigate , each time beaten off by heavy fire from the batteries . Joined by Malcolm and the remainder of the British force , four successive attacks were launched against Amazone , each one driven back by cannon fire . At 13 : 00 , with the tide falling , the British squadron was compelled to retreat to deeper water , out of range of the French . All four British ships had suffered under fire , with two killed and five wounded on Revenge , three wounded on Donegal and one wounded on Diana . French losses were a single man killed on Amazone . On the evening of 15 November Malcolm ordered the ship 's boats of the squadron to approach the anchorage under cover of darkness , commanded by Lieutenant Joseph Needham Taylor . The boats had been equipped with Congreve rockets , a recently invented artillery system which was not then widely in use by the Royal Navy . None of the rockets fired during the night appeared to have hit their targets , but they seem to have panicked the French crews ; dawn the following morning revealed that both frigates had cut their anchors and drifted onto the shore , Elisa in particular had struck hard and heeled over onto her side . Both ships were however successfully refloated by the rising tide on 16 November , and the situation reached an impasse , with Malcolm 's forces blockading Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue to prevent the French from sailing . = = = Destruction of Elisa = = = For nearly two weeks the French frigates remained at anchor , Malcolm and Grant drawing up plans for an attack with fireships , when Amazone successfully slipped out of harbour on 27 November , returning successfully to Le Havre before dawn the following day . With Amazone gone , Grant maintained a closer watch on Elisa , calling up a bomb vessel to attack the anchorage on 6 December . This proved no more accurate than the rockets , but Elisa was again driven into shallow waters to avoid the attack , this time becoming irretrievably grounded on a shoal . Over the next two weeks Elisa remained grounded , the frigate gradually being reduced to the state of a total wreck . On 23 December Grant sent his boats , commanded by Lieutenant Thomas Rowe , into the anchorage under cover of darkness and set the wreck on fire to ensure that the frigate 's stores could not be salvaged . With the destruction of Elisa , the British squadrons returned to their blockade duties off Cherbourg and Le Havre . The blockade remained in place throughout the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars ; Rosseau in Amazone made another attempt to join the squadron in Cherbourg in March 1811 , only to be run down and destroyed by a squadron led by the ship of the line HMS Berwick . The new Iphigénie survived a little longer , being intercepted and captured in the Atlantic during a raiding mission in January 1814 .
= Lihou = Lihou ( / ˈliːuː / ) is a small tidal island located just off the west coast of the island of Guernsey , in the English Channel , between Great Britain and France . Administratively , Lihou forms part of the Parish of St. Peter 's in the Bailiwick of Guernsey , and is now owned by the Parliament of Guernsey ( officially known as the States of Guernsey ) , although there have been a number of owners in the past . Since 2006 , the island has been jointly managed by the Guernsey Environment Department and the Lihou Charitable Trust . In the past the island was used by locals for the collection of seaweed for use as a fertiliser , but today Lihou is mainly used for tourism , including school trips . Lihou is also an important centre for conservation , forming part of a Ramsar wetland site for the preservation of rare birds and plants as well as historic ruins of a priory and a farmhouse . = = Etymology = = In common with several nearby islands such as Jethou and Brecqhou , the name contains the Norman suffix " -hou " which means a small hill or a mound . The name could have developed from the Breton words lydd or ligg , which means in or near water . Historically , there have also been a number of alternative forms of the name including Lihoumel , which was attested as early as the twelfth century , and Lehowe , which was mentioned in the sixteenth century . Lihou is also a common family name on Guernsey , with records suggesting that the name has been in use in the Channel Islands since at least the eighteenth century , including Royal Navy Captain John Lihou , who discovered and named the Australian Port Lihou Island and Lihou Reef . The name is also attested further afield , in a number of other countries such as Australia , where for example , Sergeant James Lihou , the son of a migrant from Guernsey , enlisted in the Australian forces in 1916 and was killed in action in 1918 in France . There are also numerous instances of people with the surname having migrated from the Channel Islands to the United States . = = Geography and climate = = Lihou is the furthest west of the Channel Islands and at low tide it is linked to the nearby L 'Erée headland , on Guernsey , by a 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) stone causeway . Apart from shingle beaches , the island has a 20 m ( 66 ft ) high ridge running approximately north @-@ south . Lihou is mainly composed of weathered rock below which are found granite and gneiss bedrock . The island has a mild oceanic climate like other Channel Islands , due to being buffered by the nearby English and French coastlines . Lihou shares the weather features of Guernsey , with winter temperatures falling to 4 @.@ 4 ° C ( 39 @.@ 9 ° F ) in February and summers with a high of 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( 67 @.@ 1 ° F ) in August . Two small islets , close to the island , called Lissroy and Lihoumel , are breeding places for a number of endangered species of birds , including Eurasian oystercatchers and common ringed plovers . Numerous other species of birds and plants are found on Lihou such as peregrine falcons and sea storksbill . The Guernsey Environment Department does not allow visitors to go to the two islets and the shingle bank at certain times of the year in order to allow the birds to breed . Approximately 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) north of the island is a submerged ledge called Grand Etacre , which was considered to be a hazard to navigation in the nineteenth century . Lihou island was identified as a " Site of Nature Conservation Importance " in 1989 , and as part of an " Important Bird Area " which includes parts of the shoreline of Guernsey . On 1 March 2006 , Lihou and the L 'Erée headland were designated a part of Guernsey 's first Ramsar wetland site , covering about 427 hectares ( 1 @,@ 060 acres ) of land and sea . This has created a marine reserve for the extensive variety of wildlife including more than 200 species of seaweed on the shores of Lihou , and more than 150 species of birds observed in the area . The geology of Lihou Island is rather complex , but closely associated with neighbouring Guernsey . = = History = = The history of Lihou is closely linked to the history of Guernsey in particular and the Channel Islands in general . The earliest evidence of habitation are Mesolithic era objects recovered from archaeological digs of the 1990s , along with Neolithic era tombs on the nearby mainland . The recorded history of Lihou began in 933 AD when the Channel Islands were seized from Brittany by the ruler of Normandy . Lihou and the nearby Neolithic tombs were traditionally believed to have been meeting places for local witches , and fairies . This led to conflict with church authorities , especially when a priory was established on Lihou , dedicated to St. Mary ( known locally as Our Lady of Lihou ) . A number of dates have been suggested for the establishment of the priory , with estimates ranging from as early as 1114 , to as late as 1156 . Records suggest that the priory was an arriére @-@ fief of the Benedictine abbey of Mont St. Michel under whose authority it operated . Ownership of the island was granted to the abbey by Robert I , Duke of Normandy , in the early part of the eleventh century . The priory is thought to have been constructed with contributions from the islanders , who appear to have been fairly affluent at the time . In the early fourteenth century , Lihou may have become the origin of a local legend about a wealthy Bailiff of Guernsey who attempted to have an innocent peasant executed on false charges of theft of silver cups . In either 1302 or 1304 , a priory servant called Thomas le Roer was alleged to have murdered one of the monks . The Bailiff and several assistants attempted to apprehend Le Roer but he did not surrender and was subsequently killed by Ranulph Gautier , one of the Bailiffs assistants . Gautier tried to find sanctuary in a nearby church and eventually fled to England , before returning to Guernsey when the king pardoned him . However , some years later Gautier was tortured to death in Castle Cornet , but it is not known why . The priory was seized in 1414 by King Henry V of England along with a number of alien priories . In the first three centuries , there were several Priors appointed , sometimes with short tenures , but in 1500 Ralph Leonard was installed as Prior for life . However , within decades the Priory was abandoned , with evidence of Thomas de Baugy being the final Prior around 1560 . There is also evidence that the priory was allocated to John After in 1566 , who had also been appointed as the Dean of Guernsey . In 1759 the Governor of Guernsey , John West , had the priory destroyed to prevent French forces from capturing the island during the Seven Years ' War . In the early nineteenth century , a farmhouse was built on Lihou , and the island was listed as being owned by Eleazar le Marchant , who held the post of lieutenant bailiff of Guernsey . Eleazar made an ultimately unsuccessful attempt , in 1815 , to suppress the seaweed industry based around Lihou . In a book published in the same year , William Berry noted the presence of an " iron hook of a gate hinge " on some rocks , approximately three miles out at sea from Lihou , along with the remains of old roads , and surmised that Lihou may have been significantly larger in the past but that the sea had eroded a considerable portion . Through the remainder of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth century , the island changed hands between a succession of owners including James Priaulx in 1863 , Arthur Clayfield in 1883 , and Colonel Hubert de Lancey Walters in 1906 . During World War II , the Channel Islands were occupied by the Germans from 1940 @-@ 1945 , and Lihou was used for target practice by the German artillery , causing the farmhouse to collapse completely . During the summer of 1952 , the ruins of the priory were studied in some detail by John and Jean le Patourel . In 1961 , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Patrick Wootton purchased Lihou . Wootton had plans to develop the island , beginning in the following year first by clearing the area of the old farmhouse , in preparation for the building of a new farmhouse , with construction work continuing into 1963 . He organized summer camps for young adults on the island and imported sheep from the Orkneys which could consume seaweed . In 1983 Wootton decided to emigrate to Prince Edward Island , in Canada , and the island was sold to Robin and Patricia Borwick . In 1995 the island was bought by the States of Guernsey . The ruins of the priory are possibly the most extensive religious relic in Guernsey . There have been several studies and excavations of the ruins , including archaeological investigations in 1996 , and in 1998 , when several twelfth @-@ fourteenth century graves were unearthed . = = Economy = = Historically , Lihou was an important location for a commercially significant industry based around the harvesting of seaweed ( or vraic in the local language , Guernésiais ) . Records suggest considerable activity as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century . The value of the seaweed as a fertiliser was so great that in 1815 Eleazor Le Marchant , lieutenant bailiff of Guernsey and owner of Lihou , initiated a court case to prevent islanders from drying seaweed on the beaches of Lihou . The case eventually led to new regulations issued in 1818 by the Bailiwick legislature , known as the Chief Pleas at the time , based on a review of ancient royal decrees . However , the Royal Court of Guernsey ruled in favour of the islanders in 1821 , with the effect that permission to harvest seaweed on Lihou was granted to inhabitants of the parishes of St Peters and St Saviours . More than a century later , in 1927 , a factory was established on the island to produce iodine from the seaweed . The economic mainstay of the island is now ecological tourism , based around the farmhouse , which is operated by the Lihou Charitable Trust , although overall responsibility for the island remains with the Environment Department of the States of Guernsey . Lihou and several other small Channel Islands such as Herm and Sark , issued their own stamps until 1969 , when the States of Guernsey assumed responsibility for postal services in the Bailiwick , which had previously been provided by the UK Government .
= Jennifer Blow = Jennifer Blow ( born 10 January 1991 ) is an Australian goalball player and is classified as a B3 competitor . Having only started playing the sport in 2009 , she has several goalball scholarships . She plays for the New South Wales women 's goalball team in the Australian national championships , where she has won three silver medals . As a member of the national team , she has competed in the 2010 World Championships , 2011 IBSA Goalball World Cup and the 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball . = = Personal life = = Nicknamed " Awesome " by her goalball teammates , Blow was born in Narraweena , New South Wales , on 10 January 1992 . She has the visual disability of oculocutaneous albinism , a congenital vision impairment , and is 165 centimetres ( 65 in ) . As of 2012 , Blow is attending the University of Sydney and double majoring in Arts and Education , which would enable her to become an English and drama teacher . In 2009 , she was awarded a New South Wales Department of Education and Training Teacher Education Scholarship . In 2011 , she earned the NSW Institute of Sport Academic Excellence Award . = = Goalball = = Blow is a goalball player , and is classified as a B3 competitor . She started playing the sport in 2009 . She has a goalball scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport , and the Sydney University Elite Athlete Program . In 2011 / 2012 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 7 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . Blow plays for the New South Wales women 's goalball team , making her debut in 2009 . As a member of the team , she has earned three total silver medals at the national championships , including one in 2010 . Blow made her national team debut in 2010 , less than a year after taking up the sport , when she represented Australia at the 2010 World Championships , where her team finished eighth . As a member of the 2011 team , she finished sixth at the IBSA Goalball World Cup . During the tournament , she found " a rock shaped like the lucky egg from the film Cool Runnings . The rock has since become integrated into her team 's pre @-@ grame ritual where she " must hold the rock and quote from the movie before every big game . " Her team made it the quarter finals before losing to Russia 3 @-@ 6 . It then met the Spain women 's national goalball team to try to earn a spot in the fifth / sixth place match . Australia walked away 8 @-@ 7 victors , but in the fifth / sixth place match , it lost to the Israel women 's national goalball team 6 @-@ 8 . She played in the 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She played in the gold medal game against the New Zealand women 's national goalball team . Australia won the game . The Manly Daily described her play in the series as " instrumental " to the team 's success . Blow was a named a member of the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics . That the team qualified for the Games came as a surprise , as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with the idea of qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , when they earned an automatic selection as hosts , and the team finished last in the competition . The country has not medalled in the event since 1976 . Going into the Paralympics , the team was ranked eighth in the world . She was 21 years old at the Games . In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament , the Belles played games against Japan , Canada , the United States and Sweden . They lost every game , and did not advance to the finals .
= Silverplate = Silverplate was the code reference for the United States Army Air Forces ' participation in the Manhattan Project during World War II . Originally the name for the aircraft modification project for the B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber to enable it to drop an atomic weapon , Silverplate eventually came to identify the training and operational aspects of the program as well . The original directive for the project had as its subject line " Silver Plated Project " but continued usage of the term shortened it to " Silverplate " . Testing began with scale models at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia , in August 1943 . Modifications began on a prototype Silverplate B @-@ 29 known as the " Pullman " in November 1943 , and it was used for bomb flight testing at Muroc Army Air Field in California commencing in March 1944 . The testing resulted in further modifications to both the bombs and the aircraft . Seventeen production Silverplate aircraft were ordered in August 1944 to allow the 509th Composite Group to train with the type of aircraft they would have to fly in combat , and for the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit to test bomb configurations . These were followed by 28 more aircraft that were ordered in February 1945 for operational use by the 509th Composite Group . This batch included the aircraft which carried out the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 . Including the Pullman B @-@ 29 , a total of 46 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were produced during and after World War II . An additional 19 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were ordered in July 1945 , which were delivered between the end of the war and the end of 1947 . Thus , a total of 65 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were made . The use of the Silverplate codename was discontinued after the war , but modifications continued under a new codename , Saddletree . Another 80 aircraft were modified under this program . A last group of B @-@ 29s was modified in 1953 , but never saw further service . = = Origin = = The Silverplate project was initiated in June 1943 when Dr. Norman F. Ramsey from the Los Alamos Laboratory 's E @-@ 7 Group identified the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress as the only airplane in the United States inventory capable of carrying either type of the proposed weapons shapes : the tubular shape of the Thin Man , and the oval shape of the Fat Man . Prior to the decision to use the B @-@ 29 , serious consideration had been given to using the British Avro Lancaster with its cavernous 33 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) bomb bay to deliver the weapon . This would have required much less modification , but would have required additional crew training for the USAAF crews . Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , and General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , wished to use an American plane , if this was at all possible . The first B @-@ 29 was delivered to the USAAF on 1 July 1943 , and Groves met with Arnold later that month . Groves briefed Arnold on the Manhattan Project , and asked for his help in testing the ballistics of the Project 's proposed bomb shapes . Arnold and the head of the Ordnance Division at Los Alamos , Captain William S. Parsons , arranged for tests to be carried out at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia in August 1943 . No aircraft was available that could carry the 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long Thin Man , so a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) scale model was used . The results were disappointing – the bomb fell in a flat spin – but the need for a thorough test program was demonstrated . Groves met with Arnold again in September 1943 . He informed Arnold that there was now a second bomb shape under consideration , the Fat Man , and formally requested that further tests be carried out , that not more than three B @-@ 29s be modified to carry the weapons , and that the USAAF form and train a special unit to deliver the bombs . Arnold delegated responsibility for this to Major General Oliver P. Echols . In turn , Echols designated Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson as the Project Officer . = = Codename = = Originally the name for the aircraft modification project for the B @-@ 29 to enable it to drop a nuclear weapon , Silverplate eventually came to identify the training and operational aspects of the program as well . The airplane modification project fell under the purview of the Manhattan Project 's Project Alberta after March 1945 . The original codename for the project was " Silver Plated " but continued usage of the term shortened it to the one word " Silverplate " . For security reasons , the codename " Silverplate " was not officially registered . Confusion then resulted when the War Department allocated " Silverplate " to another project . Arnold 's office had to order the other agency to discontinue its use of the codename . Los Alamos 's Thin Man and Fat Man code names were adopted by the USAAF for the weapons . A cover story was devised that Silverplate was about modifying a Pullman car for use by President Franklin Roosevelt ( Thin Man ) and Prime Minister Winston Churchill ( Fat Man ) on a secret tour of the United States . = = Initial phase = = The USAAF sent instructions to its Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field , Ohio , on 30 November 1943 , for a highly classified B @-@ 29 modification project . The Manhattan Project would deliver full @-@ sized mockups of the weapons shapes to Wright Field by mid @-@ December , where Army Air Forces Materiel Command would modify an aircraft and deliver it for use in bomb flight testing at Muroc Army Air Field in California . B @-@ 29 @-@ 5 @-@ BW 42 @-@ 6259 ( referred to as the " Pullman airplane " from an internal code name assigned it by the Engineering Division of Army Air Forces Materiel Command ) was delivered to the 468th Bombardment Group at Smoky Hill AAB , Kansas , on 30 November 1943 , and flown to Wright Field , Ohio , on 2 December . Modifications to the bomb bays were extensive and time @-@ consuming . Its four 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) bomb bay doors and the fuselage section between the bays were removed and a single 33 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) bomb bay configured . The length of the gun @-@ type shape was approximately 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) . New bomb suspensions and bracing were attached for both shape types , with the gun @-@ type suspension anchored in the aft bomb bay ( although its length protruded into the forward bay ) and the implosion type mounted in the forward bay . Separate twin @-@ release mechanisms were mounted in each bay , using modified glider tow @-@ cable attach @-@ and @-@ release mechanisms . = = Testing of bomb shapes = = The Pullman B @-@ 29 flew in to Muroc on 20 February 1944 , and testing began on 28 February . Twenty @-@ four drops were carried out before tests were discontinued so that improvements could be made to Thin Man . The bombs failed to release immediately , frustrating calibration tests . In what turned out to be the last test flight of the series on 16 March , a Thin Man was prematurely released while the B @-@ 29 was still en route to the test range and fell onto the bomb bay doors , severely damaging the aircraft . The modified glider mechanisms had apparently caused all four malfunctions , because of the weight of the bombs , and were replaced with British Type G single @-@ point attachments and Type F releases used on the Lancaster to carry the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) Tallboy bomb . After repair of the Pullman B @-@ 29 at Wright Field , testing resumed with three Thin Man and nine Fat Man shapes dropped in the last two weeks of June 1944 . High speed photographs revealed that the tail fins folded under the pressure , resulting in an erratic descent . Various combinations of stabilizer boxes and fins were tested on the Fat Man shape to eliminate its persistent wobble until an arrangement dubbed a " California Parachute " , a cubical tail box with fins angled at 45 ° to the line of fall , was approved . The Thin Man gun @-@ type design was at that time based on the fissibility of the very pure plutonium 239 isotope so far only produced in microgram quantities by the Berkeley cyclotron . When the Hanford production reactors came on @-@ line in early 1944 , the mix of plutonium 239 and plutonium 240 obtained was found to have a high rate of spontaneous fission . To avoid pre @-@ detonation , the muzzle velocity of the gun @-@ type design would need to be greatly raised , making it impractically long . Thin Man as a plutonium @-@ based design was therefore abandoned and the weapon was re @-@ designed to use uranium 235 . The muzzle velocity required was much lower , reducing the barrel length of the resulting bomb , now code @-@ named Little Boy , to less than 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . This allowed the device to fit into a standard B @-@ 29 bomb bay , so the Pullman was modified to its original configuration with the rear bomb bay a standard B @-@ 29 design . All subsequent Silverplates were also configured in this manner . The Pullman B @-@ 29 was flown to Wendover Army Air Field in Utah in September 1944 . It carried out further drop testing with the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit until it was damaged in a landing accident in December . = = Wartime production versions = = On 22 August 1944 , to meet the requirements of the USAAF group about to be formed to train in the atomic mission , a production phase of Silverplate B @-@ 29s was ordered from the Glenn L. Martin Company 's modification center at Omaha , Nebraska under the designation Project 98146 @-@ S. The first three of these second increment Silverplate B @-@ 29s were delivered to the USAAF in mid @-@ October , and flown to Wendover . They were fitted with British single @-@ point bomb releases mounted on a re @-@ designed H @-@ frame suspension rack fitted in the forward bomb bay , so that additional fuel tanks could be carried in the aft bay . A new crew position , called the " weaponeer station " , was created in the cockpit with a panel to monitor the release and detonation of the bomb during the actual combat drops . Fourteen production aircraft were assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron for training , and three to the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit for bomb drop testing . By February 1945 the seventeen aircraft of the second increment were themselves in need of upgrades , particularly those of the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit . Four of the planes assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron ( now part of the 509th Composite Group ) were transferred to the 216th to meet an increase in its testing tempo . Rather than attempt to modify the existing aircraft a few at a time , a decision was made to start a new production series . The first five of this third increment , known as Project 98228 @-@ S , also went to the test unit . The order totaled an additional 28 aircraft , with delivery of 15 designated combat models for the 393d beginning in April . The final eight were not delivered until after the two atomic bomb missions in August . Two were given to the 216th while the remaining six were assigned to the 509th at Wendover as replacements for any bombers lost while operating from Tinian . Ironically , no bombers were lost during operations from Tinian , but five of these six were lost in crashes over the next few years . The final wartime Silverplates incorporated all technical improvements to B @-@ 29 aircraft , as well as the final series of Silverplate modifications that included Curtiss Electric reversible @-@ pitch propellers , and pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors . The British F @-@ type bomb release and G @-@ type attachment were installed , along with dual electrical and mechanical bomb release mechanisms . Early model B @-@ 29s were plagued by a host of engine problems , and the early Silverplate bombers were no exception . One was written off after being badly damaged as a result of an engine fire in February 1945 . The fuel @-@ injected Wright R @-@ 3350 @-@ 41 engines in the later model bombers delivered in July and August 1945 were greatly improved and far more reliable . This was an important factor in the success of the 509th Composite Group 's operations . The Fat Man and Pumpkin bombs weighed over 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) , so weight was a concern , even with the more powerful engines . Weight reduction was accomplished by removal of all gun turrets and armor plating . This work was done by the 509th Composite Group for the early Silverplate aircraft , but later models were delivered without them . These B @-@ 29s represented a significant increase in performance over the standard variants . Flying at 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) put the B @-@ 29s above the effective range of Japanese flak . Each Pumpkin bomb mission was conducted by a formation of three aircraft in the hope of convincing the Japanese military that small groups of B @-@ 29s did not justify a strong response . This strategy proved successful , and Japanese fighters only occasionally attempted to intercept the 509th Composite Group 's aircraft . One B @-@ 29 incurred minor battle damage in operations . = = Silverplate operational units = = Including the Pullman B @-@ 29 , a total of 46 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were produced during World War II . Of these , 29 were assigned to the 509th Composite Group during World War II , with 15 used to carry out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . An additional 19 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were ordered in July 1945 , which were delivered between the end of the war , and the end of 1947 . By this time only 13 of the original 46 were still operational . Thus , a total of 65 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were made , of which 32 were operational at the start of 1948 . Martin @-@ Omaha produced 57 Silverplate B @-@ 29s . The other 8 were built by Boeing @-@ Wichita . Of these 65 bombers , 31 were eventually converted to other configurations , 16 were placed in storage and later scrapped , and 12 were lost in accidents ( including four of the Tinian bombers ) . The pair of historic , weapons delivery aircraft , named Enola Gay and Bockscar , are today displayed in museums . The only other United States Air Force combat unit to use the Silverplate B @-@ 29 was the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base in El Paso , Texas . In mid @-@ 1949 it received 27 of the aircraft from the 509th Bombardment Wing when the latter transitioned to B @-@ 50D bombers . The re @-@ equipment of the 97th Bombardment Wing was part of an expansion of the atomic strike force to ten wings during 1949 . Within a year all were converted to TB @-@ 29 trainers . One other Silverplate B @-@ 29 , on temporary assignment in the United Kingdom , was converted into a weather reconnaissance aircraft ( WB @-@ 29 ) and transferred to the 9th Bombardment Wing at Travis Air Force Base in California . The last Silverplate B @-@ 29 in service as a nuclear weapons carrier was reassigned to another role in November 1951 , ending Silverplate after nearly eight years . = = Follow @-@ up programs = = Use of the codename Silverplate was discontinued in May 1947 . It was superseded by a new codename , " Saddletree " . This was applied to aircraft modifications only . Initially it was intended that Saddletree would refer only to modifications to the B @-@ 29s , but it came to be used for modifications to B @-@ 50 and B @-@ 36 bombers as well . Saddletree modifications included a new bomb bay frame and hoist , and replacing the British FG bomb release with the newly developed U @-@ 1 pneumatic bomb release mechanism . Due to delays in the delivery of the B @-@ 50s , Saddletree commenced in February 1948 . In all , 6 @,@ 000 hours of work was carried out on each of the 36 B @-@ 50s by Sacramento Air Materiel Area . The Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a directive in January 1948 for the modification of 225 B @-@ 29 , B @-@ 50 , and B @-@ 36 bombers to carry nuclear weapons , along with eight C @-@ 97 Stratofreighter aircraft to carry bomb assembly teams . There were already 32 Silverplate B @-@ 29s in service with the Strategic Air Command , so the Air Materiel Command was directed to carry out Saddletree modifications on a further 80 B @-@ 29s , 36 B @-@ 50As , 23 B @-@ 50Bs and 18 B @-@ 36Bs . The B @-@ 36A could not carry nuclear weapons without major modifications . As the anticipated enemy was the Soviet Union , the aircraft also required " winterization " to allow them to operate from Arctic bases . The project included 36 B @-@ 29s , and the modification of 36 others to have an air refueling capability . With the addition of the 80 Saddletree B @-@ 29s , a total of 145 B @-@ 29s were modified to carry nuclear weapons , and 117 of these were assigned to operational units . In October 1951 , in anticipation of a major build @-@ up of the USAF to 95 groups , and of delays in the B @-@ 47 program , the Air Materiel Command was ordered to modify a further 180 B @-@ 29s then in storage to carry the Mark 4 , Mark 5 , Mark 6 , and Mark 8 nuclear bombs . Modifications were carried out in Oklahoma City and Sacramento . By the time the aircraft were all delivered in September 1953 , the B @-@ 29 was being phased out , and the modified aircraft went back into storage without seeing further service . = = Costs = = In 1945 , a B @-@ 29 bomber cost $ 782 @,@ 000 . It cost $ 32 @,@ 000 to upgrade an aircraft to Silverplate configuration , so the total cost of a Silverplate bomber was $ 814 @,@ 000 . The total cost of the 65 wartime Silverplate B @-@ 29s was therefore $ 53 million . Adding $ 7 million for logistics , this put the estimated cost of the Silverplate project at around $ 60 million .
= James G. Blaine = James Gillespie Blaine ( January 31 , 1830 – January 27 , 1893 ) was an American statesman and Republican politician who represented Maine in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1863 to 1876 , serving as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1869 to 1875 , and then in the United States Senate from 1876 to 1881 . He twice served as Secretary of State ( 1881 , 1889 – 1892 ) , one of only two persons to hold the position under three separate presidents ( the other being Daniel Webster ) , and unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for President in 1876 and 1880 before being nominated in 1884 . In the general election , he was narrowly defeated by Democrat Grover Cleveland . Blaine was one of the late 19th century 's leading Republicans and champion of the moderate reformist faction of the party known as the " Half @-@ Breeds " . Blaine was born in the western Pennsylvania town of West Brownsville and after college moved to Maine where he became a newspaper editor . Nicknamed " the Magnetic Man " , he was a charismatic speaker in an era that prized oratory . He began his political career as an early supporter of Abraham Lincoln and the Union war effort in the American Civil War . In Reconstruction , Blaine was a supporter of black suffrage , but opposed some of the more coercive measures of the Radical Republicans . Initially a protectionist , he later worked for a reduction in the tariff and an expansion of American trade with foreign countries . Railroad promotion and construction were important issues in his time , and as a result of his interest and support Blaine was widely suspected of corruption in the awarding of railroad charters ; these allegations plagued his 1884 presidential candidacy . As Secretary of State , Blaine was a transitional figure , marking the end of an isolationist era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the rise of the American Century that would begin with the Spanish – American War . His efforts at expanding the United States ' trade and influence began the shift to a more active American foreign policy . Blaine was a pioneer of tariff reciprocity and urged greater involvement in Latin American affairs . An expansionist , Blaine 's policies would lead in less than a decade to the establishment of the United States ' acquisition of Pacific colonies and dominance of the Caribbean . = = Early life = = = = = Family and childhood = = = James Gillespie Blaine was born January 31 , 1830 in West Brownsville , Pennsylvania , the third child of Ephraim Lyon Blaine and his wife Maria ( Gillespie ) Blaine . Blaine 's father was a western Pennsylvania businessman and landowner , and the family lived in relative comfort . On his father 's side , Blaine was descended from Scotch @-@ Irish settlers who first emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1745 . His great @-@ grandfather , Ephraim Blaine , served as a Commissary @-@ General under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War . Blaine 's mother and her forebears were Irish Catholics who emigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1780s . Blaine 's parents were married in 1820 in a Roman Catholic ceremony , although Blaine 's father remained a Presbyterian . Following a common compromise of the era , the Blaines agreed that their daughters would be raised in their mother 's Catholic faith while their sons would be brought up in their father 's religion . In politics , Blaine 's father supported the Whig party . Blaine 's biographers describe his childhood as " harmonious " , and note that the boy took an early interest in history and literature . At the age of thirteen , Blaine enrolled in his father 's alma mater , Washington College ( now Washington & Jefferson College ) , in nearby Washington , Pennsylvania . There , he was a member of the Washington Literary Society , one of the college 's debating societies . Blaine succeeded academically , graduating near the top of his class and delivering the salutatory address in June 1847 . After graduation , Blaine considered attending law school at Yale Law School , but ultimately decided against it , instead moving west to find a job . = = = Teacher and publisher = = = In 1848 , Blaine was hired as a professor of mathematics and ancient languages at the Western Military Institute in Georgetown , Kentucky . Although he was only eighteen years old and younger than many of his students , Blaine adapted well to his new profession . Blaine grew to enjoy life in his adopted state and became an admirer of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay . He also made the acquaintance of Harriet Stanwood , a teacher at the nearby Millersburg Female College and native of Maine . On June 30 , 1850 , the two were married . Blaine once again considered taking up the study of law , but instead took his new bride to visit his family in Pennsylvania . They next lived with Harriet Blaine 's family in Augusta , Maine for several months , where their first child , Stanwood Blaine , was born in 1851 . The young family soon moved again , this time to Philadelphia where Blaine took a job at the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind ( now Overbrook School for the Blind ) in 1852 , teaching science and literature . Philadelphia 's law libraries gave Blaine the chance to at last begin to study the law , but in 1853 he received a more tempting offer : to become editor and co @-@ owner of the Kennebec Journal . Blaine had spent several vacations in his wife 's native state of Maine and had become friendly with the Journal 's editors . When the newspaper 's founder , Luther Severance , retired , Blaine was invited to purchase the publication along with co @-@ editor Joseph Baker . He quickly accepted , borrowing the purchase price from his wife 's brothers . Baker soon sold his share to John L. Stevens , a local minister , in 1854 . The Journal had been a staunchly Whig newspaper , which coincided with Blaine 's and Stevens 's political opinions . The decision to become a newspaperman , unexpected as it was , started Blaine on the road to a lifelong career in politics . Blaine 's purchase of the Journal coincided with the demise of the Whig party and birth of the Republican party , and Blaine and Stevens actively promoted the new party in their newspaper . The newspaper was financially successful , and Blaine was soon able to invest his profits in coal mines in Pennsylvania and Virginia , forming the basis of his future wealth . = = = Maine politics = = = Blaine 's career as a Republican newspaperman led naturally to involvement in Republican party politics . In 1856 , he was selected as a delegate to the first Republican National Convention . From the party 's early days , Blaine identified with the conservative wing , supporting Supreme Court Justice John McLean for the presidential nomination over the more radical John C. Frémont , the eventual nominee . The following year , Blaine was offered the editorship of the Portland Daily Advertiser , which he accepted , selling his interest in the Journal soon thereafter . He still maintained his home in Augusta , however , with his growing family . Although Blaine 's first son , Stanwood , died in infancy , he and Harriet had two more sons soon afterward : Walker , in 1855 , and Emmons , in 1857 . They would have four more children in years to come : Alice , James , Margaret , and Harriet . It was around this time that Blaine left the Presbyterian church of his childhood and joined his wife 's denomination , becoming a member of the South Parish Congregational Church in Augusta . In 1858 , Blaine ran for a seat in the Maine House of Representatives , and was elected . He ran for reelection in 1859 , 1860 , and 1861 , and was successful each time by large majorities . The added responsibilities led Blaine to reduce his duties with the Advertiser in 1860 , and he soon ceased editorial work altogether . Meanwhile , his political power was growing as he became chairman of the Republican state committee in 1859 , replacing Stevens . Blaine was not a delegate to the Republican convention in 1860 , but attended anyway as an enthusiastic supporter of Abraham Lincoln . Returning to Maine , he was elected Speaker of the Maine House of Representatives in 1861 and reelected in 1862 . With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 , he supported Lincoln 's war effort and saw that the Maine Legislature voted to organize and equip units to join the Union Army . = = House of Representatives , 1863 – 1876 = = = = = Elected to the House = = = Blaine had considered running for the United States House of Representatives from Maine 's 4th district in 1860 , but agreed to step aside when Anson P. Morrill , a former governor , announced his interest in the seat . Morrill was successful , but after redistricting placed Blaine in the 3rd district for the 1862 elections , he allowed his name to be put forward . Running on a campaign of staunch support for the war effort , Blaine was elected with an ample majority despite Republican losses across the rest of the country . Under the Congressional calendar of the 1860s , members of the 38th United States Congress , elected in November 1862 , did not begin their work until December 1863 ; by the time Blaine finally took his seat that month , the Union had turned the tide in the war with victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg . As a first @-@ term congressman , he initially said little , mostly following the administration 's lead in supporting the continuing war effort . He did clash several times with the leader of the Republicans ' radical faction , Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania , firstly over payment of states ' debts incurred in supporting the war , and again over monetary policy concerning the new greenback currency . Blaine also spoke in support of the commutation provision of the military draft law passed in 1863 and proposed a constitutional amendment allowing the federal government to impose taxes on exports . = = = Reconstruction and impeachment = = = Blaine was reelected in 1864 and , when the 39th Congress assembled in December 1865 , the main issue was the Reconstruction of the defeated Confederate States . Although he was not a member of the committee charged with drafting what became the Fourteenth Amendment , Blaine did make his views on the subject known and believed that three @-@ fourths of the non @-@ seceded states would be sufficient to ratify it , rather than three @-@ fourths of all states , an opinion that did not prevail and placed him , atypically , in the radical camp . The Republican Congress also played a role in the governance of the conquered South , dissolving the state governments President Andrew Johnson had installed and substituting military governments under Congress 's control . Blaine voted in favor of these new , harsher measures , but also supported some leniency toward the former rebels when he opposed a bill that would have barred Southerners from attending the United States Military Academy . Blaine voted to impeach Johnson in 1868 , although he had initially opposed the effort . Later , Blaine was more ambiguous about the validity of the charges against Johnson , writing that " there was a very grave difference of opinion among those equally competent to decide , " but at the time partisan zeal led him to follow his party 's leaders . = = = Monetary policy = = = Continuing his earlier battle with Stevens , Blaine led the fight in Congress for a strong dollar . After the issuance of 150 million dollars in greenbacks — non @-@ gold @-@ backed currency — the value of the dollar stood at a low ebb . A bipartisan group of inflationists , led by Republican Benjamin F. Butler and Democrat George H. Pendleton , wished to preserve the status quo and allow the Treasury to continue to issue greenbacks and even to use them to pay the interest due on pre @-@ war bonds . Blaine called this idea a repudiation of the nation 's promise to investors , which was made when the only currency was gold . Speaking several times on the matter , Blaine said that the greenbacks had only ever been an emergency measure to avoid bankruptcy during the war . Blaine and his hard money allies were successful , but the issue remained alive until 1879 , when all remaining greenbacks were made redeemable in gold by the Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875 . = = = Speaker of the House = = = With Speaker Schuyler Colfax 's election to the Vice Presidency in 1868 , the leadership of the House became vacant . Blaine had only been a member of Congress since 1863 , but he had developed a reputation for parliamentary skill and , aside from a growing feud with Roscoe Conkling of New York , was popular with his fellow Republicans . He was elected with the unanimous vote of the Republican members at the start of the 41st Congress in March 1869 . Blaine was an effective Speaker with a magnetic personality ; President Ulysses S. Grant valued his skill and loyalty in leading the House . He enjoyed the job and made his presence in Washington more permanent by buying a large residence on Fifteenth Street in the city . At the same time , the Blaine family moved to a mansion in Augusta . Republicans remained in control of the House in the 42nd and 43rd Congresses , and Blaine was reelected as Speaker at the start of both of them , for a total term of six years in the Speaker 's chair . His popularity continued to grow , and Republicans dissatisfied with Grant mentioned Blaine as a potential candidate for president in 1872 . Instead , Blaine worked steadfastly for Grant 's reelection , which was a success . Blaine 's growing fame brought growing opposition from the Democrats , as well , and during the 1872 campaign he was accused of receiving bribes in the Crédit Mobilier scandal Blaine denied any part in the scandal , which involved railroad companies bribing federal officials to turn a blind eye to fraudulent railroad contracts that overcharged the government by millions of dollars . No one was able to satisfactorily prove Blaine 's involvement ( and the law that made the fraud possible had been written before he was elected to Congress ) but other Republicans were exposed by the accusations , including Vice President Colfax , who was dropped from the ticket at the 1872 Republican National Convention . Although he supported a general amnesty for former Confederates , Blaine opposed extending it to include Jefferson Davis , and he cooperated with Grant in helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in response to increased violence and disenfranchisement of blacks in the South . He refrained from voting on the anti @-@ third term resolution that overwhelmingly passed the House that same year , believing that to vote for it would look self @-@ interested . Blaine was loyal to Grant , but the scandals of the Grant administration did not taint how the public perceived him ; according to his biographer , Blaine was never more popular than when he was Speaker of the House . Liberal Republicans saw him as an alternative to what they saw the corruption of other Republican leaders , and some even urged him to form a new , reformist party . Although he remained a Republican , this base of moderate reformers remained loyal to Blaine and became known as the Half Breed faction of the party . = = = Blaine Amendment = = = The 1874 House elections produced a Democratic majority for the 44th Congress , and Blaine 's time as Speaker was at an end . This gave Blaine more time to concentrate on his presidential ambitions , and to develop new policy ideas . One result was a foray into education policy . In late 1875 , President Grant made several speeches on the importance of the separation of church and state and the duty of the states to provide free public education . Blaine saw in this an issue that would distract from the Grant administration scandals and let the Republican party regain the high moral ground . In December 1875 , he proposed a joint resolution that became known as the Blaine Amendment . The proposed amendment codified the church @-@ state separation Blaine and Grant were promoting , stating that : " No State shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; and no money raised by taxation in any State for the support of public schools , or derived from any public fund therefor , nor any public lands devoted thereto , shall ever be under the control of any religious sect ; nor shall any money so raised or lands so devoted be divided between religious sects or denominations . " The effect was to prohibit the use of public funds by any religious school , although it did not advance Grant 's other aim of requiring states to provide public education to all children . The bill passed the House but failed in the Senate . Although it never passed Congress , and left Blaine open to charges of anti @-@ Catholicism , the proposed amendment served Blaine 's purpose of rallying Protestants to the Republican party and promoting himself as one of the party 's foremost leaders . = = 1876 presidential election = = = = = Mulligan letters = = = Blaine entered the 1876 presidential campaign as the favorite , but his chances were almost immediately harmed by the emergence of a scandal . Rumors had begun to spread in February of that year that Blaine had been involved in a transaction with the Union Pacific Railroad in which the railroad had paid Blaine $ 64 @,@ 000 for some Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad bonds he owned , even though the bonds were nearly worthless ; in essence , the alleged transaction was a sham designed to bribe Blaine . Blaine denied the charges , as did the Union Pacific 's directors . Blaine claimed he never had any dealings with the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad except to purchase bonds at market price , and that he had lost money on the transaction . Democrats in the House of Representatives nevertheless demanded a Congressional investigation . The testimony appeared to favor Blaine 's version of events until May 31 , when James Mulligan , a Boston clerk formerly employed by Blaine 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , testified that the allegations were true , that he had arranged the transaction , and that he had letters to prove it . The letters ended with the damning phrase , " Kindly burn this letter . " When the investigating committee recessed , Blaine met with Mulligan in his hotel room ; what transpired between the men is unknown , but Blaine left with the letters and refused to turn them over to the committee . Blaine took his case to the House floor , proclaiming his innocence and calling the investigation a partisan attack by Southern Democrats , revenge for his exclusion of Jefferson Davis from the amnesty bill of the previous year . By now the pressure had begun to affect Blaine 's health , and he collapsed while leaving church services on June 14 . Blaine 's ill health combined with the lack of evidence against him garnered him sympathy among Republicans , and when the Republican convention began in Cincinnati later that month , he was again seen as the front @-@ runner . = = = Plumed Knight = = = Though he was damaged by the Mulligan letters , Blaine entered the convention as the favorite . Five other men were also considered serious candidates : Benjamin Bristow , the Kentucky @-@ born Treasury Secretary ; Roscoe Conkling , Blaine 's old enemy and now a Senator from New York ; Senator Oliver P. Morton of Indiana ; Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio ; and Governor John F. Hartranft of Pennsylvania . Blaine 's was nominated by Illinois orator Robert G. Ingersoll in what became a famous speech : This is a grand year — a year filled with recollections of the Revolution ... a year in which the people call for the man who has torn from the throat of treason the tongue of slander , the man who has snatched the mask of Democracy from the hideous face of rebellion ... Like an armed warrior , like a plumed knight , James G. Blaine from the state of Maine marched down the halls of the American Congress and threw his shining lance full and fair against the brazen foreheads of every traitor to his country and every maligner of his fair reputation . The speech was a success and Ingersoll 's appellation of " plumed knight " remained a nickname for Blaine for years to come . On the first ballot , no candidate received the required majority of 378 , but Blaine had the most votes , with 285 and no other candidate had more than 125 . There were a few vote shifts in the next five ballots , and Blaine climbed to 308 votes , with his nearest competitor at just 111 . On the seventh ballot the situation shifted drastically as anti @-@ Blaine delegates began to coalesce around Hayes ; by the time the balloting ended , Blaine 's votes had risen to 351 , but Hayes surpassed him at 384 , a majority . Blaine received the news at his home in Washington and telegraphed Hayes his congratulations . In the subsequent contest of 1876 , Hayes was elected after a contentious compromise over disputed electoral votes . The results of the convention had further effects on Blaine 's political career as Bristow , having lost the nomination , also resigned as Treasury Secretary three days after the convention ended . President Grant selected Senator Lot M. Morrill of Maine to fill the cabinet post , and Maine 's governor , Seldon Connor , appointed Blaine to the now @-@ vacant Senate seat . When the Maine Legislature reconvened that autumn , they confirmed Blaine 's appointment and elected him to the full six @-@ year term that would begin on March 4 , 1877 . = = United States Senate , 1876 – 1881 = = Blaine was appointed to the Senate on July 10 , 1876 , but did not begin his duties there until the Senate convened in December of that year . While in the Senate , he served on the Appropriations Committee and held the chairmanship of the Committee on Civil Service and Retrenchment , but he never achieved the role of leadership that he had held as a member of the House . The Senate in the 45th Congress was controlled by a narrow Republican majority , but it was a majority often divided against itself and against the Hayes administration . Blaine did not number himself among the administration 's defenders , but neither could he join the Republicans led by Conkling — later known as the Stalwarts — who opposed Hayes , because of the deep personal enmity between Blaine and Conkling . He opposed Hayes 's withdrawal of federal troops from Southern capitals , which effectively ended the Reconstruction of the South , but to no avail . Blaine continued to antagonize Southern Democrats , voting against bills passed in the Democrat @-@ controlled House that would reduce the Army 's appropriation and repeal the post @-@ war Enforcement Acts he had helped pass . By 1879 , there were only 1 @,@ 155 soldiers stationed in the former Confederacy , and Blaine believed that this small force could never guarantee the civil and political rights of black Southerners — which would mean an end to the Republican party in the South . Such bills passed Congress several times and Hayes vetoed them several times ; ultimately , the Enforcement Acts remained in place , but the funds to enforce them dwindled . On monetary issues , Blaine continued the advocacy for a strong dollar that he had begun as a Representative . The issue had shifted from debate over greenbacks to debate over which metal should back the dollar : gold and silver , or gold alone . The Coinage Act of 1873 stopped the coinage of silver for all coins worth a dollar or more , effectively tying the dollar to the value of gold . As a result , the money supply contracted and the effects of the Panic of 1873 grew worse , making it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had entered into when currency was less valuable . Farmers and laborers , especially , clamored for the return of coinage in both metals , believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values . Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill , which passed the House , that would require the United States to coin as much silver as miners could sell the government , thus increasing the money supply and aiding debtors . In the Senate , William B. Allison , a Republican from Iowa offered an amendment to limit the silver coinage to two to four million dollars per month . This was still too much for Blaine , and he denounced the bill , but the amended Bland – Allison Act passed the Senate by a 48 to 21 vote . Hayes vetoed the bill , but Congress mustered the two @-@ thirds vote to pass it over his veto . Even after the Bland – Allison Act 's passage , Blaine continued his opposition , making a series of speeches against it during the 1878 congressional campaign season . His time in the Senate allowed Blaine to develop his foreign policy ideas . He advocated expansion of the American navy and merchant marine , which had been in decline since the Civil War . Blaine also bitterly opposed the results of the arbitration with Great Britain over American fishermen 's right to fish in Canadian waters , which resulted in a $ 5 @.@ 5 million award to Britain . Blaine 's Anglophobia combined with his support of high tariffs when he initially opposed a reciprocity treaty with Canada that would have reduced tariffs between the two nations , but by the end of his time in the Senate he changed his mind , believing that Americans had more to gain by increasing exports than they would lose by the risk of cheap imports . = = 1880 presidential election = = Hayes had announced early in his presidency that he would not seek another term , which meant that the contest for the Republican nomination in 1880 was open to all challengers — including Blaine . Blaine was among the early favorites for the nomination , as were former President Grant , Treasury Secretary John Sherman of Ohio , and Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont . Although Grant did not actively promote his candidacy , his entry into the race re @-@ energized the Stalwarts and when the convention met in Chicago in June 1880 , they instantly polarized the delegates into Grant and anti @-@ Grant factions , with Blaine the most popular choice of the latter group . Blaine was nominated by James Frederick Joy of Michigan , but in contrast to Ingersoll 's exciting speech of 1876 , Joy 's lengthy oration was remembered only for its maladroitness . After the other candidates were nominated , the first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes and Blaine in second with 284 ; no other candidate had more than Sherman 's 93 , and none had the required majority of 379 . Sherman 's delegates could swing the nomination to either Grant or Blaine , but he refused to release them through twenty @-@ eight ballots in the hope that the anti @-@ Grant forces would desert Blaine and flock to him . Eventually , they did desert Blaine , but instead of Sherman they shifted their votes to Ohio Congressman James A. Garfield , and by the thirty @-@ sixth ballot he had 399 votes , enough for victory . Garfield placated the Stalwarts by endorsing Chester A. Arthur of New York , a Conkling loyalist , as nominee for vice president , but it was to Blaine and his delegates that Garfield owed his nomination . When Garfield was elected over Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock , he turned to Blaine to guide him in selection of his cabinet and offered him the preeminent position : Secretary of State . Blaine accepted , resigning from the Senate on March 4 , 1881 . = = Secretary of State , 1881 = = = = = Foreign policy initiatives = = = Blaine saw presiding over the cabinet as a chance to preside over the Washington social scene , as well , and soon ordered construction of a new , larger home near Dupont Circle . Although his foreign policy experience was minimal , Blaine quickly threw himself into his new duties . By 1881 , Blaine had completely abandoned his protectionist leanings and now used his position as Secretary of State to promote freer trade , especially within the western hemisphere . His reasons were twofold : firstly , Blaine 's old fear of British interference in the Americas was undiminished , and he saw increased trade with Latin America as the best way to keep Britain from dominating the region . Secondly , he believed that by encouraging exports , he could increase American prosperity , and by doing so position the Republican party as the author of that prosperity , ensuring continued electoral success . Garfield agreed with his Secretary of State 's vision and Blaine called for a Pan @-@ American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade . At the same time , Blaine hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia , Chile , and Peru . Blaine favored a resolution that would not result in Peru yielding any territory , but Chile , which had by 1881 occupied the Peruvian capital , rejected any negotiations that would gain them nothing . Blaine sought to expand American influence in other areas , calling for renegotiation of the Clayton – Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal through Panama without British involvement , as well as attempting to reduce British involvement in the strategically located Kingdom of Hawaii . His plans for the United States ' involvement in the world stretched even beyond the Western Hemisphere , as he sought commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar . = = = Garfield 's assassination = = = On July 2 , 1881 , Blaine and Garfield were walking through the Sixth Street Station of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad in Washington when Garfield was shot by an assassin , Charles J. Guiteau . Guiteau , a deranged man who had earlier pestered Blaine and other State Department officials to be appointed to ambassadorships for which he was grossly unqualified , believed that by assassinating the President he could ingratiate himself with Vice President Arthur and receive his coveted position . Guiteau was captured immediately and hanged just short of a year later ; he survived longer than Garfield , who lingered for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , then died on September 19 , 1881 . Garfield 's death was not just a personal tragedy for Blaine ; it also meant the end of his dominance of the cabinet and the end of his foreign policy initiatives . With Arthur 's ascent to the presidency , the Stalwart faction now held sway and Blaine 's days at the State Department were numbered . Arthur asked all of the cabinet members to postpone their resignations until Congress recessed that December ; Blaine nonetheless tendered his resignation on October 19 , 1881 but agreed to remain in office until December 19 , when his successor was in place . Blaine 's replacement was Frederick T. Frelinghuysen , a New Jersey Stalwart . Arthur and Frelinghuysen undid much of Blaine 's work , cancelling the call for a Pan @-@ American conference and stopping the effort to end the War of the Pacific , but they did continue the drive for tariff reductions , signing a reciprocity treaty with Mexico in 1882 . = = = Private life = = = Blaine began the year 1882 without a political office for the first time since 1859 . Troubled by poor health , he sought no employment other than the completion of the first volume of his memoir , Twenty Years of Congress . Friends in Maine petitioned Blaine to run for Congress in the 1882 elections , but he declined , preferring to spend his time writing and supervising the move to the new home . His income from mining and railroad investments was sufficient to sustain the family 's lifestyle and to allow for the construction of a vacation cottage , " Stanwood " , on Mount Desert Island , Maine , designed by Frank Furness . Blaine appeared before Congress in 1882 during an investigation into his War of the Pacific diplomacy , defending himself against allegations that he owned an interest in the Peruvian guano deposits being occupied by Chile , but otherwise stayed away from the Capitol . The publication of the first volume of Twenty Years in early 1884 added to Blaine 's financial security and thrust him back into the political spotlight . As the 1884 campaign loomed , Blaine 's name was being circulated once more as a potential nominee , and despite some reservations , he soon found himself back in the hunt for the presidency . = = 1884 presidential election = = = = = Nomination = = = In the months leading up to the 1884 convention , Blaine was once more considered the favorite for the nomination , but President Arthur was contemplating a run for election in his own right . George Edmunds was again the favored candidate among reformers and John Sherman had a few delegates pledged to him , but neither was expected to command much support at the convention . John A. Logan of Illinois hoped to attract Stalwart votes if Arthur 's campaign was unsuccessful . Blaine was unsure he wanted to try for the nomination for the third time and even encouraged General William T. Sherman ( John Sherman 's older brother ) to accept it if it came to him , but ultimately Blaine agreed to be a candidate again . William H. West of Ohio nominated Blaine with an enthusiastic speech and after the first ballot , Blaine led the count with 334 ½ votes . While short of the necessary 417 for nomination , Blaine had far more than any other candidate with Arthur in second place at 278 votes . Blaine was unacceptable to the Arthur delegates just as Blaine 's own delegates would never vote for the President , so the contest was between the two for the delegates of the remaining candidates . Blaine 's total steadily increased as Logan and Sherman withdrew in his favor and some of the Edmunds delegates defected to him . Unlike in previous conventions , the momentum for Blaine in 1884 would not be halted . On the fourth ballot , Blaine received 541 votes and was , at last , nominated . Logan was named vice presidential nominee on the first ballot , and the Republicans had their ticket . = = = Campaign against Cleveland = = = The Democrats held their convention in Chicago the following month and nominated Governor Grover Cleveland of New York . Cleveland 's time on the national scene was brief , but Democrats hoped that his reputation as a reformer and an opponent of corruption would attract Republicans dissatisfied with Blaine and his reputation for scandal . They were correct , as reform @-@ minded Republicans ( called " Mugwumps " ) denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland . The Mugwumps , including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher , were more concerned with morality than with party , and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government . However , even as the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps , they lost some blue @-@ collar workers to the Greenback Party , led by Benjamin F. Butler , Blaine 's antagonist from their early days in the House . The campaign focused on the candidates ' personalities , as each candidate 's supporters cast aspersions on their opponents . Cleveland 's supporters rehashed the old allegations from the Mulligan letters that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of railroads , later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies . Although the stories of Blaine 's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier , this time more of his correspondence was discovered , making his earlier denials less plausible . Blaine acknowledged that the letters were genuine , but denied that anything in them impugned his integrity or contradicted his earlier explanations . Nevertheless , what Blaine described as " stale slander " served to focus the public 's attention negatively on his character . On some of the most damaging correspondence , Blaine had written " Burn this letter " , giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry : " Blaine , Blaine , James G. Blaine , the continental liar from the state of Maine , ' Burn this letter ! " To counter Cleveland 's image of superior morality , Republicans discovered reports that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo , New York , and chanted " Ma , Ma , where 's my Pa ? " . ( To which the Democrats , after Cleveland had been elected , appended : " Gone to the White House , Ha ! Ha ! Ha ! " ) Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin , the woman who claimed he fathered her child named Oscar Folsom Cleveland . Halpin was involved with several men at the time , including Cleveland 's friend and law partner , Oscar Folsom , for whom the child was also named . Cleveland did not know which man was the father , and is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them . At the same time , Democratic operatives accused Blaine and his wife of not having been married when their eldest son , Stanwood , was born in 1851 ; this rumor was false , however , and caused little excitement in the campaign . Both candidates believed that the states of New York , New Jersey , Indiana , and Connecticut would determine the election . In New York , Blaine received less support than he anticipated when Arthur and Conkling , still powerful in the New York Republican party , failed to actively campaign for him . Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did ; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century , Blaine 's mother was Irish Catholic , and he believed his career @-@ long opposition to the British government would resonate with the Irish . Blaine 's hope for Irish defections to the Republican standard were dashed late in the campaign when one of his supporters , Samuel D. Burchard , gave a speech denouncing the Democrats as the party of " Rum , Romanism , and Rebellion " . The Democrats spread the word of this insult in the days before the election , and Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states , including New York by just over one thousand votes . While the popular vote total was close , with Cleveland winning by just one @-@ quarter of a percent , the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219 – 182 . = = Party leader in exile = = Blaine accepted his narrow defeat and spent most of the next year working on the second volume of Twenty Years of Congress . The book continued to earn him enough money to support his lavish household and pay off his debts . Although he spoke to friends of retiring from politics , Blaine still attended dinners and commented on the Cleveland administration 's policies . By the time of the 1886 Congressional elections , Blaine was giving speeches and promoting Republican candidates , especially in his home state of Maine . Republicans were successful in Maine , and after the Maine elections in September , Blaine went on a speaking tour from Pennsylvania to Tennessee , hoping to boost the prospects of Republican candidates there . Republicans were less successful nationwide , gaining seats in the House while losing seats in the Senate , but Blaine 's speeches kept him and his opinions in the spotlight . Blaine and his wife and daughters sailed for Europe in June 1887 , visiting England , Ireland , Germany , France , Austria @-@ Hungary , and finally Scotland , where they stayed at the summer home of Andrew Carnegie . While in France , Blaine wrote a letter to the New @-@ York Tribune criticizing Cleveland 's plans to reduce the tariff , saying that free trade with Europe would impoverish American workers and farmers . The family returned to the United States in August 1887 . His letter in the Tribune had raised his political profile even higher , and by 1888 Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge , both former opponents , urged Blaine to run against Cleveland again . Opinion within the party was overwhelmingly in favor of renominating Blaine . As the state conventions drew nearer , Blaine announced that he would not be a candidate . His supporters doubted his sincerity and continued to encourage him to run , but Blaine still demurred . Hoping to make his intentions clear , Blaine left the country and was staying with Carnegie in Scotland when the 1888 Republican National Convention began in Chicago . Carnegie encouraged Blaine to accept if the convention nominated him , but the delegates finally accepted Blaine 's refusal . John Sherman was the most prominent candidate and sought to attract the Blaine supporters to his candidacy , but instead found them flocking to former senator Benjamin Harrison of Indiana after a telegram from Carnegie suggested that Blaine favored him . Blaine returned to the United States in August 1888 and visited Harrison at his home in October , where twenty @-@ five thousand residents paraded in Blaine 's honor . Harrison defeated Cleveland in a close election , and offered Blaine his former position as Secretary of State . = = Secretary of State , 1889 – 92 = = Harrison had developed his foreign policy based largely on Blaine 's ideas , and at the start of his term , Harrison and Blaine had very similar views on the United States ' place in the world . In spite of their shared worldview , however , the two men became personally unfriendly as the term went on . Harrison was conscious that his Secretary of State was more popular than he , and while he admired Blaine 's gift for diplomacy , he grew displeased with Blaine 's frequent absence from his post because of illness , and suspected that Blaine was angling for the presidential nomination in 1892 . Harrison tried to limit how many " Blaine men " filled subordinate positions in the State Department and denied Blaine 's request that his son , Walker , be appointed First Assistant Secretary , instead naming him Solicitor of the Department of State . Despite the growing personal rancor , the two men continued , with one exception , to agree on the foreign policy questions of the day . = = = Pacific diplomacy = = = Blaine and Harrison wished to see American power and trade expanded across the Pacific and were especially interested in securing rights to harbors in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , and Pago Pago , Samoa . When Blaine entered office , the United States , Great Britain , and the German Empire were disputing their respective rights in Samoa . Thomas F. Bayard , Blaine 's predecessor , had accepted an invitation to a three @-@ party conference in Berlin aimed at resolving the dispute , and Blaine appointed American representatives to attend . The result was a treaty that created a condominium among the three powers , allowing all of them access to the harbor . In Hawaii , Blaine worked to bind the kingdom more closely to the United States and to avoid its becoming a British protectorate . When the McKinley Tariff of 1890 eliminated the duty on sugar , Hawaiian sugar @-@ growers looked for a way to retain their once @-@ exclusive access to the American market . The Hawaiian minister to the United States , Henry A. P. Carter , tried to arrange for Hawaii have complete trade reciprocity with the United States , but Blaine proposed instead that Hawaii become an American protectorate ; Carter favored the idea , but the Hawaiian king , Kalākaua , rejected the infringement on his sovereignty . Blaine next procured the appointment of his former newspaper colleague John L. Stevens as minister to Hawaii . Stevens had long believed that the United States should annex Hawaii , and as minister he co @-@ operated with Americans living in Hawaii in their efforts to bring about annexation . Their efforts ultimately culminated in a coup d 'état against Kalākaua 's successor , Liliuokalani , in 1893 . Blaine 's precise involvement is undocumented , but the results of Stevens 's diplomacy were in accord with his ambitions for American power in the region . The new government petitioned the United States for annexation , but by that time Blaine was no longer in office . = = = Latin America and reciprocity = = = Soon after taking office , Blaine revived his old idea of an international conference of western hemisphere nations . The result was the First International Conference of American States , which met in Washington in 1890 . Blaine and Harrison had high hopes for the conference , including proposals for a customs union , a pan @-@ American railroad line , and an arbitration process to settle disputes among member nations . Their overall goal was to extend trade and political influence over the entire hemisphere ; some of the other nations understood this and were wary of deepening ties with the United States to the exclusion of European powers . Blaine said publicly that his only interest was in " annexation of trade " , not annexation of territory , but privately he wrote to Harrison of a desire for some territorial enlargement of the United States : " I think there are only three places that are of value enough to be taken ... One is Hawaii and the others are Cuba and Porto Rico [ sic ] . Cuba and Porto Rico are not now imminent and will not be for a generation . Hawaii may come up for decision at an unexpected hour and I hope we shall be prepared to decide it in the affirmative . " Congress was not as enthusiastic about a customs union as Blaine and Harrison were , but tariff reciprocity provisions were ultimately included in the McKinley Tariff that reduced duties on some inter @-@ American trade . Otherwise , the conference achieved none of Blaine 's goals in the short @-@ term , but did lead to further communication and what would eventually become the Organization of American States . In 1891 , a diplomatic crisis arose in Chile that drove a wedge between Harrison and Blaine . The American minister to Chile , Patrick Egan , a political friend of Blaine 's , granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge from the Chilean Civil War . Chile was already suspicious of Blaine because of his War of the Pacific diplomacy ten years earlier , and this incident raised tensions even further . When sailors from the Baltimore took shore leave in Valparaíso , a fight broke out , resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and three dozen arrested . When the news reached Washington , Blaine was in Bar Harbor recuperating from a bout of ill health and Harrison himself drafted a demand for reparations . The Chilean foreign minister , Manuel Antonio Matta , replied that Harrison 's message was " erroneous or deliberately incorrect " , and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter . Tensions increased as Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology . Blaine returned to the capital and made conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government , offering to submit the dispute to arbitration and recall Egan . Harrison still insisted on an apology and submitted a special message to Congress about the threat of war . Chile issued an apology for the incident , and the threat of war subsided . = = = Relations with European powers = = = Blaine 's earliest expressions in the foreign policy sphere were those of a reactionary Anglophobe , but by the end of his career his relationship with the United Kingdom had become more moderate and nuanced . A dispute over seal hunting in the waters off Alaska was the cause of Blaine 's first interaction with Britain as Harrison 's Secretary of State . A law passed in 1889 required Harrison to ban seal hunting in Alaskan waters , but Canadian fishermen believed they had the right to continue fishing there . Soon thereafter , the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships near the Pribilof Islands . Blaine entered into negotiations with Britain and the two nations agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration by a neutral tribunal . Blaine was no longer in office when the tribunal began its work , but the result was to allow the hunting once more , albeit with some regulation , and to require the United States to pay damages of $ 473 @,@ 151 . Ultimately , the nations signed the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 , which outlawed open @-@ water seal hunting . At the same time as the Pribilof Islands dispute , an outbreak of mob violence in New Orleans became an international incident . After New Orleans police chief David Hennessy led a crackdown against local mafiosi , he was assassinated on October 14 , 1890 . After the alleged murderers were found not guilty on March 14 , 1891 , a mob stormed the jail and lynched eleven of them . Since many of those killed were Italian citizens the Italian minister , Saverio Fava , protested to Blaine . Blaine explained that federal officials could not control how state officials deal with criminal matters , and Fava announced that he would withdraw the legation back to Italy . Blaine and Harrison believed the Italians ' response to be an overreaction , and did nothing . Tensions slowly cooled , and after nearly a year , the Italian minister returned to the United States to negotiate an indemnity . After some internal dispute — Blaine wanted conciliation with Italy , Harrison was reluctant to admit fault — the United States agreed to pay an indemnity of $ 25 @,@ 000 , and normal diplomatic relations resumed . = = Retirement , death , and legacy = = Blaine had always believed his health to be fragile , and by the time he joined Harrison 's cabinet he truly was unwell . The years at the State Department also brought Blaine personal tragedy as two of his children , Walker and Alice , died suddenly in 1890 . Another son , Emmons , died in 1892 . With these family issues and his declining health , Blaine decided to retire and announced that he would resign from the cabinet on June 4 , 1892 . Because of their growing animosity , and because Blaine 's resignation came three days before the 1892 Republican National Convention began , Harrison suspected that Blaine was preparing to run against him for the party 's nomination for president . Harrison was unpopular with the party and the country , and many of Blaine 's old supporters encouraged him to run for the nomination . Blaine had denied any interest in the nomination months before his resignation , but some of his friends , including Senator Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania and James S. Clarkson , chairman of the Republican National Committee , took it for false modesty and worked for his nomination anyway . When Blaine resigned from the cabinet , his boosters were certain that he was a candidate , but the majority of the party stood by the incumbent . Harrison was renominated on the first ballot , but die @-@ hard Blaine delegates still gave their champion 182 and 1 / 6 votes , good enough for second place . Blaine spent the summer of 1892 at his Bar Harbor cottage , and did not involve himself in the presidential campaign other than to make a single speech in New York in October . Harrison was defeated soundly in his rematch against former president Cleveland and when Blaine returned to Washington at the close of 1892 , he and Harrison were friendlier than they had been in years . Blaine 's health declined rapidly in the winter of 1892 – 1893 , and he died in his Washington home on January 27 , 1893 . After a funeral at the Presbyterian Church of the Covenant , he was buried in Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington . He was later re @-@ interred in Blaine Memorial Park , Augusta , Maine , in 1920 . A towering figure in the Republican party of his day , Blaine fell into obscurity fairly soon after his death . A 1905 biography by his wife 's cousin , Edward Stanwood , was written when the question was still in doubt , but by the time David Saville Muzzey published his biography of Blaine in 1934 , the subtitle " A Political Idol of Other Days " already spoke to its subject 's fading place in the popular mind , perhaps because of the nine men the Republican Party nominated for the Presidency from 1860 to 1912 , Blaine is the only one who never became President . In 1947 , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission installed a historical marker in West Brownsville , noting Blaine 's historic importance . Although several authors studied Blaine 's foreign policy career , including Edward P. Crapol 's 2000 work , Muzzey 's was the last full @-@ scale biography of the man until Neil Rolde 's 2006 book . Historian R. Hal Williams was working on a new biography of Blaine , tentatively titled James G. Blaine : A Life in Politics , until his death in 2016 .
= Who Shot Mr. Burns ? = " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " is a two @-@ part episode of The Simpsons . Part One is the twenty @-@ fifth and final episode of the sixth season and originally aired on Fox on May 21 , 1995 , while Part Two is the season premiere of the seventh season and aired on September 17 , 1995 . Springfield Elementary School strikes oil , but Mr. Burns steals it and at the same time brings misery to many of Springfield 's citizens . Part One has a cliffhanger ending where Mr. Burns is shot by an unidentified assailant . In Part Two , Springfield 's police try to find the culprit , with their main suspects being Waylon Smithers and Homer Simpson . Both episodes were written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein ; Part One was directed by Jeffrey Lynch and Part Two by Wes Archer . Musician Tito Puente guest stars as himself in both parts . " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " was conceived by series creator Matt Groening and the writing staff decided to turn it into a two @-@ part mystery episode . Part One contains several clues about the identity of the culprit because the writers wanted it to be solvable . The concept for the two @-@ part episode was the episode of the primetime soap Dallas titled " A House Divided " , known by most as " Who shot J.R. ? " in which character J.R. Ewing was shot . In the months following the airing of Part One , there was much widespread debate among fans of the series as to who actually shot Mr. Burns and in many ways the public reaction and response to the episode mirrored that of its " Who shot J.R. ? " inspiration . Over the summer of 1995 , Fox offered a related contest which was one of the first such endeavors to tie in elements of television and the Internet . = = Plot = = = = = Part One = = = Principal Skinner walks into school and discovers that the class gerbil , " Superdude " , has died . As Groundskeeper Willie digs a grave , he unexpectedly strikes oil . Skinner and Superintendent Chalmers lavishly think of ways to spend the school 's newfound wealth , taking many student requests , including Lisa 's suggestion of hiring Tito Puente as a music teacher . At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , Homer is disturbed that Mr. Burns can never remember his name , even after working for him for ten years . He takes a suggestion from Marge and sends Mr. Burns a box of chocolates with a family picture underneath the candy ; however , Burns and Smithers are not interested in the one candy covering Homer 's face and discard the box . As a result , Burns writes a " thank you " card only to Marge , Bart , Lisa and Maggie , further angering Homer . Meanwhile , Mr. Burns learns of the school 's oil and immediately decides that he must have it , even as Smithers voices his disapproval . After failing to convince Skinner to give him the oil through a poor deception , Mr. Burns establishes a slant drilling operation and beats the school to tapping the oil well . The school is told they have no legal recourse , and Willie and Puente are laid off to cover the school 's losses . Mr. Burns ' drilling operation causes further harm and distress to many Springfield citizens : Moe 's Tavern is closed due to the harmful fumes from the drilling , leaving Moe and Barney enraged ; the drilling wrecks the Springfield Retirement Castle , leaving Grampa homeless , forcing him to move in with the Simpsons ; and Bart 's treehouse is destroyed by a burst of oil from the rig , which also injures Santa 's Little Helper . Mr. Burns then reveals to Smithers his grandest scheme : the construction of a giant , movable disc that will permanently block out the sun in Springfield , forcing the residents to continuously use the electricity from his power plant . A horrified Smithers finally stands up to Mr. Burns , insisting that he has gone too far ; Burns fires him in response . Later , Homer sneaks into Mr. Burns ' office and spray @-@ paints " I am Homer Simpson " on the wall in giant letters . Mr. Burns catches him in the act , but yet still seemingly does not recognize Homer . In a rage , Homer attacks him and is hauled away by security . All the citizens affected by Mr. Burns ' mad schemes , including Homer and even Smithers , swear revenge . A town meeting is held to discuss Mr. Burns ' actions . Mr. Burns arrives , armed with a gun after his encounter with Homer . Despite the whole town standing up to him , he activates the sun @-@ blocking device , thinking himself invincible . He walks into an alley , obscured from view , and says : " Oh it 's you , what are you so happy about ? ... I see . I think you 'd better drop it . " He struggles with someone until a gunshot is heard . He stumbles out into the open , wounded , and collapses on the town 's sundial . The townspeople find him and Marge tells all of them that since Burns has angered so many people recently , just about anyone could have been the shooter . = = = Part Two = = = As Mr. Burns fights for life at the hospital , the Springfield police are working to find his assailant . Smithers wakes up the next morning and vaguely remembers shooting someone the night before in a drunken rage . Guilt @-@ ridden , Smithers heads for a local church , and is promptly arrested when the confessional turns out to be a police sting . While passing the media in his way to the police station , Smithers makes a witty remark that Sideshow Mel recognizes from an episode of Pardon My Zinger that aired at the same time as the shooting . Mel realizes that Smithers must have watched it as well , giving him an alibi . As Smithers ' memory clears , it turns out that he had actually shot Jasper in his wooden leg . With one of the prime suspects cleared , the police , aided by Lisa , eliminate other suspects , including Tito Puente ( whose revenge took the form of a " slanderous mambo " ) , Skinner ( who was busy applying what he thought was camouflage make @-@ up at the time of the shooting ) , Willie ( who cannot fire a pistol due to arthritis in his index fingers ) , and Moe ( who is cleared via polygraph test ) . After a surreal dream about Lisa , Wiggum finds an eyelash on Mr. Burns ' suit which matches Simpson DNA . At the same time , Mr. Burns wakes up from his coma and cries , " Homer Simpson ! " The police raid the Simpson home and find a gun under the seat of their car , covered with Homer 's fingerprints and loaded with bullets that match the one fired into Mr. Burns . Homer is arrested for attempted murder , but escapes from the paddywagon when it overturns while the police are trying to pick up a Drive @-@ Thru meal . Smithers offers a reward for his capture . At the hospital , it is revealed that " Homer Simpson " is the only thing that Mr. Burns can say , suggesting that his supposed " accusation " may not have actually been one . Hoping to clear Homer 's name , Lisa returns to the scene of the crime to investigate and figures out the identity of Mr. Burns ' true assailant . At the same time , Homer arrives at the hospital to confront Mr. Burns and demand that Burns exonerate him , despite being somewhat impressed that Burns finally remembered his name . After a police bulletin reports Homer 's location , the police , Lisa and many other citizens of Springfield all race to the hospital . Upon entering Mr. Burns ' room , everyone finds an enraged Homer vigorously shaking Burns and demanding that he take back his accusation . Homer 's shaking him returns Mr. Burns 's ability to speak normally , and he quickly asks who the person shaking him is . Apoplectic with fury at Burns again not remembering who he is , Homer grabs Wiggum 's gun and aims it at Mr. Burns ' face , demanding that Burns recant his accusations . Mr. Burns then laughs at the idea and confirms that Homer did not shoot him . He then reveals the true assailant : Maggie Simpson . Mr. Burns reveals that , after leaving the town meeting , he came across Maggie eating a lollipop in the Simpsons ' car . Mr. Burns decided to try stealing candy from a baby , but Maggie would not let go of the lollipop , resulting in a struggle . As he finally yanked it away , his gun slipped from its holster into Maggie 's hands and fired at Burns . The gun and lollipop both then fell beneath the car seat ; Homer would later unknowingly leave fingerprints on the gun while feeling around under the seat for an ice cream cone he accidentally dropped . Lisa guesses that with his last strength , Burns must have pointed at the " S " and " W " on the sundial ( with the " W " appearing as an " M " from his perspective ) , to identify his assailant ; Mr. Burns corrects her , saying that he was actually swallowing his gold fillings to protect them from being pilfered by the paramedics . The " S " and " M " were purely coincidental . Mr. Burns demands for Maggie to be arrested for the crime , but he is dismissed by Chief Wiggum , who says that no jury would convict a baby for a crime , except " maybe Texas " . Marge also adds that the shooting must have been an accident , considering the fact that Maggie does not know how to operate a gun . The final shot shows Maggie with shifty eyes suggesting it may not have been an accident after all . = = Production = = The idea for the episode came from Matt Groening , who had wanted to do an episode in which Mr. Burns was shot , which could be used as a publicity stunt . The writers decided to write the episode in two parts with a mystery that could be used in a contest . It was important for them to design a mystery that had clues , took advantage of freeze frame technology , and was structured around one character who seemed the obvious culprit . While deciding who the culprit was , Oakley and Weinstein pitched Barney Gumble because he was a character that could go to jail and it could change the dynamic of the show . Mirkin suggested Maggie because he felt it was funnier and wanted the culprit to be a Simpsons family member . Oakley and Weinstein were initially unsure about having Maggie as the culprit , and it was decided that the episode would end with Maggie shifting her eyes and making it look like it was not a complete accident . The producers worked hard to keep the ending of the episode a secret . While it was in production , David Silverman was the only animator who knew who the culprit was . Wes Archer , director of the episode , was initially unaware of the solution and directed the episode up until the conclusion . When it was time to animate the ending of the show , Silverman and Archer waited until the end of the summer of 1995 to work on it . They realized they needed help with the layouts and started giving various animators small parts to work on without telling them who the culprit was . The table read for the episode also ended before the third act . The writers had wanted the clues that were animated to be just right , so there were many animation retakes . Tito Puente and his Latin jazz ensemble appear in the episode and sing the song " Señor Burns " . Oakley and Weinstein were unfamiliar with Puente and wrote him into the episode because Groening is a fan . They figured he would sing the song , but later discovered that Puente was a drummer , not a singer . The lyrics were sung by one of Puente 's band members . His band would also play their version of The Simpsons ' theme over the end credits . = = = Hidden clues = = = A number of subtle clues , and a few red herrings , were planted in Part One for viewers who wanted to unravel the mystery . Almost every clock is set at three or nine o 'clock . The point of the clocks was to teach the viewer to view the sundial at the end upside down . Mr. Burns looks from his balcony and talks about stealing candy from a baby . When Mr. Burns collapses on the sundial , he points at W and S , although from his viewpoint , the W looks like an M. Many of the suspects have the letters S and W or M in their initials and the intention was that several " obvious " suspects could be eliminated by the letters . Several characters already had names with those initials , but some were made up specifically for this episode.Principal Skinner 's full name is revealed to be " W. Seymour Skinner " on a diploma in his office . Mr. Burns calls Santa 's Little Helper the " Simpson Mutt " . Moe 's liquor license reveals that his full name is Moe Szyslak . Grampa 's gun was a Smith & Wesson . Just before entering Mr. Burns ' office to spray paint his name , Homer passes in front of the words " ONLY IN " on the pavement ( upside down from the viewer 's perspective ) , and very briefly blocks all of the letters except " NO " and a small arrow pointing at him . A television in Moe 's Tavern shows that " Pardon My Zinger " is broadcast on weekdays at 3 PM on Comedy Central . It is later revealed that Burns is shot at 3 PM . Smithers reveals at the meeting that he never misses the show , and afterward is seen heading in the opposite direction that Burns heads . During the scene at the town hall , several citizens are seen stroking guns : Smithers has a revolver , an unidentified woman also has a revolver , Moe has a shotgun , Skinner has a semi @-@ automatic handgun with a suppressor attached , and Barney has a derringer . As Mr. Burns collapses on the sundial , it is seen that the gun he was previously carrying has gone missing . This was inserted as an intentional freeze frame clue . = = = Alternate endings = = = Due to the amount of interest in the ending of this episode , David Mirkin wrote several " terrible endings " and , with just Harry Shearer , recorded several alternate endings . His original intention was to fool the production staff and also leak the endings to various media outlets , but much to his surprise he was unsuccessful . Several endings were animated that showed various characters shooting Mr. Burns . Several of the alternate endings aired during the clip show " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " . Various clips showed Apu , Moe , Barney , Tito , and even Santa 's Little Helper as the gunmen . There was also a full @-@ length conclusion that aired in which Smithers shot Burns and explained his doing so at Burns 's bedside after Homer 's wild chase , and fell on " W " and S " on the compass , Waylon 's initials ; Burns then decides to give Smithers a 5 percent pay cut for attempting to kill him . = = Contest = = In the months following the broadcast of Part One , there was widespread debate among fans of the series as to who shot Mr. Burns . Fox offered a contest to tie in with the mystery where callers who dialed 1 @-@ 800 @-@ COLLECT were eligible and they then guessed who the culprit was . It ran from August 13 to September 10 and was one of the first contests to tie together elements of television and the Internet . Fox launched a new website , www.Springfield.com , devoted to the mystery which got over 500 @,@ 000 hits during the summer of 1995 . The winner would be animated on an episode of the show . Due to contest regulations , a winner had to be selected out of a random sample of entries . The sample did not contain any correct answers , and so a winner ( who had the wrong answer ) was chosen at random . However , the winner , Fayla Gibson of Washington D.C. , did not watch the show and opted to accept a cash prize in lieu of being animated . The contest is referenced at the end of the episode when Dr. Hibbert says , " Well I couldn 't possibly solve this mystery ... Can you ? " = = Springfield 's Most Wanted = = Springfield 's Most Wanted was a TV special hosted by John Walsh , host of America 's Most Wanted . The special aired on September 17 , 1995 , at 7 : 30 P.M. ET before Part Two of Who Shot Mr. Burns ? . A parody of Walsh 's television series , this special was designed to help people find out who shot Mr. Burns , by laying out the potential clues and identifying the possible suspects . It features opinions from former Los Angeles police chief Daryl Gates and predictions from Dennis Franz , Courtney Thorne @-@ Smith , Kevin Nealon , Chris Elliott , and Andrew Shue . It was directed by Bill Brown and written by Jack Parmeter and Bob Bain . The special was criticized for taking the publicity of the episode too far . Several critics said the special tainted host John Walsh 's credibility and was described as gimmicky , tacky , and " blatant groveling for viewers " . The special averaged an 8 @.@ 4 Nielsen Rating and finished 50th in the United States in the ratings for the week of September 11 – 17 , 1995 . = = Cultural references = = The title and concept for these two episodes were taken from the series Dallas . In the " Who shot J. R. ? " plot line , J. R. Ewing is shot in the season finale . The identity of the assailant was not revealed until the following season , leaving viewers to wonder for months which of Ewing 's many enemies was the culprit . When Mr. Burns refers to his package at the beginning of the episode , he states that it " absolutely , positively " has to arrive in Pasadena , California , the following day , a reference to an early FedEx slogan . The song Mr. Burns sings to a lamp @-@ post echo the lyrics of Simon & Garfunkel 's song " The 59th Street Bridge Song ( Feelin ' Groovy ) " . The musical score that ends the first episode ( when the credits roll ) is a parody of John Williams ' Drummers ' Salute , which is part of the musical score he composed for Oliver Stone 's film JFK . During the scene in Part One where Moe 's bar is closed , an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 is playing on the television in the background following a promotion for the fictional program Pardon My Zinger at 3 : 00pm . Homer 's file photo with the Springfield Police Department shows him after a recent beating and wearing a T @-@ shirt that says , " Haig in ' 88 , " a reference to former Secretary of State Alexander Haig 's controversial bid for the Republican Presidential nomination in 1988 . The opening of Part Two , wherein Smithers realizes that he merely dreamed about shooting Mr. Burns , is a reference to the episode " Blast from the Past " from Dallas , in which the events of the entire eighth season were explained away as being merely a character 's dream . The dream itself , in which Smithers and Burns are undercover detectives on the 1960s Speedway racing circuit , parodied The Mod Squad . Groundskeeper Willie 's interrogation , and particularly his crossing and uncrossing his legs , is a parody of Sharon Stone 's famous interrogation scene in Basic Instinct . The nightclub is called ' Chez Guevara ' , a reference to Communist revolutionary Che Guevara . Homer 's escape from the overturned paddy wagon is a homage to the 1993 film The Fugitive . Chief Wiggum 's dream in which Lisa speaks backwards is reference to Twin Peaks and Special Agent Dale Cooper 's interaction with the Man from Another Place . While recording Lisa 's lines for the segment , Yeardley Smith recorded the part backwards ; the recording was in turn reversed , a technique known as phonetic reversal , the same technique used on Twin Peaks . Several other parts out of the segment are direct references to the dream , including a moving shadow on the curtain , and Wiggum 's hair standing straight up after waking . = = Reception = = Part One finished 51st with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 , the fifth highest rated Fox show of the week . Part Two averaged 12 @.@ 3 million households and a 12 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating . It finished sixteenth in the United States in the ratings for the week of September 11 – 17 , 1995 , finishing first in its time slot and was the highest rated show on the Fox network that week . It helped the Fox network rank third overall for that week at a time when Fox was usually finishing fourth . In 2003 , Entertainment Weekly published a Top 25 Simpsons episode list and placed both parts of " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " in 25th place , saying " a two @-@ part comedic homage to Dallas ' Who shot J.R. ? stunt , [ Who Shot Mr. Burns ] is perhaps The Simpsons ' most grandiose pop moment ever " . The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " A superb end to the season — and what 's more , it 's a genuine whodunnit . There 's no cheating — all the clues are there . " Jake Rossen of Wizard called the ending the sixth greatest cliffhanger of all time but expressed disappointment in the resolution , saying , " Sometimes it 's better to make up your own ending , kids . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly included Part One in their list of the best television season finales of all time . The song " Señor Burns " , which was composed by Alf Clausen and written by Bill Oakley & Josh Weinstein was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 1996 for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music and Lyrics " . Tito Puente ranked 19th on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars .
= Cool Hand Luke = Cool Hand Luke is a 1967 American prison drama film directed by Stuart Rosenberg , starring Paul Newman and featuring George Kennedy in an Oscar @-@ winning performance . Newman stars in the title role as Luke , a prisoner in a Florida prison camp who refuses to submit to the system . The film , set in the early 1950s , is based on Donn Pearce 's 1965 novel of the same name . Pearce sold the story to Warner Bros. , who then hired him to write the script . Due to Pearce 's lack of film experience , the studio added Frank Pierson to rework the screenplay . Newman 's biographer Marie Edelman Borden states that the " tough , honest " script drew together threads from earlier movies , especially Hombre , Newman 's earlier film of 1967 . The film has been cited by Roger Ebert as an anti @-@ establishment film which was shot during the time of the Vietnam War , in which Newman 's character endures " physical punishment , psychological cruelty , hopelessness and equal parts of sadism and masochism . " His influence on his prison mates and the torture that he endures is compared to that of Jesus , and Christian symbolism is used throughout the film , culminating in a photograph superimposed over crossroads at the end of the film in comparison to the crucifixion . Filming took place on the San Joaquin River Delta , and the set , imitating a southern prison farm , was built in Stockton , California . The filmmakers sent a crew to Tavares Road Prison in Tavares , Florida , to take photographs and measurements . Upon its release , Cool Hand Luke received favorable reviews and became a box @-@ office success . The film cemented Newman 's status as one of the era 's top box @-@ office actors , while the film was described as the " touchstone of an era . " Newman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor , George Kennedy won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , Pearce and Pierson were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay , and the score by Lalo Schifrin was also nominated for the Best Original Score . In 2005 , the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry , considering it to be " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " It has a rare 100 % rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . The quotation used by the prison warden in the film , which begins with " What we 've got here is failure to communicate , " was listed at No. 11 on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 most memorable movie lines . = = Plot = = Decorated World War II veteran Lucas " Luke " Jackson ( Paul Newman ) , is arrested for cutting the " heads " off of parking meters one drunken night . He is sentenced to two years in prison and sent to a Florida chain gang prison run by a stern warden , the Captain ( Strother Martin ) , and a stoic rifleman , Walking Boss Godfrey ( Morgan Woodward ) , whose eyes are always covered by a pair of mirrored sunglasses . Carr ( Clifton James ) the floorwalker , tells the rules to the new set of prisoners , with any violations resulting in spending the night in “ the box , ” a small squared room with limited air and very little room to move . Luke refuses to observe the established pecking order among the prisoners and quickly runs afoul of the prisoners ' leader , Dragline ( George Kennedy ) . When the pair have a boxing match , the prisoners and guards watch with interest . Although Luke is severely outmatched by his larger opponent , he refuses to acquiesce . Eventually , Dragline refuses to continue the fight . Luke 's tenacity earns the prisoners ' respect . Later , Luke wins a poker game by bluffing with a hand worth nothing . Luke comments that " sometimes , nothing can be a real cool hand , " prompting Dragline to nickname him " Cool Hand Luke " . After a visit from his sick mother Arletta ( Jo Van Fleet ) , Luke becomes more optimistic about his situation . He continually confronts the Captain and the guards , and his sense of humor and independence prove to be both contagious and inspiring to the other prisoners . Luke 's struggle for supremacy peaks when he leads a work crew in a seemingly impossible but successful effort to complete a road @-@ paving job in less than one day . The other prisoners start to idolize him after he makes and wins a spur @-@ of @-@ the moment bet that he can eat fifty hard @-@ boiled eggs in one hour . One day , Luke picks up a deadly rattlesnake from the grassy ditch and holds it up for Boss Godfrey to shoot with his rifle . Luke tosses the snake to the boss as a joke , before he hands him his walking cane . Dragline advises Luke to be more careful about his actions pertaining to the " man with no eyes . " A rainstorm causes everyone to prematurely end their work . Before he joins the other prisoners in the truck , Luke shouts to God , testing him . On that same evening , Luke receives a letter stating that his mother has died . After news of his mother 's death reaches Luke , the Captain , anticipating that Luke might attempt to escape in order to attend his mother 's funeral , has him locked in the prison punishment box . After being released from the box , receiving word that his mother 's burial is completed , and being told to forget about her , Luke is determined to escape . Under the cover of a Fourth of July celebration , he makes his initial escape attempt . He is later recaptured by local police and returned to the chain gang , but not before one of the blood hounds sent after him dies from strain caused by struggling through barbed @-@ wire fences . After his capture and return , the Captain has Luke fitted with leg @-@ irons and delivers a warning speech to the other inmates , explaining , " What we 've got here is failure to communicate . Some men you just can 't reach . So you get what we had here last week , which is the way he wants it . Well , he gets it . I don 't like it any more than you men . " A short time later , Luke escapes again by using string to shake a bush and distract the guards , visiting a nearby house where he uses an axe to remove his shackles . To keep the guard dogs from following his scent , he spreads curry powder and chili powder across the ground to send them into sneezing fits and overload their sensitive sense of smell . While free , Luke mails Dragline a magazine that includes a photograph of him with two beautiful women . He is soon recaptured , beaten , returned to the prison camp and fitted with two sets of leg irons . Luke is warned by the Captain that if he ever attempts to escape again , he will be killed on the spot . Luke is now annoyed by the other prisoners fawning over the magazine photo and reveals it to be a fake . At first , the other prisoners are angry , but after a long stay in the box , when Luke is forced to eat a huge serving of rice , they come to help him finish it . As punishment for his escape , he is forced to repeatedly dig a grave @-@ sized hole in the prison camp yard , fill it back in , then be beaten . The prisoners observe his persecution , singing spirituals . Finally , as the other prisoners watch from the windows of the bunkhouse , an exhausted Luke collapses in the hole , begging God for mercy and pleads with the bosses not to hit him again . Believing Luke is finally broken , the Captain stops the punishment . Boss Paul warns Luke that he will be killed if ever he runs away again , which Luke promises in tears not to do . The prisoners begin to lose their idealized image of Luke , and one tears up the photograph of Luke with the women . Seemingly broken , and again working on the chain gang , Luke stops working to give water to a prisoner . Watched by the disappointed prisoners , he runs to one of the trucks to take Boss Godfrey 's rifle to him . After Boss Godfrey shoots a snapping turtle , Luke retrieves it from a slough for him , complimenting the boss for his shot . Luke takes one last stab at freedom when he is ordered to take the turtle to the truck . He steals the dump truck , as well as the keys to the other trucks . In the excitement of the moment , Dragline jumps in the dump truck and joins Luke in his escape . Later , after abandoning the truck , Luke tells Dragline that they should part ways . Drag agrees and leaves . Luke enters a church , where he talks to God and blames Him for sabotaging him so he cannot win in life . Moments later , police cars arrive . Dragline walks in and tells Luke that the police and bosses have promised not to hurt Luke if he surrenders peacefully . But Luke , feeling that his life is no longer worth living , walks to a window facing the police and mocks the Captain by repeating the first part of his speech ( " What we 've got here is a failure to communicate . " ) . He is immediately shot in the neck by Boss Godfrey . Dragline carries Luke outside , then charges at Boss Godfrey and attempts to strangle him until he is beaten and subdued by the other guards . In tears , Dragline implores Luke to live . The local police want to take Luke to a nearby hospital , but the Captain tells them to take him to the prison hospital instead , a long enough distance that Luke 's chances of survival are slim . As the captain 's car drives away , it crushes Boss Godfrey 's glasses . After Luke 's implied death , Dragline and the other prisoners reminisce about him . In the final scene , the prison crew is seen working near a rural intersection close to where Luke was shot . Dragline is now wearing leg irons , and there is a new Walking Boss . As the camera zooms out , the torn photograph of Luke grinning with the two women is superimposed on a bird 's eye view of the cross @-@ shaped road junction . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Script = = = Pearce , a merchant seaman who later became a counterfeiter and safe cracker , wrote the novel Cool Hand Luke , about his experiences working on a chain gang while serving in a Florida prison . He sold the story to Warner Bros. for US $ 80 @,@ 000 and received another US $ 15 @,@ 000 to write the screenplay . After working in television for over a decade , Rosenberg chose it to make it his directorial debut in cinema . He took the idea to Jalem Productions , owned by Jack Lemmon . Since Pearce had no experience writing screenplays , his draft was reworked by Frank Pierson . Conrad Hall was hired as the cinematographer , while Paul Newman 's brother , Arthur , was hired as the unit production manager . Newman 's biographer Marie Edelman Borden states that the " tough , honest " script drew together threads from earlier movies , especially Hombre , Newman 's earlier film of 1967 . Director Stuart Rosenberg altered the original ending in the script , adding " an upbeat ending that would reprise the protagonist 's ( and Paul Newman 's ) trademark smile . " = = = Casting = = = Paul Newman 's character , Luke , is a decorated war veteran who is sentenced to serve two years in a Florida rural prison . He constantly defies the authorities of the facility , becoming a leader among the prisoners , as well as escaping multiple times . While the script was being developed , the leading role was initially considered for Jack Lemmon or Telly Savalas . Newman asked to play the leading role after hearing about the project . In order to develop his character , he traveled to West Virginia , where he recorded local accents and surveyed people 's behavior . George Kennedy turned in an Academy Award @-@ winning performance as the leader of the prisoners , Dragline , who fights Luke , and comes to respect him . During the nomination process , worried about the box office success of Camelot and Bonnie and Clyde , Kennedy invested US $ 5 @,@ 000 in trade advertising to promote himself . Kennedy later stated that thanks to the award his salary was " multiplied by ten the minute ( he ) won , " also adding " the happiest part was that I didn 't have to play only villains anymore . " Strother Martin , known for his appearances in westerns , was cast as the Captain , a prison warden who is depicted as a cruel and insensitive leader , severely punishing Luke for his escapes . The role of Luke 's dying mother , Arletta , who visits him in prison , was passed to Jo Van Fleet after it was rejected by Bette Davis . Morgan Woodward was cast as Boss Godfrey , a laconic , cruel and remorseless prison officer who Woodward described as a " walking Mephistopheles . " He was dubbed " the man with no eyes " by the inmates for his mirrored sunglasses . The blonde Joy Harmon was cast for the scene where she teases the prisoners in washing her car after her manager , Leon Lance , contacted the producers . She auditioned in front of Rosenberg and Newman wearing a bikini , without speaking . = = = Filming = = = Filming took place on the San Joaquin River Delta . The set , imitating a southern prison farm , was built in Stockton , California . The filmmakers sent a crew to Tavares Road Prison in Tavares , Florida to take photographs and measurements , where Pearce had served his time . The structures that were built in Stockton included barracks , a mess hall , the warden 's quarters , a guard shack and dog kennels . The trees on the set were decorated with spanish moss that the producers took to the area . The construction soon attracted the attention of a county building inspector who confused it with migrant worker housing and ordered it " condemned for code violations . " The opening scene where Newman cuts the parking meters was filmed in Lodi , California . Meanwhile , the scene in which Luke is chased by bloodhounds and other exteriors were shot in Jacksonville , Florida , at Callahan Road Prison . Luke was played by a stunt actor , using dogs from the Florida Department of Corrections . Rosenberg wanted the cast to internalize life on a chain gang and banned the presence of wives on set . After Joy Harmon arrived on location , she remained for two days in her hotel room , and wasn 't seen by the rest of the cast until shooting commenced . Despite the directors ' intentions , the scene was ultimately filmed separately . Rosenberg instructed an unaware Harmon of the different movements and expressions he wanted . Originally planned to be shot in half a day , Harmon 's scene took three . For the part of the scene featuring the chain gang , Rosenberg substituted a teenage cheerleader , who wore an overcoat . = = = Soundtrack = = = The Academy Award nominated original score was composed by Lalo Schifrin , who created tunes with a background in popular music and jazz . While some of the tracks include the use of guitars , banjos and harmonicas , others include trumpets , violins , flutes and piano . An edited version of the musical cue from the Tar Sequence ( where the inmates are energetically paving the road ) has been used for years as the theme music for local television stations ' news programs around the world , mostly those owned and operated by ABC in the United States . Although the music was written for the film , it became more familiar for its association with television news , in part because its staccato melody resembles the sound of a telegraph . = = Themes = = = = = Christian imagery = = = Pierson included in his draft explicit religious symbolism . The film contains several elements based on Christian themes , including the concept of Luke as a Saint who wins over the crowds and is ultimately sacrificed . Newman 's character of Luke is portrayed as a " Jesus @-@ like redeemer figure . " After winning the egg @-@ eating bet , Luke lies exhausted on the table in the position of Jesus as depicted on his crucifixion . After learning about the death of his mother , Luke sings " Plastic Jesus . " Greg Garrett also compares Luke to Jesus , in that like Jesus , he was not physically threatening to society because of his actions , and like Jesus ' crucifixion , his punishment was " out of all proportion . " Luke challenges God during the rainstorm on the road , telling him to do anything to him . Later , while he is digging and filling trenches and confronted by the guards , an inmate performs the spiritual " No Grave Gonna Keep my Body Down . " Toward the end of the film , Luke speaks to God , evoking the conversation between God and Jesus at the Garden of Gethsemane , depicted in the Gospel of Luke . Following Luke 's talk , the film depicts Dragline as a Judas , who delivers Luke to the authorities , trying to convince him to surrender . In the final scene , Dragline eulogizes Luke . He explains that despite Luke 's death , his actions succeeded in defeating the system . The closing shot shows inmates working on crossroads with the repaired photo of Luke and the two women superimposed . = = = Use of traffic signs and signals = = = Different traffic signs are used throughout the film , complementing the actions of the characters during the scenes . At the beginning , while Luke cuts the heads off the parking meters , the word " Violation " appears . Stop signs are also seen . Instances include the road @-@ paving scene and the last scene , where the road meets at a cross section . Traffic lights turn from green to red in the background at the time Luke is arrested , while at the end , when he is fatally wounded , a green light in the background turns to red . = = = " Failure to communicate " = = = What we 've got here is failure to communicate . Some men you just can 't reach . So you get what we had here last week . Which is the way he wants it . Well , he gets it . And I don 't like it any more than you men . After writing the line , Pierson worried that the phrase was too complex for the warden . To explain its origin , he created a backstory that was included in the stage directions . Pierson explained that in order to advance in the Florida prison system , officers had to take criminology and penology courses at the state university , showing how the warden might know such words . Strother Martin later clarified that he felt the line was the kind that his character would very likely have heard or read from some " pointy @-@ headed intellectuals " who had begun to infiltrate his character 's world under the general rubric of a new , enlightened approach to incarceration . Some authors believe that the quotation was a metaphor for the ongoing Vietnam War conflict which was taking place during the filming , and others have applied it towards corporations and even teenagers . The quotation was listed at number 11 on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 most memorable movie lines . An audio sample of the line is included in the Guns N ' Roses songs " Civil War " and " Madagascar . " = = Release and reception = = Cool Hand Luke opened on November 1 , 1967 at Loew 's State Theatre in New York City . The proceeds of the premiere went to charities . The film became a box @-@ office success , grossing US $ 16 @,@ 217 @,@ 773 in domestic screenings . Kennedy won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . Newman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor , while Pearce and Pierson were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and Schiffrin was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score . Rosenberg was nominated for best director by the Writers Guild of America and Conrad Hall was nominated for best cinematography by the National Society of Film Critics . Variety described Newman 's performance as " excellent , " noting the supporting cast as " versatile and competent . " The New York Times praised the film , remarking that Pearce and Pierson 's " sharp script , " Rosenberg 's " ruthlessly realistic and plausible " staging and direction and Newman 's " splendid " performance with an " unfaultable " cast , " elevates " it among other prison films . On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds an overall 100 % " Certified Fresh " approval rating based on 45 reviews , with an average of 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 . The site 's consensus is that " Though hampered by Stuart Rosenberg 's direction , Cool Hand Luke is held aloft by a stellar script and one of Paul Newman 's most indelible performances . " Empire rated it five stars out of five , declaring the movie one of Newman 's best performances . Slant rated the film three stars out of four . It described Newman 's role as " iconic , " also praising its cinematography and sound score . Allmovie praised Newman 's performance as " one of the most indelible anti @-@ authoritarian heroes in movie history . " Critic Roger Ebert included the film in his review collection The Great Movies , rating it four stars out of four . Ebert stated that it was a " great " film and also an anti @-@ establishment one during the time of the Vietnam War . He believed that the film was a product of its time and that no major film company would be interested in producing a film of such " physical punishment , psychological cruelty , hopelessness and equal parts of sadism and masochism " today . He praised the cinematography , capturing the " punishing heat " of the location , and stated that " the physical presence of Paul Newman is the reason this movie works : The smile , the innocent blue eyes , the lack of strutting , " which no other actor could have produced as effectively . Contrary to the general consensus , Newman 's biographer Lawrence J. Quirk thought that it was one of Newman 's weaker performances , stating " For once , even Newman 's famed charisma fails him , for in Cool Hand Luke he completely lacks the charm that , say , Al Pacino in Scarecrow effortlessly exhibits when he plays a screw @-@ up who also winds up ( briefly ) incarcerated . " However , Quirk added that Newman 's performance was stronger in the second half and said that " to be fair to Newman , he was trying his damnedest to play an impossible part , since Luke is a convict 's rationalization fantasy and never a real character . " Some authors have criticized the film 's depiction of prison life at the time . In a review entitled " Sheer Beauty in the Wrong Place , " Life , while praising the film 's photography , criticized the influence of the visual styles in the depictions of the prison camp . The magazine declared that the landscapes turned it into " a rest camp ( in which ) the men are getting plenty of sleep , food and healthy outdoor exercise , " that despite the presence of the guards showed that there were " worse ways to pay one 's debt with society . " Ron Clooney also remarked that prisons " were not hotels and certainly not the stuff of Cool Hand Luke movies . " = = = Legacy = = = In 2003 , AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains rated Luke as the number 30 greatest hero in American cinema , and three years later , AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers : America 's Most Inspiring Movies rated Cool Hand Luke number 71 . Cool Hand Luke was included in the United States National Film Registry in 2005 . In 2006 , Luke was ranked 53rd in Empire magazine 's " The 100 Greatest Movie Characters . " The movie solidified Newman 's status as a box @-@ office star , while the film is considered a touchstone of the era . In 2005 , the United States Library of Congress deemed Cool Hand Luke to be " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry . An episode of the TV show The Dukes of Hazzard entitled " Cool Hands Luke and Bo " was shown with Morgan Woodward playing " Colonel Cassius Claiborne " the boss of a neighboring county and warden of its prison farm . He wears the trademark shades of Boss Godfrey throughout the episode . The book was adapted into a West End play by Emma Reeves . It opened at London 's Aldwych Theatre starring Marc Warren , but closed after less than two months , following poor reviews . The show was chosen by The Times both as " Critic 's Choice " and " What the Critics Would Pay To See . " Nashville @-@ based Christian alternative rock band Cool Hand Luke is named after the film .