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Croatia (Hrvatska, formally) the Republic of Croatia, is a republic in southeastern Europe. Croatia borders on Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia-Herzegovina to the east and Slovenia and Ungerni north. In the west and southwest of the Adriatic is a maritime state border with Italy. Croatia’s capital and seat of government of Zagreb is the country’s academic and scientific center and a major transport hub. National Anthem Lijepa Naša domovino (“Our beautiful homeland”) Largest city, Zagreb (about 790 000 inhabitants) Official language Croatian City Condition Republic President Ivo Josipovic Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor Independence 25/6 1991 Population 4 494 749 Population density 79, 7inv / km2 GDP 69440 million Per capita $ 13,607 Currency Kuna (HRK) Time zone UTC + 1 Highest mountain Dinara 1830 m asl. The biggest lake Vransko Jezero 30,2km2 Longest river Sava 945.5 km Nationalday June 25 Country Code HR HRV Country code 385 Croatia is a member of the World Trade Organization and the Central European Free Trade Association CEFTA. The country will join the European Union (1juli 2013) Croatia is since 1 April 2009 Member of the NATO defense alliance. The Croats are a Slavic-speaking peoples who lived in the area now known as Galicia (Ukraine and Poland). From there they migrated in 600s further south to today’s Croatia. Croats origin is not conclusively established. One theory has recently emerged where Croats are said to have originated from Iran, based on the mention of a people whose name is meant to be the origin of the word Croat in the writings on the stones found there the word Croat can be traced to ancient Slavic word for “mountain” frskare have with today’s modern DNA technology have been able to establish that the Croats are Slavs and not of Iranian origin. They share the same gene pool as the other Europeans and are more genetically similar Scandinavians than the Iranians. Croats first king was Tomislav I from 925. During östromersk and later Frankish supremacy of Croatia became one of the most powerful kingdoms in the region, but in 1102 ended an internal power struggle, which lasted for a century, and the Croatians sat under Hungarian supremacy. During the mid-1400s was the Hungarian kingdom strongly affected by the Ottoman expansion during the following centuries came to include most of Slavonia and later, more than half of Hungary. During the same time, Dalmatia became Venetian. Dubrovnik (Ragusa) was a city-state that was originally Byzantine and Venetian, but later became an independent state called the Republic of Dubrovnik, although it was put under the neighboring countries’ sovereignty. Battle of Mohács in 1526 forced the Croatian Parliament to invite the Habsburgs during Ferdinand I to assume control over Croatia, which took place at the parliament of Cetin. Habsburg rule eventually led to the Ottomans was coerced, and in the 1700s was the most of Croatia out of Ottoman control and the Habsburgs were Istria, Dalmatia and Dubrovnik between 1797 and 1815. After World War I, Austria-Hungary’s case amounted Croatia in the 1928 would become Yugoslavia. During World War II Yugoslavia was invaded by Italy and Germany. During the Italian occupation, Croatia became a fascist puppet state called Independent State of Croatia. After the war Yugoslavia was a socialist, federative state under Josip Broz Tito’s leadership. Croatia, along with Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia, one of the republics in the federation of Yugoslavia until 1991 when the country since democratic elections decided to leave the federation. In 1991, Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia, which led to a war, known as the Croatian War of Independence, the Yugoslav army and Serb separatists. The Croatian War of Independence lasted five years and was formally terminated år1995 when Dayton Peace Agreement was signed between Bosnia-Herzegovina and the former Yugoslavia, which then consisted of Serbia and Montenegro. The last UN troops left Croatia in 1998 when the last Yugoslav troops left eastern Croatia. Croatia has a shape that resembles a crescent or horseshoe. It is bordered by Slovenia, Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and maritime against Italy. The country is divided into two parts of Bosnia-Herzegovina’s short stretch of coast around Neum. Croatia lies on the border between South, Central and Eastern Europe, making it difficult to attribute to a specific region. Croatia counts sometimes as a central European country because of its geographical, cultural and historical ties to the countries of Central Europe. Sometimes it also counts as one of the Balkans, due to its geographic position and it has belonged to the former Yugoslavia. Others expect the country to either Eastern Europe or the Mediterranean countries, while some organizations are content to place the country between Eastern Europe and Central Europe. In the northern and northeastern part of the terrain is dominated by fields, lakes and ridges. In Lika and Gorski Kotar landscape is dominated by densely forested mountains. The narrow Adriatic coast (Istria and Dalmatia) are mostly mountainous. The country is sometimes called “the thousand islands’ country because there are about 1233 islands on the Croatian coast. Croatia has a mixture of climates. In the north and east it is continental, Mediterranean climate on the coast and in the country’s South Central parts prevail highland climate. The highest mountain is Dinara 1 830 m above sea level and the largest lake is Kozje. The longest river is the Sava. Major cities in Croatia including Zagreb, Split, Rijeka, Osijek, Zadar, Slavonian Brod Pula, Karlovac, Dubrovnik, Varazdin, Sisak, Sibenik, Vinkovci, Vukovar, Đakovo, Knin, Rovinj, Opatija and Sinj. Croatia is usually divided into four regions or landscapes that have no administrative significance. There is no glass clear boundaries between the regions and they do not coincide with the administrative county boundaries are. The regions corresponding to Sweden Götaland, Svealand and Norrland are as follows: Istria (Istria), Dalmatia (Dalmacija), Slavonia (Slavonia) and Continental Croatia (Hrvatska Kontinentalna). While the regions have historic areas that have no administrative significance, or clear boundaries – like Roslagen in Uppland or Österlen in Skåne. For example constitutes Baranja and Srijem parts of eastern Slavonia. Zagorje is a region north of Zagreb and Gorski Kotar region north-east of Rijeka. The area to the south of the Drava River which forms the border with Hungary called Podravina, while the area to the north of the Sava River which forms the border with Bosnia-Herzegovina called Posavina. The region north of Dalmatia called Lika and the region northeast of the equally named Kordun. As in Sweden, there are dialects and to some extent cultural differences between the regions, but those differences are negligible and do not necessarily coincide with the regions and county boundaries are. Croatia’s climate varies from being temperate continental type in the northern and eastern parts of the country, to be subtropical of Mediterranean coastal and mountain climate between the coastal and mountain regions of Lika, Dalmatia and Zagora. Annual rainfall is low in Croatia thanks to the location on the Mediterranean. Driest it is at the south of the Mediterranean coast, around only about 300 mm per year, and the wettest months in Dinarerna around Lika, about 2 000 mm. In Croatia, the large temperature differences between day and night, and summer and winter. Inland dominates the north-easterly winds, which brings snow and cold, while the Mediterranean coast is dominated by mild southwest winds from the Mediterranean which brings rain and mild weather. In summer, the interior is dominated by easterly winds from Russia, which brings humid and hot weather. Mediterranean coast is dominated by sydvindar from Africa involving drought and heat, as well as sunny days. Inland, however, the nights may be chilly with temperatures of -2 degrees and temperatures of up to +30 degrees at midday, but the coast is not as much difference. Where it can be +35 to day +25 at night, ie tropical night. However, Croatia has not tropical climate without subtropical only on the coast. Government and politics Form of government According to the Constitution of 1990, Croatia is a parliamentary democracy. Croatian President is head of state and commander in chief, and elected for five years. The president appoints the prime minister with the approval of Parliament and also has some influence over foreign policy. The Croatian Parliament (Sabor) consists of a chamber with 160 members elected for four years. Parliament convenes January 15-July 15 and between 15 September and 15 December. Government (Vlada), headed by the Prime Minister, consists of two deputy prime ministers and 14 ministers. The justice system is threefold, with a Supreme Court and county courts, and municipal courts. Foreign policy conditions Croatia’s foreign policy goals is membership in the European Union and NATO. The country is also working globally and regionally in different ways to strengthen its position. Croatia is since 2000 member iPartnerskap for Peace (PfP) and aspired to NATO membership from 2002. On 17 October 2007 elected Croatia to one of the non-permanent members of the UN Security Council for the period 2008-2009. During the NATO summit in BUKARESTden April 3, 2008 Croatia received an official invitation to join NATO and then on 1 April 2009, the country is a member of the alliance. In 2003 examined Croatia’s membership in the European Union (EU). The country was granted candidate status in 2004 and has made several reforms to adapt its economy to the EU. Europe was long reluctant to further develop the candidacy towards eventual full membership as Croatia under the EU were long unwilling to extradite General Ante Gotovina, who is suspected of war crimes committed during Croatia’s war of independence (1991-1995). In 2005, Croatia to begin membership negotiations when the EU is now believed that Croatia is fully cooperating with the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague. The decision was prompted by the Spanish police (after the tip of the Croatian Intelligence Service) were able to arrest Ante Gotovina in the Canary Islands, and handed him over to the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague. Croatia will become the Union’s 28th member in 2013. In December 2008, Slovenia vetoed the opening ten chapters in the accession talks because of the ongoing border dispute. The blockage was lifted in the autumn of 2009 and negotiations resumed on 2 October 2009. So far 30 out of 35 chapters opened in accession negotiations with Croatia, of which seventeen have been completed. Tourism is a vital part of business life. Croatia’s foreign trade is focused on the EU, and therefore affected the economy of the trends in countries such as Sweden, the Netherlands and Italy. The country’s per capita GDP was estimated (purchasing power adjusted) in 2007 to about 15 500 US dollars (the world average is 10 000 US dollars). Croatia, Slovenia, second, the most prosperous country of the states that once made up Yugoslavia. In the late 1980s began with the fall of communism an economic transition. Croatia had an advantageous position but badly damaged by de-industrialization and war. The main problems facing the country today is a relatively high unemployment rate (11.2% in 2006) and slow reforms. Especially difficult factors are the justice system and public administration, both of which are outdated and inefficient. The country has seen rapid growth in recent years and has applied for membership of the EU. The country has also been granted the status of official candidate. Several steps have already been taken to make the Croatian economy more similar to the EU and it is expected that this in the near future will lead to increased activity in the economy. Croatia populated mainly avKroater (89.6%). The largest minority groups ärSerber (4.5%), Bosniaks (0.5%) and Hungarians (0.4%). Croatia’s population has stagnated over the past decade. War which lasted between 1991 and 1995 contributed mainly to this, partly because people were killed in battle, partly because the country lived through a great emigration. The natural population growth rate is zero or negative and is about ± 1%. Life expectancy is around 75 years, and the literacy rate is 97.5%. The population’s average age is 38.9 years. Serbs of Croatia Before detKroatiska war of independence constituted the largest minority Serbs nearly 13% of the population. During the war many Serbs left Croatia for political and / or economic reasons. As Croatia through Operation Storm in 1995 retook the Serb-held Krajina region escaped an estimated 250 000 to Serbia, Republika Serpska and other parts of the world from persecution and forced deportation of the Croatian forces. Get Serbs today, however, returned to Croatia. The Croatian government’s official position is that all the Serbs who fled or left the country during the Croatian War of Independence should and should return to Croatia if they so wish. Financial support has led to upwards of 120,000 Serbs have returned to Croatia in recent years. The main religion is Catholicism (89.2%), minority religions are mostly Serbian Orthodox (5.0%), Islam (1.3%) and Protestants (0.3%). Other forms 5.6%. Croatian is the official language and mordersmål for the majority of the population. It is a Slavic language that uses the Latin alphabet. Other languages (Serbian, Italian, Hungarian, Slovenian, Czech, Istro-Romanian language, etc.) is spoken by less than five percent of the population. In Istria, where an Italian minority group exists, is also Italian language an official language. In recent years, Croatia has put several billion kronor in expanding the country’s motorway and thus connect all parts of Croatia. Motorways are (as in many other European countries) toll. The tunnels Grič and Brinje considered among the safest and most modern in Europe in 2007. The Croatian Government has expressed that they will continue to invest in infrastructure as it is considered to be an important element in the country’s economic recovery. Road construction creates jobs while the country can count on foreign investments when many international companies are dependent on good infrastructure. Moreover, many of the hundreds of thousands of tourists visiting Croatia motoring and congestion was earlier the rule rather than the exception. Minor roads are still a lower standard than in western Europe. But even here apply to the government to invest money to further improve quality. Following independence in road building, received a boost, and in 1995 completed highway (unofficially called “Dalmatina”) between the capital Zagreb and the country’s second largest city, Split, in southern Croatia. Thus shortening the travel time from about 8-9 hours to four hours. At the inauguration, the Government announced a thirty-year dream come true and that they intend to continue the motorway until it reaches Dubrovnik in southern Croatia. In 2007 begins the construction of the Peljesac bridge, which will connect the mainland and the peninsula of Peljesac. It will be completed within four years and will then be Europe’s 18th longest bridge. Most highways operated by the state-owned company Hrvatske dd autoceste (Croatian Motorways AB). Track standard in Croatia is relatively good but rail network is in need of modernization. The railway network was built during the time when Croatia was part of government formation Austro-Hungarian and Croatian cities are rather connected with Vienna than with each other. The trains’ standard is high and the Croatian Government have declared that they now intend to invest in the rail network and enable high-speed trains to run on multiple lines. In 2007 commenced the modernization of the section between Croatia’s largest port town of Rijeka, the capital Zagreb and the Hungarian border, which will reduce travel time between the cities significantly. The construction will be completed in 2013 and cost about twenty billion. Rail traffic is handled primarily by the company “Hrvatske željeznice doo” (Croatian Railways AB). Shipping is very important for Croatia, and has several major ports. The main ports located in Omišalj, Ploce, Rijeka, Sibenik, Dubrovnik, Dugi Rat, Pula, Split and Zadar. Croatia has 66 inhabited islands off its coast, which means that there are a large number of local ferries. Croatian trade fleet consists of 73 ships. Some of the nation’s largest shipyards named Uljanik in Pula, and Viktor Lenac and 3.maj, in Rijeka. Croatia’s state-owned airlines heterCroatia Airlines. The company was founded in August 7, 1989 under the name of Zagal (Zagreb Airlines). When Croatia became independent in 1991 the company changed its name to Croatia Airlines. Croatia Airlines is a member of IATA, AEA and the Star Alliance. The company has in recent years seen a strong increase in passengers and in 2005 Croatia Airlines transported 1,555,033 passengers to various destinations in Croatia and worldwide. More recently, other actors (including Ryanair) entered the Croatian market and offers flights to Croatia. International airports are in Zagreb (Pleso), Split (Resnik), Dubrovnik (Čilipi), Pula, Krk (Rijeka), Zadar and Osijek. Croatia’s culture is based on one thirteen centuries-long history, during which it managed to acquire many monuments and cities, which have given a large number of prominent individuals. The country also houses seven World Heritage Sites and eight national parks. Croatia counts sometimes as a central European country because of its cultural and historical ties to the countries of Central Europe. Croatia belonged to the central European state formation Habsburg (later Austria-Hungary) for several centuries before the country in 1918 was in the then newly founded state formation “Serbs, Croats and Slovenes kingdom” (later called Yugoslavia). The Croatian culture, because of these historical facts, referred to as “central European” and Croatians consider themselves to belong to the Western cultural sphere. An independent Gallup survey conducted in September and October 2008 showed that a majority of Croats (60%) not identified with the region of the Balkans. Other countries look still frequently Croatia as a part of the Balkans, and often as a part of the former Yugoslavia Although the tradition of playing the instrument gusle which is a typical instrument of the Balkans. Famous musicians are Oliver Dragojevic, Zlatan Stipišić Gibonni, Tony Cetinski, Nina Badrić and Ivana Banfić. Three Nobel Prize winners have come from Croatia, plus a large number of inventors. Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, reservoarpennans inventor, came from Croatia and was active in Zagreb. Neck Clothing has strong ties to Croatia, then tie (kravata), according to legend was invented there. The country also has a long tradition of musicians, artists and writers. The Low German became the word for Croat, “krawat” distorted the creature and eventually came to denote a “rascal, patrons, rogue or rascal.” This word then came into Swedish with approximately the same meaning, but can also stand for “little kid”. Croatia is becoming increasingly known for its good food and fine wines. The genuine Croatian cuisine is multifaceted and has many regional differences. Common, however, is quality as the Croatians love to use fresh and biologically produced raw materials. Along the coast of Istria, Dalmatia and Primorje, the food is inspired by Italy but cooked in “Croatian style”. Fish, seafood, pasta and pizza, is often on the menu. Sea urchin and rock lobster, grilled and served with a lemon wedge is popular on the menu as well pljeskavica which is a hamburger cooked in beef mixed with pepperoni. Buzzara is a cooking method that is suitable for various kinds of seafood. Buzzara simply means that the main ingredient is cooked in a spicy sauce with wine, tomatoes, spices and herbs. Sometimes you can get just the sauce with the pasta. Pašticada is a kind of stew that some describe as sweet and sour. The taste is based on meat is simmered long at low temperature along with including wine and sometimes prunes. Rizoto reminiscent of the Italian risotto, but is often looser texture and do not always contain cheese. Rizoto is an excellent and inexpensive lunch right is usually found in countless cheap variants (vegetarian, seafood, housing, etc.) in most restaurants. Inland, where the cuisine is inspired by Hungary and Austria, take the meat dishes to. Fried or grilled beef, lamb and pork are common across the country. In Zagorje (region north of Zagreb) is the food culture inspired by Austria and have found also the best schnitzels in the country. Capital Zagreb has its own specialty, Zagrebački odrezak, which is a wiener schnitzel stuffed with ham and cheese. In Slavonia, a region in eastern Croatia, stands Hungarian cuisine to spicy peppers and hearty stews like goulash and Maneštra. In Croatia there are also some dishes which originated from Turkey, via neighboring Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina came to Croatia where they have been domesticated. Best known is cevapcici, a type of ground beef rolls, served with potatoes or fries and burek is an airy puff pastry bread filled with various ingredients, such as meat, cheese, potatoes or apple. Even the desserts are a very high standard. Croatian ice cream (Croatian: sladoled) is an excellent competitor of the Italian ice cream in terms of both taste and quality. Cremeschnitte is a lovely vanilla pastry originally from the town of Samobor, near Zagreb, and can be enjoyed throughout Croatia as well strudl which is an apple cake that originated iÖsterike. Croatia is a big wine producer and produces many different wines of varying quality. The most famous red wines are Dingač, Plavac and Postup all manufactured in the southernmost country part of Dalmatia. White wines are produced mainly in the northern parts of the country and the most famous is the Muscatel, Malvazija, Kaštelet and Pošip. Croatia is not only a major wine producer. Beer production has also a long history. The largest beer brands in Croatia include ožujsko and Karlovacko. One of the most common forms of liquor is rakija, a kind of brandy and are available in variety of flavors. Between åre 1940-1995 when Croatia was part of Communist Yugoslavia were oppressed and neglected traditional religious practices, as well as in the other republics of the regime. Despite this, many Croats to exercise their customs and habits private. Since Croatia gained independence, encouraged old Croatian customs that nowadays practiced extensively in all parts of the country. The practices often have a religious Catholic origin and linked to the Catholic liturgical year. Many towns and villages hold processions to celebrate Easter, Christmas or the local patron saint. As in many other Catholic countries Christmas (Croatian: Božić) in Croatia a much more Christian character than in Sweden, for example. For the typical Croatian Christmas is a Christian holiday which celebrates the birth of Jesus. Christmas is celebrated with loved ones, and as in Sweden and the rest of the Christian world becomes commercial elements with expensive gifts and more common in Croatia. In those families where the gift distribution is practiced, according to tradition, Santa Claus (Djed Božićnjak) and more seldom the Infant Jesus (mali Isus) that come with them on Christmas Day (December 25). The tradition of it’s baby Jesus that comes with the gifts are originally from Germany and Austria where children receive gifts from “Kristkindl”. Advent (Croatian: Došašće) is celebrated in the same way as in Sweden but instead of an Advent candle holder has the Croatians an Advent wreath with four usually a little thicker light. Advent wreath looks something like a finely decorated overhead door wreath with four candles in and placed centrally on the table. Saint Nicholas (Croatian: Sveti Nikola) can often confused medjultomten but come early as December 6 to all good children. According to tradition (which apart from Croatia celebrated in most Central European countries), all children the day before he will polish their shoes and place them at the window end. The window left ajar to Saint Nicholas during the night can drop in – and the children have been good and polished their shoes properly so they get candy or toys in or beside their finputsade shoes. On Lucia Day (13 December), many Croats who, according to tradition puts wheat seeds on a dish and soak them so that they begin to sprout. The drum is placed on the table. On Christmas Day, it has stuck up about 10 cm long, green stalks and then tie a band that goes in the red, white and blue (Croatian tricolor) around them. According to tradition, it is believed that if the germ has taken and grown firmly expecting a successful year. Christmas Eve (Croatian: Badnja vecer or shorter Badnjak) December 24 celebrates the most with family and / or friends. According to Catholic tradition, one eats no meat on this day without food consists of fish, specifically Bakalar that resembles stockfish. The tradition-bound place a straw in the tablecloth. On top of the straw and the tablecloth is placed Christmas bread (Badnji kruh) consisting of honey, nuts and dried fruit and has a central part in the dinner. This day is also borne the Christmas tree up and decorated with the usual Christmas tree decoration. Many families linked to so-called Licitarhjärtan in the tree. These hearts are traditionally red, finely decorated and made of an edible material. They hung First and foremost up from the decoration point of view. Many families concludes Christmas Eve by attending midnight mass (Croatian: polnoćka) where the highlight is the Croatian melodious Christmas carols. Christmas Day (Croatian: Božić) is a Christmas highlight. This day wishes to family and friends a Merry Christmas (Croatian: Sretan Božić or Čestit Božić). You can also attend matins (Zorica). This day most families some kind of gift distribution. According to tradition, it is Santa Claus (Djed Božićnjak, directly translated “Grandfather / Grandpa Jul”) that come with these. Christmas dinner may consist of pork, turkey or both depending what region you come from or what your traditions practiced in the family. The central part of the Christmas table has glazed julbrödet (not to be confused with the Christmas bread). Julbrödet comprises inter alia nutmeg, raisins and almonds and is formed into a rosary. Many places a candle in the middle of the bread and it is on the table until Epiphany (January 6) when Christmas is considered to be over and the bread is shared and eaten by everyone in the family. Like Christmas has also Easter a strong Christian character and many Croatians visit church sometime during this festival. On Easter Eve is usual to fill a small basket with small portions of food and painting Easter eggs. Bin takes with him to church where the priest blesses the basket by sprinkling holy water on it. On returning home, then eaten the food blessed by all the family. The Croatian architecture has been influenced by the country’s position in Europe. Ecclesiastical architecture and secular architecture blends touches of Italy and Austria with other forms coming from the Byzantine and Slavic world. In architecture, it may mostly Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque who left their mark on landet.Den genuinely Croatian architecture arises with the pre-Romanesque style in Prince Branimir. Along the Adriatic coast developed Gothic architecture in the 1400s after Venice conquered the coastal areas. The Venetian Gothic architecture not only influenced the design of the churches in Dalmatia, but was also a trend-setter for the higher estate portfolio villas and houses in towns such as Pula, Zadar, Sibenik and Split. Renaissance main architects and artists in Croatia was Juraj Dalmatinac, Nikola Firentinac and Andrija Alesi. These architects and artists were active primarily along the coast and participated in the construction of several churches and public buildings. Dubrovnik old town has several interesting constructions where the Sponza palace has characteristics of both Gothic and Renaissance. Baroque is the style that most characterizes the interior. The most interesting baroque buildings are in Varaždin, Požega, Osijek, Križevci, Ludbreg and Krapina. Capital Zagreb is strongly influenced by modernism and the 1800s was the Vienna Secession that gave inspiration which can be seen on buildings and other structures such as Villa Krauss. Architect Hermann Bolle has been particularly influential in the design of several buildings in Zagreb. Compulsory schooling comes from 6 or 7 to 14 or 15 years. Primary school is compulsory and financed entirely by the state. Elementary school is divided into two stages. In grades 1-4 are taught each class by a teacher who teaches all subjects. The topics included are Croatian, mathematics, visual arts and the natural and social sciences. From grades 5-8 are taught every subject by a specialist teacher and the topics will be the history, geography, biology, physics, chemistry, and more. Between school level is still a voluntary school form, like in Svereige. Between school level is subdivided into upper secondary and yrkesskolaoch both are located in four years. Croatia has seven universities, distributed in the cities of Zagreb, Rijeka, Osijek, Split, Zadar, Dubrovnik and Pula. Croatia has taken part and started to adapt their higher education systems for the Bologna Process, which should be fully operational by 2010. Popular tourist destinations, in addition to the capital Zagreb, the coastal towns of Pula, Sibenik, Split, Zadar, Baska Voda, Makarska, Hvar, Opatija, Porec, Rovinj, Split, Pag and the medieval city of Dubrovnik. The most visited part is the Dalmatia, which forms the southern part of Croatia’s coast on the Adriatic Sea. On the coast there are also many popular islands such as Krk, Croatia’s largest island, and the Kornati National Park and the island of Hvar.

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Why you have to see Georgia's 'Little Grand Canyon' A steady flow of water runs through the bottom of Georgia’s Providence Canyon, but unlike other canyons, that’s not what carved it out of the earth. Formed by enslaving plantation owners who improperly managed the land about 200 years ago, it’s now a state park with hiking and camping options. Known as “Georgia’s Little Grand Canyon,” it’s been such a popular spot during the Covid-19 pandemic that the park has had to limit car access for day hikers who aren’t staying at one of the six primitive campsites. Even with vaccinations underway, outdoor vacations close to home remain a great option for safely getting out of the house. If you’re in the southeast U.S., you don’t have to travel far to feel like you’re in the American West. Providence Canyon is a geological wonder of its own. Located about 150 miles southwest of Atlanta near the Alabama border, the canyon sits in one of Georgia’s least-populated counties. It’s named for the Providence Methodist Church, which was swallowed by the newly forming canyon gorges in the 1800s. A new church was constructed across the road after the chasms started to form. From observation decks near the parking lot, you can see the islands of remaining ground-level earth with a few pine trees that dramatically drop off into the canyons below. But to really experience Providence Canyon, you’ll want to take a hike along the canyon floor. Walking down into the gullies is like entering another world. After a short tree-lined descent, you’re on a flat plane looking up at the layered pink, yellow, and purple canyon walls. You’re now more than 100 feet below where you started. The ground has eroded away so much that it’s hit the water table, so rain or shine, there’s a stream of water pulling silty soil along the floor of the canyons. You’ll want to wear ankle-height hiking shoes and be prepared for that iconic Georgia clay dirt to get on your shoes, pants, and inexplicably other parts of your clothes or body where you didn’t expect to find it. From the main loop trail, you can fork out into individual paths to nine canyon walls. A backcountry trail through the shallow creek leads to the primitive campsites. The canyons were formed in the early 1800s, after the Muscogee (Creek) indigenous people were forced from their land and plantation farms growing cotton took over the area. The plantation model of agriculture, reliant on enslaved labor, didn’t take precautions to prevent erosion. They couldn't have been prepared for how quickly and dramatically the land would change. Year after year, the cotton and other crops washed away along with clay and topsoil every time it rained. Within 20 years, enough of the ground had sloughed away that gullies four feet deep had formed. This erosion continued over time, and the gullies are now as yawning as 150 feet deep and 350 feet wide. The canyons are still evolving today. Every year, rain and erosion wear away another two to five feet of land. Their sandy sides are fully exposed, so there’s not much the park staff can do to stop it from continuing to slough off. Most of the erosion these days is horizontal, widening the gullies: the canyon floor now has pine trees and other vegetation that keeps the soil from running off, and there’s not much deeper it could go. In the 1930s, the local paper in nearby Columbus, GA, started to make Providence Canyon a national park, hoping to bring tourists driving in to see “the natural wonder and beauty. . .instead of having it principally a discussion of erosion.” But despite the newspaper campaign emphasizing the “natural wonder,” its unnatural origins kept Providence Canyon off the national parks list. Georgia made it a state park in 1971, and it’s presented as the human-created formation that it is. Although Providence Canyon wasn’t naturally formed, it reveals parts of the natural world that are normally hidden. There are 43 different shades of sand that create sunset-like patterns along the canyon’s walls. The shades come from four base colors created by minerals in the soil. In addition to the classic red Georgia clay, which gets its pigmentation from iron, there’s white from kaolin, yellow from limonite, and purple from manganese. Above the canyon walls, there are other unnatural features: walk up the loop trail and you’ll emerge to the ridgeline where a small collection of cars has been slowly reclaimed by nature. The cars date back to the ‘50s, and only the rusted-out bodies remain — no glass, no tires. Leaves cover the interior, and root structures grow in the tire wells. The park managers have determined that it would be more harmful to the wildlife to remove the cars than to leave them as they are, slowly becoming a part of their surroundings. The canyons are a reminder that everywhere on earth has been shaped by humans in one way or another. Whether by plantation farming practices or pumping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere or moving plants from one continent to another, human life has completely altered the planet. Providence Canyon just makes that impact more visually obvious. It’s a state park for the Anthropocene, and a fantastic day trip. 6 great outdoor activities in Puerto Rico 1. Take a Tour of Old San Juan While Castillo San Felipe del Morro is closed until further notice, there are still plenty of interesting things to do in Old San Juan, whether you decide to go solo with one of GPSmyCity’s audio tours or with a group. Covid-compliant historical walking tours are available through Viator from $41 per person. San Juan Food Tours aims to keep patrons safe on its three-hour Flavors of Old San Juan tour (from $94 per person) and two-hour Rum Runners Craft Cocktail Tour (from $49 per person), while Spoon has similar health and safety protocols in place for its food and cocktail themed walking tours, ranging from $75 to $99 per person. To see San Juan from the water, East Island Excursions offers tours from $79 per person for daytime sailings or $95 per person for sunset sailings as long as guests fill out a health questionnaire before boarding. Misty jungle path through the El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico. ©Dennis van de Water/Shutterstock 2. Get Back to Nature in El Yunque National Forest El Yunque National Forest is open but you’ll need to reserve an entry ticket online for $2 per vehicle ahead of time to visit the La Mina Recreation Area on Rd 191. Time slots between 8 a.m. and 11 a.m. or 12 p.m. and 3 p.m. can be booked up to 30 days in advance. Note that La Mina Falls and Big Tree Trail will be closed for construction until 2022. Remember to keep your mask on and stay at least six feet from anyone outside your group. 3. Hike to Cueva Ventana (Window Cave) If you’re staying on the western side of the island or looking for an easy day trip from San Juan, Aventura Cueva Ventana (or Window Cave) near Arecibo is a fun place to go hiking, see petroglyphs and stone carvings left behind by Puerto Rico’s earliest inhabitants and check out the views from the cave’s window-esque opening. Tickets are $19 per person and there’s a $2 discount if you visit Wednesday to Friday. All visitors must comply with stringent hand-washing, mask-wearing and social distancing measures at all times. ©watcherFF/Getty Images 4. Explore Bioluminescent Bay by Kayak On the eastern end of the island, Island Kayaking runs guided tours (from $53 per person) to Bioluminescent Bay near Fajardo. You’ll be organized into kayaks per group—as in, you won’t be seated with strangers—masks must be worn throughout the tour and anyone with a temperature over 100.4 won’t be allowed to join. Their two-hour Glowing Bay Adventure tour takes you through a mangrove forest out to the bay, where tiny creatures called pyrodiniums bahamenses light up all around you whenever you move your paddle and kayak. 5. Visit a Rum Distillery While the Bacardi Rum Factory has halted its tours now, another historic rum distillery, Ron de Barrilito, is open. Rum tasting tours and mixology classes, available from $80 per person, must be booked ahead of time online as the number of guests will be limited to allow for social distancing. 6. Head to the Beach or Condado Lagoon If you’re a fan of sunbathing, surfing, boogie boarding, swimming, paddle boarding, kayaking or other recreational beach activities, it really boils down to this: stay with your own group, remain at least six feet from others and keep your mask on whenever you’re not in the water. Military tank left behind on Culebra Beach. ©Tinapat Kotumrongsak/Shutterstock The best wineries in Virginia The year 2020 has held some major ups and downs for me, but there is one wonderful milestone it has witnessed. It seems appropriate that in October, otherwise known as Virginia Wine Month, I finally hit my goal of visiting 100 Virginia wineries while visiting Stars in the Valley, a new (and tasty) winery that’s less than two years old. People are often surprised to hear that Virginia is home to nearly 300 wineries and is tied for the fifth largest wine producing region in the United States. However, wine has been grown in Virginia for over four centuries, dating back at least to 1619. Now, I could go into all the history about Jefferson’s struggle to produce drinkable wine at Monticello or the (re)discovery of a native Virginia grape by Dr. James Norton, but my guess is that you’re really here to find a weekend escape with good friends, good wines, and good views. One of the most important things to know about Virginia wine is that it will consistently challenge your expectations. It may seem obvious, but there is no single, universal way of making any specific type of wine. This is wonderfully evident here in Virginia. You may come across a chardonnay that is reminiscent of your Napa Valley oakey chards, that is to say tasting like a tub of buttered movie theatre popcorn, but then the very next chardonnay you taste may be a crisp, stainless steel with bright apple notes and no hint of butter or oak. Basically, there is something for everyone: whites so sweet they’ll make your teeth ache, full bodied reds, wines made from other fruit, and more. My quest to hit 100 wineries truly started with wanting to understand more about the wines I like so that I could stop wasting money at the grocery store, but it grew into so much more than that. As you're out tasting, no matter where you are, be sure to pay close attention to some of the grapes that show the best of what Virginia has to offer: Chardonnay, VIgonier, Petit Manseng, Cabernet Franc, Tannat, Norton, and Petit Verdot. Ask your wine educator their recommendations (and don’t forget to tip them!). Learn about basics like residual sugar and aging, as these will help you learn what to look for in the future. But most importantly, find what you like, and enjoy it! The best wineries in Virginia I hope to pass on some of what I’ve learned to you! After much humming and hawing, and countless hours spent looking at my Virginia wineries spreadsheet (yes, I have a spreadsheet), here are my favorite wineries across the state of Virginia! Best overall: Michael Shaps Wineworks, Charlottesville Virginia I first discovered Michael Shaps back in 2016 on a “Gals and Dogs” wine weekend in Charlottesville. It’s a slow meander up a gravel driveway, surrounded by light woods. You’ll actually have to drive straight past another winery to get there, but don’t get distracted, because what’s at the end of the path is definitely worth the wait. Not only has Michael Shaps multiple gold medals in the prestigious Virginia’s Governor’s Cup wine competition, he’s done so year after year. But what I love most is that his wine list is also the precise definition of “something for everyone.” Shaps makes wine both locally here Virginia and at his estate in Burgundy (for you old world aficionados). He makes boxed wine and wine for refillable growlers under a label called Wineworks that is meant to be high-quality yet also budget conscious -- perfect for those of you who’ve needed a little extra calming during these quarantine times. He also makes a sweet dessert wine that is literally named Raisin (not to be confused with raison!) d’Etre. If Charlottesville is too far away for you, Shaps also makes wine for a handful of other wineries, including Shenandoah Vineyards (off I-81) and The Barns at Hamilton Station (near Leesburg). I highly recommend the following wines: ● Michael Shaps Petit Manseng: You absolutely have to try my favorite grape to be grown in Virginia. The Petit Manseng was historically grown in France to make sweeter or dessert wines, but here in Virginia, you’ll often find them dry and bursting with tropical flavor. ● Wineworks BOX Rosé: Shaps was actually the first Virginia winery to offer “boxed” wine, and like all of his wines, there’s an attention to detail that produces quality but this time at a lower price point. A different blend annually, this light, dry rose is guaranteed to be your summer favorite! ● Michael Shaps L. Scott: This luscious red is a blend of Tannat, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot, and it’s well-balanced to provide a round mouthfeel that is smooth and velvety, making it the perfect wine for the coming winter months and the corresponding hearty meals. Pippin Hill Winery in Charlottsville. Photo by Kathleen Saylor.Hidden Gem: Linden Vineyards, Linden, Virginia Now, I would be remiss if I didn’t tell you all about Linden Vineyards, home to my other favorite winemaker in Virginia. Thankfully recommended to me a few years ago by a friend in the industry, I’m now passing along this insider knowledge to you. Linden Vineyards is a hidden gem, located on a hill overlooking one of three vineyards that are the sole source of Linden’s grapes, nestled mere miles away from I-66, about an hour from DC. Without a sign drawing in traffic from the highway, Linden has focused on creating quality wines that speak for themselves. And boy do they! Jim Law, the owner of Linden Vineyards, has built it into one of the pillars of Virginia winemaking. One of the older wineries in Virginia, Law broke ground nearly 40 years ago in 1983 and has been nurturing his vineyards ever since. He treats winemaking like an art form, and it’s truly evident in the outstanding wines that are produced year after year. It’s evident from the moment you walk in the door. There’s an air of seriousness blended with appreciation. You’ll not find kids or dogs running under foot here, just fellow wine lovers, an incredibly knowledgeable staff. And some of the best wine in Virginia. If you find yourself out that way, do yourself a favor and try some. Here are my favorites: ● Avenius Chardonnay: My personal favorite, that I remember years after tasting it. Avenius, named for one of three vineyards that produces all of the grapes for Linden, offers a minerality that complements nicely the fuller bodied nature of this Chardonnay. This tends to be more of a “Chablis” style Chardonnay in that it is well-balanced and not overly oaked. ● Claret: Now, if you’re like me, you may have thought that Claret was something that English gentlemen drank 200 years ago, but this one should change your thinking! Really, all a Claret is is a Bordeaux (often a red blend). If they still have it, I’d go for the 2015 vintage as it was a great growing season all around. It’s balanced and medium-bodied, and a great sipping wine! ● Best on a budget: Ox-Eye Vineyards is one of the few downtown tasting rooms I’ve visited in Virginia, but I dig it’s industrial vibe. You’ll find it nestled into an old brick storefront in Staunton, Virginia, a charming old town off I-81. They have an excellent list of wines in the $20 range. My favorite for the summer is their dry Riesling. ● Best Views: There’s a reason Pippin Hill Winery is a South Charlottesville favorite. You’ll see families and bridal showers meandering over their lush, gardened hills, making a day of being in this beautiful valley. They also have a vineyard-to-table kitchen that allows you to enjoy the most natural pairing of all: wine and food. My pick here would definitely be the Viognier. ● Best Organic: Nestled at the top of a rather steep gravel drive Arterra Wines is home to a winemaker who embraces a more minimalist technique, allowing the grapes to express themselves in the most authentic way possible. When you’re here, if it’s available, you must try their Malbec. ● Best Dog Day Out: If you’re like me, and you like a slightly slower pace, Muse Vineyards is the place for you. It’s low key, amazing wines, sedate hikes through vineyards, and you can take your furry friend right up to the tasting counter! While you’re there, don’t miss out on a classic Virginia varietal, the Cabernet Franc. The best US lakes for recreation Lake Powell Lake Powell is a reservoir in Glen Canyon National Recreational Area near the Utah and Arizona border. The water is a crisp blue, and snakes through the red rock canyon, offering plenty of opportunities for water sports and recreation. Visitors to Lake Powell can take a boat tour, go waterskiing and visit Cathedral in the Desert, a stunning rock monument located in Lake Powell. Its location near the Grand Canyon and Monument Valley provides an amazing opportunity for adventurers to have the road trip of a lifetime. Lake Lanier Lake Lanier is located in North Georgia, about an hour from Atlanta and a short drive from Chattanooga. It is a man-made reservoir made by damming the Chattahoochee River to provide electricity and flood control for nearby Atlanta. More than 10 million people visit Lake Lanier annually, with many of them using the Lanier Islands as a recreational hub. The Lanier Islands have plenty of lodging and dining options for all budgets, including tent camping and an RV park. Lake of the Ozarks Missouri's crown jewel of a lake sits in the middle of the state and offers a world-class destination. Visitors can find a plethora of land-based activities, restaurants and accommodations. In addition, there are countless marinas available to rent or store a boat. There are also 32 hiking trails near the lake, along with four caves to explore. There is inexpensive camping available nearby at Ozarks State Park and Ha Ha Tonka State Park. Pickwick Lake © Laura Brown / Budget Travel Pickwick Lake, Tennessee The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) created a series of 9 major dams across Tennessee during the 1930s and 1940s to bring affordable electricity and jobs to an area stricken by the Great Depression. Today, all the TVA lakes are great for water sports and recreation, but our favorite is Pickwick Lake, on the border of Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi, just outside Memphis. Yellow Creek Cove on the lake is a constant party for boaters in the summer and features a rope swing into the water below. There is a great camping spot at Pickwick Landing State Park, where there is also a marina and available boat rentals. Big Bear Lake Big Bear Lake in Southern California, the ‘Jewel of the San Bernardino National Forest,’ prides itself on being open all four seasons for water recreation. Located 100 miles northeast of Los Angeles, it also can be accessed easily from Las Vegas or Phoenix. Big Bear offers a mountain atmosphere, with hiking trails, winter skiing, and summer swimming. The heart of Big Bear Lake is at Big Bear Village, a charming small town that serves as the region’s hub for dining and lodging. Make sure to check out the local festivals at The Village at Halloween and Christmas. Lake Tahoe © MariuszBlach / Getty Images Lake Tahoe Lake Tahoe sits on the border of California and Nevada, near Reno. It is the second deepest lake in the United States (after Crater Lake) and is known for its incredibly clear water and vibrant colors. Tahoe is known as a gateway for recreational adventure. Visitors can access hundreds of miles of beautiful hiking trails, as well as rent paddleboards and kayaks to explore the lake. Lake Mead Lake Mead lies outside of Las Vegas, and is the largest reservoir in the United States, formed by the Hoover Dam. Boating in Lake Mead is a popular activity, with four separate marinas available to rent or store boats. Lake Mead Cruises also takes a nightly cruise to the Hoover Dam and back. Lake Mead is heaven for fishing and offers some of the best sport fishing in the United States. Lake Placid © Chuck Robinson Photography / Getty Images Lake Placid Lake Placid in the Adirondacks is a classic New York mountain town, with views so legendary the town was selected to host the Winter Olympics in 1932 and 1980. In the winter, Lake Placid has amazing opportunities to snow ski and snowboard. In the summer, Lake Placid is a utopia for waterboarding and tubing. For those who own their own boat, there are several public launch points. For those on a budget, there are hostels off the lake for low rates or camping in nearby campgrounds or in the Adirondack backcountry. Lake Winnebago Lake Winnebago is a glacial lake in eastern Wisconsin, north of Milwaukee near Appleton and Oshkosh. It is a relatively shallow lake, known for great fishing in both the summer and the winter, with a prominent ice fishing industry. The lake’s most abundant fish are the Walleye, Perch, Sturgeon and Bass. Boats are readily available for rent at nearby Marinas. Boaters have access to more than 18,000 acres of water, including Lake Butte des Morts and the Fox River. Lake Winnepesaukee You can explore more than 250 different islands in New Hampshire’s Lake Winnepesaukee, or hike in the nearby White Mountains. There are a plethora of small villages on the shores of the lake, which can be reached by either boat or car, and each offers an individual flavor. Rent a boat and go waterboarding in the summer or plan a snowboarding adventure in the winter. When you’re ready to go indoors, check out one of the many breweries nearby, such as the Woodstock Inn Brewery in Woodstock. The nearest major city is Manchester. SPONSORED BY GEICOAs always, prior to travel, make sure you are up to date on your destination’s health and safety restrictions. See how much you could save when you bundle your car and boat insurance with GEICO. Carefully crafted collaboratively between GEICO, Lonely Planet and Budget Travel. Both parties provided research and curated content to produce this story. We disclose when information isn’t ours.Sponsored by GEICO See the winners of our travel photo challenge We teamed up with GuruShots, the world's favorite photo game, to run a travel photo contest. Almost 100k photos were submitted to the challenge, and we are pleased to feature the top 500 travel photos from around the world! Without further ado, here are the contest winners: Top Photographer: Henri Eftevand, Norway Top Photo: Moises Pindi, France Guru's top pick: Hemar Photography, Australia Kuriene, Netherlands ART EK, Austria Xavier Jouve, France Magic Maggie, Portugal Michael Bollhalder, Switzerland Andrii Pozdieiev, Ukraine Sergey Pesterev, Russia Jack Zhou, Canada Nikolay Tatarchuk, Israel Guy Wilson, Israel Juergen Wegner, Germany Richard Windeyer, Australia Xan White, Switzerland Jo Whitnell, United Kingdom Dmitriy Don, Russia Beno Medic, Slovenia Maricruz Sainz de Aja, United States

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Critical Race Theory Briefing Book Critical race theory is an academic discipline that holds that the United States is a nation founded on white supremacy and oppression, and that these forces are still at the root of our society. Critical race theorists believe that American institutions, such as the Constitution and legal system, preach freedom and equality, but are mere “camouflages” for naked racial domination. They believe that racism is a constant, universal condition: it simply becomes more subtle, sophisticated, and insidious over the course of history. In simple terms, critical race theory reformulates the old Marxist dichotomy of oppressor and oppressed, replacing the class categories of bourgeoisie and proletariat with the identity categories of White and Black. But the basic conclusion is the same: in order to liberate man, society must be fundamentally transformed through moral, economic, and political revolution.Key terms: Whiteness, white privilege, white fragility, oppressor/oppressed, intersectionality, systemic racism, spirit murder, equity, antiracism, collective guilt, affinity spaces. - Hillsdale Imprimis: “Critical Race Theory: What It Is and How to Fight It.” Link. - Heritage Foundation: “Critical Race Theory Would Not Solve Racial Inequality: It Would Deepen It. Link. KEY CONCEPTS AND QUOTATIONS Race essentialism: Critical race theory reduces individuals to the quasi-metaphysical categories of “Blackness” and “Whiteness,” then loads those categories with value connotations—positive traits are attributed to “Blackness” and negative traits are attributed to “Whiteness.” Although some critical race theorists formally reject race essentialism, functionally, they often use these categories as malicious labels that erase individual identities. - “Whiteness is dynamic, relational, and operating at all times and on myriad levels. These processes and practices include basic rights, values, beliefs, perspectives and experiences purported to be commonly shared by all but which are actually only consistently afforded to white people.” Robin DiAngelo, “White Fragility.” - “Whiteness is an invisible veil that cloaks its racist deleterious effects through individuals, organizations, and society. The result is that White people are allowed to enjoy the benefits that accrue to them by virtue of their skin color. Thus, Whiteness, White supremacy, and White privilege are three interlocking forces that disguise racism so it may allow White people to oppress and harm persons of color while maintaining their individual and collective advantage and innocence.” Derald Sue, “The Invisible Whiteness of Being.” - “Whiteness by its very definition and operation as a key element of white supremacy kills; it is mental and physical terrorism. To end the white terrorism that is directed at racially oppressed people here and in other nations, it is essential that self-identified whites and their whiteness collaborators among the racially oppressed confront their white problem head-on, unencumbered by racial comfort.” Johnny Williams in the Hartford Courant. All whites are racist: Critical race theorists argue explicitly that “all white people are racist” and perpetuate systems of white supremacy and systemic racism. This concept is deeply related to race essentialism—whites, including small children, cannot escape from being racist. - “All white people are racist or complicit by virtue of benefiting from privileges that are not something they can voluntarily renounce.” Barbara Applebaum, Being White, Being Good. - “White identity is inherently racist; white people do not exist outside the system of white supremacy.” Robin DiAngelo, White Fragility. - “According to studies, babies at two to three years old, start internalizing racist ideas, start discerning and making decisions based on racist ideas … We’re allowing our society to raise them to be racist.” Ibram Kendi on KING5 News. America is a fundamentally racist nation: Critical race theorists argue that America was founded on racism, slavery, and white supremacy—and remains a fundamentally racist nation to this day. - “White people raised in Western society are conditioned into a white supremacist worldview because it is the bedrock of our society and its institutions … Entering the conversation with this understanding is freeing because it allows us to focus on how—rather than if—our racism is manifest.” Robin DiAngelo, White Fragility. - “America is inherently a ‘white’ country: in character, in structure, in culture. Needless to say, black Americans create lives of their own. Yet, as a people, they face boundaries and constrictions set by the white majority. America’s version of apartheid, while lacking overt legal sanction, comes closest to the system even now being reformed in the land of its invention.” Andrew Hacker, Two Nations. - “It is a racial crime to be yourself if you are not White in America. It is a racial crime to look like yourself or empower yourself if you are not White.” Ibram Kendi, How to be an Antiracist. Collective guilt: Critical race theory claims that individuals categorized as “White” are inherently responsible for injustice and oppression committed by white populations in the past. This concept is sometimes framed as “white guilt,” “white shame,” and “white complicity,” which are psychological manifestations of collective guilt. - “Many critical race theorists and social scientists alike hold that racism is pervasive, systemic, and deeply ingrained. If we take this perspective, then no white member of society seems quite so innocent.” Delgado & Stefanic, Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. - “All whites are racist … because we benefit from systemic white privilege. Generally whites think of racism as voluntary, intentional conduct done by horrible others. Whites spend a lot of time trying to convince ourselves and each other that we are not racist. A big step would be for whites to admit that we are racist and then to consider what to do about it.” Wildman and Davis, Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. Opposition to equality under the law: Critical race theorists explicitly reject the principle of equality under the law, including the Fourteenth Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. They argue that legal equality, nondiscrimination, and colorblindness are mere “camouflages” (Tate, 1997) used to uphold white supremacist structures. - “Unlike traditional civil rights, which embraces incrementalism and step-by-step progress, critical race theory questions the very foundations of the liberal order, including equality theory, legal reasoning, Enlightenment rationalism, and neutral principles of constitutional law.” Delgado & Stefanic, Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. - “[Critical race theorists] are also highly suspicious of another liberal mainstay, namely, rights … Think how that system applauds affording everyone equality of opportunity but resists programs that assure equality of results.” Delgado & Stefanic, Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. Opposition to meritocracy: Critical race theorists oppose meritocracy, especially standardized testing and competitive admissions in the education system. They claim that meritocracy is a mechanism to uphold racist structures and is derived from “racism, nativism, and eugenics” (Au, 2013). - “White people are raised on five strong cultural myths: meritocracy, manifest destiny, white racelessness, monoculture, and white moral and managerial superiority. These lay the foundation for our feeling good about ourselves as white people, and they work in us to override and discredit counter-evidence.” Peggy McIntosh, “White People Facing Race: Uncovering Myths that keep Racism in Place.” - “The ideologies of meritocracy, equal opportunity, individualism, and human nature we described above play a powerful role in denying the current of privilege and insisting that society is just.” Ozlem & DiAngelo, Is Everyone Really Equal?. Active racial discrimination: Critical race theorists believe that the state must actively discriminate against racial groups that are deemed “privileged,” meaning whites and sometimes Asians. Critical race theorists support policies such as racial quotas, race-based benefits, and race-based redistribution of wealth. - “The only remedy to racist discrimination is antiracist discrimination. The only remedy to past discrimination is present discrimination. The only remedy to present discrimination is future discrimination.” Ibram Kendi, How to be an Antiracist. - “Formal equality overlooks structural disadvantage and requires mere nondiscrimination or ‘equal treatment’; by contrast, affirmative action calls for equalizing treatment by redistributing power and resources in order to rectify inequities and to achieve real equality.” Cheryl Harris, “Whiteness as Property.” Restriction of free speech: Critical race theorists believe that the First Amendment serves to advance the interests of white supremacy and systemic racism, under the guise of freedom of speech. They argue that the government should restrict freedom of speech that is “racist” or “hateful.” - “The American marketplace of ideas was founded with the idea of the racial inferiority of non-whites as one of its chief commodities, and ever since the market opened, racism has remained its most active item in trade.” Mari Matsuda, et. al., Words That Wound. - “[Critical race theorist Mari] Matsuda suggested the creation of a legal doctrine to limit hate speech in cases where the message is one of racial inferiority, the message is directed against a historically oppressed group, and the message is persecutorial, hateful, and degrading.” The First Amendment Encyclopedia. - “The DOA [or Department of Antiracism, as proposed by Kendi] would be empowered with disciplinary tools to wield over and against policymakers and public officials who do not voluntarily change their racist policy and ideas.” Ibram Kendi, “Inequality: Pass an Anti-Racist Constitutional Amendment.” Abolition of whiteness: Critical race theorists believe that society should work to “abolish the white race.” Although they often insist that this means dismantling cultural constructions associated with white identity, this language often adopts tropes associated with race eliminationism. - “We believe that so long as the white race exists, all movements against what is called ‘racism’ will fail. Therefore, our aim is to abolish the white race.” Noel Ignatiev in Critical Whiteness Studies. - “Treason to whiteness is loyalty to humanity.” Noel Ignatiev in the film Indoctrinate U. - “If you abolish slavery, you abolish slaveholders. If you want to abolish racial oppression, you do away with whiteness.” Noel Ignatiev in the film Indoctrinate U. Neo-segregation: Critical race theorists endorse a new form of racial segregation—often called “racial affinity groups” or “racial caucuses”—with separate meetings, facilities, living quarters, and training programs for whites and racial minorities. The assumption is that whites must “do the work” to address their “internalized racial superiority” and racial minorities must be protected from invasive “whiteness.” - “Multi-racial space often results in the people of color—who have been most harmed by structural racism—carrying an additional burden of educating others (at best) or being retraumatized through the reliving of painful experiences.” JustLead Washington, Caucuses as a Racial Justice Strategy. - “In a RAG [racial affinity group], white people can discover together their group identity. They can cultivate racial solidarity and compassion and support each other in sitting with the discomfort, confusion, and numbness that often accompany white racial awakening. They can also discern white privilege and its impact without the aid of or dependence on POC.” Ruth King, Transforming Racism From The Inside Out. Anti-capitalism and forced redistribution of property: Critical race theorists have adopted the core Marxist position of anti-capitalism, arguing that America is an “imperialist white supremacist capitalist patriarchy” (hooks, 2012). They argue that “whiteness, initially constructed as a form of racial identity, evolved into a form of property” (Harris, 1993), allowing whites to extend domination from slavery into the free-market society. The solution is to redistribute private property and dismantle the system of capitalism. - “In order to truly be anti-racist, you also have to truly be anti-capitalist…. And in order to truly be anti-capitalist, you have to be antiracist, because they’re interrelated.” Ibram Kendi, “Ibram X. Kendi on Why We Need to Fight Racism the Way We Fight Cancer.” - “In challenging the property interest in whiteness, affirmative action [in support of property redistribution] could facilitate the destruction of the false premises of legitimacy and exclusivity inherent in whiteness and break the distorting link between white identity and property … Existing distributions of property will be modified by rectifying unjust loss and inequality. Property rights will then be respected, but they will not be absolute and will be considered against a societal requirement of affirmative action.” Cheryl Harris, “Whiteness as Property.” WINNING THE LANGUAGE WAR The critical race theorists have constructed a series of powerful linguistic tools. To successfully fight against critical race theory, we must adopt language that is trenchant, persuasive, and resonates with the public. Here are some powerful words and phrases to include in your communications. Defining critical race theory - “Race-based Marxism” - “State-sanctioned racism” - “Woke racism” - “Racial engineering” - “Critical race theory divides Americans into oppressor and oppressed based on their skin color.” - “Critical race theory says the solution to past discrimination is present discrimination. I reject this. Racism is always wrong.” - “I oppose racism, whether it comes from the Klan or from critical race theory.” - “Critical race theory teaches that individualism, rationality, and hard work are racist. This is an insult to hard-working American families of all racial backgrounds.” - “Critical race theory rejects the idea of equal protection under the law. I believe everyone has the right to equal treatment, no matter where they come from.” Critical race theory in schools - “Race reeducation programs” - “Political predators” (reference to activist teachers). - “Neo-racist theories have no place in public education.” - “Critical race theory teaches children that they are defined by their race, not as individuals.” - “Critical race theory teaches children to hate each other and hate their country.” - “Critical race theorists have the right to express their beliefs as individuals; they do not have the right to use taxpayer money to indoctrinate children.” - “Critical race theory is not a free speech issue; it’s a compelled speech issue. Public schools do not have the right to violate a child’s conscience.” - “We must prioritize excellence, which inspires people from all racial backgrounds to achieve their potential.” - “Our goal is diversity without division.” - “Neo-racist theories have no place in our public institutions.” - “Public institutions must reflect the values of the public—not fringe racial theories that seek to divide Americans into oppressor and oppressed.” - “This bill does not prevent schools from teaching about racism, slavery, and segregation. It prohibits schools from indoctrinating students into fringe racial theories that claim one race is superior to another or that individuals should be treated differently on the basis of race.” - “This is not a free speech issue; it’s a compelled speech issue. The government does not have the right to force individuals to believe in race essentialism, collective guilt, or racial superiority theory.” - “Free speech was designed to protect the individual against the government, not to empower the government to force individuals to believe in fringe racial theories.” - “This legislation is about limited government—public institutions can no longer promote racist theories using taxpayer dollars.” USING STORIES TO BUILD THE ARGUMENT The strongest line of attack against critical race theory is to cite specific stories about critical race theory in practice. When you are designing your communications, weave in stories about the reality of critical race theory in American institutions. Ground your argument in facts and force your opponents to defend the indefensible. Critical race theory in schools - Seattle Public Schools told teachers that the education system is guilty of “spirit murder” against black children and that white teachers must “bankrupt [their] privilege in acknowledgement of [their] thieved inheritance.” Link. - San Diego Public Schools accused white teachers of being colonizers on stolen Native American land and told them “you are racist” and “you are upholding racist ideas, structures, and policies.” They recommended that the teachers undergo “antiracist therapy.” Link. - A Cupertino, California, elementary school forced third-graders to deconstruct their racial and sexual identities, then rank themselves according to their “power and privilege.” They separated the eight-year-old children into oppressors and oppressed. Link. - A middle school in Springfield, Missouri, forced teachers to locate themselves on an “oppression matrix,” claiming that white heterosexual Protestant males are inherently oppressors and must atone for their “covert white supremacy.” Link. - A Philadelphia elementary school forced fifth-graders to celebrate “Black communism” and simulated a Black Power rally to “free Angela Davis” from prison. At this school, 87 percent of students will fail to achieve basic literacy by graduation. Link. - Buffalo Public Schools taught students that “all white people” perpetuate systemic racism and forced kindergarteners to watch a video of dead black children warning them about “racist police and state-sanctioned violence” who might kill them at any time. Link. - The Arizona Department of Education created an “equity” toolkit claiming that babies show the first signs of racism at three months old and that white children become full racists—”strongly biased in favor of whiteness”—by age five. Link. - The California Department of Education passed an “ethnic studies” curriculum that calls for the “decolonization” of American society and has students chant to the Aztec god of human sacrifice. The solution, according to one author, is “countergenocide.” Link. - North Carolina’s largest school district launched a campaign against “whiteness in educational spaces”—and encouraged teachers to subvert families and push the ideology of “antiracism” directly onto students without parental consent. Link. - Santa Clara County Office of Education denounced the United States as a “parasitic system” based on the “invasion” of “white male settlers” and encouraged teachers to “cash in on kids’ inherent empathy” in order to recruit them into political activism. Link. - Portland Public Schools trained children to become race-conscious revolutionaries by teaching that racism “infects the very structure(s) of our society,” and telling students to immerse themselves in “revolution.” Link. - The principal of East Side Community School in New York sent white parents a “tool for action,” which tells them they must become “white traitors” and then advocate for full “white abolition.” Link. - Students at the elite United Nations International School launched an anonymous social media campaign denouncing their teachers as “racists” and “oppressors”—and school administrators immediately caved to their demands. Link. Critical race theory in government - The Treasury Department told employees that “all white people” are racist and that children become racist by 3 months old. Link. - A Department of Education-funded conference advocated for “abolition” of American institutions and told whites they must “give up” their “wealth.” Link. - The National Credit Union Administration told employees America was founded on “white supremacy.” Link. - The Department of Homeland Security told its white employees that they have been “socialized into oppressor roles.” Link. - The CDC hosted a 13-week training program declaring that “racism is a public health crisis” and denounced the US as a nation of “White supremacist ideology.” Link. - The State Department, EPA, and VA pressured staff to denounce their “white privilege,” become “co-resistors” against “systemic racism,” and sign “equity pledges.” Link. Critical race theory in corporations - The Walt Disney Corporation claimed that America was founded on “systemic racism,” encouraged employees to complete a “white privilege checklist,” and separated minorities into racially-segregated “affinity groups.” Link. - Lockheed Martin, the nation’s largest defense contractor, sent key executives on a mission to deconstruct their “white male privilege” and encouraged them to atone for their “white male privilege.” Link. - Raytheon, the nation’s second-largest defense contractor, has launched a critical race theory program that encourages white employees to confront their “privilege,” reject the principle of “equality,” and “defund the police.” Link. - American Express Corp. has launched a critical race theory training program that teaches employees capitalism is fundamentally racist and asks them to deconstruct their racial and sexual identities, then rank themselves on a hierarchy of “privilege.” Link. - Bank of America teaches that the United States is a system of “white supremacy” and encourages employees to become “woke at work.” Link. - Verizon teaches employees that America is fundamentally racist and promotes “defunding the police.” Link. - A Google employee program claims that America is a “system of white supremacy” and that all Americans are “raised to be racist.” Link. - CVS launches a program that forces hourly employees to discuss their “privilege.” Link. - Walmart’s training program tells employees that they are guilty of “internalized racial superiority.” Link. HOW TO GET ORGANIZED - Get started. Attend your local school board meetings. Ask questions, provide comments, and connect with people. Invite your friends, family, and neighbors to join you at the meetings. Use this as an opportunity to connect with parents who share your values. - Get to know your school board. Connect with school board members personally. It is much easier to persuade someone with whom you have a relationship. Find out how long they’ve served on the school board. Ask why they ran in the first place? You can tailor your arguments to their needs, motivations, and concerns. - Identify a specific goal. Channel the energy from fellow parents toward a specific goal. What exactly do you want? Think of this as your mission statement. It should be short, specific, and easy to understand. For example, you might want to force the resignation of an uncooperative superintendent, persuade the school board to ban critical race theory, or lobby for a curriculum transparency resolution. - Build a leadership team. It takes a team of dedicated parents to achieve your goals. Identify your most committed allies, and assign them roles. If your teammates have personal or professional experience in organizing, project management, or team-building, they will be great assets to your cause. - Join the grassroots network of parent groups. Parents Defending Education, Moms for Liberty, No Left Turn in Education, and Save Our Schools are national organizations that provide resources and coordination for local parent groups. Contact them to see if there are chapters in your area; if not, start one. There is strength in numbers, and these organizations can help guide your local group. - Gather evidence, and build your case. First, talk to your kids about what they’re learning in school. Second, you can submit a public records request to get curricular, budget, and training materials from your local school or district. Judicial Watch put together a useful presentation explaining the process here, here, and here. - Make the issue as public as possible. Send an email to all the administrators and parents in your school. Attach evidence of CRT practices. Start a brushfire of angry parents. That will make it easier to identify your friends and force the administration to respond to the controversy. Parents at a private high school in Houston, Texas, used this strategy and succeeded in getting CRT banned from their school. - Choose a capable spokesperson. Choose someone who is sympathetic, professional, and comfortable speaking in public. Watch four good examples of powerful school board speeches here, here, here, and here. These speakers use evidence to support their arguments, share personal stories about how divisive ideologies have impacted their families, and communicate with respectful passion. - Make strong arguments. Have evidence to support every claim you make. Do not give them an easy win by making an accusation you cannot defend. If there are books, lesson plans, or internal documents promoting critical race theory concepts, pull the most objectionable quotes, read them aloud, and ask the school board members if they agree. Parents in Westchester County, New York, used this technique and forced the district to cancel a contract with a “diversity, equity, and inclusion” consultant who had once written that she wanted her newborn daughter to “acknowledge and understand her impact as someone who walks into rooms in the skin of a colonizer. An enslaver. A racist.” - Understand your opponents, and never lose your cool. There will be left-wing school board members, administrators, and teachers who support critical race theory. They prefer to operate in the dark, without public knowledge or transparency, because they “know best” and don’t want parents to interfere. When you expose them, they might respond with ugly, personal attacks. You must remain calm, focused, and respectful—always keep the moral high ground, ignore the attacks as much as possible, and focus on executing your goal. Do not respond to their insults and slurs; stay on the offense and force them to defend their ideas. - Run for the school board. If your school board members will not listen to parents, consider running for the school board yourself or recruiting another parent to engage in the process. The 1776 Project PAC has worked with candidates across the country who have successfully won elections fighting critical race theory. I’ve written a guidebook for parents who want to fight against critical race theory in their local communities. The guidebook contains everything you need to know to get started: how to define critical race theory, develop a strong argument, and get organized with other families. The strongest state legislation prohibits state agencies and public schools from compelling employees and students to believe in the key principles of critical race theory, including race essentialism, collective guilt, neo-segregation, and racial superiority. This protects the individual’s right to conscience (First Amendment), right to equal protection under the law (Fourteenth Amendment), and right against racial discrimination (Civil Rights Act of 1964). James Copland, Director of Legal Policy at the Manhattan Institute, drafted model legislation that accomplishes these goals in a balanced manner and can serve as model legislation for states.. Montana Attorney General Austin Knudsen has released a letter outlining how critical race theory practices violate civil rights laws, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Following this legal reasoning, state attorneys general can investigate and stop critical race theory in the classroom under existing law. COUNTERARGUMENTS AND RESPONSES Critical race theory supporters have attempted to dismiss parents with three primary counterarguments: that critical race theory isn’t taught in K-12 schools, that opponents can’t define critical race theory, and that critical race theory is just “teaching history.” Here are the responses to rebut those claims. Counterargument: Critical race theory isn’t taught in K-12 schools. Response: Critical race theory began in the late 1980s in law schools but over the decades has become prominent in other academic disciplines and the K-12 education system. There are thousands of pages of academic literature and a number of textbooks on “critical race theory in education,” instructing primary and secondary school teachers how to adopt critical race theory principles into the classroom. CRT cofounder Kimberlé recently boasted that “critical race theory originated in law schools” but was adopted by “K-12 teachers”—“and that’s a good thing.” In the words of Richard Delgado, another CRT cofounder, “critical race theory is in some way livelier in education right now than it is in law.” While most K-12 schools do not explicitly label their materials as “critical race theory,” any school that is teaching its core principles—such as whiteness, systemic racism, white privilege, and intersectionality—is, by definition, practicing critical race theory in the classroom. Counterargument: Opponents can’t define critical race theory. Response: This is an attempt to embarrass parents who are not versed in obscure academic jargon. The solution is to have a simple definition of critical race theory at the ready: “Critical race theory teaches that the United States is a fundamentally racist nation and divides Americans into ‘oppressor’ and ‘oppressed’ based on their skin color.” After giving this short definition, the best argument is to pivot toward specific examples from your school district and explain how the divisive teachings have affected your children and family. You do not need a PhD to understand critical race theory; you simply need to show the specific harm it is doing to your local institutions. Most parents have an intuitive understanding that teaching children that they are “oppressors” or “oppressed” is morally wrong. There is no need to use academic jargon to justify this simple truth. Counterargument: Critical race theory is just teaching history. Response: Critical race theory is a political ideology, not a historical discipline. It argues that America is a permanently and irredeemably racist nation—and that “all white people are racist” because they benefit from “white privilege.” The ideology of critical race theory assigns collective guilt to racial groups and promotes the noxious narrative that individuals are inherently oppressive or oppressed based on their race. We support teaching a full, honest look at American history—including the evils of slavery, racism, and segregation—but within the context of America’s highest ideals and our steady progress toward realizing them. Critical race theory is an ideology of racial pessimism, which is toxic to children of all racial groups. Teaching honest history is important; teaching a left-wing political ideology is wrong.

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ICSE Class 9 syllabus 2023 consists of all the topics and subtopics for all the subjects including Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Maths, and others. 02 Class 9 Science 2021-22 ICSE Class 9 Biology syllabus introduces the students to a wide spectrum of biological topics. For classes 1 to 4, every section is of 10 marks. ICSE Class 9 Maths Exercise 3.1 M L Aggarwal | M L Aggarwal Class 9 Ex 3.1 Question 4 | Math Axis#icseclass9maths #expansion #mlaggarwalsolution Answer (1 of 78): Both have pros and cons, but after more than 10 years of passing out from high school and having spent a lot of time in the professional world with people both from CBSE and ICSE, I can say that ICSE offers what the progressive and balanced syllabus should look like. Number 1 - 10 3. This unit of class 11 maths syllabus introduces the students to the broad concepts related to calculus which includes limits and derivatives. ICSE Mathematics - Class 10 by R.D. Selina Publishers Concise ICSE Solutions for Class 8 Physics Chapter 1 Matter are been solved by expert teachers of CBSETuts.com. Answer key of Question 1 to Question 24 with all parts step by step. The question paper of Semester 1 Mathematics consists of 40 MCQs, and the students are required to answer all the questions. Chapter 5: Number form Ten to Twenty. Best Reference Books for ICSE Class 10 Maths Exam18 ICSE Expert April 21, 2021 Best Reference Books for ICSE Class 10 English Literature Exam18 ICSE Expert April 21, 2021 Class 10 board exam is thus one of the very first milestones in a students . The syllabus consist of six themes - Number System, Ratio and Proportion, Algebra, Geometry, Mensuration, and Data Handling. UKG Syllabus for English, Maths, Hindi, EVS, GK and Conversation (For CBSE, ICSE, ISE, SSC, CAMBRIDGE, IB and State Boards) UKG/KG2 Syllabus is useful for teachers and parents to teach the children. Chapter Name S. No. . You have remained in right site to begin getting this info. It needs a lot of diligent practise because just a quick practice right before the exam wouldn't help students by any means. Students can download the last year question papers using the link below. ICSE Class 1 Table of content Subjects in ICSE Class 1 Syllabus of ICSE Class 1 Sample Papers for ICSE Class 1 Subjects in ICSE Class 1 The syllabus of ICSE Class 9 is vast, and it is expected to attentively follow the teachers and practice the concepts with TopperLearning resources. Here, the detailed ICSE syllabus for Class 9 Maths is provided for the students to acquaint them with the topics that CISCE has included in the syllabus. ICSE Class 8 revision materials are essential to help you grasp the concepts in . Get ICSE Class 1 Books PDF for Exam 2021 - 22. Reflect point A on the y-axis to A. Additionally, the ICSE Class 9 syllabus 2023 also comprises the marking scheme and exam pattern for ICSE exams. In this section you can find the upper kg maths syllabus. Our Class 1 Worksheet section can be a good platform to confirm and test the understanding of the Class 1 syllabus. Students should kick out the fear concerning the Class 10th ICSE Mathematics syllabus from their minds by having a . ICSE class 11th Maths syllabus is divided into three sections A, B, and C. Section A is compulsory for all candidates. The CISCE Class 10 Mathematics syllabus for the academic year 2022-2023 is based on the Board's guidelines. Eduauraa is an e-learning platform that helps students grasp difficult concepts that will study in higher classes by assisting them in their learning process. Now a new page will open on the screen. These are: 1. Chapter 4: Subtraction. The revised weightage as per the updated Class 12 ICSE Commerce Syllabus for Accounts is listed below: Units: Topics: Marks: Section A: 60 . Moreover, when you have ICSE class 11 maths syllabus ready in your hand, you can plan your lessons accordingly. ICSE Class 1 Syllabus Mathematics Syllabus : S. No. ICSE Concise - Selina Publishers Mathematics For Class 10 4. Mathematics is not as easy as it seems. Secondary School Mathematics for Class 9 PB (English) (Paperback) by V. Aggarwal R. S. Aggarwal. a) Shapes and Spatial Understanding Develops and uses vocabulary of spatial relationship (Top, Bottom, On, Under, Inside, Outside, Above, Below, Near, Far, Before, After) b) Solids Around Us Follow the given steps to download the ICSE reduced syllabus 2022 Class 10 pdf files. Together with Mathematics for ICSE Students Class-IX (English) (Paperback) by Bhanu Pratap Singh. 1 MATHEMATICS (51) CLASS X There will be paper of one two and a half hours duration carrying 80 marks nternal Assessment and I of 20 marks. With the conceptual knowledge of Maths concepts like probability and statistics, you can find solutions for real-world problems. Students can have a look at the topics of Class 1 Maths syllabus below. The worksheets test the critical areas of the curriculum and help students identify weak areas. 1. Download ICSE Class 1 Maths Syllabus PDF The topics included in the Syllabus of ICSE Class 1 Maths is given below: Numbers Number Operations Geometry The CISCE Class 7 Mathematics syllabus for the academic year 2022-2023 is based on the Board's guidelines. Math worksheets and. Number 1 - 10 4. 1. Answer : (iv) Use a graph sheet for this question, take 2cm = 1 unit along both x and y axis: (a) Plot the points A (3,2) and B (5,0). Students should read the Class 7 Mathematics Syllabus to learn about the subject's subjects and subtopics. From the various links, find and click the ICSE Syllabus 2023 PDF link. Which is the best book for 10th class Maths? The total number of subjects for MYP is 8. Students should read the Class 10 Mathematics Syllabus to learn about the subject's subjects and subtopics. Free Study Material. Based on students' reactions and experts' feedback, we have come to the conclusion that Class 10 Maths Question Paper's difficulty level was moderate . - Johnson & Brothers Funeral Home - Decompensated Shock Treatment - Rise Apartments Near Frankfurt - Acams Enterprise Membership Cost - Kalush Orchestra Instruments - Starting Salaries 2022 - How Many Cyborgs Are There In The World - Main Course Menu For Wedding - Apartments In Middletown, Nj - Uploading Music To Pandora - Serendipity Music Website - Calories In 1 Cup Shredded Cheese - Minecolonies Marriage - Wolverine Overpass Boots Near Me - Newport Gilded Age Mansions - Why Is Brown Endowment So Small

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THE MAYOR OF MOSCOW AND THE MAYOR OF WASHINGTON, D.C. Moscow is a city like no other. This ancient city of has seen the rise and fall of empires. It has been the home of rulers and despots, a token of war and an envisioned destiny for many. Yet never has it seen the likes of the last decade. The center of power for the world’s largest country, Moscow is something of a powerful symbol, a center of power, and in its most simple form, a municipal city. Yet this is the great intangible mystique of Moscow. The physical city, and its leaders, are more than just leaders and she is more than just a city. At the center of the daily management of Russia’s most important city is the Mayor of Moscow. Unlike what the West considers a mayor’s job, Moscow’s mayor goes far beyond just managing the city. He is not simply an elected municipal leader. He reports directly to the President of Russia. He is inherently virtually a Muscovite dictator and national political bear. And though Russia shrugged off Communism, it certainly hasn’t installed an established and lasting system, especially at the municipal level. This has left the Mayor of Moscow with unprecedented power to do as he sees fit, especially as long as Moscow continues to experience prosperity untouched by the rest of the nation. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, no Russian icon has changed more than the city of Moscow. Though there is only one real dynamic figure to take this office, Yuri Luzhkov has truly been the spearhead in this change. In order to better understand its unique politics, one must first understand Moscow’s basic setting. It is not only the capital of the nation of Russia, but also of the Moscow oblast (region). The oblast has a gubernatorial executive. In other oblasts, the regional governor is the power point. In Moscow, oblast and city, it is the mayor who maintains the greatest power. The politics of this are far reaching, for example is the most recent election of the Moscow Oblast’s governor. In January of 2000, Acting President Putin supported Gennadiy Seleznyov, just to oppose Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov’s ally. Luzhkov’s candidate won. Going against personal wishes, but attuning to the political climate of Russia, Putin then desires to appoint Luzhkov as a deputy minister of new, powerful regional council.l2 As with all of Russia, the pivotal has been economics. Moscow’s Mayors Office has taken a more than active role in seeing prosperity in Moscow, if nowhere else. Luzhkov likes to refer to himself as a khoziaistvenik (business manager). He is visibly at ease discussing business plans and financial flows. Unlike most Russian managers, he has a good head for facts and figures. Even more unusual for a Russian, he neither smokes nor drinks. But he rules Moscow with an iron fist. In December of 98, he even imposed Christmas spirit by decree. “All stores and restaurants around the capital had to put p Christmas and New Year’s decorations.3” Luzhkov runs Moscow on a two-tier basis. Apart from the $8 billion official budget, there is an “unofficial” budget, where revenues from city-owned businesses and buildings get directed to construction of new apartment blocks, schools, shopping malls, stadiums and roads. Moscow officials put the size of this budget at about $4 billion. Most people think it’s a lot bigger than that. 4 Rival and presidential contender, General Alexander Lebed, describes the problem with this politics, “Russia has long been sick with symptoms of a dinosaur — a huge body and tiny head. By the time a signal from the head passes through the body and reaches the tail, it is already time to turn in the other direction.” But Lebed, the sting of Moscow’s czar. During the 2000 campaign, Forbes magazine went to interview Lebed as his Moscow campaign headquarters near Teriyaki Gallery. The rooms were not only modest, but very bare and empty; just “cheap linoleum and fluorescent lighting.” Early in the interview, Lebed tells of Moscow’s hard-hitting politics, “Luzhkov is trying to evict us. The building has been declared an architectural monument and we’ve been told we have to go.” Regardless, Moscow has become an oasis of prosperity in a ravaged nation. In 1996 Luzhkov was reelected mayor with 90% of the vote. Whereas rivals clash with mafia and special interests, Luzhkov coexists with them in the Russian capital; but he makes them cough up big money in return. In a recent interview, Mayor Luzhkov was asked why the city of Moscow has successfully retained so much control. “We say that privatization is necessary to create new owners who will manage the factories better than the old, but that is possible only if the factories are sold for real money, so the new owner has to work to make a return on his investment.” 5 The mayor’s office opinion is simple, “We have to have a flexible policy. If an enterprise is working well and improving itself, don’t touch it. Forget about how the new owner obtained it.” The Mayor’s office has demised a mafiaesque plan of doing this. Unlike the rest of Russia, Moscow is exempt to the privatization rules of Yeltsin’s government . The city still controls property and the sale of it. Thus, you can still buy property, but the mayor’s office decides how much it will cost you and where the proceeds will go. As communism collapsed, Luzhkov simply grabbed many of the best Moscow enterprises and properties for the city government. He has assembled a great business empire with more than half the working population of Moscow directly — or indirectly — on the municipal payroll.6 The City of Moscow owns and operates two big auto plants, an oil company, several big construction firms, part of the local phone and electric utilities, a TV network, two fast food chains (including part of the local McDonald’s), dozens of food processing plants, several big hotels, and hundreds of shops and restaurants. This economic plan doesn’t believe in price controls, but favors a highly interventionist government policy to spur Russia’s industrial revival. He wants to use the government’s position as monopoly supplier of electricity, gas, and rail transport to run those businesses — at a loss, if necessary — in order to bring down the basic costs of living and doing business. No free trader, he advocates tariffs to protect inefficient Russian industries as a means of spurring the generation of money. Additionally, the Mayor’s office has gone out of its way to bring foreign capital into Moscow. The city has attracted $12 billion in direct investment and credits, the lion’s share of all such funds invested in Russia. The city is home to some 5,000 foreign companies and joint ventures. Moscow’s next, and most ambitious project is the new financial district, Siti, an 8 billion dollar project to be crowned by the 115 floor Russian Tower. The greatest extortion involves taxes. Most of the biggest Russian companies are registered and pay their taxes in Moscow . Most of the money never leaves the city. Consider Gazprom, the gigantic natural gas utility. It pumps its gas from Western Siberia, pipes it across the length of European Russia and sells it in Germany, Italy and France. Gazprom pays its taxes in Moscow and there most of the money stays. 7 But the municipality of Moscow reaches far beyond the ring. Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov has steeped his national power especially deeply with the beginning of his own political party. “Russia Homeland” is a nationalistic party founded by Luzhkov, giving him a basis of national support and a much more far reaching platform. Yet Fatherland politics have been inflammatory. In an interview with Novye Ivestiya on 25 September, Samara Governor Konstantin Titov blasted the Moscow city government for its policies vis-a-vis non- Muscovites, saying that Moscow Mayor Yurii Luzhkov “is hunting down Caucasians, has turned Moscow into a screening camp, and is eliciting a chauvinistic wave in this multinational state.” Titov, who is also head of the Voice of Russia bloc, which is aligned with Right Cause and New Force, said that Luzhkov’s policy “threatens the stability of Russia no less than terrorism.” Two days later, Saratov Governor Dmitrii Ayatskov, who is a member of Our Home Is Russia, told ITAR-TASS that his region will “not allow civil rights to be infringed upon or people divided on an ethnic basis.” The governor added that he is planning to meet with members of the local Chechen diaspora to discuss their involvement in settling the North Caucasus conflict.8 This has gone on to affect Moscow politics, with a greater concern over anti-Semitic relations and the influx of Russians to the prosperous city. Washington, DC, The Federal City, has faced immense change in its short 200 years. In modern times, Washington has been plagued with the nation’s highest murder rate, high poverty levels and poor education, Washington is still home to the US Federal Government. Behind the US Capitol is a slum. Down the road from the White House is the nation’s crime capital. But it is still the center of American political power, the base of Congress, the Supreme Court, DOD, the President….the central nervous system of American government. But these are just guests in the city of Washington. The city itself, a non-state District has nonvoting representation in Congress and receives its budget from local taxes and federal monies. The city has been plagued by its last mayor, Marion Berry. Following years of simply foolish remarks and policies, plus incidents regarding prostitutes and a cocaine habit, the city has turned to a new mayor. Anthony Williams, a young democrat, defeated Berry to become mayor in 1998. Williams sees DC’s greatest challenge is one of reinventing itself. Much like Rudolph Gullioni’s new New York, mayor Anthony Williams is reinventing a new Washington. This expansive plan is authored and enforced through the mayor’s office. Mayor Williams asks the people of D.C. to come together and work together to improve the quality of life in the District for both its citizens and the local business community. The mission is simple: giving the citizens of DC the best city in America.9 What at first seems like political rhetoric actually has a multifaceted plan and vision of making Washington the city it wants to be. In a TQM style, the mayors office has approached Washington’s problems in a wide to narrow scope approach. This begins with the Mayor’s Vision for Washington. This Vision, making Washington the ‘best’ city in America, has tiers of goals established by the Mayor’s Office: ·Strong schools, safe streets, clean communities, affordable housing, and reliable transportation; ·Access for all people to health care where our senior citizens and children at risk receive quality services; ·A wealth of social and cultural growth opportunities; ·Vibrant economies downtown and in the neighborhoods; ·True inclusion, a seat at the table for all; ·Taking advantage of the District’s truly unique assets-tourism that is second to none, unique partnerships with federal agencies, a strong regional economy that lacks only a vital urban center; and ·Empowering men, women, and children of all communities to solve problems together. Coming together, working together, succeeding together. In a few years, Washington has made real progress towards the more tangible goals established by the mayor’s office. The following chart depicts some vital statistics in Washington’s continued progress: CRIME City Stats Natl. Avg. Rank Violent crime(per 100K population) 526.6 506 190 Property crime(per 100K population) 3,990 4,329 136 EDUCATION City Stats Natl. Avg. Rank Spending per pupil $6,825 $5,387 36 Student/teacher ratio 18.1 16.95 227 Number of 4-year colleges 25 4.03 6 Number of 2-year colleges 8 2.77 22 ECONOMY City Stats Natl. Avg. Rank Cost of Living Index 124 104 300 State and local taxes% 21.25% 10.35 % 328 Recent job growth(past 12 months) 3.29% 1.68% 70 Projected job growth(10 years) 16.54% 15.09% 121 Unemployment rate % 2.4% 4.24% 30 Auto insurance rates ($ per year) $1,100 $829 285 Hospital beds 12,709 2,602 10 Air quality index(higher is better) 62 65.9 211 Water quality index(higher is better) 48 52.0 176 Number of teaching hospitals 20 3.88 7 QUALITY OF LIFE City Stats Natl. Avg. Rank Leisure Index (100 is best; 0 is worst) 59 19.42 17 Arts Index (100 is best; 0 is worst) 56 11.48 4 TRANSPORTATION City Stats Natl. Avg. Rank Mass transit availability 24.43 8.03 18 Number of airline flights 578 139 19 Regardless, there still seems to be a bubbling revolt in Washington. Williams noted that the only people in the U.S. denied voting representation are, “minors, convicted criminals and DC residents.” This stems from federal control of the federal city, equaling Congressional oversight of all spending, taxation, and use of funds. The people of DC are infuriated that Congress maintains this control while the residents of DC have no Congressional vote. 10 This has led to the city actually filing suit. There are two suits on the table. One challenges the Court to allow the District to become a state, or for its residents to become part of an existing state, such as Maryland. The other suite demands that Congress provide the DC representative with a vote in the House. Efforts from within Washington groups include giving DC two members in the House and two members in the Senate. An additional option, not officially supported, would be to remove Federal taxation from DC residents. They would still not have representation, but they wouldn’t be taxed, either.11 The city and residents of Washington, DC are making their point on this issue known in a unique way. On the morning of November 4, 2000, thousands lined up outside the District’s DMV office to get the new, official plates for their vehicles. The old plates have been in use since 1997 and bear the slogan Celebrate and Discover. The new plates look the same, but the slogan across the bottom of the plate reads, Taxation Without Representation. Mayor Williams, Delegate Norton and several city officials were on hand November 4 with city vehicles being the first to sport the new plate. Two capital cities. Two centers of world power….two worlds apart. Moscow and Washington are two very different cities with different leadership structures, especially with regards to municipal leadership. In Washington, the mayor is what the west would consider ‘just a mayor’, truly the political leader and manager of the city, but nothing like Moscow’s mayor. In Moscow, the mayor runs a near dictatorship, ruling almost every detail of the city. By virtue of being the Mayor of Moscow, Yuri Luzhkov has been reserved a seat on the national stage. The formation of the Father Russia party only solidifies this to a national voice. The Mayor’s office not only dictates local taxes, but also makes official opinion on Chechnya, Yugoslavia, and international trade. This illustrates a key point about the city Moscow itself. Moscow, as Moscow is the center of Russia. The city represents a nearly mythical image in Russian life. It is Moscow that is the fulcrum of Russian culture, money, and power. American would have no such of Washington. Granted, it is the federal center of American politics, Washington still owes its power to representatives from throughout the country. This is as opposed to a very concentrated, central power from Moscow that flows down to the citizenry as opposed up from the citizenry. Both cities have had major economic and planning issues in the last decade. Their leadership has definitely taken different approaches. For Moscow, there has been a level of endorsed underground economics, filled with shady deals and understood corruption. But no ne wants this changed, especially as long as Moscow continues to prosper. For Washington, autocratic leadership and results haven’t been so easy. Dealing with American norms of municipal leadership, processes have been slow and balanced. Whereas in the Muscovite world, Mayor Williams can not decree that there be Christmas spirit. He can of course do ribbon cuttings, tree lightings, and declare a festive day in Washington, but never proclaim that every street be lit and every tree be trimmed. Marion Berry lead a downward spiral for Washington’s crime, education, and overall standard of living. Once reelected following the cocaine scandal, an aurora of incompetence again shined above DC. Finally, with the election of Anthony Williams, DC seems to have a definite vision and plan for moving towards this vision. Crime, pollution, and a decaying infrastructure have slowly headed to a Washington that has been selected as one of America’s best largest cities. These changes came about at an ‘American pace’, with the authorization of a city council, referendum, etc. Changes in Moscow come about as Yuri Luzhkov pleases, with the wishes of the underground. With an extensive underground connection and a system of favors and patronage, the wheels of Moscow run like a mafia organization. Moscow has the same problems as Washington, such as a infrastructure, crime, and education. But Moscow has also had to deal with the collapse and establishment of an entirely new government and economic model. When Luzhkov took the reins of Moscow, he entirely took control. Dealing directly with Yeltsin, he took control of companies and land, and the entire political machine. By doing so, his city retains control only known in the Soviet Union, but still alive in Moscow, the capitol of the ‘New Russia.’ There is no way, even with eminent domain, Washington DC’s municipal offices would imagine fiating control of property and businesses. Then Luzhkov makes a national stance as leader of his own party; no third party candidate could stand a reasonable chance of winning the mayor’s office in DC, let alone establishing their own party. One of the greatest likeness/differences the executive officials of DC and Moscow deal with is the push/pull of the federal center and the regions. In Russia, Moscow boasts of its position on the hierarchy of national politics. Moscow is the center of Russian influence, and by commandeering businesses, and taxing regional businesses headquartered in Moscow, the city has set itself as different from the rest of Russia. Moscow is a city that is on top of the food chain. While most of Russia starves (and some parts of Moscow), Moscow taxes regional companies, keeping the money in Moscow, spending the money on roads and skyscrapers. In Washington, the people are crying “taxation without representation”. There is a great fear in crowning Washington as a city above other cities. They don’t even have a voting voice in the chamber that oversees much of its funding. Rather than dealing with CEO’s and mafia bosses, the mayor’s office deals with a city council, Congressional oversight, and he continued reinvention of a plagued city. In short, Washington, regardless of who lives there and what goes on, is still just a city. Moscow is a Russian Mecca; the home of all power and good things. It is one of the only jewels in a very tarnished Russian crown. Both Mayors know their positions, and both use their power accordingly. For Anthony Williams, it is the fight for better schools and an expanded Metro. For Yuri Luzhkov, it’s bulling President Yeltsin into exempting Moscow from major legislation, or condemning Allied bombing in Serbia. These truly are two different worlds, with two very different types of leaders with two very different jobs, regardless of their titles.

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In late 2012, 60 people died in two cities in Pakistan after drinking cough syrup to get high. Syrups from two separate manufacturers were involved. It was found that both were using an active ingredient—dextromethorphan, a synthetic morphine-like compound—imported from the same manufacturer in India. Indian drug authorities put a halt to production while they investigated. Tests in Pakistan revealed that the medicines seemed to contain the correct amount of active ingredient. But further tests revealed something that was not supposed to be there. Levomethorphan, a chemical five times stronger than morphine, was the contaminant that had caused the deaths. In September 2013, 44 children in Paraguay were admitted to hospital with breathing difficulties. It turned out the children had all been given a locally made cough medicine. Investigators went to the factory and found import records for the dextromethorphan it contained. When they checked the World Health Organization’s database of substandard and falsified medical products, they found that this came from the same batch that had caused the deaths in Pakistan. Doctors in Paraguay were able to administer an antidote and save the children. A WHO alert went out listing the batches from the Indian factory that might be contaminated. By then the ingredient had been transported to multiple countries in Europe, north Africa, the Middle East and Latin America. It had already been made into cough medicines in Colombia and Peru, but these were recalled before they could reach patients. The batch that went to the Middle East could not be traced. In this case, a blatantly poor-quality medicine was detected because its effects were conspicuous. A more discreet kind of substandard medicine—say, an antibiotic without enough active ingredient— probably stands a strong chance of reaching patients across the world without getting discovered. This is a story of how the manufacture and distribution of medicines today is such a complex, globalized affair that it is often hard to track where fake or substandard medicines come from and where they go. This is a story of how these medicines could make you ill or even kill you, even if you don’t take them. The term “poor-quality medicines” is something of a catch-all. It includes “substandards," medicines that have had inadequate quality control or that have degraded from improper storage or the passage of time. And it includes falsified medicines—fakes—that claim to be what they are not. These may not be made by the manufacturer whose name is on the package, and they may not contain the stated ingredients in the stated quantities. Poor-quality medicines might not work. Like those peddled by Peter Gillespie, who was jailed for introducing 72,000 packets of falsified medicines into the UK’s distribution system from 2006 to 2007. 25,000 packets reached pharmacies and were given to patients. These knock-off tablets were used to treat heart disease, pancreatic cancer and mental illnesses, and had none or only part of the active ingredient they were supposed to contain. This meant that those people’s illnesses were left to take their course. Poor-quality medicines can kill you if you take them. As happened with Thomas Rybinski, a 56-year-old autoworker from Tennessee, USA, who got an injection for his back pain in 2012. He fell ill and died because the medicine had contaminants that caused fungal meningitis. The batch of medicine, originating in a New England pharmacy with close to no quality control, ended up causing severe infections in nearly 800 people across the USA, killing 64 of them. Poor-quality medicines can kill you even if you don’t take them. Antimicrobial drugs (including antibiotics and antivirals) that have too little active ingredient are generally accepted to help disease-causing bugs evolve so that they develop resistance to treatment even with good-quality antimicrobials. And then these bugs spread. Ramanan Laxminarayan is the director of the Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics and Policy in Washington, DC. He says that with some drugs, like statins or arthritis drugs, the effects of poor quality are confined to those taking them. But with antimicrobials, inappropriate use reduces their effectiveness for everyone else. “If there’s misuse in South Asia then everyone is affected. It’s a problem that comes up when people act in ways that don’t take into account the effects of what they are doing on everyone else,” he says. “It’s really no different from climate change,” says Laxminarayan. “Either in terms of potential global impact, or in the fact that everyone needs to be working together to solve the problem.” The factors that speed up the development of antimicrobial resistance—high rates of infections, the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials, poor sanitation, poor-quality medicines—are more common in low- and middle-income countries, which means that so is resistance. But microbes know no boundaries, and they travel easily across the world, in foodstuffs being exported and in the bodies of humans. And often, resistant microbes can transfer genetic material to each other to become even more dangerous to humans. The result: infections that were simple to cure, gonorrhea for example, are back with a vengeance. Conditions like tuberculosis and HIV are getting harder to treat. In the future, routine surgery or cancer treatment could become risky. There is a real danger of returning to a time where any one of us, anywhere in the world, could pick up such an infection and find that medicine is powerless to save us from dying. At a south Indian restaurant in Delhi, I meet Suresh Sati. He is a large middle-aged man, often larger-than-life in his enthusiasm, who has spent a considerable part of his working life as a private investigator exposing manufacturers of falsified medicines. His clients were pharmaceutical companies whose products were being faked. Sati would do the legwork to track down fake medicine operations and provide information to the police to conduct raids. He has since become something of a go-to person for researchers, journalists and documentary film makers interested in a close look at the falsified medicine business. “If anyone in India can tell you all about fake medicines, it is me,” Sati says, quite matter-of-factly. Within 15 minutes of sitting down, he has produced so many samples of fake medicines that our tumblers of coffee risk being crowded off the table. He collected them over years of investigations, from raids or from informants in fake medicine distribution networks. India is one of the largest exporters of generic medicines in the world. Forty percent of over-the-counter and prescription generics sold in the USA come from India. In the UK, a quarter of all generics come from India, and generics account for 80 percent of National Health Service prescriptions. Yet India’s pharmaceutical sector is indifferently regulated, and Indian pharmaceutical companies have been pulled up by foreign trading partners for exporting substandard or contaminated medicines. In 2013, the pharma giant Ranbaxy was fined $500 million for falsifying data and not meeting safety standards; in 2014, Germany suspended 80 Indian products over drug safety concerns. Further complicating the picture is the fact that different countries have different standards. The same violations that the USA fined Ranbaxy for were brought to the attention of UK authorities, who did not deem them serious enough to punish. In 2014, the chief drug controller of India said to a newspaper: “If I have to follow US standards in inspecting facilities supplying to the Indian market, we will have to shut almost all of those.” Just how common is poor-quality medicine in India? Since these medicines tend to fly under the radar, there is limited official data. A recent WHO study estimated that around 10 percent of medicines in low- and middle-income countries are of poor quality. In 2017, a nationwide drug survey conducted on behalf of the Indian government found 3.16 percent of sampled medicines to be substandard and 0.0245 percent to be fake. These official numbers, Sati says, don’t quite capture reality. At least, not when it comes to fakes. For one thing, he has reservations about the studies’ sampling methods. He also says that averages are misleading because some kinds of medicines—painkillers, antibiotics, drugs for heart disease and cancer—are falsified more than others. According to him, the more commonly prescribed they are, the more often they are falsified. Sati points at one of the boxes in front of him, a ten-strip cardboard container of Zifi 200—a trade name for the antibiotic cefixime, used for throat infections, urinary tract infections and gonorrhea. “Now the monsoons are beginning, and people are going to start falling ill. This sells the most. Every doctor is going to prescribe Zifi 200,” he says. That makes it a popular target for the fakers. Extrapolating from what his sources report, he estimates that 40 percent of the Zifi 200 on the market is fake. The number is hard to verify, and it may not apply to the whole country because Sati’s sources operate in Delhi and neighboring states, but certainly the drug has been mentioned in news reports about seizures of fake medicines. I ask if I can take a photograph of the packaging. He hands me two of the Zifi 200 strips and tells me to keep them. “There’ll be more coming my way,” he says. The strips even include verification codes to be sent by SMS to check if the medicine is real. I make a note to buy a strip from a pharmacy to compare with the fakes. Sati describes how he once got a distributor-cum-manufacturer to induct him into the racket so he could understand its workings. He pretended to want fakes made of a common brand of painkiller. From Delhi, they drove to a small manufacturing unit in Sonepat which already had moulds for the tablets, and paid cash in advance for a batch of 100,000. Then they went to a printer in Karnal, who had the design files required to print the strips. They tasked another man with collecting the tablets and delivering them in strips. In Delhi, Sati had cardboard packaging printed, and stamps made to emboss batch numbers and expiry dates. In a few days his batch of fake medicine was ready. Sati burnt the lot and had the manufacturer raided; he was told he would be shot if he was ever seen in the manufacturer’s town. An important step while getting fakes made, Sati says, is a question that the manufacturer asks: “Which do you want? Full-salt, half-salt or chalk-mitti?” That is, fakes with the stated amount of active ingredient, with only some of the active ingredient, or just chalk dust. Each has a different price. According to Sati, the practice of adding a fraction of active ingredient to fakes began to be seen in India around 15 years ago, as drug controllers and consumers began to realize that there were fake medicines in the system. Manufacturers of fakes saw it as a way to protect themselves, as the medicines might have some effect and draw less attention. And if they were caught, it allowed them to claim that it was a case of production error rather than outright fakery. Besides, the simplest tests to detect fakes are colorimetric ones, which detect the presence of an ingredient but not its concentration. So it was less likely that fakes with some amount of active ingredient would be found out. While this might work well for the manufacturers, it is bad for the patients—who receive sub-therapeutic doses, too low to properly treat their illnesses—and terrible from the perspective of antimicrobial resistance. “Sub-therapeutic dosing, by definition, contributes to antimicrobial resistance,” says Elizabeth Pisani, an epidemiologist and a visiting senior research fellow at the Policy Institute, King’s College London. “Bugs are mutating all the time,” she explains. Some of these mutations make the bugs slightly more resistant to drug treatment, but the mutants are usually at a disadvantage among non-mutants because it takes them more energy to reproduce. Our antimicrobials work most effectively against the non-mutant versions, but a full therapeutic dose further ensures that slightly resistant versions are eliminated too. However, if you have only a fraction of the active ingredient, it’s going to knock out the susceptible ones first and there might not be enough left over to knock out the slightly resistant ones. “That creates elbow room for the slightly resistant ones to reproduce because the competition has been wiped out,” says Pisani “And that’s how a mutant version becomes a dominant strain.” She adds that falsified medicines with zero active ingredient can contribute to resistance too. People taking blanks will often switch to a next-line antimicrobial drug, thinking that what they’ve already taken was ineffective. Pathogens then get exposed to a drug that would ideally only be used on rarer, resistant infections. What is usually measured in testing for fakes and substandards is the amount of active ingredient. But even when medicines contain the correct amount, not all of it may actually be available for absorption by the body. Pisani says the poor formulation of medicines probably greatly increases the proportion of drugs that are delivering sub-therapeutic doses. All things considered, Pisani suspects that poor-quality medicines are a significant contributor to antimicrobial resistance. But while laboratory studies, modeling and common sense all point to the link between poor-quality medicine and resistance, it would be hard to study directly in humans. As Pisani puts it, “The way we would normally test those things is in a large human trial, and we can’t actually give people crap medicines, right?” Yet, unintentionally, that’s exactly what’s happened in recent history. In the 1950s, malaria was rampant along the Thai–Cambodian border. In an attempt to keep the disease at bay, public health authorities began to pre-emptively distribute chloroquine, the antimalarial drug of choice at the time. By 1960 they were lacing cooking salt with chloroquine in an attempt to administer it to as many people as possible. But drug-laced salt isn’t an ideal way to take medicine. So, of course, it led to large numbers of people receiving sub-therapeutic doses. Chloroquine-resistant parasites began to emerge and spread. Similar patterns were observed in other places in the world where there was mass administration of chloroquine. And by the 1970s chloroquine was essentially useless against the P. falciparum form of malaria. It’s hard to say of course if this is the full story. Paul Newton, professor of tropical medicine and director of the Lao–Oxford–Mahosot Hospital–Wellcome Research Unit at Vientiane, Laos, explains that other factors, such as poor course adherence or flawed prescription practices, may also have played a part. But chloroquine may be making a comeback now, Newton says. “There’s some evidence, from countries like Malawi, that resistance to chloroquine is declining. Maybe in the future chloroquine could be used again, in combination with other medicines.” Yet this hope is threatened by fake antimalarial drugs. Newton says that some fake antimalarials in Asia and Africa contain the wrong active ingredients. There are antimalarials that are not supposed to contain chloroquine but do. Parasites in patients that take them get exposed to drugs they shouldn’t be—and start building resistance, without our knowledge. Worse, other fake antimalarials contain antibiotics, contributing to resistance in other disease-causing bacteria. Since chloroquine was introduced in the 1940s, other antimalarials have been produced, and the parasites have responded by developing resistance to them. “Now there’s severe problems with falsified artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) in western and central Africa,” says Newton. “This is of enormous concern because ACTs are the standard, modern, effective therapy for falciparum malaria and they clearly save lives.” A drugs seizure in 2012 highlights just how large the problem of fake ACTs is. Customs officials in Luanda, Angola, were examining a shipment of loudspeakers when they found that they had been used to smuggle pornographic DVDs and strips of fake Coartem, an ACT manufactured by Novartis. In all, the shipment yielded 1.4 million packets of fake Coartem with no active ingredient, enough to ‘treat’ more than half of Angola’s annual malaria cases. The fake ACT had been sent by sea from Guangzhou, China. Both the shipping company and the recipient denied knowledge of the fake medicines and no one was prosecuted. Ensuring medicine quality is a global challenge. A pill might be manufactured from ingredients sourced from multiple countries, shipped via several ports, packaged and repackaged in various countries and ultimately sold via an internet pharmacy. The number of points at which fakes or substandards could enter the chain is staggering, so international coordination is essential. The WHO database that helped save the lives of children in Paraguay is a start. But a crucial tool is regulation, the responsibility for which could be shared better. “The approach to assuring medical quality now is always to throw things at the regulator in the country of use,” Pisani says. “It's easy to yell and moan and say they shouldn’t be allowing for crap medicines to get out of Indian factories. But actually, we’ve chosen a system that works that way.” “Instead of controlling very tightly the quality of medicines made from this one Ranbaxy factory in India, that are currently being shipped to 83 countries, we’re going to make the regulators of all of those countries, some of which are two people for a population of 19 million, we’re going to make it their responsibility. Which I think is absolutely crazy.” It would be much more effective and efficient to require a greater share of quality control and regulation at the point of origin, she says. “And right now, there’s none. Zero. Legally.” Pisani would also like to see more shared and sustained accountability. She takes the example of the aviation industry and the European Union: Safety concerns involving only a few airlines from a particular country could lead the EU to blacklist all airlines from that country. It’s a way to incentivize the industry and its regulators to collectively improve standards. “We could contemplate doing something similar for medicines,” she says, “but obviously it’s politically difficult. Right now, it’s an entirely globalized industry that we’re trying to regulate locally.” In Delhi, Suresh Sati is skeptical of the Indian government’s attempts to regulate poor-quality medicines at a local level. In 2009, the health minister introduced a scheme to reward whistle-blowers who alerted regulators about quality problems. “Not a single person has come forward,” Sati says. He also believes the laws and their enforcement are lax and no one really pays the price for making fake drugs. “The margin from selling fake medicines is more than from selling heroin. With heroin you’re scared of the police, but here you’re not.” And so those who run fake medicine operations continue to do so with relative impunity. One of them even warned Sati that if he persisted with his investigations he would be dissolved in a boiler, a threat that few are in a better position to make convincingly than the kingpin of a fake medicine racket. In 2010, Indians consumed the most antibiotics per person in the world. Medicines, including antimicrobials, are easily available over the counter despite rules that forbid this. A study published in 2018 found that a large number of antibiotics were on sale without being approved either in India or in the country of the manufacturer. To preserve the effectiveness of antimicrobials, regulators need to prevent their overuse and misuse just as they need to prevent the use of poor-quality fakes. The fake tablets that Sati gave me, Zifi 200, should contain cefixime as their active ingredient. Cefixime is classified as a third-generation cephalosporin, which is on the WHO’s list of critically important antimicrobials, and within it is categorized as “Highest Priority." Cefixime is also on a list of drugs in India called Schedule H1, a classification introduced by the government in 2014 to regulate access to drugs, specifically as a counter to the spread of antimicrobial resistance. A Schedule H1 drug can only be sold against a prescription, and the pharmacist is required to maintain a record of the sale, the prescribing doctor and contact information for the patient. Some medicines, including Zifi 200, use an SMS verification service to combat fakes. Text the code and you soon get a reply to say if your medicine is genuine or not. I sent off a text message with the code on one of the strips Sati gave me. As expected, it failed. Later, I went down to a pharmacy to see if I could buy a strip of Zifi 200. The pharmacist, with dismaying cheerfulness, handed me a strip without asking for a prescription or recording the sale. This one passed verification. There I was with two identical strips of tablets—one that was fake and should never have been made, and one that lacked a prescription and should never have been sold. What to do if you suspect you have fake medicine Elizabeth Pisani and Paul Newton receive or have received funding from Wellcome, the publisher of Mosaic.

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When it is stated that Robert Louis Stevenson lived one of the hardest, most painful, yet most rewarding lives of a Victorian writer, the fact is accepted as common knowledge. Most critics and historians agree that his romantic adventure novels will never be surpassed. Stevenson, who some say is the greatest storyteller of the nineteenth century, overcame unbelievable health problems throughout his life to become one of the most recognized authors of the Victorian time period. The majority of his life was spent on two things, writing, and traveling in search of health. Stevenson never limited himself to one genre of writing, but all of his works, whether it was a poem, an essay, a children’s story, or a novel, all were done in his unique writing style that was full of imagery and honest romance. He strived to entertain himself and the people around him. During his relatively short life, Stevenson was known for his vivid imagination, attention to detail, and a broad view of the world and human life. Disease, family life, the Victorian time period, and Henry James all have had a profound effect on Robert Louis Stevenson’s writing style and works of literature. Robert Louis Stevenson must have been strong willed, and possessed a love for life because he was able to live a productive life even though he was stricken with health problems from an early age. Sometime in his life Stevenson contracted tuberculosis, which led to his death on December 3, 1894 (Stevenson, Robert Louis 9). Little was known about the relief of tuberculosis in the late 1800’s, so Stevenson’s only treatment came from his nurse Alison Cunningham and from the places he traveled to in search of health. The presence and influence of Cunningham had a profound effect on young Stevenson, “It [Cunningham’s influence] is admitted to have been enormous…But it is perhaps worthwhile to emphasize the fact that, while Alison Cunningham was not only a devoted nurse, night and day, to the delicate child, she actually was in many ways responsible for the peculiar bent of Stevenson’s mind”(Swinnerton 13). Even though Stevenson had a difficult childhood, Alison Cunningham was able to make his life more enjoyable by reading to him and tutoring him. When the author reached fifteen he started traveling with his parents to find a climate that suited him better than the weather of his home Scotland. In the late nineteenth century it was common to seek treatment for ailments in places with natural wonders or astounding beauty. Many times this type of treatment was unsuccessful, but it is evident from his personal writing, that Robert Louis Stevenson was helped by certain climates (Swinnerton 23). In 1873 Stevenson met Lady Colvin and Sidney Colvin who gave him moral support and provided him with his first trip in search of health in France. Stevenson was accompanied by Sidney Colvin on a journey to Paris where he was able to relax (Swinnerton 18). France must have suited Stevenson because he returned to his home in Scotland only shortly, and then returned to France for five years. He enjoyed steady work writing and publishing The Wrecker and Fontainebleau, which details his life in Paris and on the French Rivera (Swinnerton 19). Stevenson’s early travel books create a foundation for the style or writing that appears in his other works of literature: His first published volume, An Inland Voyage (1878), is an account of the journey he made by canoe from Antwerp to northern France, in which prominence is given to the author and his thoughts. A companion work, Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes (1879), gives us more of his thoughts on life and human society and continues in consolidating the image of the debonair narrator that we also fined in his essays and letters (which can be classed among his best works) (Robert Louis 1). While in France, Robert Louis Stevenson met Fanny Osbourne and fell in love with her, even though she was a married woman. Stevenson followed Mrs. Osbourne to the United States, and after she divorced her husband, the two were married (Maixner 385). The long journey to California caused Stevenson to grow ill with tuberculosis and he only survived because his wife nursed him back to health (Stevenson, Robert Louis 8). After a year long stay in California, Fanny Stevenson and her son Lloyd Osborne traveled back to Scotland for a summer with Robert Louis Stevenson. It was at this time Treasure Island, one of Stevenson’s most noted works, was completed (Robert Louis 1). The Scottish climate soon caused Stevenson problems, so he moved his family to Bournemouth in souther England. Here Stevenson was able to publish two famous works, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and Kidnapped (Swinnerton 22). During his four years in Bournemouth the health of Stevenson seemed to be somewhat stable, but after the death of his father in 1887, the Stevensons’ traveled to the Adirondacks in search of a climate to help his lung problems. While in New York treating his health problems, Stevenson began The Master of Ballantrae (Swinnerton 23). This novel has many similarities to Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde both containing characters wiht mixed personalities and in both novels the two antagonists die. Strangely, in both of the novels the main characters have the initials J and H (Robert Louis 2). Stevenson was a well known and liked author at this time of his life, but all of his recognition could not cure his illness. With encouragement from his wife, they traveled first to Hawaii, then finally to Apia in the Samoan Islands. Here he enjoyed relatively good health and built a home where they lived for the rest of his life (Swinnerton 23). The warm climate and life free from distractions brought on by other scholars and writers provided Stevenson with some of his most productive and enjoyable years of his life. Robert Louis Stevenson had many triumphant times throughout his life, but the contraction of tuberculosis left the great writer with a constant struggle for life. Tuberculosis, also referred to as TB or consumption, has been affecting animals of earth since the Paleolithic period, and in humans before the birth of Christ (Roche 715). The type of tuberculosis that Stevenson was infected with is unknown, but adult type pulmonary tuberculosis does create the same symptoms of lung inflammation, fever, chest pain, and dyspnea that Stevenson complained of (Berkow 115). Contraction of tuberculosis is primarily occurs by breathing in airborne droplets containing the disease. Tuberculosis can be carried by animals though, so infection can be caused by contaminated milk and unsanitary conditions (Berkow 115). It attacks the lungs in most cases, and causes an inflamation which can spread to the lymph nodes. At this stage, the disease may spread to the rest of the body. The natural defenses of the human body can usually destroy the bacteria that causes TB, but in some cases it does not. If advanced tuberculosis is not treated with medicine, the disease can leave disabling scars on the tissue it attackes (Kunz et al. 574). Starting as a sickly child and continuing to have medical problems throughout his whole life cased Stevenson to suffer physically, but his times resting only made him a more imaginative and a creative writer. Robert Louis Stevenson lived a painful but rewarding life that creates an awe inspiring story. The trials and tribulations that he endured shaped his writing style and imagination. While in bed due to sickness Stevenson was able to let his imagination run, which transferred to his adventure stories. The tuberculosis he contracted forced him to lead an unusual life, but as his early works show the imagination and determination more than made up for his lack of traditional schooling. From the early trips to France, all the way to Samoa, Stevenson led a life just as many of his characters did, free and adventurous. Robert Louis Stevenson and his works were not only shaped by his illnesses, but also by his family. . Robert Louis Stevenson was in need of physical caring all of his life, but at the same time he looked to be independent and unique in both his actions and writing style. On the thirteenth of November, 1850 Thomas Stevenson and wife Margaret Balfour were blessed by their only son, Robert Louis Stevenson (Robert Louis 1). From early life Stevenson seemed destined to be a writer, following at first religious themes. At the age of six Stevenson wrote an essay on Moses, then a history on Joseph at the age of nine (Swinnerton 10). These biblical works may not have been close to the caliber of the works that would come, but they did spark the desire to write. From then on he never stopped producing essays, novels, children books, letters, and speeches. His parents were Scottish, and their catholic background was present in their religious up brining of Robert Louis Stevenson. This influence is apparent in many of the authors essays and novels. One vivid image that gives example to his strict religious beliefs comes in Treasure Island: Captain Long John Silver. The Black spot! I thought so,…Where might you have got the paper? Why, hello! look here, now; this ain’t lucky! You’ve gone and cut this out of a Bible. What fool’s cut a Bible? (sic) Morgan. Ah, there…there. Wot did I say? No good’ll come o’ that I said.(sic) (Stevenson 223) Even Long John Silver, who was the nastiest pirate in the novel, understands and respects the Bible in this scene. In many of Stevenson’s works of literature, a religious theme or sermon appears. “Stevenson significantly admits that he may have inherited from this grandfather [Balfour side] the love of sermonizing, which is as noticeable in An Inland Voyage and in Virginibus Puerisque as it is in his latest [in the 1880’s] non-fiction work” (Swinnerton 12). This worldwide sermon reached millions of readers, and is a testament to the religious guidance provided by Robert Louis Stevenson’s parents. While still in the care of his parents, much of his childhood was spent with his nurse Alison Cunningham. Her own love for reading and teaching helped Stevenson develop into one of the nineteenth centuries greatest writers. “Not only that: she [Alison Cunningham] introduced him thus early to the Covenanting writers upon whom he claimed to have based his sense of style” (Swinnerton 13) She not only was his friend and nurse but she also guided him in the studies that he missed due to his inability to attend grade school. Stevenson’s own view on learning and education was “no man learns how to write solely by observation and imitation” (Swinnerton 14). This scholarly approach to learning made fro a writer who was open to experimentation and originality, two important traits of Stevenson. Schooling, in the sense that most humans in the 1990’s think of, was not possible for young Robert Louis Stevenson (Swinnerton 15). His childhood lung trouble caused absence from school, but he did manage to study Latin, French, German, bathing, and dancing. He was privileged as a child to travel to London with his father, and Italy, Germany, and the Rhine while accompanying his mother (Swinnerton 15). His father, a civil engineer, took him on trips to the coast viewing lighthouse construction and harbors. The images of mountains and oceans filled his mind, but engineering was not to be his forte (Stevenson, Robert Louis 3). In 1867 Stevenson did attend Edinburgh University working for a Science degree, but his love for writing grew, and his fathers dream of his son becoming a civil engineer was disappearing (Swinnerton 16). Stevenson gained writing recognition in 1871 when he was awarded a silver medal for a paper by the Scottish Society of Arts. The title of the paper, A New Form of Intermittent Light for Lighthouses, suggests an interest in civil engineering, but later that year Stevenson told his dad that he would not continue his education at Edinburgh. As a compromise he studied and was admitted to the Scottish Bar (Stevenson, Robert Louis 4). Once again Robert Louis Stevenson decided to continue writing, and do so against his fathers wishes. It was at this time that he suffered from a bad spell of health problems, and moved to France with Sidney Colvin to work on perfecting his writing (Swinnerton 18). In Stevenson’s relatively short life many people were instrumental in the caring and the support of him. Even with all of the friends and family he had, Stevenson was helped the most by his wife Fanny Osbourne Stevenson. Her courage and guidance enabled the couple lead prosperous lives, even though they were unable to settle down for many years. Stevenson met Fanny Osbourne while staying in France with Sidney Colvin. The two fell in love, and reached an agreement that Fanny Osbourne would divorce her husband (Maxiner 385). When the two traveled to California to receive the divorce, Stevenson grew very ill with TB. Only after careful nursing from Fanny Osbourne and financial help from Thomas Stevenson was Robert Louis Stevenson able to recover and return to Scotland (Swinnerton 21). Because of his health problems the Stevenson family moved in search of a proper climate many times. After a short stay in Scotland Stevenson moved to Bournemouth in southern England. It was here that his most recognized children novel Treasure Island was published (Robert Louis 2). “It [Treasure Island] is extraordinarily superior to the imitations which have followed it, for this reason if for no other, that it was the product of an enjoying imagination. It is possible to read Treasure Island over and over again, because it is good fun” (Swinnerton 165). Treasure Island is a story of courage and adventure that all boys and girls should like, Stevenson himself said “I liked the tale itself … it was my kind of picturesque” (qtd. in Swinnerton 164). Treasure Island is noted for it’s honest plot, clear romance, original adventure, and the ability to draw the reader into a world with the characters (Swinnerton 165). After the publishing of Treasure Island Stevenson gained recognition as a writer, and appeared to be enjoying his life in Bournemouth. When his father died in 1887 Robert Louis and Fanny Stevenson left England and Europe never to return. Together they traveled to the Adirondacks in New York. Here the couple enjoyed good health, but as always, decided to travel. This time on a schooner searching islands in the south seas. The Master of Ballantrae was finished while living at Waikiki in Hawaii (Swinnerton 23) . This widely criticized romance novel has some excellent scenes mixed in with numerous simplistic ones. The good scenes, like in Treasure Island, are able to capture the reader and express the authors words like you were right in the action (Swinnerton 170). In one of the vivid scenes, Mr. Henry strikes the Master: The Master sprang to his feet like one transfigured; I had never seen the man so beautiful. A Blow!’ he cried. I would not take a blow from God Almighty!’ (qtd. in Swinnerton 170) This was Stevenson’s final book before he reached Apia in Samoa.. Here Stevenson spent the rest of his life, enjoying prolonged periods of good health and a distraction free environment for writing (Maixner 385). As with many of the worlds greatest literary men, Robert Louis Stevenson and his works of literature were shaped by parents, friends, family, and schooling. Both day and night Stevenson’s imagination was a canvas for his future works of literature. Early on Alison Cunningham proved to be interested in not only his health, but also in Stevenson’s education. She filled his mind by reading to him and encouraging him to write his autobiographical poem A Child’s Garden of Verses (Stevenson, Robert Louis 2). This early introduction to scholarly activities created an interest for literature which Stevenson carried with him for the rest of his life. The Scottish heritage of his family was presented to him through a strict religious mother an father. Together with Robert Louis Stevenson’s grandfather young Stevenson was introduced to the sermonizing which appears in many of his novels, including Treasure Island. Stevenson, thankfully did not follow his fathers wish for him to become an engineer to come true. If he followed his education in science, twentieth century adventure writing would not be the same, and it may have never reached the standards created by Stevenson’s Kidnapped and Treasure Island. Robert Louis Stevenson’s bold decision to forgo his fathers wishes meant that future generation would get the chance to experience the lifelike images created in his works. The Victorian age could be called the age of change due to the difference in the style of literature, life, and Great Britain’s power. This time period was named after Queen Victoria who ruled from 1837-1901(Famighetti 578). The literary rebellions of Byron and Shelley declined, and England turned to a more social from of Government. Some of the citizens of Great Britain were able to prosper with their counties’ new found power, making travel and education more available to the general public (English Literature 1). This was possible due to the industrial revolution, which made some men wealthy, but has been criticized for its many problems. The streets of Great Britain became dirty and filled with disease due to the poor conditions workers were faced with at the factories. Stevenson was not directly confronted with working in the deplorable conditions, but he breathed the smoke filled air, and was susceptible to disease. Even though no one is certain of the cause of Stevenson’s childhood illnesses, if they were caused by the industrial revolution, all of the men and women who suffered in the time period will be forever noted in the literature created by Robert Louis Stevenson. The world’s view on literature changed greatly form the Romantic period to the Victorian age. Where in the Romantic period it was degrading to write novels, the Victorian age brought about the wide spread reading of Dickens’s The Pickwick Papers, Thackeray’s Vanity Fair, Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, Trollope’s Orley Farm, and Collins’ The Moonstone (English Literature 3). These writers and their respective novels laid the foundation for the literature that was common in the late 1890’s. The novelists were able to create vivid images and convincing moods, that when combined with views of life, mysterious plots, or just honest tales, made for some of the greatest pieces of English literature ever written. Later in the Victorian age Robert Louis Stevenson and Rudyard Kipling became popular (English Literature 4). Stevenson used light moods in his works along with exciting adventure and Romance to interest readers. Kipling wrote satires on the English military, but today he is most recognized for his children’s stories The Jungle Books and Captains Courageous (English Literature 4). The authors of the Victorian age played a vital role in blazing a trail for Stevenson to follow. The introduction of the novel style of writing enabled him to be accepted by both literary critics, and by the readers of England and around the world. The power of Great Britain, the industrial revolution, and the early Victorian novelists all shaped Stevenson’s writing style and the novels he produced. From birth the society that he had to live in shaped his thoughts and imagination. The increase of public education around this time period also led to more men and women who were able to read his essays, poems, and novels. Henry James, a Victorian period critic, was the 1880’s version of Siskel and Ebert. He read all types of literature, and he read to answer the question “why they do it” (qtd. in Swinnerton 151). Henry James and Robert Louis Stevenson were “linked, not only by the closest ties of personal affection, but by a common concern for the craft of the novelist, and for the whole art of literature” (Smith 9). From their meeting at Bournemouth to Stevenson’s death in Samoa the two always kept in touch, not only for personal information, but so they could critique each others works. Because of this a strong bond of friendship developed (Smith 10). Stevenson’s works of literature were many times reviewed by James before they were released, and because of this Henry James had a profound effect on Stevenson’s novels (Smith 30). Men and women around the world who enjoy reading should be thankful that the relationship between the two men survived even when they were separated. With the help of Henry James, Stevenson created some of the best literature ever produced. The life of Robert Louis Stevenson must have been very difficult due to the health problems he faced and because of the constant traveling to find relief from his lung pain. No one person or object can be credited with influencing Stevenson and his way of life. The combination of tuberculosis, family life, friends, wife Fanny Stevenson, Henry James, and the society he lived in had a profound influence in the shaping Robert Louis Stevenson’s ability to capture his readers, and draw them into a world created by his imagination. It can be said that Thomas Stevenson tried to tame the sea and coast through engineering, but his son Robert Louis Stevenson created vast worlds in every letter he wrote down. Stevenson’s work of literature are timeless, and will always be regarded as some of the greatest novels and essays to come from the Victorian time period.

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Virus is a infectious agent found in all life forms, humans, animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist of genetic material, either deoxyribonucleic acid or ribonucleic acid or as most people know them as DNA and RNA. They are surrounded by a protective coating of protein, called a capsid, with or without an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria. Viruses are not considered free-living, since they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell; they have evolved to send their genetic information from one cell to another for the purpose of replication. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they infect, causing disease in infected organisms. A few viruses stimulate cells to grow uncontrollably and produce cancers. Although viruses cause many infectious diseases, such as the common cold, there are no cures for these illnesses. The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the large number of variant viruses that can cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to disable a virus without disabling healthy cells. Individual viruses, or virus particles, contain genetic material in one of several forms. Unlike cellular organisms, which have only DNA, viruses have either DNA or RNA. Like DNA cells, almost all viral DNA is double-stranded, and it can have either a circular or a linear arrangement. Almost all-viral RNA is single-stranded. The viral protective shell, can be either helical (spiral-shaped) or icosahedral (having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are composed of repeating units of one or a few different proteins. These units are called protomers or capsomers. The proteins that make up the virus particle are called structural proteins. Viruses also carry genes for making proteins that are never incorporated into the virus particle and are found only in infected cells. These viral proteins are called nonstructural proteins; they include factors required for the replication of the viral genome and the production of the virus particle. Capsids and the genetic material they contain are together referred to as nucleocapsids. Some virus particles consist only of nucleocapsids, while others contain additional structures. Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses are enclosed in a lipid envelope acquired when the virus buds through host-cell membranes. Inserted into this envelope are glycoproteins that the viral genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus particles to susceptible host cells. The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their hosts. Some bacteriophages resemble an insect with an icosahedral head attached to a tubular sheath. From the base of the sheath extend several long tail fibers that help the virus attach to the bacterium and inject its DNA to be replicated and to direct capsid production and virus particle assembly inside the cell. Disease-causing agents that resemble incomplete viruses are called viroids and prions. Viroids are plant pathogens that consist only of a circular, independently replicating RNA molecule. The single-stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to form a rodlike structure. The only known mammalian pathogen that resembles plant viroids is the deltavirus (hepatitis D), which requires hepatitis B virus proteins to package its RNA into virus particles. Co-infection with hepatitis B and D can produce more severe disease than can infection with hepatitis B alone. Prions are human and animal pathogens that consist of only a protein and lack nucleic acids. The prion protein (PrP) can be infectious and causes a fatal neurological disease. A change in the shape of PrP is believed to be the key factor in the development of the disease. Viruses are classified according to their type of genetic material, their strategy of replication, and their structure. The International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses (ICNV), established in 1966, devised a scheme to group viruses into families, subfamilies, genera, and species. The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more than 4000 viruses into 71 virus families. Hundreds of other viruses remain unclassified because of the lack of sufficient information. The first contact between a virus particle and its host cell occurs when an outer viral structure docks with a specific molecule on the cell surface. For example, a glycoprotein called gp120 on the surface of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV, the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS) virion specifically binds to the CD4 molecule found on certain human T lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). Most cells that do not have surface CD4 molecules generally cannot be infected by HIV. After binding to an appropriate cell, a virus must cross the cell membrane. Some viruses accomplish this goal by fusing their lipid envelope to the cell membrane, thus releasing the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm of the cell. Other viruses must first be endocytosed (enveloped by a small section of the cell s plasma membrane that pokes into the cell and pinches off to form a bubblelike vesicle called an endosome) before they can cross the cell membrane. Conditions in the endosome allow many viruses to change the shape of one or more of their proteins. These changes permit the virus either to fuse with the endosomal membrane or to lyse the endosome (cause it to break apart), allowing the nucleocapsid to enter the cell cytoplasm. Once inside the cell, the virus replicates itself through a series of events. Viral genes direct the production of proteins by the host cellular machinery. The first viral proteins synthesized by some viruses are the enzymes required to copy the viral genome. Using a combination of viral and cellular components, the viral genome can be replicated thousands of times. Late in the replication cycle for many viruses, proteins that make up the capsid are synthesized. These proteins package the viral genetic material to make newly formed nucleocapsids. To complete the virus replication cycle, viruses must exit the cell. Some viruses bud out of the cell s plasma membrane by a process resembling reverse endocytosis. Other viruses cause the cell to lyse, thereby releasing newly formed virus particles ready to infect other cells. Still other viruses pass directly from one cell into an adjacent cell without being exposed to the extracellular environment. The virus replication cycle can be as short as a couple of hours for certain small viruses or as long as several days for some large viruses. Some viruses kill cells by inflicting severe damage resulting in cell lysis; other viruses cause the cell to kill itself in response to virus infection. This programmed cell suicide is thought to be a host defense mechanism to eliminate infected cells before the virus can complete its replication cycle and spread to other cells. Alternatively, cells may survive virus infection, and the virus can persist for the life of its host. Virtually all people harbor harmless viruses. Retroviruses, such as HIV, have RNA that is transcribed into DNA by the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase upon entry into the cell. (The ability of retroviruses to copy RNA into DNA earned them their name because this process is the reverse of the usual transfer of genetic information, from DNA to RNA.) The DNA form of the retrovirus genome is then integrated into the cellular DNA and is referred to as the provirus. The viral genome is replicated every time the host cell replicates its DNA and is thus passed on to daughter cells. Hepatitis B virus can also transcribe RNA to DNA, but this virus packages the DNA version of its genome into virus particles. Unlike retroviruses, hepatitis B virus does not integrate into the host cell DNA. Most viral infections cause no symptoms and do not result in disease. For example, only a small percentage of individuals who become infected with Epstein-Barr virus or western equine encephalomyelitis virus ever develop disease symptoms. In contrast, most people who are infected with measles, rabies, or influenza viruses develop the disease. A wide variety of viral and host factors determine the outcome of virus infections. A small genetic variation can produce a virus with increased capacity to cause disease. Such a virus is said to have increased virulence. Viruses can enter the body by several routes. Herpes simplex virus and poxviruses enter through the skin by direct contact with virus-containing skin lesions on infected individuals. Ebola, hepatitis B, and HIV can be contracted from infected blood products. Hypodermic needles and animal and insect bites can transmit a variety of viruses through the skin. Airborne droplets of mucus or saliva from infected individuals who cough or sneeze usually transmit viruses that infect through the respiratory tract. Viruses that enter through the respiratory tract include orthomyxovirus (influenza), rhinovirus and adenovirus (common cold), and varicella-zoster virus (chicken pox). Viruses such as rotavirus, coronavirus, poliovirus, hepatitis A, and some adenoviruses enter the host through the gastrointestinal tract. Sexually transmitted viruses, such as herpes simplex, HIV, and human papilloma viruses (HPV), gain entry through the genitourinary route. Other viruses, including some adenoviruses, echoviruses, Coxsackie viruses, and herpesviruses, can infect through the eye. Virus infections can be either localized or systemic. The path of virus spread through the body in systemic infections differs among different viruses. Following replication at the initial site of entry, many viruses are spread to their target organs by the bloodstream or the nervous system. The particular cell type can influence the outcome of virus infection. For example, herpes simplex virus undergoes lytic replication in skin cells around the lips but can establish a latent or dormant state in neuron cell bodies (located in ganglia) for extended periods of time. During latency, the viral genome is largely dormant in the cell nucleus until a stimulus such as a sunburn causes the reactivation of latent herpesvirus, leading to the lytic replication cycle. Once reactivated, the virus travels from the ganglia back down the nerve to cause a cold sore on the lip near the original site of infection. The herpesvirus genome does not integrate into the host cell genome. Virus-induced illnesses can be either acute, in which the patient recovers promptly, or chronic, in which the virus remains with the host or the damage caused by the virus is irreparable. For most acute viruses, the time between infection and the onset of disease can vary from three days to three weeks. In contrast, onset of AIDS following infection with HIV takes an average of 7 to 11 years. Several human viruses are likely to be agents of cancer, which can take decades to develop. The precise role of these viruses in human cancers is not well understood, and genetic and environmental factors are likely to contribute to these diseases. But because a number of viruses have been shown to cause tumors in animal models, it is probable that many viruses have a key role in human cancers. Some viruses alphaviruses and flaviviruses, for example must be able to infect more than one species to complete their life cycles. Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus, an alphavirus, replicates in mosquitoes and is transmitted to wild birds when the mosquitoes feed. Thus, wild birds and perhaps mammals and reptiles serve as the virus reservoir, and mosquitoes serve as vectors essential to the virus life cycle by ensuring transmission of the virus from one host to another. Horses and people are accidental hosts when they are bitten by an infected mosquito, and they do not play an important role in virus transmission. The most common human prion disease is Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), which has a worldwide incidence of approximately one in a million individuals and is characterized by dementia. Scrapie is the most common prion disease in animals. Feed for cattle generated from scrapied sheep in Great Britain has resulted in the death of more than 150,000 cattle from bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or mad cow disease, since the discovery of the disease in 1986. It is not yet known if humans can develop CJD from consuming prion-contaminated beef, but several recent cases in Great Britain suggest this possibility. Although viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics, which are effective only against bacteria, the body s immune system has many natural defenses against virus infections. Infected cells produce interferons and other cytokines (soluble components that are largely responsible for regulating the immune response), which can signal adjacent uninfected cells to mount their defenses, enabling uninfected cells to impair virus replication. Some cytokines can cause a fever in response to viral infection; elevated body temperature retards the growth of some types of viruses. B lymphocytes produce specific antibodies that can bind and inactivate viruses. Cytotoxic T cells recognize virus-infected cells and target them for destruction. However, many viruses have evolved ways to circumvent some of these host defense mechanisms. The development of antiviral therapies has been thwarted by the difficulty of generating drugs that can distinguish viral processes from cellular processes. Therefore, most treatments for viral diseases simply alleviate symptoms, such as fever, dehydration, and achiness. Nevertheless, antiviral drugs for influenza virus, herpesviruses, and HIV are available, and many others are in the experimental and developmental stages. Prevention has been a more effective method of controlling virus infections. Viruses that are transmitted by insects or rodent excretions can be controlled with pesticides. Successful vaccines are currently available for poliovirus, influenza, rabies, adenovirus, rubella, yellow fever, measles, mumps, and chicken pox. Vaccines are prepared from killed (inactivated) virus, live (attenuated or weakened) virus, or isolated viral proteins (subunits). Each of these types of vaccines elicits an immune response while causing little or no disease, and there are advantages and disadvantages to each. (For a more complete discussion of vaccines, see the Immunization article.) The principle of vaccination was discovered by British physician Edward Jenner. In 1796 Jenner observed that milkmaids in England who contracted the mild cowpox virus infection from their cows were protected from smallpox, a frequently fatal disease. In 1798 Jenner formally demonstrated that prior infection with cowpox virus protected those that he inoculated with smallpox virus (an experiment that would not meet today s protocol standards because of its use of human subjects). In 1966 the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated a program to eradicate smallpox from the world. Because it was impossible to vaccinate the entire world population, the eradication plan was to identify cases of smallpox and then vaccinate all of the individuals in that vicinity. The last reported case of smallpox was in Somalia in October 1977. An important factor in the success of eradicating smallpox was that humans are the only host and there are no animal reservoirs for smallpox virus. The strain of poxvirus used for immunization against smallpox was called vaccinia. Introduction of the Salk (inactivated) and Sabin (live, attenuated) vaccines for poliovirus, developed in the 1950s by the American physician and epidemiologist Jonas Salk and the American virologist Albert Bruce Sabin, respectively, was responsible for a significant worldwide decline in paralytic poliomyelitis. However, polio has not been eradicated, partly because the virus can mutate and escape the host immune response. Influenza viruses mutate so rapidly that new vaccines are developed for distribution each year. Viruses undergo very high rates of mutation (genetic alteration) largely because they lack the repair systems that cells have to safeguard against mutations. A high mutation rate enables the virus to continually adapt to new intracellular environments and to escape from the host immune response. Co-infection of the same cell with different related viruses allows for genetic reassortment (exchange of genome segments) and intramolecular recombination. Genetic alterations can alter virulence or allow viruses to gain access to new cell types or new animal hosts. Many scientists believe that HIV is derived from a closely related monkey virus, SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), that acquired the ability to infect humans. Many of today s emerging viruses may have similar histories. By the last half of the 19th century, the microbial world was known to consist of protozoa, fungi, and bacteria, all visible with a light microscope. In the 1840s, the German scientist Jacob Henle suggested that there were infectious agents too small to be seen with a light microscope, but for the lack of direct proof, his hypothesis was not accepted. Although the French scientist Louis Pasteur was working to develop a vaccine for rabies in the 1880s, he did not understand the concept of a virus. During the last half of the 19th century, several key discoveries were made that set the stage for the discovery of viruses. Pasteur is usually credited for dispelling the notion of spontaneous generation and proving that organisms reproduce new organisms. The German scientist Robert Koch, a student of Jacob Henle, and the British surgeon Joseph Lister developed techniques for growing cultures of single organisms that allowed the assignment of specific bacteria to specific diseases. The first experimental transmission of a viral infection was accomplished in about 1880 by the German scientist Adolf Mayer, when he demonstrated that extracts from infected tobacco leaves could transfer tobacco mosaic disease to a new plant, causing spots on the leaves. Because Mayer was unable to isolate a bacterium or fungus from the tobacco leaf extracts, he considered the idea that tobacco mosaic disease might be caused by a soluble agent, but he concluded incorrectly that a new type of bacteria was likely to be the cause. The Russian scientist Dimitri Ivanofsky extended Mayer s observation and reported in 1892 that the tobacco mosaic agent was small enough to pass through a porcelain filter known to block the passage of bacteria. He too failed to isolate bacteria or fungi from the filtered material. But Ivanofsky, like Mayer, was bound by the dogma of his times and concluded in 1903 that the filter might be defective or that the disease agent was a toxin rather than a reproducing organism. Unaware of Ivanofsky s results, the Dutch scientist Martinus Beijerinck, who collaborated with Mayer, repeated the filter experiment but extended this finding by demonstrating that the filtered material was not a toxin because it could grow and reproduce in the cells of the plant tissues. In his 1898 publication, Beijerinck referred to this new disease agent as a contagious living liquid contagium vivum fluid initiating a 20-year controversy over whether viruses were liquids or particles. The conclusion that viruses are particles came from several important observations. In 1917 the French-Canadian scientist F lix H. d H relle discovered that viruses of bacteria, which he named bacteriophage, could make holes in a culture of bacteria. Because each hole, or plaque, developed from a single bacteriophage, this experiment provided the first method for counting infectious viruses (the plaque assay). In 1935 the American biochemist Wendell Meredith Stanley crystallized tobacco mosaic virus to demonstrate that viruses had regular shapes, and in 1939 tobacco mosaic virus was first visualized using the electron microscope. In 1898 the German bacteriologists Friedrich August Johannes L ffler and Paul F. Frosch (both trained by Robert Koch) described foot-and-mouth disease virus as the first filterable agent of animals, and in 1900, the American bacteriologist Walter Reed and colleagues recognized yellow fever virus as the first human filterable agent. For several decades viruses were referred to as filterable agents, and gradually the term virus (Latin for slimy liquid or poison ) was employed strictly for this new class of infectious agents. Through the 1940s and 1950s many critical discoveries were made about viruses through the study of bacteriophages because of the ease with which the bacteria they infect could be grown in the laboratory. Between 1948 and 1955, scientists at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and at Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions revolutionized the study of animal viruses by developing cell culture systems that permitted the growth and study of many animal viruses in laboratory dishes. Three theories have been put forth to explain the origin of viruses. One theory suggests that viruses are derived from more complex intracellular parasites that have eliminated all but the essential features required for replication and transmission. A more widely accepted theory is that viruses are derived from normal cellular components that gained the ability to replicate autonomously. A third possibility is that viruses originated from self-replicating RNA molecules. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that RNA can code for proteins as well as carry out enzymatic functions. Thus, viroids may resemble prehistoric viruses. Importance of Viruses Because viral processes so closely resemble normal cellular processes, abundant information about cell biology and genetics has come from studying viruses. Basic scientists and medical researchers at university and hospital laboratories are working to understand viral mechanisms of action and are searching for new and better ways to treat viral illnesses. Many pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies are actively pursuing effective antiviral therapies. Viruses can also serve as tools. Because they are efficient factories for the production of viral proteins, viruses have been harnessed to produce a wide variety of proteins for industrial and research purposes. A new area of endeavor is the use of viruses for gene therapy. Because viruses are programmed to carry genetic information into cells, they have been used to replace defective cellular genes. Viruses are also being altered by genetic engineering to kill selected cell populations, such as tumor cells. The use of genetically engineered viruses for medical intervention is a relatively new field, and none of these therapies is widely available. However, this is a fast-growing area of research, and many clinical trials are now in progress. The use of genetically engineered viruses extends beyond the medical field. Recombinant insect viruses have agricultural applications and are currently being tested in field trials for their effectiveness as pesticides.

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Do you know which dog breed has the hardest bite? Or how hard they can actually bite? You may be surprised to find out that the answer is not as straightforward as you might think. There are several myths and misconceptions about dog bites, and much of the information out there is inaccurate. In this blog post, we will debunk some of the most common myths about dog bites and discuss which breeds are the most difficult to train. We will also look at how hard these dogs can actually bite in pounds/square inch or psi. What is the force of a typical dog bite? Dogs use their mouths for various purposes including exploring, play, and fight. When it comes to their bite, the force can vary depending on the dog’s age, health, size, and jaw strength. The average dog’s bite force is around 300-250 psi (pounds per square inch). However, some dogs have a stronger bite force than others. F or example, the Nile crocodile has a bite force of up to 3,700 psi! Thankfully, most dogs are not nearly as powerful as the Nile crocodile. Even so, the bite force of a large or strong dog can be enough to break bones. So, if you’re ever on the receiving end of a dog bite, it’s best to seek medical attention right away. Fortunately, most dog bites are not serious and will heal with proper care. The 20 Hardest Biting Dogs Kangal (743 psi) The Kangal is a large and powerful dog breed that hails from Turkey. These dogs are said to be the only breed among the top seven hardest-biting dogs that is neither a Mastiff or a Mastiff of any type. The ancestors of Kangal Shepherd Dogs are thought to have originated in Central Asia, and they have long been used for herding purposes. These dogs are known for their immense strength and power, and they are said to be capable of defeating bears, wolves, lions, and jackals. It is hardly surprising, then, that their mouths may be lethal weapons. The hardest biting dogs list is Kangal in the first place. Despite their impressive size and strength, Kangal Shepherd Dogs make excellent pets. They are protective of their loved ones and may be reserved around strangers, but they will become caring and trustworthy guardians if properly socialized. However, it is important to note that these dogs are still working dogs at heart, and they may need to be deployed for herding or other purposes from time to time. Bandog (730 psi) The Bandog (pronounced “ban-dodge”), also known as the banded mastiff, is an exceedingly rare dog breed that was discovered in England in the 13th century. They are believed to be a mix of a Pit Bull Terrier and a Neapolitan Mastiff, with some Bullenbeissers mixed in for good measure. The breed got its name from the fact that they were “banded up” – or chained – until they were needed as guard dogs or war dogs. As a result, they have a rather fearsome reputation. However, they are actually highly emotional creatures, and you should not be surprised if you find yourself with 125 pounds of affectionate dog in your lap. Despite their scary history, the bandog makes an excellent companion for those who are willing to give them a chance. Cane Corso (700 psi) The Cane Corso is a large Italian dog breed that was originally popular throughout the country but is now primarily found in the southern districts of Puglia. Corsos are known for their muscular build and their powerful bites. They are not as large as some other Mastiff breeds, but they more than make up for it in strength. Corsos were originally bred for hunting and guarding, and they have retained those instincts over the centuries. They are devoted to their families and make loyal, loving companions. But they can also be fiercely protective, and they will not hesitate to defend their homes and loved ones from perceived threats. Corsos are not the biggest Mastiffs, but they are definitely among the hardest-biting dogs in the world. If you’re looking for a big, strong, loyal protector, the Cane Corso is definitely worth considering. Dogue de Bordeaux (556 psi) The Dogue de Bordeaux is one of the Hardest Biting Dogs in the world, with a bite force of 556 PSI. This massive Mastiff breed dates back to the 14th century when they were utilized for tasks such as cart hauling and livestock protection. It is believed that they are descended from the Greek Molossus, a giant battle dog that was the father of all contemporary Mastiffs. Today, the Dogue de Bordeaux is still used for protection and security work, thanks to its intimidating size and fierce loyalty. However, they can also make gentle and loving pets, provided they are socialized early and given plenty of exercises. If you’re looking for a Hardest Biting Dog breed, the Dogue de Bordeaux should definitely be at the top of your list. Tosa Inu (556 psi) The Tosa Inu is a large and powerful breed of dog that originates from Japan. Also known as the Japanese Mastiff, the Tosa Inu is considered to be one of the hardest-biting dogs in the world, with a recorded bite pressure of 556 psi. This is due to their large size and powerful jaws. However, despite their formidable appearance, Tosa Inus are actually quite calm and gentle dogs. They are loyal and protective of their family and property, but they also require a great deal of obedience training and socialization. Pay attention to how they interact with other dogs, as they can be quite hostile and impatient with canines that they view as a danger. English Mastiff (552 psi) The “Mastiff” is usually referred to as the English Mastiff by most kennel clubs. This is likely due to the fact that kennel clubs were created in England. English Mastiffs are gentle and friendly dogs. Even though they have the capability to deliver a powerful bite with their jaws, they are often hesitant to do so. As a result, even though they would make excellent security dogs because of their size, you won’t see them working for the military or law enforcement. Presa Canario (540 psi) Presa Canarios are among the hardest biting dogs in the world. Their jaw pressure is440-540 PSI, which is significantly higher than that of other breeds. They were originally bred for guarding and fighting, and their powerful jaws are perfectly suited for this purpose. However, their size and strength can also be a liability if they are not properly trained and socialized. Without proper guidance, they can become aggressive and dangerous. For this reason, it is important to be careful when choosing a Presa Canario as a pet. But with the right owner, they can be loving and loyal companions. Dogo Argentino (500 psi) Argentine Dogos have a reputation for being aggressive, although they are actually quite loving and devoted to their family. They were originally bred for hunting large game, so they are large and powerful dogs. T hey have a very strong bite – one of the strongest of any dog breed. This makes them good guard dogs, but also means that they need owners who are experienced in training and handling large breeds. Argentine Dogos are loyal and protective of their family but can be wary of strangers. With proper training and socialization, they can be excellent family pets. However, because of their size and strength, they are not recommended for first-time dog owners. Leonberger (399 psi) With their shaggy coats and gentle dispositions, Leonbergers are often seen as simply big, friendly dogs. However, these gentle giants are also incredibly strong, with a bite force of 399 psi. This makes them one of the strongest dog breeds in the world. In addition to their powerful jaw, Leonbergers also have a sturdy build that often weighs in at over 150 pounds. This combination of strength and size means that Leonbergers are often used for search and rescue missions. Their power is handy for lifting unconscious swimmers from lakes or other bodies of water. Additionally, their size can be intimidating to would-be criminals, making them ideal guard dogs. So next time you’re looking for a big dog with a big personality, don’t overlook the Leonberger! Rottweiler (328 psi) Rottweilers are well-known for their intimidating appearance and powerful build. However, what many people don’t realize is that Rotties also have one of the strongest bites of any dog breed. With a bite force of 328 psi, they can easily crush bones and cause serious damage. For this reason, it is important to be cautious around Rottweilers, even if they seem friendly. If you are considering owning a Rottweiler, it is essential to make sure that you are prepared to provide training and socialization to help them become well-rounded dogs. While they may seem like a lot of work, Rottweilers can make loyal and loving companions for those who are willing to put in the effort. American Bulldog (305 psi) American Bulldogs are the larger cousins of Pit Bulls and English Bulldogs. As previously stated, size is thought to be the most critical element in determining biting strength. American Bulldogs, like their smaller relatives, are usually affable and caring breeds. This, however, is conditional on how they are raised. Because they are determined and obedient, they may be hazardous if they are not properly trained and socialized from an early age. Being a non-obedient dog capable of delivering 305 psi with every bite is not a smart idea, therefore you must take your training seriously. American Bulldogs were originally bred for fighting and guarding. However, with the right training and socialization, they can be gentle giants that make wonderful family pets. They are intelligent dogs that are quick to learn new commands. They are also very loyal and protective of their families. If you are looking for a dog that will be a loyal friend and guardian, then the American Bulldog is a breed you should definitely consider. German Shepherd (238 psi) German Shepherds are popular dogs for a variety of reasons. They are athletic, intelligent, and loyal. They make great companion dogs as well as working dogs. German Shepherds have strong jaws and can deliver a powerful bite. In fact, their bite is one of the strongest of any dog breed. German Shepherds are descended from wolves, so it’s no wonder that they have such strong bites. However, their strong bite can also be a liability. If not properly trained, German Shepherds can become aggressive and may bite people or other animals. That’s why it’s important to socialize and train your German Shepherd from an early age. With the right training, German Shepherds can be gentle and loving family companions. Pit Bull (235 psi) The term “Pit Bull” is used to describe a number of different breeds, including the American Staffordshire Terrier, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier, and the American Pit Bull Terrier. These dogs are often misunderstood, and their reputation for being aggressive and dangerous is undeserved. While Pit Bulls do have strong jaws and can deliver a powerful bite, they are no more likely to bite than any other breed of dog. In fact, many Pit Bulls are gentle and affectionate animals that make excellent companion pets. With proper training and socialization, they can be trusted around people and other animals. If you are considering adding a Pit Bull to your family, do your research and be sure to adopt from a reputable rescue or shelter. With love and care, your new Pit Bull will quickly become a beloved member of the family. Boxer (230 psi) Boxers are huge, athletic dogs, so it’s natural for them to perform well in these tests. However, they lack the size and power of some of the breeds at the top of the list. The Boxer is not a breed that has a reputation for being dangerous or violent, but given the enormous amount of force they are capable of utilising in a single bite, you must treat them with caution because they are capable of causing terrible harm if they feel the need to. Force is not the only factor that determines how dangerous a dog breed can be – size and weight are also important considerations. For example, a large dog like a Great Dane may not be able to cause as much damage with its bite as a smaller breed like a Pit Bull, but its size means that it is still capable of doing serious harm. Doberman Pinscher (228 psi) The Doberman Pinscher is a breed of dog that is known for its loyalty and intelligence. It is also known for its powerful jaws, which can exert a pressure of 228 pounds per square inch. This makes the Doberman Pinscher one of the most formidable guard dog breeds in the world. The breed has a reputation for being aggressive, but this is often undeserved. I n reality, Dobermans are usually very loving and tolerant with their family members. However, they can be quite protective of their homes and families, making them excellent guard dogs. If you are looking for a loyal and intelligent dog that can also provide protection, then the Doberman Pinscher may be the perfect breed for you. Alano Español (227 psi) The Alano Español, also called the Spanish Bulldog, is a large breed of dog that was once a favorite companion of Spanish explorers. These dogs are known for their courage, strength, and determination. They are also considered to be very loving and loyal companions. However, due to their large size and strong personality, they are best suited for owners with extensive experience in training and handling large breeds. The Alano Español typically weighs around 90 pounds and is a very powerful dog. While they are generally friendly and good natured, they can be quite stubborn and willful if not properly trained. For this reason, it is important that potential owners of this breed research the training requirements before taking on the responsibility of owning an Alano Español. When properly trained and socialized, these dogs make wonderful companions and loyal friends. Dutch Shepherd (224 psi) The Dutch Shepherd is a cross between the Belgian Malinois and the German Shepherd. They are commonly used by law enforcement authorities in other nations for the same reasons as their Dutch Shepherd counterparts. This breed was practically extinct after WWII since many animals were either malnourished or kidnapped from the German forces to be employed in their military. While this breed is rare, their utility and the strength of their bites keep them alive to this day. The average bite force of a Dutch Shepherd is 224 pounds per square inch (psi). This is significantly higher than the average bite force of a German Shepherd, which is 196 psi. In comparison, the average human bite force is only around 150 psi. Consequently, the Dutch Shepherd is an incredibly powerful dog that should not be underestimated. When properly trained, they can be an invaluable asset to any law enforcement team. Chow Chow (220 psi) Chow Chow is a powerful breed of dog that has been used as a guard dog and war dog in the past. Their immense strength and large jaws make them a force to be reckoned with. Chow Chows are often distrustful of outsiders, but they can be wonderful pets if they are properly trained and socialized. If you are thinking about adding a Chow Chow to your family, be prepared to do some extra training and socializing to ensure that your pet is well-behaved. With a little effort, you can have a loyal and loving companion that will bring joy to your home for years to come. English Bulldog (210 psi) The English Bulldog is a breed of dog with a relatively strong bite. According to one study, the average English Bulldog can generate a force of 210 pounds per square inch (psi) when biting down. This is significantly higher than the average for other dogs, which typically fall in the range of 100-200 psi. However, it should be noted that the English Bulldog is not the strongest-biting dog breed; that title goes to the Mastiff, which can reach up to 500 psi. The English Bulldog’s bite strength is likely due to its history as a fighting dog breed; Bulldogs were originally bred for bull-baiting, a cruel sport in which bulls were tethered to posts and dogs were let loose on them. The ability to bite hard was critical in the development of the breed. Today, English Bulldogs are much less aggressive, but their stronger bite can still lead to damage if they’re not properly trained and supervised. Belgian Malinois (195 psi) The Malinois is a breed of dog that is closely related to the German Shepherd. They are medium-sized canines that weigh between 40 and 70 pounds. They are also known for their tenacity and athleticism. The breed is extensively used by military and police organizations all over the world because of its loyalty, intelligence, and scary bites. Many fleeing offenders have changed their minds after witnessing one of these dogs pursuing them. The Malinois is an obedient dog that isBrave and loves to play fetch. They will work hard to please their owners. You will never be bored with a Malinois by your side. If you want a dog that will be your loyal friend and protector, then the Malinois is the breed for you. With proper training, they can be the perfect addition to any family. Which dog is the strongest? When it comes to strength, size does matter. The Tibetan Mastiff, a large dog breed that originated in the Himalayan region, is widely considered to be one of the strongest dogs in the world. Thanks to their muscular build and powerful jaws, they are capable of exerting a crushing force of 550 pounds per square inch with their bite. In addition to their physical strength, Tibetan Mastiffs are also known for their fierce loyalty and courage, making them excellent guardians. While they may not be the biggest dog breed out there, their impressive strength and protective instincts make them a force to be reckoned with.. Why You Shouldn’t Believe What You Read Online It is widely believed that dogs have powerful jaws that can easily crush bones. However, there is surprisingly little scientific evidence to support this claim. In fact, the few studies that have been conducted on the subject have all had major flaws. One explanation for this lack of research is that it is very difficult to teach an animal to chew vigorously on command. Some researchers have tried to use measuring equipment buried in rawhide to assess biting power, but dogs actually exert the same amount of force while chewing on delicious food as they do when attempting to do significant harm to something they deem potentially dangerous. Another approach has been to anesthetize certain dogs and then use an electric current to activate their jaw muscles, but this method also has serious drawbacks. Not only does it cause unnecessary suffering for the animals, but it also undermines the attack’s objective, potentially making the outcome less successful. As a result, the question of whether or not dogs have powerful jaws remains largely unanswered. Dogs are not born with the ability to apply their bite force effectively. Puppies go through a rigorous biting and chewing phase as they learn how to use their mouths. During this time, they try out different bite angles and experiment with different chewing motions. By the time they are adults, they have usually settled on a preferred way of using their teeth. For some dogs, this means biting down hard with their front teeth. For others, it means using their molars to grind food. However, the position of a dog’s teeth is not the only factor that determines its biting power. The size and shape of a dog’s head also play a role. Large dogs with broad heads typically have more powerful bites than smaller dogs with smaller heads. This is why the breed is not always the best determinant of biting force. While some breeds are known for their strong jaws, such as pit bulls and rottweilers, mutts may actually have more powerful bites than purebreds. Ultimately, the best way to determine a dog’s biting force is to measure it directly. But regardless of breed or size, all dogs have the potential to cause serious damage with their teeth. Are Strong Dogs More Dangerous? There are many factors to consider when determining whether or not a dog’s bite is harmful. The breed of the dog is one factor, as some breeds are known to have stronger bites than others. However, it is also important to consider the size and age of the dog, as a small puppy may not be able to cause much damage, even if it has a strong bite. Additionally, it is important to consider the victim of the bite. A large adult may be able to withstand a strong bite from even the largest of dogs, but a small child or elderly person may be seriously injured by even a relatively small dog. In short, there is no definitive answer to the question of which dogs are more likely to cause harm when they bite. Instead, it is important to consider all of the relevant factors in each individual case. Eyewitness stories are an unreliable source of information concerning dog bites. Most dog attacks that are reported are serious, therefore hundreds aren’t documented (and aren’t evaluated in aggressiveness research) each year. Mutts are the breed most prone to kill or injure humans, according to data. Despite being the most popular breed, mutts are just as hazardous as purebreds. You must know the mutt’s genetic ancestry, how it’s raised, and other aspects. Every dog can bite, but certain breeds bite more. In theory, this makes them more hazardous, but in practise it’s more complicated. As you can see, there is no easy answer when it comes to determining which dogs are more likely to bite and cause harm. However, it is important to be aware of the potential danger posed by all dogs, regardless of breed or size. If you are ever bitten by a dog, it is important to seek medical attention right away.

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From our Newspapers The Wheeling-Staunton Turnpike U.S. Route 250 rich in Mountain State history Civil War and men of wealth on U.S. 250 U.S. 250: into the Alleghenies U.S. Route 250 rich in Mountain State history Editor's Note: This is part one of a three-part series by correspondent Ray Rumpler on the historic route of U.S. 250 through West Virginia. The road runs from Wheeling in the Northern Panhandle to Pocahontas County in the state's southeastern corner. By RAY RUMPLER In 1769, a year before George Washington's arrival, Ebenezer Zane _ accompanied by others _fought his way through a seemingly endless forest of giant trees to the confluence of Wheeling Creek and the Ohio River. There he lay claim to the piece of land he had chosen, little knowing he was founding what was to become the second largest city in the state of Virginia. Using the commonly accepted method of declaring ownership, called "tomahawk law," he set about identifying the parcel of land he was claiming. With a hatchet he cut his initials on the trunk of each of the corner trees that identified the parcel he had chosen. This gave him legal title to the land, a title that would suffice until the lands could be surveyed and a title description drawn up. He then returned to his home in Berkeley County, Va., to collect his family. The following year, accompanied by a handful of fellow adventurers, he brought his wife and children to the site he had chosen and proceeded to set up housekeeping. At the time, there was no permanent settlement from the source of Wheeling Creek to the Ohio River, but within five years many families joined the Zanes in settling the area. The McMechens explored to the south and eventually settled in the area named for them. Joseph Tomlinson claimed the area he called Grave Creek, because of the Indian mounds that dotted the area. In 1798 Joseph Tomlinson Jr. subdivided the land into lots and named the settlement Elizabethtown in honor of his wife. About 35 years later, a rival community was established to the south on the banks of the Ohio River and named Mound City. The two towns were subsequently consolidated in 1865 and christened Moundsville. From this inauspicious beginning, Wheeling slowly but steadily grew until, by 1800, it had about 100 homes. By 1810 it had one main street, 11 stores, two potteries, a courthouse and a jail. By 1820 the West Virginia (still Virginia at that time) section of America's first federal highway _ the National Road _ from Cumberland, Md., to Wheeling (130 miles) and points west was finished and ready to connect with Ohio. But politics interfered, so the connection was not completed until 1826. Wheeling's first city council was elected in 1836, and its first charter was adopted in May of that year. In 1840, Miflin Marsh began selling hand-rolled cigars to crews and passengers of the riverboats that plied the Ohio River and to the drivers of the big Conestoga wagons that traveled the National Road. One type of cigar _ long and thin and named the "Conestoga" cigar _ originally invented by a tobacco shop owner in Washington, Pa., and emulated by Marsh, became the favorite of the colorful and sometimes flamboyant freighters who drove the massive Conestogas. It must have been exciting to see a muscular freighter _ cigar clenched in his teeth _ astride his wheel horse or high on the wagon seat, six powerful horses under his control as he hauled his goods to market. That captured the fancy of the public, and young boys yearned for the day they would be old enough to be on that seat. In a very short time the cigar, costing between $4 and $5.50 per thousand, became famous as the stogie. Sales boomed and Wheeling became known as "stogie town." Discovery of industrial-grade coal in the hills around Wheeling, coupled with improved river transportation from the north, dramatically altered the industrial climate of the area. The LaBelle Nail Company was founded in 1852, and it prospered to the point where it turned out as many as 180,000 kegs of nails during 1878. Even today the company produces 520 million nails a year. So, of course, Wheeling has also become known as "Nail City." Wheeling was the second largest city in Virginia in 1861. But residents of the western portion of the state, who had few rights under Virginia law, were becoming restive and demands for independence were increasing. On May 13, 1861, delegates met in Wheeling to condemn the secession movement and on June 11 declared independence from the mother state. A Senate was formed July 2, and it voted $200,000 for the war effort and the same amount for the new government. Voters approved a bill on May 3, 1862, which required that children born of slaves after July 4, 1863, shall be free, and on June 20, 1863, West Virginia was admitted to the Union. Wheeling remained the state capital until 1870, when the capital was moved to Charleston, then returned to Wheeling in 1875. On May 1, 1885, Charleston finally become the permanent capital. The firing of the first shot of the Civil War was in 1861, and Wheeling's strategic location to men and materials from the north and west made it a vital supply resource during the war. The road that would eventually become Route 250 was one of the most expedient ways to get supplies to the combat areas of the south. Travel from Wheeling to Moundsville was easy enough since the road parallel to the river was relatively flat, but turning south east toward Fairmont meant turning into the hills and much more rugged conditions. According to many sources, President Lincoln and General McClellan favored this route because it gave them a "back door" to Richmond. At the outset of hostilities, troops and supplies could be moved without alerting the main Confederate forces based along the eastern route from Washington to Richmond. Of course, Confederate forces knew of the road and were using it to move to the north. As Route 250 leaves the river and climbs toward Limestone, Pleasant Valley and Cameron, it narrows and sharp curves became more frequent. Finally the road reaches Hundred and becomes more level. By 1852, the B&O Railroad had been completed from Cumberland, Md., to Grafton through Fairmont, Barrackville, then Hundred and Cameron. The railroad reached Wheeling on Christmas Eve 1852. Full service was offered beginning Jan. 1, 1853. Once the railroad was in place, it became the main means of transportation. Roads were hard to maintain and travel was slow. It was much faster and infinitely more comfortable to go by train. The town of Hundred got its name the same way as a lot of places in West Virginia received theirs _ by chance. It seems that a man named Henry Church, who was born in England in 1750, was sent to this country, along with others, to serve in the 63rd Light Infantry under Lord Cornwallis in the War of Independence. He was captured and imprisoned. When peace was declared, he was released and after some thought, rather than return to England, decided to remain in America. Imbued with the spirit of adventure, he wandered about for some time. During his travels in Pennsylvania he met and married a young Quaker woman named Hannah Keline. Together they hiked to the Shenandoah Valley to pay her brother a brief visit. Apparently Hannah was as "fiddle-footed" as Henry, for they moved about for several years until finally settling down in what is now a part of Wetzel County. Henry lived until the age of 109 and Hannah died at the age of 106. In their later years, the loving and well-liked couple would sit on the front porch of their cabin across the road from the B&O tracks and wave to passengers on the passing "That's old hundred," the conductor would inform the passengers staring back at the elderly couple. It became such a common phrase that it was decided to name the community "Old Hundred." The name was later changed to "Hundred" when a post office was established there. According to 84-year-old Ed Hixenbaugh, a great-great-great-grandson of "Old Hundred," Saturday nights _ and even some weeknights _ were pretty wild in the oil-rich town. Oil field workers were a boisterous lot who thought fighting a great sport. Enthusiasm for the sport was heightened by the abundance of illegal whiskey. Although Hundred was a "dry" community, moonshine was easily available by those in the know. According to Hixenbaugh, one of the most inventive entrepreneurs was a milkman named Dick Anderson: "He delivered milk carrying one of those wire baskets that held, as I recall, about eight bottles. What most folks didn't know was that Dick had painted half those bottles white. Looked just like they was full of milk, but they really held his homemade moonshine. He'd walk down the sidewalk just innocent as could be, right past the federal agents and all, and they'd pay him no mind. He was making deliveries all right, but not what they thought. "Of course they eventually got wise. Somebody spilled the beans, I guess. At any rate, they decided to pay him a surprise visit one morning. Dick was an enterprising guy. He sold milk, raised hogs and made moonshine. He was just getting ready to put some mash (fermented corn) into the cooker when he saw them coming. "He knew he was in for it if they found the mash, so real quick he shoveled the mash into the hog feed he had mixed up earlier, and fed the evidence to the hogs. Now the feds had nothing to work with, so they left. A few minutes later Dick looked into the pig pen. His hogs were rolling in the dirt, squealing and snorting, and generally playing the fool. They loved that mash, ate all of it, and were drunker than a skunk. Dick said he didn't think he'd do that again. Grandpap really laughed when he'd tell about it." By the time the railroad was completed, the oil fields in the Mannington and Hundred area _ as well as the surrounding acreage _had been in production for many years. It was a time of great prosperity. Fortunes were made by a few who were either smart or guessed right. There were no unemployed, unless they were injured or chose not to work. Early each morning the main streets were lined with horses and wagons heading for the oil fields. Gradually, however, the fields played out and the boom was over. But a few wells remained productive, and are so even up to this day. With the completion of the suspension bridge over the Ohio River in 1849, the completion of the B&O Railroad in 1852, and the still-viable National Road from Cumberland, Wheeling was becoming an increasingly important focal point for commercial interchange with neighboring Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland. It became particularly vital in 1861 with the start of the Civil War. Men and supplies would gather at Wheeling to be transported by rail south to Grafton. Some movement occurred over the primitive road which would eventually be known as Route 250, but rail travel was easier and faster. As the troop-carrying train passed, farmers and oil field workers would stop work for a moment and wave, wishing them well. After passing through Hundred, the train came to a community named for Jacob Metz, who was given a land grant of 800 acres by King George. Descendents of Jacob who still reside there on a piece of the original parcel, a part of that which was originally called Metz's Crossing, are unsure of the date of the grant but believe it to be the early 1800s. The area was then part of Monongalia County in the state of The oldest living member of the family, 93-year-old Bertuf Olive Metz Bean, suffered a stroke in 1995 and has difficulty recalling details. According to her son, Sam Bean, Jacob Metz was a corpulent man, weighing in excess of 400 pounds. Apparently his three daughters were also good eaters, because they reportedly had an aggregate weight of 1,000. About once a year Jacob would mount his horse and, following a primitive trail, ride to Morgantown for supplies. But his horse couldn't carry both him and his supplies, so they walked home together, which sometimes took several days. Even as recently as the 1930s, educating a child who lived in the rural and sparsely populated areas such as Metz took a lot of effort and determination. Typically, as a young girl, Mrs. Bean attended an elementary school a short walk from home. But the high school was in Mannington, about six miles away, so she and most of her school mates rode the train. The morning train arrived at 9 a.m., which made them late for the first class, but that was excused. The train for the ride home didn't arrive in Mannington until 7 p.m., about four hours after school was out. Occasionally, if the weather was nice, they would walk home rather than wait. But generally they would sit around the depot and do their homework _ which made for a lot of similar answers. But Mrs. Bean said she didn't mind the inconvenience. There were always a lot of kids around and that made it fun. Mannington was originally called Koontown after George and Samuel Koon, who built an inn there in the 1840s. It got its current name in 1852. It is reported that the kids who lived in Mannington at the time did not associate readily with the children from the outlying areas. It was an oil-rich community with several big beautiful homes and fine commercial buildings. That of course, in the minds of the local kids, meant they were too sophisticated to associate with the "rural rabble." Just east of Mannington, old Route 250 leaves the current 250 and winds its narrow, curvy way past Blackshire School, through the towns of Rachel, Farmington and on into Barrackville. Pollock's General Store has been in business in Rachel since long before World War II. Charles Pollock bought the store from the previous owners in 1941. Surrounded by coal mines, the store did a thriving business when mining was at its peak. It sold meat and groceries and boots and clothing _ anything that was in demand by the hard-working residents of the small community. A pot-bellied stove sat in the middle of the room. A hole cut in the tin ceiling provided a means for the vent pipe to exhaust smoke and fumes. The stove was not just a source of warmth, it was also a focal point for bull sessions and unofficial town meetings. According to Pollock, and his son and partner, Anthony, such gatherings may have diminished efficiency and probably would not today be permitted in more modern stores. But they didn't mind; in fact, most of the time they enjoyed it. It was a way of doing business alien to today's operations. Many of their customers, who were also friends, frequently stopped to make a purchase and wound up spending an hour participating in the local gossip. According to the Pollocks, one of the most popular subjects was the latest activity of the local Black Hand, a Mafia-type organization. The old road is currently macadamized, and to see it now one would never know that it was once paved with brick, with streetcar tracks alongside. The trolley ran from Clarksburg and points south to Fairmont and points north. Folks who can recall those days say the trolley was a fast and efficient way to get around. The automobile and the roads were primitive and undependable, but the street cars were always on time. Following the curvy, narrow old road _ barely more than a single lane in places _ one occasionally passes long abandoned and deteriorating mine buildings. In contrast there are many attractive homes in set-back and wooded settings. Some experts say that this disparity is typical of West Virginia, a group of communities in transition from a rural to an urban state. (A prelude to zoning). Continuing on its curvy course, the old road soon leads travelers to Farmington. Originally a busy trading center, it was laid out by William Willey and called Willeytown. The new and old Route 250 still run parallel to each other at this point, but are kept apart by the river. A matter of minutes and the covered bridge over Buffalo Creek at Barrackville appears. Built in 1853 by Lemuel and Eli Chenoweth, it has deteriorated and is much in need of promised renovation. Retreating Confederate troops, led by General Jones, nearly destroyed it during the Civil War, but it was saved by the Ice family, who were local mill owners and southern sympathizers. They pointed out to the general that pursuers could cross on the nearby dam and that destroying the bridge would serve no purpose. Updated January 28, 1997 Civil War and men of wealth on U.S. 250 Editor's Note: This is part two of a three-part series by correspondent Ray Rumpler on the historic route of U.S. 250 through West Virginia. The road runs from Wheeling in the Northern Panhandle to Pocahontas County in the state's southeastern corner. By RAY RUMPLER Fairmont, home of Fairmont State College, is the most populous city on Route 250 between Moundsville and Elkins. The city rose to prosperity primarily because of an abundance of minerals _ oil, gas and coal. Among those who benefited the most was coal baron James Watson, whose home _ Highgate _ is the most fabulous residence in Fairmont. Still in excellent repair, it is presently occupied by a funeral home. Once threatened by commercialization, the home was saved by a local civic group that fought to preserve it. Pruntytown, a few miles southeast of Fairmont, was settled by John and David Prunty about 1798. It was the Taylor County seat from 1844 to 1878. Pruntytown was the birthplace of John Barton Payne, who served as secretary of the interior under President Wilson and head of the American Red Cross. The importance of the B&O Railroad was the primary reason the Taylor County seat was moved from Pruntytown to Grafton in 1878. There were a great deal of hostility and divided loyalties in the area during the Civil War. The railroad's presence in Grafton was of vital importance to both sides, so much so that control of the town changed sides 56 times. From this point south, all travel toward Richmond was overland by foot or horseback, but mostly foot. General McClellan had moved south from Wheeling to the Grafton area, and it is reported that he requested and received permission to use the Granville Jarvis home at Webster as his quarters. The home faced the road leading from Wheeling to Staunton, Va., (present Route 250) and put him in a position to supervise troop movements. The home today is well-known as a memorial to Ann Marie Jarvis, the inspiration for Mother's Day. In the early 1800s, demand was increasing for a direct route to the Ohio River. Although there were primitive roads _ actually little more than trails _ that went that way in an erratic fashion, there was no dependable and fast way to get to the river from Staunton. So in the 1830s the state of Virginia commissioned Col. Claude Crozet to engineer an all-weather highway to the Ohio River. By the time the War Between the States began, the turnpikes to Parkersburg and Wheeling had been completed, although they were hardly high-speed, especially in wet weather. Driving southeast on Route 250 past the Anna Jarvis residence at Webster just south of Grafton, one passes the covered bridge at Phillipi and the Barbour County Museum. Both suffered considerable damage in the flood of 1985 but have been restored, thanks in part to private donations. This bridge saw considerable traffic during the Civil War, but due to its unique construction has held up very well. Next is Elkins, named for Stephen Benton Elkins, an entrepreneur and U.S. senator who became rich by buying up countless acres of coal and timber at very low prices. He also was part of a group responsible for bringing the railroad into the area. With the ability to ship, his holdings became worth many times his acquisition price. In 1841, he built a grand home high on a hill overlooking the town named for him. He called the mansion Halliehurst in honor of his daughter. She later married Henry Gassaway Davis, also a U.S. senator. Henry and Hallie built an equally spacious home adjoining Halliehurst and named it Graceland. The entire property was eventually donated to Davis & Elkins College. Updated January 29, 1997 U.S. 250: into the Alleghenies Editor's Note: This is part three of a three-part series by correspondent Ray Rumpler on the historic route of U.S. 250 through West Virginia. The road runs from Wheeling in the Northern Panhandle to Pocahontas County in the state's southeastern corner. By RAY RUMPLER U.S. Route 250's ties to the Civil War continue in a small town just south of Elkins. Beverly, in Randolph County, was the site of several Civil War battles. On June 3, 1861, troops stationed in Beverly learned of two tragedies in one day: Their highly respected Col. Kelly had been killed and the Honorable Stephen A. Douglas had died in Chicago. The first really big hill to be climbed after leaving Beverly is Cheat Mountain, elevation 3,802 feet, and the first of many to come. One can see for miles in all directions from the crest. One of the disadvantages of going up a mountain is going down a mountain; so many twists and turns. Adding to the thrill is that so often there is a river at the foot. There might be a tendency to relax after descending Cheat Mountain, but there are more mountains to climb: 3,280-foot Allegheny, 3,077-foot Frank, 4,101-foot Top of Allegheny and 3,822-foot Lantz Mountain. Now the road enters Virginia and levels out at an average altitude of 3,000 feet while passing through the one-store intersection called Hightown and on into Highland County's largest city, Monterey. Monterey is also the county seat and boasts a population of 250, about 10 percent of the total population of 2,650 in the entire county. This is not a small county in area, though. It's larger than any in West Virginia and boasts 3 million acres of national forestlands. The county has fresh air, filtered by its large forests, and its streams run clear. Deer abound. Raising sheep is the main agricultural pursuit, with cattle a close second. Lodging is more than adequate, with the historic Highland Inn _ built about 1904 _ heading the list. The inn is an outstanding example of Victorian charm and character, created by existing for more than 90 years. It offers 17 guest rooms, each with private bath. The dining room and tavern provide everything needed to satisfy the inner person. There is an abundance of accommodations in the area offering almost anything one could want. Twelve miles west of Staunton is the Buckhorn Inn, located in the heart of the Shenandoah Valley, within George Washington National State Forest. Built in the early 1800s, it has quite a history. The area was well-known for its mineral springs, and the Buckhorn was a popular stopover. It was originally called The Dudley House. In the mid 1800s, the Buckhorn Inn played host for several days to Stonewall Jackson and his wife, Elinor. It's also reported that General Irwin Rommel was a guest here during the 1930s while he studied the military tactics of Jackson. The inn has won awards for its cuisine, and it offers six guest rooms, each with private bath. Steeped in history, the inn and surrounding area are highly recommended to nature lovers or anyone desiring a relaxing weekend. Although Route 250 continues on into Richmond, this tour concludes in Staunton (Virginians pronounce it "Stanton"), a very attractive city steeped in history. It offers many attractions, including the Museum of American Frontier Culture. The word museum may conjure up the wrong image. It is actually four working farms reflecting life in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries in early America, and in their native land, by people of English, Germany and Northern Ireland. Each farm has costumed interpreters who demonstrate methods and answer questions. The museum is a unique display put together by the Commonwealth of Virginia and the non-profit American Frontier Culture Foundation. Updated January 30, 1997 Home Page Our Newspapers and Services Web Page Publishing and Design Local News and Feature Stories Weekendz West Virginia Sports Summary Let Us know what you think of our web site! Give us Feedback Clarksburg Publishing Company, P.O. Box 2000, Clarksburg, WV 26301 USA Copyright © Clarksburg Publishing Company 1997

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Malaria and iron deficiency (ID) are common and interrelated public health problems in African children. Observational data suggest that interrupting malaria transmission reduces the prevalence of ID1. To test the hypothesis that malaria might cause ID, we used sickle cell trait (HbAS, rs334), a genetic variant that confers specific protection against malaria2, as an instrumental variable in Mendelian randomization analyses. HbAS was associated with a 30% reduction in ID among children living in malaria-endemic countries in Africa (n = 7,453), but not among individuals living in malaria-free areas (n = 3,818). Genetically predicted malaria risk was associated with an odds ratio of 2.65 for ID per unit increase in the log incidence rate of malaria. This suggests that an intervention that halves the risk of malaria episodes would reduce the prevalence of ID in African children by 49%. Your institute does not have access to this article Open Access articles citing this article. Malaria Journal Open Access 20 December 2021 Subscribe to Nature+ Get immediate online access to the entire Nature family of 50+ journals Subscribe to Journal Get full journal access for 1 year only $4.92 per issue All prices are NET prices. VAT will be added later in the checkout. Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. Get time limited or full article access on ReadCube. All prices are NET prices. All data are available in the main text or in the Supplementary Information. Primary individual-level de-identified data for the Kilifi, Kenya; Entebbe, Uganda; Banfora, Burkina Faso; and West Kiang, The Gambia cohorts are available in Harvard Dataverse at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/UKGRVJ; applications for access to these data and to the Nairobi dataset can be made through the Data Governance Committee (firstname.lastname@example.org). Data from the 2015–2016 MMS are available from the DHS Program at https://dhsprogram.com/what-we-do/survey/survey-display-483.cfm. The data underlying the results from the Ghana site are owned by the UNICEF Ghana and the Ministry of Health Ghana and contain confidential, identifying information. Data are available from the UNICEF Ghana (email@example.com) for researchers who meet the criteria for access to confidential data. De-identified data from the western Kenya study are available on Open Science Framework at the following link: https://osf.io/dsrv2/. Data from the Sud Kivu and Kongo Central, DRC studies are available at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/RNWYR8. All data used in the analysis of the MOMS Project cohort (Muheza, Tanzania) are available under human data transfer agreement for purposes of reproducing or extending the analysis. Data for the Cameroon study are available upon reasonable request to the survey representative A. Ndjebayi (firstname.lastname@example.org), Helen Keller International, Cameroon Office, Rue 1771, Bastos, BP 14227, Yaoundé. All JHS data are available at https://www.jacksonheartstudy.org/Research/Study-Data/Data-Access. Additionally, much of the JHS phenotype data are available at BioLINCC (https://biolincc.nhlbi.nih.gov/studies/jhs/), and data for genetic analyses are available through dbGaP at phs000286. Source data are provided with this paper. Frosch, A. E. P. et al. Decline in childhood iron deficiency after interruption of malaria transmission in highland Kenya. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 100, 968–973 (2014). Taylor, S. M., Parobek, C. M. & Fairhurst, R. M. Haemoglobinopathies and the clinical epidemiology of malaria: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 12, 457–468 (2012). Snow, R. W. et al. The prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in sub-Saharan Africa since 1900. Nature 550, 515–518 (2017). World Health Organization. World Malaria Report 2019 https://www.who.int/publications-detail/world-malaria-report-2019 (2019). Kassebaum, N. J. & GBD 2013 Anemia Collaborators. 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The variability of sickle cell rates in the tribes of Kenya and the Southern Sudan. Br. Med. J. 1, 294–297 (1954). The Kenyan Bacteraemia Study Group et al. Polymorphism in a lincRNA associates with a doubled risk of pneumococcal bacteremia in Kenyan children. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 98, 1092–1100 (2016). World Health Organization. WHO Child Growth Standards https://www.who.int/childgrowth/en/ (2006). Feelders, R. A. et al. Regulation of iron metabolism in the acute-phase response: interferon γ and tumour necrosis factor α induce hypoferraemia, ferritin production and a decrease in circulating transferrin receptors in cancer patients. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 28, 520–527 (1998). Muriuki, J. M. et al. Estimating the burden of iron deficiency among African children. BMC Med. 18, 31 (2020). Namaste, S. M., Aaron, G. J., Varadhan, R., Peerson, J. M. & Suchdev, P. S. Methodologic approach for the Biomarkers Reflecting Inflammation and Nutritional Determinants of Anemia (BRINDA) project. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 106, 333S–347S (2017). Malaria Genomic Epidemiology Network. Insights into malaria susceptibility using genome-wide data on 17,000 individuals from Africa, Asia and Oceania. Nat. Commun. 10, 5732 (2019). Mackinnon, M. J., Mwangi, T. W., Snow, R. W., Marsh, K. & Williams, T. N. Heritability of malaria in Africa. PLoS Med. 2, 1253–1259 (2005). Evans, D. M. & Davey Smith, G. Mendelian randomization: new applications in the coming age of hypothesis-free causality. Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet. 16, 327–350 (2015). Spiller, W., Davies, N. M. & Palmer, T. M. Software application profile: mrrobust—a tool for performing two-sample summary Mendelian randomization analyses. Int. J. Epidemiol. 48, 684–690 (2019). We thank all study participants who contributed to this study and staff involved with consent, sample and data collection and preparation. This work was funded by Wellcome (grant nos. (110255 to S.H.A.), (202800 to T.N.W.), (103951 to A.O.E.), (106289 to A.J.M.) and (064693, 079110, 095778 to A.M.E.)) and by core awards to the KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme (203077), the Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics (090532, 203141) and the Wellcome Sanger Institute (098051, 206194). A.J.M. was also supported by an Oxford University Clinical Academic School Transitional Fellowship. R.W.S. is funded by a Wellcome Trust Principal Fellowship (nos. 103602 and 212176). J.M.M. was supported through the DELTAS Africa Initiative (DEL-15-003). The DELTAS Africa Initiative is an independent funding scheme of the African Academy of Sciences’ Alliance for Accelerating Excellence in Science in Africa and is supported by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development Planning and Coordinating (NEPAD) Agency with funding from Wellcome (107769) and the UK government. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the African Academy of Sciences, the NEPAD Agency, Wellcome or the UK government. G.D.S. and R.M. are supported by the MRC IEU (grant code, MC_UU_00011/1). Funding for the conduct of the micronutrient survey in Ghana was provided by the UNICEF and Canada’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development through an agreement between the UNICEF Ghana and the University of Ghana (43210308). The overall Malawi Demographic Health Survey was funded by Irish Aid, the World Bank and the UNICEF with technical assistance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Emory University. The Western Kenya study was supported by the Thrasher Research Fund (award no. 11860), the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPPGD759) and the US Agency for International Development (AID-OAA-F-13-00040), and K.A.B. was supported by a National Institutes of Health Research Training grant R25 TW009343, funded by the Fogarty International Center and the University of California Global Health Institute. The MOMS Project in Muheza, Tanzania was supported by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), the National Institutes of Health (grant AI52059), and M.F. and P.E.D. are supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIAID. The Cameroon study received support from Sight and Life and from the Thrasher Research Fund (award 12144). L.M.R. was supported by T32 HL129982. The Gambian work was supported by the UK MRC (U1232661351, U105960371 and MC-A760-5QX00) and DFID under the MRC/DFID Concordat. The JHS is supported and conducted in collaboration with Jackson State University (HHSN268201800013I), Tougaloo College (HHSN268201800014I), the Mississippi State Department of Health (HHSN268201800015I) and the University of Mississippi Medical Center (HHSN268201800010I, HHSN268201800011I and HHSN268201800012I) contracts from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities. We also wish to thank the staff and participants of the JHS. The views expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; the National Institutes of Health; or the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Whole-genome sequencing for the Trans-Omics in Precision Medicine (TOPMed) program was supported by NHLBI. Whole-genome sequencing for ‘NHLBI TOPMed: The Jackson Heart Study’ (phs000964) was performed at the University of Washington Northwest Genomics Center (HHSN268201100037C). Centralized read mapping and genotype calling along with variant quality metrics and filtering were performed by the TOPMed Informatics Research Center (3R01HL-117626-02S1; contract HHSN268201800002I). Phenotype harmonization, data management, sample identity quality control and general study coordination were provided by the TOPMed Data Coordinating Center (3R01HL-120393-02S1; contract HHSN268201800001I). We gratefully acknowledge the studies and participants who provided biological samples and data for TOPMed. The authors declare no competing interests. Peer review information Nature Medicine thanks Sant-Rayn Pasricha, Olugbenga Mokuolu, and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Editor recognition statement: Joao Monteiro was the primary editor on this article and managed its editorial process and peer review in collaboration with the rest of the editorial team. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Extended Data Fig. 1 A meta-analysis of previous African studies investigating the effect of α-thalassemia and G6PD A and A- polymorphisms on uncomplicated febrile malaria. Overall represents a fixed-effect meta-analysis of study-specific incidence rate ratio (IRR) by genetic polymorphism. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n shows the number of individuals included in the analysis. Few studies included G6PD homozygous females and numbers were small (Table S2). Het, heterozygous; Hom, homozygous. Extended Data Fig. 2 A meta-analysis of the effect of sickle cell trait on iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Overall represents a fixed-effect meta-analysis of cohort-specific odds ratios. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n shows the number of individuals included in the analysis. Numbers for IDA are fewer compared to those for ID since not all children had hemoglobin concentrations measured. Extended Data Fig. 3 A meta-analysis of the effect of sickle cell trait on iron deficiency (ID) regression-corrected for inflammation. ID was defined using ferritin levels adjusted for the effects of inflammation using a regression-correction approach as developed by BRINDA. Overall represents a fixed-effect meta-analysis of cohort-specific odds ratios. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n shows the number of individuals included in the analysis. Extended Data Fig. 4 A meta-analysis of the effect of sickle cell trait on uncomplicated febrile malaria. Overall represents a fixed-effect meta-analysis of study-specific incidence rate ratio (IRR). Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n shows the number of individuals included in the analysis. Extended Data Fig. 5 How HbAS, a genetic proxy for malaria exposure, may protect children from iron deficiency. a, Individuals carrying normal beta hemoglobin gene (HbAA) are not protected from malaria. Malaria up-regulates production of hepcidin through inflammatory and non-inflammatory pathways and by increasing the prevalence of other infections. Hepcidin in turn blocks iron absorption. b, Sickle cell trait (HbAS) partially protects individuals from malaria infection, therefore inflammation is reduced leading to reduced hepcidin stimulation and increased iron absorption. Extended Data Fig. 6 Relationship between geometric mean hepcidin concentrations, malaria parasitemia and inflammation. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n indicates biologically independent samples. Horizontal dotted line indicates the threshold of hepcidin above which iron absorption is inhibited (5.5 µg/L). Inflammation was defined as CRP >5 mg/L, ACT >0.6 g/L or AGP >1 g/L. Malaria was defined as a blood slide positive for asexual P. falciparum parasites. Hepcidin was measured in the Burkina Faso, Western Kenya, Uganda, The Gambia, and Kilifi, Kenya cohorts. About this article Cite this article Muriuki, J.M., Mentzer, A.J., Mitchell, R. et al. Malaria is a cause of iron deficiency in African children. Nat Med 27, 653–658 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01238-4

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- Define the various types of management styles you may be exposed to at work - What are application models to apply management styles? - How does leadership differ from management? - What are ways in which we can develop leadership skills, and what are those skills? Leadership is action, not position. Donald H. McGannon Leaders don’t create followers, they create more leaders. The Biggest Challenge Casey is the Human Resource manager at your company. You set an appointment with him because of some issues you are having with your supervisor. “Casey,” you say, “I really need to vent. Can I sit down and talk with you?” Casey offers you a seat. You begin to tell him about Sam, your supervisor, and the way he has been managing your team lately. You say, “Sam was a really great manager when he started here three months ago. He had individual meetings with all of us, and he asked a lot of questions. We were all really excited to have him as our new boss, because he really seemed to care and implemented some of our ideas. “Lately, though, he seems to be short-tempered and seems to want to make all of the decisions. I have talked with him about it, but he doesn’t seem to notice that it has become a problem. In fact, I know of two people that are looking for other jobs because of it.” Casey thinks about the situation and asks you if the timing of Casey’s behavior change was around the same time corporate people had come to visit. “I hadn’t thought of that before, but yes, the timing would be about right.” Casey explains that many of the managers have been told they need to make some changes in the organization, and these changes are those that must be done without feedback from employees. Casey says that he knows it is different than the usual management style of the branch and asks you if you can hang on for a little longer. He believes once the changes are made, Sam will be back to his old self. In the meantime, Casey suggests you talk with your manager about your concerns. Although you feel a bit nervous to do so, you feel talking with Sam might be the best thing for your department. - Define the various types of management styles you may be exposed to at work. - Explain how, when we become managers, we can determine which style to use in a variety of situations. - Describe the process you may use for leadership development. - Describe several different leadership styles you may use and their likely influence on followers. As we saw in the opening case, most managers will use a variety of management styles depending upon the situation. In our scenario, Sam obviously may have gone too far in his use of management style. As we will discuss in this chapter, there are several management styles that can be used in a variety of situations. As you read this chapter, consider past managers and think about what style they may have used. Understanding management styles can help us become better managers or prepare us to take on the role of manager someday. In addition, understanding your manager’s style can be beneficial to know — as it can help you relate to him or her better. Management style ties in very closely with communication style. There isn’t necessarily one management style that is better than another; they are simply different and might be used in a variety of situations. Task Style versus People-Centered Style When we look at the styles of management, we see that most styles fall into one of two categories: a task-oriented management style or a people-centered style. A manager with a task-oriented style will focus on the technical or task aspects of the job. The concern for this manager is that employees know what is expected of them and have the tools needed to do their job. A people-oriented style is more concerned with the relationships in the workplace. The manager emphasizes the interpersonal relations, as opposed to the task. The manager is most concerned about the welfare of the employee and tends to be friendly and trusting. Understanding these two main differences in management style, we will now look at other possible styles a manager might use. Participatory, Directing, or Teamwork Styles Utilization of a participatory management style involves both a task-oriented style and a people-centered style. This style emphasizes how the employee’s assigned task fits into the bigger picture. This style will provide support and input where needed. As a result, the focus is on the task but also on the person and the relationships required to get the task done. This style might be used when the employees are experienced and the deadlines reasonable enough to provide the time needed to focus both on the task and the person. If more hands-on management is required, a directing management style might be appropriate (“Three Effective Management Styles,” Dun & Bradstreet Credibility Corp., 2010, accessed February 5, 2010, ). Consider a very tight deadline or an emergency situation in which someone needs to be calling the shots. For example, assume you own a business that creates specialty home-baked dog treats. You just received an order for one hundred dog cookies by later this afternoon. You might consider using a directing style with your employees to make sure it gets done on time. This style doesn’t focus on the person but rather on getting the task done; hence it tends to be more of a task-oriented style. A manager who uses a teamwork management style believes there is a value (or necessity) in having people work in teams. As a result, this style tends to require a people-centered approach. Relationships are most important, and assuming the individuals work well together, the task will be successfully accomplished. The advantage to this style, given the type of task and situation, is that as a manager you are able to pool resources and abilities from several different people. Use of a team style can also provide big benefits for the company. For example, Google uses a teamwork approach it calls “grouplets.” Google believes that individuals should be able to spend time on something that interests them and is also company related. Engineers at Google spend 20 percent of their time on this endeavor. As a result, grouplets are formed, and the grouplet works on their idea with no specific budget. Some of the best ideas from Google have come through this teamwork process. Gmail, in fact, was developed using a grouplet (Bharat Mediratta, as told to Julie Bick, “The Google Way: Give Engineers Room,” New York Times, October 21, 2007, accessed February 15, 2010, ). Autocratic, Participative, and Free-Reign Styles An autocratic style of management involves the task-oriented style. The focus is on getting things done, and relationships are secondary. This type of manager tends to tell people what to do and takes a “my way or the highway” approach. Another description for this type of manager is a taskmaster. This person uses his or her authority and makes all the decisions as to who does what, how it is done, and when it should get done. On the other hand, a participative style constantly seeks input from the employees. Setting goals, making plans, and determining objectives are viewed as a group effort, rather than the manager making all the decisions. At the other extreme, a free-rein style gives employees total freedom to make decisions on how things will get done. The manager may establish a few objectives, but the employees can decide how those objectives are met. In other words, the leader tends to be removed from the day-to-day activities but is available to help employees deal with any situation that may come up. Path Goal Model for Leadership The path goal theory says that the role of a leader is to define goals and lay down the path for the employees to meet those goals. Aspects include clarification of the task and scope of the process. Clarification of the employee’s role and clarification around how the success of the task will be measured are key aspects in this model. The leader also is involved in guidance and coaching surrounding the goal and removes obstacles for employees that might affect the completion of the task. The path goal theory says that if employees are satisfied by the leadership style, they will be motivated toward the goals of leadership. Part of the model also stresses that the skills, experience, and environmental contingencies of the job play a role in the success of the leader (Figure 1). Applying Management Styles It is great to talk about management style, but the application of that management style is just as important as knowing the management styles. In this section, we will discuss how and when you might use each style when managing people. If you aren’t managing people yet, consider the style your current (or past) manager uses. Do you think it is effective based on our discussion? Another way we can view leadership is through the situational leadership model.Ken Blanchard, Patricia Zigarmi, and Drea Zigarmi, Leadership and the One Minute Manager (New York: HarperCollins Entertainment, 2000). This model, developed by Ken Blanchard (author of the One Minute Manager series of books), does a good job explaining how we might use one type of management style versus another. The model looks at three areas: the relationship behavior of the manager, the task behavior of the manager, and the readiness of employees. The relationship behavior means how supportive the manager needs to be in helping employees. Task behavior refers to the type of style the manager should use when managing employees based on their readiness level. Readiness includes the willingness and skills to perform the task at hand. Depending on where the employees fall in each of these areas, a manager might use a different style: - D4 — High competence, high commitment. Experienced at the job and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. May even be more skilled than the leader. - D3 — High competence, variable commitment. Experienced and capable but may lack the confidence to go it alone or the motivation to do it well/quickly. - D2 — Some competence, low commitment. May have some relevant skills but won’t be able to do the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to them. - D1 — Low competence, high commitment. Generally lacking the specific skills required for the job at hand but has the confidence and/or motivation to tackle it. Based on the readiness and commitment of the employee, the leader can see what management style and level of support the employee should experience:Situational Leadership Grid, Chimaera Consulting, 2008, accessed February 4, 2010, . - S1 — Telling/directing — High task focus, low relationship focus. Leaders define the roles and tasks of the “follower” and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one way. This style can be used with people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and committed and who need direction and supervision to get them started. - S2 — Selling/coaching — High task focus, high relationship focus. Leaders still define roles and tasks but seek ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader’s prerogative, but communication is much more two-way. This approach can be used with people who have some competence but lack commitment and who need direction and supervision because they are still relatively inexperienced. These individuals may also need support and praise to build their self-esteem and involvement in decision making to restore their commitment. - S3 — Participating/supporting — Low task focus, high relationship focus. Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is given to the follower. This style can be used with people who have the necessary competence but lack confidence or motivation. These individuals may need little direction because of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation. - S4 — Delegating — Low task focus, low relationship focus. Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem solving, but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved. This style would work with people who have both competence and commitment and who are able and willing to work on a project by themselves with little supervision or support. The bottom line when discussing management style is that no one style works best in all situations. We may be more comfortable with one style versus another, but we need to change our management style depending on the person and task we are working with. For example, if you have an employee who is brand new, you will likely work with that person using a more directive style. As she develops, you might change to a participative style. Likewise, someone who does good work and has lots of experience may prefer a free-rein style. Many managers make the mistake of trying to use the same style with every person in every situation. To be a great manager, we must change our styles based on the situation and the individual involved (Figure 2). How does this relate to human relations? First, how people are managed is one of the most important aspects to motivation in any organization. Understanding “good” management and “not so good” management can help develop us for when we are placed in management positions, if we aren’t already. Just like in communication, a different management style should be used depending on the employee. Task styles focus on getting the job done, while people-centered styles focus on relationships. A participatory style involves both task-oriented and people-centered styles. A directing style is focused on the task and doesn’t allow for employee participation. A teamwork style focuses on teamwork and is a people-oriented style. The advantage of this style is the ability to use strengths from everyone on the team. An autocratic style doesn’t allow much room for employee decision making; the focus is on getting the task done. A participative style constantly requires input from employees. The free-rein style gives employees freedom to make decisions on how things will get done. The situational leadership model, which looks at relationship behavior, task behavior, and the readiness of employees, is used to recommend different management styles. No one management style works in all situations. Just like with communication, you will likely want to vary your approach based on the situation to get the best results. - Why is it important to understand management style in a human relations course? Discuss at least three points. - What combinations of management style might you use in each of these situations and why? - You are considering a major change in the way your company does business. Your staff has an excellent record of achieving goals, and your relationship with them is trusting and supportive. - Your employees do a great job. A situation has developed in which you need to make quick decisions and finish a project by the end of the week. - Your employees are having trouble getting the job done. Their performance as a whole is less than expected. - You have an employee who is very motivated but has little experience. Leadership versus Management Many people use the term leadership as interchangeable with management, but the two terms are actually quite different. The term management implies someone has been given a position, and through that position or title they have power to guide others. Leadership, on the other hand, does not require specific titles. Consider the last group project you worked on for school. It was likely that someone took on the leadership role for this project, such as coordinating schedules, e-mailing the team, and so forth. This person did not have a formal title but lead the group anyway. This is an example of leadership. To be successful at our jobs, we must show leadership skills. These leadership skills can come from our emotional intelligence skills — for example, self-awareness, self-management, relationship management, and social awareness. All emotional intelligence skills are needed to be a successful leader. For example, if you are the informal leader for your group project and feel frustrated with response times, you must have the ability to be aware of this emotion and manage it by not yelling at your team member when you see them! Getting the team to work better together requires social awareness skills, or the ability to understand how actions of one team member may affect another. Finally, relationship management is necessary to manage group conflict and maintain good relationships with your team. As you can see, leadership encompasses all of the emotional intelligence skills we have been discussing throughout the book. Do you think leadership comes natural to some and not to others? Whether or not there is a “natural leader,” born with a combination of talents and traits that enable a person to lead others, has been a subject of debate across time. In a modern context, we have come to recognize that leadership comes in many form and representations. Once it was thought that someone with presence of mind, innate intelligence, and an engaging personality was destined for leadership, but modern research and experience shows us otherwise. Just as a successful heart surgeon has a series of skill sets, so does a dynamic leader. A television producer must both direct and provide space for talent to create, balancing control with confidence and trust. This awareness of various leadership styles serves our discussion as groups and teams often have leaders, and they may not always be the person who holds the title, status, or role. Leaders take on the role because they are appointed, elected, or emerge into the role. The group members play an important role in this process. An appointed leader is designated by an authority to serve in that capacity, irrespective of the thoughts or wishes of the group. They may serve as the leader and accomplish all the designated tasks, but if the group does not accept their role as leader, it can prove to be a challenge. As Bruce TuckmanTuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–99. notes, “storming” occurs as group members come to know each other and communicate more freely, and an appointed leader who lacks the endorsement of the group may experience challenges to his or her authority. A democratic leader is elected or chosen by the group but may also face serious challenges. If individual group members or constituent groups feel neglected or ignored, they may assert that the democratic leader does not represent their interests. The democratic leader involves the group in the decision-making process and ensures group ownership of the resulting decisions and actions as a result. Open and free discussions are representative of this process, and the democratic leader acknowledges this diversity of opinion. An emergent leader contrasts the first two paths to the role by growing into the role, often out of necessity. The appointed leader may know little about the topic or content, and group members will naturally look to the senior member with the most experience for leadership. If the democratic leader fails to bring the group together or does not represent the whole group, subgroups may form, each with an informal leader serving as spokesperson. Types of Leaders Thomas Harris and John Sherblom (T. Harris and J. Sherblom, Small group and team communication(Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1999). specifically note three leadership styles that characterize the modern business or organization and reflect our modern economy. We are not born leaders but may become them if the context or environment requires our skill set. A leader-as-technician role often occurs when we have skills that others do not. If you can fix the copy machine at the office, your leadership and ability to get it running again are prized and sought-after skills. You may instruct others on how to load the paper or how to change the toner, and even though your pay grade may not reflect this leadership role, you are looked to by the group as a leader within that context. Technical skills, from Internet technology to facilities maintenance, may experience moments where their particular area of knowledge is required to solve a problem. Their leadership will be in demand. The leader-as-conductor involves a central role of bringing people together for a common goal. In the common analogy, a conductor leads an orchestra and integrates the specialized skills and sounds of the various components the musical group comprises. In the same way, a leader who conducts may set a vision, create benchmarks, and collaborate with a group as they interpret a set script. Whether it is a beautiful movement in music or a group of teams that comes together to address a common challenge, the leader-as-conductor keeps the time and tempo of the group. Coaches are often discussed in business-related books as models of leadership for good reason. A leader-as-coach combines many of the talents and skills we’ve discussed here, serving as a teacher, motivator, and keeper of the goals of the group. A coach may be autocratic at times, give pointed direction without input from the group, and stand on the sidelines while the players do what they’ve been trained to do and make the points. The coach may look out for the group and defend it against bad calls and may motivate players with words of encouragement. We can recognize some of the behaviors of coaches, but what specific traits have a positive influence on the group? Thomas Peters and Nancy AustinT. Peters and N. Austin, A Passion for Excellence: The Leadership Difference (New York, NY: Random House, 1985). identify five important traits that produce results: - Orientation and education - Nurturing and encouragement - Assessment and correction - Listening and counseling - Establishing group emphasis Coaches are teachers, motivators, and keepers of the goals of the group. There are times when members of the team forget that there is no “I” in the word “team.” At such times, coaches serve to redirect the attention and energy of the individuals to the overall goals of the group. They conduct the group with a sense of timing and tempo, and at times, they relax and let the members demonstrate their talents. Through their listening skills and counseling, they come to know each member as an individual but keep the team focus for all to see. They set an example. Coaches, however, are human and by definition are not perfect. They can and do prefer some players over others and can display less than professional sideline behavior when they don’t agree with the referee, but the style of leadership is worthy of your consideration in its multidisciplinary approach. Coaches use more than one style of leadership and adapt to the context and environment. A skilled business communicator will recognize that this approach has its merits. Since we have discussed both leadership and management in this chapter, you can see where the difference between the two is not altogether clear. Either way, looking toward future careers it can be valuable to understand both management and management styles as well as the process of leader development over time. Why Human Relations? As we have discussed in this chapter, you do not need a fancy title to be a leader. To be an effective leader, you must exhibit all aspects of emotional intelligence skills. For example, good leaders will know themselves well and know their strengths and weaknesses. Good leaders also know their feelings from moment to moment and they have learned how to handle those emotions. Good leaders have many similar qualities, such as empathy, ethics, understanding, and patience. These skills are also emotional intelligence skills — specifically, social awareness and relationship management skills. Social awareness skills are key in leadership, including reading and interpreting social cues and body language, setting goals, resolving conflict, understanding the perspectives of others, and a positive attitude. A leader is someone people want to be around, because they have a certain charisma that draws us to them! Leaders are also excellent at relationship management in that they handle relationships with others well. Remember, you do not need a fancy title to be a leader, but showing these skills in the workplace can not only make you a happier person but also show your supervisor you are ready to move up within your organization. Leadership is a bit different than management in that management includes a “title” while leadership and the leadership development process can occur without a title. Leaders can be appointed into a role, elected into the role, or emerge into the role of leader. There are three types of leaders. The first is leader as technician — meaning the person who takes the leadership role has skills we may not have. The second, leader as conductor role, involves a central role of bringing people together to reach a common goal. The third, leader as coach, combines many talents and skills, such as teacher and motivator. Many leaders will use a variety of approaches, depending on the situation. - Think of a leader you admire and respect. How did this individual become a leader — for example, by appointment, democratic selection, or emergence? How would you characterize this leader’s style — is the leader autocratic or laissez-faire, a technician or a coach? Write three paragraphs and describe. Chapter Summary and Case - Just like in communication, a different management style should be used depending on the employee. - Task styles focus on getting the job done, while people-centered styles focus on relationships. - A participatory style involves both task-oriented and people-centered styles. A directing style is focused on the task and doesn’t allow for employee participation. - A teamwork style focuses on teamwork and is a people-oriented style. The advantage of this style is the ability to use strengths from everyone on the team. - An autocratic style doesn’t allow much room for employee decision making; the focus is on getting the task done. A participative style constantly requires input from employees. The free-rein stylegives employees freedom to make decisions on how things will get done. - The situational leadership model, which looks at relationship behavior, task behavior, and the readiness of employees, is used to recommend different management styles. - No one management style works in all situations. Just like with communication, you will likely want to vary your approach based on the situation to get the best results. - Leadership and management are similar, although management implies a specific title. Leadership may be selected in a variety of ways, such as an appointment leader, democratic leader or emergent leader. Some people may be excellent leaders, although they may not have a formal title within an organization. - Depending on the situation, a leader may take on a variety of roles to solve challenges. You own a regional gifts store in your town. The store opened in 2009 and the same four people have worked together since that time. Recently, the manager left and you need to hire a new manager. You have decided that one of the four people currently working for you would definitely be great for the job, but you need to create a list of criteria for the job and then compare it with the skills of your existing employees. Your task is to develop specific criteria or a “wish list” of skills and abilities for this job based on three different aspects: - Skills needed for the job - Human relations skills - Leadership skills Once you have created the criteria, rank the skills in each category and provide a written description as to why you ranked as you did.

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Motor vehicle crashes affect an estimated 32,800 pregnant women annually in the United States,1 with approximately 2.8% of pregnant women experiencing a crash during pregnancy.2 A crash during pregnancy can affect not only the pregnant woman but also her fetus, and can result in adverse pregnancy outcomes. Prior studies have noted that crashes are one of the leading causes of injury-related maternal3,4 and fetal deaths.5 In addition to fatalities, a crash is the most common cause of injury-related hospitalization among pregnant women.6 Although it has been well documented that seatbelts decrease the risk of maternal and fetal death and adverse pregnancy outcomes after motor vehicle crashes,2,7–9 relatively little is known about the effects of air bags on pregnancy. Since the introduction of federal legislation in 1998 requiring air bags as standard safety equipment in all automobiles and light trucks, studies10–13 have documented that air bags reduce fatalities from crashes in nonpregnant occupants. However, reports of death among infants, children,14–17 and women of short stature18,19 have increased awareness of the potential for adverse effects of air bags in special populations. Pregnant women represent an additional special population that may be adversely affected by air bags because of the proximity of the pregnant abdomen to the air bag in later pregnancy. The effect of air bags on pregnancy outcomes has been investigated in only a limited number of studies. Several case reports of pregnant crash occupants have noted uterine rupture20 and placental abruption21 resulting in fetal deaths, and rupture of membranes22 occurring in crashes in which an air bag deployed. In contrast, Klinich et al23 used a non–population-based case series of 42 pregnant occupants in motor vehicle crashes and reported that air bags in conjunction with three-point seatbelt use were associated with fewer adverse fetal outcomes compared with three-point seatbelt use only. Because of the lack of population-based studies of this important motor vehicle safety issue among pregnant women, we performed a cohort study of all pregnant crash occupants in Washington State to evaluate the effects of air-bag availability and deployment on adverse pregnancy outcomes. We were interested in assessing effects of air-bag availability because this type of study evaluates simultaneously the effect of activation or no activation of an air bag and the effect the air bag has when it is activated.24 Evaluation of this exposure has been performed in prior studies,11,13,15 and from a public health perspective, it is essential in developing recommendations for pregnant women regarding the safety of driving or riding in a vehicle with an air bag. We hypothesized that air-bag deployment would be associated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS This retrospective cohort study assessed the effect of air-bag availability and deployment on the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes among women who were front seat occupants in motor vehicle crashes occurring during pregnancy in Washington State from 2002 to 2005. We identified pregnant women who were occupants in a motor vehicle crash by linking state birth and fetal death certificate data with Washington State Patrol crash data. The Washington State Patrol collects crash data on all motor vehicle traffic collisions occurring in Washington State that result in injury or death of any person or $500 or more in property damage. Information collected on Washington State Patrol crash reports includes personal identifiers, date of crash, air-bag availability, air-bag deployment, occupant seat position, seatbelt use, type and condition of roadway, posted speed limit, weather and lighting conditions at the crash scene, vehicle identification number, and vehicle make, model, and year. Because our identification of pregnant occupants was based on the presence of a birth or fetal death certificate, our study population was restricted to women with a live birth or fetal death at 20 weeks of gestation or greater. From this group, we excluded women who were in rollover crashes because these crashes involve different types of crash forces than nonrollover crashes. We also excluded crashes involving large trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This study was approved by the Washington State Institutional Review Board. The Washington State Patrol crash report codes the air-bag availability of each crash vehicle as 1) not equipped with an air bag, 2) equipped with an air bag but not deployed, or 3) deployed air bag. We evaluated two different exposures in our cohort: air bag available compared with no air bag available and air bag deployed compared with no air bag deployed (restricted to crashes in which an air bag likely would have deployed). We classified all crash occupants by the availability (equipped not deployed and deployed) or nonavailability (not equipped) of an air bag in the vehicle. For the 536 vehicles (16.0%) for which we did not have air-bag information, we classified air-bag availability by processing the vehicle identification number through the VINDICATOR program (Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Arlington VA) that decodes the vehicle identification number and identifies the vehicle year, make, and model and determines whether the vehicle was equipped with air bags. We excluded 162 women in vehicles for which we were not able to determine air-bag availability from either the Washington State Patrol crash report or the VINDICATOR program. We were interested in the availability of an air bag because from a public health perspective it is essential in developing recommendations for pregnant women regarding the safety of driving or riding in a vehicle with an air bag. We also evaluated the effects of air-bag deployment on pregnant women. An air bag typically deploys in the event of a moderate or severe frontal crash and at a specific threshold determined by the change in velocity. We classified crash occupants as having a deployed air bag if this was coded on the Washington State Patrol crash report. We compared these occupants with those in a vehicle without an air bag in a type of crash where an air bag would have deployed if it had been present. This was determined by having an experienced crash investigator (author R.P.K.) who was blinded to the perinatal outcomes review the crash and vehicle data contained in the Washington State Patrol crash report for each individual crash to determine the probable direction of force for the crash based on vehicle action codes and the likelihood of an air-bag deployment. We initially evaluated the specific codes documenting the type of collisions in which an air bag deployed and then restricted our comparison group (no air bag available) to only these types of collisions as well. The Washington State Patrol crash data did not include crash investigation information on the change in velocity. This comparison group of occupants was classified as in a crash without an air-bag deployment. To evaluate maternal and perinatal outcomes, we used the Washington State Comprehensive Hospitalization and Recording System data, which contain the maternal and infant International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) diagnosis and procedure codes for the delivery hospitalization, linked to the birth or fetal death certificate data. A prior study evaluating the linkage procedure for creating the Birth Event Records Database file reported that the linkage was 96% complete.25 Since 1980, the Washington State birth and fetal death certificates have included a checklist for obstetric procedures, method of delivery, complications of labor and delivery, and abnormal conditions of the newborn. Maternal outcomes evaluated after a crash were the following: preterm labor less than 37 weeks of gestation (ICD-9-CM codes 644.0 and 644.2 or use of tocolysis on the birth or fetal death certificate), placental abruption (ICD-9-CM code 641.2 or as listed on the birth or fetal death certificate), induction of labor (ICD-9-CM diagnosis codes 659.0 and 659.1; procedure codes 73.1, 73.4, and 96.49; or as listed on the birth or fetal death certificate), and cesarean delivery (ICD-9-CM codes 74–74.2 or as listed on the birth or fetal death certificate). Perinatal outcomes investigated were the following: less than 37 weeks of gestation (as recorded on the birth or fetal death certificate), low birth weight (less than 2,500 g on the birth or fetal death certificate), small for gestational age, moderate to heavy meconium at delivery (birth or fetal death certificate), fetal distress (ICD-9-CM codes 656.3 and 768.2–768.4 or as listed on the birth or fetal death certificate), respiratory distress syndrome (ICD-9-CM code 769 or as listed on the birth certificate), and fetal death. We used an algorithm by Alexander et al26 to define small for gestational age as infant birth weight below the 10th percentile for a given gestational age, stratified on sex and race/ethnicity. We derived the gestational age at the time of crash by subtracting the number of weeks between the crash as listed on the Washington State Patrol crash report and the birth or fetal death. We defined fetal death as an intrauterine death identified by a fetal death certificate. We evaluated the frequency of nonrollover crashes per 1,000 deliveries using the number of police-reported crashes as the numerator and the sum of the number of live births and fetal deaths during the study period 2002–2005 as the denominator. We also evaluated the proportion of crashes by pregnancy trimester. We compared crash occupants with an air bag available, regardless or deployment (n=2,207), and those without an air bag available (n=1,141) on demographic, obstetric, vehicle, and crash characteristics. We used Poisson regression analysis to calculate relative risks and 95% confidence intervals for associations between availability of air bag and maternal and perinatal outcomes. In our initial analyses, we built a regression model for each pregnancy outcome comparing pregnant women in vehicles with an air bag and pregnant women in vehicles with no air bag. We performed subanalyses to evaluate adverse pregnancy outcomes among crash occupants in vehicles in which an air bag deployed and compared them with those in vehicles with no air bag in the type of crash in which an air bag would have deployed if present as described previously. We assessed possible interactions between air-bag availability by seatbelt use, air-bag availability by trimester of crash, and air-bag availability by seat position of driver or passenger using the likelihood ratio (P<.05) and found no significant interactions. We assessed possible confounding of the associations of air-bag availability and air-bag deployment and adverse pregnancy outcomes by age, race, income, parity, prenatal smoking, vehicle type, vehicle model year, seatbelt use, seat position, and crash severity. Relative risks were adjusted for age, seatbelt use, and vehicle model year. For selected maternal and perinatal outcomes with fewer than 10 observations, we present unadjusted relative risks. All statistical analyses were performed using Stata 9.0 (Stata Corporation LP, College Station, TX). We found 3,348 police-reported, nonrollover crashes among pregnant front seat occupants during the study time period of 2002–2005. The frequency of motor vehicle crashes was 10.3 per 1,000 deliveries with 26.1% of crashes in the first trimester, 42.9% in the second trimester, and 31.0% in the third trimester. An air bag was present in 65.9% of the vehicles. Among occupants for whom seatbelt use was known, 96.1% wore a seatbelt. In comparing demographic and obstetric characteristics among pregnant occupants with and without an air bag available in their vehicle (Table 1), we found that pregnant occupants in vehicles with an air bag available were older, were more likely to be Asian, were more likely to be married, and had greater educational levels compared with occupants in vehicles without an air bag available. Occupants in vehicles with an air bag also had greater income and were more likely to have commercial insurance and prenatal care in the first trimester. The trimester in which the crash occurred was similar for the two groups of pregnant occupants. We also compared vehicle and crash characteristics for the occupants with and without an air bag available in the vehicle (Table 2). Crash conditions, including weather, lighting, and road conditions, were similar for the two groups of pregnant occupants. Crash severities as recorded in police reports were similar, with most crashes resulting in property damage or injury. Pregnant occupants in air-bag–equipped vehicles were more likely to be in a light truck or van, to be belted, to wear a lap and shoulder belt, and to be the driver compared with occupants in vehicles without an air bag available. Controlling for maternal age, seatbelt use, and vehicle model year, we found that maternal and perinatal outcomes were similar among the pregnant occupants in crashes of air-bag–equipped and air-bag–unequipped vehicles (Table 3). In our subanalyses of crashes in which air-bag deployment would be likely, for the majority of maternal and perinatal outcomes, we found no increased or decreased risk associated with air-bag deployment. We did find a nonsignificant 70% increased risk of preterm labor and a nonsignificant threefold increase in fetal death among pregnant occupants in crashes in which an air bag deployed compared with those with no air-bag deployment (Table 4), although fetal death results were limited by small numbers (2/198 [1.0%] in pregnant women whose air bags deployed; 2/622 [0.3%] in pregnant women whose air bags did not deploy). Our findings did not vary for air-bag availability or air-bag deployment by seatbelt use, trimester of the crash, or seat position. Our finding of 10.3 crashes per 1,000 deliveries is similar to the rate of nine crashes per 1,000 live births reported by Weiss et al1 using a National Highway Traffic Safety Administration data set that includes crash information on a probability sample of all crashes reported to police in the United States, but smaller than the 2.8% reported by Hyde et al using Utah crash data. Similar to our study, Weiss et al1 reported that more crashes among pregnant occupants occurred in the second (36.4%) and third (33.8%) trimesters than in the first trimester (29.8%). The evaluation of adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with air-bag availability is essential from a public health perspective in developing recommendations for pregnant women regarding the safety of driving or riding in a vehicle with an air bag in the event of a crash. The presence of an air bag incorporates the availability of the safety device in the vehicle as well as the deployment of the device in the event of a crash. Lack of deployment can be explained mainly by the direction of force of the crash (nonfrontal crashes) or a low-speed frontal crash that does not result in deployment of the air bag. We found no association between the presence of an air bag in the vehicle and risk of adverse maternal or perinatal outcomes in the event of a crash, possibly because only a small proportion of the crashes that we evaluated resulted in air-bag deployment. All prior studies of the effects of air bags during pregnancy have evaluated crashes in which an air bag deployed. Motor vehicle crash case reports are described in which the pregnant occupant had rupture of membranes,22 uterine rupture,20 or placental abruption21 resulting in fetal death, and documentation of extensive brain injury by autopsy findings that resulted in fetal death.27 In addition to case reports, several case series of pregnant occupants in crashes have been reported. Klinich et al23 evaluated 42 crashes involving pregnant occupants using a non–population-based case series and suggested that air bags in conjunction with three-point seatbelt use may be associated with fewer adverse fetal outcomes compared with three-point seatbelt use only. Metz et al28 reported adverse pregnancy outcomes among a case series from two hospitals of 30 pregnant occupants in crashes with air-bag deployment, with 1 occupant experiencing a placental abruption resulting in fetal death, 73% experiencing uterine contractions, and 20% having abnormal fetal heart tones. These studies were limited by small sample sizes and the potential for selection bias as the cases were not selected from a defined study population and were likely to overrepresent adverse maternal or fetal outcomes because of reporting bias. The study by Metz et al was also limited by the absence of an unexposed (no air bag) comparison group of pregnant occupants in crashes. Our main findings should provide clinicians with evidence to advise women that air bags do not seem to increase risk for most potential adverse outcomes during pregnancy. Our finding of a nonsignificant 70% increased risk of preterm labor and a nonsignificant threefold increased risk of fetal death among the occupants in a vehicle in which an air bag deployed highlights the need for additional, larger studies to identify whether air-bag deployment increases the risk of these outcomes. In addition, we found that air bags did not result in a decreased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. This may be explained by the fact that air bags originally were designed to protect a male occupant of average height and weight. Pregnant occupants undergo continuous anatomical and physiologic changes during pregnancy, and these changes were not considered when air bags were designed. In addition, prior studies10,13 have documented that air bags are not a major additional source of protection for otherwise belted occupants. Clinicians should continue to advise pregnant women to wear seatbelts because they decrease the risk of maternal and fetal death and adverse pregnancy outcomes in the event of a crash.2,7–9 Our study had several limitations that may affect the interpretation of our results. Our comparison that used the no-air-bag-available group for evaluating the effects of air-bag availability and air-bag deployment was not ideal. The no-air-bag-available and no-air-bag-deployment groups both consisted of vehicles that had no air bag. These vehicles without air bags differed from those with an air bag in terms of age and associated safety features in the vehicle, with no air-bag vehicles being older and having fewer safety features. This may have confounded our findings, although we attempted to control for these differences by adjusting for model year in the analyses. In addition, our assessment of which vehicles would have had an air bag deploy in a crash if an air bag had been available may have resulted in misclassification of the potential for air-bag deployment because we did not have information such as the change in velocity (important for air-bag deployment) and had limited Washington State Patrol information to determine the specific direction of force of the crashes. This differential misclassification would have resulted in a possible overestimate of the risks associated with air-bag deployment if crashes that were nonfrontal or had a lower change in velocity were included in the no deployment group. We attempted to mitigate this possible misclassification by using an experienced crash investigator to review the crash report data to best categorize these based on direction of movements and vehicle actions as well as selecting only crash types similar to the air-bag deployment group. We also were unable to control completely for crash severity because we did not have information on the change in velocity, and crash severity is likely a confounder of the relationship between air bags and adverse outcomes. We did not attempt to differentiate the effect of second-generation air bags in the vehicles that are depowered and deploy with less force and may be associated with a different risk of adverse outcomes. We also did not have information on side air bags because this information was not collected by Washington State Patrol during the years of this study. Our study may also have been limited by the completeness and accuracy of personal identifiers in the Washington State Patrol crash data, resulting in our data linkage procedures not identifying all pregnant women in crashes during the study time period. In addition, our analysis was restricted to pregnant women who had a delivery at 20 weeks of gestation or greater. We are unable to determine the effect of air bags on risk of spontaneous abortion at less than 20 weeks of gestation. Last, our findings of the effects of air bags on fetal death should be interpreted with caution because our study was limited by small numbers of pregnant women experiencing these outcomes. Our study power to detect a threefold difference in the risk of fetal death was approximately 30%. To have sufficient power to detect this large of a difference with 80% power, we would need approximately 1,630 pregnant women in crashes with air-bag deployment and a similar number in crashes without air-bag deployment. In conclusion, we found that pregnant occupants are not at increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes while traveling in a vehicle that is equipped with an air bag and crashes. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists29 and the National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration30 both recommend that pregnant women who are occupants in motor vehicles should wear lap and shoulder seatbelts and should not turn off air bags. Our findings are in agreement with these recommendations. Although we found a nonsignificant increased risk of fetal death among pregnant occupants in motor vehicle crashes with air bag deployment, our results should be interpreted with caution because of the limited sample size and study power. Future studies of the effects of air bags in pregnancy with larger samples of pregnant occupants in crashes should evaluate the risk of fetal death with greater precision. Future studies should also evaluate the effect of air bags on pregnancy outcomes that occur at less than 20 weeks of gestation. 1.Weiss HB, Strotmeyer A. Characteristics of pregnant women in motor vehicle crashes. Inj Prev 2002;8:207–10. 2.Hyde LK, Cook LJ, Olson LM, Weiss HB, Dean JM. Effect of motor vehicle crashes on adverse fetal outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:279–86. 3.Schiff M, Albers L, McFeeley P. Motor vehicle crashes and maternal mortality in New Mexico: the significance of seat belt use. West J Med 1997;167:19–22. 4.Harper M, Parsons L. Maternal deaths due to homicide and other injuries in North Carolina: 1992–1994. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:920–3. 5.Weiss HB, Songer TJ, Fabio A. Fetal deaths related to maternal injury. JAMA 2001;286:1863–8. 6.Weiss HB. Pregnancy-associated injury hospitalizations in Pennsylvania, 1995. Ann Emerg Med 1999;34:626–36. 7.Crosby WM, Costiloe JP. Safety of lap-belt restraint for pregnant victims of automobile collisions. N Engl J Med 1971;284:632–6. 8.Wolf ME, Alexander BH, Rivara FP, Hickok DE, Maier RV, Starzyk PM. A retrospective cohort study of seatbelt use and pregnancy outcome after motor vehicle crash. J Trauma 1993;34:116–9. 9.Pearlman MD, Klinich KD, Schneider LW, Rupp J, Moss S, Ashton-Miller J. A comprehensive program to improve safety for pregnant women and fetuses in motor vehicle crashes: a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;182:1554–64. 10.Zador PL, Ciccone MA. Automobile driver fatalities in frontal impacts: air bags compared with manual belts. Am J Public Health 1993;83:661–6. 11.Lund AK, Ferguson SA. Driver fatalities in 1985–1993 cars with airbags. J Trauma 1995;38:469–75. 12.Crandall CS, Olson LM, Sklar DP. Mortality reduction with air bag and seat belt use in head-on passenger car collisions. Am J Epidemiol 2001;153:219–24. 13.Cummings P, McKnight B, Rivara FP, Grossman DC. Association of driver air bags with driver fatality: a matched cohort study. BMJ 2002;324:1119–22. 14.National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Fifth/sixth report to Congress: effectiveness of occupant protection systems and their use. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation; 2001. 15.Cummings P, Koepsell TD, Rivara FP, McKnight B, Mack C. Airbags and passenger fatality according to passenger age and restraint use [published erratum appears in Epidemiology 2002;13:749]. Epidemiology 2002;13:525–32. 16.Cooper JT, Balding LE, Jordan FB. Airbag mediated death of a two-year old child wearing a shoulder/lap belt. J Forensic Sci 1998;43:1077–81. 17.Willis BK, Smith JL, Falkner LD, Vernon DD, Walker ML. Fatal air bag mediated craniocervical trauma in a child. Pediatr Neurosurg 1996;24:323–7. 18.Kleinberger M, Summers L. Mechanisms of injuries for adults and children resulting from airbag interaction. In: Proceedings: 41st Annual Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine; November 10–12, 1997; Orlando, Florida. Barrington (IL): Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine; 1997. p. 405–20. 19.Maxeiner H, Hahn M. Airbag-induced lethal cervical trauma. J Trauma 1997;42:1148–51. 20.Fusco A, Kelly K, Winslow J. Uterine rupture in a motor vehicle crash with airbag deployment. J Trauma 2001;51:1192–4. 21.Schultze PM, Stamm CA, Roger J. Placental abruption and fetal death with airbag deployment in a motor vehicle accident. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92(pt 2):719. 22.Gimovsky ML, Nunez G, Beck P. Fetal heart rate monitoring casebook. Airbag-associated rupture of membranes: evaluation of trauma in pregnancy. J Perinatol 2000;4:270–3. 23.Klinich KD, Schneider LW, Moore JL. Investigations of crashes involving pregnant occupants. In: 44th Annual Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine; October 2–4, 2000; Chicago, Illinois. Barrington (IL): Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine; 2000. p. 37–55. 24.Cummings P, Weiss N. Re: “Mortality reduction with air bag and seat belt use in head-on passenger car collisions.” Am J Epidemiol 2001;154:387–9. 25.Hohner V, Armstrong R. Birth event records project: developing a permanent linked database. Olympia (WA): Washington State Department of Health; 1991. 26.Alexander GR, Kogan MD, Himes JH. 1994–1996 U.S. singleton birth weight percentiles for gestational age by race, Hispanic origin, and gender. Matern Child Health J 1999;3:225–31. 27.Karimi P, Ramus R, Urban J, Perlman JM. Extensive brain injury in a premature infant following a relatively minor maternal motor vehicle accident with airbag deployment. J Perinatol 2004;24:454–7. © 2010 by The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. 28.Metz TD, Abbott JT. Uterine trauma in pregnancy after motor vehicle crashes with airbag deployment: a 30-case series. J Trauma 2006;61:658–61.

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Special Article - Veterinary Research Austin J Vet Sci & Anim Husb. 2016; 3(1): 1022. U Wernery* and J Kinne Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Dubai, United Arab Emirates *Corresponding author: U Wernery, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Received: July 13, 2016; Accepted: September 20, 2016; Published: September 22, 2016 Caseous Lymphadenitis (CLA) is one of the most important bacterial infections in livestock and can affect sheep, goat, cattle, camelids and equids. It is caused by Corynebacterium (C.) pseudotuberculosis and is characterized by abscessation of one or more superficial lymph nodes and sometimes causes infection of internal organs including mammary gland. The infection is spread by inhalation, ingestion or directly through wounds. CLA has been reported in Old World Camels (OWCs) from all camel rearing countries including in Australian feral dromedary population. The two South American tame camel species, llama and guanaco, are also affected by this disease in their countries of origin but also in the USA and especially in Europe in which they were introduced as companion animals. The virulence of the pathogen is attributed to its exotoxin phospholipase D (PLD) which is produced by all C. pseudotuberculosis strains. Two biotypes exist: ovine/caprine (serotype I or biotype ovis) and equine/bovine (serotype II or biotype bovis) and both have been identified in dromedaries using the nitrate reduction test. Hence, CLA-vaccines for camelids should include both sero types. Furthermore, Pulsed-Field Electrophoresis (PFGE) showed that camel isolates did not only differ from isolates of small ruminants, but also from each other thus making herd specific vaccines necessary. Morbidity of CLA may reach more than 90% in East African countries whereas mortality in Bactrian camels was reported to be 28%. The mortality rate in dromedaries is unknown. Both, young and adult camels are affected by the disease. CLA is a chronic contagious disease and the intracellular bacterium forms abscesses in external and internal lymph nodes. These abscesses enlarge, may rupture and discharge infectious pus. The disease can cause severe economic losses. In sheep, the abscess often has the classical laminated “onion ring” appearance in cross section which has not been observed in camelids. Histologically several types of pyogranulomatous lesions in lymph nodes may display in one animal multiple abscesses, large central abscess with multiple smaller abscesses in the surrounding capsule and large single abscess with liquefactive necrosis. A CLA vaccine using pure PLD as well as an antibody ELISA using protein A as conjugate has been developed at CVRL. A centrifuged and bacterial filtered Brain Heart Infusion broth (BHI) supernatant of a mixture of two CLA biotypes containing 750μg PLD gave a complete protection against a challenge with C. pseudotuberculosis. Antimicrobial treatment is often not successful and therefore an intravenous application of 20% sodium iodine diluted in 500ml NaCl as a single treatment has the best perspective of success. Keywords: CLA; NWCs; OWCs; Vaccine; Serology Caseous Lymphadenitis (CLA) or pseudotuberculosis caused by Corynebacterium (C.) pseudotuberculosis is one of the most important bacterial infectious diseases in livestock. It affects sheep and goats worldwide and produces an ulcerative lymphangitis in cattle. It is widespread in Old World camels (OWCs) and the organism has also been isolated from abscesses of New World Camels (NWCs) . The disease has been reported from Egypt and Asia as early as 1932 and during the last century in OWCs from Egypt [3-5], India , United Arab Emirates , Iran , China [9-11], Kazakhstan , Ethiopia , Jordan and Russia [15,16]. CLA cases have been observed in Europe not only in OWCs on the Canary Islands , but also in NWCs in Germany, Italy and Sweden [18-21]. The disease is endemic in horses in California and is named ‘Pigeon Fever’. It causes abscesses that lead horses’ chest to swell . CLA is characterized by abscessation of one or more superficial lymph nodes and also may cause pneumonia, hepatitis, mastitis, arthritis, orchitis and meningitis . Although very rare, the pathogen can cause human infections with the sheep/goat strain among farm and abattoir workers. Infected people show chronic lymphomegaly and normally require surgical treatment. Economic losses due to CLA can be severe as many animals especially camelids are often valuable companion animals. In Australia, where several hundred thousand feral dromedaries are roaming through the interior, unsightly lymph node abscesses have been observed by many people. A similar picture is seen in East Africa, where more or less every dromedary exhibits swollen external lymph nodes. It is believed that a connection exists between browsing on thorny plants and CLA. Mortality rates of CLA in dromedaries in other countries than Europe where it can reach 15% are unknown and death always occurs in association with the spread of the pathogen into internal organs, mainly lung and liver. CLA has been known under a variety of names like cheesy gland disease, ulcerative lymphadenitis, actinomycotic infection, pseudoactinomycosis, suppurative lymphadenitis and lymphadenitis. The French veterinarian Nocard was the first who described C. pseudotuberculosis in 1888. C. pseudotuberculosis is a short, irregular ovoid Gram-positive rod almost resembling a coccus. Smears from abscesses show a marked pleomorphism. Colonies are small, white and dry and can be surrounded by a narrow zone of haemolysis when sheep or ox blood is used. The plates should be incubated at 37oC for at least 48 hours. The facultative, intracellular bacterium multiplies in infected phagocytes and gets disseminated via lymph or blood to secondary sites where it causes abscesses of different size. The virulence of C. pseudotuberculosis is attributed to a major exotoxin, phospholipase D (PLD) which increases vascular permeability and also facilitates dissemination of the pathogen into lymph nodes where it inhibits chemotaxis and death of neutrophils as well as inactivation of complement . Additionally, two other toxins, a toxic cell-wall lipid and a hemolysin are excreted by the pathogen. The toxic cellwall lipid is associated with the virulence of the bacterium and the hemolysin causes hemorrhages, increased vascular permeability enhancing bacterial invasion. So far, all isolated C. pseudotuberculosis isolates have produced PLD. Two biotypes are known: ovine/caprine and equine/bovine. From all of the CLA cases reported, only type I strain or biovar ovis was cultured. Only recently it was shown, that strains isolated from dromedaries in the United Arab Emirates and Kenya belong to both serotypes, serotype I (biotype ovis) and serotype II (biotype bovis) using the nitrate reduction test . In some experimental trials with dromedaries, Afzal et al. clearly showed that C. pseudotuberculosis strains which PLD genes were deleted are unable to produce lymph node abscesses. Over several years, more than 70 strains isolated from dromedaries in the United Arab Emirates and Kenya underwent different laboratory tests at the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL). It was found that with the exception of nitrate production, they reacted biochemically similar to known ruminant isolates. Similar biochemical results using API Coryne system (bioMérieux, France) were obtained by Connor et al. investigating 45 ovine isolates and Tejedor et al. testing the pathogen from dromedaries of the Canary Islands. Also Shen and Huang came to the same conclusion when they compared isolated C. pseudotuberculosis strains from Bactrians and sheep biochemically from China and Mongolia from different areas. The strains showed the same biochemical patterns. Genotyping of C. pseudotuberculosis isolates were performed on UK sheep and dromedary isolates from Dubai using the Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) with the Sfi an AscI restriction enzymes. This technique is applied for the separation of large DNA molecules and has made it easier to discriminate between strains thus linking isolates with clinical infections. The results showed that the strains examined did not only differ from isolates of small ruminants, but also from each other. It is therefore believed that genetically different C. pseudotuberculosis populations may exist on host-related basis and the use of autogenous herd-specific vaccines from other host species may not work. Also Braga observed in his experimental infection trials in adult alpacas pathogenically distinct differences between different C. pseudotuberculosis strains. CLA can affect entire dromedary herds and has also caused severe eradication problems in NWCs in Europe . The infection is spread via ingestion, inhalation or directly through wounds. Affected camels often concurrently suffer a severe tick infestation (Hyalomma dromedarii) from which C. pseudotuberculosis is often isolated. Additionally, mucous membranes of the oral cavity might be damaged by acacia thorns and or by dry and hard stems of desert plants. Following its entry through the skin or mucous membrane, the pathogen is phagocytosed by leukocytes and transported by lymph or blood to the predilection sites. CLA is a chronic disease. In sheep and goats, the incubation period ranges from 25 to 40 days whereas in camelids the incubation period is much longer. Abscesses can form even after more than 6 months. Some reports show that dromedaries become infected even after more than a year after the last positive CLA case was observed in a herd. This indicates that either carriers exist or the environment is contaminated. Scarce information is available about age distribution, morbidity and mortality. CLA occurred for the first time in Saudi Arabia in 1989 in two herds comprising of 2500 camels. In total 15% of adult dromedaries developed numerous abscesses at the predilection sides and biovar ovis was isolated from multiple external and internal abscesses mainly in lung and liver and from ticks . CLA was detected in 10% of 339 adult camels in Egypt . Again serotype I, Corynebacterium ovis was isolated. The same percentage of 10% of CLA infected dromedaries were found by Domenech in Ethiopia and in Jordan 8% of adult dromedaries were affected with multiple muscle and subcutaneous abscesses at various locations of the body . When 107 dromedaries were slaughtered at Oseem abattoir in Egypt, 62 (60%) showed typical lesions of CLA . Many visits were done by one of the authors (UW) to investigate CLA in dromedaries of the northern part of Kenya. Over 90% of several hundred dromedaries adspected during these visits showed swollen external lymph nodes of which many had burst. It was found that CLA also occurred in very young dromedaries at the age of 3 to 4 months. Their dams were also heavily infected and it seems that maternal antibodies did not protect young offsprings from CLA. Several researchers have described CLA in Bactrian camels. Chen et al. investigated the disease in Gansu province in China. The disease is known as “Haas” and between 1975 to 1981, 2843 Bactrian camels were affected of which 28% died. Han et al. used a C. pseudotuberculosis formalin – alum vaccine in the field and during a 3-year period, the CLA morbidity decreased from 27% to 6%. Also, in the Gansu province Wu isolated the pathogen from 12% of Bactrian camels and Samartsev has seen single CLA cases in young and adult Bactrians and sometimes real outbreaks in Western Kazakhstan in 1936. CLA does not only affect OWCs but also has been reported from NWCs from many different parts of the world. The disease appeared in Europe for the first time in camelids in 2003 after CLA was introduced into the sheep industry in the United Kingdom in 1991 . In Europe, mortality in OWCs can reach 15% and in NWCs 22% mainly when internal organs are involved. In Bactrians, a mortality rate of 28% has been described by Han et al. . Not only on the Canary Island of Spain, CLA has affected the camel tourist industry also on mainland Europe. Many dromedaries and Bactrians purchased from animal traders for breeding purposes were affected by the disease which also spread to other animals when introduced into herds. Increased intermingling of animals of different species for show performance and trade pose a severe risk for the spread of CLA. In Italy Beghelli et al. reported an outbreak of CLA in central Italy after 54 alpacas were imported from Germany into an established herd of 28 animals. Despite all efforts to control the outbreak, it spread to other premises. Imported alpacas from Germany also caused considerable problems in an alpaca herd in Sweden 2003 due to a severe CLA infection . Several authors have reported CLA in Peru in NWCs even at altitudes above 4000m. Natural infections with the Corynebacterium pathogen in Andean alpacas produced mastitis and abscesses in superficial lymph nodes of the bodies as well as abscess formation mainly in renal lymph nodes. In alpaca mastitis cases, it is assumed that the pathogen is disseminated through milk to suckling crias and not through skin wounds (shearing). Cases of CLA have also been reported in North American camelids but they are rare and treatment was often successful through antimicrobial therapy and excision of the abscesses. In small ruminants as well as in camelids, infection with C. pseudotuberculosis induces the development of superficial abscesses localized mainly in the cephalic, prescapular and prefemoral lymphnodes (Figure 1). Figure 1: Development of superficial abscesses localized mainly in the cephalic, prescapular and prefemoral lymphnodes. Pathognomonic in camels are cold, closed painless abscesses up to the size of a lemon or orange in the external lymph nodes (Figure 2). Figure 2: Pathognomonic in camels are cold, closed painless abscesses up to the size of a lemon or orange in the external lymph nodes. In sheep and goats, the abscess develops a laminated (onion ring) pattern . This pathological changes have never been described in camelids . In camelids three different types of pyogranulomatous lesions have been observed: - Single abscess, when ripe and opened, the abscess extrudes thick, white-cream like pus (Figure 3). - Large central abscess with multiple small abscesses in the peripheral connective tissue capsule (Figure 4). - Multiple abscesses and no central abscess (Figure 5). - Central necrotic core of pus - Several layers of immune cells (macrophages and lymphocytes) - Fibrous capsule which encircles the pyogranuloma - Remove all infected animals immediately - Disinfect and clean stables and pens rigorously, remove the dung, bedding and topsoil from pens, move the herd immediately into a newly erected burma - Animal housing should be free from wire and other causes of skin trauma - External parasites must be controlled - Purchase of animals should only be allowed from herds with no history of abscessation - Serological screening of the entire herd and removal of reactors, no serological positive animal should be detected after the second screening - Wernery U, J Kinne, Schuster RK. Camelid Infectious Disorders. OIE Book. 2014; 163-173. - Carpano M. disease in Egypt and Asia. Boll Sez Ital Sci Inst Microbiology. 1932; 4: 108. - Nashed SM, Mahmoud AZ. Microbiological and histopathological studies for rare cases of Corynebacterium infection in camel. Assiut Vet Med J. 1987; 18: 83-86. - Abou-Zaid AA, Selim AM, Yousef FH, Abd El-Samea MM. Lymphadenitis in camels. 2nd Vet Med Cong Zagazig. 1994; 600-607. - El-Sergany MA, Sofy MM, Lotfi H, Hassanain MA, Nassar AM, Laila A, et al. Lymphadenitis in Egyptian camels with special reference to bacteriological and parasitological affections. Egypt J. Comp. Path. Clinic Path. 1991; 4: 25-45. - Purohit NR, Chouhan DS, Choudhary RJ. Lymphangitis in the camel. Agri-Practice. 1985; 6: 23-24. - Afzal M, Sakir M, Majid Hussain. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection and lymphadenitis (Toloa or Mala) in the camel. 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In: 4th European Symposium in South American Camelids/DECAMA European Seminar, Goettingen, Germany. 2004; 7- 9. - Norgren T. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in alpacas. 2008. - Promed. Pigeon Fever, equine USA (Oregon). 2007. - Markey B, Leonard F, Archambault M, Cullinane A, Macguire D. Clinical Veterinary Microbiology, Elsevier. 2013; 135 -145. - Berlin M. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis bei Kamelen – Epidemiologie undPhasen der Impfstoffherstellung. Bachelor of Science Thesis (B. Sc.) Beuthhochschule für Technik Berlin – University of Applied Science. 2015; 1-43. - Wernery U. Caseous Lymphadenitis (Pseudotuberculosis) in camelids. J. Camel Pract and Research. 2012; 19: 21-27. - Connor KM, Quirie MM, Baird G, Donachie W. Characterization of United Kingdom isolates of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Clinical Microbiology. 2000; 38: 2633-2637. - Shen BY, Huang DS. Comparison of biochemical reactions of some pseudotuberculosis in strains from corynebacteriotic camels in different districts of China. Xinjiang Anim. Sci. and Tech. 1981; 4: 26-30. - Braga WU. Protection in alpacas against Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis using different bacterial components. Veterinary Microbiol. 2007; 119: 297-303. - Radwan AI, El-Magawry S, Hawari A, Al-Bekairi SI, Rebleza RM. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection in camels (Camelus dromedaries) in Saudi Arabia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 1989; 21: 229-230. - Pépin M, Paton MW. Caseous lymphadenitis in sheep and goats. In: Infectious and Parasitic Diseases of Livestock. Eds. Lefèvre PC, Blancou J. Chermette R. und Uilenberg G. Lavoisier. 2010; 1151-1163. - Paule BJA, Meyer R, Moura Costa LF, Bahia RL, et al. Three-phase partitioning as an efficient method for extraction/concentration of immunoreactive excreted-secreted proteins of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. Protein Expression and Purification. 2004; 34: 311-316. - Seyffert N, Guimaraes AS, Pacheco LGC, Portela RW, Bastos BL, Dorella FA, et al. High seroprevalence of caseous lymphadenitis in Brazilian goat herds revealed by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis secreted proteins-based ELISA. Research in Vet Science. 2009; 88: 50-55. - Berlin M, Joseph M, Jose S, Raghavan R, Syriac G, Paily N, et al. Production of a Caseous Lymphadenitis Vaccine for dromedaries. J Camel Pract and Res. 2015; 22: 163-168. - U Wernery. Production of a Caseous Lymphadenitis Vaccine for dromedaries. J. Camel Pract. and Res. 2015; 22: 163-168. - Bergin TJ. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and “Mala” lymphadenitis in camels. In FAO: The Camel development and research. Proc Kuwait Seminar, Kuwait. 1986; 10: 20-23. - Johnson B, Dietrich F, Petrorsky N, Kinne J, Wernery R, Wernery U. Characterization of adjuvants for use in dromedary immunization. J Camel Pract and Res. 2015; 22: 33-48. Figure 3: Single abscess, when ripe and opened, the abscess extrudes thick, white-cream like pus. Figure 4: Large central abscess with multiple small abscesses in the peripheral connective tissue capsule. Figure 5: Multiple abscesses and no central abscess. Microscopic lesions of the pyogranulomatous C. pseudotuberculosis abscess are composed of: Nashed and Mahmoud and Abou-Zaid et al. described in detail accompanied by pictures histological lesions of CLA in Egyptian dromedaries. From the abscesses they isolated C. ovis and from some of them also Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus spp. Closed abscesses were sterile. Like in our investigation Nashed and Mahmoud classified the lesions into two distinct types: multiple focal areas with caseous central necrosis and large central lymph node areas with liquefactive necrosis. On the other hand, Abou-Zaid et al. presented the alterations as serous lymphadenitis, suppurative lymphadenitis and chronic suppurative lymphadenitis which is the sequence of lesion development from acute to chronic stages. A few cases have been seen in dromedaries whereby the abscess breaks through the ribs and the organisms enter the lung producing severe bronchopneumonia with pulmonary caverns (Figure 6). Figure 6: Abscess breaks through the ribs and the organisms enter the lung producing severe bronchopneumonia with pulmonary caverns. Several different serological tests have been tried for the diagnosis of CLA but none has been validated for camelids. They include haemagglutination, haemagglutination inhibition, Agar Gel tests and ELISAs. Most of these tests have a low sensitivity. However, a new indirect double antibody sandwich ELISA, an Interferon Gamma assay and a Western Blot are said to possess a high specificity and sensitivity at herd level in goats and sheep. The most effective of these tests detect antibodies to the PLD exotoxin. In several European countries with increasing number of camelids, a program exists to test all NWCs regularly on a voluntary basis for antibodies to CLA. During these investigations it was observed that more than 40% of tested NWCs in some areas showed antibodies to C. pseudotuberculosis without showing any clinical signs. It confirms that a high number of NWCs had come in contact with the pathogen or are carriers without showing clinical signs. Many antigen preparations have been used in the ELISA tests such as whole cell extract, cell wall antigens, PLD, cell supernatant and recombinant exotoxin. The most specific diagnostic test seems to be the ELISA based on recombinant PLD expressed in E.coli. Direct ELISAs for the detection of IgG antibodies in sera from sheep and goats with CLA are commercially available for example from Hyphen, BioMed, France, ELITEST CLA. This test detects antibodies with the help of HRP-labelled mouse monocloncal antigoat/ sheep conjugate. These ELISAs are not validated for use in camelid. Paule et al. and Seyffert et al. used a non-commercial ELISA for the detection of antibodies to CLA after extraction and concentration of immunoreactive C. pseudotuberculosis proteins. Wernery and Berlin et al. developed an in house ELISA on the basis of the commercially available ELITEST. For dromedaries the anti-goat/sheep conjugate was replaced by protein A and this test is currently routinely used to detect CLA antibodies in dromedaries with encouraging results . The following procedures should come immediately into effect when a CLA case has been detected in a camel herd: In small ruminants, animals with enlarged lymph nodes are culled. This procedure is not practical with camelids. Corynebacteria are very sensitive to penicillin, tetracyclines and cephalosporines but the fibrous capsule and the pus in the abscess prevents the medication from reaching the bacteria. Antimicrobial treatment is often not rewarding and other treatment methods should be considered. Since erythromycin is more able to penetrate tissues, Bergin proposed a combination of penicillin and erythromycin to treat pseudotuberculosis in camels. Other possibilities of treating CLA in camels is the intravenous injection of 20ml of Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) in combination with 20-25ml of Baytril for 12 days or intravenous injection of 20% sodium iodine in 500 ml NaCl as a single treatment which can be repeated 2 to 3 weeks later. The abscesses may eventually subside with no relapse. Purohit et al. used corticosteroids and systemic antibiotics with little success and therefore injected intramuscularly a Lugol’s solution for 5 days with the following doses: 100ml, 100ml, 90ml, 80ml and 70ml. Samartsev applied with good success 2 to 5% creolin and iodine lotions topically. However, in cases with multiple abscesses, surgical and antibiotic treatments are recommended (Figure 7). Figure 7: In cases with multiple abscesses, surgical and antibiotic treatments are recommended. Subcutaneous ripe abscesses can be lanced and cleaned out on a daily basis with iodine solution. It is of paramount importance to provide strict aseptic methods, destroying contaminated equipment and disinfection of instruments used. Vaccines against CLA for sheep and goats are commercially available, but are not licensed in countries in which they are not produced. Therefore, for their use in NWCs for example a special permit is needed. Additionally, sheep and goat lymphadenitis vaccines are not used in camels because the protective doses are not adopted for camels. Therefore, they are not available for camelids. These commercial vaccines do not provide complete protection against the development of abscess formation but a significant reduction in the number of abscesses. The vaccines are formulated from concentrated formalin – inactivated C. pseudotuberculosis culture supernatant containing PLD, ultra-filtrated C. pseudotuberculosis antigens; Clostridium perfringens type D and C and Cl. tetani. Attenuated mutant vaccines are also available. One of the formalin-inactivated vaccines has been used in dromedaries during a trial vaccination but had to be abandoned due to the development of granulomas of different sizes at the injection site (Figure 8). Figure 8: Development of granulomas of different sizes at the injection site. The granuloma development after vaccination was the reason why researchers from CVRL embarked on a project to find the most suitable adjuvants for dromedaries . Additionally, several scientists have started research on the production of autogenous vaccines against CLA mainly in NWCs [18,20,28] with different results. They used cell wall proteins, toxin components and killed bacteria of C. pseudotuberculosis from alpaca origin and muramyl dipeptide as adjuvant. From vaccination experiments with these autogenous vaccines which were also used in dromedaries , it was shown that the exotoxin PLD plays the major role in the development of CLA indicating the need to block or neutralize PLD by vaccination. No abscesses developed in an experimental vaccination and challenge trial in alpacas when they were vaccinated with a CLA vaccine containing high level of toxin (PLD 500μg/ml, 28). These vaccines were formulated from concentrated formalininactivated C. pseudotuberculosis culture supernatants containing PLD. Berlin et al. embarked on a different approach by using only PLD from non-formalin inactivated culture supernatant containing no C. pseudotuberculosis bacteria or any bacterial cell wall protein. The mixture of 2 CLA biotypes (ovine/caprine and equine/bovine) containing 750μg PLD per dromedary gave a complete protection against a challenge dose containing 4.0x10³cfu/ml of an ovine/caprine biotype. Sero conversion was tested with a newly established indirect ELISA using PLD as antigen and protein A as conjugate.

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- Difference between a Thesis and a Dissertation - Proposal Writing - Difference between Abstract and Executive Summary - Get to Know Your Institutional Requirements - Plan Ahead for Your Thesis - Identify the Research Questions - Make Best Use of Your Supervisor - Time and Resources - Literature Search: Reference or Bibliography - Preparing for Your Research - Writing up Your Thesis/Dissertation - Be Persuasive - Get Feedback - Ethical Issue - Structuring Your Thesis/Dissertation - Copy Editing The goal of this section is to provide advice to students on some of the issues that they need to consider when they have to prepare a dissertation, thesis, or report based upon a relatively small-scale project. Increasingly, students of business studies and social sciences are required to produce such a dissertation as partial requirements for their degrees. Also, the advice is concerned with students conducting projects with a component of empirical research in which they collect new data or perhaps conduct a secondary analysis of existing data. In addition to requiring help with the conduct of research, which it is hopped has been provided by the bulk of this text up to this point, more specific advice on topics in doing and writing up social/business research for a dissertation can be useful. It is against this background that this section has been written. The section explores a wide variety of issues that include, among others: - Advice on timing; - Advice on generating research questions; - Literature review; Faculty members overseeing the project must be able to judge whether the students have understood the research problem both substantially and methodologically. The length of most master’ s/doctoral theses is between 150 and 250 types or printed double-spaced pages. Difference between a Thesis and a Dissertation Before we proceed further on writing a thesis or dissertation, let us first try to bring out a distinction between a dissertation and a thesis. The major differences students are often confused with the differences between these two terminologies. Some universities consider both thesis and dissertation as similar. Even the dictionaries would define them as somewhat similar; let us see how they define them. The standard dictionary defines thesis and dissertation as follows -“A dissertation is a long formal piece of writing on a particular subject, especially for a university degree, while a thesis is a long piece of writing based on your ideas and research that you do as part of a university degree, especially a higher degree such as a Ph.D.” A thesis involves conducting original research, while a dissertation is usually done with already existing research work, which may require you to add your thoughts to it. A thesis is a much more an in-depth study, where you get into the core of your topic and are free to give your opinion (you cannot do so in a dissertation). A thesis emphasizes research to a higher degree of academic achievement, whereas the dissertation denotes detailed references combined with observations made by the author, often at the graduation level. Both are research-oriented activities, with a thesis leading to the attainment of a doctorate or Ph.D. degree while a dissertation culminates in a post-graduate degree like M.Sc or M. Phil. The reverse could apply in American universities, thereby adding to the confusion, with a dissertation leading to a Ph.D. and a thesis produced while enrolled in a Master’s program. A thesis has to be on an original subject, based on a hypothesis that is submitted as a ‘synopsis,’ allotted by a university and written under the overall supervision of a university-designated guide. For a dissertation, one has to synthesize information collected, adding original thoughts to it. A thesis is considered a brief document, whereas a dissertation has to belong in support of the knowledge one has acquired through research on any given subject. A research proposal is a written document specifying the investigator proposes to study. A proposal may be written for various purposes. A student enrolled in a research class is often expected to submit a brief plan to his or her professor before data collection begins. Most universities require a formal proposal and a proposal hearing for students about to engage in research for a thesis or dissertation. A student preparing a proposal for his or her thesis will almost always be given a set of instructions that indicate the format to be followed. Although formats and the amount of detail required may vary widely, there is considerable similarity in the type of information that is expected in research proposals. The major components normally included in the research proposal are as follows: - Statement of the problem - Significance of the problem - Background of the problem - Work plan - Facilities and We have discussed these issues at length in an earlier section of the present chapter while discussing writing a report. Students are advised to pick up the required component to suit their needs. Before we move on to the next issue, we feel it important to make a distinction between an executive summary and an abstract. Difference between Abstract and Executive Summary Abstract and executive summary are two terms that are to be understood with a difference. The abstract is a term used in the writing of research papers. At the same time, the executive summary is intended to provide a neutral overview or orientation rather than being a condensed version of the full document. An abstract is written with the sole purpose of letting the readers understand the gist of the research paper to be presented during a seminar or a conference. It is a short form of the entire research paper. In other words, it contains the subject matter of the research paper in a nutshell. An executive summary should be written in non-technical language, whereas an abstract can be written in technical language. An executive summary should have a conclusion at the end. On the other hand, an abstract has no conclusion at the end. An executive summary should attempt at making a recommendation at the end. On the other hand, an abstract makes no such recommendation towards the end. Abstracts are extensively used in academic research, where the concept of the executive summary would be meaningless. “An abstract is a brief summarizing statement, read by parties who are trying to decide whether or not to read the main document.” In contrast, an executive summary, unlike an abstract, is a document in miniature that may be read in place of the longer document. The importance of executive summaries as a communication tool is frequently stressed in guides and analyses aimed at both academics and business people. For example, Texas A&M University states that “An executive summary is an initial interaction between the writers of the report and their target readers: decision-makers, potential customers, and/or peers. A business leader’s decision to continue reading a certain report often depends on the impression the executive summary reflects. Get to Know Your Institutional Requirements Your Institution or department may have specific requirements that your dissertation should comprise and a range of other matters relating to it. These include, among others: - The form of bindings; - How it is to be presented (e.g., PowerPoint, verbal, etc., timing) - Whether an abstract is needed; - Page format; - Format for references; - Number of words; - Organizing the dissertation; - Contents of the inner such as the declaration, letter of transmittal, etc. - Acknowledgment, preface, foreword, etc., - What We Expect You to Do We are looking for a critical analysis in your work. We want you to answer a scientific question or hypothesis. We would like you to gather evidence from various sources to allow you to make interpretations and judgments. Your approach/methods should be carefully designed to come to valid conclusions. Your results should be interpreted and discussed in the context of your topic. Relevant literature should be reviewed and cited. You should place your analysis in a broader context, and highlight the implications (regional, global, etc.) of your work. We are looking for a well-reasoned line of argument. Your thesis should be written and in the format prescribed. Plan Ahead for Your Thesis There are ample chances that you will be asked to think about your topic of interest as early as possible. It is worth giving yourself a good deal of time to think about whether any topics might interest you, and that might provide you with a researchable area. You will be given a deadline by which you will be required to complete your thesis. The best strategy is to pick a project that you are interested in, but also that a faculty member or other professional is working on. This person will become your supervisor, and this gives you someone to talk with and get background material from. Identify the Research Questions Identifying the research questions is of paramount importance in doing research. They provide you with a focus that will - Guide your literature search; - Guide you in searching needed data - Guide you in analyzing your data; - Guide you in writing your results; - Stop you from going off in unnecessary directions and tangents. Make Best Use of Your Supervisor Most institutions that require a dissertation or similar components allocate students to supervisors. Institutions vary quite a lot in what can be expected of supervisors; in other words, they vary in terms of what kinds of and how much assistance supervisors will give to students allocated to the. Equally, students vary a great deal in how frequently they see their supervisors and in their use of them. We advise you to use your supervisor to the fullest extent that you are allowed and follow the advice he or she or wants you to follow. Your supervisor will almost certainly be someone who is well versed in the subject you are researching. He will be able to provide you with help and feedback at all stages of your research. If your supervisor is critical of your works, try to respond positively. Follow the suggestions that he or she provides since the criticism will invariably be accompanied by reasons for the criticisms and suggestions for revisions. Do not make this a personal attack. Remember that your supervisor is not supervising only you; he is responsible for your other friends. So his or her time is very valuable. You might have to wait for his or her time. Time and Resources All research is invariably constrained by time and resources. These points are of crucial importance and should never be overlooked. The researchers are advised to take note of at least the following two points: - Work out a schedule: To do this, discuss with your supervisor in detailing the different stages of your research. - Find out what, if any, resources can be put at your disposal for carrying out your research. For example, will you receive any financial help from your Institution for such things as travel costs, photocopying, stationery and the like? Literature Search: Reference or Bibliography Usually, students know a few initial references when they begin on a project. In addition to the traditional sources of literature, nowadays, online bibliographical databases that are accessible on the Internet are an invaluable source of references. At this point, the students are advised to note down the difference between reference and bibliography. Technically the difference between a reference list and a bibliography is that a reference list is a list of all the sources you have referred to or used in the body of your writing. In contrast, a bibliography might contain additional readings even if you have not referred to in your writing that you think might make for useful reading. The bibliography is the overall list of where you got your knowledge from, whereas the reference list is what you have quoted or paraphrased. However, the term reference list and bibliography are often used interchangeably and often with an intended meaning that is the same. While references are cited directly in the text, the bibliography is not. References can be used to support your statement or argument, while a bibliography does not have such roles. As such, references are used for establishing something more authoritative. Readers could refer to your references and evaluate the correctness of your statement. Meanwhile, the bibliography does not support your argument, but you only refer them in a personal way. A bibliography will contain all research materials, including books, magazines, periodicals, websites, and scientific papers, which you have referred to. References contain source of material like quotes or texts, which has been used when writing an essay or book. Both bibliography and references appear at the end of a document. But the bibliography comes after the reference list. A bibliography may contain all those that have appeared in the reference list, but it may also contain additional works. A bibliography usually contains all the works cited in a paper. Still, it may also include other works that the author consulted, even if they are not mentioned in the text. Some bibliographies contain only the sources that the author feels are most significant or useful to readers. Both bibliography and references are arranged alphabetically. But a reference list can also be arranged in numeric style, which means arranging the references according to the numbers in the text. Preparing for Your Research Do not begin your data collection until you have identified your research questions, formulate your research objectives or hypotheses. Develop your data collection instruments with these materials at the forefront of your thinking. If you do not do this, there is the risk that your results will not allow you to illuminate the research questions. If at all possible, conduct a small pilot study to determine how well your research instruments work. - Preparing for Analyzing Data - Keep complete records of what you do - Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with hardware and software you use - Do not wait until all your data have been collected to begin coding. - Soon after you have completed coding, start data entry. - Become familiar with any data analysis packages as soon as possible (such as SPSS, R) Writing up Your Thesis/Dissertation Once you have analyzed your data, you have no option but to write your results. But many people find it difficult to get started and employ procrastination strategies to put off the inevitable. This tendency can result in the writing being left until the last minute and consequently rushed. Writing under this kind of pressure is not ideal. This is likely to detract you from what you intended to do. How you represent your results, and finally, your conclusions and recommendations is a crucial point in the research process. If you fail to provide a convincing account of your research, you will not do justice to it. Below we provide a few tips to the order of writing your thesis. - Write up a preliminary version of the background section first. This will serve as the basis for the introduction in your final paper. - As you collect data, write up the methods section. The term ‘methods’ is meant here as a kind of catch-all for several issues that need to be outlined: your research design, your sampling approach, how access was achieved if relevant, the procedure you used, method of interview, type of questionnaire you used, and the like. - When you have some data, start making plots and tables of the data. - Once you have a complete set of plots and statistical tables, arrange the plots and tables in a logical order. Write figure captions for the plots and tables. - Once your plots and tables are complete, write the results section. If you are writing a thesis/dissertation, you will likely have more than one and possibly several chapters in which you present your results. It is recommended that you show at the beginning of each chapter the particular issues that are being examined in the chapter. In concluding the chapter, you should make clear what your results have shown - Once you have written the results section, you can move on to the discussion section. - In writing the discussion section, be sure to adequately discuss the work of other authors who collected data on the same or related scientific questions. Be sure to discuss how their work is relevant to your work. If there were flaws in their methodology, this is the place to discuss it. While discussing your results, you reflect on the implications of your findings for the research questions that have driven your research. In other words, how do your results illuminate your research questions and hypothesis? State if your hypothesis has been confirmed not. - After you have discussed the data, you can write the conclusions section. Note that the conclusion should do more than merely summarize. You should make clear the implications of your findings for your research questions. You might also draw attention to any limitations of your research. - The final section in the paper is a recommendation section. This is the end of the conclusion section in a scientific paper. Make recommendations for further research or policy actions in this section. - After you have finished the recommendation section, look back at your original introduction. Your introduction should set the stage for the conclusions of the paper by laying out the ideas that you will test in the paper. Now that you know where the paper is leading, you will probably need to rewrite the introduction. - Once you have completed your recommendation, you write your abstract. Be persuasive in writing up your thesis. This means that you must convince your audience and readers of the credibility of your results. You must persuade your target group that your research is worthy, and your findings and conclusions are significant and that they are plausible. In doing so, be conscious that you do not lie with statistics. This is one of the most ethical issues in research. This is a crucial issue in all research. Try to get as much feedback on your writing as possible and respond positively to the points anyone makes about what they read. In many instances, you will inadvertently skip some points while writing. If you share with others who are conversant with the type of work you do, this may be of great help to you. Your supervisor is likely to be the main source of feedback, but institutions vary in what and to what extent the supervisors are allowed to be involved. Give your supervisor plenty of time to provide his or her feedback. There will be others like you who will want your supervisor to comment on their works, and if he or she feels rushed, the comments may be less helpful. In any event, you must keep in mind; your supervisor’s comments are the main ones that you should seek out. Do not forget to fulfill any obligations you entered into, such as supplying a copy of your dissertation, if, for example, your access to an organization was predicated on providing one, and maintaining the confidentiality supplied and the anonymity of your informants and other research participants. These points are of profound ethical concern for a researcher. Structuring Your Thesis/Dissertation Most universities have a preferred format for their dissertations, but the following format is fairly typical: - Title page - Table of contents - List of tables - List of figures - Chapter I: Introduction - Chapter II: Review of literature - Chapter III: Research methods - Chapter IV: Results - Chapter V: Discussion - Chapter VI: Conclusions and recommendations The preliminary pages for a dissertation are much the same as those for a scholarly book. The title page indicates the title of the study, the author’s name, the degree requirements being fulfilled, the name of the university awarding the degree, the date of submission of the report, and the signature of the dissertation committee members. The acknowledgment page allows the writer to express to those who contributed to the completion of the work. The table of contents outlines the major sections and subsections of the dissertation, indicating in which page the reader will find those sections of interest. The list of tables and figures identify the number, title, and page of the tables and figures that appear in the text. - Proofread your thesis a few times. - Check your spelling. Spell-checkers are useful for initial checking but don’t catch homonyms (e.g., hear, here), so you need to do the final check by eye. - Make sure that you use complete sentences. - Check your grammar: punctuation, sentence structure, subject-verb agreement (plural or singular), tense consistency, etc. - Give it to others to read and comment on. - Thesis Length Some Suggestions on how to shorten your thesis: - Use tables for repetitive information. - Do not describe the contents of the figures and/or tables in the text item-by-item. Instead, use the text to point out the most significant patterns, items, or trends in the figures and tables. - Delete “observations” or “results” that are mentioned in the text for which you have not shown data. - Delete “conclusions” that are not directly supported by your observations or results. - Delete “interpretation” or “discussion” sections that are inconclusive. - Delete “interpretation” or “discussion” sections that are only peripherally related to your new results or observations. - Scrutinize adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases.

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I. What every physician needs to know. Toxoplasmosis is caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Despite infecting a large proportion of the world’s human populations, it is an uncommon cause of disease. In the majority of immunocompetent individuals, primary or chronic (latent) infections are asymptomatic, however certain populations are at higher risk for severe disease, including congenitally infected fetuses, newborns and immunodeficient patients, particularly those with T-cell immunity deficiency, such as hematologic malignancies, bone marrow and solid organ transplant and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Cerebral toxoplasmosis is usually caused by reactivation of the latent cystic form of T. gondii in the central nervous system (CNS) and it as a major cause of morbidity and mortality among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients, particularly in developing countries. The incidence of toxoplasmic encephalitis (TE) has decreased since the availability of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART), however it remains the most important opportunistic disease of the CNS in HIV infected patients, affecting usually those with cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) counts of less than 100/mcL. T. gondii is considered a worldwide zoonosis. Infection in humans occurs through the ingestion of cysts often found in raw or undercooked meat, oocysts present in contaminated water or other food (vegetables) or congenitally through transplacental transmission of tachyzoites if the mother suffered acute infection during pregnancy. Other forms of transmission have been described including transplantation of an infected organ or transfusion of contaminated blood cells. T. gondii life cycle is complex and may involve multiple hosts. Felines (domestic cats) are considered definitive hosts and humans as well as other various warm-blooded animals serve as intermediate hosts. Infection of both kinds of hosts occurs through ingestion of tissue cysts. Intermediate hosts can also be infected through ingestion of oocysts and tachyzoites. After ingestion, cysts will release slow-multiplying bradyzoites in the intestinal tract, which will invade epithelial cells and become rapidly-multiplying and highly-infective tachyzoites, which will continue to replicate and infect any nucleated cell until T-cell mediated immune response suppresses this replication resulting in chronic infection with tissue cyst formation. Sexual stages of parasite will only occur in intestinal epithelial cells of definitive hosts. This will lead to the shedding of oocysts in feces, which will then sporulate and become infective once in contact with atmosphere. In the intermediate hosts, tissue cysts can persist indefinitely in the brain or muscles. However, when asymptomatic individuals present some immunodeficiency, re-activation of a latent form can occur, resulting in severe tissue damage. As cysts (filled with bradyzoites) have predilection for neural, ocular and muscle cells, reactivation (tachyzoites) will often present as chorioretinitis, myalgias and cerebral toxoplasmosis , which is usually fatal if left untreated. II. Diagnostic Confirmation: Are you sure your patient has cerebral toxoplasmosis? Typical presentation is that of a patient suffering from HIV/AIDS with a low CD4 count presenting with seizures and headache to the emergency department (ED), where he/she had a computed tomography (CT) scan of the head showing characteristic ring enhancing lesions. A. History Part I: Pattern Recognition: Globally, T. gondii is the most common causative agent of focal brain lesions in HIV-infected patients. Typically, a patient with cerebral toxoplasmosis will present to an ED or outpatient clinic complaining of worsening headaches, with or without focal deficits or recent seizures. Example: The patient is originally from Brazil, has history of HIV infection, but has never been on HAART. Last CD4 count is 88 cells/µL. You suspect cerebral toxoplasmosis versus other intracranial lesions in a HIV/AIDS patient and order toxoplasmosis serology, which is positive and a CT scan of the head that shows multiple sub-centimeter hypodense lesions with ring-enhancing and perilesional edema. Clinically you are able to make a presumptive diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis, based on serological, clinical and radiologic information. Diagnosis is confirmed with a response to empiric anti-toxoplasma therapy after 10-14 days. B. History Part 2: Prevalence: T.gondii infects up to 80% of some European populations, up to 90% of some Latin-American populations and 20% of people in the United States (US). The overall age-adjusted seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in the US, in persons aged 6 to 49 years, was reported to be 10.8%, with a seroprevalence among women aged 15 to 44 years of 11%. It has been estimated that 20% to 47% of AIDS patients who are infected with T. gondii but are not taking anti-toxoplasma prophylaxis or antiretroviral drugs will ultimately develop TE. Data available regarding prevalence of cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients indicate that around 25% of those patients in Paris had TE prior to HAART era, compared to 10% in some cities from the US. C. History Part 3: Competing diagnoses that can mimic cerebral toxoplasmosis While considering differential diagnosis of expansive brain lesions in HIV-infected patients, certain geographical particularities (local neuroepidemiology) as well as degree of host immunosuppression need to be accounted for. In developed countries, primary CNS lymphoma constitutes the main differential diagnosis of TE. In developing countries, however, a focal form of cerebral tuberculosis (tuberculoma) is the main alternative diagnosis. CNS lymphoma usually presents inpatient with CD4 count below 50/µL, TE frequently below 100/µL and tuberculoma often inpatient with CD4 200/µL or less, however the latter may also present if the patient has higher CD4 counts. Other causes of focal brain lesions in both AIDS and non-AIDS patients include cryptococcosis (AIDS), aspergillosis and Chagas disease (neuro-chagas or chagoma), metastases of disseminated lymphomas, glioblastoma multiform (GBM), and vascular pathologies, as well as cerebral abscesses. D. Physical Examination Findings. Cerebral toxoplasmosis causes unifocal or more often multifocal lesions and less frequently diffuse encephalitis. Patients usually present with subacute manifestations, but they can be acute in up to 10% of cases. Clinical findings and manifestations depend on location and number of lesions. Most frequent complaints from different published series include: headache (49-63%), fever (41-68%), focal deficits (22-80%), seizures (19-29%), confusion (15-52%), ataxia (15-25%), lethargy (12-44%), cranial nerve alterations (12-19%), visual deficits (8-15%), among many other possible findings. E. What diagnostic tests should be performed? CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head and immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody detection. 1. What laboratory studies (if any) should be ordered to help establish the diagnosis? How should the results be interpreted? Most patients will show serological evidence of infection, with high titers of IgG, however, antibodies may not be detected in up to 5% of patients with AIDS and cerebral TE owing to immune suppression. The presence of positive antibody titers does not distinguish between patients with TE and asymptomatic, chronically infected individuals. IgG antibody detection: different tests are used for detection of anti-T.gondii IgG including Sabin-Feldman dye test, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFA) and the modified direct agglutination test. IgG antibodies usually appear 1-2 weeks after infection, peaking at 1-2 months, fall at variable rates and persist for life. TE is usually reactivation of latent disease so antibodies should be detectable in most cases (>95%). No need to check for IgM, IgA or IgE: useful either in acute infections or in congenital toxoplasmosis. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): is available and detects T.gondiideoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in body fluids and tissue. Several studies show its utility in the diagnosis of TE however it is not widely used. Histologic diagnosis: detects tachyzoites in tissue sections of smears of body fluid and establishes the diagnosis of acute infection. Brain biopsy needs to be considered in immunodeficient patients with presumptive TE if there is failure to respond to empirical treatment or atypical presentation (negative serology, atypical images, etc.). 2. What imaging studies (if any) should be ordered to help establish the diagnosis? How should the results be interpreted? CT scan and MRI with intravenous (IV) contrast are the preferred imaging modalities. MRI is more sensitive, often finding multiple lesions when a single lesion was found by CT. Radiologic pattern could be typical or atypical. Typical findings are present in 80% of cases and include hypodense lesions with ring-enhancing and perilesional edema and hypodense lesions with nodular enhancing and perilesional edema. The eccentric target sign, which is a small nodule along the wall of the enhancing ring, is highly suggestive of cerebral toxoplasmosis, although uncommonly seen. Atypical patterns are seen in 20% of cases and include hypodense lesions without contrast enhancing and with expansive effect, CT without focal lesions but MRI showing focal lesions and diffuse cerebral encephalitis. F. Over-utilized or “wasted” diagnostic tests associated with this diagnosis. Even though CT brain scan is often obtained as the first imaging diagnostic approach, MRI is preferred in most cases unless the patient is unstable or has contraindications for undergoing MRI. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) PCR tests are available, however their use is limited to atypical presentation. A brain biopsy is not needed before initiation of treatment if presumptive diagnosis of TE was made in the right clinical settings. III. Default Management. A. Immediate management. Supportive management will vary among individuals and form of presentation. Make sure the airway is protected, especially in confused or obtunded patients. Make sure breathing and ventilation are appropriate and carry out evaluation and monitoring of circulation with a focus on those patients with intracranial hypertension syndrome. Anti-toxoplasma specific treatment: Treatment is to be initiated as soon as possible after presumptive diagnosis is made. Duration of acute treatment is 6 weeks (at least 3), followed by secondary prophylaxis, which may be life-long. Standard regimen: pyrimethamine 200mg per os (PO) loading dose followed by 50-75mg PO daily, plus folinic acid (leucovorin) 10-20mg daily (up to 50mg daily) PO, IV or intramuscular (IM), plus one of the following: sulfadiazine 1-1.5 g every 6 hours PO versus clindamycin 600mg every 6 hours (up to IV 1200 every 6 hours) PO or IV. Alternative regimens: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 3-5 mg/kg every 6 hours (trimethoprim component) PO or IV versus: pyrimethamine 200mg PO loading dose followed by 50-75mg PO daily, plus folinic acid (leucovorin) 10-20mg daily (up to 50mg daily) PO, IV or IM, plus one of the following: clarithromycin 1g every 12 hours PO versus atovaquone 750mg every 6 hours PO versus azithromycin 1200-1500mg every day PO versus dapsone 100mg daily PO. Corticosteroids: often used in patients with intracranial hypertension. Anti-seizure medications: used if form of presentation was seizures or status epilepticus. HAART: there is no consensus on timing to initiation of HAART. See Table I for Anti-toxoplasma specific treatment. |Pyrimethamine||PO 200mg loading dose and then 50-75mg daily| |Folinic acid (leucovorin)||PO, IV or IM 10-20mg daily (up to 50mg daily)| |Plus one of the following:| |Sulfadiazine||PO 1-1.5 g every 6 hrs| |Clindamycin||PO or IV 600mg every 6 hrs (up to IV 1200 every 6h)| |Possible alternative regimens| |Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole||PO or IV 3-5 mg/kg every 6h(trimethoprim component)| |Pyrimethamine plus folinic acid (as in standard regime)| |Plus one of the following:| |Clarithromycin||PO 1g every 12h| |Atovaquone||PO 750mg every 6h| |Azithromycin||PO 1200-1500mg every day| |Dapsone||PO 100mg every day| PO: per os B. Physical Examination Tips to Guide Management. If there is no clinical improvement by day 10-14, or clinical deterioration by day 3, then further work-up is needed including new imaging, lumbar puncture with CSF analysis and consideration of cerebral biopsy. Clinical findings will depend on the location of lesions and the individual’s initial presentation C. Laboratory Tests to Monitor Response To, and Adjustments in, Management. No imaging or specific laboratory test follow-up is needed if there is clinical improvement. D. Long-term management. This is to be initiated after completion of initial regimen and can be safely discontinued when HIV-infected patients receiving HAART have a sustained (i.e. for 6 months) increase of CD4 count (>200 cells/µL). It should be re-started if CD4 count drops below 200 cells/µL. Regimens include the combination of pyrimethamine 25-50 mg/day plus sulfadiazine 500mg every 6 hours plus leucovorin 10-20 mg/day versus trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) 2.5/12.5 mg/k twice daily. In patients with sulfa allergy, clindamycin 600mg every 8 hours is recommended. This is recommended in patients with detectable T.gondii serology and CD4 count below 200cells/µL. Proven effective regimens include TMP-SMX 1 Double Strength or Single Strength tablet per day versus dapsone plus pyrimethamine versus Fansidar (sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine). E. Common Pitfalls and Side-Effects of Management Up to 40% of patients will develop side effects from one or more of the drugs requiring switching of medication regimen or even discontinuation of treatment. Toxoplasmosis in immunodeficient patients is often lethal if left untreated, which is why it is extremely important to discuss treatment compliance with patients and make them aware of possible alternative treatments available. IV. Management with Co-Morbidities A. Renal Insufficiency. Dose adjustments needed for renal patients when using TMP-SMX. B. Liver Insufficiency. Adjust dose of clindamycin (if used) in severe liver disease patients. C. Systolic and Diastolic Heart Failure No change in standard management. D. Coronary Artery Disease or Peripheral Vascular Disease No change in standard management. E. Diabetes or other Endocrine issues No change in standard management. Glycemic control in patients on steroids. No change in standard management. G. Immunosuppression (HIV, chronic steroids, etc). No consensus reached on timing for initiation of HAART. H. Primary Lung Disease (COPD, Asthma, ILD) No change in standard management. I. Gastrointestinal or Nutrition Issues No change in standard management. J. Hematologic or Coagulation Issues No change in standard management. K. Dementia or Psychiatric Illness/Treatment No change in standard management. However be aware of a patient’s pre-existing psychiatric illness as this will affect assessment of clinical improvement if presentation of TE was confusion. V. Transitions of Care A. Sign-out considerations While Hospitalized. Neurologic status/neuro check: consider re-imaging patient if there is neurologic deterioration or acute systemic hypertension as the patient may be developing cerebral herniation syndrome and Cushing’s response secondary to intracranial hypertension. B. Anticipated Length of Stay. Length of stay will vary upon clinical initial presentation and clinical response to treatment. C. When is the Patient Ready for Discharge. Resolution of symptoms is usually obvious by 1 week, at which point the patient can be discharged and continued on oral treatment. However if there is no improvement in clinical status, the patient may need further work-up D. Arranging for Clinic Follow-up 1. When should clinic follow up be arranged and with whom. Follow up in infectious disease (ID) of HIV clinic within 1 week of discharge. If the patient is discharged home on IV antibiotics then they will need home health and frequent complete blood count (CBC) if on pyrimethamine. 2. What tests should be conducted prior to discharge to enable best clinic first visit. None needed prior to discharge except for physical and occupational therapy with home safety evaluation. 3. What tests should be ordered as an outpatient prior to, or on the day of, the clinic visit. CBC twice a week if the patient is discharged on pyrimethamine. E. Placement Considerations. These are variable, depending on neurologic status and comorbidities. F. Prognosis and Patient Counseling. As relapse occurs in up to 80% of patients, it is important to stress the importance of treatment and follow-up compliance VI. Patient Safety and Quality Measures A. Core Indicator Standards and Documentation. There are no Joint Commission core measures applicable to this diagnosis. It is important to document neurologic examination daily and response to treatment B. Appropriate Prophylaxis and Other Measures to Prevent Readmission. Secondary prophylaxis: discussed above. Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) prophylaxis: intermediate risk for DVT. Glycemic control if patient on corticosteroids. Initiation of HAART as per ID recommendation. Depending on CD4 count: consider other appropriate primary or secondary prophylaxis that may be necessary. VI. What's the evidence? Meira, C, Costa-Silva, T. “Use of the serum reactivity against excreted-secreted antigens in cerebral toxoplasmosis diagnosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients”. . vol. 57. 2008. pp. 845-850. Dedicoat, M, Livesley, N. “Management of Toxoplasmic encephalitis in HIV-infected adults (with an emphasis on resource-poor settings)”. . 2006. pp. CD005420 Correia, C, Melo, H, Costa, V. “Influence of neurotoxoplasmosis characteristics on real-time PCR sensitivity among AIDS patients in Brazil”. T. vol. 104. 2010. pp. 24-28. Portegies, P, Solod, L. “Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of neurological complications of HIV infection”. . vol. 11. 2004. pp. 297-304. Hoffmann, C, Meyer, M. “Evolving characteristics of toxoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus-1: clinical course and -specific immune responses”. . vol. 13. 2007. pp. 510-515. Contini, C. “Clinical and diagnostic management of toxoplasmosis in the immunocompromised patient”. . vol. 50. 2008. pp. 45-50. Meroni, V, Genco, F. “Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: evaluation of diagnostic methods”. . vol. 50. 2008. pp. 51-53. Nohui, F, Mattas, S. “Neurotoxoplasmosis diagnosis for HIV-1 patients by real-time PCR of cerebrospinal fluid”. . vol. 13. 2009. pp. 18-23. Pereira-Chioccola, V, Vidal, J, Su, C. ” infection and cerebral toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients”. . vol. 4. 2009. pp. 1363-1379. Mandell, G, Bennett, J, Dolin, R. “”. 2010. Copyright © 2017, 2013 Decision Support in Medicine, LLC. All rights reserved. No sponsor or advertiser has participated in, approved or paid for the content provided by Decision Support in Medicine LLC. The Licensed Content is the property of and copyrighted by DSM. - Cerebral toxoplasmosis - I. What every physician needs to know. - II. Diagnostic Confirmation: Are you sure your patient has cerebral toxoplasmosis? - A. History Part I: Pattern Recognition: - B. History Part 2: Prevalence: - C. History Part 3: Competing diagnoses that can mimic cerebral toxoplasmosis - D. Physical Examination Findings. - E. What diagnostic tests should be performed? - 1. What laboratory studies (if any) should be ordered to help establish the diagnosis? How should the results be interpreted? - 2. What imaging studies (if any) should be ordered to help establish the diagnosis? How should the results be interpreted? - F. Over-utilized or “wasted” diagnostic tests associated with this diagnosis. - III. Default Management. - A. Immediate management. - B. Physical Examination Tips to Guide Management. - C. Laboratory Tests to Monitor Response To, and Adjustments in, Management. - D. Long-term management. - E. Common Pitfalls and Side-Effects of Management - IV. Management with Co-Morbidities - A. Renal Insufficiency. - B. Liver Insufficiency. - C. Systolic and Diastolic Heart Failure - D. Coronary Artery Disease or Peripheral Vascular Disease - E. Diabetes or other Endocrine issues - F. Malignancy - G. Immunosuppression (HIV, chronic steroids, etc). - H. Primary Lung Disease (COPD, Asthma, ILD) - I. Gastrointestinal or Nutrition Issues - J. Hematologic or Coagulation Issues - K. Dementia or Psychiatric Illness/Treatment - V. Transitions of Care - A. Sign-out considerations While Hospitalized. - B. Anticipated Length of Stay. - C. When is the Patient Ready for Discharge. - D. Arranging for Clinic Follow-up - 1. When should clinic follow up be arranged and with whom. - 2. What tests should be conducted prior to discharge to enable best clinic first visit. - 3. What tests should be ordered as an outpatient prior to, or on the day of, the clinic visit. - E. Placement Considerations. - F. Prognosis and Patient Counseling. - VI. Patient Safety and Quality Measures - A. Core Indicator Standards and Documentation. - B. Appropriate Prophylaxis and Other Measures to Prevent Readmission. - VI. What's the evidence?

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When Athaliah destroyed the royal family, how did Joash survive? (11:1-3) How and when did Joash become king? (4-12) What happened to Athaliah, and why did all the people of the land rejoice? (13-21) What role did Jehoida the priest play in all this? How long did King Joash do what was right in the eyes of the LORD? (12:1-3) How did he work to restore the temple? (12:4-16) What did he do when the nation was threatened by Hazael of Aram? (17-18) How did Joash die? (19-21) Who became king of Israel in the twenty-third year of Joash king of Judah, and what kind of king was he in the eyes of the LORD? (13:1,2) When God’s anger burned, how did he punish Israel? (3) Why did God send them a deliverer? (4,5) How did they respond to God’s grace? (6) How were they punished again? (7) Who became king after Jehoahaz and what evil did he do? (8-13) Why did Jehoash cry when Elisha was suffering from his dying disease? (14) How did Elisha try to help Jehoash? (15,16) What did it mean to open the east window and shoot the arrow? (17) What else did Elisha tell the king to do? (18) Why did he strike the ground only three times and stop? (18b) Why was Elisha angry with him? (19) When else do we see Elisha’s power? (20-21) Why was the LORD gracious to Israel? (22,23) How was Elisha’s prophecy fulfilled? (24,25) “’Open the east window,’ he said, and he opened it. ‘Shoot!’ Elisha said, and he shot. ‘The Lord’s arrow of victory; the arrow of victory over Aram!’ Elisha declared. ‘You will completely destroy the Arameans at Aphek.’” Chapters 11 and 12 are about Joash king of Judah. He became king because of Jehoiada the priest. He did what was right in the eyes of the Lord while Jehoiada lived. But after Jehoiada’s death, Joash did evil in the eyes of the Lord and worshiped idols. In the end he was assassinated by his officials. We can learn from this the proper role of a mentor. Chapter 13 is the story of Jehoahaz and Jehoash the kings of Israel. At that time, the king of Aram oppressed Israel severely. Israel was miserable and powerless. Then Elisha, who was now a senior citizen, taught King Jehoash the secret of victory. The Lord gave Israel victory through Elisha’s faith and shepherd’s heart for his people. We can learn the secret of victory in a time of crisis. Everybody wants a victorious life. How can we have one? Let’s learn in this passage. I. Jehoiada made Joash king in a time of crisis (11:1-21) Chapter 11 tells us how the priest Jehoiada raised Joash as king of Judah. In this way he defeated the wicked Athaliah and saved his country. Verses 1-3 tell the story of Athaliah’s reign. Athaliah was a daughter of the Baal worshipers, Ahab and Jezebel, who ruled the northern kingdom. How did she come to be a queen in Judah? To understand, we must return to the time of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. He made a critical mistake. He arranged a marriage between his son Jehoram and Athaliah. When Athaliah first came into Judah, she must have been quiet, pretending to worship the Lord. But after her husband Jehoram became king, she began to reveal her true colors. Athaliah influenced her husband Jehoram, and her son Ahaziah, to do evil in the eyes of the Lord. (8:18,26-27) She brought Baal worship to Judah. Though Jehu had destroyed Baal worship in northern Israel, it had now infiltrated Judah. After Ahaziah died, Athaliah seized power and became a dictator in Judah. Then she proceeded to destroy the whole line of David. David’s line had already been weakened through various events. Jehoram had put to death six of his own brothers, sons of Jehoshaphat, due to the evil influence of Athaliah. (2 Chr 21:2-6) Moreover, some Arab raiders had come into the camp of Judah and killed all the sons of Jehoram except the youngest son Ahaziah. (2 Chr 22:1) Then Ahaziah was killed by Jehu, (2 Ki 9:28) along with 42 of his relatives, some princes of Judah. (10:14; 2 Chr 22:8) Now Athaliah was destroying what was left of David’s line. She killed her own grandsons, granddaughters, nephews and nieces. How could she do so? It was the work of Satan. She was vulnerable to Satan’s work through her sin of idol worship. Satan wanted to destroy David’s family line in order to prevent the Savior from coming into the world. At this critical moment, the Lord intervened through a pious woman, Jehosheba. She was the daughter of King Jehoram, the sister of Ahaziah, and the wife of Jehoiada the priest. (2 Chr 22:11) She stole away Joash, a son of Ahaziah, and her nephew. She hid him with his nurse in a bedroom in the temple. There he stayed hidden until an opportune time. As Athaliah ruled the land, Judah became spiritually bankrupt. Yet the Lord was working secretly to raise Joash through Jehosheba and Jehoiada. They must have adopted Joash as their own son and taken care of him for six years, providing everything he needed, especially instruction in the word of God. It must have been difficult to bring up a baby in the temple without being noticed. Jehoiada and Jehosheba must have prayed diligently every day for Joash. In dark times, it is most important to raise one spiritual leader. This is the goal of many UBF house churches. Jehoiada not only raised Joash, but gained supporters to make him a king. He made a covenant with the commanders of units of hundreds, the Carites, one by one. They were bodyguards of the king, also known as Kerethites, and were very faithful. They had been used to lay the foundation of the kingdoms of David and Solomon. (2 Sam 8:18; 1 Ki 1:38) Most likely, they were supposed to guard Athaliah. However, her demonic behavior offended them, while Jehoiada’s godly life earned their respect and loyalty. In the seventh year, Jehoiada sent for the commanders of units of a hundred and had them brought to the temple of the Lord. There, Jehoiada made a covenant with them. Then he showed them Joash, the king’s son, and the rightful heir to David’s throne. Jehoiada shared his detailed plan to remove Athaliah. (5-8) It would be done on a Sabbath day. Three companies of soldiers going on duty were to be deployed: one at the palace, another at the Sur Gate—which was an important entrance to the temple, also known as the Foundation Gate (2 Chr 23:5)—and another at the gate behind the guards—which is called the Upper Gate. Another two companies, whose shift of duty had just ended, were to stay at the temple and guard the king. The commanders of hundreds did just as Jehoiada ordered. (9-11) Then Jehoiada brought out the king’s son and put the crown on him. He presented him with a copy of the covenant and proclaimed him king. They anointed him, and people clapped, shouting, “Long live the king.” Upon hearing this noise, Athaliah went to the temple. She saw the king and the rejoicing people. Then she tore her robes and shouted, “Treason! Treason!” Actually she had committed treason. She was an idol worshiper, a murderer, and a traitor. At last, she died miserably, and people were happy. Look at verse 17. “Jehoiada then made a covenant between the Lord and the king and people that they would be the Lord’s people. He also made a covenant between the king and the people.” Jehoiada’s purpose was to confirm that they were the Lord’s people. They needed to restore spiritual order by serving God first. In the time of Athaliah, the people of Judah were steeped in Baal worship. They lived according to the sinful nature, and threw off restraint. Jehoiada wanted them to live by the word of God, including the Ten Commandments. They needed to renew their covenant with God. The real King of Judah was the God of Israel. King Joash needed to know this, and to obey the words of God. Jehoiada also wanted to establish order between the young king and his people through a covenant. Then they destroyed the temple of Baal. They smashed the altars and idols to pieces and killed the priest of Baal (18a). Then the king went to the royal palace. All the people of the land rejoiced. And the city was quiet, because Athaliah was slain. Here we learn from the priest Jehoiada. First, he raised Joash. If he had had his own ambition, he could have tried to become king. But he raised Joash as king, because he was a descendant of David. It was his love for God and obedience to God. To raise spiritual leaders, one must love God more than his ambition. Second, Jehoiada gained coworkers in doing God’s work. He knew that he could not accomplish the mission by himself. So he did his best to gain coworkers. However, it was not easy. If Jehoida was betrayed, he would have lost his life. It was risky. We need coworkers in doing God’s work—not those with just a human tie, but those who share God’s purpose and heart. For this, we must step out in faith and take risks like Jehoiada did. Third, Jehoiada established spiritual order, which had been broken by Athaliah. We must seek to restore spiritual order by loving God first and helping others love God first through deep and sincere Bible study. When Jehoiada’s motive was pure, and he had courage and wisdom, he was useful to the Lord. The Lord kept the lamp of David through his family. Most of all, we learn that the Lord was faithful to his promise to David. In dark times, he preserved a seed of David in a most unexpected way. God is faithful. God fulfills his redemptive purpose without fail. II. Joash reigns over Judah (12:1-21) Joash became king at the age of seven and ruled over Judah for 40 years. Look at verses 2-3. “Joash did what was right in the eyes of the Lord all the years Jehoiada the priest instructed him. The high places, however, were not removed; the people continued to offer sacrifices and burn incense there.” The high places were used for idol worship by the Canaanites. The Jews used them to worship the Lord. It was more convenient than going to Jerusalem. This kind of worship did not please God. It was syncretism. Verses 4-16 tell how Joash repaired the temple. Perhaps while he lived there for six years, he found many places that needed repair. Now he had the authority to do so. He told the priests to collect all the money for sacred offerings—the money collected in the census, the money received from personal vows and the money brought voluntarily—and to use it to repair the temple. However, by the twenty-third year of Joash the priests still had not done so. So King Joash summoned Jehoiada and the other priests and told them to hire laymen to repair the temple. They agreed. The laymen worked hard and honestly to repair the temple. This was Joash’s expression of restoring the spiritual life of his nation. It was his expression of love for God. He did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, while Jehoiada was alive. 2 Chronicles 24:17-22 tell us how Joash did not keep his faith, but became an idol worshiper. After the death of Jehoiada, many wicked officials gathered around Joash. They deceived him to gain favor. They might have said, “You are free from the priest Jehoiada. Don’t follow his advice. Do as you please.” When Joash listened to them, he changed completely. Once he had been eager to repair the temple out of love for God. But now he forsook the Lord and worshiped idols. The Lord sent Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, to warn him. But Joash did not listen. Rather, he ordered that Zechariah be stoned to death in the courtyard of the Lord’s temple. In this way, Joash murdered the priest and prophet, shedding innocent blood. He desecrated the court of the Lord’s temple. He did not remember the kindness of Zechariah’s father, Jehoiada. Instead, he killed his son. After one year, the Lord punished him by sending the army of Aram. Although the Arameans had come with only a few men, the Lord delivered into their hands a much larger army, because Judah had forsaken the Lord. Furthermore, Joash was severely wounded. His officials conspired against him and assassinated him. Why did Joash finish his life in such a miserable way? Verse 2 says that Joash did what was right in the eyes of the Lord all the years Jehoiada the priest instructed him. However, after Jehoiada died, he abandoned the instruction of Jehoiada. Then he became quite a different person. He started his life of faith well, but ended as an idol worshiper. When he had a spiritual mentor he was okay. But without his spiritual mentor, he fell into disaster. We need a mentor in order to live a victorious life. However, a mentor cannot live forever. We must take our mentor’s instructions to heart, and learn to practice them when he or she is not present. We cannot remain as permanent sheep. We must grow to be shepherds who have personal decisions to obey God’s word and take initiative to serve God. Though we may stumble, God will warn us through his servants. We should be humble enough to listen. Then the Lord will help us to live by faith to the end. III. The reigns of Jehoahaz and Jehoash in Israel (13:1-25) Chapter 13 is about the northern kingdom. Verses 1-9 and 22-23 cover the reign of Jehoahaz. Verses 10-21 and 24-25 cover the reign of Jehoash. First, the Lord had compassion on Israel. (1-9; 22-23) In the twenty-third year of Joash, king of Judah, Jehoahaz son of Jehu became king of Israel in Samaria. He reigned 17 years. But he did evil in the eyes of the Lord by following the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat. He did not turn away from them. Although Jehu brought religious reformation by destroying Baal worship, he did not turn away from the sin of Jeroboam. His son Jehoahaz also did not turn away from the sin of Jeroboam. Therefore, the Lord’s anger burned against Israel. For a long time he kept Israel under the power of Hazael king of Aram, and Ben-Hadad III his son. Still, they did not turn away from the sin of Jeroboam. Moreover, they let an Asherah pole, a symbol of idol worship, remain standing in Samaria. God’s punishment was severe. Nothing was left of Israel’s army except fifty horsemen, ten chariots and ten thousand foot soldiers. The king of Aram had completely destroyed the rest. (7) If a nation serves the Lord wholeheartedly, she will prosper. But if a nation forsakes the Lord, she becomes weak and will be destroyed. This principle also applies to a family and to individuals. Israel almost vanished. When Jehoahaz faced trials, he repented and sought the Lord’s favor. The Lord had mercy on him and listened to him because the Lord saw how severely the king of Aram was oppressing Israel. Look at verses 22-23. The Lord had mercy upon Israel. The Lord was gracious to them, had compassion for them, and showed concern for them. It was because of his covenant with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Even though they did evil in the eyes of the Lord, God was unwilling to destroy them or banish them from his presence. God is the God of compassion, not based on emotion, but based on his covenant promises. God is faithful. This faithful God wants to save mankind. Ezekiel 33:11 says, “Say to them, ‘As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign Lord, I take no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but rather that they turn from their ways and live. Turn! Turn from your evil ways! Why will you die, O house of Israel?” 1 Timothy 2:3-4 says, “…God our Savior…wants all men to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth.” The Lord provided a deliverer for Israel, and they escaped the power of Aram. (5) Who is the deliverer? Most likely he was Jehoash, the son of Jehoahaz (19,24,25). Second, Elisha taught faith in the Lord to Jehoash (10-21;24-25). Look at verses 10-11. In the thirty-seventh year of Joash king of Judah, Jehoash became king of Israel in Samaria. He reigned sixteen years. He did evil in the eyes of the Lord and did not turn away from any of the sins of Jeroboam. Still, the Lord, in his great mercy, used him to deliver Israel. Verses 14-21 show how Jehoash won victory over the king of Aram. Elisha appears again in these verses, for the first time since anointing Jehu in chapter 9. There is no mention of Elisha during Jehu’s reign or Jehoahaz’s reign, a time of about 45 years. Elisha had lived long, but the time came for him to leave this world. Look at verse 14. “Now Elisha was suffering from the illness from which he died. Jehoash king of Israel went down to see him and wept over him, ‘My father! My father!’ He cried. ‘The chariots and horsemen of Israel!’” The words “My father! My father!” show that the king had respect for Elisha as his spiritual father. The words “the chariots and horsemen of Israel” show that Elisha had been the defender of Israel. Jehoash did not know how they would survive without Elisha. At this moment, Elisha taught him the secret of victory over Aram. It was not a secret of military power, but spiritual power. Look at verses 15-17. Elisha said, “Get a bow and some arrows,” and Jehoash did so. Then Elisha said, “Take the bow in your hands.” When he had done so, Elisha put his hands on the king’s hands. The hands of Elisha were the hands of love, the hands of power, the hands of prayer for the king, and the hands of victory. The king may have felt the power and love of God through Elisha’s hands. Then Elisha said, “Open the east window.” That was the direction of Aram. “Shoot!” Elisha said, and Jehoash shot, without knowing why. Elisha explained, saying “This is the Lord’s arrow of victory, the arrow of victory over Aram!” And Elisha declared, “You will completely destroy the Arameans at Aphek.” Through this audio-visual education, what did Elisha want to teach Jehoash? Thus far, Jehoash did not exercise personal faith in God. He had depended on Elisha. Now the king had to learn how to depend on the Lord himself. He had to shoot the arrows with his own hands. If the king relied on the Lord, the Lord would give him victory. Victory belongs to the Lord. Still, Jehoash had to open the east window and shoot the arrow with his own hands. If he did not, the Lord’s arrow of victory would be useless. The Lord’s arrow of victory brings victory as long as we use it by faith. Having the arrows of victory in our hands is not enough. We must open the window and shoot the arrow. Then the Lord can carry out his work of salvation. After planting faith in the Lord, Elisha tested the king. Look at verses 18-19. Elisha said, “Take the arrows.” And the king took them. Elisha told him, “Stike the ground.” The king struck it three times and stopped. Why did he stop? Maybe he thought three times was enough, and he felt silly to continue. Most of all, it was because he lacked a shepherd’s heart for his people and zeal to destroy their enemies. He did not fully trust the words of the Lord’s prophecy. Then the man of God was angry and said, “You should have struck the ground five or six times; then you would have defeated Aram and completely destroyed it. But now you will defeat it only three times.” Jehoash was blessed according to the measure of his faith. For striking three times, he would win three victories. But it was not complete victory. Some people want to challenge hardship by faith. So they try two or three times and stop. But they do not challenge to the point of winning the complete victory. They think, “I won three battles. It is enough.” Some people grow weary of challenging enemies who return again and again. After a while, they stop challenging all together. Other people have developed a deep sense of failure. They have become complacent in their faith. We have to challenge continually. Five or six times is not just a number; it means until victory is won. We must challenge the impossible situation until God gives us complete victory. Victory is guaranteed. The problem is our attitude. Jesus said, “Ask and it will be given to you. Seek and you will find. Knock and the door will be opened to you.” (Mt 7:7) We have to ask, seek and knock. Elisha’s power was revealed even after he died. Moabite raiders used to enter the country every spring. Once, while some Israelites were burying a man, suddenly they saw a band of raiders. So they threw the man’s body into Elisha’s tomb. When the body touched Elisha’s bones, the man came to life and stood up on his feet. This shows that Elisha died but the spirit of Elisha didn’t die. The God of Elisha was still living. This reveals also that our dead bodies will be made alive when they are grafted into the body of Jesus. God guarantees us victory through Jesus Christ. So Paul said, “But thanks be to God! He gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ!” (1 Cor 15:57) Paul also said, “No. In all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us.” (Ro 8:37) God guarantees the victory when we depend on him alone and keep challenging by faith. We must shoot our arrow and strike the ground by faith, persistently, by believing in God’s promise. Then God will surely give us victory and we can live a victorious life.

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The framework of spiritual exploration might seem to be an odd place for the study of logic and rational thinking. However, these mental skills are essential. Let’s look at examples of analytical thinking and illogical thinking. The goal make better decisions by avoiding common pitfalls and errors. As you read this article, you will train your mind to use its analytical powers and enhance your ability to think logically. You won’t need to learn advanced mathematics, physics, or philosophy. You can do this. Logic and Rational Thinking Thinking is expressed in language, though premises that support an argument or idea. An argument is logically correct when the premises of the argument are correct, true, valid and useful. A rational argument is one which uses reason and knowledge in their proper context. (1) It’s just building blocks, premises support the overall argument, but if the premises are not true, the argument is false. Most people use common sense to weigh content and the conclusion of an argument. It is an instantaneous process. Our conclusions use our the knowledge of the subject as a guide in this analysis. Our conclusion will be accurate if the data is accurate and we use it properly. Analytical Thinking Versus Illogical Thinking How do we know what we know is true? Knowledge may have practical and theoretical information, it references logic and rational thinking, facts and skills as tools to arrive at its assumptions and conclusions. (2) However, knowledge has several levels of validity depending upon the accuracy of references we use for the information. Rational knowledge is information that is correct, true, and useful. Knowledge of something may either be beneficial or useless. It all depends upon its use and application. One of our first examples of analytical thinking has to do with underwater basket weaving. You may know about underwater basket weaving, but this information has no useful purpose. Or, you may spend hours counting the exact number of the blades of grass are in your basket weaving project. Although the number is true, the data and your efforts are otherwise useless. So, we see that one way to understand rational thinking is to contrast it with the irrational thinking errors. When something is irrational, it is illogical, unreasonable, and impractical. Whereas rational knowledge is information is true, valid, and useful. Almost anything used out of context can be irrational. Mathematics is an excellent example of rational knowledge, which can be used for valuable purpose. However, using it to count the number of threads in your underwater basket weaving project is probably not one of them. Irrational Thinking Errors and Religion The arena of spirituality is where religion tries to blur the lines between useful knowledge and information, which misrepresents data to sell ideas. (3) Religion is a good arena for exploring how knowledge is used. Let’s say you know a lot about religion, mythology, and superstition. This knowledge is only valid if you use it correctly. Preachers use their knowledge to build a congregation and create cash flow. In the opinion of many, it’s the misuse of knowledge. Here, the knowledge of the mythology is misrepresented as facts in order to control people. Illogical thinking is a powerful tool which is the basis for the indoctrination of people. Mythology that is misunderstood as factual is not valid, although the facts about it may be true. Many religions intentionally make their knowledge of mythology perform as if it were factual. So, irrational thinking errors are often not their knowledge of the subject rather, it is the misinterpretation and subsequent misuse of the knowledge. Logical and rational thinking are the means which expose the truth, validity and usefulness of knowledge, which explains why this is not taught in religious circles. Instead, they prefer what they call “apologetics,” which is the use of circular logic and denial of facts to substantiate the belief in mythology and superstition. The arena of spirituality is prime territory for misleading claims and tactics. The study of logic and rational thinking will help you sort out the “facts from the fiction.” Trust me. You need this if you are serious about investigating spiritual matters. It’s essential to know the distinction between a change in perception and awareness versus emotional enchantment. We know strong emotions cloud perceptions and our decision process, so as researchers, we employ an emotional check-in process to ensure we stay on track. After reading this article, we recommend two complementary tools, spotting logical fallacies and the truth-seekers axioms. Using these three tools together will enhance your critical thinking ability. Examples of Analytical Thinking with the Broken Window A sound argument contains valid, unbiased statements, which result in a correct conclusion. So, the best way to determine a false one is to identify problems with its construction. To do this, you need to know the format of the two main types of selling propositions — deductive and inductive reasoning. You can create a valid argument with either Inductive or deductive reasoning and still have a false or inaccurate conclusion. The first step is to determine whether they are using a deductive or inductive argument. The easiest why to tell is how the conclusion is stated. A “deductive argument” presents its outcome as absolutes or “proofs certain.” In contrast, the conclusion of an inductive argument shows its answer in terms of probabilities. The accuracy of either type depends on the accuracy of the propositions. If you build an argument on invalid assumptions, it results in a false conclusion. Inductive reasoning is a way of investigating phenomena using relevant, valid data. It helps us reach the most probable conclusions. It contrasts with the closed world assumption of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning presupposes the desired answer the provides data to support it. Omitting data that is irrelevant is appropriate as long as it truly does not matter to the final decision. The problem arises when you leave out valid data that does impact the outcome. The Broken Window Example Using Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning (4) uses the concept of a “Closed World Assumption.” It’s the presumption that what is known is presumed to be true, and conversely, that which is unknown is assumed to be false. The correct argument construction for deductive reasoning must always include the answer in the premise statements. The following is an example of the proper form of deductive logic. It’s the first major lesson of this logic and rational thinking skills training, so pay attention. We discover a window that is broken. Phyllis and Fred live in this house. Phyllis was the last person at home. So, using deductive reasoning, we conclude that: - Either Phyllis or Fred broke the window. - Fred says he did not break the window. - Phyllis had the most likely opportunity to break the window. - Therefore, Phyllis broke the window. Here, the argument rests on the validity of the above statements. Thus, the answer must be that Phillis broke the window. The answer must be within the premise statements of the argument. And all other possibilities not in the premises are false. The answer is definitive, precise, and without question as long as ALL the Closed World Assumptions are valid. The value of analytical thinking steps begins with spotting this proposition and then testing the statements on which they base their conclusion. When using deductive logic, it is essential to ensure that the premise statements are valid. It includes making sure “what is not unknown to be true is false.” However, the premise statements in the above example raise several questions. Many unknowns could impact our conclusion. Our certainty of Fred not being involved is also suspect. Can we be sure of the facts? Are we sure some unknown cause isn’t responsible for the broken window? So, it is improper to use deductive reasoning here because it is leads to illogical thinking and irrational thinking errors. Examples of Analytical Thinking Using Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning (5) uses data to provide a degree of certainty. It’s how logic and rational knowledge calibrate the data to provide the best possible answer. It is the likelihood of something happening. With inductive reasoning, we reach conclusions based on the degree of probability that something is true or false. Our answer is not absolute certainty, but an educated assumption on the likelihood of it being true. The conclusion is in a range of probable outcomes. It could be anywhere from a low, almost negligible probability to a high likelihood approaching near certainty. It’s the level of truth you need in the realm of religion and spirituality. Inductive reasoning may appear less accurate than deductive reasoning, but this isn’t true. It seems less precise because it provides a range of probabilities, not absolute certainties. Yet, inductive reasoning is the basis for science and most of what we know. The scientific process uses inductive reasoning because it’s the best way to seek the facts. This process is the best way for us to make predictions and conclusions. For example, we base our knowledge that the sun will rise tomorrow on inductive reasoning. The data used to validate this is historically validated “sunrises.” Inductive reasoning is often required because the answer you seek goes beyond the data. Our broken window presents an excellent example of how this reasoning is better than deductive reasoning. The Broken Window Using Inductive Reasoning Unfortunately, the statements of the broken window argument leave us with several unanswered questions. How else could the window have been broken? Could the window have been damaged by the weather or a bird flying into the window? When was the window shattered? Did it happen in the last hour or last year? Can we be sure someone else was not involved? Could both Fred and Phillis be responsible? Are there any mitigating circumstances? You can see there are a lot of unanswered questions. It’s why it is prudent to use inductive logic to reach the most probable conclusion. If we can’t say for sure that either Fred or Phyllis broke the window, then the probability of either of them breaking the window goes down from 50/50. As the number of unknowns increases, our certainty about who or what broke the window decreases. If we don’t know exactly when the window was damaged, this creates more opportunity for other people or things to be involved. To gain greater certainty, we need more facts, more information. When we get more facts, it gives us greater certainty and helps us avoid illogical thinking. Let’s assume that Fred or Phyllis are the only two people who could have broken the window. Suppose we know the window was broken in the last hour? These kinds of facts would increase the probability that either Fred or Phyllis broke the window. Let’s say this is as far as we could go with the data we have. The probability that Fred or Phillis broke the window goes down if we include other mitigating circumstances. Given all the unknowns, the likelihood that either Fred or Phillis broke the window is still less than 50/50>. Your goal should seek facts to find the most accurate conclusion, not seeking data to support your current opinion. Inductive reasoning is the best process for this type of research. How Negative Bias and Prejudice Influence Conclusions Most people aren’t satisfied with the certainty of less than 50/50. They want to be more confident in their conclusion. Unfortunately, this means many people are more apt to accept a decision even when there isn’t data to support it. People use other internal filters to help form their conclusions. Unfortunately, this filter is usually negative prejudice and bias. Let’s return to our example of the broken window to see how bias might influence our conclusions. Let’s assume Phyllis has a history of breaking windows. Fred has no record of breaking windows. We don’t know why Phyllis broke windows, only that she did. Does this information increase the probability that Phyllis broke the window? No. It should not because this is biased historical information. Her previous history has nothing to do with the facts of the current situation. The fact is, this information about Phyllis doesn’t bring us a “higher degree of probability” of certainty. It is not additional proof additional Phyllis broke the window. If Fred knew about her history, perhaps he damaged it to get Phillis in trouble. Unfortunately, historical practice is the basis of many legal systems. Rapists target prostitutes because the victim has a history of promiscuity. The rapist uses the victim’s history as a defense against allegations of rape. Minimizing potential bias reduces the probability of irrational thinking errors. Ad Hominem Argument An ad hominem argument is an attack against the reputation of the person making an argument.=. (ad hominem is Latin for to the man, or to the person). It’s a strategy to discredit the reputation of the individual. It taints any argument they may have. You can find this in heavy use in politics. Even though this is a false argument, it is an effective tactic for influencing essential decisions. Improper Use of the Premise to Form Conclusions Another common issue is stating a conclusion when the premise statements or facts do not support it. If the results go beyond the data, present the answer in terms of probabilities, but this rarely occurs. People often state the conclusion with absolute certainty, which is a typical error in religion and politics. The following example outlines how this error relates to the shattered window. - Someone broke the window. - Fred and Phyllis were in the area. - Phyllis broke the window because Fred was considered an upstanding individual. In contrast, Phyllis has a documented incident of breaking windows. - Therefore, we conclude Phillis is responsible. This is another false conclusion because of irrational thinking errors. It uses negative bias and prejudice to reach assumptions which cannot be proven while ignoring other possibilities, and it’s the kind of argument you’ll find in the arena of religion. Using Circular Logic Circular logic isn’t logical at all. It’s a shell game. So, our use of logical reasoning will uncover this tactic. This is a common tactic with religious arguments. It starts with deriving a valid conclusion from false data and then substantiating a false proposition. The following example outlines how this process works, and it’s the next critical lesson which helps us identify irrational thinking errors. Almost every unfounded conspiracy theory uses this tactic. Marilyn Monroe Part One - No women walked on the moon before 1960. - Marilyn Monroe was a woman. - Therefore, Marilyn Monroe, a woman, wasn’t allowed to walk on the moon. Although the conclusion is correct, Marilyn Monroe was not an astronaut, and she did not walk on the moon. Although the premise statements of the argument are true on the surface, they do not prove the conclusion. Checking the facts behind the premise statements will reveal errors in the underlying propositions. 1969 is the year of the first moon landing. The premise statements are correct, but the last infers her gender was why she did not walk on the moon. Marilyn Monroe Part Two So, now we take the inference a step further. Here, Marilyn Monroe becomes a victim of gender discrimination because NASA did not select her as an astronaut. Silly as it sounds, this is precisely the type of argument you will encounter in much of Western organized religion. Here’s what this invalid argument looks like: - No women walked on the moon before 1960. - Marilyn Monroe was a woman. - She was not an astronaut, and she did not walk on the moon. - Ms. Monroe was a victim of discrimination by NASA. Using Logical Reasoning to Investigate Religion No matter your position, if you have one, everyone thinks their position is correct. People can come up with some source to back up their thinking. So, one of the best ways to test your beliefs is a process we call comparative analysis. It’s a scientific approach to comparative religious studies. With this process, you see how topics and concepts compare across several worldviews. And it forces people to reconcile inconsistencies and fallacies within their thinking. Beware of anyone or any organization that prevents or discourages logic and rational knowledge. When we dig into the facts that support their beliefs, this can be quite an emotional challenge exercise. As we unearth and investigate their “sacred ground,” we use the practice of “emotional checks.” Use Emotional Checks Anytime you engage in spiritual research, we recommend using an emotional check-in process. It’s a practical process to help you stay as unbiased as possible. Emotional checks will reduce stress and increase the accuracy of our research. So, think of it as a safety net. It will catch us when we fall into emotional distress. When we face ideas conflicting with our current opinion, it creates a dilemma. We instinctively react to protect our sacred ground. You don’t want to research while in a state of distress. Where to Seek the Facts We recommend using the public library where there are volumes of resources that are not available even on the internet. Also, they have materials that aren’t already on your bookshelf, always, always, always use resources from authors outside the paradigm you are researching. It will help you avoid bias. Remember, people write books to present arguments supporting a conclusion—and they may contain bigotry, prejudice, and even unreliable data sources. The arena of spirituality is full of opinions, with misleading and erroneous fabrications. Avoid works by celebrities or endorsements of “famous people.” Test the validity of all resources. Look for reference works and researchers without affiliation to the religion you are researching. The exception is when you are trying to show the contrast between the facts and the fiction. Here, you’ll find a lot more on the fiction side. Don’t let the sheer volume of data deter you from the facts. A Little Reasoning Goes a Long Way Here’s an example of how to spot the improper use of deductive logic and the “false premise.” We’ll use the Supreme Being, Odin, as our subject. Prove Odin Doesn’t Exist Let’s assume we are in the public library, and someone asks us what we are researching. We tell them religion, and they use several logical fallacies to prove their Supreme Being exists. They first ask you to prove their god doesn’t exist, known as an Argument From Ignorance. It asserts something is true because there is no evidence to prove it is false. Don’t fall for this. The burden of proof is always on the person claiming the existence OF something. They need to provide evidence something exists. Then you can determine if their evidence is valid. It’s a ploy people used to substantiate their claim of the existence of imaginary beings. Proving something doesn’t exist when it has no physical form is impossible. That’s why they attempt to use this to win an argument. The absence of a material substance (the lack of milk in a bowl) to prove milk exists is not a valid comparison. Milk exists apart from the bowl. It is not valid proof of the existence of a Supreme Being. “The absence of evidence is not evidence of existence.” You can’t prove gods don’t exist, but that doesn’t mean they do. You can’t disprove that Apolo, Zeus, Mythra, Dyonisys, or any other doesn’t exist. Simply because there is no proof they don’t exist doesn’t mean they do. This tactic is one religious fanatics rely on to justify their beliefs. It is not a valid argument, nor is it a valid use of logic and rational knowledge. We are continuing with our discussion of Odin at the library. Anecdotal Stories and Sacred Texts as Proof of Odin When we challenge them to provide evidence for the existence of Odin, we get the following response: First, no ice-giants exist. Odin promised to wipe out the ice giants. So, since there are no ice-giants, this is proof of Odin’s existence. Second, Odin is prolific in paganism’s early stories dating back through oral traditions in Germanic mythology. Odin (from Old Norse Óðinn). The God Odin is prevalent in early forms of paganism. Odin, in Old English as Wóden, in Old Saxon as Wōden, and Old High German as Wuotan or Wodan. With so much historical evidence from so many authoritative sources, it is evident that Odin exists. The answer is, no, you’re mistaken. It isn’t evidence of the existence of Odin. Sorry, but the absence of imaginary creatures is not evidence of existence. The absence of these creatures does not mean Odin disposed of them. Spreading the stories of Odin and getting others to believe them is evidence Odin existed and these points apply to all Gods, all imaginary friends, and enemies, not just Odin. Our friend at the library is not happy with our discourse’s outcome, but we want to give them some encouragement. We present them with some references about logic. And, point out it doesn’t matter what you believe. You can still engage in spiritual exploration, even if you have an imaginary friend. Logical reasoning is one of the primary tools we use in our blended learning process. You can use spiritual technologies without the need to believe in any religion. The spiritual explorer uses analytical and logical thinking processes to guide their decision-making processes, not mythology and superstition. There are practical and valid processes outside of religion and their arguments. These tools fall into four groups: - This Module of Analytical Thinking and Logical Reasoning - All types of sitting and moving Meditation - Methods to expand Awareness - Healing techniques Logical Reasoning Final Thoughts We hope this discussion helps you to see the value of using logic and rational thinking. Today, it’s not just religion that is full of false arguments. The nightly news is also full of the misuse of selling tactic. Don’t let them fool you. Refresh yourself with the content of this article regularly. (1) Logic and Rationality: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_and_rationality (2) Analytic Reasoning: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_reasoning (3) Irrational Thinking: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrationality (4) Deductive Reasoning: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning (5) Inductive Reasoning: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning

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Kayin, Hevel, and Shet Why Didn’t God Accept Kayin and his Offering? The story of Kayin and Hevel introduces the history of mankind following the exile from the Garden of Eden. This story poses many questions: Why didn’t God accept Kayin’s offering? Why did God’s response lead Kayin to kill his brother, Hevel? Why is it that mankind ultimately continued from Shet, the third son of Adam and Chava? Extensive discussion has been devoted to these questions over the generations and up until our times (including many shiurim on the VBM website). Nevertheless, it seems that there is still room to propose an interpretation of the story as a whole. The story appears to begin with a comparison between the two brothers. This explains the surprise that the reader experiences when the balance is unexpectedly upset: And the man knew Chava, his wife, and she conceived and bore Kayin, saying, “I have acquired [kaniti] a man[-child] from the Lord.” And she again bore his brother Hevel. And Hevel was a keeper of sheep, but Kayin was a tiller of the ground. And in process of time it came to pass that Kayin brought of the fruit of the ground an offering to the Lord. And Hevel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock and of the fat parts thereof. And the Lord had respect to Hevel and to his offering, but to Kayin and to his offering He had not respect… (Bereishit 4:1-5) This unit follows an alternating structure, with the focus switching from one brother to the other: Kayin-Hevel-Kayin-Hevel. The equality between them is maintained up until verse 5, the last verse in this passage, where it is suddenly broken, with Hevel being mentioned first. Our surprise is compounded by the fact that up until the stage that God “had respect to Hevel and to his offering thereof, but to Kayin and to his offering He had not respect,” the text would seem to be leading in the opposite direction, with an emphasis being placed on Kayin’s apparent supremacy. The first context is the description of the birth of the two brothers. After Chava bears Kayin, the text records: “And she again bore [va-tosef la-ledet] his brother Hevel…” (v. 2), and in contrast to Kayin, no explanation is offered for the name “Hevel.” In the absence of such an explanation, the name seems to indicate weakness and transience, as hevel means vapor, or metaphorically, emptiness. The second context in which the text appears to suggest Kayin’s advantage is the description of the offerings brought by each of the brothers. Here, too, we read, “And Hevel, he also [gam hu] brought…” (v. 4). Why, then, did God not have respect for Kayin’s offering? On the face of it, the difference between the two brothers lies in the fact that while Kayin brings his offering “of the fruit of the ground,” Hevel invests greater effort, bringing “of the firstlings of his flock and of the fat parts thereof.” However, this fails to explain why God will not accept Kayin’s offering, which is in fact the first offering to be brought by mankind. We might therefore propose that the fundamental difference between Kayin and Hevel lies in the attitude and motivation behind their respective offerings. Kayin’s approach is evident already in the name given to him by his mother: “I have acquired a man[-child] from (kaniti ish et) the Lord.” What this expression means is, “I created a man together with God.” The name expresses a sense of egalitarian partnership with God, as though there were two parties cooperating and investing in equal measure in order to create something. Accordingly, when Kayin brings “of the fruit of the ground,” it seems that he offers it as though giving his “partner” his due, with no regard for the hierarchical relations between the Creator and His creations. Hevel’s name, in contrast, expresses the fact that everything in the world is truly ephemeral, fleeting, and insubstantial: “Man is like a breath (hevel); his days are like a shadow that passes away” (Tehillim 144:4). Hevel lives with the awareness that it is God Who gives the land to mankind, and he therefore brings the “firstlings” of his sheep and the “fat parts thereof” as an offering to God. He gives not as to a partner, but out of human gratitude and subservience, with the understanding that were it not for Divine aid, he would see no blessing in his labor. The difference between the two brothers, then, goes all the way back to their birth. Kayin was born in the Garden of Eden, as suggested by the past perfect tense: “And the man had known (ve-ha-adam yada et) Chava his wife” (4:1), while Hevel is born only after the expulsion from the Garden of Eden. When Kayin was born, his parents apparently still entertained the aspiration of being “as gods, knowing good and evil” (Bereishit 3:5) – a desire that leads to sin, as becomes clear later on in relation to Kayin. Hevel, on the other hand, is born into a situation characterized by a sense of man’s transience in the world. This sense leads his parents and him to a more humble awareness of God’s ownership and mastery of the world. The distinction becomes even more pronounced in the brothers’ respective choice of occupation. Kayin chooses to be “a tiller of the ground” because the ground gives man a sense of permanence and stability, as we see from many different narratives throughout the Tanakh. Shepherding, in contrast, is an occupation that characterizes people who are not attached to any particular piece of land. It is specifically because of the sense of ownership that a person has towards the land that the Torah emphasizes the need to remember, every so often, that that land belongs to God. For example, concerning the commandment of the Jubilee year (yovel), we read: The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is Mine, for you are strangers and sojourners with Me. (Vayikra 25:23-24) For this reason, it is important that a person give the first of the fruit of his land to God, thereby acknowledging that it is He Who gives him the strength and blessing to achieve what he does. Of course, none of this negates in any way the value of tilling the land – a value that is emphasized and reiterated throughout the Torah. However, to prevent the problems arising from a sense of entitlement and satiety, the Torah includes many commandments that involve giving from the field, precisely to inculcate the gratitude and subservience that Kayin lacked. Against this background, Hevel’s choice to be a landless shepherd is especially striking and helps us understand his abundant, willing gift to God, expressing recognition of God’s ownership of his world. We might sum up the contrast between the respective approaches of Kayin and Hevel by quoting from Kohelet: I acquired (kaniti) male and female servants, and had servants born in my house; also I had great possessions of herds and flocks, more than all who were in Jerusalem before me. I gathered also silver and gold… Then I looked at all the works that my hands had wrought and at the labor that I had labored to do, and behold, all was vanity (hevel) and a striving after wind, and there was no profit under the sun. (Kohelet 2:7-11) The Killing of Hevel Kayin reacts strongly to God’s rejection of his offering: And Kayin was very angry, and his face fell. (Bereishit 4:5) Throughout Sefer Bereishit, we encounter many instances where the jealousy of an elder brother is aroused when a younger brother is awarded a higher status. Here the situation has a unique dimension in that preference is shown towards the younger brother not by the parents, but rather by God. It seems that Kayin took the rejection especially hard in view of the fact that he had been first to bring an offering, and Hevel had simply followed his example (“and Hevel – he also brought…”), upgrading the gift along the way. Obviously, this feeling is amplified in someone who is acquisitive to start off with. A connection is forged between acquisition (keniya) and jealousy (kin’a). The stronger a person’s sense of and drive for acquisition, the more powerful his jealousy towards someone else’s achievements and attainments, especially if that person is his younger brother. Nevertheless, God offers Kayin the possibility of restoring the situation to its previous balance: And the Lord said to Kayin, “Why are you angry? And why are you crestfallen? If you do well, shall you not be accepted? And if you do not well, sin crouches at the door, and to you shall be its desire, yet you may rule over it.” (Bereishit 4:6-7) While the exact meaning of verse 7 is somewhat opaque, it is clear that God presents Kayin with two possibilities: “if you do well” and “if you do not well.” If he chooses the option of “doing well,” then the result will be “acceptance” or “bearing.” Among the various interpretations offered for this expression, the one that would seem to reflect best the literal sense is that of Ramban: If you do well, you will have greater bearing (yeter seit) over your brother, for you are the firstborn. (Ramban ad loc.) His words allude to the expression that Yaakov uses in the blessing he gives before his death to Reuven: Reuven, you are my firstborn; my might and the beginning of my strength, the excellency of dignity (yeter seit), and the excellency of power… (Bereishit 49:3). According to Ramban, then, what God is telling Kayin is that he is still capable of once again being honored and elevated over his brother. In any event, the choice is in Kayin’s hands. If he does well, he can return to his natural superior status as the firstborn. If he does not do well, not only will he not return to his previous status, but he will be drawn down into more grievous sins. However, Kayin does not take God’s advice; in fact, he offers no reaction at all. His jealousy has deprived him of the capacity for objective, critical thought. As a result, God’s warning is realized. Since Kayin does not choose to “do well,” a terrible sin does indeed crouch at the door: And Kayin said to Hevel his brother; and it was, when they were in the field, that Kayin rose up against Hevel, his brother, and slew him. (Bereishit 4:8) The Torah does not tell us what it was that Kayin said to Hevel, perhaps thereby conveying the idea that it makes no difference. The point is that Kayin did not choose the possibility of “doing well,” and therefore what followed, predictably, was sin. After they go out to the field – the place where the difference between them stands out most prominently – Kayin can no longer restrain himself, and, like Esav and the brothers of Yosef, he is seized by the urge to kill his brother. Unlike them, however, he acts on the urge and actually commits the sin. Later on, God offers Kayin the opportunity to assume responsibility for his act: “Where is Hevel your brother?” (4:9). But Kayin, already on a downward slide, lies and displays arrogance: “I know not. Am I my brother’s keeper?” (ibid.) Once again, we find evidence of Kayin’s problematic attitude towards God as a partner and equal, rather than as the Creator of the world Who examines the innermost recesses of the heart and from Whom nothing can be hidden. Kayin is punished “measure for measure,” in a manner that is closely bound up with the root of his sin – the land: And He said, “What have you done? The voice of your brother’s blood cries to Me from the ground. And now, cursed are you from the earth, which has opened her mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand. When you till the ground it shall not henceforth yield to you its strength; a fugitive and a vagabond shall you be upon the earth.” (Bereishit 4:10-12) After the ground has already been cursed on account of Adam in the story of the Garden of Eden (Bereishit 3:17), Kayin is now told that he is “cursed from the ground.” He can no longer continue to till the ground, which led him to such a conceited sense of ownership and possessiveness, ultimately culminating in the killing of Hevel. In fact, the ground to which Kayin had attributed such great importance is presented as being party to the sin, as it were: Cursed are you from the earth, which has opened her mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand. (4:11) Kayin’s tikkun will be to wander like a shepherd, with no fixed place. The decree of exile imposed on him is the result of the land losing its ability to give its strength to someone who is no longer worthy of receiving it. This idea echoes in Moshe’s warning later on to Israel: Then the Lord’s anger will be inflamed against you, and He will shut up the heaven so that there is no rain, and the land will not yield its fruit, and you will perish quickly from off the good land which the Lord gives you. (Devarim 11:17) Kayin views his punishment as a very harsh one, since he is now defenseless and, like the perpetrator of an accidental homicide, he may be killed by the redeemer of the blood: And Kayin said to the Lord, “My punishment (literally, ‘my sin’) is too great to bear. Behold, You have driven me out this day from the face of the earth, and from Your face I shall be hid, and I shall be a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth, and it shall come to pass that anyone that finds me shall slay me.” (Bereishit 4:13-14) God therefore gives him a “sign” – a sort of parallel to the city of refuge – so that he will not be killed. However, once again Kayin does not accept God’s verdict: And Kayin went out from the presence of the Lord, and dwelled in the land of Nod, to the east of Eden. And Kayin knew his wife, and she conceived and bore Chanokh, and he built a city and called the name of the city after the name of his son, Chanokh. (4:16-17) Kayin’s response seems like an act of defiance. The expression “went out from the presence of the Lord” recalls the story of the prophet Yona, who “arose to flee to Tarshish from the presence of the Lord” (Yona 1:2). Moreover, while Kayin dwells in the land of Nod, he is not really a wanderer (noded). On the contrary – he builds a city, the symbol of a way of life that is the opposite of wandering. Seemingly, instead of accepting God’s verdict, Kayin goes on to establish a dynasty that attempts to deal with God’s decree in a different way: And to Chanokh was born Irad, and Irad begot Mechuyael, and Mechiyael begot Metushael, and Metushael begot Lemekh. And Lemekh took to him two wives: the name of the one was Ada, and the name of the other was Tzilla. And Ada bore Yaval – he was the father of those who dwell in tents and have cattle. And his brother’s name was Yuval; he was the father of all who handle the lyre and pipe. And Tzilla – she also bore Tuval-Kayin, forger of every sharp instrument in brass and iron, and the sister of Tuval-Kayin was Na’ama. (4:18-22) One of Lemekh’s sons, Yaval, continues the tradition of his great-uncle, Hevel; he is “the father of those who dwell in tents and have cattle” (their names are also somewhat similar). However, his other two sons pursue other paths: Yuval is “the father of all who handle the lyre and pipe,” while Tuval-Kayin is a “forger of every sharp instrument in brass and iron.” All three are cut off from the land from which they have been cursed, and they replace the tilling of the ground with other human pursuits. Something is missing from this description, and it is the name of God. This race to do and make and achieve arises from a secular approach that attributes achievement to man’s own ability. However, the end of this dynasty will soon come. “Then Men Began to Call Upon the Lord by Name” As a contrast to the dynasty established by Kayin, the Torah presents the dynasty of Shet. The description of his dynasty concludes this chapter, creating a framework that extends from the birth of Kayin to the birth of Shet. From the very name given to Shet, it is clear that the entire orientation is the opposite of that which characterized Kayin: “For God has appointed me (shat li) another seed instead of Hevel, whom Kayin slew.” (4:25) Chava no longer speaks of a partnership with God; she now speaks with profound acceptance that all that man has is given by God. It should be emphasized that the two dynasties include similar names, and even two that are identical: Chanokh and Lemekh. Nevertheless, there are fundamental differences between the dynasties. In contrast to Kayin, who conveys a certain message to his son by naming a city after him, Shet guides his son in a different direction: And he called his name Enosh; then men began to call upon the Lord by name. (4:26) Likewise Chanokh, another descendant of Shet, is not represented by a city; rather, he is said to have “walked with God” (5:22). Of particular note is the difference between the two characters named Lemekh in the respective dynasties; these are the only characters in the dynasties whose speech is recorded in the text. Lemekh, the descendant of Kayin, announces to his wives: “For I have slain a man for wounding me, and a young man for my hurt. If Kayin shall be avenged sevenfold, truly Lemekh [shall be avenged] seventy and sevenfold.” (4:23-24) Many commentators have gone to great lengths to explain Lemekh’s words, and we shall not quote them here. The general impression is that Lemekh prides himself on killing in retribution for some injury caused to him. Lemekh believes that his situation is far better than that of Kayin, and that the punishment meted out to anyone who harms him will be far greater than that awaiting whoever would harm Kayin. His mistaken understanding of God’s forgiveness towards Kayin for the actual act of killing his brother leads Lemekh to a state of moral blindness, which is the direct result of the path set for him by his ancestors. Lemekh, the descendant of Shet, provides a sharp contrast. He names his son Noach, explaining: “This one shall comfort us for our work and the toil of our hands, because of the ground which the Lord has cursed.” (5:29) Lemekh recognizes the weakness of the ground and the power of God. Therefore, in contrast to the other Lemekh, who boasted, “truly Lemekh – seventy and sevenfold,” this Lemekh is granted a long life: “All the days of Lemekh were seven hundred and seventy seven years” (5:31).* The knowledge and expertise of the sons of Lemekh, descendants of Kayin – the fathers of the various branches of industry – were ultimately preserved only via Noach’s ark, but the dynasty that started with Kayin and ended with Tuval-Kayin was lost forever. The dynasty that began with Shet and Enosh and continued through Noach kept the world in existence. For it is by virtue of calling in God’s Name that mankind exists in the world. Translated by Kaeren Fish Rashi understands the expression “of the fruit of the ground” as a reference to produce of poor quality, but the literal level of the text seems to offer little support for this interpretation. The root “k-n-h” (to acquire, buy) is often used in the sense of “creating” or “making”, as in “Aquirer/Owner of the heavens and the earth [koneh shamayim va-aretz]” (Bereishit 14:19), paralleling “Maker of the heavens and the earth [oseh shamayim va-aretz]” (Tehillim 115:15), or “Is He not your Father Who acquired you (kanekha); as He not made you (asekha) and established you?” (Devarim 32:6). The inverse is also true; in the verse, “and the souls that they had made [asu] in Charan” (Bereishit 12:5), “asu” is used in the sense of “acquired”. The word “et” is usually used in the sense of “with” (such as in Bereishit 12:4: “And Lot went with him [ito],” and many other examples.) The bringing of offering of the first to God is a fundamental concept in the Torah, emphasizing the idea of God’s supremacy over man. Thus, there is a commandment to bring “the first (reishit) of the first fruits of your land” (Shemot 23:19); concerning the omer we read, “You shall bring an omer of the first fruits (reishit) of your harvest to the Kohen” (Vayikra 23:10); challah is “a cake of the first (reishit) of your dough for a gift” (Bamidbar 15:20); gifts are brought to the Kohen from “the first (reishit) of your corn, of your wine, and of your oil, and the first (reishit) of the fleece of your sheep” (Devarim 18:4), and so on. Had the text sought to convey a continuous chronology, it would read here, “va-yeida ha-adam et…” Rashi (ad loc.) elaborates: “Ve-ha-adam yada – this [had transpired already] prior to what has just been recounted – before he sinned and was sent away from the Garden of Eden, and likewise the pregnancy and birth [of Kayin]. If the text had read, ‘va-yeida adam…’ then it would have meant that he had children only after his expulsion.” For elaboration, see R. Shimshon Raphael Hirsch’s commentary on our chapter. This idea explains, for example, the request by the daughters of Tzelofchad to receive an inheritance that would perpetuate their father’s name (Bamidbar 27:4) and the refusal on the part of Navot to sell his inheritance to Achav (Melakhim I 21:2). It also explains the deeper significance of the fact that the Levi’im had no inheritance in the land (“Therefore they shall have no inheritance among their brethren; the Lord is their inheritance, as He has said to them” [Devarim 18:2]), and more. Interestingly, in ancient Syrian, the word “havla” refers to a shepherd, expressing the “nothingness” of this occupation. R. Shimshon Raphael Hirsch emphasizes that this idea is expressed more broadly in the fact that all the forefathers were shepherds and not tillers of the ground. Yaakov was a “dweller in tents,” as opposed to Esav, who was a “man of the field” (25:27); the sons of Yaakov are shepherds (Bereishit 46:32); and likewise Moshe (Shemot 3:1) and David (Shmuel 1 16:11 and elsewhere). The expression “man of the land” (ish adama), in contrast, appears in connection with Noach, in the context of his drunkenness (Bereishit 9:20). The foundation of Am Yisrael is therefore a foundation of shepherding, a foundation of nomadic wandering. While this nation eventually reaches the Promised Land, it must live with a constant awareness that the land belongs to God. Am Yisrael remains a nation of “strangers and sojourners.” The expression “his face fell” occurs nowhere else in all of Tanakh, perhaps indicating the degree of Kayin’s pain. Rashi derives the word “seit” from the expression “nesiat avon” – if Kayin does well, he will be forgiven. (Indeed, later on Kayin declares that his sin is “too great to bear/forgive [mi-neso].”) Ibn Ezra understands the expression as meaning that he will be able to “retrieve” his face after it had “fallen.” Regarding the closing words of God’s warning – “to you shall be its desire, yet you may rule over it” – we might offer two directions of interpretation: 1) Most of the commentators regard the phrase as referring to the “sin” that “crouches.” Unlike Chava, who was told in the previous chapter, “Your desire shall be to your husband, and he shall rule over you” (3:16), Kayin can rule over “sin” if he so chooses. 2) Chizkuni explains that God is talking about Hevel here in the same way as he referred to Adam when He spoke with Chava. According to this interpretation, God is telling Kayin that he has the power to restore the previous hierarchy, such that Hevel will perform the will of Kayin, the firstborn, and Kayin will rule over him. The verse emphasizes twice the fact that Hevel is “his brother,” and this is repeated in the verses that follow. In total, the word “achiv” (his brother) appears seven times, a pattern that often occurs with a key word. This serves to emphasize the significance and import of the act: Kayin kills Hevel even though – and perhaps because – he is his brother. The scope of our present discussion does not allow for in-depth attention to the question of why Kayin was not punished with death. There are several places in the Torah where death is specified as the punishment for willful murder – such as, for instance, “Whoever sheds man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed, for in the image of God He made man” (Bereishit 9:6). The reason may be related to the fact that there had not as yet been any explicit command in this regard. Some opinions maintain that the death of Kayin would have signified the eradication of mankind, and this eventuality therefore had to be avoided (in a similar manner to the parallel story of the woman of Teko in Shmuel II 2:14). To my mind, the reason that Kayin was not punished with death is the same reason why Adam was not punished with death immediately after eating from the Tree of Knowledge, even though he had been warned not to do so. There, the leniency appears to arise from “extenuating circumstances” – the fact that Adam was led astray by the snake and by the woman. In Kayin’s case, there is similarly room to consider the “extenuating circumstances” brought about by God Himself, and it is perhaps for this reason that the Divine Attribute of justice is not applied in full. Kayin - Kenan; Irad - Yered; Mechuyael - Mehalalel; Metushael - Metushelach. The midrash offers an interesting message in this regard: “Na’ama was the wife of Noach. Why was she called ‘Na’ama’ (literally, ‘pleasant’)? Because her deeds were pleasant” (Bereishit Rabba 23:3). According to this interpretation, Kayin’s dynasty did in fact live on in some form in human history. This continuity may have contributed the creative talents of the children of Kayin, within an environment based on recognition of God’s mastery over the world. However, the Sages debate this point: “But the Sages said: This was a different [woman named] Na’ama. Why was she called Na’ama? Because she would beat out pleasant rhythms in idolatrous worship” (ibid.). This view would seem to be teaching that there is no room for such creativity, which borders on idolatry. A whole new world of creativity had to be created from within Noach’s ark. In any event, even the Sages agree that Noach’s wife was named Na’ama, and this in itself represents a continuation of the textual juxtaposition of the two dynasties.

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The Quran lays down sacrosanct human rights as basic rights of every human being: وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِي آدَمَ (17:70) – NOW, INDEED, We have conferred dignity on the children of Adam. [Asad] That is, Allah has conferred dignity and honor on every human being. Every human being is worthy of equal respect – by virtue of being human. Respect must be given to one’s humanity, not to any physical attributes. So, the core universal value is: whatever is done in the name of Islam – whether establishing a system, developing a concept, enacting a law, or conducting a business – if there is anything in it that disrespects or denigrates any human being, then it is non-Quranic, it is non-Islamic. It is a crime against humanity, because Allah has declared that He has conferred dignity to all humans. Another universal value is related to work ethic. The Quran describes this universal value as a principle related to occupation in life: وَلِكُلٍّ دَرَجَاتٌ مِّمَّا عَمِلُوا ۖ وَلِيُوَفِّيَهُمْ أَعْمَالَهُمْ وَهُمْ لَا يُظْلَمُونَ (46:19) – And to all are (assigned) degrees according to the deeds which they (have done), and in order that (Allah) may recompense their deeds, and no injustice be done to them. [Yusuf Ali] The principle is that one must be assigned a position purely based on merit, qualification, and performance of duty. One will receive full recompense of one’s endeavors irrespective of demographics or any other consideration – such as elitism due to birth; or religious or temporal connection or confederation. None will be shown any favor, and no one will be wronged. This is Allah’s Law of Requital. If anyone is denied this merit-based appointment for a job, then one should be able to demand justice based on one’s God-given human rights. Therefore, leaving aside other principles, even if these two basic principles – (i) equal dignity to all human beings and (ii) appointment to positions based purely on merit and qualifications and everyone receiving full recompense of one’s effort – get established in a society, then won’t that society turn into heaven on earth? In Arabic the root of ظلم (Dhulm) (ظ – ل - م) means things not being kept at their proper place: a human given lower position than the one he/she deserves or vice versa. This is the real source of corruption in society. The cries we hear – that there is corruption everywhere – is the result of this unfairness or ظلم (Dhulm). But people who deny the truth (of Allah’s Law of Requital), make enjoyment of worldly comforts and luxuries the sole aim of life till they reach their graves (102:1). They become arrogant and glorify themselves and cause corruption and imbalance in the world in clear violation of Allah’s order (55: 8-9). They achieve greatness without doing any good (balance-restoring) deeds. The Quran says: وَيَوْمَ يُعْرَضُ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا عَلَى النَّارِ أَذْهَبْتُمْ طَيِّبَاتِكُمْ فِي حَيَاتِكُمُ الدُّنْيَا وَاسْتَمْتَعْتُم بِهَا فَالْيَوْمَ تُجْزَوْنَ عَذَابَ الْهُونِ بِمَا كُنتُمْ تَسْتَكْبِرُونَ فِي الْأَرْضِ بِغَيْرِ الْحَقِّ وَبِمَا كُنتُمْ تَفْسُقُونَ (46:20) – And on the Day when those who were bent on denying the truth will be brought within sight of the fire, [they will be told:] “You have exhausted your [share of] good things in your worldly life, having enjoyed them [without any thought of the hereafter]: and so today you shall be requited with the suffering of humiliation for having gloried on earth in your arrogance, offending against all that is right, and for all your iniquitous doings!” [Asad] وَمَا هَـٰذِهِ الْحَيَاةُ الدُّنْيَا إِلَّا لَهْوٌ وَلَعِبٌ ۚ وَإِنَّ الدَّارَ الْآخِرَةَ لَهِيَ الْحَيَوَانُ ۚ لَوْ كَانُوا يَعْلَمُونَ (29:64) – For, [if they did, they would know that] the life of this world is nothing but a passing delight and a play - whereas, behold, the life in the hereafter is indeed the only [true] life: if they but knew this! [Asad] If they were to use their intellect and wisdom, they would clearly realize that if life means continuance of breath only, then there would be no high ideal or objective before human beings. Living would mean only the satisfaction of physical desires and nothing but a passing delight or a display. If they analyze logically they will realize that real life means “living at human level.” Life at human level goes on even beyond death. Life that ends with death is the physical body, the “animal level of life” of the human. Allama Iqbal says: It is what human does that defines his “life” of heaven or hell; The human, made of dust, in its nature, is neither fire nor light! The Quran distinguishes human “life” from human “age.” The stoppage of human breath ends his age not his life. Death ends the physical life, but the human life moves on. Age is related to physical processes and ends due to physical reasons. But “life” is built with balance-restoring righteous deeds (عَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ - ‘Amilus Saalihaat) which then moves ahead carrying these deeds with it to the next level after the physical death. Those who do not believe this, their deeds are related to age; and their deeds and the results of their deeds end with age. They receive their high accolades in the world. They receive all the credits of their good charitable deeds in the world. They do everything for allure of age, and it ends with the end of age. This is their motive. So, there would be nothing left for them in the Hereafter. But the driving force for achieving continuous stream of life is quite lofty, well beyond their motive to gain worldly fame and accolades. As Allama Iqbal says: Your way is to count the number of breaths; My way is focused on how to boost life itself. Achieving Greatness in World Achieving greatness in and of itself is not bad. But what is bad is trying to achieve greatness بِغَيْرِ الْحَقِّ (without The Truth) (46:20). The Quran says that مومنین (Momineen) will be on top of the world (3:139). Standing on top of the minaret when the declaration of اللہ اکبر (Allahu Akbar – Allah is great!) is made, then what does it really mean? Does Allah require our declaration and affirmation that He is great? Whether or not we affirm, He is great by Himself – He is the Almighty Creator of the Universe and everything in it. This, in fact, is the declaration that Allah’s divine system when implemented in the world will lead to greatness of the people; that Allah is the sole Sovereign Authority over them; that they will not accept any other authority along with Allah in that system. This is the meaning of: أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله – That there is no other sovereign authority whose obedience we will accept except that of Allah’s. Those who accept and implement this system will achieve greatness in the world (3:139). This will be the hallmark of مومنین (Momineen). The Quran says: أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا اللَّـهَ (46:21) – Do not accept the obedience of anyone else except that of Allah’s. No one has right to rule over humans except Allah (12:67): إِنِ الْحُكْمُ إِلَّا لِلَّـهِ Sovereignty only belongs to Allah and to no one else (114:2-3). No one – absolutely no one – can be partner in His Sovereignty: وَلَا يُشْرِكُ فِي حُكْمِهِ أَحَدًا (18:26) – He allots to no one a share in His rule! [Asad] Thus, the foundation of Islam, the کلمه (Kalimah) – أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله – is a revolutionary proclamation that “no one except Allah is the Sovereign Ruler and Authority” in the world. But, when religion replaced دین (Deen), Muslims became satisfied with this fake definition of کلمه (Kalimah) that “no one is to be worshiped except God,” and accepted the obedience of barbaric tyrants and governments while suffering worst kind of humiliation and rebuke at their hands. The traditional Muslim scholars have perpetuated the myth that having freedom to practice the rituals is enough for Islam. This was the reason Allama Iqbal was compelled to say: If Mullah is free to pray in Hind; Islam is free, the ignorant thinks! The Purpose of Sending Messengers Every messenger used to convey the same message to his people: Do not adopt the obedience of anyone except that of Allah (23:23, 23:32, and 23:44). Form this we can surmise why their people went after them. Prophets were threatened with dire consequences to the extent that they wanted to drive the prophets away; and they even killed them (2:91, 3:21, 3:112, 3:181, 3:183). Who could tolerate this revolutionary call for overthrowing those who possessed authority and control? How could those at the top tolerate revolution to dismantle status quo? The messengers conveyed the divine message to their people: that ultimately they will be destroyed if they persist in their unjust ways. It does not matter to Allah whether or not one accepts His obedience. He is the Almighty Creator and His Sovereignty reigns supreme over the Universe. He was Absolute Sovereign before He created the Universe and He will remain so after the Universe is gone. He does not need human obedience. Humans need His obedience if they want to succeed in the long term. He does not punish humans. Humans get punished by the results of their own wrong deeds. Unchecked, human mentality gets wild and cruel. These tyrants acquire power and impose their own tyrannical system on people. History bears witness that every nation has been punished by their own tyrants. Every messenger was given the same reply when he invited his people to Allah’s message: وَإِذَا قِيلَ لَهُمُ اتَّبِعُوا مَا أَنزَلَ اللَّـهُ قَالُوا بَلْ نَتَّبِعُ مَا أَلْفَيْنَا عَلَيْهِ آبَاءَنَا (2:170) – But when they are told, “Follow what God has bestowed from on high,” some answer, “Nay, we shall follow [only] that which we found our forefathers believing in and doing.” [Asad] The Quran replies in response to their demand to bring the punishment: قَالُوا أَجِئْتَنَا لِتَأْفِكَنَا عَنْ آلِهَتِنَا فَأْتِنَا بِمَا تَعِدُنَا إِن كُنتَ مِنَ الصَّادِقِينَ ﴿﴾ قَالَ إِنَّمَا الْعِلْمُ عِندَ اللَّـهِ وَأُبَلِّغُكُم مَّا أُرْسِلْتُ بِهِ وَلَـٰكِنِّي أَرَاكُمْ قَوْمًا تَجْهَلُونَ (46:22-23) – They answered: “Hast thou come to seduce us away from our gods? Bring, then, upon us that [doom] with which thou threaten us, if thou art a man of truth!” Said he: “Knowledge [of when it is to befall you] rests with God alone: I but convey unto you the message with which I have been entrusted; but I see that you are people ignorant [of right and wrong]!” [Asad] It is important to note here that the divine messenger’s addressees were not asking why we would be punished? Or, how could we avoid it? Or, what could we do to minimize its effect? In their hubris, they were challenging the messenger to bring this destruction. In utter foolishness they were asking him to tell them its timing. This is the mindset of tyrants. They are not used to discussing and resolving things. Subconsciously they think nothing will happen to them because they have the power and authority over everything in their dominion; that they have made all their plans for protection. But the Quran says that destruction will come from sources that they are not even aware of: أَفَأَمِنَ الَّذِينَ مَكَرُوا السَّيِّئَاتِ أَن يَخْسِفَ اللَّـهُ بِهِمُ الْأَرْضَ أَوْ يَأْتِيَهُمُ الْعَذَابُ مِنْ حَيْثُ لَا يَشْعُرُونَ (16:45) – Can, then, they who devise evil schemes ever feel sure that God will not cause the earth to swallow them, or that suffering will not befall them without their perceiving whence [it came]? [Asad] Do those who lay down evil plans, are so certain that Allah will not abase them in the earth or that chastisement will not come to them from sources that they are not even aware of? The Quran describes that the things they think will bring them success, in fact, will become the source of their destruction. مَن كَانَ يُرِيدُ الْعِزَّةَ فَلِلَّـهِ الْعِزَّةُ جَمِيعًا ۚ إِلَيْهِ يَصْعَدُ الْكَلِمُ الطَّيِّبُ وَالْعَمَلُ الصَّالِحُ يَرْفَعُهُ ۚ وَالَّذِينَ يَمْكُرُونَ السَّيِّئَاتِ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ شَدِيدٌ ۖ وَمَكْرُ أُولَـٰئِكَ هُوَ يَبُورُ (35:10) – He who desires might and glory [ought to know that] all might and glory belong to God [alone]. Unto Him ascend all good words, and the righteous deed does He exalt. But as for those who cunningly devise evil deeds - suffering severe awaits them; and all their devising is bound to come to naught. [Asad]

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Reading and listening are both essential skills when learning Chinese, not only because they allow you to read and listen, but also because it is the gateway to all other knowledge. Understanding is, in a sense, more important than being able to make other people understand. The more you understand, the more you learn If you read something where you understand most of the text, you’re sometimes able to pick up new words and grammar patterns automatically, or incidentally as it’s called in the literature. Reading easier text also allows you to read much more, so instead of reading 1,000 characters worth of text in your textbook, you could read 10,000 at a lower level, which would allow you to get a better feel for what words mean and how they are used, as well as increased reading speed and so on. This kind of reading, where reading a lot is more important than understanding everything in difficult texts, is called extensive reading. The problem facing adult learners of Chinese is twofold: - There isn’t enough learner-oriented reading material - The material that exists is not interesting enough You need much more reading than your textbook can offer and you need it to be at roughly the same level. It’s no good reading a real novel if it takes you an hour to read one page. One way of alleviating this problem is to use more than one textbook series in parallel, but this solution is far from ideal. A far better solution is to use graded readers! A graded reader is a book with a limited difficulty, often set by a certain number of words to make it easy to read. For Chinese graded readers, the number of unique characters is the most common measurement. Mandarin Companion offers a series of readers, currently on three levels with twelve books in all. That means that they are accessible from a very early stage, but are still useful well up into the intermediate stage: - As a beginner, you can extend you reading beyond the textbook and read texts that are both interesting and capped at a certain difficulty, meaning that you can read and learn everything in these books and be quite sure you’re learning very high frequency characters and words. That’s true for most textbooks as well, but certainly not any material not particularly written for students - As an intermediate learner, you can use the series for extensive reading (i.e. the kind I mentioned above where you understand most of the text already). Even though 300 or 450 characters doesn’t sound like much, I think only advanced learners will be able to read through all these books without finding a single new word. For more about Mandarin Companion, the science and philosophy behind the series, as well as many other interesting things about reading in Chinese, I suggest you head over to their website. Make sure to not miss the blog or the podcast! In order to write this review, I read through all twelve books (a big thanks to Mandarin Companion for providing me with the books). They come in both a simplified and traditional editions, so choose whichever you prefer; I read the traditional versions for this review. They are also available for Kindle, Apple Books and Kobo. Some books have audio recordings, but not all. Before I review each volume individually, I’d like to say a few words about them as a whole. To begin with, they are all much more interesting than the average textbook, much longer and generally well-written. I would say this is the best series of graded readers currently available. The language is mostly natural-sounding (given the strict limit in the number of characters, of course) and in difference to native texts, the same words are reused over and over, which is great for learning. Each volume consists of a total of roughly 10,000 Chinese characters, so while not super long, they should last the reader a long time, depending on your reading ability. Combining all the books forms a solid step on your journey to becoming literate in Chinese. Don’t read just one of these books, read them all! I promise you than if you thought the first book on level 1 was hard, you will find the last book on that level much, much easier. You will have read almost a hundred thousand Chinese characters by then! Each story is adapted from a well-known work of fiction, which has been relocated to China and populated by Chinese people. I think these adaptations are very well done, keeping many details and characters from the original stories, while still not hesitating to change major elements in the stories to fit the new environment. If you had never heard of the original story, I doubt you’d think that these books were adapted from Western fiction. Building on known fictional work has the added advantage of giving you some idea of what to expect. A story adapted from Jules Verne will of course be different from one adapted from Jane Austen. There is also a list of words included, all hyperlinked in the digital versions (footnoted in the printed books), so if you read on screen, you can find the definitions of selected words easily. Each book also comes with discussion questions, which perhaps feel more relevant if you use the books in class or in a group, but you could also answer them yourself or discuss them with a tutor or friends. Each volume is illustrated with pictures of much higher quality than we’re used to in educational material, a big thumbs up! I’m now going to introduce and briefly comment on all the books currently available. The story summaries are from the official website and the comments are from myself after reading them. - Breakthrough level (150 characters) - Level 1 (300 characters) - Level 2 (450 characters) Breakthrough level (150 characters) 周海生 (The Misadventures of Zhou Haisheng) Zhou Haisheng is a fun-loving and determined young boy whose life revolves around school and his family’s Chinese restaurant. Always well-intentioned, he finds ways to help out his hard-working parents with the family business. Whether it’s inventing his own noodle recipe, delivering the wrong order to a customer, or resorting to extremes when a competing noodle shop opens across the street, Zhou Haisheng manages to combine his mischief and wit to save the day. This book was published only recently and is an attempt to provide a stepping stone to level 1. I want to mention this, because it is somewhat different from the others in that it’s not adapted from a famous work of fiction, but rather specifically written for this purpose. The story focuses on everyday activities, dialogue and scenes, recycling vocabulary all the time without being so blunt about it that it gets boring. While the story is of course not as interesting as the more advanced levels, this is not the authors’ fault, it’s just very difficult to write something with only 150 characters. I have written texts in Chinese capped at specific levels, and I can tell you that it’s not easy. This book is roughly half the length of the other books in this series, but I still think that doing this much with such limited vocabulary is an achievement. I also love the fact that this story provides a link to Emma, one of the level 1 readers. Paperback or e-book, with simplified characters available on Amazon Note: At the time of writing, there seems to be no traditional character version Level 1 (300 unique characters) 盲人国 (Country of the Blind by H.G. Wells) “In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king” repeats in Chen Fangyuan’s mind after he finds himself trapped in a valley holding a community of people for whom a disease eliminated their vision many generations before and no longer have a concept of sight. Chen Fangyuan quickly finds that these people have developed their other senses to compensate for their lack of sight. His insistence that he can see causes the entire community to believe he is crazy. With no way out, Chen Fangyuan begins to accept his fate until one day the village doctors believe they now understand what is the cause of his insanity those useless round objects in his eye sockets. This s my favourite story among the five. The story is well-worth reading apart from any language-learning ambition, and the twist at the end is the same as the one I thought of when I read the original story some fifteen years ago. I think the reason I liked this book the most is also that it has a well-paced narrative, a clear structure and an interesting basic premise. The book focuses more on what happens and what people do, rather than what they say. I have nothing to complain about, really good! 安末 (Emma by Jane Austen) Clever, rich, and single, the beautiful Ān Mò (Emma Woodhouse) is focused on her career as fashion designer in the glamor of 21st-century Shanghai. She sees no need for romance in her life, but when she tries to find a boyfriend for her new friend Fangfang (Harriet), her carefully laid plans begin to unravel. As she ignores the warnings of her good friend Shi Wenzheng (Mr. Knightley), her decisions bring consequences that she never expected. With its witty and charming characters, Emma is often seen as Jane Austen’s most flawless work. Just like the original, this modern version set in Shanghai focuses on people and their interactions with each other. This means a lot of dialogue and talking or thinking about social relationships. While being somewhat predictable (regardless of familiarity with the original), the story is well-paced, never gets boring and in general manages to keep the readers attention through-out. The heavy focus on dialogue makes it great for improving conversational Mandarin too! 秘密花园 (The Secret Garden by Francis Hodgson Burnett) Li Ye (Mary Lennox) grew up without the love and affection of her parents. After an epidemic leaves her an orphan, Li Ye is sent off to live with her reclusive uncle in his sprawling estate in Nanjing. She learns of a secret garden where no one has set foot in ten years. Li Ye finds the garden and slowly discovers the secrets of the manor. With the help of new friends, she brings the garden back to life and learns the healing power of friendship and love. I liked this story, mostly because the characters were interesting and not as bland as they tend to be in many textbooks. I haven’t read the original, but I think this adaptation is most suitable for younger readers. I like the theme of exploration, both in the physical sense of exploring the estate and in the figurative sense of finding out the truth about the secret garden. 红猴的价格 (The Ransom of Red Chief by O. Henry) Trying to make some fast cash, two small-time crooks devise a plan to kidnap the son of a wealthy family in a village and hold him for ransom. When the kidnapped boy pulls out his Hong Hou (“Red Monkey”) costume, the two burglars realize they may be in for more than they planned. As their ransom notes remain unanswered and their scheme starts to drag on, the two crooks find out for themselves how a child’s imagination can spell disaster for two inexperienced criminal minds. I like this book and I think it would suit many learners. It’s fast-paced and entertaining, even though you kind of know how it will end in advance, even if you haven’t read the original. This would work very well as an animated cartoon, too, I think. The book contains a variety of language, focusing both on what people do and what they say (and occasionally write). I think the plot summary above should tell you enough about the book to tell you whether it’s for you or not. I recommend it! 猴爪 (The Monkey’s Paw by W.W. Jacobs) Mr. and Mrs. Zhang live with their grown son Guisheng who works at a factory. One day an old friend of Mr. Zhang comes to visit the family after having spent years traveling in the mysterious hills of China’s Yunnan Province. He tells the Zhang family of a monkey’s paw that has magical powers to grant three wishes to the holder. Against his better judgement, he reluctantly gives the monkey paw to the Zhang family, along with a warning that the wishes come with a great price for trying to change ones fate… This story also has a clear narrative and good pacing. I found the story a bit too predictable and less interesting than the Country of the Blind, but still worthwhile. If you like horror stories more than speculative fiction, perhaps this is the best book for you, although like many classic horror stories, it isn’t very scary. 王子和穷孩子 (The Prince and the Pauper by Mark Twain) During a chance encounter, two nearly identical boys, one a poor beggar and the other a prince, decide to exchange places. The pauper, now living in the royal palace, is constantly filled with the dread of being discovered for who and what he really is while the Prince, dressed in rags, lives on the street enduring hardships he never thought possible. Both children soon discover that neither life is as carefree as they expected. This story is, as are many of the others reviewed in this article, well-structured with a narrative that switches between the two boys in a way that makes it particularly easy to turn pages and want to find out what happens. While stories that have a moral message might irritate some readers because they sometimes sacrifice realism (for example, it’s not particularly plausible that two “nearly identical boys” with completely different social backgrounds could be switched like this), I think ought to be a minor issue at most. The story doesn’t shy away from portraying misery and injustice, even if the ending is redeeming. 六十年的梦 (The Sixty-Year Dream, Rip Van Winkle by Washington Irving) Zhou Xuefa (Rip Van Winkle) is well loved by everyone in his town, everyone except his nagging wife. With his faithful dog Blackie, Zhou Xuefa spends his time playing with kids, helping neighbors, and discussing politics in the teahouse. One day after a bad scolding from his wife, he goes for a walk into the mountains and meets a mysterious old man who appears to be from an ancient time. The man invites him into his mountain home for a meal and after drinking some wine, Zhou Xuefa falls into a deep sleep. He awakes to a time very different than what he once knew. This is the weakest story of the books I’ve read I can’t wholeheartedly recommend it. I found the premise interesting, but the story lacked an interesting plot and more felt like the main character experiencing a series of disconnected events that built up to nothing in particular. If the premise sounds very interesting, you could still give it a try, though. 卷发公司的案子 (Sherlock Holms: The Red Headed League by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle) Mr. Xie was recently hired by the Curly Haired Company. For a significant weekly allowance, he was required to sit in an office and copy articles from a book, while in the meantime his assistant looked after his shop. He had answered an advertisement in the paper and although hundreds of people applied, he was the only one selected because of his very curly hair. When the company unexpectedly closes, Mr. Xie visits Gao Ming (Sherlock Holmes) with his strange story. Gao Ming is certain something is not right, but will he solve the mystery in time? I’ve read and liked most of the original Sherlock Holmes stories, and I have read several children’s versions in Chinese as well. I wish I had read this one instead! It’s much more suitable for learners than any book for Chinese children. The story is a typical Sherlock Holmes story where we follow the confused Watson as Holmes expertly solves another mystery. An interesting and neatly paced story and a good read in general, and also neatly adapted to a Chinese setting (note the curly hair instead of red hair as in the original). Level 2 (450 unique characters) 地心游记 (Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne) Join Professor Luo and his niece Xiaojing in their daring quest down the mouth of a volcano to reach the center of the earth. Guided by a mysterious passage on an ancient parchment and accompanied by their faithful guide Lao Xu, the three explorers encounter subterranean phenomenon, prehistoric animals, and vast underground seas. A Journey to the Center of the Earth is one of Jules Verne’s best-known works and one of the most classic tales of adventure ever written. I loved Jules Verne’s books as a teenager and enjoyed 20,000 Leagues under the Sea and The Mysterious Island immensely. Therefore, it shouldn’t come as a surprise that I like this book, too. Naturally, some sacrifices have to be made to allow for the shorter text and the limited vocabulary, but I find these mostly acceptable. Here we can see the clear advantage of using famous novels: if you know you like Jules Verne, you can be quite sure you will enjoy this book as well. 美好的前途 (Great Expectations by Charles Dickens) Great Expectations is hailed as Charles Dickens’ masterpiece. A gripping tale of love and loss, aspiration and moral redemption, the story follows the young orphan Xiaomao (Pip) from poverty to a life of unexpected opportunity and wealth. In Part 1, Xiaomao (Pip) is raised by his short-tempered older sister and her husband who run a small repair shop in the outskirts of Shanghai. Xiaomao dreams of leaving his life of poverty behind after becoming playmates with the beautiful Bingbing (Estella), daughter of the eccentric Bai Xiaojie (Ms. Havisham). His prospects for the future are bleak, until one day a mysterious benefactor gives Xiaomao the opportunity of a lifetime. Considering the complexity and length of the original, I understand why this story is split into two volumes. In order to not spoil the first part, I have only included the introduction to the first part above. Still, this is one book and should be thought of as such, even though it contains twice as many Chinese characters than the other books in the Mandarin Companion series! Anyone who has read the original will be interested in seeing how many details remain the same, but transported to a Chinese setting. Anyone not familiar with Dickens novel will enjoy following the development of Xiaomao and the other interesting characters. The length of this novel makes it doubly useful as a reading resource because it’s so much easier to read more of the same than get into a whole different novel. Room for improvement I’m very enthusiastic about graded readers in general, but no review would be complete without also covering a few areas where there’s room for improvement. The most glaring examples of this is that most books still don’t have audio. This is something I brought up in my first review almost four years ago. Some books on level 1 do have audio now, but having audio for all books would vastly increase the usefulness of these books! Please, Mandarin Companion, give us audio! Some other, minor things that could be improved is that the glossary is sometimes based only on word frequency, meaning that some phrases that are far from obvious are left unexplained, while some easy words you can find in any dictionary are included. I would have liked to see more notes for these types of phrases that I guess most beginners will struggle with. To show you what I mean, here are two examples: 奇怪 here means 觉得很奇怪, but this isn’t explained. If you look the word up, it means “strange”, but this sentence doesn’t mean that he (陳方遠) is strange. This usage is normal in Chinese, but not in English. I would have either avoided it or explained it. Students usually learn this much later than many of the words that are explained. Here’s another example: This is another sentence that would have benefited from an explanation. 聽我的 means that other people should do as you say, but with a beginner’s understanding of Chinese, this sentence just means that they should listen to him. Finally, I’d like to mention that the footnotes are sometimes a bit hard to see. Light blue is not an ideal colour to use, and grey is even worse. I have no chance of seeing the tone marks on the Pinyin in the footnotes, for example. I don’t have very good eye-sight, but I imagine I can’t be the only one who thinks it could have been bigger or at least with higher contrast. These are mostly minor problems, though, and very small compared to the huge advantage of having access to these stories in general. I haven’t made a careful comparison, but it also seems that the later books do have better annotations. In summary, Mandarin Companion fills a gap and does it very well. I recommend all beginner and intermediate learners to get at least one book and try it out, then get the rest of them. I would have liked audio for all books and my recommendation will be even more wholehearted as more audio versions are released. Still, these are good graded readers and as such, I warmly recommend them! What do you think? Have you read any of these books? How did you find them? Leave a comment below! Tips and tricks for how to learn Chinese directly in your inbox I've been learning and teaching Chinese for more than a decade. My goal is to help you find a way of learning that works for you. Sign up to my newsletter for a 7-day crash course in how to learn, as well as weekly ideas for how to improve your learning!

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Malachite is a wounded stone. Due to the saturation of the color and unusual patterns, the mineral is widely used for the manufacture of decorations, souvenir and memorable products. In addition to external beauty, gem is famous for its healing and magical properties. What it is? Malachite is a semi-precious mineral that consists of copper. It also includes carbon dioxide, water. An alimony of iron may be present, which adds various shades. In general, the mineral has a rich green color. However, in nature, you can meet various tones and shades, ranging from the brightest and ending with almost black. The stone has a small hardness – it is easily dissolved in acid. Due to good viscosity, the sample is convenient in processing. Nugget easily damage or scratch. The mineral surface can be both matte and shiny. Transparency of gem depends on the size of the particles. The smaller the particles, the more transparent sample. Unprocessed gem in nature looks amorphous, has a structure in the form of fibers. In appearance resembles massive formations in the form of balls with sharp edges, beams. Flood crystals are represented by different forms. Their structure is expressed in the form of plates or needles. Mineral is of great importance for man. Since ancient times, it was used not only as decorations, but also as an effective medical agent. The description of the magical properties of the stone speaks of his strength of the impact and mysteriousness of nature. History of origin Mineral appeared long before it became known. Previously, this stone did not stand out in a separate species – it was associated with copper. After the mineral stood out into a separate group of stones, he received the official name. It happened in the XVIII century. There are two legends of the origin of the name. According to one of the versions, the gem was named after the plant Malva, which has the same bright green color. On another version, the mineral is named malachite, as it is easy to process. Translated from the ancient Greek language Malakos means “soft”. Gem is also called a peacock stone or health mineral. Knowledge about him go since the time of the domination of the Egyptian state. In the time of worship of various gods, the stone was associated with the goddess of the family, fertility and beauty. The history of itself is deep roots in ancient times. There are evidence that it was originally made by weapons, because it is a source of copper. The value of the stone gradually increased due to depletion of deposits. New methods of copper mining began to appear. And after the wonderful properties of the stone and the ease of processing have opened, handled craft masters, jewelers. Archaeological excavations show that mineral was widely used in the manufacture of decorations, souvenirs. Place of Birth Mineral lies in the upper beds where copper accumulates. When weathered ore appear unique gems. In Russia, the mineral is mined in the Urals – there are the richest deposits. However, sources are depleted. There are still small reserves in Altai. The championship in mining Malachite holds Central and North Africa. The leader in the supply of gem is the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It should be noted that African minerals in appearance differ from the Ural copies. They have a clearer drawing, the correct shapes and saturated shades. For this reason, they are constantly used in the work of masters. Samples from the Urals are filled with contrasting waves, between which they alternate light and dark tones of green. Also, small malachite deposits were found in England, Kazakhstan, France and Germany. Beautiful stone fascinates its original drawing. The surface looks unusually soft, reminding the appearance of velvet material. On the cut, you can see bizarre circumference and stripes that smoothly replace each other. Malachite has not only beautiful external data, but also famous for the healing and magical properties. It is believed that regular use of the mineral can heal some ailments. - Skin disease. Means struggles with allergic manifestations, removes redness, cleans the skin. Powdered mass is applied to affected surface areas. - Weak Hair. After using the miraculous “medicine”, the roots are strengthened, the structure of hairs is restored. Cares and combs from malachite are used as arapeutic. - Problems with the respiratory system. Malachite helps in the treatment of spasmodic seizures characteristic of bronchial asthma. Decorations are used as arapeutic tool or a stone in its pure form. The product is put on the area of the sternum and keeps some time. When treating the lungs, wearing malachite beads or pendants on the chest. - Problem with pressure. Gem is capable of lowering blood pressure. As a treatment, it is recommended to wear any malachite jewelry. - Vision problems. After the impact of therapeutic properties of the gem, an improvement in visual acuity is noted, the normalization of intraocular pressure. As a treatment, wearing earring with malachite. - Malachite is useful if desired to improve attention, increase the state of collens. To do this, in place of work or study are given any items from the gem. Their impact is based on the creation of a special favorable energy. - Stone is able to assist in the treatment of cancer patients. Specialists in lithotherapy believe that the mineral can delay the distribution process of metastases. To do this, it is necessary to constantly wear a stone of large sizes. - Rheumatism. It is possible to alleviate the course of the disease using the applying of malachitic plates to the placement places. - Disorders of the nervous system. This ailment is quite common especially in large cities, where residents are subject to constant stress. Help to cope with the difficult situation will help the interior design of the dwelling subjects from Malachite. Creating an atmosphere of pacification and tranquility is ensured not only due to the specific properties of the stone, but also its green color. In addition to the foregoing, Mineral makes it easier for dental pain, childbirth, when depressed. There is an opinion on the return of male strength, if you drink water from malachite dishes. Malachite neutralizes the impact of radioactive and electromagnetic rays by absorbing them. Nuggets can eliminate convulsions, restore the functioning of internal organs. In healing purposes, minerals of bright bright tones are more often used. It is believed that when the framing of gems in copper, its strength increases significantly. It is necessary to know that before each use of a nugget in medicinal purposes needs to be cleaned. This meant energy purification. For these purposes, you can use ordinary land, even the one that is in a pot with flowers. The stone is put in the soil at night, and in the morning it can be used again. Earth must be changed once in the lunar month. It is important to note that Malachite treatment is not the main means. It needs to be combined with the main course of therapy. This is especially true of severe chronic disease. It should also be remembered that any therapeutic impact must be coordinated with a specialist – this will help to avoid unpleasant surprises and disappointments. Official Medicine does not recognize the treatment of stones in contrast to lithotherapists, which are engaged in the study of the properties of the mineral and its impact on human health. However, official medicine, and lithotherapists do not recommend engaging, as it can be dangerous to health. Malachite is known for a magical influence on man. No wonder the oldest magicians of the whole world were used, and they continue to use it in their practice. Historical sources report a mineral connection with cosmos energy. Ancient magicians believed that the stone was a conductor between space and earth. Have long existed legends about the possibility of people to disappear and appear at any time. There was belief that if drinking a liquid from the malachite glade, the ability to understand the language of animals will appear. Among the positive magical properties of the stone ascribes the opportunity: - Strengthen intuition+ - Restore Energy Balance+ - protect against damage and evil+ - Attract a man+ - Strengthen Son+ - get rid of night fears+ - get rid of fear of height+ - prevent conflict in the house+ - If you put money or jewel in the malachite box, then the condition in the house will increase. From a long time, Malachite was considered a forest gem. Mineral served as a guard for travelers, defended from wild animals, helped find the right way. However, it is impossible to forget about the dangers that the magical mineral. The thing is that the constant wearing of the stone can make adjustments to the line of fate. Such adjustment is not always favorable and can bring many unpleasant moments. Long wearing a nugget can lead to the awakening of the internal dark forces. Emotions can take power over mind, logic and calculation. For example, such an ability, how to attract men can have negative consequences for a woman, because a stone can attract a man, both with good intentions and with bad. So as not to become a victim of the aggressor, It is recommended to wear decorations from malachite in a silver frame. Silver can neutralize negative emotions and secure the owner from trouble. Malachite, like any mineral, absorbs the energy owner, so it should not be worn in the presence of negative emotions. Charm or Malachite mascot in skillful hands can be a reliable defender from negative magical impact, disease. It will help to find confidence, calm and hope. Depending on the saturation of the color, the Ural mineral happens: - Pure green+ - with black splashes+ - With patterns. Depending on the type of surface, it differs: Depending on the type of pattern, gem also has several species. - Plush. This sample has a structure consisting of small particles, and therefore is poorly processed. - With a small pattern. On the stone cut, the drawing is visible, in appearance resembling birch leaves. This instance is considered the most rare and valuable. - Pseudomalachit. The sample is copper phosphate and does not apply to Malachit. He decided on this group, because in appearance the stone resembles Malachite. A sample of turquoise color is characterized by high hardness. There is a fact that in ancient times, malachitic powder was used as cosmetics. For example, it was applied forever instead of shadows, as well as used for drawing. In the XVIII century, the mineral was used for the mosaic finish of architectural structures. It was used to decorate columns, walls of fireplaces, countertops. For example, in the Hermitage there is a whole malachite hall. You can also see the beauty of columns of St. Isaac’s Cathedral made of a unique mineral. Due to the easy processing and the unique patterned surface of the mineral is widely used For the manufacture of jewelry, crafts at interior design, as well as in the manufacture of commemorative souvenirs. Malachite is manufactured: - Sculptural masterpieces. Silver or copper is often used for stone framing. Miraculous mineral suits people Creative professions. The use of attributes from malachite or regular wearing malachite decorations can increase vitality and attract attention. Malachite promotes Enlarge attractiveness, charm. Pebbles protect kids from witchcraft, damage, and also helps them grow. Heavyweight leaders will help in promotion. Nugget will be useful to businessmen. Putting a magic attribute to the desktop, you can be confident in the successful and business development. Representatives of risky professions, such as cascaders, the stone will be a defender. However, when choosing a mineral in the form of decoration or talisman, the zodiac sign should be taken into account. Not all astrological signs are equally useful to the properties of the mineral. It should be remembered that in each case the miraculous properties of the nugget are manifested from different sides. Malachite is perfect for people born under the sign of the scales. The owners of the precious decoration will acquire harmony, strengthen health, learn to speak beautifully. Mineral will give emotional stability, purposefulness. Those who choose malachite in the form of a talisman will be protected from envious people, people with bad intentions. Malachite should help find the desired. They will be able to better understand the surrounding. Regular wearing mineral will help lions make the right choice in life. Aries will become more balanced, less stubborn. Sagittarius will become reliable friends, mentors, will be easy to share the experienced experience with others. Capricors will become more judicial, emotionally balanced, will sleep hard. Aquarius will stop being disappointed, fear new tests. Fish will be able to concentrate on important things, will become more soberly assess the situation. As a result, choose the right direction in your development. But those who are born under the sign of Scorpio, Virgin or cancer are advised to avoid decorations or talismans from Malachite. The nature of these zodiac signs is not compatible with the nature of the stone. From the point of view of astrologers, the stone is associated with earthly elements. Patroness Nugget is Planet Saturn. It should also be noted that malachite is perfect for some names. - Anastasia. Wearing gems in the form of decoration will improve creative thinking, attract love, will save from life obstacles, will help in gaining the desired. - Denis. Wubble from Malachite will protect against unpleasant and dangerous situations. Gem will save from unreasonable fears and excitement, will increase the attractiveness. These two names, nuggets are especially favorable, but this does not mean people with other names Malachite is prohibited – it can be worn with any name. Knowledge of the strength of stone and faith in it allows to strengthen the positive effect of the mineral on a man. Correct stone care will ensure the duration of service life. Compliance with the recommendations will save the color, the texture of the mineral, its initial species. In order for the beauty of the gem to delight for many years, the following activities must be carried out: - ensure the constancy of the storage temperature+ - eliminate the impact of acid or household chemicals+ - Surface cleansing should be performed using sparing agents using soft tissues+ - It is necessary to treat the mineral to minerals – mechanical exposure should be avoided, falls+ - For kneaking surface, you can use soap solution+ - Store the sample is better in the natural fabric or in a separate box. Mineral protects the owner from negative, absorbing him in itself, so it is recommended to periodically produce energy cleaning by instilcing the pebble in the ground for two days. If you leave pebbles in the sun, it will also be cleaned. How to distinguish natural stone from fake? Artificial sample occurs roughly with the same frequency as natural stone. It is more connected with the complexity of its manufacture. However, due to the exhaustability of the reserves of natural gems, the costs of production of fakes are quite justified. To obtain an artificial sample, the methods described below are used. - Pending Mineral Powder. - Cementing of small stone particles. - The use of hydrothermal synthesis. The method is based on reproducing natural conditions for malachite. Modern technologies allow you to recreate truly standing specimens that are difficult to distinguish from natural stone. In the case of suspicion of fake, you can use the methods of verification described below. - It is necessary to carefully study the pattern – natural stone has a continuous pattern, whose lines differ in a circular direction. In a fake sample line will have breaks. - If plastic used in the manufacture of fakes, the instance will be easier than natural stone. - The most accurate method is testing with an acid. To understand natural gem or not, you can drop by acid. In case of confirmation of authenticity, the instance will be corrupted. This method is considered pretty barbaric, and it must be resorted only in the most extreme cases. However, in view of the appearance of high-quality fakes, which is almost impossible to distinguish from natural stone, this method can become the only significant. It should be noted that the stone has received wide fame thanks to the Demidov family who had a malachite factory. Only after receiving the universal publicity, the mineral began to use when building architectural buildings as a cladding. Malachite for a long time was considered a symbol of the greatness of the Russian state. He was one of the most valuable gems mined in the area of the Ural Mountains. Russian emperors preferred to draw up their quarters from Malachite. Products from this stone often gave the rulers of other states. There is a legend that during the cholera epidemic in ancient Egypt, dangerous ailments for incomprehensible reasons did not touch the slaves. They all worked on Malachite. At that time, representatives of the power of that period drew attention to the miraculous strength of the stone and began to wear decorations from it. It is noteworthy that Nugget can warn the owner of the coming danger. There is a belief that if the malachite attribute is covered with cracks or crashes into small pieces, then this is a bell signal. In this case, you should be more careful in your words and actions, not to take risky decisions, avoid unpleasant situations. In order to “not anger” miraculous stone, It is not recommended to combine with a diamond or ruby. It is compatible with jashed, opal, adventurine, sapphire, lunar stone, aquamarine or turmaline. Neutral neighbor for Malachite will be Beryl, Amethyst or rhinestone. However, experts are recommended Do not combine malachite with other pebbles, in order not to get a negative impact. Malachite is considered a stone of spring, the start of life, so it is recommended to purchase it in spring or summer. Observing this condition, you can get a magically strong talisman, instilling vitality. If the gem is purchased in autumn or in winter, then the mineral energy will be the opposite. It is believed that the energy of the stone is gaining the peak of activity in May. This month, his influence on man has the greatest strength. Wearing a mineral in this period will help get rid of sadness, bad sleep, anxiety. There will be a sense of peace, confidence, calm. When wearing jewelry from magical gem should consider the fact that rings are rumped on the middle finger, on the left hand. It is allowed to carry the rings on the Mizinz. In this case, the stone has the greatest influence. Bracelets can be worn on any hand. Malachite is not a precious stone, but in its properties he is invaluable. Faced once with the power of nature and the attractive magnetism of the green nugget, it is already difficult to forget about it. About what properties Malachite has, look in the following video.

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Obesity; The Health Impacts And Relationship With Reproduction Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing prevalence in adults and children, and authorities view it as one of the most serious public health problems of the 21st century. Obesity negatively impacts the health of women in many ways, such as higher risk of low back pain and knee Osteasthritis. Also, obesity negatively affect both contraception and fertility. This study determined the health impacts of obesity and its relationship with reproduction. Data obtained by self- administered questionnaire, medical examination and anthropometric measurement of 578 pregnant women at different ages and trimesters was analysed using SPSS version 15. The result showed that 143 (25%) of the women were in the first trimester of pregnancy, 206(36%) were in second trimester while 229 (39%) were in the third trimester. The women were between the ages of 15-40 years while the mean ages of the women in years were 28.86+5.26, 28.11+4.29 and 28.39+4.20 respectively in the first , second and third trimesters. There was no significant difference in the ages of the three groups (f= 1.44,p=0.32). The mean mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) and calf circumference(CC) in centimetre the first, second and third trimesters were 30.47±3.88, 30.23±4.02, 30.15±4.81and 36.81±3.50, 36.83±3.43 and 37.06±3.85 respectively with no significance difference (p=0.74,0.75). The mean waist circumferences were 92.31±10.78, 97.58±10.78 and 106.46±12.00 for the first, second and third trimesters respectively with a significant difference (p=0.001) The mean waist to hip ratios were 0.88±0.06,0.92±0.06 and 0.98±0.08 for the first, second and third trimesters respectively with significant 0.92±0.06 (p=0.001 ). All the parameters had positive correlation with BMI. Using the 75th percentile of MUAC and CC (33cm and 39cm) in all trimesters , MUAC and CC were shown to have a sensitivity and specificity more than 70% when using the estimated pre-pregnancy weight as gold standards . Waist and waist to hip ratio increased as pregnancy increased hence there may be need for various cut off point as gestational age increased. These indices may be invaluable tools for identification of obesity in pregnancy. Table Of Contents - Table of Content - 1.1 Background of the study - 1.2 Statement of the study - 1.3 Aim and Objectives - 2.1 The prevalence of obesity in pregnancy - 2.2 Effects of Obesity on pregnancy - 2.3 Anthropometric indices that can be used to identify obesity - 3.1 Study area - 3.2 Sample size - 3.3 Subjects - 3.4 Inclusion Criteria - 3.5 Exclusion criteria - 3.6 Equipments - 3.7 Data collection - 3.8 Data analysis Results and Discussion - 4.1 Some Demographic Characteristics Of The Study Groups - 4.2 Anthropometric Indices of the Different Study Groups - 4.3 Identifying Obesity Using The 75th Percentile Of MUAC,CC And Waist Circumference Summary Of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation - 5.1 Summary of findings - 5.2 Waist Circumference and Waist to Hip Ratio in Pregnancy - 5.3 Using Other Anthropometric Indices to Identify Obesity In Pregnancy - 5.4 Anthropometric Indices, Age and Gravidity - 5.5 Limitations of the study - 5.6 Prospects for further studies - 5.7 Conclusion - 5.8 Recommendation 1.1 Background of the study Obesity has been identified as a major risk factor for poor pregnancy out come. (Galtier et al., 2000; CMACE/RCOG 2010). It is most commonly defined as Body Mass Index (BMI) of greater than 30kilograms per square of height in meters (Galtieret al., 2000; CMACE/RCOG 2010). This definition is the same in both pregnant and non pregnant population (CMACE/RCOG 2010). For the pregnant woman, weight and height of the woman at first booking are obtained and the BMI calculated (CMACE/RCOG 2010). There are three different classes of obesity: BMI 30.0–34.9 (Class I); BMI 35.0–39.9 (Class 2); and BMI 40 and over (Class 3 or morbid obesity),(NICE 2006;WHO 2000). It is recognised that there is a continuous relationship between BMI and maternal morbidity and mortality (WHO2000). Calculation of the body mass index requires the use of standard weighing scales and stadiometers and mathematical calculations by well trained personnel. These requirements may be lacking especially in developing societies such as ours. The prevalence of obesity in pregnancy has continued to increase as its prevalence in the general public continues to rise. It has become necessary that adequate and non sophisticated methods of discovering obesity in pregnancy be identified in order to institute adequate management that will forestall poor outcome of the pregnancy. 1.2 Statement of the study The use of body mass index in identifying obesity in pregnancy may not be a sensitive and specific criterion. This is because in pregnancy, there is an additional weight gain due to the presence of the foetus and placenta (Campbell and Lees 2000; Ganong 2005). There is also an increase in size of maternal organs such as the breast and the uterus (Campbell and Lees 2000). There may also be accumulation of fluid in the extra cellular spaces in pregnancy which would increase the weight of the woman (Campbell and Lees 2000). Moreover the lordosis which occurs in pregnancy is normally associated with a decrease in height of the woman (Scholl et al., 1990; Hirabayaet al., 1997). There may even be an increase in height of adolescent mothers in pregnancy even though this may be very small. (Scholl et al., 1990) Appropriate management of women with maternal obesity can only be possible with consistent identification of those women who are at risk (CMACE/RCOG 2010). The NICE Antenatal Care guideline (2008) recommends that maternal height and weight should be recorded for all women at the initial booking visit (ideally by 10 weeks gestation) to allow the calculation of BMI. It is common knowledge that very few women book at 10 weeks; even in developed countries (Heslehurtet al.,2007). The measurement of the Mid Upper Arm , Hip, Waist and Calf Circumferences can be taken at very low cost requiring neither the expensive and sophisticated equipment nor mathematical calculations hence may prove to be invaluable in assessing pregnant women especially in developing societies. These measurements can be taken while standing, sitting or lying making assessment of the sick woman who is unable to stand easy (Collins 1996). Therefore a study like this which would identify the normal range for these anthropometric indices – Mid Upper arm, Waist, Hip and Calf Circumference, is necessary in order to identity those who are well above the normal hence obese and at risk of obesity related conditions. 1.3 Aim and Objectives To identify some anthropometric indices that can be used to identify obesity in pregnancy 1.3.2 Specific Objectives - To measure some Anthropometric indices –Weight, Height, Mid Arm, Calf ,Waist and Hip circumferences in pregnant women at different - iTo identify the relationship between Body Mass Index and the circumferences of the Mid Arm, Calf, waist and the Hip at different trimester. - To identify the normal limit of these indices at different trimesters of pregnancy. Summary Of Findings, Conclusion And Recommendation 5.1 Summary of findings Anthropometric measurements taken in the antenatal period have been used to predict increased risk of gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, eclampsia, foetal macrosomia, post-term delivery, and caesarean section which are associated with obesity in pregnancy (Wendland et al., 2002; Satteret al., 2001). Different cut off points have been given by studies done in various countries for some of these parameters in order to identify women at poor outcome of pregnancy. In this study, cross sections of pregnant women living in Enugu were studied to ascertain how these parameters could be used to identify obese pregnant women in our environment. 5.1 Demographic characteristics of the study groups The mean age of the women used in this study was approximately 28±3.45 years. Majority of the women that participated in the study were in the 25-29 age group. Globally, there is an upward trend in maternal age at first pregnancy increasing from approximately 21 years in the 1970’s to 27 in this decade(Chapman et al, 2006, Hendrick, 2009, Laws and Sullivan, 2005.). Globally, there is an upwards trend in maternal age with age at first pregnancy increasing from approximately 21 years in the 1970’s to 27 in this last decade(Chapman et al, 2006, Hendrick, 2009, Laws and Sullivan, 2005). These changes can be traced to the interest of women being more in careers and financial security than child bearing (Bachrach, 2006). As seen in this study, less than one-fifth of the women in the study were occupied with non-paid domestic duties. The rest were either full time students, self employed or had paid duties outside the home. This agrees with the perspective of Bachrach, (2006). 5.2 Anthropometric Indices and Pregnancy: Anthropometric indices such as weight, height are used commonly in pregnancy to assess the pregnant women. Mid upper arm circumference, Calf circumference, waist circumference and hip circumference are less commonly used. 5.2.1 Body Mass Index and Pregnancy Body mass index is the commonest criteria for identifying obesity in pregnancy, calculated by weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in metres (CMACE/RCOG 2010). From this study the mean weight (in kilograms) was seen to progressively increase from the first to third trimester while the mean height remained the same. The progressive increase in weight being due to the increasing size of the baby and certain maternal organs such as the uterus and breast (Campbell and Lees 2000, Ganong 2005) .The mean Body Mass Index (BMI) was also seen to have increase in the same direction. Hence the use of BMI to identify obesity in pregnancy is not specific because weight increased as gestational age increased while height remained constant. 5.2.2 Mid Upper Arm Circumference and Pregnancy Mid upper arm circumference has been seen to either remain constant throughout pregnancy in some countries or change as pregnancy progressed in other societies. In this study, the mean Mid upper Arm Circumference values (in centimetres) in the first, second and third trimesters (30.47±3.88, 30.23±4.02 and 30.15±4.81) were higher than the 27± 3.44 cm found by Ricalde et al., (1998). This difference may be accounted for by the fact that their study involved a smaller group of 97 women or that our women are predisposed to having larger arms than Brazilian women. It could also be that the current trend of obesity in pregnancy has affected women in Enugu since their study was done a decade ago. MUAC from our study has excellent correlations with maternal weight but there was no significant difference in the three study group. This shows that it is independent of gestational age and this agree with previous studies done (Krasovec, 1989; Ricalde et al., 1998), hence it can be used to identify the size of the women regardless of the pregnancy. 5.2.3 Calf Circumference and Pregnancy Calf Circumference has been studied less extensively in pregnancy than MUAC. In this study, also correlated with weight and BMI but not as much as MUAC and this agrees with Khadivzadehet al.,( 2002). In this study there was no significant difference in the calf circumferences of the different study groups. Piperettaet al.,(2002) in their longitudinal study among pregnant women in Columbia and found a significant difference in calf circumferences between the second and third trimester women who gave birth to normal neonates. It may be that these women develop oedema later in pregnancy since those with oedema were excluded from this study. Calf circumference may therefore also be a pointer to the pre-pregnancy weight of the woman in our environment in the absence of leg oedema. 5.2.4 Waist Circumference and Waist to Hip Ratio in Pregnancy Waist circumference and waist to hip ratio are measures of central adiposity used to predict adverse pregnancy outcomes. Various studies have tried to assign Cut off points of waist circumference for preeclampsia, gestational diabetes and dislipidaemia (Wendland et al.,2007, Yamamoto et al., 2001). In this study the mean waist circumference in the first trimester was 92.31±10.78cm. It is much higher than the 81.7± (7.7) cm found in Brazil by Wendland et al., (2007). This difference may be due to genetic and environmental differences in the study groups. Women in our society may be more predisposed to central obesity probably due to our diet which is mainly carbohydrate. In our study mean waist circumference increased significantly from first to second trimester, contrary to finding by Wendland et al., (2007) that waist circumference did not increase significantly until 28 weeks. In all the trimesters, waist circumference correlated positively with weight and BMI. In order to use waist circumference to identify obesity in pregnancy in our environment, different cut off may be needed for different ranges of gestational age. A hip circumference wider than the waist circumference is considered protective against adverse effects of obesity (Snijder et al.,2004). Hip Circumference was seen to increase significantly from first to third trimester. The mean hip circumference for first, second and third trimesters were 105.31±9.10 cm, 105.97cm±8.79 and 108.65±9.27cm respectively. This agrees with the finding of Piperattaet al., (2002) that women that had increase in hip circumference gave birth to normal birth weight neonates while reduction or static hip circumference was associated with low birth weight. The reason for the increase in hip circumference may be due to the effect of pregnancy hormones on the body. In our study, waist circumference increased more than hip circumference hence the increase in mean WHR with mean values of 0.87±0.05, 0.92±0.06 and 0.98±0.08 respectively for the three trimesters. WHR ratio can be used to identify obesity in pregnancy if different cut offs points are given for different gestational age. 5.3 Using Other Anthropometric Indices to Identify Obesity In Pregnancy Anthropometric indices other than weight and height may be very useful in identifying obesity in pregnancy. Pregnant woman with MUAC of ≥ 33cm is very likely to be obese and more so if the calf circumference is also greater than 39cm no matter the gestational age or the height of the woman. From this study, MUAC has a sensitivity of 76 % and a specificity of 91% while CC has a sensitivity of 78 % and a specificity of 85% when compared to the estimated prepregnancy weight. Waist circumference and Waist to Hip Ratio can also be used by identifying where the woman falls in a velocity curve depending on her Gestational age. These measurements are easier to take and involve no mathematical calculations or costly equipments (Collins 1996). They are also less prone to errors than weighing scales. They may therefore be invaluable in identifying obesity in pregnancy in our environment where expensive equipments and man power may be constrains in recognizing women at poor pregnancy outcome due to obesity. 5.4 Anthropometric Indices, Age and Gravidity From the study, the mean value of the anthropometric indices increased as the age of the women increased. Khadivzadeh T.( 2002) in his study of anthropometric indices in women of reproductive age also got similar results. Women tend to become obese with increase in age. Since gravidity increases with age of each woman, this may explain why those with higher gravidity also had increase in the mean values of the anthropometric indices. This may also mean that women in our environment do not shed all the pregnancy weight gain after delivery. 5.5 Limitations of the study Some of the limitations of the study merit discussion. First, most women in our environment book in their second trimester hence it was difficult to get those in the first trimester. Secondly, attempts made to involve women living in rural areas failed because they were hardly present in health care centres provided for them at the hours for the study. Hence most of the women in this study live in the urban and sub urban areas. Thirdly, the fact that the study is a cross sectional study makes it unable to identify changes in anthropometric indices of the same women as pregnancy progresses. Fourthly, government hospitals could not be used because of industrial actions going on during the period of study. 5.6 Prospects for further studies Further studies can be done with a much larger sample size to identify more effective cut off points for obesity in pregnancy. Longitudinal studies can also be done to identify how these indices change in individuals during pregnancy. Studies that show the possible outcome of pregnancy at different cut off points of indices can also be done. These women can also be followed up to 6 weeks after delivery to ascertain the degree of pregnancy weight gain that was shedded. The obesity in pregnancy is associated with poor pregnancy outcome for both the mother and the baby (Galtier et al., 2000; CMACE/RCOG, 2010). Body Mass Index used for identification of obesity in pregnancy is not a specific criterion. Other indices such as Mid upper arm circumference, Calf circumference, waist circumference and Waist to Hip Ratio have positive correlation with weight can be used instead of BMI to identify obesity in pregnancy. MUAC and CC from this study did not vary from trimester to trimester hence can be used to identify obesity no matter the gestational age of the woman. Cut off points of 33 cm and 39 cm can be used to identify obesity. Waist circumference and Waist to Hip Ratio increased in pregnancy and can be used to identify obesity if velocity curves are used. Anthropometric indices increased as age and gravidity showing that obesity may be associated with increase in age and gravidity. First, in order to reduce the incidence of maternal mortality and morbidity in our environment, our women should be educated on the need for antenatal care and early booking. Secondly, adoption of other anthropometric indices other than weight and height for recognizing obesity in pregnancy will ensure that a greater number of women who are obese are identified and proper management instituted for them. Moreover, tapes with color codes showing normal and abnormal circumference ranges can be provided in clinics and healthcare centers for identifying obesity in pregnancy. Obesity; The Health Impacts And Relationship With Reproduction The complete material will be sent to you in just 2 steps. 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Last Updated May 16, 2022 Among the many tools and gadgets associated with the medical field, few are more thought-of than the stethoscope. From children’s toys of playing doctor to icons of jewelry for nurses to the go-to look for medical professionals, the stethoscope is a foundational instrument to helping people be well. But just what makes stethoscopes so important to just about every exam or check-up? With such popularity and variety of uses of such device, there’s a lot of different options to choose from. From your head to your toes, a stethoscope can make a significant difference in the medical professional’s ability to discover and address your health and pinpoint any issues quickly. Whether you’re just starting out in the medical field, are looking for a new option from your current instrument or are curious about using one for your own health and wellness, stethoscopes can be helpful resources for all. We’re here to help you get started in choosing the stethoscope that will fit exactly what you’re looking for. Next, we share what you need to know about all things stethoscopes. From their variety of uses to the different types to what you should be looking for in making your selection, we’ve got it here for you. Here we also share some of the top picks for stethoscopes based on where you’re at in your medical career or specific characteristics you’re looking for in your instrument. What is a Stethoscope? When it comes to one of the most useful and versatile instruments a doctor or nurse has, the stethoscope rises to the top. The word “stethoscope” comes from two Greek words that mean chest and examination. Yet beyond the chest, a stethoscope can be used for a variety of areas of the body. The stethoscope typically has two tubes that are connected to earpieces that can fit in the administrator’s ears. These tubes are also connected to a small circular resonator made of metal. History of Stethoscopes As its name implies, the stethoscope really began with an emphasis on the chest and heart. As the heart is an internal organ and can’t be seen just on the outside, knowing the sound of the heart was shown to be a valuable source of information in determining the health of the individual. Even before the version of a stethoscope of what we recognize today came to be, physicians have been interested and involved in identifying and tracking sounds of the chest and heart. American Diagnostic Corporate notes that physicians would use things such as auscultation, which is where they put their ear directly on the patient’s chest to hear the sounds inside. This attention to sound could help the physician use percussion and rhythm to identify any concerns. However, this direct contact between the physician and patient proved problematic in several regards. As a result, there came the demand for an instrument where the physician could still get that audible information without error-prone direct contact. As a result, doctor René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec developed the first stethoscope in 1816. The method he used allowed him to hear the heart sounds even more clearly and eased the process greatly. As other physicians found this practice valuable, the stethoscope continued to develop and advance in technology with improvements like adding two earpieces in a bi-aural method as it became a standard diagnostic instrument. Over time, technology has continued to improve the function and ease of use of the stethoscope. Things like lightening the weight and improving the quality of sounds have made it a versatile and essential instrument for all physicians. Since its beginnings, this device has had a profound influence in equipping physicians with the opportunity to hear the internal operations of a patient without intruding space or drawing inerrant conclusions. Parts of a Stethoscope The design and function of the stethoscope has come a long way since it was first invented. Today’s model has several components that each serve a purpose in the practice of auscultation. According to Inside PA Training, the stethoscope has a few key parts that allow the physician to effectively listen to the patient’s organs or other areas. The physician most often will wear the stethoscope around his or her neck when not in use. When using, he or she will put the eartips in the ears, which is connected to the eartube and tubing that is connected to the chestpiece. One of the key pieces of the chestpiece is the diaphragm. This is the disc-like flat piece that is placed on the patient’s body. The other side of the bell, which is also round and has a smaller piece with a whole. Turning these two pieces allows the physician to adjust the settings to be more effective. According to Inside PA Training, the diaphragm portion works better in situations where high pitched sounds are heard, such as in normal heart beating or breathing. The bell side may be better for detecting sounds that have a lower pitch, such as murmurs or bowel movements. This diaphragm piece is what vibrates when the patient’s internal processes make noise. This vibration moves the air inside the tube, which moves the air in and out of the ears of the physician. The sound is amplified by the stethoscope as the diaphragm has a greater surface area than the column of air in the tube. That air must move further in the diaphragm to cause pressure waves that are heard by the physician. Another more innovative use of the stethoscope is being able to measure the span of the liver. Using sound, the physician can determine the location of the liver to identity any concerns. What are Stethoscopes Used For? Since the earliest models, stethoscopes have been designed to be able to hear the rhythm or other internal processes for patients. Most often, stethoscopes are used to listen to internal organs such as the heart, lungs or intestines. Being able to identify sounds made by these organs provide helpful information Another very common use for the stethoscope is measuring blood pressure. This may be what is most often associated with the stethoscope in a regular check-up, aside from listening to organs. Using a blood pressure cuff, the physician can place the stethoscope on the vein of the patient to determine the diastolic blood pressure. Who Needs a Stethoscope? From experienced cardiologists to nursing students, those in the medical field will most likely need quick and easy access to their own stethoscope. As a trademark of the occupation, the stethoscope is a highly versatile tool that is helpful in a variety of settings and conditions. Stethoscopes come in a variety of types that can incorporate features based on who is using them. Cardiologists may require a more advanced version of a stethoscope than a general practitioner who’s helping a patient in a general check-up. How to Clean a Stethoscope Because of their high involvement in hospitals, doctors’ offices and other medical areas, cleaning your stethoscope is an important practice to get into the habit of. In fact, My PA Training notes that stethoscopes may be involved in transferring patient-to-patient diseases. Prevent that harmful transmission by wiping the chest piece with a disinfecting wipe that has an alcohol component. Other ways to care for your stethoscope include keeping it away from extreme temperatures or immersing it in liquid. You can also preserve the earpieces by removing any debris or gunk from them as needed. If possible, transport your stethoscope in a case when not in use. Getting into the habit of cleaning and preserving your stethoscope with antibacterial wipes and other cleaners can help you preserve your instrument as well as keep yourself and all you come in contact with safe from transmitting diseases. How Long Does a Stethoscope Last The durability and life of your stethoscope are often dependent on the frequency of use and the quality of the material used in it. According to DS Medical, the typical stethoscope lasts about just two years. This timeframe may depend based on the frequency of use and how well you care for it. When to Replace Your Stethoscope Unfortunately, stethoscopes don’t last forever. If you notice that your stethoscope is giving inaccurate readings or it comes more difficult to hear sounds, it may be time to find a new version. Other signs that indicate a replacement is needed is when the tubing of your stethoscope becomes hardened. This is because the PVC material in your stethoscope comes into frequent contact with the skin. One way to prevent this is by keeping the stethoscope away from skin contact when it’s not being used. Sometimes, stethoscopes may just need a quick repair. This may be helpful for more expensive versions like digital ones. Also, you may also be able to just replace the earpieces of your stethoscope, as those are one of the first components to show wear and tear. Finding replacement earpieces is easily done online. Replacing just the earpieces rather than the entire unit can be a more affordable option than having to get an entirely new stethoscope. Types of Stethoscopes With their variety of uses and purposes, stethoscopes come in a wide range of types, each with features and styles that are tailored to meet the individual’s preferences. You can find them at all price ranges, depending on your quality requirements. When it comes to different types of stethoscopes, there are two main versions that can both be effective in amplifying sounds for physicians to hear. Acoustic Stethoscopes – These types of stethoscopes are designed to send more sound waves to the physician’s ears. Being able to hear those vibrations is what helps the physician make informed decisions. Using this amplification method, the sound waves are more easily heard and the process is more effective. Electronic Stethoscopes – These varieties amplify the internal sounds even more than an acoustic version. They use electronic signals to optimize the sounds for listening. These digital versions may also come with a variety of other features that can be of particular value to cardiologists or those who use them on a regular basis. In addition to different types of stethoscopes, the headpieces of stethoscopes may also vary based on the use. For example, there are specific types of stethoscopes designed for cardiology, for pediatric, for veterinary and for some other uses as well. Each of these designed types have particular features that better help to meet the needs of the specific patient type. Importance of a High-Quality Stethoscope There are a lot of different types of stethoscopes. However, when it comes to the health of your patients or of yourself, having a stethoscope that is high-quality and reliable is imperative. Typically, My PA Training suggests you should plan on spending at least $60 for an effective and reliable stethoscope. Spending less and getting a lower-quality stethoscope makes you more prone to missing sounds and having an instrument that may not be as durable or long-lasting. However, just because you need a high-quality instrument doesn’t mean you need to fork over hundreds of dollars on one, either. Unless you’re planning a career in cardiology, you may not require a fancy digital option that costs a lot more. What to Look for When Buying a Stethoscope When it comes to choosing the right stethoscope for you and your work, your preferences matter. The area of medical work you are in will be a key indication for the type and features you need in your instrument. For example, cardiologists may require a stethoscope with many more features and components that may not be necessary for a nurse practitioner. Wherever you serve, there are some key features and qualities in a stethoscope you should be mindful of as you choose your instrument. One of the most important things to ensure is that the stethoscope provides high-quality acoustics that allows you to hear well and effectively. Having an instrument that you can depend on to give you the sound waves you need to hear should be a foundational characteristic as you make your decision. Other features that you may want to consider as you purchase your stethoscope is the ease of cleaning and maintaining it. Make sure it is manufactured with durable materials that will keep it functional and effective for a couple of years. You may also look for design features like material, patterns and comfort level as you use and wear it regularly. Our Top Picks of the Best Stethoscopes With such an important instrument as the stethoscope, finding the right one for you is an important process to go through. 1. Best Stethoscope Overall Keeping in mind those important factors about what makes a good stethoscope, you can explore top models that are great for any role. When it comes to the standard stethoscope that is praised for its versatility and reliability, the Littmann brand stethoscopes bring credibility and assurance that it’ll help you hear what you need to hear. According to Healthline, the 3M Littmann Classic III is a great option overall for a variety of professions. Whether you’re working with kids or adults, the optimal size with a dual head and single tube allow you to be efficient and effective. Choosing the type of stethoscope that matches your style and personality is easy as it comes in a variety of colors to choose from. This model can even be personalized to showcase your work or personality. The materials are both flexible and durable, helping you to keep the stethoscope around for longer. You can find this model on Amazon for under $100. If you’re looking for a versatile, easy-to-use model for non-critical care, this 3M Littmann Classic can be a great option. 2. Best Budget Stethoscope When you’re on the hunt for your next stethoscope that you can depend on, you don’t need to spend excessive amounts of cash. Especially if you’re just starting out, a basic model that fits within your budget is perfectly reasonable. For example, Healthline recommends the FriCARE Dual Head model. It can be a great, affordable model that matches what you’re looking for in a stethoscope. This basic model may not come with the extra exciting features that you might find with an electric or digital model, it will get the job done. The material of this model is advertised as durable and easy to clean. It comes in three colors and has a versatile design that can be just what you need. This model even comes with replaceable ear pieces so you can make it last longer. Perhaps the best part about this stethoscope? The price. You can find the FriCARE Dual Head for just $25 on Amazon. 3. Best Stethoscope for Nursing Nurses serve in a variety of roles. From checking blood pressure to listening to the heart to identifying any other concerns, they need a stethoscope they can count on. Yet they don’t necessarily need a model that is overly expensive or comes with too many features. Options from Littmann, such as the 3M Littmann Classic III can be a great and versatile option for whatever your day holds. 4. Best Stethoscope for Medical Students For medical students, you may want to start out with a basic version that fits within your price range. Even though you may want to go for the cheapest option, having a quality stethoscope is vital to being effective and efficient in your work. And with options like the 3M Littmann Lightweight II S.E. stethoscope, you can have an affordable option that provides the quality you need. Very Well Health describes this option as an inexpensive and entry-level option that still offers the features and reliability you’ll need. It has a tunable diaphragm that allows you to make adjustments as needed and a quality level of sound to help you hear what you need to. This model from Littmann is also lightweight and comfortable to wear as you’re walking around observing and making a difference in your workplace or classroom. You can find this model on Amazon for less than $50, too! 5. Best Stethoscope for Pediatrics Pediatric stethoscopes tend to come in a smaller size due to their design for smaller bodies. This smaller size is more conducive to be precise with smaller organs and processes. Beyond general pediatrics, there are also stethoscopes specifically designed for infants that have an even smaller chest piece for more exact monitoring and diagnosis. Other fun features of stethoscopes designed specifically for pediatrics include toys or animals on the head of the stethoscope. This cute and fun addition may make it easier to entertain kids and help them stay still as you do your work. These smaller stethoscopes are also sold at a fairly reasonable price point. Very Well Health recommends the ADC Adscope 618 Pediatric Stethoscope as one of the best options for pediatric nurses. Even with its small size, it offers a great quality of sound that can help you hear what you need to. It comes with fun animal options like a frog, monkey, koala and panda. Rest easy in the comfort that this model also gives you a lifetime warranty so you can keep serving kids. You can find this option on Amazon for $45. 6. Best Stethoscope for Cardiology Stethoscopes for cardiology typically come in both single head and double head pieces. They are intended to be used to listen to the sounds of the heart and are fairly precise in their diagnosis. These varieties may be slightly more expensive than other traditional options. Very Well Health recommends the ADC Adscope 600 Platinum Series Cardiology Stethoscope as the best option for cardiologists. This option is high-performing and comes with additional features and functions that are essential for an advanced level of work. Find it on Amazon for less than $200. 7. Best Sound Quality Perhaps the most important feature of a stethoscope is its reliability and consistency in producing a quality sound that lets you make informed decisions about the patient’s condition. Having a stethoscope that prioritizes sound quality may be essential, especially for professions like cardiologists or who are involved in more critical care areas. For a stethoscope with the best sound quality, Healthline recommends again a Littmann brand stethoscope. In this case, the stethoscope designed for cardiologists, the 3M Master Littmann Cardiology may be your best option. This model is described as a double-lumen model, meaning the tubes have two paths of sound to cut down on any interference that may result in the process. This model comes with a wide range of benefits, including versatility for both adults and children, long tubing and a tunable diaphragm that allows you to be more precise in your listening. For models like these that are more advanced and come with more features, keep in mind that you may be paying for those as well. For example, the 3M Master Littmann Cardiology stethoscope sells on Amazon for over $200. However, depending on your role and profession, this higher quality model may be the investment you make in being effective and efficient as you help others. 8. Best Electric Stethoscope If you’re looking for a model that is a little more tech-advanced and comes with more bells and whistles, an electric option may be right for you. These models are easy to use and help to cut down on outside noise to give you a more accurate reading. Particularly if you work in a more critical area and have a greater need for exact readings, electric models can be a great fit. As Littmann can be the standard for many options, Healthline recommends the 3M Littmann model 3200 to provide you an electric option that is versatile and effective. It amplifies the sound to an even greater degree and cuts out outside noise for a better indication. However, with electric models also come a higher price point. This model from Littmann can be found for over $500 on Stethoscope.com. 9. Most Stylish Stethoscope Bring style to your listening approach with a stethoscope that combines effectiveness with style. While pediatric stethoscopes may have more options for fun animals and colors to entertain kids, anyone can still get a stethoscope they feel confident wearing. This MDF Rose Gold Dual Head stethoscope brings out a level of fashion as you rock those scrubs or doctors’ coat. In addition to rose gold, it also comes in a variety of other colors so you can get the look you want. It also comes with a lifetime warranty so you can be rocking that stethoscope for years to come. Find it on Amazon for just $80. Travelling Options with Stethoscopes? Sometimes in your work, you’re on the go. Whether you’re jumping from room to room or are serving on the ground in an area in need, having a stethoscope that comes with you is important. Most stethoscopes come with a traveling case that allows you to keep your instrument safe as you move and serve. Any of the basic models can come with cases that are affordable and durable, no matter where you go. The type and size of carrying case will depend on the stethoscope you have. Typically, these carrying cases are fairly inexpensive and can be effective in protecting your instrument.

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Why did the Prophet Mohammed start using henna in his later years? Starting after the age of 40, he began to dye his greying beard red to gain a more youthful appearance, as the Prophet Mohammed himself was reported to have NATURALLY red hair when he was young. Most Arabic authorities on the issue, themselves usually having brown or black hair and often a relatively dark complexion, appear to agree that Mohammed (also spelled Muhammad) was dark-haired, but Henric von Schwerin has stated that: This image (below) is said to be of actual hair from the beard of the Prophet Mohammed. Known in Turkish as the Sakal-ı Şerif, the beard was said to have been shaved from Mohammed’s face by his favoured barber Salman in the presence of Abu Bakr, Ali and several others. Individual hairs were later taken away, but the beard itself is kept protected in a glass container. This politically incorrect ethnic revelation helps to explain WHY millions of Muslims today, some being of sub-Saharan African origin with black hair, also dye their beards with red henna. The Prophet Mohammed (AD 570-632), the founder of the Islamic religion, was apparently fair-skinned; a freedman, by the name of Umar, described the Prophet thus: “his face was not fat nor rounded; it was white tinged with red”. [Guillaume (1987) 726.] The Islamic men pictured below, with reddish/orange henna-dyed beards and hair, are Muslim followers living many centuries AFTER the time of the Prophet Mohammed. The same way that DNA evidence has demonstrated the 99% of MODERN day Egyptians are NOT genetically related to the blond and red-headed Pharaohs, the vast majority of Muslims today have no ethnic relation to the Prophet Mohammed, yet still dye themselves with RED henna out of respect, tradition, and imitation. During her lifetime Aisha, the Prophet’s beloved wife, gained the epithet humayra, a word which has been translated as “light,” “reddish,” or “fair,” but whose meaning can be most accurately rendered as “blonde.” [Baltzer (1934) 206; Lewis (1990) 36; Vollers (1910) 91.] Subsequently, she has become known to the Islamic peoples as “Aisha the Blonde.” [Günther (1930) 168.] Abu Bakr, the father of Aisha, and thus, the father-in-law of Mohammed, was the first Caliph of Islam (AD 632-634). He was slenderly built, and white-skinned; also, he dyed his grey beard red. [Günther (1930) 163.] Caliph Ali (AD 656-661), a first cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, was also renowned for his blond hair, as were his descendants, who founded the Shi’ite branch of Islam. [Grant (1981) 84-85; Lewis (1990) 36.] However, it was bitterly resented by some Muslims, that the physical features which characterised a true descendant of Muhammad, were steadily being lost, due to admixture with darker races. Thus, as the Syrian poet Abu’l-Ala (AD 973-1057), remarked in a letter: “We often see a man of mark who has in his house women of high degree setting above them a girl in a striped gown purchased for a few coins and so we may see a man whose grandfather on the father’s side is a fair-haired descendant of Ali while his maternal grandfather is a black idolator.” [Lewis (1990) 89.] There appears to have been a blond, racially Nordic element, amongst the leadership of the Arabic peoples, from the very earliest times. Thus, as the distinguished Harvard anthropologist Carleton S. Coon has noted, when referring to the population of the Yemen plateau: “The Nordic-looking people are usually confined to the social stratum from which civil officers and religious men are drawn, and it is more than a coincidence that the acknowledged descendants of the Prophet are lighter-skinned and show greater evidence of blondism than the rest of the population. There may perhaps have been a Nordic strain associated with the holy families who entered this region from the Hejaz in early post-Islamic times.” [Coon (1939) 408-409.] Professor C. S. Coon has also stated, that amongst the people of Morocco: “The ordinary city Arabs are little different from their pastoral and agricultural brethren, but this rule does not apply to the aristocratic families. These merchant-princes are sometimes blond, and of Nordic appearance; others of them look like Mekkan aristocrats in Arabia.” [Coon (1939) 484.] In the mid-eleventh-century, the Hispano-Muslim author Ibn García penned his Risala, which expressed similar sentiments, linking blondness with nobility: “Of Roman origin and blond, Byzantine lineage, fostered by the possessors of inner virtue, lineal glory, and greatness among the blond ones . . . soft-skinned ones among whom neither the Egyptians nor the Nabateans have implanted; family honour well-guarded and noble lineage.” It would also appear that many of the numerous and diverse rulers of Moorish Spain, were racially Nordic; the Spanish historian Enrique Sordo, informs us that: “Most of the caliphs were fair or ginger-haired with blue eyes, which seems to show a preponderance of Berber or Germanic blood. As they were extremely proud of their origin, some of them dyed their hair black, as if to affirm their Arab descent.” [Sordo (1962) 24.] This trend towards blondism began with the very first independent Muslim ruler of the Iberian Peninsula. Abd al-Rahman I (AD 756-788), the founder of the Cordoban Emirate, was a Syrian from the Damascus region, and belonged to the imperial Umayyad family: he was a grandson of Caliph Hisham (AD 724-743). His mother was a Berber slave-girl, and his father was the Syrio-Arab Umayyad, Muawiya. He is said to have been a “colossal red-haired man”. [Grant (1981) 90; Sordo (1962) 23.] Stanley G. Payne also provides another example of a fair-haired ruler in Muslim Spain: “An effectively unified state was finally achieved during the long reign of Abd-al-Rahman III (912-961). The son of a Navarrese princess, this greatest of Cordoban rulers was a short, blue-eyed Muslim who dyed his red hair black to match that of most of his subjects. In 929 he took the step of raising his dominion from an emirate, or kingdom, to a caliphate, or empire.” [Payne (1973) 23.] The fourteenth-century historian Ali ibn Abd Allah, in his Roudh el Kartas, described a Moorish Sultan of the time, Muhammed ben Idriss, as “blond”. In 1232, Muhammad b. Yusuf b. Nasr from Banu ‘l-Ahmar, made himself the Sultan of the kingdom of Granada, a feat which he achieved by consolidating several Muslim petty kingdoms in southern Spain. Muhammad I was known as Ibn al Ahmar (son of the red), because of his red hair; he was the founder of the Nasrid dynasty, and ruled from 1232 to 1273. [Sordo (1962) 120; Vollers (1910) 87.] This trait appears to have continued, even into later periods. Abu ‘l-Hadjdjadj Yusuf I, the Nasrid Sultan of Granada from 1333-1354, has been described in the following terms: “He was of noble bearing and was endowed with extraordinary physical strength and good looks. His skin was too pale however, and, according to Arab historians, he increased his grave and majestic appearance by growing a beard which he dyed very black.” [Sordo (1962) 120-121.] Ultimately, Moorish Spain ended as it had begun: with a fair-haired ruler. Muhammad XII [Boabdil], was the last Sultan of Granada (AD 1482-1483, 1487-1492); Enrique Sordo depicts him thus: “Among the paintings in the gallery of the Generalife Palace hangs Boabdil’s portrait. In it his countenance is kindly, handsome and melancholy, his complexion rubicund and his hair blond.” [Sordo (1962) 124.] Islamic Egypt also possessed several Nordic rulers of significance. Al-Nasir Yusuf Salah al-Din [Saladin] (AD 1171-1193), founded the Ayyubid Dynasty (AD 1171-1254), when he was invested with the governance of Egypt and Syria. He was of Kurdish ancestry, and his contemporaries stated that he was tall, handsome, fair-skinned and light-eyed. [Fossier (1968) 315; Günther (1927) 151; Weyl (1967) 41.] Robert Gayre of Gayre informs us that: “Salah-ed-din and many of his followers had Kurdish and northern blood which accounted for their lighter colouring…” [Gayre of Gayre (1972) 97.] Al-Nasir al-Hasan, who was Sultan from 1347-1351, and then from 1354-1361, was one of the last rulers of the Turkic Bahri Mamluk Dynasty, which ruled Egypt from 1250-1390. According to the Medieval chronicalist Ibn Iyas, he had a blond beard and dull-blue eyes. [Baltzer (1934) 210; Vollers (1910) 95.] Sultan Al-Nasir Faraj (AD 1399-1412), was the son of Al-Zahir Barquq [Burji] (AD 1382-1389, 1390-1399), the first of the Burji Mamluk rulers; the Dynasty reigned from 1390 to 1517, and was mostly of Circassian descent. Ibn Iyas stated that he was blond-bearded; he also noted that both Al-Nasir al-Hasan and Al-Nasir Faraj, possessed what he described as “Arab faces,” which meant that they had long, noble countenances. [Baltzer (1934) 210; Vollers (1910) 95.] Ibn Iyas also observed that Sultan Al-Mansur Qalaun (AD 1279-1290), of the Bahri Mamluk Dynasty, had fair hair and a fair complexion. [Vollers (1910) 91.] During the period of Ottoman rule, Nordic racial elements once again achieved a position of ascendency in the Islamic world. Orhan (AD 1324-1362), the son of Osman I (AD 1280-1324), who was the founder of Ottoman rule in Anatolia, was the first of that dynasty to use the title “Sultan.” He is described as being very tall, broad-shouldered, fair-skinned, light-eyed and blond-haired. The German physical anthropologist Professor Hans F. K. Günther, considers him to have been predominantly Nordic in type. [Günther (1934) 189-190.] Mehmed II (AD 1451-1481), known as the Conqueror, was the Ottoman Sultan that ended the Byzantine Empire, and who occupied the city of Constantinople, converting it into Istanbul. A contemporary miniature of Mehmed, painted by the artist Sinan Bey, depicts him as a light-skinned, light-haired and light-eyed man. [Reader’s Digest Association (1974) 127.] Ottoman rule over North Africa — Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis — was extended and consolidated by the brothers Aruj and Kheir-ed-Din Barbarossa. The name Barbarossa stems from the Italian word for “Redbeard,” and the brothers acquired this surname because of their ginger hair. [Baltzer (1934) 211.] Kheir-ed-Din (d. 1546), was appointed Regent of Algiers in 1530, and his reign was largely a success. [Mitchell (1976) 137.] Hans F. K. Günther refers to him as: “the Viking-like Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, the founder of Osman [Ottoman] rule in North Africa, the red-bearded son of a Greek from Lesbos.” [Günther (1927) 173.] The link given below, leads to a web page which contains depictions of every one of the Ottoman Sultans. It is interesting to observe how many have reddish hair, light eyes, or a fair complexion. We may also note that the Algerian national hero Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri (AD 1807-1883), who fought the French attempts to occupy his country in the 1830s and 1840s, appears to have been blue-eyed. [von Schwerin (1960) 28; von Schwerin (1964) 129-130.] The racial trends of the Islamic past have continued into the present era; this has been demonstrated by the American author Nathaniel Weyl, who noted the relevant facts in the following manner: “As Gayre cogently observes, there is a general correlation between blondism and Caucasoid features, on the one hand, and social status and leadership, on the other. This is by no means a recent development nor is it a reflection of the superior prestige and power which Nordics and other blond peoples have come to enjoy in the modern world… “As for the present leadership of the Arab world, Henric von Schwerin has pointed out the extent to which it tends towards blondness and the Nordic type. The Christian minorities throughout the area are, as Dr. Gayre has observed, almost invariably superior in status, intelligence and ability to the Moslems, and are at the same time markedly blonder and more definitely Caucasoid in features. “Moreover, the most vigorous, resourceful and progressive nations in the region — Lebanon and Jordan in particular — are also those with the largest Christian minorities and the greatest visible admixture of Nordic genes.” [Weyl (1967) 28-29.] The Nordic element in the Islamic world continues to play an important role — this is demonstrated by the fact that many of the leading statesmen in the recent history of the Middle East (particularly those who have organized the causes for national liberation and independence), have been predominantly Nordic in type: for instance, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938), the founder of modern Turkey. During the First World War, he fought the Allies at Gallipoli, and after the Armistice in 1918, he prevented a European conquest of Anatolia. After deposing the Ottoman Sultan, he declared himself President of Turkey (1923-1938), and initiated a rapid and thorough process of modernization and secularization, which largely succeeded in westernizing the Turkish Republic. He was blond-haired and blue-eyed — features which he seems to have inherited from his Albanian mother. As a result of this, Henric von Schwerin has stated that Atatürk: “must be characterized as predominantly Nordic…” [von Schwerin (1960) 27; von Schwerin (1964) 128.] Haj Amin al-Husseini (d. 1974), the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, was one of the most important individuals in the recent history of the Middle East: he was, for a long period of time, the foremost leader of the movement for Palestinian liberation, as well as being the President of the World Muslim Congress. During his lifetime he was renowned not only for his political activities, but also because his beard was reddish-blond and his eyes were blue. The Swedish authoress Karin Johnsson compared the Grand Mufti to Saladin, and Henric von Schwerin considered him to be: “one of the most pronounced Nordic types among renowned Muslims of today.” [von Schwerin (1960) 27; von Schwerin (1964) 129.] Amongst the leadership of the Algerian rebellion against France, Ferhat Abbas (b. 1899), the first President of the GPRA, from 1958-1961, had green-grey eyes. [von Schwerin (1960) 30; von Schwerin (1964) 130.] Another high official in the FLN, Ahmed Boumendjel, Head of the GPRA delegation at the negotiations in Mélun in 1960, was fair, tall and well-built. It was said that his features were almost like those of a Frenchman. [von Schwerin (1964) 130.] Colonel Houari Boumédienne [Muhammad Boukharouba] (1925-1978), was the leader of the ALN, and after independence from France was granted in 1962, he became the President of Algeria (1965-1978). He was known as “the Swede,” because of his fair hair; he is described as having: “wispy, sandy hair, a straggly, reddish mustache, and small grey-blue eyes.” [von Schwerin (1964) 130.] Habib Bourguiba (b. 1902), was a leading figure in the struggle for Tunisian independence from French rule, and in 1934 he founded the Neo-Destour Party, as a means towards this end. After independence in 1956, he became the first President of Tunisia (1956-1987); he was blue-eyed. [von Schwerin (1960) 28; von Schwerin (1964) 129.] In Syria, Sultan Atrash, the leader of the Druse rebellion against France during the 1920s, had a very fair skin and clear blue eyes. [Günther (1930) 152; von Schwerin (1960) 27; von Schwerin (1964) 128-129.] Emir Adil Arslan, another important figure of the rebellion, had bluish-green eyes and strongly Nordic features. [von Schwerin (1960) 27; von Schwerin (1964) 129.] Muhammad Idris al-Sanusi [Idris I] (1889-1983), Emir of Cyrenaica, and King of Libya (1951-1969), was said to have “calm blue eyes”. [von Schwerin (1960) 30; von Schwerin (1964) 129.] General Nuri-es-Said (1888-1958), the Iraqi premier for many years, was equally blue-eyed. [von Schwerin (1964) 128.] Finally, we should note that Muhammad Ayub Khan (1907-1974), the President of Pakistan (1958-1969), was tall, fair-complexioned and grey-eyed. It was said by certain French journalists that: “to judge from his appearance and manners, he could well be taken for a senior British officer…” [von Schwerin (1960) 28; von Schwerin (1964) 128.] From Nordic Arabs by Karl Earlson: http://marchofthetitans.com/earlson/nordicarabs.htm By Atlantean Gardens | References: Baltzer, H. (1934) Rasse und Kultur: Ein Gang durch die Weltgeschichte (Weimar: Alexander Duncker Verlag). Coon, C. S. (1939) The Races of Europe (New York: Macmillan). Dunan, M & J. Bowle (eds.) [D. Ames & G. Sainsbury, trans.] (1968) Larousse Encyclopedia of Ancient and Medieval History (Feltham: Paul Hamlyn). Fossier, R. (1968) “The Beginning of Europe’s Expansion.” In Dunan & Bowle (1968) pp. 298-321. Gayre of Gayre, R. (1972) Miscellaneous Racial Studies, 1943-1972: Volume II (Edinburgh: Armorial). Grant, M. (1981) Dawn of the Middle Ages (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson). Guillaume, A. [trans.] (1987) The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Hisham’s “Sirat Rasul Allah” (Oxford: University Press). Günther, H. F. K. [G. C. Wheeler, trans.] (1927) The Racial Elements of European History (London: Methuen). Günther, H. F. K. (1930) Rassenkunde des jüdischen Volkes (Munich: J. F. Lehmans Verlag). Günther, H. F. K. (1934) Die nordische Rasse bei den Indogermanen Asiens (Munich: J. F. Lehmans Verlag). Lewis, B. (1990) Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry (Oxford: University Press). Mitchell, D. (1976) Pirates (London: Thames & Hudson). Payne, S. G. (1973) A History of Spain and Portugal: Volume One (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press). Reader’s Digest Association (1974) The Last Two Million Years (London: Reader’s Digest Association). Siragusa, G. B. [ed.] (1910) Centenario della nascità di Michele Amari (Palermo: Virzi). Sordo, E. [I. Michae, trans.] (1962) Moorish Spain: Cordoba, Seville, Granada (New York: Crown Publishers). Vollers, K. (1910) “Über Rassenfarben in der arabischen Literatur.” In Siragusa (1910) pp. 84-95. von Schwerin, H. (1960) “Nordic Elements in Afro-Asia.” Northern World IV (2) pp. 24-30. von Schwerin, H. (1964) “European Elements in Afro-Asia.” Mankind Quarterly IV pp. 127-133. Weyl, N. (1967) “The Arab World: A Study of Biogenetic Disintegration.” Mankind Quarterly VIII pp. 26-43.

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Beginnings – The Saint Cloud Priory – Transfers – Final Location – 1856-1867 When, about the middle of last century, that part of central Minnesota lying west of the Mississippi was thrown open for settlement, such a stream of settlers poured in that in a short time the face of the primitive wilderness was changed. The Indian tribes had been induced to move northward and their former hunting grounds were soon transformed into smiling fields; roads were constructed across country; stage routes afforded facilities for travel by land and small steamboats passed up and down the Mississippi river between Minneapolis and St. Cloud. A great number of the immigrants who arrived in 1854 and 1855 were Germans and Catholics, and their spiritual care at once became an important subject of attention. In all the northern part of the Territory of Minnesota there was at the time but one priest, the late Reverend Francis Pierz (1785-1880), who, in addition to ministering to the Indians in the northern and eastern parts of the Territory, was commissioned by the bishop of St. Paul, Joseph Cretin (1799-1857), to visit the German settlements in Stearns County. It was a laborious task for an old man who had already reached the age of three-score and ten, for he lived at Crow Wing on the upper Mississippi and could avail himself of no traveling facilities whatever for his missionary journeys. Like a true apostle, he went afoot and sought for the members of his scattered flock in the forests and on the prairies, offered them the consolation of religion, and from the storehouse of his experience gave them valuable guidance for their temporal pursuits as well. To him the settlement of Stearns and several other counties is chiefly due. In the year 1855 he held services at St. Cloud, St. Joseph, St. James, Richmond (Torah) etc. and at the two places first named, he organized congregations. The work now exceeded his powers and he yearned to return to the Indians to whose interests he had consecrated his life. Hence he appealed to the bishop of St. Paul to secure German priests for the new settlements. Ten years earlier, in 1846, Reverend Boniface Wimmer (who must be recognized as the actual founder of the institution we are about to describe) had come from the ancient monastery of Metten in Bavaria to the United States and had founded the Benedictine monastery of St. Vincent’s in Pennsylvania. Believing that the venerable Order which he had transplanted upon American soil was destined to exercise an apostolate in the interests of religion, civilization and education as it had done so gloriously for many centuries in Europe until its activity was crippled by pernicious legislation, he accepted an invitation of the Bishop of St. Paul, to send some priests for the northern part of the St. Paul diocese and eventually to found a house of the Order in that diocese. Early in April, 1856, a small missionary band, composed of the Very Reverend Demetrius di Marogna, Fraters Cornelius Wittmann and Bruno Riss, both clerics in Minor Orders who had just completed their studies, and two lay brothers, Benno Muckenthaler and Patrick Greil, set out from St. Vincent’s and after a tedious journey by steamboat down the Ohio and up the Mississippi, arrived in St. Paul on May 2. Father Demetrius, to whom the direction of the enterprise was entrusted, was descended from a noble family in the northern part of Italy and was born September 17, 1803 at Villa Lagarina, in the southern part of Tyrol. After the war of 1809, the Count di Marogna left Tyrol with his family and took up his residence in Bavaria, where the young Count Charles (the subject of this sketch) received an education suitable to his station and rank. While pursuing his studies, he began to realize the emptiness of a purely worldly career and resolved to devote himself to the sacred ministry. Having finished a seminary course in Mainz, he was ordained a priest in 1826 and during the following twenty-three years served as pastor in the diocese of Mainz and Augsburg. In 1847 he left Bavaria to spend the remainder of his life in the missions of the United States where, as he had learned from periodicals and newspapers, there was a scarcity of priests, especially in the German settlements in the middle and western States. The first scene of his labors was western Illinois (Germantown and vicinity), where he served under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Chicago till 1852. To his serious and reflecting mind, the perils of missionary life were too great and he concluded to retire from the missions into monastic seclusion. He entered the novitiate of St. Vincent’s, Pennsylvania in 1852 and in less than two years from that time he found himself elevated to the office of Prior of that monastery, a position which he occupied during a critical period and which he resigned when he was chosen to organize and establishment of the Order in distant Minnesota. Shortly after the arrival of the colony in St. Paul, the two clerics, Frater Cornelius and Frater Bruno, were ordained priests. On May 20, the party arrived in Sauk Rapids and on the following day for the first time visited St. Cloud, the county seat of Stearns County. This county was organized in the winter of 1854-55 and at the time of the arrival of the Benedictines, St. Cloud was the only village which it could boast. Some slight beginnings had been made here as early as 1852, it appears, but the place first began to attract attention in 1854 and 1855, when settlers from Indiana and other middle States made their homes on the present site of the city. At that time there lived on two claims near the river and about two miles south of St. Cloud, two brothers, Louis and Wilhelm Rothkopp, both single and well advanced in years. Prompted, probably, by a desire to encourage the establishment of a house of the Order near St. Cloud, they had made an offer of their claims (320 acres) to the Fathers, who, in good faith, entered into possession. They, in turn, were required to support the two brothers for the rest of their days. Without delay the Fathers proceeded to establish a monastery on one of the claims: a humble makeshift of a monastery in point of buildings. The latter consisted of a log hut, destitute of comfort and furniture; a small frame addition, to serve as a kitchen, was at once built. Late in fall a small stable was built for the two horses and the cow which constituted the entire livestock of the community. From this point the Fathers visited the settlements in Stearns and neighboring counties, gathered the people, formed congregations, began erecting churches and schools and soon had the satisfaction to learn that their labors were not unrewarded, for the people responded eagerly, and soon log chapels were reared, which in many instances named the settlements, as St. Joseph, St. Augusta, St. Wendel, St. Martin, etc. The importance of the school was not ignored: the children were collected for instruction for a few months a year. At St. Cloud, Father Cornelius, who was the first pastor of the place, established a school in October 1856, on the southwest corner of Block 6, Washington and Lake Streets; the school quarters were a frail shed built of boards. Such was the first school in Stearns County. Father Cornelius held services for the congregation on Sundays and taught the school during the week until summer 1857. The Fathers realized that in course of time some provision must be made for higher education; moreover, if the Order and its missionary work was to be permanent in Minnesota, provision had to be made for training candidates for the Order. For some time and as long as the monastery continued to be dependent upon St. Vincent’s, it might rely upon that institution for help; but it was desirable, and very naturally so, that each new establishment be self supporting in every respect. No shrewd calculations were made in advance: a college was a necessity and whether it was to prove a financial success or not was a question that received no consideration. Like Abbot Boniface Wimmer, the Fathers were willing to admit students who lacked the means to pay their way through a course of study; they were convinced that their labors would be recompensed in one form or another. First of all it was important to secure corporate rights for the Order in Minnesota and a charter for the prospective educational institution. The charter was drawn up and introduced into the House of Representatives (as House file No. 70) during the eighth session of the Territorial Legislature, on January 22, 1857, by Hon. John L. Wilson, of St. Cloud. It was For An Act To Incorporate The St. John Seminary. WHEREAS, It is highly important, that the youths of this new, but flourishing Territory, be not only instructed in the elementary sciences, but moreover, be also educated by sound, moral principles; And, WHEREAS, It is very desirable, that there be a corporation formed, in order to establish a scientific, educational and ecclesiastical institution; In consideration thereof, Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Minnesota: Section 1.That the members of the religious order of St. Benedict, Demetrius Marogna, Cornelius Wittmann, Bruno Riss, Alexius Roetzer and their associates and successors in office, which order is instituted for scientific, educational and ecclesiastical purposes, be a body politic and corporate, to be known by the name and style of “Order of St. Benedict,” and by that name shall have perpetual succession. Section 2.The principal object of this politic and corporate body shall be the promotion of the instruction and education of youths, to the acquirement of which end the corporators named in this act shall be hereby authorized to establish and erect an institution, or seminary, in Stearns County, on that portion of St. Cloud City, platted and recorded as Rothkopp’s Addition to St. Cloud, to be known by the name and style of “St. John’s Seminary.” (Then follow eight other sections detailing the rights and duties of the corporation.) The Bill was launched upon a stormy sea and encountered much prejudice and opposition from those to whom the existence of an educational institution controlled by Catholic clergymen appeared a menace to the public welfare. After being passed from the House to the Council with amendments in which the upper body refused to concur and to the elimination of which the House finally agreed, the bill was passed February 27, 1857. It was among the last bills reported and was signed by Governor Willis A. Gorman on March 6, 1857. Thus the new institution was given public recognition and the Fathers were encouraged to proceed in their enterprise, the organization of the first private institution for higher education in Minnesota. They asked for no State aid and had no hopes of ever receiving assistance from that quarter. Pecuniary resources were slender and the year 1857 was marked by a financial crisis, to say nothing of the dire grasshopper visitation which had been disastrous to the crops in 1856 and the ravages of which were still felt in this part of the Territory in 1857. Prior Cornelius Wittmann (1857-1858) On October 7, 1857 Father Demetrius retired from the priorship and upon invitation of the late Msgr. A. Ravoux, then administrator of the vacant see of St. Paul, accepted the pastorate of the Assumption Church in the city of St. Paul. From January 1858 to June 1863 he labored in this position: then his poor health and advanced age induced him to retire from active service in the mission. During the next two years he served as chaplain of St. Joseph’s Academy in St. Paul, until his steady decline in health compelled him to give up this work also. After spending the better part of two years at St. Augustine, Florida, in the vain hope of recovering his health he returned to Minnesota and died at St. Paul, March 27, 1869. On his retirement in October 1857, he was followed in the office of Prior by Father Cornelius Wittmann, hitherto pastor of St. Cloud, who now made his headquarters at the priory, but continued to hold services in St. Cloud on Sundays. The new institution had been chartered as a Seminary, but as that designation was not familiar to the public, the name “College” soon came into vogue. It was not a pretentious college; the buildings, staff and equipment were lacking, but all beginnings are small and the founders were confident that its future was assured. The Prior of the community acted as ex-officio President of the College. When the College was opened November 10, 1857 there was but one professor and five students: the professor was Father Cornelius and the pioneer students, Henry Emmel and Anthony Edelbrock (in later years abbot and president of the institution) of St. Cloud, Henry Klostermann of Richmond, Andrew Stahlberger of Lake George and Joseph Duerr of St. Joseph. The simplicity of the institution may be inferred from the following graphic memoir from the pen of one of the students of those days: “Think of the primitive log building about 12x20, then to this an additional structure about 14x20, in height one story and an attic (the latter weather boarded) situated about two miles below St. Cloud on the Mississippi river and you have a fine picture of St. John’s in 1857. The whole building contained, besides kitchen and studio, three small rooms, one for the Prior, one for the professor and the third was kept for an occasional guest. In those days guests were few and far between. The term professor was used in the singular only, because there was but one and he taught all the branches. The Reverend Father Cornelius Wittmann, OSB, was the first to open a day school in St. Cloud and Stearns County, and he also was the first to fill the professor’s chair at St. John’s. He was at that time still in the twenties, nimble of foot, bright in mind, pleasant in company; the children and the young folks were especially fond of him: he was a zealous and amiable gentleman.” Father Cornelius was a painstaking teacher and a strict disciplinarian: but it was his considerate kindness that reconciled the students to the primitive conditions prevalent in the poor little college. Thus in a reminiscent mood one of the early students writes: “We were frontier lads, accustomed to ample elbowroom; broad prairies, little restraint and good meals suited us first rate. We had largely been our own bosses and to enjoy life was not at all the last or least of our aspirations. When therefore the reins were slowly but firmly put upon us, there were sour faces, and one or the other even doubted whether he ought not at once bid a long, lingering adieu to Apollo and the Muses. “The college regulations were read to us. We had to rise at five o’clock, say our morning prayers, attend daily Mass; then study and at seven o’clock breakfast: i.e. a cup of coffee and a slice of dry bread – no butter or molasses or sugar there. After breakfast free for one half-hour; at 8 o’clock classes began and lasted until 11; then dinner. After dinner, free time until one o’clock; then classes were resumed. At 3 we received a piece of dry bread. This, with fresh water, was relished with a gusto. From 4 to 6 we had to study; at 6 supper. From 7 ½ to 8 ½ study time, then night prayers and to bed.... “There was poverty everywhere; a poor and miserable house, poor and scant food; poor and bad lights. The tallow candle was the only light in those days. Then nobody knew anything of kerosene, gas or electric light, the indispensable requisites of the modern schoolroom. Must it not be a surprise to some people of our days, that in centuries gone by such great luminaries arose, illuminated only by the tallow candle? Yet such is the truth. The greatest men the world ever saw were surrounded by poverty and poor light. We had few books. The professor lectured; we had to write. Yes, we were started in on the European plan.” (From the Saint John’s University Record, vol. I, 62 by Alexius Edelbrock) Meanwhile difficulties had arisen, involving the possession of the two claims which the community occupied. To escape possible embarrassments from litigation, Prior Cornelius determined to transfer both the priory and the college to St. Joseph, eight miles west of St. Cloud. The transfer was made on March 5, 1858. Here the college was continued in a log structure, 25x30. Prior Cornelius turned his attention to the general direction of the affairs of his community and was succeeded in the management of the college by Father Alexius Roetzer, whose name appears in the charter as one of the corporators. He came to Minnesota in October 1856 and had hitherto been employed in ministering to the missions of Stearns, Benton, Meeker and Wright counties. He was a man of imposing physical stature, with an emaciated countenance from which beamed a bright intellect; he was zealous and amiable, pious and talented, kind, yet strict. He carried into the classroom the same zeal with which he had visited the missions and enjoyed the love and confidence of his class. He was an excellent professor, still the number of students did not increase during his regime. The times were too hard and the settlers too poor. He worked faithfully until June 1859 when his rapidly failing health compelled him to resign. He felt that he was doomed and returned East; on February 25, 1860 he expired at St. Vincent’s at the age of twenty-eight. [He was buried there, but in 1934, his grave could no longer be identified.] In September 1858 the first general chapter of the Order in the United States was held at St. Vincent’s. Prior Cornelius and Father Benedict Haindl of the Minnesota mission attended. At this chapter the St. Cloud priory was declared independent and authorized to exist as a separate community. Father Benedict Haindl was at the same time elected as first canonical Prior of the monastery, and his election was duly approved by a decree of the Propaganda December 23, 1858. Prior Benedict Haindl (1858-1862) Father Benedict Haindl who had joined the Benedictine Order at St. Vincent’s and, since his ordination to the priesthood in 1849, had displayed his abilities in several important capacities, came to Minnesota in April 1857. Since his arrival he had served in the missions of Scott, Le Sueur and Carver counties where he visited and organized a number of congregations. When he entered upon the duties of his office late in 1858, Father Cornelius Wittmann retired and was appointed pastor at Shakopee. Prior Benedict did not consider the late transfer of the institution expedient and in March 1859, both monastery and college were again removed to St. Cloud, (i.e. to the Rothkopp’s claim). After Father Alexius Roetzer’s retirement from the professorship in June 1859, he was succeeded by Father Anschar Frauendorfer, who, in addition to the work of the classroom, attended the mission of St. Augusta twice a month. Father Anschar was a man of scholarly attainments and is remembered by his pupils as an excellent professor of the Greek language. He occupied the position of professor with much credit from September 1859 to November 13, 1860, when he became assistant to the pastor of the Assumption church, in St. Paul, and was followed in the professorial chair by Father Magnus Mayr who had arrived from St. Vincent’s in August of that year. Father Magnus was an able teacher and the attendance during his administration was very satisfactory. He was assisted in the classroom by Mr. John Daxacher, a student of theology and subsequently a well-known clergyman in the diocese of Omaha (died in November 1904). Owing to the increase of attendance, the accommodations were insufficient and a new building, 22x54, was erected in 1861. It was the intention of the community to establish an ecclesiastical seminary distinct from the classical school. Bishop Grace on his return from an official visit to the settlements along the Red River, had encouraged the Fathers to make this improvement and had promised students and substantial assistance. In fall, 1861, Father Magnus retired and was succeeded by Father Anschar Frauendorfer. Father Magnus did not remain a member of the community, but accepted an appointment as pastor in the diocese of St. Paul, in which he continued to serve at various places – Chanhassen (Chanhassen is said to be the Sioux word for a sugar maple tree), East Minneapolis and, finally, St. Walburga (Rogers), where he died June 29, 1888. Among his papers were several interesting notes which are embodied in the present sketch. Troublesome days were drawing nigh: in spring 1861 the Civil War broke out and the excitement pervaded even the Arcadian seclusion of the frontier college. Still, work was not seriously hampered. The scholastics, or students who were preparing to enter the Order, were permitted to wear the habit of the Order, as was customary in St. Vincent’s. Mr. Daxacher, who has been mentioned above, received the habit in December 1861, and on January 6 following, Fraters Benedict M. Duerr, Boniface Emmel, Willibald Michel, Augustine Marshall and Valentine Stimmler were invested as scholastics. They were not bound by vows and attended classes with the other students. Although the school near St. Cloud seemed to be progressing satisfactorily, there was a sentiment favorable to a transfer of the institution into the more populous districts of the State and Shakopee was deemed an eligible locality. This project, however, was abandoned. When the institution was transferred to St. Cloud in 1859, the tenure of the Rothkopp claim was uncertain. Now, new complications set in. Mr. George F. Brott, who had carried mail between Minneapolis and St. Cloud from 1855-58 and for this service was entitled to select public lands, laid claim to the premises held by the Rothkopps and had taken steps to make good his claim in Washington. There was a lively dispute which continued until February 20, 1862 when the commissioner of the general land office decided against Mr. Brott. The latter appealed from this decision to the Secretary of the Interior, Caleb B. Smith, who reversed the commissioner’s ruling on April 25, 1862. Of the 320 acres in litigation, only 75 were awarded to Louis Rothkopp. The other brother, William, had died in 1859. Troubles never come singly: during August 1862 the citizens of Minnesota had a rebellion of the Sioux Indians on hand. On August 21, the savages attacked New Ulm and perpetrated a dreadful massacre. “The counties along the Minnesota river” says J. Fletcher Williams (History of the Mississippi Valley, page 147), “were not the only ones ravaged by the red devils during that week of blood. McLeod, Monongalia, Kandiyohi, Stearns, Meeker, Otter Tail, Douglas, Sibley, etc., were all overrun in whole or in part, and the inhabitants either butchered or driven away. The first blood of the outbreak had been shed at Acton, Meeker County....western and southern Stearns County suffered severely from the depredations of the red foe. About August 23rd, they committed murders and other crimes near Paynesville. The people of that town erected a strong stockade, and the citizens and refugees from points further west sheltered themselves therein. A part of the town was burned but no attack was made on the post. At Maine Prairie, St. Joseph’s, Sauk Centre, Clearwater, Little Falls, and other places, similar stockades were built and held by a few determined citizens. At St. Cloud, which was filled with refugees, strong fortifications were built and preparations made to defend the place to the utmost, but no foe ever appeared, fortunately. A number of persons were murdered in the western and southern part of Stearns County, and houses burned.” Most of the settlers who lived in the vicinity of St. Cloud fled to that town; the College, too, was seized by a panic and was forced to suspend work. Several of the students left; the rest, together with the community, took refuge in St. Cloud where work was continued as well as circumstances permitted. Prior Benedict’s term of office had expired, much to his own relief, for he had lived through bitter days. At a chapter held at St. Cloud on October 15, 1862, a successor to Father Benedict was elected in the person of Very Reverend Father Othmar Wirtz. Prior Othmar Wirtz (1862-1865) Father Othmar Wirtz had, since his ordination to priesthood in 1857, been Director of the College and Prior at St. Vincent’s Abbey, Pennsylvania. He was a pious and zealous religious and had nothing more at heart than the promotion of monastic life. He arrived in St. Cloud November 17, 1862 and at once began to regulate the missionary work of the community. In consequence of the disturbance caused by the Indian outbreak, it was next to impossible to conduct college work. The class for some time was composed exclusively of candidates for the Order. The adverse decision of the Secretary of the Interior regarding the Rothkopp claim was a source of great disappointment to the community: the fruit of five years’ labor and expenditure was lost. Prior Othmar did not consider the place, suitable for a monastery, because it was too near what promised to be a large city in due course of time. Hence he resolved to abandon the place and transfer the community into what was then called the Indian Bush, the woods west of St. Joseph. Here the Fathers had taken up several “claims” years before and several Brothers had lived there, cutting down timber and preparing the soil for cultivation. Before taking the final steps, Prior Othmar petitioned the State Legislature for an appropriate modification of the charter, which had authorized the erection of a seminary in a definite locality. That body early in 1864 passed TO AMEND AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE ST. JOHN’S SEMINARY, APPROVED MARCH SIXTH, 1857 Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Minnesota: SEC I. That section two of an act to incorporate the St. John’s Seminary be and the same is hereby amended so as to read as follows: Section 2. The principal object of this politic and corporate body shall be the promotion of the instruction and education of youths, to the acquirements of which end the corporators named in this act shall be hereby authorized to establish and erect an institution or seminary in Stearns County to be known by the name and style of St. John’s Seminary.” SEC. II. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Approved February 6, 1864 Shortly after the approval of this Act, the third transfer was made and operations were resumed in the heart of the Indian Bush, a short distance from the present Collegeville station. There was no railway line west of the Mississippi at the time. Here Father Benedict Haindl had caused a house to be built five years before. It was too small for the community, and a more pretentious frame building, also a neat little chapel had been built. A fair piece of land had been placed, under cultivation; there was water and fuel near by and the vicinity was gradually building up. This was the home of the community for almost three years. One building sheltered the religious and the few students. Father Wolfgang Northman, who had come from St. Vincent’s as a cleric in 1862 acted as professor and disciplinarian. Late in 1864 Frater Valentine Stimmler, the only scholastic remaining of the class of 1862, was sent into the novitiate at St. Vincent’s, being the first novice from Minnesota. He returned toward the end of 1865 and continued his theological studies. On December 11, 1865, Prior Othmar retired from office and was succeeded, temporarily, by the former Prior Father Benedict Haindl. Father Othmar, who was suffering from some pulmonary malady, became assistant at the Assumption Church, St. Paul, where after almost nine years of an exemplary, devoted life he died June 8, 1874. Prior Benedict had himself chosen the site on which the monastery stood in 1865 – section 31 of the township of St. Wendel (also called St. Wendall on maps) – but less than two miles to the southwest there was what appeared to him to be a still more desirable location, at least for the buildings. It was rolling country covered with dense woods and its most attractive and useful feature was a delightful lake about 400 acres in extent. Without delay, he prepared for the fourth transfer. In January 1866 a site on an elevation on the northern shore of the lake was selected for the buildings; trees were cut down and as soon as spring set in, excavations for the basement were begun. The entire personnel of the monastery assisted in the work; there were, besides, a number of paid laborers. The first building was constructed of boulders, or “nigger heads” picked up at or near the building site. Travelers through this part of the State may still see buildings of this apparently unwieldy material. The structure was 46x50 feet and its unadorned front faced the rising sun. Besides the basement, there were two stories and an attic. The basement was intended for cellars, kitchen and dining room; the first and second floor as quarters – temporarily – for the Fathers, study and class rooms; the attic was an open turret in which hung the college bell – that sweet-voiced bell which pealed for matin song from a small belfry near the Mississippi in 1857 and accompanied the community in all its wanderings. And today fifty years after its arrival, its voice is as clear as it was then; and it hangs in the northwest turret of the college buildings, still doing service as a college bell. The jubilee class will most assuredly not forget to decorate the good old bell with a wreath of water lilies. Right Reverend Thomas L. Grace (Stearns County, and, in fact all of Minnesota was at the time in the diocese of St. Paul since 1851) laid the foundation stone of the building on July 19, 1866; on February 1, 1867, the community left the “old farm” and made its home in the new structure. The buildings near St. Cloud had been destroyed by fire on February 20, 1866; the frame house and chapel were taken apart and transported to the new site, and thus all immediate temptations to migrate were effectually disposed of. Abbot Boniface Wimmer, during his sojourn in Rome in 1865, negotiated for the elevation of the St. Cloud priory to an abbey; his efforts were successful and on August 3, 1866 the Holy See erected the abbey and authorized the Fathers to elect their first abbot. On December 12, 1866, they assembled at the old farm and elected the Very Reverend Rupert Seidenbusch, the Prior of St. Vincent’s abbey. This selection was approved by the Holy See March 15, 1867; two days later followed a decree authorizing the name of “Saint Louis on the Lake” for the abbey. The students before 1867 speak of themselves as students of “old” St. John’s. Few in number, their deeds at college fill no volumes. No annual catalogues were printed; local newspapers preserve scarcely a trace of the early institution. The first school year was opened with an attendance of five pupils; for a few years this number did not grow appreciably. For a short time as many as twenty students were enrolled. In the absence of complete and authentic records, only a partial list of the early alumni can be given: A. and H. Berlemann (two brothers, had been students at St. Vincent’s and returned to that institution when the Indian troubles broke out in 1862); Peter Droitcour; Henry Duerr; Joseph Duerr (became a school teacher and taught in various parts of the State); Stephen Engels; Anthony Edelbrock (subsequently abbot); Joseph Edelbrock (cousin of Anthony Edelbrock); Dan Elberth; Louis Elberth; Henry J. Emmel (of Spring Hill); Louis Emmel (died as a druggist in New York City); Stephen Ethen (of Cold Spring); Stephen Fiedler (of St. Joseph); Edward Francis; Edward Goerger (of St. Cloud); Alfred Jordan; John Kaufmann; Henry Klostermann; Christian Looser; Theodore Lueke; Conrad A. Marschall (became a schoolteacher); B. Michel; Frank Minar; Frank Molitor (brother of our Reverend Aldophonse Molitor); August Mockenhaupt (of St. Cloud); Gustav Mockenhaupt (of St. Cloud, attended about 1862: subsequently finished his studies at St. Francis Seminary, near Milwaukee, and was pastor of Centralia, Illinois at the time of his death, September 26, 1868); Paul Mockenhaupt (of St. Cloud); Robert Mockenhaupt (of St. Cloud); Henry Robbers (of St. Cloud); P. Ruppi; Henry Schmidt; Andrew Stalberger (of Lake George); Valentine Stimmler (now Father Valentine, OSB); John Teller; Frank Vrabeck. Despite the poverty of the pioneer institution, its alumni have always cherished their Alma Mater and have shown their loyalty in word and deed. To some of them, especially to Mr. H.J. Emmel, the present generation owes a debt of gratitude for reminiscences of the early days; among others a pencil sketch of the buildings at St. Cloud in 1861.

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Iccha, Icchā: 23 definitions Iccha means something in Hinduism, Sanskrit, Buddhism, Pali, Marathi, Jainism, Prakrit, Hindi. If you want to know the exact meaning, history, etymology or English translation of this term then check out the descriptions on this page. Add your comment or reference to a book if you want to contribute to this summary article. Alternative spellings of this word include Ichchha. Shaktism (Shakta philosophy)Source: Wisdom Library: Śrīmad Devī Bhāgavatam Icchā (इच्छा, “will”):—One of the names attributed to Devī, as chanted by the Vedas in their hymns, who were at the time incarnated in their personified forms. See the Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa chapter 5.51-68, called “the narrative of Hayagrīva”.Source: Google Books: Manthanabhairavatantram 1) Icchā (इच्छा) refers to “desire”, according to Tantric texts such as the Kubjikāmata-tantra, the earliest popular and most authoritative Tantra of the Kubjikā cult.—The form of the goddess is, as one would expect, particularly erotic in Kāmarūpa. There she is ‘made haughty by the enjoyment of passion’ (kāmabhoga-krṭa-āṭopā). Her aroused erotic nature is symbolized by her fluidity; she melts and flows. She is also arousing, causing ‘the three worlds’ to melt and flow by the force of her desire (icchā). Thus, in a mantra she is addressed as ‘she who causes sperm to flow’ (śukradrāviṇī). 2) Icchā (इच्छा) refers to one of the eight Yoginīs (yoginī-aṣṭaka) associated with Kāmākhya (corresponding to the eastern face of Bhairava), according to the Manthānabhairavatantra, a vast sprawling work that belongs to a corpus of Tantric texts concerned with the worship of the goddess Kubjikā.—[...] The eight Yoginīs (yoginyaṣṭaka): Viśālā, Pārthivā, Yakṣī, Dhūrjaṭī, Viṣabhakṣaṇī, Sarvasiddhipradā, Tuṣṭi, Icchā, Siddhipradāyakī. 3) Icchā (इच्छा) or Icchāśakti refers to the “energy of will” and represents one of the five-fold energy in Kula, according to the Kularatnapañcakāvatāra verse 1.16-23ab.—Accordingly, “Will (icchāśakti—icchā ... śaktiḥ pañcavidhā), knowledge, action and bliss—the fifth—is said to be Kuṇḍalī. That (reality), which has been explained in many ways, is the five-fold energy in Kula. O fair lady, know that (this) Kula teaching is internal and it pervades the entire universe along with the gods, demons and warlocks”. Shakta (शाक्त, śākta) or Shaktism (śāktism) represents a tradition of Hinduism where the Goddess (Devi) is revered and worshipped. Shakta literature includes a range of scriptures, including various Agamas and Tantras, although its roots may be traced back to the Vedas. Vaisheshika (school of philosophy)Source: Wisdom Library: Vaiśeṣika Icchā (इच्छा, “desire”) is one of the seventeen guṇas (‘qualities’), according to the Vaiśeṣika-sūtras. These guṇas are considered as a category of padārtha (“metaphysical correlate”). These padārthas represent everything that exists which can be cognized and named. Together with their subdivisions, they attempt to explain the nature of the universe and the existence of living beings. Vaisheshika (वैशेषिक, vaiśeṣika) refers to a school of orthodox Hindu philosophy (astika), drawing its subject-matter from the Upanishads. Vaisheshika deals with subjects such as logic, epistemology, philosophy and expounds concepts similar to Buddhism in nature Nyaya (school of philosophy)Source: Shodhganga: A study of Nyāya-vaiśeṣika categories Icchā (इच्छा, “desire”) and Dveṣa (aversion) refers to two of the twenty-four guṇas (qualities) according to Praśastapāda and all the modern works on Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.—Icchā (desire) and dveṣa (aversion) is also a pair of qualities (guṇa) like sukha and duḥkha. These two are also correlated qualities, but they are not contradictory to each. That means one is not the negation of the other; but both are positive qualities. Praśastapāda says that icchā (desire) is wishing for something which is not yet obtained, either for the sake of one’s own self or for other. This quality is produced from conjunction of the self and manas, pleasurable feeling and recollection of the pleasurable feelings of the past. It is of different types– - desire for sexual pleasure is known as kāma, - that for food is known as abhilāsa; - desire for enjoyment of pleasurable objects again and again is known as rāga; - that for future deed is known as saṃkalpa; - desire to relieve the pain of others without any selfishness is known as kārunyaṃ; - desire to avoid pleasurable objects as these are false is known as vairāgya; - desire to deceive others is known as upadhā. There are many more kinds of desire (icchā). Annaṃbhaṭṭa gives very short definition of icchā and dveṣa. Icchā is longing and dveṣa is irritation. He has not elaborated these definitions. Viśvanātha appears to be a little more elaborate in these respects. In his view craving for painlessness and pleasure is desire (icchā) and it arises from the knowledge of them. Desire is twofold–that relating to the result and that relating to the means. Result is twofold, viz., pleasure and absence of pain. The cause of the desire for the result is the knowledge of the desire. The desire for the means is caused by the knowledge of its conduciveness to what is desirable. According to Viśvanātha, dveṣa, on the other hand, is caused by the notion of producing something repugnant. Nyaya (न्याय, nyaya) refers to a school of Hindu philosophy (astika), drawing its subject-matter from the Upanishads. The Nyaya philosophy is known for its theories on logic, methodology and epistemology, however, it is closely related with Vaisheshika in terms of metaphysics. Ayurveda (science of life)Source: gurumukhi.ru: Ayurveda glossary of terms Icchā (इच्छा):—Refers to desired attributes requisition of what ever is not available with us is desire. Is a spiritual attribute. Desire is produced from pleasure. Derived from the enjoyment of garlands, women etc. Āyurveda (आयुर्वेद, ayurveda) is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, taxology, anatomy, surgery, alchemy and related topics. Traditional practice of Āyurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millenium BC. Literature is commonly written in Sanskrit using various poetic metres. Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)Source: Google Books: Somananda's Sivadrsti and His Tantric Interlocutors Icchā (इच्छा) refers to the “(the power of) will”, according to Somānanda’s Śivadṛṣṭi verse 1.26-29.—Accordingly, “If you object by asking how there can be understanding in the absence of the intellect, the intellect being produced from matter and not connected to it, (we reply:) that is the intellect that exists in the aparā condition. By contrast, the subtle, all-pervasive (power of) cognition, which is pure understanding, is eternally Śiva’s natural state. It is not the same as that of the Naiyāyikas and others, because they only contend that material knowledge is a quality of the (individual) self, not of the supreme knower. Of course, the same argument clearly should apply to (the power of) will [i.e., icchā]”.Source: Brill: Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions Icchā (इच्छा) refers to “Śiva’s will”, according to the Guhyasūtra, the largest book of the Niśvāsa-corpus (a collection of early Śaiva Tantras comprising the Niśvāsamukha, Mūlasūtra, Uttarasūtra, Nayasūtra, and Guhyasūtra).—Accordingly, “I am Puruṣatattva and you are Prakṛti and also Niyati; … Maheśvara is Time; you are Māyā and Vidyā, while I am Īśvara-tattva. I, O goddess, am Sadāśiva [and] you are mistress of the 4 kalās. (137–138) Because I rule, I control, I am omniscient, because I am permanently at rest, without division and in equilibrium, I am Śiva. (139) You are my Will (icchā), not to be crossed, for you are the one from whom the power of the śaktis arises! The whole universe has sprung from you; You bestow Śiva-nature, O you of true compassion! (140)”. Shaiva (शैव, śaiva) or Shaivism (śaivism) represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient Vedas. Ganitashastra (Mathematics and Algebra)Source: archive.org: Hindu Mathematics Icchā (इच्छा) refers to the “requisition” in Trairāśika (“rule of three”), which represents one of the twenty operations (logistics) of pāṭīgaṇita (“science of calculation which requires the use of writing material—the board”), according to Pṛthudakasvāmī’s commentary on the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta by Brahmagupta, a Sanskrit treatise on ancient Indian mathematics (gaṇita-śāstra) and astronomy from the 7th century.—The Hindu name for the Rule of Three terms is trairāśika (“three terms”, hence “the rule of three terms”).—According to Āryabhaṭa I in the Āryabhaṭīya: “In the Rule of Three, the phala (‘fruit’), being multiplied by the icchā (‘requisition’) is divided by the pramāṇa (‘argument’). The quotient is the fruit corresponding to the icchā. The denominators of one being multiplied with the other give the multiplier (i.e., numerator) and the divisor (i.e., denominator)”. Ganitashastra (शिल्पशास्त्र, gaṇitaśāstra) refers to the ancient Indian science of mathematics, algebra, number theory, arithmetic, etc. Closely allied with astronomy, both were commonly taught and studied in universities, even since the 1st millennium BCE. Ganita-shastra also includes ritualistic math-books such as the Shulba-sutras. Languages of India and abroad Pali-English dictionarySource: BuddhaSasana: Concise Pali-English Dictionary iccha : (adj.) (in cpds.), wishing; longing; desirous of. || icchā (f.), desire; wish; longing.Source: Sutta: The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary Iccha, (-°) (adj.) (the adj. form of icchā) wishing, longing, having desires, only in pāp° having evil desires S.I, 50; II, 156; an° without desires S.I, 61, 204; Sn.707; app° id. Sn.628, 707. (Page 117) — or — Icchā, (f.) (fr. icchati, iṣ2) wish, longing, desire D.II, 243; III, 75; S.I, 40 (°dhūpāyito loko), 44 (naraṃ parikassati); A.II, 143; IV, 293 sq.; 325 sq.; V, 40, 42 sq.; Sn.773, 872; Dh.74, 264 (°lobha-samāpanna); Nd1 29, 30; Pug.19; Dhs.1059, 1136; Vbh.101, 357, 361, 370; Nett 18, 23, 24; Asl. 363; DhsA.250 (read icchā for issā? See Dhs.trsl. 100); SnA 108; PvA.65, 155; Sdhp.242, 320. Pali is the language of the Tipiṭaka, which is the sacred canon of Theravāda Buddhism and contains much of the Buddha’s speech. Closeley related to Sanskrit, both languages are used interchangeably between religions. Marathi-English dictionarySource: DDSA: The Molesworth Marathi and English Dictionary icchā (इच्छा).—f (S) A wish or desire. 2 That term of the Rule of three which involves the question. The three terms are ādyaṅka, madyāmmaka, antyāṅka; icchāphala is the answer. icchējōgatā According to desire or wish; agreeable, suitable &c.Source: DDSA: The Aryabhusan school dictionary, Marathi-English icchā (इच्छा).—f A desire, wish. icchāvān a Hav- ing desire. Marathi is an Indo-European language having over 70 million native speakers people in (predominantly) Maharashtra India. Marathi, like many other Indo-Aryan languages, evolved from early forms of Prakrit, which itself is a subset of Sanskrit, one of the most ancient languages of the world. Sanskrit dictionarySource: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary Icchā (इच्छा).—See under इष् (iṣ). See also (synonyms): icchaka. --- OR --- Icchā (इच्छा).—[iṣ bhāve śa] 1) Wish, desire, inclination of mind, will; इच्छया (icchayā) according to one's desire, at will. 3) (In Math.) A question or problem. 4) (In gram.) The form of the Desiderative.Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary (-cchā) Wish, desire. E. iṣ to desire, affixes śa and ṭāp.Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary Icchā (इच्छा).—i. e. icch, base of the pres. of 2. iṣ, + a, f. Wish, desire, [Vedāntasāra, (in my Chrestomathy.)] in Icchā (इच्छा).—[feminine] wish, desire; °— & [instrumental] according to one’s wish, voluntarily, intentionally.Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary 1) Icchā (इच्छा):—[from iṣ] f. wish, desire, inclination, K.: [Manu-smṛti; Yājñavalkya; Pañcatantra; Raghuvaṃśa] etc. 2) [v.s. ...] (in [mathematics]) a question or problem 3) [v.s. ...] (in gram.) the desiderative form, [Atharvaveda-prātiśākhya]Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary Icchā (इच्छा):—(cchā) f. Wish.Source: DDSA: Paia-sadda-mahannavo; a comprehensive Prakrit Hindi dictionary (S) Icchā (इच्छा) in the Sanskrit language is related to the Prakrit word: Icchā. [Sanskrit to German] Sanskrit, also spelled संस्कृतम् (saṃskṛtam), is an ancient language of India commonly seen as the grandmother of the Indo-European language family (even English!). Closely allied with Prakrit and Pali, Sanskrit is more exhaustive in both grammar and terms and has the most extensive collection of literature in the world, greatly surpassing its sister-languages Greek and Latin. Hindi dictionarySource: DDSA: A practical Hindi-English dictionary Icchā (इच्छा) [Also spelled ichchha]:—(nf) desire, wish; will, animus; -[patra] a will; -[mṛtyu] death at will; —[dabānā] to suppress a wish. Prakrit-English dictionarySource: DDSA: Paia-sadda-mahannavo; a comprehensive Prakrit Hindi dictionary 1) Icchā (इच्छा) in the Prakrit language is related to the Sanskrit word: Icchā. 2) Icchā (इच्छा) also relates to the Sanskrit word: Icchā. 3) Icchā (इच्छा) also relates to the Sanskrit word: Ditsā. Prakrit is an ancient language closely associated with both Pali and Sanskrit. Jain literature is often composed in this language or sub-dialects, such as the Agamas and their commentaries which are written in Ardhamagadhi and Maharashtri Prakrit. The earliest extant texts can be dated to as early as the 4th century BCE although core portions might be older. See also (Relevant definitions) Starts with (+66): Iccha Sutta, Icchabala, Icchabhanga, Icchabharana, Icchabhedi, Icchabhigamin, Icchabhojana, Icchacarya, Icchadana, Icchadani, Icchadasya, Icchadishakticakrataca Niyanta, Icchadvandva, Icchadvesha, Icchadveshapurvaka, Icchadveshavanimittata, Icchaisu, Icchaka, Icchakara, Icchakaragai. Ends with (+200): Adiccha, Aiccha, Aiccha, Aiccha, Akshayamatiparipriccha, Alpeccha, Ambviccha, Amhariccha, Amishamiccha, Amleccha, Anavataptanagarajaparipriccha, Anavataptaparipriccha, Anghripiccha, Aniccha, Annariccha, Anusariccha, Anuyogeccha, Anviccha, Aparajitapriccha, Apareccha. Full-text (+134): Aniccha, Icchavasu, Icchaka, Icchatva, Sveccha, Icchanivritti, Niriccha, Icchanvita, Aicchika, Icchabharana, Yathecchakam, Icchasampad, Svalpeccha, Icchadana, Icchaphala, Icchavat, Maheccha, Iccharupa, Icchata, Trairashika. Search found 52 books and stories containing Iccha, Icchā; (plurals include: Icchas, Icchās). You can also click to the full overview containing English textual excerpts. Below are direct links for the most relevant articles: Tattvartha Sutra (with commentary) (by Vijay K. Jain) Verse 7.37 - The transgressions of Sallekhanā < [Chapter 7 - The Five Vows] Verse 1.32 - Wrong knowledge is whimsical < [Chapter 1 - Right Faith and Knowledge] Rig Veda (translation and commentary) (by H. H. Wilson) Rig Veda 6.47.10 < [Sukta 47] Rig Veda 6.53.6 < [Sukta 53] Rig Veda 10.85.22 < [Sukta 85] Garga Samhita (English) (by Danavir Goswami) Verse 5.15.39 < [Chapter 15 - Seeing Sri Radha] Verse 4.7.20 < [Chapter 7 - The Story of the Ayodhya Women] Verse 1.12.28 < [Chapter 12 - Description of Śrī Nanda’s Festival] Yogadrstisamuccaya of Haribhadra Suri (Study) (by Riddhi J. Shah) Chapter 4.1b - Yama (Restraint or Self-control) < [Chapter 4 - The Eight Yogadṛṣṭis and the nature of a Liberated Soul] Chapter 4.2b - Niyama (restraint of the mind) < [Chapter 4 - The Eight Yogadṛṣṭis and the nature of a Liberated Soul] Chapter 3.4 - The Threefold Yoga < [Chapter 3 - Introduction to the Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya] Chaitanya Bhagavata (by Bhumipati Dāsa) Verse 2.18.213 < [Chapter 18 - Mahāprabhu’s Dancing as a Gopī] Verse 2.26.150 < [Chapter 26 - Descriptions of the Mercy Bestowed on Śuklāmbara and Vijay and the Lord’s Desire to Accept Sannyāsa] Verse 3.7.10 < [Chapter 7 - Pastimes in Śrī Gadādhara’s Garden] Cidgaganacandrika (study) (by S. Mahalakshmi) Part 8 - Śiva tattvas and Śakti tattvas < [Philosophy of Kashmir Tantric System] Part 7 - Mātṛkacakra and the reflection of the universe < [Philosophy of Kashmir Tantric System] Verse 98 [Śakti’s Adhyātmā Gurupaṅkti] < [Chapter 3 - Third Vimarśa]

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Screenwriting is the act of writing what's known as a script or screenplay for film, television and web series. It involves a special set of rules that makes it different from a book or play. This module of Film It covers formatting, scene writing, script structure, themes, and character. Recommended for Year levels: 4-10 Learning areas: English, Drama, Media, Media Arts Capabilities: Creative and critical thinking, Personal and social Writing the script is part of the pre-production process. Once it is written, it will be edited and passed on to the director. Scripts include all essential information such as the setting of each scene and dialogue, but there’s a lot more in a script than these things. Characters take us through the story. We experience the story from their perspective. Through the characters, we can feel empathy (for a hero), or even fear (if they are a villain). The more the audience learns about the characters, and the more interesting and complex the screenwriter makes them, the better the script will be. Every film or TV drama is structured. So before you write a script you will plot, plan and structure the bones of the story. There are different ways to do this, and we'll introduce you to a few. When planning a script, start with a theme or an idea. You can separate theme from the plot by saying the plot is what happens in the film, and the theme is what the film is about. Your theme might change or grow as your story develops, but it gives you a great starting point. There is a universal way of formatting scripts which means that once the writer has finished, the script can be clearly interpreted by everyone who works on the film. It has to be consistent so it can be used to plan locations and shots. 1. Formatting scripts Formatting is how words are arranged and laid out on the page. Try using scriptwriting software such as Celtx or Writers Duet as they have shortcut keys that make formatting it easy. A script is broken into elements which are formatted according to a set of rules. Screenwriters are also expected to use the Courier New font. Here are the different elements you see in a script: A scene heading, or 'slug line' is where you set the scene. In a scene heading we need to know: - If it is taking place indoors or outdoors (interior or exterior? INT. for interior and EXT. for exterior) - Where it is (in a living room? A city street?) - Time of day (day or night?) Here's a quick example: INT. CITY STREET - DAY You describe where the characters are, what is happening, and what you want the audience to see. For example: Alex and her mum stand in front of a rambling old house. A 'SOLD' sign hangs out the front. Character and dialogue When you first introduce a character in action, you write their name in capitals so it stands out. Every time after this you write it normally. Once you have set up the scene, the action and your main character, you can introduce your character’s dialogue. You start by writing their name. The dialogue is fitted neatly under the character's name, so it’s easy for the actors to know when they have to say something, as opposed to doing something. Notice too that when characters have dialogue, their name is in bold and centred on the page. Before you write a script, read an example. You can also watch videos like this script-to-screen comparison of Up. Here is a scene, but it's laid out all wrong! Ext. Old house. Day. Alex and her mum stand in front of a rambling old house in front of them. A ‘sold’ sign hangs out the front. Mum: Home sweet home! Alex: I want to go back to our old house. Mum: Just give it some time and it will feel like home. Alex: Whatever. Alex storms off. |1. Rewrite the above scene and ready it for the screen. See if you can put this scene into the correct script formatting using scriptwriting software.| Watch the video below on script formatting first if you like: Using the present tense The tense is really important in formatting your script. When writing a script, we use the present tense. This makes the story immediate and active. It’s happening as we read it. To keep the story exciting, it’s important to keep the action clear and short. This makes it easy for the reader to follow. If there is too much description, the reader will lose interest. Here's another scene that's not quite working yet: INT. CLASSROOM – DAY. It was a sunny day outside and inside the classroom was cold, with pink and blue walls. One wall was covered with recent projects made by students in the class, one on the human digestive system, another on the human brain, and one on how lungs work. There were ten tables in the classroom, each seating two to three students. The tables were quite new, as were the chairs. The school bell rang, and soon after, Ms Holly came into the classroom and wiped the previous day’s class instructions from the whiteboard. Soon students began trickling in and took their seats. Ms Holly: OK guys, it’s that time again. Jake: Oh no, not again! Ms Holly: Sorry Jake, but this must be done every week. |1. Re-write and format the above scene. Make sure it is in the correct tense, the action is brief and clear, and that unnecessary description is removed.| 2. Screenwriting shorthand Now you have the basics and tense sorted, you might like to add some shorthand techniques to your script. Parentheses are used when a character needs to make a small action during their dialogue, or if the writer wants to indicate how the line is being spoken. Use parentheses sparingly, and keep it short. For example: Hey I’m Megan, are you going into year eight? Voice over (V.O) This is a voice that is heard but not seen. It may be the inner voice of a character or someone on a phone call. If this works, then… With off-screen, the character is still in the scene, just not on camera at that exact moment. So if one character was talking to another who was in another room, you could use (O.S) for the character that's in the other room. Or maybe with a phone conversation, the character on the other end of the line could be heard but not seen. Peter, come out of there, your outfit looks fine! No! I look hideous! Here's an outline for a scene you can rewrite for the next activity: Christine has to make a phone call she is dreading. A narrator describes to the audience her fear. Eventually, she makes the phone call, but she is extremely nervous throughout the conversation. |1. Write a short scene for the above scenario with Christine, and include a parenthetical, a line of dialogue that is V.O, and a character who speaks O.S.| 3. Writing scenes Writing a scene goes beyond just having a scene header, including action, characters and dialogue; each scene needs to drive the story forward and tell us about the characters. So something important should happen or be shown in each scene. This moment can be significant to the plot, the world of your story, the characters, or all three. So here is a scene we've added for The Time Machine. At the moment, this scene just shows Alex going about her morning routine just before she finds the time machine device. We've also used another screenwriting term with the scene heading called 'continuous'. This just means the action is continuous even though Alex changes location from the bedroom to the bathroom. You can use this where the action is unbroken so you don't have to write a new scene heading every time. Read the scene first: INT. ALEX'S BEDROOM – MORNING, CONTINUOUS Alex wakes up and gets out of bed. In the bathroom she brushes her teeth. Back in her bedroom and she is in her school uniform. She moves a box on her floor and notices quite a large hold in the floorboard. She pulls at the floorboard and it comes loose, revealing a small compartment underneath. She peers inside. There are a couple of things wrong with it. Although it's getting us to the point where she finds the time machine, it doesn't tell us much about her situation, the fact she has just moved house, or how she feels about it. |1. Rewrite the above scene so that what happens tells us more about Alex's situation and her feelings. When you write your own scenes always ask yourself whether the scene is a) driving the story forward through something significant happening b) telling us about the world the character is in c) telling us about the character themselves, their thoughts and feelings. If your scene isn't doing at least one of these things then you might need to rethink it.| 4. Structuring scripts Beginning, middle and end Let's start with how to structure a script. Stories usually have a beginning, middle and an end, and this makes it easy to break a script into three parts, or ‘acts’. But what usually happens in each act? In the beginning, we are introduced to our character in their normal world. It could be as normal as sitting on the couch watching TV. But then something has to happen. A problem needs to occur, or a goal needs to be set to set the story in motion and spur our character into action. In the middle the character must try and solve a problem and or achieve their goal in front of them. However, they will encounter challenges and obstacles along the way. By the end the character will have solved the problem or achieved their goal. They usually learn new skills or a 'life lesson' along the way. All is resolved, but the normal world is not quite the same following their journey. It’s different because of the change that has occurred within the character or the world. |1. Open the three-act structure document below. It has the three acts of a project we've called The Time Machine all out of order. Your task is to re-structure the plot points so the story makes sense.| The Pixar method To kick start your own story, try this method used by Pixar. It's helpful in sketching out what might happen across the beginning, middle and end of your story. There was once a character called ____________ Each day they __________ until one day__________. Because of that, this happened_________________ And then, this happened_________________ Until finally _____________. |1. Quickly fill out the blanks above using the example of The Time Machine. How well does it fit?| |2. Now, using the simple story structure template below, brainstorm ideas and plan your own short script. This doesn't have to be your final project, it can just be an exercise for now.| Structuring key points and moments Now you've got an idea for a script, time to flesh out in more detail what happens in your three acts. We're going to focus on seven structure points used by many screenwriters. Though these structures are used in feature-length films, you can also apply them to short films. Just be aware that in a short film you might not fit all these points in as well as a feature-length film might. Also, our main character is called a protagonist, and a protagonist doesn't just feature in a story, they help drive it forward along with the plot. Sometimes things just happen yes, but it's more interesting if the protagonist's decisions affect the story. - Set up This is the start of the story, before anything has happened. We use the set-up to introduce the world and the protagonist, and what the world is like to begin with. - Inciting incident This is the event that sets the story in motion. It’s something that makes the protagonist sit up and pay attention. It’s their call to adventure. Sometimes, this is called the 'hook'. - First act turn This is the point where the protagonist stands on the threshold of their adventure. They decide to take the challenge to leave their ordinary world, propelling us into the new world. The ‘new world’ might be as small as going to the haunted house next door, or as big as traveling into a volcano. It doesn't need to be a physical place, the 'new world' could be an uncharted social or emotional world. This is the middle of the story or the halfway point. At the midpoint, something might change; the protagonist may learn something new, face a new problem or change direction on their journey. Things are not going so well, but there’s no going back. - Lowest point This is when the protagonist has lost their way. They feel like giving up. Sometimes this is called the ‘dark night’. The protagonist picks themselves up and faces the last challenge. The protagonist triumphs, the normal world is restored, and everything is as it should be. However the world isn't exactly how it used to be. Something has changed in the world or how the protagonist sees it. There are different theories about a protagonist's journey through these three acts, one of those is called the hero's journey and you can find out more in this video essay What Makes a Hero. |1. Look at the advanced structure worksheet below and fill it out with your own story. Don't forget to identify the theme for your story. Once you have this structure, this will make writing your script much easier because have planned all the key moments from beginning to end.| 5. Theme, tension & endings Identifying the theme Before you go any further, delve into your theme. Themes are ideas that are explored in a story or film. Remember, theme goes beyond plot. That's because the plot is what happens in your story, whereas the theme is what your story is about. In the script we've been working on (The Time Machine) the plot is about Alex, a girl who is thrown back in time and then has to try and make her way back home. However, the story is really about a girl who is having trouble moving school, wants things to go back to how they were and to be with her friends. So the theme is about dealing with change and growing up. |1. To get started list three of your favourite films, create a table and identify the 3-5 plot points that tell the story, and the ideas the films explore. This will help you identify the themes.| |A favourite film||Plot of the film||Theme of the film| |Jurassic Park||Dinosaurs get cloned on an Island and break out||Man trying to control nature (and failing!)| Resolution and other endings The Time Machine ends happily with the normal world restored (Alex getting back to her own time). You don’t always need a traditional resolution, as there are other ways to end a story. Think how to make your script original by experimenting with one of these endings: When a story doesn’t have a neat or happy resolution and instead leaves the audience in suspense. Think about your favourite super hero movie as they often give the protagonist one last challenge. This is often used to set up a sequel. Maybe the protagonist doesn’t get what they wanted? What would this be like? This is when something unexpected happens, and you trick the audience. A twist ending can be hard to do well. |1. Think of some alternative endings for the Time Machine| |2. Think of some alternative endings for your project. Make sure you think about how the theme of your story might be affected as a result. For example, having Alex stuck in the past in The Time Machine would make it harder to explore the idea that Alex needs to grow up and accept her family have moved. The theme would change suddenly and become more of a 'be careful what you wish for' type of story.| Timeline and tension graphs We use structure to make sure the story has a journey, contains dramatic questions, and contains highs and lows for the characters. Earlier you planned your story through structure points across three acts. Take the same story, or another one, and use the template below. This is a timeline and tension graph. In a tension graph you can see where the drama builds and falls, with tension high at points such as the climax, and lower at points like the resolution. Check out the example from The Time Machine and notice the line throughout the graph which indicates when the tension is high, low; building or dropping. |1. Now it's your turn. Fill out the tension graph template using your own story to make sure your story contains highs and lows.| If your story doesn't fit the pattern in the template above, draw your own tension graph using the tension graph blank document below. For example, if you have a tragic ending there might be no relief of tension at the end. Or, if your story starts with a dramatic flash-forward to a tense part of the story, your tension graph would look different. It will be up to you to decide where you think the tension is high, and when there is relief for the characters and your audience. Before you write your script, flesh out your character by delving into their personality, their history, their likes, and their fears. Download and fill out the protagonist activity below for your protagonist. If you have more characters, you can do this exercise for them too. Goals and obstacles For your story to be exciting your characters need to have clear goals. This is something the character wants. Goals can be really simple, for example, Libby wants to get her biscuit back from the dog. Or they can be really big, for example, Libby wants to save the world. In the example of The Time Machine the problem Alex faces is the possibility she'll be stuck back in time. Her big goal is to get back to her own time. Check out this video essay called Writing the perfect villain below to see how you can make your antagonist just as interesting as your protagonist. |1. Invent two characters for your script. A protagonist (if you haven't already) and an antagonist.| |2. Download and complete the protagonist and antagonist activity. Once it's completed, use it as the basis for a paragraph describing each character.| Even if you don't have an antagonist for your story, you should still have an antagonistic force. This means something non-human is working against your character. It could be coming from society, the physical world, or within the protagonist themselves. We call these antagonistic forces. There are different types of antagonistic forces, and many films have both antagonists as well as antagonistic forces. Character vs. nature Good survival films often pit human characters against nature, where 'nature' can come in many forms. There are too many films to mention where characters are confronted by natural disasters such as tornadoes, super storms, tsunamis, volcanoes and the like. But nature as an antagonistic force can include characters simply trying to survive the elements, and there are many films about humans trying to survive harsh environments such as jungles and deserts. Character vs. animal Think films like Jaws or Jurassic Park, both films where animals threaten the lives of the characters. Lots of horror films like to pit characters against unnaturally large or vicious animals, as do thrillers like The Birds. In Jurassic Park, characters face off against a number of animals in the form of cloned dinosaurs. Characters are also up against technology in a way too, as the dinosaurs are the product of genetic meddling. Character vs. the supernatural Anything that involves ghosts, demons, vampires, werewolves or any other supernatural force a protagonist must face or battle. Character vs. society Often the society characters are pitted against are ones set in the future, but there are many films set in the past and contemporary settings where characters battle societal oppression. This could be in the form of racism, poverty, or unjust laws. It could also just be about a character who doesn't fit in with the society around them for other reasons. They could be an outsider, or simply hold very different views to the majority of people around them. Character vs. themselves Often characters have to overcome themselves in order to reach their goal. This is where you make your character their own worst enemy. A good protagonist should have a flaw that slows them down anyway but setting up the character as the main antagonistic force takes it to a whole new level. We love this student made film called Rewind where the main character Sam is his own worst enemy! Character vs. technology Often the kind of conflict we see in science-fiction films, where the technology that was supposed to help humankind poses a danger. Or, the technology created by humans turns against them. |1. Brainstorm as many examples of films you've seen or know of that fit into the above categories.| |2. From your list, can you see any that fit into more than one category?| |3. From your list, can you see any that have an antagonist AND an antagonistic force?| Interesting characters are often enhanced or made more interesting because of the story they are in. Likewise, good stories are even better when they contain interesting characters. The two work hand-in-hand. |Let’s see how well you know your protagonist by writing scenes around the following scenarios.| |1. Your character has to leave their school or workplace in a hurry, but they can’t tell their teacher/boss why they need to go.| |2. Your character wakes up to find council workers about to cut down the magnificent tree outside your character’s home.| |3. Your character is at a train station when they notice a man drop his wallet without realising, just as he is boarding a train.| |4. Your character is on a spaceship heading towards the new human colony on Mars.| |5. Create your own scenario/scene, then try re-writing your favourite but this time include your antagonist into the scenario and see what you come up with| Just as the plot has a beginning, middle and end, so does a protagonist's story. This is called a character arc. This just means that your character will grow and change from their experience, and the lessons they learn along the way. If a character doesn't change or learn anything then it won't be a very interesting story. A character arc works on the same timeline as your plot, as the plot always works alongside and with the character. |1. Using your character info, add your character arc into the story and character arc worksheet below. This character arc will go alongside the plot you have already mapped out.| |2. Make sure you explain what the 'character question' is. Your protagonist will have a goal or a problem to overcome, but character questions go a little deeper than plot, and will often relate to the script's theme. Try and make the character question, and the character arc about what your protagonist learns, how they grow, how they change. In The Time Machine, the plot question is about whether or not Alex will get back home, but her character question is more like "will Alex accept the changes in her life and move forward?"| |3. Now, write a short scene between your protagonist and antagonist, remembering the antagonist is in the way of the protagonist achieving their goal.| Want to learn more about story, script and characters before you start writing your script? There is lots more you can learn and practice in the art of screenwriting. Searching the blog of American screenwriter John August is a good place to look for specific tips regarding screenwriting. The Kahn Academy also have great content created with Pixar about storytelling. Check out the next Film It module, Exploring shot types.

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Do you want to learn how much is 1.26 kg equal to lbs and how to convert 1.26 kg to lbs? You couldn’t have chosen better. You will find in this article everything you need to make kilogram to pound conversion - theoretical and also practical. It is also needed/We also want to emphasize that all this article is devoted to one number of kilograms - that is one kilogram. So if you want to learn more about 1.26 kg to pound conversion - read on. Before we move on to the more practical part - it means 1.26 kg how much lbs calculation - we want to tell you a little bit of theoretical information about these two units - kilograms and pounds. So let’s move on. We are going to start with the kilogram. The kilogram is a unit of mass. It is a basic unit in a metric system, known also as International System of Units (in abbreviated form SI). At times the kilogram could be written as kilogramme. The symbol of this unit is kg. The kilogram was defined first time in 1795. The kilogram was defined as the mass of one liter of water. First definition was simply but difficult to use. Then, in 1889 the kilogram was defined by the International Prototype of the Kilogram (in short form IPK). The IPK was prepared of 90% platinum and 10 % iridium. The International Prototype of the Kilogram was used until 2019, when it was replaced by a new definition. The new definition of the kilogram is build on physical constants, especially Planck constant. Here is the official definition: “The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.” One kilogram is equal 0.001 tonne. It is also divided into 100 decagrams and 1000 grams. You know a little bit about kilogram, so now we can go to the pound. The pound is also a unit of mass. It is needed to emphasize that there are more than one kind of pound. What does it mean? For instance, there are also pound-force. In this article we are going to to centre only on pound-mass. The pound is used in the Imperial and United States customary systems of measurements. Of course, this unit is used also in other systems. The symbol of this unit is lb or “. The international avoirdupois pound has no descriptive definition. It is equal 0.45359237 kilograms. One avoirdupois pound is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces or 7000 grains. The avoirdupois pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963. The definition of the pound was given in first section of this act: “The yard or the metre shall be the unit of measurement of length and the pound or the kilogram shall be the unit of measurement of mass by reference to which any measurement involving a measurement of length or mass shall be made in the United Kingdom; and- (a) the yard shall be 0.9144 metre exactly; (b) the pound shall be 0.45359237 kilogram exactly.” The most theoretical part is already behind us. In this part we want to tell you how much is 1.26 kg to lbs. Now you learned that 1.26 kg = x lbs. So it is time to know the answer. Have a look: 1.26 kilogram = 2.7778245012 pounds. It is an exact outcome of how much 1.26 kg to pound. You may also round off this result. After rounding off your result is exactly: 1.26 kg = 2.772 lbs. You know 1.26 kg is how many lbs, so have a look how many kg 1.26 lbs: 1.26 pound = 0.45359237 kilograms. Obviously, this time it is possible to also round off the result. After rounding off your result is exactly: 1.26 lb = 0.45 kgs. We also want to show you 1.26 kg to how many pounds and 1.26 pound how many kg outcomes in charts. Have a look: We want to begin with a table for how much is 1.26 kg equal to pound. |Kilograms (kg)||Pounds (lb)||Pounds (lbs) (rounded off to two decimal places)| |Pounds||Kilograms||Kilograms (rounded off to two decimal places| Now you know how many 1.26 kg to lbs and how many kilograms 1.26 pound, so we can go to the 1.26 kg to lbs formula. To convert 1.26 kg to us lbs you need a formula. We are going to show you a formula in two different versions. Let’s begin with the first one: Number of kilograms * 2.20462262 = the 2.7778245012 result in pounds The first formula give you the most exact result. Sometimes even the smallest difference can be significant. So if you want to get a correct outcome - this version of a formula will be the best for you/option to calculate how many pounds are equivalent to 1.26 kilogram. So move on to the another version of a formula, which also enables calculations to know how much 1.26 kilogram in pounds. The another formula is down below, let’s see: Amount of kilograms * 2.2 = the result in pounds As you see, the second formula is simpler. It can be better option if you need to make a conversion of 1.26 kilogram to pounds in quick way, for instance, during shopping. You only need to remember that final outcome will be not so accurate. Now we want to learn you how to use these two versions of a formula in practice. But before we will make a conversion of 1.26 kg to lbs we want to show you another way to know 1.26 kg to how many lbs totally effortless. An easier way to check what is 1.26 kilogram equal to in pounds is to use 1.26 kg lbs calculator. What is a kg to lb converter? Converter is an application. Converter is based on longer formula which we showed you in the previous part of this article. Thanks to 1.26 kg pound calculator you can effortless convert 1.26 kg to lbs. You only need to enter amount of kilograms which you want to convert and click ‘calculate’ button. You will get the result in a flash. So let’s try to calculate 1.26 kg into lbs with use of 1.26 kg vs pound converter. We entered 1.26 as a number of kilograms. It is the outcome: 1.26 kilogram = 2.7778245012 pounds. As you can see, our 1.26 kg vs lbs converter is intuitive. Now we can go to our primary issue - how to convert 1.26 kilograms to pounds on your own. We are going to start 1.26 kilogram equals to how many pounds conversion with the first version of a formula to get the most accurate result. A quick reminder of a formula: Amount of kilograms * 2.20462262 = 2.7778245012 the result in pounds So what need you do to learn how many pounds equal to 1.26 kilogram? Just multiply amount of kilograms, in this case 1.26, by 2.20462262. It gives 2.7778245012. So 1.26 kilogram is exactly 2.7778245012. You can also round it off, for instance, to two decimal places. It is exactly 2.20. So 1.26 kilogram = 2.7720 pounds. It is high time for an example from everyday life. Let’s convert 1.26 kg gold in pounds. So 1.26 kg equal to how many lbs? And again - multiply 1.26 by 2.20462262. It is equal 2.7778245012. So equivalent of 1.26 kilograms to pounds, if it comes to gold, is exactly 2.7778245012. In this case you can also round off the result. It is the result after rounding off, in this case to one decimal place - 1.26 kilogram 2.772 pounds. Now we can move on to examples calculated with short formula. Before we show you an example - a quick reminder of shorter formula: Amount of kilograms * 2.2 = 2.772 the result in pounds So 1.26 kg equal to how much lbs? As in the previous example you need to multiply amount of kilogram, this time 1.26, by 2.2. Have a look: 1.26 * 2.2 = 2.772. So 1.26 kilogram is 2.2 pounds. Let’s make another conversion using shorer formula. Now convert something from everyday life, for instance, 1.26 kg to lbs weight of strawberries. So let’s convert - 1.26 kilogram of strawberries * 2.2 = 2.772 pounds of strawberries. So 1.26 kg to pound mass is equal 2.772. If you learned how much is 1.26 kilogram weight in pounds and are able to calculate it using two different formulas, we can move on. Now we are going to show you all outcomes in charts. We are aware that outcomes presented in charts are so much clearer for most of you. It is totally understandable, so we gathered all these results in charts for your convenience. Due to this you can easily compare 1.26 kg equivalent to lbs outcomes. Start with a 1.26 kg equals lbs table for the first formula: |Kilograms||Pounds||Pounds (after rounding off to two decimal places)| And now let’s see 1.26 kg equal pound table for the second version of a formula: As you can see, after rounding off, if it comes to how much 1.26 kilogram equals pounds, the outcomes are not different. The bigger amount the more significant difference. Remember it when you need to make bigger number than 1.26 kilograms pounds conversion. Now you learned how to calculate 1.26 kilograms how much pounds but we are going to show you something more. Are you curious what it is? What do you say about 1.26 kilogram to pounds and ounces conversion? We are going to show you how you can calculate it step by step. Let’s start. How much is 1.26 kg in lbs and oz? First thing you need to do is multiply number of kilograms, in this case 1.26, by 2.20462262. So 1.26 * 2.20462262 = 2.7778245012. One kilogram is exactly 2.20462262 pounds. The integer part is number of pounds. So in this example there are 2 pounds. To calculate how much 1.26 kilogram is equal to pounds and ounces you have to multiply fraction part by 16. So multiply 20462262 by 16. It is equal 327396192 ounces. So your outcome is equal 2 pounds and 327396192 ounces. It is also possible to round off ounces, for instance, to two places. Then final result will be equal 2 pounds and 33 ounces. As you see, calculation 1.26 kilogram in pounds and ounces quite simply. The last conversion which we want to show you is conversion of 1.26 foot pounds to kilograms meters. Both foot pounds and kilograms meters are units of work. To convert it you need another formula. Before we show you it, look: Now let’s see a formula: Number.RandomElement()) of foot pounds * 0.13825495 = the result in kilograms meters So to convert 1.26 foot pounds to kilograms meters you have to multiply 1.26 by 0.13825495. It is exactly 0.13825495. So 1.26 foot pounds is equal 0.13825495 kilogram meters. You can also round off this result, for example, to two decimal places. Then 1.26 foot pounds will be exactly 0.14 kilogram meters. We hope that this conversion was as easy as 1.26 kilogram into pounds conversions. This article was a huge compendium about kilogram, pound and 1.26 kg to lbs in calculation. Thanks to this conversion you learned 1.26 kilogram is equivalent to how many pounds. We showed you not only how to do a conversion 1.26 kilogram to metric pounds but also two other calculations - to know how many 1.26 kg in pounds and ounces and how many 1.26 foot pounds to kilograms meters. We showed you also other solution to make 1.26 kilogram how many pounds conversions, this is using 1.26 kg en pound converter. It will be the best solution for those of you who do not like converting on your own at all or need to make @baseAmountStr kg how lbs conversions in quicker way. We hope that now all of you can do 1.26 kilogram equal to how many pounds conversion - on your own or with use of our 1.26 kgs to pounds converter. Don’t wait! Let’s calculate 1.26 kilogram mass to pounds in the best way for you. Do you want to make other than 1.26 kilogram as pounds conversion? For example, for 15 kilograms? Check our other articles! We guarantee that conversions for other amounts of kilograms are so easy as for 1.26 kilogram equal many pounds. We want to sum up this topic, that is how much is 1.26 kg in pounds , we gathered answers to the most frequently asked questions. Here you can find the most important information about how much is 1.26 kg equal to lbs and how to convert 1.26 kg to lbs . It is down below. How does the kilogram to pound conversion look? To make the kg to lb conversion it is needed to multiply 2 numbers. How does 1.26 kg to pound conversion formula look? . It is down below: The number of kilograms * 2.20462262 = the result in pounds So what is the result of the conversion of 1.26 kilogram to pounds? The accurate result is 2.7778245012 pounds. It is also possible to calculate how much 1.26 kilogram is equal to pounds with second, easier type of the formula. Let’s see. The number of kilograms * 2.2 = the result in pounds So in this case, 1.26 kg equal to how much lbs ? The result is 2.7778245012 lbs. How to convert 1.26 kg to lbs in a few seconds? It is possible to use the 1.26 kg to lbs converter , which will make the rest for you and you will get an accurate answer . |1.01 kg to lbs||=||2.22667| |1.02 kg to lbs||=||2.24872| |1.03 kg to lbs||=||2.27076| |1.04 kg to lbs||=||2.29281| |1.05 kg to lbs||=||2.31485| |1.06 kg to lbs||=||2.33690| |1.07 kg to lbs||=||2.35895| |1.08 kg to lbs||=||2.38099| |1.09 kg to lbs||=||2.40304| |1.1 kg to lbs||=||2.42508| |1.11 kg to lbs||=||2.44713| |1.12 kg to lbs||=||2.46918| |1.13 kg to lbs||=||2.49122| |1.14 kg to lbs||=||2.51327| |1.15 kg to lbs||=||2.53532| |1.16 kg to lbs||=||2.55736| |1.17 kg to lbs||=||2.57941| |1.18 kg to lbs||=||2.60145| |1.19 kg to lbs||=||2.62350| |1.2 kg to lbs||=||2.64555| |1.21 kg to lbs||=||2.66759| |1.22 kg to lbs||=||2.68964| |1.23 kg to lbs||=||2.71169| |1.24 kg to lbs||=||2.73373| |1.25 kg to lbs||=||2.75578| |1.26 kg to lbs||=||2.77782| |1.27 kg to lbs||=||2.79987| |1.28 kg to lbs||=||2.82192| |1.29 kg to lbs||=||2.84396| |1.3 kg to lbs||=||2.86601| |1.31 kg to lbs||=||2.88806| |1.32 kg to lbs||=||2.91010| |1.33 kg to lbs||=||2.93215| |1.34 kg to lbs||=||2.95419| |1.35 kg to lbs||=||2.97624| |1.36 kg to lbs||=||2.99829| |1.37 kg to lbs||=||3.02033| |1.38 kg to lbs||=||3.04238| |1.39 kg to lbs||=||3.06443| |1.4 kg to lbs||=||3.08647| |1.41 kg to lbs||=||3.10852| |1.42 kg to lbs||=||3.13056| |1.43 kg to lbs||=||3.15261| |1.44 kg to lbs||=||3.17466| |1.45 kg to lbs||=||3.19670| |1.46 kg to lbs||=||3.21875| |1.47 kg to lbs||=||3.24080| |1.48 kg to lbs||=||3.26284| |1.49 kg to lbs||=||3.28489| |1.5 kg to lbs||=||3.30693| |1.51 kg to lbs||=||3.32898| |1.52 kg to lbs||=||3.35103| |1.53 kg to lbs||=||3.37307| |1.54 kg to lbs||=||3.39512| |1.55 kg to lbs||=||3.41717| |1.56 kg to lbs||=||3.43921| |1.57 kg to lbs||=||3.46126| |1.58 kg to lbs||=||3.48330| |1.59 kg to lbs||=||3.50535| |1.6 kg to lbs||=||3.52740| |1.61 kg to lbs||=||3.54944| |1.62 kg to lbs||=||3.57149| |1.63 kg to lbs||=||3.59353| |1.64 kg to lbs||=||3.61558| |1.65 kg to lbs||=||3.63763| |1.66 kg to lbs||=||3.65967| |1.67 kg to lbs||=||3.68172| |1.68 kg to lbs||=||3.70377| |1.69 kg to lbs||=||3.72581| |1.7 kg to lbs||=||3.74786| |1.71 kg to lbs||=||3.76990| |1.72 kg to lbs||=||3.79195| |1.73 kg to lbs||=||3.81400| |1.74 kg to lbs||=||3.83604| |1.75 kg to lbs||=||3.85809| |1.76 kg to lbs||=||3.88014| |1.77 kg to lbs||=||3.90218| |1.78 kg to lbs||=||3.92423| |1.79 kg to lbs||=||3.94627| |1.8 kg to lbs||=||3.96832| |1.81 kg to lbs||=||3.99037| |1.82 kg to lbs||=||4.01241| |1.83 kg to lbs||=||4.03446| |1.84 kg to lbs||=||4.05651| |1.85 kg to lbs||=||4.07855| |1.86 kg to lbs||=||4.10060| |1.87 kg to lbs||=||4.12264| |1.88 kg to lbs||=||4.14469| |1.89 kg to lbs||=||4.16674| |1.9 kg to lbs||=||4.18878| |1.91 kg to lbs||=||4.21083| |1.92 kg to lbs||=||4.23288| |1.93 kg to lbs||=||4.25492| |1.94 kg to lbs||=||4.27697| |1.95 kg to lbs||=||4.29901| |1.96 kg to lbs||=||4.32106| |1.97 kg to lbs||=||4.34311| |1.98 kg to lbs||=||4.36515| |1.99 kg to lbs||=||4.38720| |2 kg to lbs||=||4.40925|

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INTELLIGENCE COLLECTION ACTIVITIES AND DISCIPLINES Intelligence is the product resulting from the collection, collation, evaluation, analysis, integration, and interpretation of collected information. It is a specialized information product that provides the United States or an adversary with information required to further its national interests. One of the most important functions of intelligence is the reduction of the ambiguity inherent in the observation of external activities. In the most obvious case, adversary intelligence organizations may seek information concerning military capabilities or other matters that directly threaten the national security of the United States. In other cases, adversary nations, or other groups, may seek information about U.S. diplomatic negotiating positions, economic programs, or proprietary information from U.S. corporations. In each of these cases, the information sought may provide the adversary with an edge and might allow him to implement a well-developed strategy to reach his goals. In most cases, the development of an intelligence product involves collecting information from a number of different sources. In some cases, information may be disseminated immediately upon collection based upon operational necessity and potential impact on current operations. This type of raw intelligence is usually based on fragmentary information about fast-breaking events and may contain substantial inaccuracies or uncertainties that must be resolved through subsequent report and analysis. Finished intelligence products contain information that is compared, analyzed, and weighted to allow the development of conclusions. Finished intelligence is produced through analytical review in the intelligence process. The intelligence process confirms a fact or set of facts through a multiplicity of sources to reduce the chance of erroneous conclusions and susceptibility to deception. Intelligence is divided into strategic and operational intelligence. Strategic intelligence provides policy makers with the information needed to make national policy or decisions of long-lasting importance. Strategic intelligence collection often requires integrating information concerning politics, military affairs, economics, societal interactions, and technological developments. It typically evolves over a long period of time and results in the development of intelligence studies and estimates. Operational intelligence is concerned with current or near-term events. It is used to determine the current and projected capability of a program or operation on an ongoing basis and does not result in long-term projections. Most intelligence activities support the development of operational intelligence. The intelligence cycle is the process through which intelligence is obtained, produced, and made available to users. In depicting this cycle, the United States Intelligence Community uses a five-step process. Other nations may describe this cycle differently; however, the process is largely the same. The steps in the intelligence cycle are depicted in the following illustration: Planning and Direction. The first step in the cycle, planning and direction, involves the management of the entire intelligence effort, from the identification of a need for data to the final delivery of the intelligence product to the consumer. The process consists of identifying, prioritizing, and validating intelligence requirements, translating requirements into observables, preparing collection plans, issuing requests for information collection, production, and dissemination, and continuously monitoring the availability of collected data. In this step specific collection capabilities are tasked, based on the type of information required, the susceptibility of the targeted activity to various types of collection activity, and the availability of collection assets. Collection. The second step, collection, includes both acquiring information and provisioning that information to processing and production elements. The collection process encompasses the management of various activities, including developing collection guidelines that ensure optimal use of available intelligence resources. Intelligence collection requirements are developed to meet the needs of potential consumers. Based upon identified intelligence, requirements collection activities are given specific taskings to collect information. These taskings are generally redundant and may use a number of different intelligence disciplines for collection activities. Tasking redundancy compensates for the potential loss or failure of a collection asset. It ensures that the failure of a collection asset is compensated for by duplicate or different assets capable of answering the collection need. The use of different types of collection systems contributes to redundancy. It also allows the collection of different types of information that can be used to confirm or disprove potential assessments. Collection operations depend on secure, rapid, redundant, and reliable communications to allow for data exchange and to provide opportunities for cross-cueing of assets and tip-off exchanges between assets. Once collected, information is correlated and forwarded for processing and production. Processing. The third step, processing, is the conversion of collected information into a form suitable for the production of intelligence. In this process, incoming information is converted into formats that can be readily used by intelligence analysts in producing intelligence. Processing may include such activities as translation and reduction of intercepted messages into written format to permit detailed analysis and comparison with other information. Other types of processing include video production, photographic processing, and correlation of information collected by technical intelligence platforms. Production. The fourth step, production, is the process of analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, and integrating raw data and information into finished intelligence products for known or anticipated purposes and applications. The product may be developed from a single source or from all-source collection and databases. To be effective, intelligence production must focus on the consumer's needs. It should be objective, timely, and most importantly accurate. As part of the production process, the analyst must eliminate information that is redundant, erroneous, or inapplicable to the intelligence requirement. As a result of the analytical effort, the analyst may determine that additional collection operations are required to fill in gaps left by previous collection or existing intelligence databases. The final intelligence product must provide the consumer with an understanding of the subject area, and draw analytical conclusions supported by available data. Dissemination. The final step of the intelligence cycle is dissemination. Dissemination is the conveyance of intelligence to the consumer in a usable form. Intelligence can be provided to the consumer in a wide range of formats including verbal reports, written reports, imagery products, and intelligence databases. Dissemination can be accomplished through physical exchanges of data and through interconnected data and communications networks. The OPSEC program manager should be aware of the intelligence cycle for three reasons. First, this awareness allows the manager to play a role in the production of intelligence required to support his OPSEC program. The OPSEC program manager must be aware of the range of threats that confront his program, or he will not be able to implement countermeasures to deny the adversary access to data that may provide critical information. Knowledge of the intelligence cycle and the various Intelligence Community organizations allows the OPSEC program manager to determine how to access intelligence needed for conduct of the OPSEC process. Second, knowledge of the intelligence cycle allows the OPSEC program manager to develop protective measures to thwart adversary collection activities. Knowledge of adversary intelligence planning derived through U.S. intelligence collection allows the OPSEC program manager to determine if his facility, operation, or program is targeted, or is likely to be targeted, by a particular adversary. Knowledge of an adversary's collection methods and patterns allows the program manager to develop effective countermeasures that hide or distort indicators. Finally, a knowledge of the adversary's analytical biases can be used to develop deception programs that deceive the adversary by confirming erroneous perceptions. The following section of this handbook examines the various intelligence collection disciplines and considers their use by adversaries against the United States. Several intelligence disciplines are used by adversaries to acquire information concerning the United States. These disciplines include human intelligence HUMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), imagery intelligence (IMINT), measurement and signatures intelligence (MASINT), and open source intelligence (OSINT). Each of these disciplines is used by adversaries against the United States to some degree. Most nations, and many subnational and private organizations, have HUMINT capabilities that they use to collect data on their adversaries and competitors. Open source intelligence is successful in targeting the United States because of the openness of American society. Technical and professional journals are often lucrative sources for information concerning government and commercial activities in the United States. The growing number of on-line databases has increased the capacity of U.S. adversaries and competitors to develop tailored data products on U.S. government and industry activities by permitting them to review large quantities of information in very short periods of time. Search parameters used for these databases can be structured to extract only pertinent information for analysis. Open source collection becomes more of a threat as more information becomes electronically accessible. OPSEC program managers must be aware of the potential for open source collection against their activities and must ensure that protective countermeasures are developed to prevent inadvertent compromise of program activities through publication of data in publicly available media. Intelligence collection organizations may also use IMINT, SIGINT, and MASINT to gather data. These collection capabilities, however, are often limited by the technological capabilities of the intelligence organization. Historically, less technologically capable nations have been unable to gain access to information; however, this situation is changing. SIGINT technologies are proliferating throughout the world and are being sold by a wide variety of suppliers to nations that are known adversaries of the United States. Imagery products are becoming more readily available to non-traditional adversaries as commercial imagery products that approach the quality of intelligence collection systems become available for sale. MASINT, however, is still a relatively arcane collection discipline and only a limited number of nations have access to MASINT collection capabilities. The following sections discuss each of the collection disciplines and the type of information collected. Human intelligence is derived from human sources. To the public, HUMINT remains synonymous with espionage and clandestine activities, yet, in reality, most HUMINT collection is performed by overt collectors such as diplomats and military attaches. HUMINT is the oldest method for collecting information about a foreign power. Until the technical revolution of the mid to late twentieth century, HUMINT the primary source of intelligence for all governments. For most nations in the world, it remains the mainstay of their intelligence collection activities. HUMINT includes overt, sensitive, and clandestine activities and the individuals who exploit, control, supervise, or support these sources. Overt activities are performed openly. Overt HUMINT collectors can include military attaches, diplomatic personnel, members of official delegations, and debriefers at refugee centers. Overt HUMINT activities may include: exploiting unclassified publications, conference materials, and Congressional hearings; operating interrogation centers for refugees and prisoners of war; and debriefing legal travelers who traveled to countries of interest to a nation's intelligence service. Sensitive HUMINT activities may depend upon the same methods as overt activities, however, the sponsor of the activity must be protected from disclosure. Disclosure of the sponsor's identity may result in political embarrassment, compromise of other intelligence operations, or security threats to the sponsoring nation. Clandestine HUMINT sources include agents who have been recruited or have volunteered to provided information to a foreign nation, and foreign nationals who successfully infiltrate an organization with a cover story. The latter cases are fairly rare, and generally come to the United States under the guise of being political refugees. Once in the United States, they move into positions that allow them to gather political, technical, or economic information for their governments. According to one estimate, over 100 countries currently conduct intelligence operations against the United States. Adversary intelligence organizations place a high priority on the acquisition of scientific and technical information and target the United States because of its preeminence in many high-technology areas. The United States Government, American corporations, and U.S. universities have been targeted by intelligence organizations seeking scientific and technical intelligence. The United States hosts more science and technology (S&T) officials, defense attaches, and identified intelligence officers than any other industrialized nation in the world. Intrusive on-site inspection activities required under some arms control agreements provide a significant opportunity for HUMINT collection at facilities of great importance to the national security of the United States. On-site inspection provisions are specified in the Treaty on Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF), the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), the Bilateral Agreement between the United States and Russia on Chemical Weapons, and in the Treaty on Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE). In addition, the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (PNET), the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), and the Open Skies Treaty (OS) provide the opportunity to gather information from sensitive installations, even though no intrusive on-site inspections are permitted. These treaties provide for the use of technical collection capabilities to verify national declarations. The operation of these collection systems requires a significant number of support personnel, and some of these personnel are likely to be intelligence collectors. Intelligence collectors in onsite inspections will be accredited inspectors who are specially trained to collect specific types of data and enjoy diplomatic immunity. It is likely that these personnel will try to obtain intelligence through observation of facilities, elicitation of information from escorts and facility personnel, and collection of available documentation. Even with the explosion of technical capabilities, HUMINT can still provide information that even the most proficient technical collectors cannot, such as access to internal memoranda and to compartmented information. Most importantly, human collectors can provide key insights into the intentions of an adversary, whereas technical collection systems are often limited to determining capabilities. HUMINT can be used to reveal adversary plans and intentions, or uncover scientific and weapons developments before they are used or are detected by technical collection systems. HUMiNT can also provide documentary evidence such as blueprints of facilities, copies of adversary plans, or copies of diplomatic or policy documents. Finally, HUMINT is extremely cost effective compared with technical collection systems and does not require a significant technological production base for support. Signals intelligence is derived from signal intercepts comprising, either individually or in combination, all communications intelligence (COMINT), electronic intelligence (ELlNT), and foreign instrumentation signals intelligence (FISINT), however transmitted. COMINT, one of the primary SIG[NT disciplines, includes information derived from intercepted communications transmissions. COMINT targets voice and teleprinter traffic, video, Morse code traffic, or even facsimile messages. Assuming access is possible, COMINT can be collected from the air waves, cable, fiber optics, or any other transmission medium. ELINT includes the interception and analysis of noncommunications transmissions, such as radar. ELlNT is used to identify the location of an emitter, determine its characteristics, and infer the characteristics of supported systems. FISINT consists of intercepts of telemetry from an opponent's weapons systems as they are being tested. Telemetry units provide designers with information on a prototype's guidance system operation, fuel usage, staging, and other parameters vital for understanding operational characteristics. These data enable the designer to evaluate the performance of the prototype. However, if intercepted, they also provide an adversary with the ability to estimate the capability of the prototype. Signals intelligence collection can be performed from a variety of platforms. Examples include overt ground collection sites, such as the Russian facility at Lourdes, Cuba; ships and aircraft; and covert locations inside the United States. SIGINT facilities can monitor transmissions from communications satellites, as well as terrestrial facilities. This is particularly important because many international transmissions originating in the United States depend on communications satellites for passage overseas. Communications satellites supporting the transmission of U.S. Government, private sector, and public communications include the International Maritime Satellite system ([NMARSAT), the International Telecommunications Satellite system (INTELSAT),and the European Satellite system (EUROSAT). International communications satellites are routinely monitored by foreign intelligence services, including the Russian and Chinese intelligence services. The majority of collection capabilities targeting the United States are either ground or sea based, and target line-of-site or satellite communication systems. Space-based collection systems can also collect COMINT, FISINT, and ELINT. MASINT is scientific and technical intelligence information obtained by quantitative and qualitative analysis of data derived from specific technical sensors for the purpose of identifying any distinctive features associated with the source emitter or sender. This information is then used to facilitate the subsequent identification or measurement of the same type of equipment. The term measurement refers primarily to the data collected for the purpose of obtaining finite metric parameters. The term signature refers primarily to data indicating the distinctive features of phenomena, equipment, or objects as they are sensed by the collection instrument. The signature is used to recognize the phenomenon, equipment, or object when its distinctive features are detected. Examples of MASINT disciplines include radar intelligence (RAD[NT), infrared intelligence (IRINT), and nuclear intelligence (NUCINT). Because it works in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, MASINT detects information patterns not previously exploited by sensors. MASINT sensors collect information generally considered by the targeted nation to be peripheral in nature. As a result, these signatures are often not protected by any countermeasures. IMINT is a product of imagery analysis. Imagery includes representations of objects reproduced electronically or by optical means on film, electronic display devices, or other media. Imagery can be derived from visual photography, radar sensors, infrared sensors, lasers, and electro-optics. IMINT includes the exploitation of data to detect, classify, and identify objects or organizations. It can be produced from either hard- or soft-copy (digital) imagery. Hard-copy imagery is synonymous with film, while soft-copy imagery is displayed on electronic terminals. Both types of imagery sources can be analyzed and interpreted for various purposes by different users. At one time, the imagery intelligence threat was largely restricted to the former Soviet Union and later to the Russian Federation. This is no longer true. The proliferation of space-based imagery systems permits a much greater use of imagery products by nations that previously did not have access to them. Currently, imagery can be purchased from a variety of sensors. These systems include the Landsat multispectral imagery (MSI) system operated by the United States, the French SPOT MSI and pan-chromatic imaging system, the European Space Agency's ERS-1 synthetic aperture radar imaging system, and the Japanese JERS-1 multisensor imager. Additionally, the Russians are selling 2-meter or better imagery from their spacebased reconnaissance systems. The commercial imagery market is likely to continue to grow at an exponential rate, and additional collection systems are currently being developed. These will include imaging systems produced by U.S. companies that will be capable of producing 1-meter resolution electro-optical digitized imagery. One meter imagery is sufficient to conduct technical analysis of terrain, determine key facilities in an urban area, and conduct detailed analyses of industrial facilities. Other nations such as France, Germany, Japan, and Canada are producing advanced imagery platforms that could be used to target sensitive facilities. Existing imagery systems and developmental commercial systems will be discussed in greater detail in Section 5. An additional factor that must be considered is the growing availability of sophisticated imagery work stations, and analytical tools. These capabilities will allow adversaries to conduct in-depth analysis for targeting and technical intelligence gathering. The 1992 Open Skies Treaty also poses an imagery collection threat. The treaty establishes a regime of unarmed aerial observation flights over the entire territory of its signatories. The treaty was negotiated between the members of NATO and the former Warsaw Pact as a means to promote openness and transparency of military forces and activities. Observation flights can be performed from aircraft provided by the observing nation, the observed nation, or a third participating party. Aircraft can be equipped with panoramic and framing cameras capable of a ground resolution of no better than 30 centimeters, video cameras with a ground resolution of no better than 30 centimeters, infrared line scanning devices with ground resolution of no better than 50 centimeters, and synthetic aperture radar systems with impulse response rate resolutions no better than 3 meters. Ground resolutions of 50 centimeters or less provide significant detailed information for an imagery analyst. Using the imagery derived from Open Skies flights analysts will be able to identify particular types of equipment by type and capability, and perform detailed analyses of rail, port, industrial, and military facilities. Imagery provides significant benefits to an adversary collecting intelligence against the United States. First, properly mensurated imagery can provide geolocation accuracies for weapons systems targeting, or other intelligence collection platforms. Second, imagery allows activity to be detected, target characteristics studied in detail, and equipment and facilities enumerated. Third, large areas can be covered by imagery sensors for mapping of areas of key importances Imagery also has limitations. Except for synthetic aperture radar, imagery quality is normally degraded by darkness and adverse weather. This allows the targeted organization to use these periods of time to conduct activities that they wish to go unobserved. If an organization is aware that it is being targeted by imagery systems, they can use camouflage, concealment, and deception (CC&D) techniques to obscure their activities or provide a misleading image to the observing party. Effective use of CC&D may result in the adversary drawing erroneous conclusions about the observed organization's capabilities and activities. Finally, imagery intelligence collection usually requires a technologically oriented infrastructure. While this requirement may be lessened to some extent in the future, effective use of imagery will still require well educated, technically competent analysts --- a capability that may be beyond some U.S. adversaries. Open source intelligence involves the use of materials available to the public by intelligence agencies and other adversaries. Some analysts have estimated that the Soviet Union derived up to 90 percent of its intelligence from open source information. With the proliferation of electronic databases, it has become easier to collate large quantities of data, and structure information to meet the needs of the adversary collector. Open source information can often provide extremely valuable information concerning an organization's activities and capabilities. Frequently, open source material can provide information on organizational dynamics, technical processes, and research activities not available in any other form. When open source data is compiled, it is often possible to derive classified data or trade secrets. This is particularly true in the case of studies published in technical journals. A significant understanding of research and development efforts can often be derived by analyzing journal articles published by different members of a research organization. Finally, open source information is generally more timely and may be the only information available in the early stages of a crisis or emergency. Open source intelligence collection does have limitations. Often articles in military or scientific journals represent a theoretical or desired capability rather than an actual capability. Censorship may also limit the publication of key data needed to arrive at a full understanding of an adversary's actions, or the press may be used as part of a conscious deception effort. It is unclear to what extent foreign intelligence services are using computer hackers to obtain proprietary data or sensitive government information, or whether they have developed the capability to use computer intrusion techniques to disrupt telecommunications activities. The KGB did, however, sponsor computer intrusion activities by the Hannover Hackers, and there is no reason to believe that these efforts have ceased. The Hannover Hackers were able to access at least 28 Government computer systems, and obtain data from them. They sold this data to the KGB. While none of this data was classified, much of it was sensitive, and classified information could potentially be derived from comparing this information with other data. It has also been alleged that the KGB has been involved in similar efforts with other hacker groups and that these operations included the remote introduction of logic bombs and other malicious code. There is little doubt that many foreign intelligence services could obtain hese capabilities if they wished. The ability of a group of Dutch hackers to obtain sensitive information from U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force computer networks during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm serves as an example of this potential for access. Between April 1990 and May 1991, this group was able to penetrate computer systems at 34 different facilities. The group obtained information on logistics operations, equipment movement schedules, and weapons development programs. Information from one of the penetrated computer systems directly supported Desert Shield/Desert Storm operations. In a review of this incident the General Accounting Office concluded that a foreign intelligence service would have been able to derive significant understanding of U.S. Operations in the Persian Gulf from the information that the Dutch hackers were able to extract from DoD information systems. The culmination of the intelligence cycle is the development of all source intelligence. All source intelligence incorporates information derived through HUMINT, SIGINT, IM[NT, MAS1NT, and OStNT. The intention of this type of effort is to develop reinforcing information and to use multiple sources to corroborate key data points. The advantage of an all source approach is that each of the intelligence disciplines is suited to collecting a particular type of data, which allows the intelligence organization to examine all facets of an intelligence target, and gain a better understanding of its operation. All source intelligence collection is the most formidable threat faced by the OPSEC program manager. Fortunately, only a few nations have the ability to mount such efforts. The following sections of this report examines the intelligence capabilities of adversary nations and groups. 1 - Interagency OPSEC Support Staff, Compendium of OPSEC Terms, Greenbelt, MD: IOSS, April 1991. 2 - Bruce D. Berkowitz and Allan E. Goodman, StraJegic Intelligence for American National Security, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989. 3 - The Joint Staff, Doctrine for Intelligence Support to Joint Operations, Washington, DC: Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. June 30. 1991. 4 - Interagency OPSEC Support Staff, Compendium of OPSEC Terms, Greenbelt, MD: IOSS, April 1991. 5 - Air Force Pamphlet 200-18, Target Intelligence Handbook: Unclassif ed Targeting Principles, Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force, October 1, 1990. 6 - Suzanne Wood, Katherine L. Herbig, and Peter A. W. Lewis, American Espionage, 1945-1989, Monterey, CA: Defense Personnel Security Research and Education Center, 1990. 7 - Defense Science Board, Report of the Defense Science Board Summer Study Task Force on Information Architecture for the Battlefield, Washington, DC: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, October 1994. 8 - Jeffrey Richelson, American Espionage and the Soviet Target, New York: William Morrow, 1987. 9 Intelligence Community Staff, Glossary of Intelligence Terms and Definitions, Washington, DC: ICS, June 1989. 10 - William Rosenau,"A Deafening Silence: U.S. Policy and the SIGINT Facility at Lourdes," Intelligence and National Security, 9:4 (October 1994), pp. 723-734. 11 - Pan chromatic systems produce black and white imagery. Multispectral systems capture selected visible and non-visible wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum to develop images that provide information not available from the visible spectrum alone. These images provide the means to determine soil porosity, moisture content, heat distribution patterns, structural density, and vegetation growth. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) uses a radar antenna with a narrow beam to develop a high resolution image. SAR provides an all weather/day/night imaging capability. Electro-optic imagery differs from optical imagery in that the first uses an electrical system imaging system to obtain a digital image, and the second type is essentially a photographic system that uses film as a medium. The advantage of electro-optic imagery is that digitized imagery can be transmitted for near real-time analysis, and can be manipulated or enhanced to emphasize desired features. 12 - Daniel B. Sibbet, "Commercial Remote-Sensing," American Intelligence Journal, Spring/Summer 1993, p. 37, and Testimony of Robin Armani before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Public Hearing on Commercial Remote Sensing, November 17. 1993. 13 - On-Site Inspection Agency, "Fact Sheet: The Open Skies Treaty," May 1993, and U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Treaty on Open Skies (Official Text), April 10, 1992. 14 - Headquarters, U.S. Air Force, Target Intelligence Handbook: Unclassified Targeting Principles, Air Force Pamphlet 200-18, Volume 1, Washington, D.C., 1 October 1990, pp. 18-19. 15 - ibid.. P. 19. 16 - Peter Warren, "Technoterrorists: Growing Links Between Computer Technology and the Seedy Underworld of Terrorism, Organized Crime, and Spying." Computer Talk, June 19. 1989, D. 52. 17 - Interview: DISA Center for Information System Security, November 3, 1993. 18 - United States Senate, A Lesson of the Gulf War: National Security Requires Computer Security, June 19, 1991, Subcommittee on Government Information and Regulation, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Washington, DC: USGPO.

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The inner lives of animals are hard to study. But there is evidence that they may be a lot richer than science once thought IN 1992, at Tangalooma, off the coast of Queensland, people began to throw fish into the water for the local wild dolphins to eat. In 1998, the dolphins began to feed the humans, throwing fish up onto the jetty for them. The humans thought they were having a bit of fun feeding the animals. What, if anything, did the dolphins think? Charles Darwin thought the mental capacities of animals and people differed only in degree, not kind—a natural conclusion to reach when armed with the radical new belief that the one evolved from the other. His last great book, “The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals”, examined joy, love and grief in birds, domestic animals and primates as well as in various human races. But Darwin’s attitude to animals—easily shared by people in everyday contact with dogs, horses, even mice—ran contrary to a long tradition in European thought which held that animals had no minds at all. This way of thinking stemmed from the argument of René Descartes, a great 17th-century philosopher, that people were creatures of reason, linked to the mind of God, while animals were merely machines made of flesh—living robots which, in the words of Nicolas Malebranche, one of his followers, “eat without pleasure, cry without pain, grow without knowing it: they desire nothing, fear nothing, know nothing.” For much of the 20th century biology cleaved closer to Descartes than to Darwin. Students of animal behaviour did not rule out the possibility that animals had minds but thought the question almost irrelevant since it was impossible to answer. One could study an organism’s inputs (such as food or the environment) or outputs (its behaviour). But the organism itself remained a black box: unobservable things such as emotions or thoughts were beyond the scope of objective inquiry. As one such “behaviourist” wrote in 1992, “attributing conscious thought to animals should be strenuously avoided in any serious attempt to understand their behaviour, since it is untestable [and] empty...”. By then, though, there was ever greater resistance to such strictures. In 1976 a professor at Rockefeller University in New York, Donald Griffen, had taken the bull by the horns (leaving aside what the bull might have felt about this) in a book called “The Question of Animal Awareness”. He argued that animals could indeed think and that their ability to do this could be subjected to proper scientific scrutiny. In the past 40 years a wide range of work both in the field and the lab has pushed the consensus away from strict behaviourism and towards that Darwin-friendly view. Progress has not been easy or quick; as the behaviourists warned, both sorts of evidence can be misleading. Laboratory tests can be rigorous, but are inevitably based on animals which may not behave as they do in the wild. Field observations can be dismissed as anecdotal. Running them for years or decades and on a large scale goes some way to guarding against that problem, but such studies are rare. Nevertheless, most scientists now feel they can say with confidence that some animals process information and express emotions in ways that are accompanied by conscious mental experience. They agree that animals, from rats and mice to parrots and humpback whales, have complex mental capacities; that a few species have attributes once thought to be unique to people, such as the ability to give objects names and use tools; and that a handful of animals—primates, corvids (the crow family) and cetaceans (whales and dolphins)—have something close to what in humans is seen as culture, in that they develop distinctive ways of doing things which are passed down by imitation and example. No animals have all the attributes of human minds; but almost all the attributes of human minds are found in some animal or other. Consider Billie, a wild bottlenose dolphin which got injured in a lock at the age of five. She was taken to an aquarium in South Australia for medical treatment, during which she spent three weeks living with captive dolphins which had been taught various tricks. She herself, though, was never trained. After she was returned to the open sea local dolphin-watchers were struck to see her “tailwalking”—a move in which a dolphin stands up above the water by beating its flukes just below the surface, travelling slowly backwards in a vaguely Michael Jackson manner. It was a trick that Billie seemed to have picked up simply by watching her erstwhile pool mates perform. More striking yet, soon afterwards five other dolphins in her pod started to tailwalk, though the behaviour had no practical function and used up a lot of energy. Such behaviour is hard to understand without imagining a mind that can appreciate what it sees and which intends to mimic the actions of others (see “The imitative dolphin”). That in turn implies things about the brain. If you had to take a bet on things to be found in Billie’s brain, you’d be well advised to put money on “mirror neurons”. Mirror neurons are nerve cells that fire when the sight of someone else’s action triggers a matched response—they seem to be what makes yawning contagious. A lot of learning may require this way of linking perception to action—and it seems that, in people, so may some forms of empathy. Mirror neurons are important to scientists attempting to find the basis of the way the human mind works, or at least to find correlates of that working, in the anatomy of human brains. The fact that those anatomical correlates keep turning up in non-human brains, too, is one of the current reasons for seeing animals as also being things with minds. There are mirror neurons; there are spindle cells (also called von Economo neurons) which play a role in the expression of empathy and the processing of social information. Chimpanzee brains have parts corresponding to Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area which, in people, are associated with language and communication. Brain mapping reveals that the neurological processes underlying what look like emotions in rats are similar to those behind what clearly are emotions in humans. As a group of neuroscientists seeking to sum the field up put it in 2012, “Humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures...also possess these neurological substrates.” But to say that animals have a biological basis for consciousness is not the same as saying they actually think or feel. Here, ideas from the law may be more helpful than those from neurology. When someone’s state of being is clearly impaired by a calamity of some sort, it can fall to the courts to decide what level of legal protection should apply. In such cases courts apply tests such as: is he or she self-aware? Can he recognise others as individuals? Can he regulate his own behaviour? Does he experience pleasure or suffer pain (that is, show emotion)? Such questions reveal a lot about animals, too. The most common test of self-awareness is the ability to recognise yourself in a mirror. It implies you are seeing yourself as an individual, separate from other beings. The test was formally developed in 1970 by Gordon Gallup, an American psychologist, though its roots go back further; Darwin wrote about Jenny, an orang-utan, playing with a mirror and being “astonished beyond measure” by her reflection. Dr Gallup daubed an odourless mark on the face of his subjects and waited to see how they would react when they saw their reflection. If they touched the mark, it would seem they realised the image in the mirror was their own, not that of another animal. Most humans show this ability between the ages of one and two. Dr Gallup showed that chimpanzees have it, too. Since then, orang-utans, gorillas, elephants, dolphins and magpies have shown the same ability. Monkeys do not; nor do dogs, perhaps because dogs recognise each other by smell, so the test provides them with no useful information. Recognising yourself is one thing; what of recognising others—not just as objects, but as things with purposes and desires like one’s own, but aimed at different ends. Some animals clearly pass this test too. Santino is a chimpanzee in Furuvik zoo in Sweden. In the 2000s zookeepers noticed that he was gathering little stockpiles of stones and hiding them around his cage, even constructing covers for them, so that at a later time he would have something to throw at zoo visitors who annoyed him. Mathias Osvath of Lund University argues that this behaviour showed various types of mental sophistication: Santino could remember a specific event in the past (being annoyed by visitors), prepare for an event in the future (throwing stones at them) and mentally construct a new situation (chasing the visitors away). Philosophers call the ability to recognise that others have different aims and desires a “theory of mind”. Chimpanzees have this. Santino seemed to have understood that zookeepers would stop him throwing stones if they could. He therefore hid the weapons and inhibited his aggression: he was calm when collecting the stones, though agitated when throwing them. An understanding of the capabilities and interests of others also seems in evidence at the Centre for Great Apes, a sanctuary in Florida, where male chimpanzees living with Knuckles, a 16-year-old with cerebral palsy, do not subject him to their usual dominance displays. Chimps also understand that they can manipulate the beliefs of others; they frequently deceive each other in competition for food. Another test of legal personhood is the ability to experience pleasure or pain—to feel emotions. This has often been taken as evidence of full sentience, which is why Descartes’s followers thought animals were unable to feel, as well as reason. Peter Singer, an Australian philosopher and doyen of “animal rights”, argues that, of all the emotions, suffering is especially significant because, if animals share this human capacity, people should give consideration to animal suffering as they do to that of their own kind. Animals obviously show emotions such as fear. But this can be taken to be instinctual, similar to what happens when people cry out in pain. Behaviourists had no trouble with fear, seeing it as a conditioned reflex that they knew full well how to create. The real question is whether animals have feelings which involve some sort of mental experience. This is not easy. No one knows precisely what other people mean when they talk about their emotions; knowing what dumb beasts mean is almost impossible. That said, there are some revealing indications—most notably, evidence for what could be seen as compassion. Some animals seem to display pity, or at least concern, for diseased and injured members of their group. Stronger chimps help weaker ones to cross roads in the wild. Elephants mourn their dead (see “The grieving elephant”). In a famous experiment, Hal Markowitz, later director of the San Francisco zoo, trained Diana monkeys to get food by putting a token in a slot. When the oldest female could not get the hang of it, a younger unrelated male put her tokens in the slot for her and stood back to let her eat. There have also been observations of animals going out of their way to help creatures of a different species. In March 2008, Moko, a bottlenose dolphin, guided two pygmy sperm whales out of a maze of sandbars off the coast of New Zealand. The whales had seemed hopelessly disoriented and had stranded themselves four times. There are also well-attested cases of humpback whales rescuing seals from attack by killer whales and dolphins rescuing people from similar attacks. On the face of it, this sort of concern for others looks moral—or at least sentimental. In a few examples the protecting animals have been seen to pay a price for their compassion. Iain Douglas-Hamilton, who studies elephants, describes a young female which had been so severely injured that she could only walk at a snail’s pace. The rest of her group kept pace with her to protect her from predators for 15 years, though this meant they could not forage so widely. As long ago as 1959, Russell Church of Brown University set up a test which allowed laboratory rats in half of a cage to get food by pressing a lever. The lever also delivered an electric shock to rats in the other half of the cage. When the first group realised that, they stopped pressing the lever, depriving themselves of food. In a similar test on rhesus monkeys reported in the American Journal of Psychiatry in 1964, one monkey stopped giving the signal for food for 12 days after witnessing another receive a shock. There are other examples of animals preferring some sort of feeling over food. In famous studies by an American psychologist, Harry Harlow, rhesus monkeys deprived of their mothers were given a choice between substitutes. One was made of wire and had a feeding bottle, the other was cloth, but without food. The infants spent almost all their time hugging the cloth mother. If animals are self-aware, aware of others and have some measure of self-control, then they share some of the attributes used to define personhood in law. If they display emotions and feelings in ways that are not purely instinctive, there may also be a case for saying their feelings should be respected in the way that human feelings are. But the attribute most commonly thought of as distinctively human is language. Can animals be said to use language in a meaningful way? Animals communicate all the time and don’t need big brains to do so. In the 1940s Karl von Frisch, an Austrian ethologist, showed that the “waggle dances” of honeybees pass on information about how far away food is and in what direction. Birds sing long, complex songs either to mark territory or as mating rituals. So do pods of whales (see “The singing whales”). It is hard, though, to say what information, or intention, goes into all this. The bees are more likely to be automatically downloading a report of their recent travels than saying, “There’s pollen thataway, slackers.” The vocalisations of, say, vervet monkeys have more to them. Vervets make different alarm calls for different predators, demanding different responses. There is one for leopards (skitter up into the highest branches), for eagles (hide in the undergrowth) and for snakes (stand upright and look around). The monkeys need to recognise the different calls and know when to make which one. Animals brought up with humans can do much more. Chaser, a border collie, knows over 1,000 words. She can pull a named toy from a pile of other toys. This shows that she understands that an acoustical pattern stands for a physical object. Noam Chomsky, a linguist, once said only people could do that. Remarkably, if told to fetch a toy with a name she has not heard before placed in a pile of known, named objects, she works out what is being asked for. Betsy, another border collie, will bring back a photograph of something, suggesting she understands that a two-dimensional image can represent a three-dimensional object. More impressive still are animals such as Washoe, a female chimpanzee which was taught sign language by two researchers at the University of Nevada. Washoe would initiate conversations and ask for things she wanted, like food. But evidence that many animals can, when brought up with humans, tell their thoughts to others using a human language is not quite the same as saying they use language as people do. Few have a smidgen of grammar, for example—that is, the ability to manipulate and combine words to create new meanings. It is true that dolphins in captivity can distinguish between “put the ball in the hoop” and “bring the hoop to the ball”. Alex, an African grey parrot, combined words to make up new ones: he called an apple a “bannery”, for example, a mixture of banana and cherry (see “The talkative parrot”). But these are exceptional cases and the result of intense collaboration with humans. The use of grammar—certainly a complex grammar—has not been discerned in the wild. Moreover, animals have no equivalent to the narratives that people tell one another. If language can still be claimed as uniquely human, can anything else? Until recently, culture would have been held up as a second defining feature of humanity. Complex ways of doing things which are passed down not by genetic inheritance or environmental pressure but by teaching, imitation and conformism have been widely assumed to be unique to people. But it is increasingly clear that other species have their own cultures, too. In “The Cultural Lives of Whales and Dolphins”, Hal Whitehead of Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, and Luke Rendell of the University of St Andrews, in Scotland, argue that all cultures have five distinctive features: a characteristic technology; teaching and learning; a moral component, with rules that buttress “the way we do things” and punishments for infraction; an acquired, not innate, distinction between insiders and outsiders; and a cumulative character that builds up over time. These attributes together allow individuals in a group to do things that they would not be able to achieve by themselves. For the first feature, look no further than the crow. New Caledonian crows are the champion toolmakers of the animal kingdom. They make hooks by snipping off V-shaped twigs and nibbling them into shape. They fashion Pandanus leaves into toothed saws. And in different parts of the island they make their tools in different ways. Studies by Gavin Hunt of the University of Auckland showed that the hooks and saws in two sites on New Caledonia differed systematically in size, in the number of cuts needed to make them and even according to whether they were predominantly left-handed or right-handed. To the extent that culture means “the way we do things around here”, the two groups of crows were culturally distinct. Chimpanzees are now known to manipulate over two dozen implements: clubs to beat with, pestles to grind with, fly whisks, grass stalks with which to fish for termites, spongy leaves to soak up water, rocks as nutcrackers. Like New Caledonian crows, different groups use them slightly differently. William McGrew of Cambridge University argues that the tool sets of chimpanzees in western Tanzania are just as complex as the simplest human tools, such as early human artefacts found in east Africa or indeed those used in historic times by native peoples in Tasmania. The skill needed to make and use tools is taught. It is not the only example of teaching that animals have to offer. Meerkats feed on scorpions—an exceptionally dangerous prey which you cannot learn to hunt by trial and error. So older meerkats teach younger ones gradually. First they incapacitate a scorpion and let the young meerkat finish it off. Then they let their students tackle a slightly less damaged specimen, and so on in stages until the young apprentice is ready to hunt a healthy scorpion on its own. Pretty much all meerkats do this. Elsewhere what is taught can change, with just some animals picking up new tricks. As the story of Billie the tailwalker implies, whales and dolphins can learn fundamentally new behaviours from each other. In 1980, a humpback whale started to catch fish off Cape Cod in a new way. It would slam its flukes down on the surface of the water—lobtailing, as it is known—then dive and swim round emitting a cloud of bubbles. The prey, confused by the noise and scared of the rising circle of bubbles, bunched themselves together for protection. The whale would then surge up through the middle of the bubble cloud with a mouth full of fish. Bubble feeding is a well known way for whales to freak out their food; so is lobtailing. Making the first a systematic set-up to the second, though, was apparently an innovation—and became very popular. By 1989, just nine years after the first Cape Cod whale started lobtail feeding, almost half the humpbacks in the area were at it. Most were younger whales which, since their mothers did not use the new trick, could not have inherited it. Researchers think young whales copied the first practitioner, spreading the technique through imitation. How the first one got the idea is a mystery—as is the question of whether it is actually a superior way of feeding, or merely an increasingly fashionable one. Cultures rely not only on technologies, techniques and teaching but on rules of accepted behaviour. That things should be fair seems a widespread requirement among social animals. At a canine research centre at Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest, for example, dogs frequently chosen to take part in tests are shunned by other dogs. It turns out that all the dogs want to take part in these tests because they receive human attention; those which are chosen too often are seen as having got unfair advantage. Capuchin monkeys taking part in experiments keep track of the rewards they are getting. If one is offered a poor reward (such as a slice of cucumber), while another gets a tasty grape, the first will refuse to continue the test. Chimpanzees do this, too. Most cultures distinguish between outsiders and insiders and animals are no exceptions. Orcas, also known as killer whales, are particularly striking in this regard, having a repertoire of calls which are distinctive to the pod in which they live, a sort of dialect. Dr Whitehead and Dr Rendell compare them to tribal markings. Orcas are unusual in that different pods tend to feed on different prey and rarely interbreed. Most of the time, pods studiously ignore each another. But occasionally one will ferociously attack another. This cannot have anything to do with competition for food or females. Lance Barrett-Lennard of the Vancouver Aquarium attributes it to xenophobia—a particularly extreme and aggressive way of distinguishing between insiders and outsiders. But if animals display four of the five attributes that go to make up a culture, there is one they do not share. Perhaps the most distinctive thing about human cultures is that they change over time, building upon earlier achievements to produce everything from iPhones and modern medicine to democracy. Nothing like this has been observed in animals. Particular aspects of animal behaviour change in ways that might seem cultural, and disruptive change is certainly possible. In the 1990s, for example, South African culling policies that saw the oldest elephants shot and their children redistributed led to large changes in their normally orderly matriarchal societies. Young elephants became abnormally aggressive, since there were no longer any elders to rein them back. In other cases such disruption can seem, anthropomorphically, not so bad (see “The peaceful baboons”). But whether the shocks are good or bad, animal societies have yet to show steady, adaptive change—any cultural progress. Knowledge accumulates with the oldest individuals—when drought struck Tarangire national park in Tanzania in 1993 the elephant families that survived best were those led by matriarchs which remembered the severe drought of 1958—but it goes to the graveyard with them. There is a great deal more to learn about animal minds. Grammatical language can pretty thoroughly be ruled out; learned toolmaking for some species is now indubitable: but many conclusions are in the middle, neither definitively in nor out. Whether you accept them depends partly on the standard of evidence required. If the question of animal empathy were being tested in a criminal court, demanding proof beyond reasonable doubt, you might hesitate to find that it exists. If the trial were a civil one, requiring a preponderance of evidence, you would probably conclude that animals had empathy. Using that standard, one can hazard three conclusions. First, various animals do have minds, The physiological evidence of brain functions, their communications and the versatility of their responses to their environments all strongly support the idea. Primates, corvids and cetaceans also have attributes of culture, if not language or organised religion (though Jane Goodall, a noted zoologist, sees chimps as expressing a pantheistic pleasure in nature). Next, animals’ abilities are patchy compared with those of humans. Dogs can learn words but do not recognise their reflections. Clark’s nutcracker, a member of the crow family, buries up to 100,000 seeds in a season and remembers where it put them months later—but does not make tools, as other corvids do. These specific, focused abilities fit with some modern thinking about human minds, which sees them less as engines of pure reason that can be applied in much the same way to all aspects of life as bundles of subroutines for specific tasks. On this analysis a human mind might be a Swiss army knife, an animal mind a corkscrew or pair of tweezers. This suggests a corollary—that there will be some dimensions in which animal minds exceed humans. Take the example of Ayumu, a young chimpanzee who lives at the Primate Research Institute of the University of Kyoto. Researchers have been teaching Ayumu a memory task in which a random pattern of numbers appears fleetingly on a touchscreen before being covered by electronic squares. Ayumu has to touch the on-screen squares in the same order as the numbers hidden beneath them. Humans get this test right most of the time if there are five numbers and 500 milliseconds or so in which to study them. With nine numbers, or less time, the human success rate declines sharply. Show Ayumu nine numbers flashed up for just 60 milliseconds and he will nonchalantly tap out the numbers in the right order with his knuckles. There are humans with so called eidetic, or flash, memories who can do something similar—for chimps, though, this seems to be the norm. Is it an attribute that chimps have evolved since their last common ancestor with humans for some reason—or one that humans have lost over the same period of time? More deeply, how might it change what it is for a chimp to have a mind? How different is having minds in a society where everyone remembers such things? Animals might well think in ways that humans cannot yet decipher because they are too different from the ways humans think—adapted to sensory and mental realms utterly unlike that of the human, perhaps realms that have not spurred a need for language. There is, for example, no doubt that octopuses are intelligent; they are ferociously good problem solvers. But can scientists begin to imagine how an octopus might think and feel? All that said, the third general truth seems to be that there is a link between mind and society which animals display. The wild animals with the highest levels of cognition (primates, cetaceans, elephants, parrots) are, like people, long-lived species that live in complex societies, in which knowledge, social interaction and communication are at a premium. It seems reasonable to speculate that their minds—like human ones—may well have evolved in response to their social environment (see “The lonely orca”). And this may be what allows minds on the two sides of the inter-species gulf to bridge it. Off Laguna, in southern Brazil, people and bottlenose dolphins have fished together for generations. The dolphins swim towards the beach, driving mullet towards the fishermen. The men wait for a signal from the dolphins—a distinctive dive—before throwing their nets. The dolphins are in charge, initiating the herding and giving the vital signal, though only some do this. The people must learn which dolphins will herd the fish and pay close attention to the signal, or the fishing will fail. Both groups of mammals must learn the necessary skills. Among the humans, these are passed down from father to son; among the dolphins, from mother to calf. In this example, how much do the species differ?

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Review of Short Phrases and Links| This Review contains major "Control"- related terms, short phrases and links grouped together in the form of Encyclopedia article. - Control was something he lost in the war. - Control: To verify or regulate (a scientific experiment) by conducting a parallel experiment or by comparing with another standard. - A control is a test in which the independent variable is kept constant in order to measure changes in the dependent variable. - A control is a rod attached to the plug throttle and leads out of the inlet port area via a seal. - Control is a key aspect of yoga: control of the body, breath and mind. - In manufacturing, machine vision is employed for the purpose of control: quality control, process control, machine tool control, or robot control. - PrecisionID Barcode ActiveX control version 1.9 is affected. - In other words, the temperature of your home will no longer be yours to control. - What makes this an historic event is that this is WNBC's first master control. - Early scientists viewed the procedure as a method of population control, not only in the quantitative sense but also in the qualitative one. - And it is by trying to exert some control over our futures that we attempt to be happy. - One side trumpets the culture of authorial exposure, the other urges the culture of authorial control. - It is true that once authors are famous and successful, control becomes more important than exposure. - This is done by comparing the eligibility code threshold 238 of eligibility word 230 to the eligibility code 206 of channel control word 200. - Syn: code trace, control flow trace. - The remote control unit 140 for remote usage by a subscriber in controlling converter 40 is optional. - The event enable word 220 is also generated by PCS 50 and transmitted to converter 40 where it is stored in converter control logic 104. - If the key number matches with the entered number, the converter control logic 104 proceeds to the enabling step 332 as previously mentioned. - The sample and hold circuit 450 also receives a logic command input on line 117 from converter control logic104. - With this embodiment of the enhancement, more control is provided over individual text formatting. - One preferred embodiment of control computer 60 comprises a rack-mounted Hewlett-Packard 1000 minicomputer system having standard operating system software. - The central control logic 104 is carried out by a microprocessor unit 410. - At that point, the converter control logic implements several preparatory steps in the converter. - Converter control logic 104 processes this information and operates the various modules in converter 40 under program control. - Seals can be used to automatically associate electronic control sets for use in further item handling. - Third party go-between can legally notarize the item(s) if desired, and can also "notarize" electronic control structures associated with the item(s). - Funke, J. (1991). Solving complex problems: Human identification and control of complex systems. - ELEG5413 Stochastic Control Systems (FA, SP, SU) Optimal estimation and control of linear dynamic systems with uncertainties. - Design of linear continuous and discrete control systems using root locus and frequency response methods. - Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics, that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. - ELEG5713 Antennas and Radiation (FA, SP, SU) Radio frequency antennas, control of radiation patterns, antenna impedance and antenna feeding systems. - If it is determined during step 530 that the weights have not stabilized, then program control returns to step 530 until the weights have stabilized. - Once it is determined during step 580 that the training error is small enough, then program control proceeds to step 590 where program control terminates. - This is determined by comparing the tier enable code 218 of subscriber enable word 210 to the tier code 202 of channel control word 200. - The Kalman filter, Wiener-Hopf equations, separation principle, and stochastic optimal control. - Advanced topics of current interest in the areas of control theory, circuit theory, stochastic processes, digital signal processing, and image processing. - The code produced by compiling Jif language is security typed and support servlet with means of flow control and access control. - Firewalls 30 can be included to control access into the network 10 and to control outside use of an Internet-available FTP server 26 and web server 28. - The student will be shown how to add access control to web applications, how to authenticate users and how to control access to EJB components. - The application is exposed to an access validation issue because it fails to perform adequate access control. - Mandatory access control (MAC) is an access policy determined by the system, not the owner. - Secondary Design Issues (LTSA) The scope, functionality, user interface, and control inputs and outputs to the Delivery process. - Primary Design Issues (LTSA) The scope, functionality, user interface, and control inputs and outputs to the Delivery process. - Keyboard 168 is duplicated on the wireless remote unit 140 which is designed to control addressable converter 40 by infra-red signal transmission. - The digital control and timing unit 80 includes a data formatter 88, a scrambler controller 90, a sample and hold unit 92 and a timing signal generator 94. - The digital signal tuner system comprises mux 16 which selects between the digital signal sources according to a control signal on line 9. - A logic command signal for timing control is transmitted to extractor 114 by logic 104 on line 117. - The arrows represent the flow of information, data or control, between subsystems. - It also has the ability, via cv data, to control any aspect of the modules within. - A control flow can be a control input (a one-way flow), a control output (a one-way flow), or both (a two-way flow). - You can also control the flow of the loop inside the body of any of the iteration statements by using break and continue. - The members of a bus can use different data flow protocols, but they use a common control flow protocols. - In one embodiment, the user input decoder 222 is a conventional infrared remote control decoder. - This is accomplished by operation of the On-Off buttons on censorship device 300 or on remote control module 47. - In order to facilitate such remote control, the remote hand-held device 47 of FIGS. 2 and 4 is provided. - PCS 50 is also preferably connected by a two-way data link to a remote computer for use in various control functions. - Alternately, the user may provide inputs from a remote control unit 140 having a keyboard similar to user keyboard 146. - Shewhart, ASQ's first Honorary Member, was best known for creating the control chart. - Six Sigma quality: A term generally used to indicate a process is well controlled, (-6 sigma from the centerline in a control chart). - Referring now to FIG. 7, converter control logic 104 is shown in greater detail. - Referring now to FIG. 2, one preferred embodiment of the data control system 12 and television program processor 16 is shown in greater detail. - The Glossary and Tables for Statistical Quality Control has also been edited by the Statistics Division and is currently in its 3rd edition. - Peer review is a mechanism by which the research community asserts quality control. - QMS - Quality Management System Management system to direct and control an organization with regard to quality. - Used frequently in quality control, reliability, survey sampling, and other industrial problems. - Certified quality auditor (CQA)-hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP): An ASQ certification. - The self-ignitions are indicated with the help of the ionization method, than they are processed by the control system with a feedback to the engine control. - A Full Authority Digital Engine Control system is used to monitor and control all the functions of a modern aircraft engine. - Command and Control System: As noted above, every satellite has a Tracking, Telemetry and Control (TT&C) system for monitoring critical satellite operations. - In two-way cable systems input is also received from the subscriber control bus 102. - One topic of discussion was the new SCADA and Control Systems Survival Kit, a document of best practices for SCADA systems. - Since the priority values are established to reflect the sample rate for the responses, the broadcast server 110 can control the overall responses collected. - A control chart indicating the number of defective units in a given sample. - Pop-up group worked fastest, control group spent the longest amount of time. - Control Group Psychic Dictionary Index A group of people whose performance is compared with that of experimental subjects. - As in Study 1, control group subjects were better able to recall information, as they were less distracted by the structural knowledge activities. - The result of this study showed that the majority of patients in experimental (76.4%) and control group (74.5%) were male. - Control group will receive treatment for Helicobacter pylori at the end of the study. - Generally the more fuel the smaller the area needs to be in order to control pressure rise in the clearance volume and the control system may allow for this. - Control Systems A Control System as applied to model railways can be any system that controls the activities of the railway. - The OCR consists of a mail feed unit, transport unit, stacker modules, computer with a control system, video monitor, and printer. - This invention relates to an addressable cable television control system. - The data control system then commands the converter to allow or disallow the selected program and retains billing information forthe service as required. - And serenity, silence (control of the mind with regard to speech),self-control and purity of thought are the austerities of the mind. - Repression only means self-control, those free of repression are out-of-control. - An altered state of consciousness in which the person experiences great rapture and loss of self-control. - The control 908 now indicates that the page 910 is the second of 3 available pages, and also provides the user with paging capability. - A page flipper control 908 indicates that the page 902 is the first of 3 available pages, and the viewer can click on the control 908 to page to other pages. - One's Prajna becomes steady whose senses are under control. - The concentration required for pranayama begins to bring the thinking process under control. - Supreme bliss comes to a Self-realized yogi whose mind is tranquil, whose desires are under control, and who is free from sin (or faults). - Automatic Brightness Control In display devices, the self-acting mechanism which controls brightness of the device as a function of ambient light. - For the wish list: an RF version of the Take Control that can control devices through closed cabinet doors. - To do the latter, you line up the IR window of the remote from the new device with the IR receiver on the heel of the Take Control. - This will prompt you to press the buttons on your device's remote one at a time, sending its IR codes for each button into Take Control's memory. - The device contains a set of internal registers that the user can access and use to control the operation of the unit. - The Yoga system of Patanjali deals specifically with the process of mind control. - The Controllers (Martin Cannon): Argues that alien abduction memories are implanted by governmental mind control experimenters. - However, there is no conclusive evidence the CIA actually succeeded in controlling a person's actions through mind control. - Two-stage automatic gain control on feedback line 110 is provided to optimize noise reduction. - Automatic Gain Control A process by which gain is automatically adjusted as a function of input or other specified parameter. - Because of thislimitation, an energetic or motivated child can easily decipher a parent's password and gain control of the television set. - The Veterans' Administration was also deeply involved in behavior modification and mind control. - LEAA funded 350 projects involving medical procedures, behavior modification and drugs for delinquency control. - Often they resort to the use of backhanded compliments, and this is also an often used strategy, and possibly even a personality trait among control freaks. - Unfortunately for you, the control freak has a lot at stake in prevailing. - Type 1 Control Freaks: The Type 1 control freak is strictly attempting to cope with their anxiety in a self absorbed way. - Audio signals from microphones placed in or near the scene also flow to the control room, where they are amplified and combined. - Describing the attack Gerber said they were inside the electronically sealed control room when they heard a loud bang. - This condition may occur because of disease in the pituitary or hypothalamus (a part of the brain that contains hormones that control the pituitary gland). - Many patients with type 2 diabetes will progress insulin to control of blood glucose levels, but these patients are still type 2 diabetics. - If you have diabetes, it is important to control your blood sugar levels with diet, exercise, and medicines. - In its more advanced forms pranayama is actual control of prana; for beginners it is literally controlling the breath. - Software for parental control is a useful tool, if applied right. - Each file has a set of permissions that control the kinds of access that users have to that file. - Virtual Private Server(VPS) hosting is for those who want the control and flexibility of a dedicated server at a much lower cost. - This technology allows our Virtual Private Servers to provide the same flexibility and control as a dedicated server. - VPS hosting is for those who want the control and flexibility of a dedicated server, but at a fraction of the cost. - In this period, Ben-Hadad, the king of Aram (Damascus) gained control of Aram and formed a cohesive political entity stretching from Israel to Hamath. - According to the agreements reached at San Remo, France also had its control over what was termed Syria recognised, the French having taken Damascus in 1920. - In this campaign, you now take control of the Arabians and fight your way from Damascus to Jerusalem. - If difficulty is encountered in gaining control of the victim in this manner, the rescuer should use the best method possible to obtain control. - In the east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. - Later that year, Sargon defeated an Aramean coalition at Qarqar, thereby gaining control of Arpad, Simirra, and Damascus. - You want to control the length of time the shutter remains open and then camera will set the correct amount of light that reaches the sensor. - Just knowing this information about the aperture will give you much more control over the camera. - The advantage of this type of camera is that by varying the shutter speed the photographer can control how motion will appear in the finished photograph. - The remote control can also be used with the camera to take and view pictures, as well as control the camera's digital zoom. - For example, using electrodes in a brain and a remote control, researchers have been able to remotely control the movements of a rat. - The camera can be set to release the shutter immediately or two seconds after the shutter button on the remote control is pressed. - Aperture Priority, Shutter Priority and Manual Modes allow you to take control of the EVOLT to customize the camera for the ultimate in artistic expression. - If you set your camera to A mode, or Aperture Priority, you can adjust this powerful functionality to control what is in focus in your pictures. - Six selectable Picture Modes when the user wants more control over camera functions; plus, Aperture Priority, Shutter Priority, Bulb, and full manual. - These are essentially non-AUTO modes that allow the photographer more creative control by enabling more control over shutter speed and f-stop settings. - When using settings like Shutter Priority and Aperture Priority you get more creative control which often means you can end up with much better pictures. - The ultimate in creative control, you set both aperture and shutter speed manually. - This command is helpful when you experience problems communicating with a node on the network you control (a neighbor). - HELP (HELP) This command shall cause the server to send helpful information regarding its implementation status over the control connection to the user. - In most cases, governments can command the support of the majority in the Riksdag, allowing the government to control the parliamentary agenda. - The target acquisition and communications system will allow burst transmissions of data to other aircraft and command and control systems. - Again reaction control systems, the rocket jets used for reorienting and control in flight still are somewhat unreliable. - How people who benefit from placebos gain access to pain control systems in the brain is not known. - For Token Ring, the services of this layer are divided into two sublayers: medium access control and logical link control. - Higher of the two data link layer sublayers defined by the IEEE. The LLC sublayer handles error control, flow control, framing, and MAC-sublayer addressing. - Layering and Modularity TCP is an end to end reliable data stream protocol with error control, flow control, etc. - There is no error control for data, only a header checksum. - Also in 1949, on September 6, Allied military authorities relinquished control of former Nazi Germany assets back to German control. - Of significance for the Pacific background to the war, Article 156 of the treaty transferred German control of Shandong in China to Japan, rather than China. - We know that, after the war, the number of Jews under German control in Poland, those that have been in Poland, was extremely few. - Information Technology > Computers > Internet > Access - Encyclopedia of Keywords > Society > Politics > Government - Medicine > Anatomy > Tissues > Blood - Encyclopedia of Keywords > Nature > Systems > System - Glossaries > Glossary of Thinking / * Access Control * Blood Sugar * Blood Sugar Control * Blood Sugar Levels * Complete Control * Control Access * Control Blood * Control Panel * Control Panels * Control Symptoms * Control Unit * Diabetes Control * Disease Control * Full Control * Gaza Strip * Government Control * Help Control * Internet Control Message Protocol * Logical Link Control * Manual Mode * Media Access Control * Mission Control * Motor Control * Process Control * Quality Control * Roman Control * Shutter Speed * Statistical Process Control * Time Control * Transmission Control Protocol Books about "Control" in

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when Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory were joined, they became the North-West Territories, describes their geographic location in Canada Predominantly English (~ 78%). Dogrib or Tłı̨chǫ is the most prevalent indigenous language (~ 4%). Other official languages are: Chipewyan, Cree, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, and South Slavey. Mostly spoken by small portions of the population. Capital & Largest City Northwestern Canada, a federal territory in the general Arctic region. Mostly located on the mainland with some territory on large islands in the Arctic Archipelago. Has coastline on the Arctic Ocean. Parts of Canada’s taiga (mostly plains and shield forests), Taiga Cordillera mountains, and Arctic tundra. Major lakes include Great Slave Lake (deepest in North America) and Great Bear Lake (largest lake fully within Canada). from earlier name Terra Nova, “new land” in Portuguese and Latin, later adapted into English as Newfoundland for Portuguese sailor, João Fernandes Lavrador Predominantly English (~ 97%). Local variety is known as Newfoundland English. Capital & Largest City Eastern Canada (easternmost province) and part of the Atlantic region. Mostly located on the island of Newfoundland and the mainland section called Labrador, with many smaller islands. Parts of Canada’s Eastern boreal shield forests (especially on Newfoundland), taiga forests (especially in Labrador), and Arctic Cordillera mountains. The Smallwood Reservoir system in Labrador is the largest body of water. There’s an ongoing question that pokes at the side of so many people in this world. Should I take my shower before or after work? Woah, not that! You dirty minds. While either way you choose has its benefits, I was thinking about the continents. Most people agree that there are seven continents … no wait, there are definitely five … maybe three real ones and a handful of small ones? You see the issue; it’s hard to define what a continent really is. Is it a large landmass completely separate from all others like a social-distancing master? Or, is a continent just any big chunk of land that generally fits together, separated only by a thin isthmus or huge range of mountains, for example? I get the feeling this was so much easier back in the Pangaea days. I’m not here to prove what is a continent and what isn’t. Instead of trying to define them, we can look at what could be a much better way of “dividing” our world — if we must divide it at all. This potentially better system is by way of the bio-realm. But first, why is the continent system so jacked up in the first place? Why is the continent system jacked up? For one, it’s hard to tell what a continent is and how it should be divided. The names of continents we have now were mostly named by outsiders, with proposed etymologies coming mostly from European or Middle Eastern origins. Keep in mind the names of some of these places are so archaic that they can get seriously hard to trace. Some factors that make the continents confusing can be: There’s such a diversity of cultures and demographics on any given continent that an umbrella term can’t capture them all (“African” for Tunisia and the Congo, “Asian” for India and Japan) Many countries fall into a weird buffer zone (Is Egypt African or Asian? Is Armenia Asian or European? What is the Caribbean? The Middle East? Oceania?) Many countries can’t agree on what the real continents are anyway (North and South America, or just America? Is it Eurasia, or maybe Afro-Eurasia? Australia, Oceania, or Australasia? Good-ness!) That is pretty jacked up. So, what are the bio-realms? Why might they be better than continents? Into a new “realm” Biogeographic realms, in this circumstance, are a way to look at the world by dividing it among major ecological and geographical areas. This means places that share a somewhat continuous ecology (plant and animal life, in most cases, climate and habitat types too). Plus, don’t you just love the word “realms?” It sounds like we’re traveling into some kind of fantasy dimension. Nearctic Realm (North America excluding the tropics) Neotropical Realm (all of the Americas in or south of the tropics, i.e. Central & South America + the Caribbean) Palearctic Realm (all of Europe and Asia north of the tropics, including Northern Africa) Afrotropical Realm (all of Africa in or south of the tropics, including the tropics of Arabia and the Arabian Sea coast west of Pakistan) Indo-Malayan Realm (all of Asia in or south of the tropics, going east from Pakistan) Australasian Realm (Australia, New Zealand, and Melanesia, including Papua and Maluku Islands) Oceanian Realm (Micronesia and Polynesia, generally the Asia-Pacific region) Antarctic Realm (Antarctica and the surrounding seas) *I like to separate between West and East Palearctic since the region is so huge, but that’s personal preference, not scientific or anything One cool thing about this system of looking at the world is that it is more fluid. For example, Mauritius and Madagascar can be considered Afrotropical in terms of geography but Indo-Malayan in terms of culture and history. On a broader note, this grouping can help people get a truer sense of what the world really looks like. The bio-realms are intended to be solely geographical, but without really trying, they pretty well represent most of the historic and cultural interactions that people have had over the millennia too. For instance, Morocco had a lot more interaction and influence in nearby Spain than it did in faraway Uganda. Pretty much all of Latin America — and the Caribbean with which it shares many similarities — are in or south of the tropics anyway. South and Southeast Asia have been interacting with and have a lot more in common with each other than they do with the rest of Asia. North African countries have a lot more shared history and identity with Europe and the Middle East than they do with Sub-Saharan Africa in general. Of course, the world is globalizing and interconnectivity between cultures is constantly on the rise. Even still, the divisions of bio-realms make a lot more sense when grouping places together based on shared geography, climate, and cultures. Like with the continents, there are definitely problematic zones that aren’t so easy to categorize. Places like Melanesia, the Sahara, and the Himalayas are still tricky because the cultural and geographic lines aren’t so clear-cut from one side to the other. Several countries like Mexico, China, and Indonesia would fall into two realms, while countries like Pakistan fall into three. That could get a little weird. Even with these issues, I appreciate that the bio-realms at least show how there are great levels of diversity within those countries, amplifying their special roles as doorways between realms. (See, isn’t this fun?!) Going back to the purpose of this article, the bio-realm system wouldn’t be a way to divide people but to more accurately view the world the way it really is. They are not supposed to be a sharp clear line of separation, but rather a wide fuzzy line that combines similar areas into large general categories. The system is much more accurate at representing the world’s actual geography, somewhat better at grouping the world’s people, but still flawed like any other manmade labeling system. What do you think about the bio-realms? Did you understand this way of dividing the world? Could it be valuable to utilize this system and the continental system together? Or would you rather stick with the good old continents? Thank you for reading, and take good care of each other, whatever realm you reside in! Guest post by; Trystn Waller on what you need to know about international relationship With so much connectivity today, many people will explore a variety of relationships. One side of this that’s been made easier by way of the internet is international couples. Some of you may have thought about, once tried, or even are now in an international relationship. And well, that makes two of us. With all the concern about how different they are, how might these kinds of relationships be like any other? What makes them more difficult, and what good comes from them? Here is a bit about these kinds of relationships, along with some advice from someone who’s in one. The first thing I can tell you about an international relationship is kind of obvious, but it’s important to remember. Just like with any other relationship, it requires two people (or sometimes more) who decide to be together regardless of whatever else is happening in their lives. With that said, you can bet it’s going to require sacrifice, selflessness, some forgive-and-forget, and some good old give-and-take. Like in “national” relationships (?), involvement with the partner’s family is likely going to be a part of the deal. Another trope that’s common in most relationships is having to accept the partner’s past and “baggage,” whether that is perceived as good or bad. Understanding and comprehension go a long way. Difficulties: The hard part; When talking about international relationships, the most difficult thing that comes to mind has to be the distance. An overlying question, at least during the beginning stages, will be how to make time to be together. Depending on where the partner lives or on your situation, this could be a heavy financial weight on the couple. Many countries require visas for citizens to get to their country or vice versa. Even if they don’t, passports cost money too. Some countries don’t require a passport for entry depending on where you’re coming from, but then the plane/bus/train/boat/border coyote will cost you. No matter how you look at it, just getting to your international partner will be a struggle. Because of this, much of the communication will likely be on the internet at first. Couples might go months, if not years, just talking on the phone or by video until they can finally meet. This could mean the slightest delay in response causing you or your partner to suspect the worse. “Why aren’t they answering? They should be at home by now. Are they cheating on me? Did they die?!” That’s not to mention the cultural differences. Often different people groups within a country have clashing cultural traditions, so you can imagine what that looks like for international couples. And if the foreign partner happens to speak a different language then that adds another barrier and a tremendous challenge to be overcome. That is, assuming neither of the partners is bilingual. Benefit: The good part; That’s a pretty long list of challenges, but there is a lot to look forward to with international love. Since these kinds of couples tend to have to communicate so much more, this builds stronger communication skills. It also has the potential to create a stronger bond between the partners. Imagine if the only way you could spend time with your partner was by talking. You won’t be sitting and watching Netflix all day, that’s for sure. That’s the kind of thing that builds trust and unity in any relationship, though it’s exploited a little more with the online nature of international couples. This kind of commitment also opens the partners up to another culture, a foreign language (or accent), and different ways of life. This can be highly enriching for the partners in that they can gain an entirely new perspective, later allowing them to consider things they never would have thought of before. One can also feel the triumph of making it work after all the ostensible barriers get knocked down and you finally make it together. Approximating with another culture and a different lifestyle, you have the potential to gain some true sympathy for what others (especially immigrants) have to go through. Of course, if you’re the one that will be going off to see the partner, one benefit is travel. Go and see the world, explore the country the partner lives in. It’s a chance to see another part of this wonderful planet! Some advice: Listen if you want; From personal experience in an international relationship, I’d say communication is number one. The key is finding, no, making time to talk with your partner. That has to be a priority because it’s the only time you have with them. Even when the couple is together, the language/cultural barrier may make things tougher than usual on one of the partners, so communication is doubly essential here. With that said, partners should prioritize together time all the time, but especially while far apart. Whether on the phone or laptop, I and my wife always celebrated Valentine’s Day, birthdays, holidays, and whatever else together. That’s how you make it feel like you’re together. Because the partners are so far apart, jealousy and insecurity about what’s happening on the other end could be a problem. I’d say be understanding of this and know that it’s a part of the journey. As the couple continues to grow together, they’ll trust each other more and more. It takes a constant reassurance of your presence and your commitment. “I’m here. I love you. I’m with you. I’m yours.” I know it’s a little old-fashioned, but get romantic, y’all. You just have to prove you can be trusted. Can you? Lastly, if one of the partners speaks another language, I’d say learn that language. It doesn’t have to be too fluency, but at least well enough to communicate. This sounds like a given, but I’ve been watching 90 Day Fiancé. I’ve seen those people that just rely on Google Translate to talk to their partner. Shame on you. But really, it goes back to respect and communicating, and you kind of need to know how to speak to do that. I mean, non-verbal signs only go so far. Beyond speaking or hearing, the ability to respect another’s culture is key too. One doesn’t have to adopt the culture of their partner completely, but having a sense of understanding and respect, being willing to hear what their culture is all about is super important. After all, showing respect earns respect, am I right? I hope this little list of pros and cons helped those of you in or considering international relationships. Or maybe you’re just curious. Either way, this is in no way to discourage or encourage anyone to love someone from another country. There are obvious and more discreet challenges, but all in all, it’s a relationship that requires the same building blocks as any other. What do you think? Would you be willing to try this kind of relationship? Or did I steer you away? Happy reading, and love one another! **Thanks again Susan for the opportunity to host this article originally on your website! I look forward to more colabs in the future. Keep on teaching them about healthy relationships! -CultSurf That’s right! Talking about the green island — well, green, white and orange, if we want to get technical. Ireland is one of the most recognizable and influential English-speaking countries out there. Here we’ll explore some of the reasons behind that bold statement. We’ll also take a quick look at the geography, culture, and other aspects of this modern Celtic nation. Let’s do it! One thing that can get confusing about Ireland is … well, what it is. There’s the island (and smaller isles) of Ireland, yes, which holds two different countries on it. One — the one we’re talking about — is the Republic of Ireland, or Poblacht na hÉireann if you want to get fancy (we’ll just call it Ireland for simplicity’s sake). The other is the United Kingdom, which lays claim on the island by way of Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland itself is a bit confusing, not necessarily a country, but maybe a special county, a semi-autonomous region, we don’t know for sure. Anyway, Ireland (the republic) is a bit easier to define. Unlike its Great British neighbors, Ireland is still in the EU. The rest of the UK sits just across the Irish Sea and the two entities have impacted each other for millennia now. Don’t check the watch on that one. Ireland’s capital is Dublin, which is also the biggest urban area. Even though about 40% of Ireland’s people live in this one region, there are still other major towns like Cork, Limerick, and Galway. Irish people themselves are pretty homogeneous, being in not too big of a place. Still, immigrant communities are present and well on the island, with many coming from other parts of Europe, the Middle East, East Asia, and Brazil of all places. Historically, Ireland has been divided into provinces. Namely, they are Connacht, Leinster, Munster, and Ulster. Today they don’t serve much of any administrative purpose, although they do hold value in other ways. Locally, the country is divided into 31 entities; that’s 26 counties, 3 cities, and 2 city-and-counties. The climate in Ireland is temperate and maritime with mostly mild, cool weather. It can get super rainy but isn’t super snowy. These were great conditions for vast forests, although most of those have been cut down. Most the landscape these days is hilly and pastoral with green fields. A majority of the land is set aside for agriculture. There’s a general central plain that culminates in more highland areas around the edges, especially in the west. Much of the coast is rocky with cliffs. Cliff diving, anyone? What’s the craic, lads? C’mon, give me your best Irish accent! We all know it when we hear it, and that’s due in part to the iconic culture of this place. Common social values in Ireland have to do with their unique sense of humor, storytelling, and folklore, an interest in politics and philosophy, admiration for wit, open expression, and the arts, as well as a pride for (and conflict with) the tricky history of the nation. Who really wants to bring up Protestant discrimination, foreign conquest and assimilation, or the several devastating famines? Not me, my friend. This sense of pride, though, is one of the very reasons so many Irish abroad are quick to claim their origins. Often, even those with distant Irish descendants are happy to claim where their ancestry. This could be due in part to Irish last names being pretty easily identifiable. A lot of them come from Gaelic origin, with names like O’Reilly, O’Hara, MacDonald, McAvoy, Murphy, Flanagan, Kennedy, etc. Oh, and the Normans had something to do with it (Kilpatrick, Kilkenny, Fitzpatrick, Fitzgerald), and the Welsh (Walsh). But hey, there’s a lot more to it. Some of the most iconic parts of Irish culture come from Gaelic roots, such as certain musical styles, dance, dress, and sports. I mean, hurling and Gaelic football are mostly an Ireland thing. Farming and small-town life are also significant aspects of Irish identity, given all those agricultural fields we mentioned earlier. Counties play a role in many people’s identities, shaping things like accent and team affiliations, among others. Dublin is a major cultural and arts center, tied in as one of Europe’s most important financial and technology hubs too. It’s also had a lot more English influence over the years as compared to rural Ireland, so Anglo-Irish ID is a bit stronger than elsewhere in the country. Irish folklore has also played a huge role in popular world folklore, especially in places like the U.S. and UK. Just think of how big Saint Patrick’s Day and shamrocks are outside of Ireland. Other major characters popularized (at least partially) by Irish storytellers include fairies, pixies, mermaids, the shapeshifting Pooka, the headless horseman, Dullahan, and most noteworthy of all, yes, leprechauns! Don’t know why I got all excited on that one. Last one here, I wanted to mention Samhain (Saow-in). This traditional Celtic festival where turnips were used to scare away bad spirits would later evolve into today’s Halloween. Most of us use pumpkins instead of turnips now, but popular media have brought this spooky celebration all over the world. And it all stems back to pagan rituals. Imagine that. Irish = Catholic? After Gaelic culture, few things have influenced Irish identity and development like Catholicism. We know there’s a whole lot of controversy here, but what can I say? This Christian denomination is so crucial that it has basically been used as a major distinguisher between who is an “Irish national” and who is an “Irish Brit,” or just “Brit.” Irish from the republic are nominally a lot more Catholic, while those in Northern Ireland are a lot more Protestant. It could seem like a trivial difference, but centuries of squabbling and prejudice have really driven the fork deep between the two sides. Even though it’s been a major issue, on and off, many Northern Irish still consider themselves as simply “Irish.” There’s steady talk of Irish unification too. I don’t know enough about it to voice an opinion, and I’m sure not everyone is open to that happening. Still, it shows how there is some mutual respect and cooperation between the two sides of the island. The color green is often associated with the country on an international level. Despite conveniently being the color of clovers, it also is associated with the Catholic Church within Ireland (orange is associated with the Protestants). Speaking the Gaelic Irish Gaelic or Gaelige is a co-official language with English. It used to be the main language of the people up to about a hundred or so years ago. At different points in history, Ireland was under the control of Great Britain or England. The most recent time during the Industrial Revolution saw a rise in literacy and other factors that grew the English-speaking population substantially, kind of merking those poor Gaelic speakers. Well, not the speakers themselves, but you get it. Nowadays, Gaelic has struggled to keep up since many don’t really see a need to learn it. Most fluent speakers happen to be older or from rural areas where Gaelic culture is still strong. Cities or areas that have significant amounts of Gaelic speakers are called Gaeltacht, I’ve gathered. Since it’s not really spoken outside of Ireland, and only spoken by a small percentage within its own country, you can understand why it’s a hard one to sell, especially to the youngsters. Still, the language is mandatory in schools and most people know at least as much Gaelic as I know Spanish from my high school classes. There’s also a sense of revival for Gaelic in some communities, much like there is for lots of endangered languages around the globe. Despite not being fluently spoken by many, the language itself serves a sense of Celtic-rooted identity. Many words, idioms, and expressions have made their way into the local variety of English. The Irish accent, influenced by Gaelic tongues, Norman and Anglo-Saxon dialects, English, and the several other Gaelic and Brythonic languages nearby have all shaped each other and meshed to influence the local version of English we all recognize today. Cool stuff. To hear some people speaking in Gaelic and with Irish accents, watch and listen below! Hello! So my name is Trystn, from Los Angeles, California. I have lived there most of my life although I’ve been to many places in my state and the U.S. I am currently married and work online as an English tutor and create content for my website. Otherwise, I do multiple other freelance jobs when I get the chance. How did you meet your partner? what attracted you to her. I met my wife online actually! Sandra is from Brazil, and we met on a website for language exchange. I was learning Portuguese and she was learning English. We spent several months communicating by messages and video before I decided to go visit her. After that, you could say we solidified our relationship and made it official. Besides being beautiful and funny, I was attracted to her willingness to listen to me. Being long-distance, we had to depend on our communication, and this made us feel super close. Sandra is also very family-oriented and cares a lot about others, and this made me feel great respect for her. How long did you date? what was your typical dating like. Since much of the beginning of our relationship was online, we didn’t have the usual dating period. We would spend time chatting online for hours a day for about 10 months until I made it to Brazil. When we were together, Sandra would take me to touristic places in her city, Sao Paulo, or we would visit different family members. We also had more alone time during those days so we got close really quickly. We “dated” for about a year before deciding to get engaged, but we didn’t get married for about 2 years after that. We’ve spent a lot more time together since then. Can you recall the most romantic/best moment with your partner? How was the feeling like(are you smiling recalling that moment). The most romantic moments we had I think were just laying together, talking or not saying a word, and stroking each other. Just that physical connection and appreciation for the presence of someone you love was special to me. I think also when we would kiss in public like in the park, it was an exhilarating feeling and very romantic. We’ve had lots of cool moments like that, so I can’t pinpoint a single one, but I do smile when I think of those moments. When was the last time you said “I love you” to your partner? I got into the habit of saying “I love you” to her a lot when we were dating. After getting married I haven’t felt the need to say it as much, and there’s a reason behind this. Sandra is not a very verbally expressive person when it comes to love, but she shows it a lot in her actions. I realized this and have been trying to show her more love with my actions as opposed to words. Of course, it doesn’t hurt to say it and I should tell her more often. I say “I love you” every few days or so, sometimes randomly and sometimes intently. As of now, it’s been about two days. Have you ever change anything about your partner? She is also very resistant to change, so I haven’t been able to! Jokes aside, I think at the beginning I wanted her to be more assertive and take more control with her plans. After those beginning months, I did start to notice more and more things I wanted to change in her, but over time I realized it’s not worth it. I have to love her for who she is, and I think I was creating this false image of who I wanted her to be. Once I realized accepted who she truly was, I stopped wanting her to change. Have you tried to stop your partner not to do a particular thing just because you feel jealous or angry? There was one significant time when I did this. One year I was in Sao Paulo for Carnaval and we decided to go Downtown to sell beers and Coke. So we bought a ton of cans and got a Styrofoam cooler and went out to sell. When we got there we saw lots of people dancing and having fun, and so we decided to join in. I noticed we hadn’t sold anything after a while, and I started getting irritated. Besides being butt-hurt that nobody wanted our drinks, I also was insecure about my dancing at the time. So I said something that wasn’t so nice and got irritated with Sandra. This day was particularly hard for me and it caused me to work hard on changing my mindset. Luckily I can say I’m much more relaxed these days than I was at the start. Will you say “I’m sorry” to your partner even though it’s not your fault? Well… I have a hard time owning up to when I’m wrong. I hate being wrong, haha. But I say sorry when I am. If I’m not wrong, I have an even harder time! But there are times that I can recognize, “You know what? You need to just let bygones be bygones and brush this under the rug.” I did have to do this quite a bit when we were dating on the phone because Sandra would get upset for stuff that I thought was normal, but because we hadn’t established trust and a connection yet, I had to just say sorry so we could move past it. Now on a rare occasion, I do say sorry even if I know I’m not wrong. But the best remedy I found for this is not doing things that I’ll have to say sorry for. Is it really necessary to know everything from your partner’s previous Relationship? At first, I did want to know a lot about her previous relationships. It was a painful curiosity, especially knowing and that I was highly insecure at the time. Now I don’t care and she can talk about it as much or as little as she wants. I think with trust you don’t need to know all of that information. Give me the highlights, as long as there’s not a dark past there, I’m cool on your exes. If you could choose your partner again, would you choose same person? This is an interesting question. I think everything we do in life is for a purpose and I know being with my wife now is the right decision. She’s made my life better since the day we met and I’d be different, like 100% different if we hadn’t have met, trust me. I think my mistake was that I jumped into the relationship very fast because I was insecure at the time. If I could do it again, I would wait to have more self-confidence, be more mature, and have more realistic expectations. Sandra is more than what I ever asked for or imagined, but I created this false sense of who I wanted her to be and who I was. Now I’m much more realistic, and much happier because of it. It took some time though, and I’m continuing to grow. What your advice for those who are still searching for their other perfect half? If you’re still looking for your perfect match, I would say … stop it! Haha, really. I feel like these things work better when we’re not looking. When we look for love, I feel like we start to get desperate or we get super demanding. Don’t worry if the person checks out all your requirements or if they seem like the opposite of what you wanted. Follow the feeling you get when you’re with them. Be realistic. Know who you are and what you like. You’ve got to know that no one is perfect and any person you get with no matter the appearance will have flaws and will piss you off sometimes, and that’s okay. Know that this is normal. Look for someone who challenges you and respects you, someone you can be your complete self with without hiding anything. And please, be open and honest. There’s nothing worse than lying about who you are only for it to blow up in your partner’s face years down the line, and vice versa. Enjoy life and enjoy being with people, and at one point you will bump into your other half. Email me at; email@example.com or firstname.lastname@example.org ( Collab post, guest post, interview welcome)

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Is this topic for you? This topic talks about osteoporosis, including how to help prevent it and also how it is diagnosed and treated. For more information about how osteoporosis affects men see the topic Osteoporosis in Men. What is osteoporosis? Osteoporosis is a disease that affects your bones. It means that you have bones that are thin and brittle with lots of holes inside them like a sponge. This makes them easy to break. Osteoporosis can lead to broken bones (fractures) in the hip, spine, and wrist. These fractures can be disabling and may make it hard for you to live on your own. Osteoporosis affects millions of older adults. It usually strikes after age 60. It's most common in women, but men can get it too. What causes osteoporosis? It's caused by a lack of bone strength or bone density. As you age, your bones get thinner naturally. But some things can make you more likely to have the severe bone thinning of osteoporosis. These things are called risk factors. Age, gender, and body type risks - Your age. Your risk goes up as you get older. - Being a woman who has gone through menopause. After menopause, the body makes less estrogen. Estrogen protects the body from bone loss. - Having a slender body frame Family history risks - Your family background. Osteoporosis tends to run in families. - Your race. People of European and Asian background are most likely to get osteoporosis. - Not getting enough weight-bearing exercise - Drinking too much alcohol - Not getting enough calcium and vitamin D What are the symptoms? Osteoporosis can be very far along before you notice it. Sometimes the first sign is a broken bone in your hip, spine, or wrist after a bump or fall. As the disease gets worse, you may have other signs, such as pain in your back. You might notice that you are not as tall as you used to be and that you have a curved backbone. How is osteoporosis diagnosed? Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and do a physical exam. You may also have a test that measures your bone thickness (bone density test) and your risk for a fracture. If the test finds that your bone thickness is less than normal but is not osteoporosis, you may have low bone density (sometimes called osteopenia). It's a less severe type of bone thinning. It's important to find and treat osteoporosis early to prevent bone fractures. Experts advise bone density testing for women age 65 and older. If you have a higher risk for fractures, it's best to start getting the test sooner. How is it treated? Treatment for osteoporosis includes medicine to reduce bone loss and to build bone thickness. Medicine can also give you relief from pain caused by fractures or other changes to your bones. It's important to get enough calcium and vitamin D and take prescribed medicine for the disease. You need calcium and vitamin D to build strong, healthy bones. You can slow osteoporosis with new, healthy habits. If you smoke, quit. Get plenty of exercise. Walking, jogging, dancing, and lifting weights can make your bones stronger. Eat a healthy mix of foods that include calcium and vitamin D. Try yogurt, cheese, and milk (for calcium). Eat eggs, fatty fish, and fortified cereal (for vitamin D). Making even small changes in how you eat and exercise, along with taking medicine, can help prevent a broken bone. When you have osteoporosis, it's important to protect yourself from falling. Reduce your risk of breaking a bone by making your home safer. Make sure there's enough light in your home. Remove throw rugs and clutter that you may trip over. Put sturdy handrails on stairs. Try exercises to increase your strength and balance. Health Tools help you make wise health decisions or take action to improve your health. As a natural part of aging, bone tissue breaks down. It is absorbed faster than new bone is made, and bones become thinner. You are more likely to have osteoporosis if you did not reach your ideal bone thickness (bone density) during your childhood and teenage years. In women, bone loss increases around menopause, when ovaries decrease production of estrogen, a hormone that protects against bone loss. So the older you get, the more likely you are to have osteoporosis. Not getting enough calcium and vitamin D contributes to bone thinning. Also, thin bones may run in families. In the early stages of osteoporosis, you probably won't have symptoms. As the disease progresses, you may have symptoms related to weakened bones, including: - Back pain. - Loss of height and stooped posture. - A curved upper back (dowager's hump). - Broken bones (fractures) that might occur with a minor injury, especially in the hip, spine, and wrist. - Compression fractures in the spine that may cause severe back pain. But sometimes these fractures cause only minor symptoms or no symptoms at all. In a normal, healthy adult, bone is constantly absorbed into the body and then rebuilt. During childhood and the teen years, new bone tissue is added faster than existing bone is absorbed. As a result, your bones become larger and heavier until about age 30 when you reach peak bone mass (density). The more bone mass you developed early in life, the less likely you are to get osteoporosis. After age 30, people lose a small amount of bone each year. A person with thinning bones may be diagnosed with low bone density (sometimes called osteopenia). Low bone density sometimes progresses to osteoporosis. When bones thin, they lose strength and break more easily. The bones that break most often due to osteoporosis are: - The spine . About half of broken bones caused by osteoporosis are bones in the spine.footnote 1 Vertebrae that are weak because of osteoporosis may break and collapse on top of each other. (This is called a compression fracture.) These fractures of the spine can cause back pain, stooped posture, loss of height, and a curved upper back (dowager's hump). - The hip. Hip fractures are often caused by a fall. They can make it very hard for you to move around. And they usually require major surgery. After a hip fracture, you may have medical complications such as blood clots, pressure injuries, or pneumonia. To learn more, see the topic Hip Fracture. - The wrist and forearm. Wrist fractures can make you less active and independent.footnote 2 In women, bone loss increases when the ovaries reduce production of estrogen, a hormone that protects against bone loss. What Increases Your Risk The risk of osteoporosis increases with age as bones naturally become thinner. But it usually doesn't affect people until they are 60 or older. Family and personal history Things that increase the risk of osteoporosis include: - Having a family history of osteoporosis. If your mother, father, or a sibling has been diagnosed with osteoporosis or has had broken bones from a minor injury, you are more likely to get osteoporosis. - Completing menopause. Estrogen protects women from bone loss, and estrogen levels drop after menopause. Women whose ovaries aren't working properly or have been removed also are at risk because of lower estrogen levels. - Smoking. People who smoke lose bone thickness faster than nonsmokers. - Alcohol use. Heavy alcohol use can decrease bone formation, and it increases the risk of falling. Heavy alcohol use is more than 2 standard drinks a day for men and more than 1 drink a day for women. - Getting little or no exercise. Weight-bearing exercises include walking, jogging, stair climbing, dancing, and lifting weights. They keep bones strong and healthy by working the muscles and bones against gravity. Exercise may improve your balance and decrease your risk of falling. - Poor diet. A diet low in foods containing calcium and vitamin D increases your risk of thinning bones. Other things that increase risk Other risk factors include: - Taking corticosteroids or certain other medicines. - Being inactive or bedridden for long periods of time. - Dieting excessively or having an eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa. - Being a female athlete if you have few or irregular menstrual cycles due to low body fat. Find out your fracture risk Your doctors might use the FRAX tool to help predict your risk of having a fracture related to osteoporosis in the next 10 years. You can use this tool too. Go to the website at www.sheffield.ac.uk/FRAX, and click on Calculation Tool. If you have had a bone density test on your hip, you can enter your score. If you haven't had that test, you can leave the score blank. When should you call your doctor? Call your doctor right away if you: - Think you have a broken bone, notice a deformity after a fall, or cannot move a part of your body. - Have sudden, severe pain when bearing weight. Call your doctor for an appointment if you: - Want to discuss your risk for osteoporosis. - Have symptoms of menopause or have completed menopause and want to discuss whether you should take medicine to prevent osteoporosis. - Have been treated for a fracture caused by a minor injury, such as a simple fall, and want to discuss your risk of osteoporosis. If you are nearing age 65, have low bone density, or think that you are at high risk for osteoporosis, talk with your doctor about your concerns. If you do not have any risk factors for osteoporosis and you are already taking preventive measures, such as taking adequate calcium and vitamin D, you may only need routine screening. Who to see Health professionals who can evaluate your symptoms and risk of osteoporosis include: Exams and Tests A diagnosis of osteoporosis is based on your medical history, a physical exam, and a test to measure your bone thickness (density). Medical history and physical exam Your doctor will: - Take a medical history by asking questions about your family's health history and your own. - Measure your height and compare the results with past measurements. - Examine your body for signs of previous broken bones, such as changes in the shape of your long bones and spine. You will have a bone density test. It helps your doctor estimate the strength of your bones. Routine urine and blood tests can rule out other medical conditions, such as hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and Cushing's syndrome. These conditions can cause bone loss. If you or your doctor thinks that you may be at risk for osteoporosis, you may have a screening test to check your bone thickness. A screening test may be a good idea if you have: - A fracture from a minor injury that may have been caused by osteoporosis. - Another medical condition that is known to cause bone thinning. - Risk factors for or symptoms that suggest osteoporosis. Experts recommend that all women age 65 and older routinely have a bone density test to screen for osteoporosis. If you are at increased risk for fractures caused by osteoporosis, routine screening should start sooner.footnote 3 The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends that you and your doctor check your fracture risk using a tool such as FRAX to help decide whether you should be screened for osteoporosis. Talk to your doctor about your risk factors and when to start bone density screening. Using the FRAX tool The FRAX tool can help predict your risk of having a fracture related to osteoporosis in the next 10 years. The tool is meant for people who are not already being treated with medicine for osteoporosis. You can use this tool. Go to the website at www.sheffield.ac.uk/FRAX, and click on Calculation Tool. If you have had a bone density test on your hip, you can type in your score. If you have not had that test, you can leave the score blank. Screening in younger women Most experts recommend that the decision to screen younger women be made on an individual basis. The need for testing will depend on the risk for osteoporosis and whether the test results will help with treatment decisions. Ultrasound is sometimes offered at events such as health fairs as a quick screening for osteoporosis. Ultrasound by itself is not a reliable test for diagnosing osteoporosis. But if results of an ultrasound screening find low bone density, your doctor can help you decide whether you should have a bone density test. Treatment for osteoporosis is important to prevent fractures and help you get around and function well. It usually includes lifestyle changes and medicine. It is never too late to build and then keep healthy habits that can slow bone thinning. Take calcium and vitamin D Your doctor likely will recommend that you eat foods rich in calcium and vitamin D. These nutrients keep bones healthy and strong. Your bones need vitamin D to absorb calcium. Getting more vitamin D may help prevent falls in older people who are low in vitamin D.footnote 4 And some studies show that taking vitamin D may reduce the chances of breaking a bone.footnote 5 Talk to your doctor about measuring your vitamin D to be sure you are getting enough. Get weight-bearing exercise Get regular weight-bearing exercise, such as walking, jogging, stair climbing, dancing, lifting weights, aerobics, and resistance exercises. These activities keep bones healthy by working the muscles and bones against gravity. To be most effective, weight-bearing exercises should be done for 30 minutes most days of the week. Resistance exercises should be done 2 or 3 days a week. Limit alcohol, and don't smoke Along with exercise and diet, your doctor will recommend that you not smoke. And it's best to limit alcohol to no more than 2 drinks a day for men and no more than 1 drink a day for women. For help with quitting smoking, see the topic Quitting Smoking. In some cases, your doctor will prescribe medicines such as bisphosphonates to protect against bone loss. After you have been diagnosed with bone loss, you will need to have regular follow-up tests to monitor the disease. If you've had a fracture, your doctor may suggest that you see a fracture liaison service. In this program, health professionals will work with you to help prevent future fractures. Treatment for compression fractures Compression fractures from osteoporosis can cause significant back pain that lasts for several months. Treatments to relieve your pain include over-the-counter medicines such as acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as stronger prescription medicine. If you have a fractured bone related to osteoporosis, treatment to slow your bone thinning becomes very important. If you have had a spinal fracture, you are at risk of having another. You can build strong bones and help prevent osteoporosis with weight-bearing exercise and a diet rich in calcium and vitamin D. Young women in particular need to be aware of their risk for osteoporosis. They can take steps early to slow its progress and prevent complications. A lot of physical activity during the preteen and teen years increases bone mass and greatly reduces the risk of osteoporosis in adulthood. Along with diet and exercise, prevention includes not smoking and limiting alcohol. For more information, see Home Treatment. You can do a lot to slow bone loss and prevent broken bones. Get enough calcium and vitamin D Getting enough calcium and vitamin D is one of the first steps toward preventing or reducing the effects of osteoporosis. Vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium. Calcium is found in many foods, including dairy products such as milk and yogurt. If you think you may not be getting enough calcium in your diet, check with your doctor about taking calcium supplements. Experts recommend that you choose supplements that are known brand names with proven reliability. Most brand-name calcium products are absorbed easily by the body. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has taken action against companies that praise the benefits of coral calcium as a superior source of calcium and a cure for disease. There is no scientific proof to support these claims. Weight-bearing exercises (walking, jogging, stair climbing, dancing, or weight lifting), aerobics, and resistance exercises (using weights or elastic bands to help improve muscle strength) are all effective in increasing bone density and strength. These kinds of exercise may also help reduce the risk of falling or of breaking a bone. For more information, see the topic Fitness. Limit alcohol use Heavy alcohol use can decrease bone formation. It also increases the risk of falling. Heavy alcohol use is more than 2 drinks a day for men and more than 1 drink a day for women. Smoking reduces your bone density and speeds up the rate of bone loss. For information on how to stop, see the topic Quitting Smoking. Learn ways to prevent falls that might result in broken bones. Have your vision and hearing checked regularly. Wear slippers or shoes that have nonskid soles. Exercises that improve balance and coordination, such as tai chi, can also reduce your risk of falling. You can also make changes in your home to prevent falls. Medicines are used to both prevent and treat osteoporosis. Some medicines slow the rate of bone loss or increase bone thickness. Medicine for treatment and prevention - Bisphosphonates. These include alendronate (Fosamax), ibandronate (Boniva), risedronate (Actonel), and zoledronic acid (Reclast). - Denosumab (Prolia). It's used to treat people who are at high risk for bone fractures related to decreased bone density. - Raloxifene (Evista). This medicine is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM). - Teriparatide (Forteo). It's used for the treatment of men and postmenopausal women who have severe osteoporosis and who are at high risk for bone fracture. Hormone therapy is typically not recommended for most women who have osteoporosis. But if you are at high risk and cannot take other medicines, your doctor may recommend it under certain circumstances. Hormone therapy for osteoporosis in women includes: - Estrogen. Estrogen without progestin (estrogen therapy, or ET) may be used to treat osteoporosis in women who have gone through menopause and do not have a uterus. Because taking estrogen alone increases the risk for cancer of the lining of the uterus (endometrial cancer), ET is only used if a woman has had her uterus removed (hysterectomy). - Estrogen and progestin. In rare cases, the combination of estrogen and progestin (hormone therapy, or HT) is recommended for women who have osteoporosis. Medicine for pain from fractures Compression fractures and other broken bones resulting from osteoporosis can cause significant pain that lasts for several months. Medicines to relieve this pain include: - Nonprescription acetaminophen, such as Tylenol. - Nonprescription nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen and naproxen. If you take NSAIDs regularly, your doctor may recommend that you also take a medicine such as a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) to protect your digestive system. But there is also a chance that PPIs can help cause osteoporosis. Talk to your doctor about taking NSAIDs and PPIs for long periods of time. - An opioid pain reliever, such as codeine or morphine. - Calcitonin, such as Miacalcin. If spinal compression fractures are causing nerve roots to be compressed, your doctor may talk with you about having surgery to stabilize the crushed spinal bones (vertebrae). If you get a hip fracture because of osteoporosis, you may need surgery to repair your hip. For more information, see the topic Hip Fracture. Soy products have been tried to help reduce the chance of broken bones due to osteoporosis, but there is not strong evidence that these products help. But soy is a good source of nondairy protein, so many people still choose to include it in their diets. (For example, 1 cup of soy milk contains 7 to 11 grams of soy protein.) There is not enough evidence to show if other natural products, such as black cohosh, work to reduce bone loss. - Chapman-Novakofski K (2012). Nutrition and bone health. In LK Mahan, S Escott-Stump, eds., Krause's Food and the Nutrition Care Process, 13th ed., pp. 531–546. St. Louis: Saunders. - Edwards BJ, et al. (2010). Functional decline after incident wrist fractures—Study of Osteoporotic Fractures: Prospective cohort study. BMJ. Published July 8, 2010 (doi:10.1136/bmj.c3324). - U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, et al. (2018). Screening for osteoporosis to prevent fractures: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA, 319(24): 2521–2531. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2018.7498. Accessed October 29, 2018. - Gillespie LD, et al. (2012). Interventions for preventing falls in older people living in the community. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11). - Bischoff-Ferrari HA, et al. (2009). Prevention of nonvertebral fractures with oral vitamin D and dose dependency. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(6): 551–561. Other Works Consulted - Avenell A, et al. (2014). Vitamin D and vitamin D analogues for preventing fractures in post-menopausal women and older men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4). DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000227. Accessed October 22, 2014. - Bell KJL, et al. (2009). Value of routine monitoring of bone mineral density after starting bisphosphonate treatment: Secondary analysis of trial data. BMJ. Published online June 23, 2009 (doi:10.1136/bmj.b2266). - Heiss G, et al. (2008). Health risks and benefits 3 years after stopping randomized treatment with estrogen and progestin. JAMA, 299(9): 1036–1045. - Howe TE, et al. (2011). Exercise for preventing and treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (7). - National Osteoporosis Foundation (2014). Clinician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. National Osteoporosis Foundation. http://nof.org/hcp/clinicians-guide. Accessed October 22, 2014. - National Osteoporosis Foundation. Exercise for strong bones. Available online: http://www.nof.org/articles/238. Accessed November 2012. - Nelson HD, et al. (2010). Screening for osteoporosis: An update for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Annals of Internal Medicine, 153(2): 99–111. - Newberry SJ, et al. (2012). Treatment to Prevent Fractures in Men and Women With Low Bone Density or Osteoporosis: Update of a 2007 Report. Comparative Effectiveness Review No. 53 (AHRQ Publication No. 12-EHC023-EF). Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Available online: http://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/index.cfm/search-for-guides-reviews-and-reports/?productid=1006&pageaction=displayproduct. - North American Menopause Society (2010). Management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: 2010 position statement of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause, 17(1): 23–54. Also available online: http://www.menopause.org/aboutmeno/consensus.aspx. - Qaseem A, et al. (2008). Pharmacologic treatment of low bone density or osteoporosis to prevent fractures: A clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine, 149(6): 404–415. Also available online: http://www.acponline.org/clinical_information/guidelines/guidelines. Current as of: December 7, 2020 Author: Healthwise Staff Kathleen Romito MD - Family Medicine Martin J. Gabica MD - Family Medicine E. Gregory Thompson MD - Internal Medicine Adam Husney MD - Family Medicine Carla J. Herman MD, MPH - Geriatric Medicine Current as of: December 7, 2020 To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org. © 1995-2021 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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I write this node not to make noders "believe," but rather to bring more information into the picture (and also to force myself to read the rest of The Bible Code). Do I believe it? I don't know. I'd like learn ancient Arabic and analyze the original قرآن; learn ancient Hebrew and go through the original Apocrypha (which doesn't exist any more); look at the first copy of the Tipiṭaka; then get back to you. Also, reading this will be a bit easier if your browser'll let you see Unicode Hebrew letters, and it might even make sense if you speak Hebrew. Thoughts taken from and inspired by The Bible Code:1 Isaac Newton tried to find a code like this in the Bible, considering this effort more important than his Theory of the Universe. He learned Hebrew and spent half his life searching through the Bible for such a code, wanting to "read the riddle of the Godhead, the riddle of past and future events divinely fore-ordained" (Newton, from source 1) Without a computer, however, he didn't get very far. In the 1940s, Rabbi H. M. D. Weissmandel noticed that if you skip fifty letters from the first ת in the beginning of Genesis, write down the letter, skip another 50, write down that letter, &c., you get the word תורה ("Torah"). Same with Exodus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. He never published this little discovery of his, but there is mention of it in a book2 by some students of his, which Drosnin found in the National Library in Israel. Drosnin posits that the Bible is indeed a code that was to remained locked until humans invented the computer. According to legend, Moses recieved the Word of God as one continuous length of Hebrew letters, without spaces or accents, 304,805 letters long. A Torah missing even one of the letters, or with an extra one, or with one in the incorrect place, is considered invalid. We can stick this sequence of letters into a computer, analyze it, and find completely new "words of God" in a book we've had for thousands of years. Drosnin also suggests that since the technology available at the time of the Bible's appearance (i.e. reading and writing) allowed one interpretation of the Bible (as it is), and today's technology (computers) allows another interpretation (the Bible code), what's to prevent us from thinking that a future technological development might allow us yet another interpretation of the Bible? Some technology as strange to us as computers would be to desert nomads from 1000 BCE, and a message as magical and mysterious to us as the prediction of the future would seem to those nomads? You know, like that monolith of Arthur C. Clarke's? Skeptics (whom I will refer to as "skeptics" for lack of a better objective word) point out that the Hebrew text used is most likely not the exact text Moses "recieved." See links in the "Hang on a minute" section below for more information. The books of Daniel and Revelation contain predictions of horror to be revealed when a secret book is finally opened at the "end of days": "And I saw in the right hand of him that sat on the throne a book written within and on the backside, sealed with seven seals. And I saw a strong angel proclaiming with a loud voice, 'Who is worthy to open the book, and to loose the seals thereof?' And no man in heaven, nor in earth, neither under the earth, was able to open the book, neither to look thereon" (Revelation 5:13). In the book of Daniel, intersecting the year '5757' (the Hebrew year from September 1996 to September 1997*) and after the verses "for you the encoded" and "hidden secrets," an angel says "but thou, O Daniel, shut up the words, and seal the book, even to the time of the end: many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased" (Daniel 12:4) (n.b.: the phrase used for "run to and fro" has the connotation of "investigate," and "knowledge" in this case can also mean "wickedness"). In Genesis, "the end of days" intersects '5756' (1996) and 'computer' (מחשב). This implies that 1996 was the end of days and the "book...sealed with seven seals" was opened that year. Is the Bible code that "book"? "Sealed before God" intersects 'Bible code' (צפותוכ) in one place, and encoded elsewhere in the Bible is the phrase "He encoded the Torah and more" (צפנתורהועוד). When God gives Moses "the tablets of stone, and the Torah," He said "behold, I make a covenant: before all thy people I will work miracles" (Exodus 34:10) within these words of God appears 'computer'. 'Computer' appears six times throughout the Bible as part of the word "thought" (מחשבה). Four of the six appearances are in verses describing the Ark of the Covenant, which held the Commandments. Hidden in the verse "and the tablets were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, engraved on the tablets" (Exodus 32:16) is the phrase 'it was made by computer' (מוחשב). Joseph is one of the prophets of the Bible. In Genesis 41, he told the Pharaoh (probably the Hyksos king Aphophis) that a dream of his predicted a famine, and the Pharaoh makes him Regent and dubs him Zaph-nath-paaneah (צפנת פענח). The Bible Code says the name has been said to mean "revealer of secrets" or "the god speaks and lives" (other sources say it means "the savior of the world" or "the one who furnishes the nourishment of life"3), but according to Drosnin, the name means "decoder of the code" in Hebrew. In the book of Daniel, the king tells Daniel, "truly your God must be the God of gods and the Lord of kings, and the revealer of secrets, to have enabled you to reveal this secret" (Daniel 2:47; underline mine); however, the underlined verse may also be translated as "...and he revealed the secrets enough that you were able to reveal this secret scroll" that is, the code. Isaiah even reveals that "for you this whole vision is nothing but words sealed in a scroll" (Isaiah 29:11). One of the main foci of the book is (if the code is accepted as true) whether or not the events foretold in the code can be changed. Drosnin remains hopeful that this is the case, since the letters representing the Hebrew year 5756 also spell 'will you change it', and the word 'delayed' appears throughout descriptions of many disastrous events. Near one appearance of 'holocaust of Israel' are the years '5756' (1996) (also 'will you change it', remember) and '5760' (2000), but the last letter of '5760' starts the phrase "you delayed." In another place, "Israel and Japan" is intersected by "they delayed the year of the plague." Near the words 'world war', a part of Deuteronomy 31:29 ("evil will befall you in the end of days") is preceeded by a hidden message: 'you knew it will be delayed'. Without further further ado... Events "predicted" in The Bible Code that have occurred: The only time the full name 'Itzhak Rabin' (יצחקרבינ) appears in the code, it is intersected by 'name of assassin who will assassinate'. Close by is the name 'Amir' (עמיר) and the phrase 'name of assassin'. Running across Amir's name is "he changed the nation, he will make them evil." In another place, 'Rabin assassination' appears near '5756' (Hebrew year 19951996), 'Tel Aviv' (תלאביב) and 'Amir'. Nearby is 'he struck, he killed the prime minister' and 'his killer, one of his people, the one who got close'. 'Sadat' is crossed by "he will assassinate," near "8 Tishrei" (October 6 in 1981), and 'Chaled will shoot Sadat' appears in another place. 'M. Gandhi' appears, immediately followed by "he will be killed." 'President Kennedy' (נשיאקנדי) appears once, near 'to die' and 'Dallas' (דאלאס). In another place, 'Oswald' (אוזוולד) appears near "marksman," "he will strike in the head, death," and "name of assassin who will assassinate," the same phrase that appears near the mention of Rabin's assassination. Near Oswald's name is the name of his killer, 'Ruby' (רובי), and the phrase "he will kill the assassin." Near President Kennedy's name also appears 'R. F. Kennedy' (רפקנדי) as well as 'S. Sirhan' (ססרחאנ) and "second ruler will be killed." 'A. Lincoln' appears in Genesis and Deuteronomy, crossed in one place by three occurrences of 'Booth' and in the other by 'assassinated'. Just after fighting began in Ramallah in late September 1996, "Ramallah...fulfilled a prophecy" was found crossing 'atomic holocaust'. 'Oklahoma' (אוקלהומח) appears near 'terrible frightening death' and "there will be terror." Elsewhere, 'Murrah building' is crossed with "desolated/slaughtered," "killed/torn to pieces" and "death." In the book of Exodus, a passage starting with "he ambushed he pounced terror" contains 'day 19', 'on the 9th hour', 'in the morning', 'his name is Timothy' (שמוטימותי) and 'McVeigh' (מקוויי) all appear. 'Prime Minister Netanyahu' (רהמנתניהו) is intersected by "death, July, to Amman," and nearby is "his soul was cut off" and "murdered." The word "delayed" appears three times, twice near Netanyahu's name and again by "murdered." Netanyahu's July 25, 1996 trip to Amman was delayed by ten days. 'Aum Shinrikyo' appears near 'subway', 'plague', and two occurrences of 'gas'. 'Tokyo will be evacuated', 'Tokyo, Japan', '5756' (1996), the Biblical word for 'plague', and 'flying weapon' also appear, supposedly a prediction of what would have happened if the cult hadn't been put to a stop (documents in the cult's headquarters mention a massive attack on Tokyo involving helicopters spraying ebola). 'Shoemaker-Levy' (שומכרלוי) appears twice, once in Genesis and again in Isaiah. In both places' 'Jupiter' crosses the name of the comet, and in Isaiah, '8th Av' (July 16 in 1994) is nearby. 'Clinton' (קליטונ) touches 'president'. 'Goldstein' (גלדשטינ) and 'Hebron' (חברונ) appear near "man from the house of Israel who will slaughter." 'Captivity of Toledano' (שבייתטולידנו) appears near "Lod," "he will die," and "don't shed blood." After Toledano's body was found following his kidnapping in Lod, one of the kidnappers recalled that he told the others, "don't shed blood." The only time 'communism' appears, it is near 'fall of', 'Russian', and 'in China next'. In Genesis, near where God tells Abraham "Look now toward Heaven, and count the stars, if thou be able to number them" (Genesis 15:5), appear 'man on the moon', 'spaceship', 'Apollo 11' and even the date the landing occurred (July 20, 1969). The phrase 'done by mankind, done by man' crosses 'moon', reflecting Armstrong's famous first words on the moon. Near 'Watergate' (ווטרגית) is 'who is he president but was kicked out'. 'Economic collapse', 'depression', 'stocks' and '5690' (1929) appear together. The Hebrew year corresponding to 1906 appears twice, once with 'S. F. Calif' and again with "fire, earthquake." 'S. F. Calif' appears again, with "fire, earthquake" and the year 1989. 'L. A. Calif' (לאקליפ) appears with 'great earthquake' and the years '5754' (1994) [and '5770' (2010)], and elsewhere with "fire earthquake 5770." 'Great earthquake' appears near three other parts of the world (along with '5760' and '5766'): 'China' (סינ), along with '5736' (1976); 'Japan', specifically 'Okushiri July will be shaken', and 'Kobe, Japan' (קובהיפנ) with '5755' (1995) and 'the big one'. War and revolution: 'America', 'revolution' and '5536' (1776) appear together. 'Napoleon', 'France', 'Waterloo' and 'Elba' appear together. 'Russia', 'revolution' and '5678' (1918) appear together. In Genesis 14, 'missile', 'war', 'enemy', and 'Saddam' (סדמ) all appear near 'Hussein (picked a day)' and 'fire on 3rd Shevat', which in 1991 was January 18. In another place in Genesis, 'Hussein', (חסינ) 'Scuds' and 'Russian missile' appear together. The verse reading "all his people to war" (near the mention of Rabin's assassination) begins with "from 5th Adar." In 1996, the 5th of Adar was February 25; that day a Palestinian suicide bomber blew up a bus in Jerusalem, the first of three bombings over nine days, killing more than 61. 'Autobus', 'bombing' and 'Jerusalem' appear together. 'Jaffa Road' and 'Adar 5756' (FebruaryMarch 1996) appear near 'terror'. In another location, 'autobus' is near passages reading "fire great noise they awoke early and they will ride and there will be terror," and "dead bodies." The name of one of the bombed places, 'Dizengoff', appears near 'Tel Aviv' and 'terrorist'. Another 'Tel Aviv' appears near 'terrorist bombing'. Intersecting '5756' is 'Hamas bomb'. The Holocaust/World War II: 'Hitler' (היטלר), 'evil man', 'Nazi and enemy' and 'slaughter' appear together. 'Eichmann', 'ovens' and 'extermination' appear together. 'In Auschwitz' appears near a Bible passage saying "the end of all flesh" and "the earth is filled with violence" (Genesis 6:13). 'Zyklon B' appears near 'Eichmann' in another place. 'A. Hitler', 'holocaust', the names of the major countries involved in WWII (Germany, England, France, Russia, Japan, and the United States) appear near the verse "this world devastated world war." 'Roosevelt' (רוזוולט), 'Churchill', 'Stalin' and 'Hitler' appear together. Near 'Roosevelt' is the verse "president...he gave the order to strike on the day of the great defeat." "Destruction of the fortress" is crossed with 'Pearl Harbor', called the location of "the fleet," near 'world war', 'Hiroshima' (with a skip sequence of 1945) and the date corresponding to December 7th, 1945. Where the Bible declares "and it repented the Lord that He had made man upon the earth and it grieved Him at His heart" appears 'Hiroshima to end shooting whole world'. 'Atomic holocaust' appears by "5705" (1945) and 'Japan' (ייפננ). In the text of the mezuzah, the phrase 'in 5700, the cremator came' appears. 5700 is the Hebrew year from 19391940. The mezuzah is three passages of the Old Testament which God instructed should be placed on every household and every person, memorized and taught to all children, and recited twice a night so it is never forgotten. Great writers, musicians, artists, inventors and scientists: 'Homer' and 'Greek poet' appear together. 'Shakespeare' (שקספיר), 'Macbeth' (מקבת), 'Hamlet' (המלט) and 'presented on stage' appear together. 'Beethoven' and 'Johann Bach' appear near 'German composers'. 'Mozart' appears near 'composer' and 'music'. 'Rembrandt', 'Dutch' and 'painter' appear together. 'Picasso' is near 'the artist'. 'Wright brothers' (אחימריט) and 'airplane' appear together. 'Edison' (אדיסונ) appears near 'electricity' and 'lightbulb'. 'Marconi' appears near 'radio'. 'Newton' (ניוטונ) appears near 'gravity' and even 'Bible code', his obsession. The one time 'Einstein' (איינשטיינ) appears, it is near 'science', 'theory of relativity' and 'add a fifth part', and is intersected by passages reading "he overturned present reality," "a new and excellent understanding," and "they prophesied a brainy person." Atomic holocaust/WWIII-related events seemingly foretold (or just mentioned) in The Bible Code: "In the end oy days" and 'end of days' both appear next to 'Arafat' (ערפאת). 'Prime Minister Netanyahu' (רהמנתניהו) appears near 'elected', two instances of 'murdered', and the verses "surely he will be killed" and "his soul will be cut off in a battle." Near three instances of Netanyahu's name is the verse "for the great horror" (a phrase reserved for referring to events so "awful" they have no equivalent beyond the scope of the Bible), and one of those pairs appears near 'atomic holocaust'. 'The next war' appears near 'Itzhak' and the passages "it will be after the death [of] prime minister" and "another will die, Av, prime minister." In Genesis, 'holocaust of Israel' appears, starting in a verse in which Jacob tells his sons about the end of days. '5756' (19951996) intersects 'holocaust of Israel'. In another place, 'holocaust of Israel' appears near '29 Elul', along with 'atomic weapon'. 'Atomic holocaust' appears once, near the years 1945, 1996, 1997, 2000 and 2006, 'atomic holocaust', three occurrences of 'Libya' (לוב), and the passage "all his people to war," which is also written near the prediction of Itzhak Rabin's assassination. 'World war' also appear near dates: 2000 (twice) and 2006, along with a warning: "it will bombard your country, terror, devastation, it is being launched." 'Terrorism' appears near 'world war', and below the word "third" is 'war to the knife'. 'Atomic holocaust' and 'world war' both appear in the text of the mezuzah. The only name of a city that appears near 'atomic holocaust' or 'world war' is 'Jerusalem', and it appears in God's threat to punish Israel: "I, the Lord, thy God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the sins of the fathers to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me" (Exodus 20:5). "Your city will be destroyed by an act of terrorism" runs across 'atomic holocaust'. "Jerusalem" also crosses 'atomic weapon' in another place, immediately followed by the words "scroll" and "he opened it." 'Ariel' (אריאל), an ancient name for Jerusalem, appears between 'world war' and the verse "9th Av is the day of the third." The 9th of Av is a significant date: Jerusalem was destroyed that day in 586 BCE (by Babylon), and again in 70 CE (by Rome). 'Libyan artillery' appears near '5756' (1996) and 'Qaddafi' (Libya's leader), near the passage "The Lord shall bring down a nation against thee from afar, which will swoop down like a vulture" (Deuteronomy 28:49, thanks Lometa!). 'Atomic artilleryman' intersects the passage "under the slopes of the Pisgah," a mountain range in Jordan. Near the first mention of the Pisgah is a verse reading "weapon here, in this place, camouflaged." Directly above the intersection is the passage "in order that you prolong thy days on Earth." The phrase "in order that you prolong" (למענתאריכ) can also be read as "address date." Given that the letters spelling the year 5756 (התשגו) can also be read as "will you change it," it seems to imply that an attack can be prevented. The first mention of the "end of days" appears near '5756'. The second mention appears where Moses tells the Israelites "all the things that will come upon thee at the end of day." The third is near Moses' warning that "evil will befall you in the end of days." The fourth is near 'world war', 'atomic holocaust' and Balaam's statement about "what this people shall do to thy people in the end of days." The fifth is also near '5756', which is the only date that appears near two occurrences of "end of days." 'Plague', 'peace' and 'save' appear next to two verses discussing "the end of days." The years 5760 (2000), 5766 (2006), and 5873 (2113) appear often near verses mentioning earthquakes ("for everyone the great terror fire earthquake," "great earthquake") and the names of the United States, China and Japan. Japan appears near a whole mess of trouble: 'economic collapse' with "fire, earthquake struck Japan"; 'year of the plague' with "Israel and Japan" (ישראלניפנ). 'Swift-Tuttle', a (very) large comet that could strike Earth in 2126, appears near '5753' (1992, the year it was noticed that it could collide with Earth) and 'comet' (ככבשביט). Elsewhere, the date 'eve of new year' (of 5753, that is September 27, 1992) is immediately followed by 'Swift' (סוויפט). In another place, 'Swift' is encoded near '5886' (2126) and "in the seventh month, it came." 'Comet' also appears with '5770' (2010), with "days of horror" running through the date and "darkness" and "gloom" running through 'comet'. 'Comet' crosses '5766' (2006) elsewhere, and where they cross is the ominous message "year predicted for the world." 'Comet' appears near "it will be crumbled/I will tear it to pieces, 5772" (2012) and "earth annihilated" in another place. Interesting to note is one way time is described in the Bible. In the original Hebrew of the Tanakh, the past is described with verbs in the future tense, and the future is described with the past tense. Scholars do not agree on the reason behind this, but Drosnin notes a meeting with Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, a well-known Hebrew scholar, who pointed him to a verse in Isaiah (maybe 46:10?) that said one needs to look at the past to see the future. He specifically mentions 41:23, "Tell us the things that are to come hereafter, that we may know that you are gods; yes, do good or do evil, that we may stare in astonishment and be dismayed as we behold [the miracle] together!" The phrase "tell us the things that are to come hereafter" can also be translated as both "they told the future backwards" or even "tell the letters in reverse," and directly below it, written backwards, the code reads '5756' (1996) and 'they changed the time'. And perhaps most tellingly is the message spelled plainly between the encoded 'atomic holocaust' and "in the end of days": "code will save." Hang on a minute: Arguments countering the methods and results of the book point out the vast database of letters and sequences available in the original Hebrew of the Old Testament, as well as noting flaws in the math used to calculate the chances of many of the words appearing together. Bible scholars have pointed out that the version of the Bible used to find the code is most likely not the original text. For more on the arguments against the code, see: - Scientific Refutation of the Bible Code (and some good links): - Statistics scholars renew debate over "Bible code": - Hidden Messages and The Bible Code: - The Bible "Codes": A Textual Perspective: - There's even a book criticizing the code, called Cracking the Bible Code: * These days, Rosh Hashanah (the Hebrew new year's day, 1st of Tishrei) falls in September, so Hebrew years go from September of one year to September of the next. I have "translated" the Hebrew years as the "next" year, so I refer to 5757 as just 1997. 1: The overwhelming majority of the info is from Michael Drosnin's The Bible Code (Touchstone, New York, NY: 1997). 2: Torat Hemed, Yeshiva Mt. Kisko: 1958. Uncredited quotations in single quotes are found encoded in the Bible, and are therefore all found in The Bible Code. Quotations in double quotes are direct passages from the Bible.

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Pull-apart basins are depressions bounded on their sides by two or more strike-slip faults and on their ends by diagonal transfer faults. As proposed by theoretical, experimental, and numerical studies in the literature, there are angular and scale relationships between these faults. Here, I compiled the major results on geometries of pull-apart basins of previous workers and then examined the geometric characteristics of pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone for a comparison of current data in two and three dimensions. According to the results of my compilation from the literature and measurements of pull-apart examples from northern Turkey, the acute angles of this type of strike-slip basin are clustered at 30°–35°. In metric scale, the consistency in their two-dimensional (2-D) geometry is well known as an aspect ratio of 3:1 between length and width. Basin length is a function of stretching associated with strike-slip displacement, and increased displacement causes the width of the fault zone to increase, resulting in wider pull-apart basins. However, the depth of a pull-apart basin is a function of stretching associated with strike-slip displacement. In this study, comparison of data related to pull-apart basin scales from the literature suggests that the depth is related to the length and width. Following the definition of pull-apart basins by Burchfiel and Stewart (1966) in their interpretation of the Death Valley Basin, this basin type has been recognized numerous times along major strike-slip faults throughout the world (e.g., Aydın and Nur, 1982; Bahat, 1983), although many pull-apart basins have been adopted in the literature as synonymous with terms such as rhombochasms (Carey, 1958), wrench grabens (Belt, 1968), rhomb grabens (Freund, 1971), and releasing bends (Crowell, 1974a). Many rhomb structures previously described are considered clear examples of pull-apart basins, but their structural geometries were not well defined. As depicted by Crowell (1974a), pull-apart basins are deep, rhomb-shaped depressions bounded on their sides by two, subparallel, overlapping strike-slip faults and bounded on their ends by perpendicular or diagonal dip-slip faults, termed “transfer faults,” which link the ends of the strike-slip faults (Fig. 1). It is known that pull-apart basins along strike-slip faults are associated with geometrical irregularities of these faults (Aydın and Nur, 1982). However, many uncertainties complicate the interpretations of their geometrical aspects. In this study, after summarizing some of the major conclusions on geometries of pull-apart basins by previous workers, I examine the geometries of clearly defined pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone of Turkey, which is one of the most important strike-slip faults in the world, with its high seismic activity and descriptive morphology. My first goal will be to demonstrate the angular characteristics of Turkish pull-apart basins in two dimensions and compare them to natural, experimental, and numerical examples in published studies. The second goal of this paper will be to demonstrate the scale characteristics of pull-apart basins in three dimensions. In two dimensions, the well-defined linear correlation between the basin length and width is well known after the research by Aydın and Nur (1982). In the third dimension, the depth of the pull-apart basin is related to the length in an equation presented by Hempton and Dunne (1984). Here, I look for relationships among the basin length, width, and depth parameters in three dimensions, and I try to define this relationship by quantitative means. Previous Conclusions on the Geometries of Pull-Apart Basins The geometry of a strike-slip basin is one of its most obvious characteristics, and it has been the basis for various classification schemes and for many discussions about the process of basin formation (Carey, 1958; Kingma, 1958; Lensen, 1958; Quennell, 1958; Burchfiel and Stewart, 1966; Clayton, 1966; Belt, 1968; Freund, 1971; Crowell, 1974a, 1974b, 1976; Ballance, 1980; Aydın and Nur, 1982, 1985; Burke et al., 1982; Crowell and Link, 1982; Fralick, 1982; Mann and Burke, 1982; Mann et al., 1983; Mann and Bradley, 1984; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Sylvester, 1988, Mann, 2007). Field studies (e.g., Aydın and Nur, 1982; Bahat, 1983; Mann et al., 1983; Hempton and Dunne, 1984), experimental studies (e.g., McClay and Dooley, 1995; Dooley and McClay, 1997; Rahe et al., 1998; Basile and Brun, 1999; Sims et al., 1999; Atmaoui et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2009), and numerical studies (e.g., Rodgers, 1980; Segall and Pollard, 1980; Gölke et al., 1994; Katzman et al., 1995; Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997; Petrunin and Sobolev, 2006, 2008) help to guide the interpretation of two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) geometry of pull-apart basins. The shape, fault system, and sedimentary structure of a pull-apart basin depend upon the geometry associated with the step in the master strike-slip fault system: fault length, depth to the main fault in the basement, fault separation, and, perhaps above all, the length of overlap (Carton et al., 2007). Aydın and Nur (1982) proposed that pull-apart basins have an aspect ratio of 3:1 in 2-D (plan view). Plots of the log of basin length versus width for the 62 basins show a well-defined linear correlation between length and width, although the value of 3:1 may vary widely, depending on whether the structural, physiographic, or active dimensions of the basin are measured. The most common range of ratios determined directly is between 3 and 4. Aydın and Nur observed that this type of basin becomes wider as it grows longer with increasing fault offset. Mann et al. (1983) suggested that the rectangular form of pull-apart basins results from the lengthening of an S- or Z-shaped basin with increased master fault overlap. The basin length-to-width ratios, therefore, tend to increase. Basin width does not increase significantly and remains fixed by the width of the releasing bend. Most pull-apart basins have low length-to-width ratios, and this is a consequence of their short lives in rapidly changing strike-slip zones (Mann et al., 1983). Bahat (1983) compiled 39 natural examples of rhombic, trapezoidal, and triangular basins and suggested a mean acute angle of 35° between the master strike-slip faults and their links (oblique faults) in 2-D. Hempton and Dunne (1984) proposed that the pull-apart basin shapes are not necessarily rhomboidal but vary from the lazy-Z-shaped to almond-shaped to rhomboidal, and they suggested that the sediment thickness in pull-apart basins is related to the length of the basin. The length of a basin would reflect the amount of horizontal displacement (Eyal et al., 1986). Experimental studies have been used to simulate the geometries of pull-apart basin development in a sedimentary cover sequence above strike-slip faults. The experimental models show many similarities to natural examples of pull-apart basins. There are many experimental modeling works investigating strike-slip faults (Cloos, 1928, 1955; Tanner, 1962; Emmons, 1969; Tchalenko, 1970; Withjack and Jamison, 1986; Hempton and Neher, 1986; Mandl, 1988; Gapais et al., 1991; Richard et al., 1991, 1995; Tron and Brun, 1991; Schreurs, 1994). Only some of the investigators attempted experimental modeling of pull-apart basins; the rest of the researchers dealt with pure strike-slip deformation. Pull-apart basins differ dramatically from simple strike-slip systems: they share properties with both strike-slip and extensional settings, resulting in complex basin structures (Rahe et al., 1998). McClay and Dooley (1995) described symmetric pull-apart basins in experimental models with varying step angles, using equal and opposite rates of displacement of opposing sides of the strike-slip system with respect to the fixed basement. Dooley and McClay (1997) presented their experimental model in 3-D. Their pull-apart basins typically form sigmoidal to rhombic deep grabens, the geometries of which are dependent upon the offset architecture of the underlying basement faults. All of the pull-apart basins, regardless of offset geometry, evolve progressively from narrow grabens bounded by the oblique-slip link faults to wider rhombic basins flanked by terraced basin sidewall fault systems (Dooley and McClay, 1997). Rahe et al. (1998) described pull-apart basin structures as being in incipient, early, and mature developmental stages according to their sandbox experiments, and further, they categorized pull-apart basins as asymmetrical, symmetrical, and hybrid, based on the orientation of faults, pattern of displacement, and basin subsidence. Basile and Brun (1999) showed that the geometry of experimental pull-apart basins follows the same law in nature, i.e., an approximately constant length versus width ratio (2.2 < l/w < 3.8). In addition, from the experiments in the same study, the mean acute angle between the basin bounding faults is 30°, consistent with natural examples. Sims et al. (1999) described synthetic and antithetic strike-slip faults as controlling basin geometries, while localized normal faulting and local oblique slip on strike-slip fault accommodate basin subsidence. They showed that depth to décollement, décollement rheology, or both are controlling factors for basin morphology. The strength and thickness of the décollement zone controls the pull-apart basin geometry. Atmaoui et al. (2006) concluded that the geometry of pull-apart basins is controlled by a relatively low angle between the oblique bounding faults and the principal strike-slip segments (below 30°), as well as the high aspect ratio of the basins with a long axis, a small width, and great depth. Numerical studies that are used to understand the geometry of a pull-apart zone at a releasing overstep along a strike-slip fault have been based on the elasticity theory (Rodgers, 1980; Segall and Pollard, 1980; Gölke et al., 1994; Katzman et al., 1995; Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997; Petrunin and Sobolev, 2006, 2008). According to the model of Rodgers (1980), the geometry of pull-apart basins is controlled by the amount of master fault overlap, separation, and displacement since the initiation of the basin. The size of the pull-apart basins is varied and well defined by these parameters (Rodgers, 1980). Rodgers (1980) calculated the vertical displacement of a horizontal surface at a releasing overstep and showed that the axis of the depression tends to link the ends of the master fault segments (Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997). However, the models of Rodgers (1980) and Segall and Pollard (1980) provide clues to the orientation of the different faults, which can form inside the overstep area, and to the characteristics of the stress field around and inside a pull-apart basin: the maximum extensional axis tends to be parallel to the strike-slip faults (Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997). Bertoluzza and Perotti (1997) indicated that the angle between the strike-slip faults and the potential normal faults bounding the pull-apart basin depends strongly on the rheological features of the material and on the overlap and/or separation ratio of the faults. The angle may vary from a few degrees in transtensional conditions to 100°–120° in transpressional conditions. This indicates that the boundary conditions are the major parameters determining the basin shape (Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997). According to the thermomechanical model of Petrunin and Sobolev (2006, 2008), the major parameter that controls pull-apart basin length, sediment thickness, and deformation pattern beneath the basin is the thickness of the brittle layer. The approach I present here is similar to Aydın and Nur (1982), Bahat (1983), and Hempton and Dunne (1984); I compare the geometric (angular and metric scale) characteristics of 11 well-defined pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone with the observations and predictions of previously proposed theoretical, experimental, and numerical models. PULL-APART BASINS IN TURKEY The neotectonic configuration of Turkey has been shaped by the collision of the northerly moving Arabian plate and the Eurasian plate at ca. 11 Ma (Şengör and Yılmaz, 1981). Postcollisional N-S–directed contractional tectonics continued over an interval of ∼9 m.y. and resulted in a series of deformations (e.g., Şengör, 1979; Şengör and Kidd, 1979; Şaroğlu and Yılmaz, 1987; Koçyiğit et al., 2001). The most important deformation resulting after this period in Turkey is strike-slip tectonism, which caused the escape regime of the Anatolian plate along the North Anatolian fault zone and the East Anatolian fault zone (Fig. 2). The initiation age of this strike-slip–dominated tectonics is late Pliocene (Şaroğlu, 1988; Koçyiğit et al., 2001; Gürbüz and Gürer, 2009). Pull-Apart Basins along the North Anatolian Fault Zone The North Anatolian fault zone is one of the best-known strike-slip faults in the world because of its remarkable seismic activity and its importance for the active tectonics of the Eastern Mediterranean region. It runs in an approximately E-W direction across northern Turkey, it is 1600 km long and just a few kilometers to 100 km wide, and it forms the boundary between the Eurasian plate in the north and the Anatolian plate in the south (Fig. 2). The dextral North Anatolian fault zone appears to be a relatively deep and narrow fault zone extending from Karlıova in the east to the Gulf of Saros in the west. To the west of Mudurnu Valley, the North Anatolian fault zone splits into three branches, separated from each other by a rhomb-like basin and horst complexes elongated in an approximately E-W direction (Bozkurt, 2001; Kim and Sanderson, 2006). Several basins are aligned along the North Anatolian fault zone and its major splays. The pull-apart–originated basins of various sizes along this fault zone have been reported by many authors (e.g., Şengör et al., 1985, 2005; Barka and Kadinsky-Cade, 1988; Bozkurt, 2001; Gürbüz and Gürer, 2009). Figure 2 illustrates 11 well-defined examples of these pull-apart basins from the east to the west. Table 1 reviews the geometric characteristics. This table consists of angular (acute angles that measured between the master and diagonal faults) and scale (length, width, and depth) data. These basins are mainly filled with Pliocene-Quaternary detrital and partly carbonate deposits. GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PULL-APART BASINS Regarding the theoretical background of the acute angles between the master and transfer faults of the pull-apart basins, Segall and Pollard (1980) examined the geometries of the faults in California and considered that the bridging path of the transfer faults is determined by the combined effects of the local tensile and shear stresses. The acute angles appear to be independent from the basin scale (Bahat, 1983). In the base model of pull-apart basin development, the strike-slip displacement results in an oblique (transfer) fault that bridges the two en echelon faults, becoming the plane from which the two blocks detach along opposite directions parallel to the master faults; this requires equality of the two acute angles of a basin with only minor deviations due to possible block rotation (Bahat, 1983). In addition, Bahat (1983) discussed the two mechanisms that can lead to the development of pull-apart basins. According to the concept model based on fracture interaction between crack-pairs, if there is not horizontal compression, a mechanism is likely to result in basins, possibly with curved boundaries. According to another mechanism based on fracture bifurcation under extensional conditions, basin boundaries are expected to be straight with sharp angular perimeters (Bahat, 1983). In experimental studies, the analog models are compared with natural examples of pull-apart basins and show many strong similarities in structural geometries. The acute angle is one of these resemblances. Dooley and McClay (1997) demonstrated strong similarities between the 30° acute angle of their analog model and the Mesquite (California), Glynnwye (New Zealand), and Dungun (Malaysia) Basins. Rahe et al. (1998) expressed natural examples in eastern California, including central Death Valley, that represent an acute angle of 40° (e.g., Burchfiel and Stewart, 1966; Burchfiel et al., 1987); hence, it was chosen for their experiments. From the experiments of Basile and Brun (1999), the acute angle is 30°, which is comparable with the Timna graben (Dead Sea fault zone). Sims et al. (1999) prepared a model with an acute angle of 40°, like Rahe et al. (1998). They also compared them to natural examples including the Gulf of Aqaba (Elat), Gulf of Paria (Venezuela and Trinidad), and the Cariaco Basin (northern Venezuela). Atmaoui et al. (2006) represented the angle of intersection between two fault sets as being below 30°, but they expressed the bounding oblique faults of the major basins of the Strait of Sicily complex rift zone as mainly oriented at angles between 10° and 40°. In the recent work of Wu et al. (2009), they simulated a right-stepping, dextral strike-slip fault system in rigid basement; aluminum plates were cut with 30° step-over geometry, and their results show similarities with the Gulf of Aqaba (Elat) and the Vienna Basin (Austria). The numerical study of Bertoluzza and Perotti (1997) showed that the angle between the strike-slip fault and potential faults bounding the pull-apart basin depends strongly on the overall boundary conditions of the whole model and only slightly on the rheological features of the material and on the overlap and/or separation ratio of faults. In their finite-element models, the angle can vary from 10° to 65° in transtensional conditions to 100°–120° in transpressional conditions. Briefly, according to the results of the theoretical, experimental, and numerical studies, the acute angles are clustered at 30°–35°. The pull-apart structures along the North Anatolian fault zone are ultimately products of similar mechanisms; alternatively, the products of shear and extensional mechanisms may give rise to comparable angular relationships. There is a narrow spread of acute angles of 11 pull-apart basins in the 28°–44° range, with a mean angle of 33°, along the North Anatolian fault zone (Figs. 3 and 4). These angular values are in contrast with the results of other published natural examples from the rest of the world and experimental and numerical studies as mentioned previously. This may be a result of initial overstep geometry that would be constant for basins developed in the same tectonic regimes. In contrast to the suggestion of Bahat (1983) regarding the equality of the two acute angles of a basin with only minor deviations, the basins along the North Anatolian fault zone present a deviation range of 0°–11°. I think that these deviations are related to the counterclockwise rotation of the Anatolian plate situated on the southern side of the North Anatolian fault zone. Many of these pull-apart basins present straight boundaries with sharp angles as expected by Bahat (1983) under extensional conditions. Only the basins on the eastern half of the North Anatolian fault zone appear with curved boundaries (Fig. 3). Bahat (1983) suggested that this type of boundary is developed if there is no horizontal compression. This characteristic of pull-apart basins should be explained for the eastern basins by the westward movement of the Anatolian plate in the south. This movement creates a relaxation on the eastern half and a pressure on the western half of the North Anatolian fault zone due to its northward arc geometry (Bellier et al., 1997). As more depth data become available, the reliability of the relationship will improve. I used the equation that I calculated using the database of Hempton and Dunne (1984) for other pull-apart basins to predict the depths of pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone. According to my calculations, the Erzincan, Suşehri, Niksar, Taşova-Erbaa, Yeniçağa, Bolu, Pamukova, Yenişehir, Çınarcık, Central, and Tekirdağ Basins along the North Anatolian fault zone have depths of 3.9, 1.8, 1.7, 2.4, 0.8, 3, 2.5, 2.7, 4.4, 1.1, and 2 km, respectively (Table 1). As I mentioned already, there are deviations on the third dimensions of the Glynwye, Cariaco, Petrockstow, and Magdalen Basins according to the calculations of Hempton and Dunne (1984) (Fig. 6). Here, I used my equation to recalculate the questionable depth data of these basins. The predicted depth values for these basins are ∼0.2, 11, 0.3, and 14 km, respectively (Table 2). According to my results, the Cariaco and Magdalen pull-apart basins would have depths of over 10 km. I have not been able to find any depth data over 7500 m (Zak and Freund, 1981) in the literature. However, these data are suggested for the Dead Sea Basin, and, as previously mentioned, Zak and Freund (1981) showed that this basin is formed by the coalescence of three subbasins in which depocenters have migrated northward. Thus, the depth data could not reflect the third dimension of the whole basin within the possible relationship. I think that the depth data for the Cariaco and Magdalen Basins would be less than them due to their unknown subbasin geometries. In contrast, their 2-D scales are much larger than the other examples from the rest of the world (like the Dead Sea Basin). This could be related to their complex intrabasinal geometries. This study presents a review of current literature about the angular and dimensional characteristics of pull-apart basins aimed at understanding their geometries in 2-D and 3-D, and it provides a new data set from the pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone to enrich the database. Previously published angular data from the field, experimental, and numerical studies represent a mean acute angle of 33° between the basin margin master faults and transfer faults. Turkish pull-apart basins also present the same mean angle. This value is a result of overstep geometry and does not change except in the hybrid regimes, rotation, or extinction processes. Scale characteristics of pull-apart basins in literature present good 2-D relationships between basin length and width, and basin length and depth. Comparison of 3-D data from the well-known active and ancient pull-apart basins suggests that there may be an empirical relationship among the length, width, and depth parameters in 3-D. This relationship would be most useful to predict sediment thickness of pull-apart basins when the 2-D data are known. The application of the proposed relationship to the pull-apart basins in northern Turkey predicts the depths of the Erzincan, Suşehri, Niksar, Taşova-Erbaa, Yeniçağa, Bolu, Pamukova, Yenişehir, Çınarcık, Central, and Tekirdağ Basins to be 3.9, 1.8, 1.7, 2.4, 0.8, 3, 2.5, 2.7, 4.4, 1.1, and 2 km, respectively. In the future, by the addition of more depth data to current literature, the accuracy of the relationship and predicted values will increase. The author is grateful to James Evans and an anonymous reviewer for their helpful reviews and Jennifer L. Hartland, who revised the English of the manuscript.

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- When and how to plant daffodils in the fall - Growing daffodils - When to dig out tulips and daffodils Daffodils perfectly decorate any garden area or flower bed. They belong to the group of early flowering plants and bloom in late May - early June. This period depends on the timing of planting and quality care. Usually the time of flowering of daffodils reaches 15-20 days, then they fall off and wither. Daffodils need fertile soil, which made organic fertilizer. These flowers are moisture-loving, and prefer an acidic soil. The best place to plant are open sunny spaces or partial shade, with light soils. Daffodils are planted in one place for 3-4 years, and then dug and transplanted. If left for a longer period, they grow, shrink and become infected with diseases. In the open ground, the bulbs of daffodils are planted in the first half of September. The landing time depends on the climatic conditions. The soil before planting must be fertilized. Ideal for this is compost or humus. Manure in its pure form can not be made. It may contain the most dangerous pest for these flowers - the onion hover. You can also improve soil fertility with wood ash. The depth of planting daffodils can range from 10 to 15 centimeters. It all depends on the soil: if it is sandy or sandy, then it is planted to the maximum depth, and if it is heavier, then no more than 10 cm. The daffodils are planted in rows with a distance between Lukavitsy in a row of 6-10 cm, and between rows about 20 cm. Before planting, the bulbs are sorted and the smallest ones are not used at all, because in a couple of years a large onion will not grow from them, and they will not start to bloom. After planting the bed with daffodils plentifully watered. If the weather is warm outside, then watering continues until the first frosts. Before winter, the bed must be covered with peat or straw. In the spring, this protective layer will need to be removed. Terms of planting daffodils. You can dig up daffodils and divide their nests annually, and you can do it once every 3-4 years. Plant these flowers in the fall. When to plant daffodils in the fall in open ground? What month to plant daffodils? On average, the time of planting daffodils is the interval between the second half of August and the second week of September, although in fact the time of planting daffodils depends on the climatic conditions of the region and the weather, so they can shift. The main condition that determines when to plant daffodils before winter is the temperature of the soil within 8-10 ºC, which lasts at least two weeks. With timely planting the bulbs, before the soil freezes, they should have time to form the roots, but they should not start growing. The soil for daffodils. Planting daffodil in the fall is preceded by site selection and soil preparation, which must be done even in summer. Most of the daffodils are suitable loam, although they grow on other soils. The optimum acidity of the soil for daffodils is pH 6.5-7.0. On sandy soils, the bulbs gradually become small, and then flowering stops altogether. In addition, sandy soils freeze over, which can lead to the death of the bulbs in winter. But if the soil in your garden is cultivated, it’s not difficult to prepare it for planting daffodils. Humus and clay are introduced into the sandy soil, and sand at the rate of 20 kg per m² in heavy clay soils. Organic matter - humus, compost or rotted manure - is brought under a digging to a depth of 25-30 cm at least three months before planting, that is, in the spring or early summer. About 15 kg of manure will be needed, 20 kg per m² for manure. Fresh manure can be applied to the soil no later than a year before planting daffodils. If you want to take a small area for daffodils, you can in this place simply remove the top layer of soil and replace it with a special soil, bought in a store or made up by yourself. At what depth to plant daffodils. When you divide a bulbous nest of daffodils, then you get a variety of planting material of various sizes or, as experts say, of various analyzes. The depth of planting is determined by the size of the bulb, amounting to three of its height. That is, above the bulb placed in the ground, there must be a layer of soil equal to two heights of the bulb. For large daffodil bulbs it is 15-20 cm, for small ones it is 10-15 cm. However, there are some nuances of diving the bulbs into the soil, which allow to influence the timing of flowering and the reproduction rate of daffodils. For example, in order for a narcissus to bloom earlier, and its bulb is overgrown with the maximum number of children, it is necessary to plant the bulb a little smaller than it is supposed by the formula. If you want the flowers to open later, and the children do not grow so fast, plant a bulb a little deeper than recommended. For those who are interested in the flowering of daffodils, it is better to plant extra-class bulbs, that is, large ones, and babies are more suitable for breeding rare varieties. How to plant daffodils in the fall. So, in the spring you chose a sunny or half-shaded area, prepared it for daffodils, and now it was time to plant them in the ground. How to plant daffodils? Dig holes in accordance with the size of onion at a distance of 15-20 cm from each other, if the planting material is large, and 7-10 cm, if you plant kids. Pour a layer of sand at the bottom of each hole, then lay the bulbs in them bottom down and gently press them into the sand to make sure that there is no void under the bottom. Sprinkle each onion with wood ash, then fill the hole with soil half, and fill the remaining space with the same soil, but with the addition of complex mineral fertilizer with a predominance of phosphorus and potassium in the amount two times smaller than it is supposed to be according to the instructions. If the weather is not rainy, water the site heavily. Care for daffodils in the fall in the open field. Autumn planting of daffodils is carried out at the end of summer or early autumn, and the care of planting bulbs before the onset of cold weather should serve one purpose - the formation of the roots of daffodils. Fertilizing in the soil is no longer necessary - when preparing the site and planting you made a sufficient amount of fertilizer. Watering daffodils is carried out as the soil dries out, but if it rains, then it’s time to worry about the bulbs not getting wet, therefore, with too much rainfall due to a cold snap, it is better to cover the daffodil area for a while. In dry autumn, water daffodils as needed and from time to time loosen the soil on the site to destroy the crust formed on the soil. Daffodil care in winter. Daffodils in winter need shelter, especially in areas where frosts are common. At the first frost, gently loosen the soil in the area with daffodils, and then grind the surface with a layer of peat, dry leaves, straw, sawdust or wood ash 10-15 cm thick. Or cover the planting with lutrasil or spunbond. Transplanting daffodils to another place In one place, the daffodil grows to five years, but then its bulb must be removed from the soil, children should be separated from it and seated. Sometimes it needs to be done once every five years, and sometimes more often, because the growth and development of plants depends on many factors. However, experts say that earlier than three years, dividing the bulb is not worth it. If you notice that your daffodils have grown a lot and become worse to bloom, these are sure signs that it’s time to transplant them. When to replant daffodils - in spring or autumn? It is more correct to do this after the daffodils have faded. But not immediately, but only when the leaves of the flowers turn yellow and fall down, and this happens with daffodils closer to the middle of summer. As soon as the compact Narcissus bushes begin to disintegrate, remove the bulbs from the ground with a small fork, cut off the remains of the stems and leaves, and put them in a dark, dry place to dry. When the bulbs are dry, scrub the ground off them, carefully separate only those children who easily walk away, discard sick, deformed, soft or diseased onions, and rinse high-quality under running water, pickle dark water for 10-15 minutes in a strong solution of potassium permanganate pink color and again put to dry in a dry dark place with a temperature not higher than 25 ºC and good ventilation, then put it in storage. When to replant daffodils in the fall? From August to October. Transplantation is carried out in the order already described by us on the site prepared in advance. You also know how to work the soil for daffodils. How to store daffodils before planting in the fall If you dug out the bulbs of daffodils in July, and you need to plant them in the ground only in September or even in October, the question arises how and where to store them before planting. And this question can be a problem. The fact is that the bulbs of narcissus are poisonous - during storage they emit gas, which the bulbs themselves can suffer from in a room without ventilation. Therefore, put them in a box and keep somewhere in the garden under a shed in the shade. If for some reason you decide to postpone the planting of daffodils in the spring, you have to store the bulbs all winter. It is best to find a place for them in a gloomy room with a temperature of 10-12 ºC and air humidity within 70%. Spread the bulbs on a wooden shelf in a rack or in a box in a single layer and try to inspect them weekly for rot or other disease. If there are white or yellow spots on the bulbs, as well as a bad smell, immediately get rid of such planting material, until the infection spreads to neighboring bulbs. Soft bulbs must also be removed. The fact that daffodils can damage rodents, do not worry - as already mentioned, these are poisonous flowers, and they can stand up for themselves. Why do you need to plant daffodils in the fall Beginning gardeners do not always know when it is better to plant daffodils - in spring or autumn. Experts recommend the autumn planting, it most closely matches the life cycle of daffodils. These plants have a relatively short rest period and you need to have time to plant them before the roots start to grow. If, for some reason, it was not possible to plant flowers in the fall, it will need to be done in April, having previously held the planting material in the refrigerator for two or three weeks. Without compliance with this condition, it will not be possible to obtain strong viable plants, which will negatively affect flowering. When to plant daffodils in open ground Daffodils are planted earlier than bulbs of hyacinths and tulips. This process can be started in late August or early September. Landing in October and November is highly undesirable and is permissible only in the southern regions when absolutely necessary. This usually happens if the gardener didn’t meet the schedule or received the bulbs for planting too late. In such conditions, the onions will not have time for adaptation and rooting in cold soil. The way out may be the construction of a small insulating cover over the landing site, the construction can only be removed in the spring. The exact time of planting is directly dependent on the climatic conditions of a particular region. In the middle lane Weather conditions of the middle band have a pronounced change of seasons. Geographically, this area includes the Central European part of Russia, which is dominated by a temperate continental climate. Winters are snowy, and summer is warm and humid. The northern part of the European territory is bordered by the taiga belt, the southern borders of the middle belt come close to the forest-steppe zone. Determine the date of planting daffodils florist should the temperature of the soil. The optimal temperature values for this event can be considered indicators equal to 8-10 degrees of heat. Depending on weather conditions, this period begins between mid-August and mid-September. In outskirts of Moscow The weather in the Moscow region is fully consistent with the average climatic norm. Conditions favorable for planting daffodils here come after August 15, and this period ends closer to September 15. Of course, weather anomalies can change the situation. In the Urals, in Siberia Siberia and the Urals are distinguished by a more severe climate, a long and frosty winter. Residents of these regions should be the first to make sure that the bulbs of their favorite daffodils are in the ground. Low night temperatures can be present here already in early August. In this case, the tubers should be planted as soon as possible. If the weather is warm, landing can be postponed until August 15-20. Lingering is risky. In early September, the weather may deteriorate sharply, frost will strike and the bulbs will not have enough time for rooting. Choosing a place Best of all daffodils fit a well-lit area, permissible and landing in light partial shade. However, it is not recommended to plant a crop in the shade of buildings, under the canopy of trees and tall shrubs. There are some varieties that need maximum illumination, for their planting it is recommended to choose a sunny place. Like many other flowers, daffodils do not like drafts, so you should take care of protection from the wind. The culture grows best on loams with neutral acidity and high moisture permeability. - If the ground is too heavy, its structure can be improved by introducing river sand. - On the contrary, clay and fertilizer are added to sandy loam to make the soil more fertile and able to retain moisture. As organic fertilizers use humus and compost, which must be made in advance. One square meter will be enough half a bucket of organic matter. Closer to the planting date you need to make phosphorus-potassium supplements at the rate of 30 g per square meter. The soil in the flowerbed is carefully dug up so that the dressings are evenly distributed, then the ground is leveled with a rake. Before planting, it is recommended that the bulb be treated with a solution of a fungicide and insecticacaricide. This will help protect plants from fungal diseases and pests. As the planting material are selected dense bulbs without stains and damage. The average depth of planting should be 7 cm, the interval between plants - 25 cm, the aisle can be made slightly wider. If the onions are small, they are planted at a short distance from each other. Step by step procedure will be as follows: - The bottom of each hole is filled with a small layer of sand, which will serve as drainage and at the same time prevent direct contact of the tuber with the fertilizer. - On the sand cushion is placed onion Donets down. - Some water is poured into the hole, and then it is filled with a mixture of garden soil and sand. After the daffodils are planted, it remains to give them a little attention in the short period left until winter. In order to prevent the germination of the bulbs after planting in case of a weather anomaly, the surface of the flower bed must be mulched with sawdust, peat or leaf litter. Allowed to apply a mixture of the listed components. The thickness of the mulch layer should be 2-5 cm. If the sprouts appear in the fall, they will freeze out in the winter, and there will be no spring flowering. Some gardeners mistakenly believe that after planting daffodils do not require care, but this is not entirely true. For successful rooting tubers need moisture. If the autumn was rainy, you can not hold watering. In dry weather, the flower bed is recommended to be watered over the next 2-3 weeks after planting the planting material, the soil should not look dry. During prolonged rains over plantings, it is necessary to construct a cover from a film so that the earth does not turn into a swamp and the bulbs do not rot. If periodically there is a small rain, the land should be regularly loosened. Preparing for the winter If, due to the vagaries of the weather, there is no need to mulch the flowerbed immediately after the landing, then it will need to be done on the eve of serious frosts. In regions such as Siberia and the Urals, the thickness of the mulch layer should be increased to 15 cm. If varieties are planted that do not have good resistance to frost, you can additionally cover the ground with lutrasil. Remove the insulating material should be immediately after the snow melt. Useful tips for florists For those who decided to plant daffodils on their plot, but have never done this before, the recommendations of experienced growers will be useful: - Although these flowers are considered to be an unpretentious crop that can grow even in poor soil, it is better to give them periodic top dressing for high-quality flowering. Otherwise, the result of growing bright spring daffodils may not meet your expectations. - Before digging out the bulbs and placing them in storage, you need to wait until the leaves turn yellow. After all, they supply the bulb with nutrients, in the process of wilting, redistributing reserves of valuable minerals to the underground part of the plant. - If the planting material was acquired late, it will be necessary to warm the flower bed with mulch after planting, as there will not be enough time for the tubers to fully adapt. - Even those types of daffodils that do not need an annual transplant, you need to dig out of the ground every 4-5 years. Это улучшит качество самих луковиц и цветения, поможет растениям противостоять различным болезням. Когда выкапывать нарциссы и как их хранить до посадки Пересаживают нарциссы один раз в 3-5 лет, но иногда это приходится делать чаще. What signs will tell you that it's time to replant daffodils? If the daffodils have grown heavily, they have become worse to bloom, and the flowers have become smaller in size, then it’s time to dig out the bulbs, divide them and transplant them to another place. Dig out the bulbs after flowering, when the foliage of daffodils will turn yellow and polyshat. This usually happens in the middle of summer. As soon as the bushes begin to disintegrate, scoop out the bulbs, cut off the remnants of the leaves and stems and put to dry in a dark dry place with good ventilation. When the bulbs are dry, clean them from the ground and disassemble the nests, separating only those children who easily move themselves. Sort out planting material, get rid of rotten, damaged, infected with pests or diseases specimens, and wash healthy onion and children under running water, hold for 15 minutes in a fungicide solution or in a dark pink potassium permanganate solution and place in a dry room in a room with good ventilation, where the temperature is kept at 23-25 ºC. Then put the dry bulbs in a box and hold them until the autumn planting somewhere in the garden under a canopy: the poisonous planting material of the narcissus produces harmful gas for people, animals, and the bulbs themselves, therefore it is better to store it outdoors. Plot for daffodils Preparation for planting daffodils begin in July. Plot choose smooth, closed from strong wind and illuminated by the sun at least several hours a day. The varieties of flowers with bright orange or pink crown are best grown in light penumbra, so that they do not burn out longer. You can plant daffodils between deciduous trees, right along the edge of tree trunks, but it’s better not to grow them in dense shade or near evergreens. The places flooded during rains or melting snow are unsuitable for daffodils, and the groundwater at the site should lie no higher than at a depth of 60 cm. As for the soil composition, loam with an acid level of 6.5-7.0 is most suitable for narcissus pH. Heavy soils, badly impermeable to moisture, are contraindicated to these plants, as well as quickly cooling sandy soils, poor in micro and macro elements. When preparing the site for heavy soils, sand is applied at the rate of 20 kg per m², and clay and humus at the rate of 6-8 kg / m² should be added to light sandy soils. Fertilize the soil on the site for 2-3 months before planting with humus (15 kg / m²) or rotted manure (20 kg / m²). Organics are applied for digging to a depth of 25-30 cm. Fresh manure can not be used in the year of planting, and mineral fertilizers are added to the soil directly during planting. Preparing daffodil bulbs for planting Inspect the stored bulbs of daffodils, discard damaged, rotten, soft, with traces of pests or diseases and ruthlessly throw away all suspicious specimens. Planting material suitable for planting is etched in a solution of potassium permanganate or any fungicide. You can disinfect the bulbs with smoke Checkers Whist: planting material is folded into a bag, a small amount of powder (literally at the tip of the knife) is set on fire, smoke is filled with a bag with bulbs, tied it and left for a day. Daffodil after planting Caring for daffodils in the autumn time serves only one purpose: the earliest possible formation of roots in the bulbs. Water the area as needed, but if it rains, no artificial moisture will be needed. Moreover, if the precipitations are frequent and abundant, it is necessary to cover the planting with a film so that the bulbs are not soaked in liquid mud. After watering or rain, you need to slightly loosen the surface of the site, so that air can flow to the bulbs. It is advisable to shelter daffodils for the winter, especially if severe frosts occur in your area. Once cold, loosen the soil on the site and then cover it with mulch from sawdust, straw, dried leaves, peat or wood ash 10-15 cm thick. You can cover the planting with spanbond or lutrasil. According to the lunar calendar Planting daffodils on the advice of the lunar calendar, you can grow beautiful and lush flowers, avoiding possible failures. Favorable days for planting daffodils on the lunar calendar: 3-6, 8-9, 12-15, 16, 19, 21-23, August 31 and 2-5, September 25-29. Unfavorable days for planting: 7, 11-13, 24, 30 August and 6-9, 20-23 September. The best time for planting and seating narcissus is considered to be a decreasing Moon, especially in the signs of Cancer, Scorpio, Taurus, Pisces. Daffodils will decorate any flower bed, lawn, mixborder, alpine slide, rabatka or just a garden plot. With proper autumn planting, the plants will delight with their fragrant bright flowers next spring. Caring for them is minimal, which makes these flowers popular in almost any garden. How to plant daffodils in the fall Small varieties of daffodils are planted in groups or paths. Large-flowered daffodils can be planted in groups or one by one. The flower bed for planting daffodils should be located in a place protected from the wind and waterlogging. The best flower bed with a slight bias on the leeward side. A week before planting bulbs, daffodils get over. Damaged, rotted or infected specimens are discarded. Cracked, easily detachable flakes are removed from the selected bulbs. 1-2 upper dry layers are removed. The bulbs are placed in a container and left in the room for several days. Then they move again, after which they are soaked in a solution of any fungicide or potassium permanganate (pink) for half an hour. After that, planting material is removed and dried on a paper towel. When digging (one day before planting), 15 grams of ammonium nitrate, 25 grams of double superphosphate, 40 grams of potassium sulfate are added to the soil. The earth is dug up to the depth of a shovel, then leveled with a rake. If the soil is dry, it is moistened from a watering can. The next day, the area is filled with holes or rows. The distance between small-color varieties and children of daffodils is 6-10 centimeters, between large specimens - 15-20 centimeters. On average, planting depth should be 2-3 times the height of the bulb. For large bulbs height is 15-20 centimeters, for smaller ones and children - 10-15 centimeters. Prepared wells watered. At the bottom of the hole poured a layer of sifted river sand. The bulbs are folded down the bottom and slightly pressed into the sand. Each bulb is sprinkled with ash. The holes are covered with earth. If autumn is dry and there is little moisture in the ground, the planted bulbs are well shed with water. Care for daffodils in the fall preparing for winter Knowing how to plant daffodils in the fall, it remains to take care of the plants on the eve of winter. If the planting of flowers was carried out in the northern regions, characterized by harsh winters, then it is necessary to think of a way to shelter a flower garden. The same is recommended for gardeners, whose plots are located to the south, whimsical, thermophilic varieties are chosen for cultivation. Peat, wood shavings or sawdust, dry oak leaves will be suitable as a covering material. The material should be laid in a layer of 10 cm. If winter is expected to be frosty and little snowy, then the flower bed should be covered from above with folded 2-3 layers of nonwoven material (lutrasil, agrofibre) or spruce branches. As soon as the first snow falls, a snowdrift is laid on the shelter. In such conditions, the bulbs will winter well and will not freeze. Timely watering, loosening the soil and fertilizer ensures the rapid growth of daffodils and their abundant flowering. Depending on the region When planting daffodils in open ground in autumn in different regions: - for the Moscow region, the optimum planting period is after August 15 and before September 15. The same period is suitable for the Leningrad region. Although in early autumn you can start planting bulbs from August 10, - in the Urals, gardeners should take the time to plant bulbs in the first days of August. If the warm dry weather is established, then you can adhere to the timing of the middle band, - In Siberia, daffodils planted in late August. The best reference is still the ground temperature - in a hot climate of the Krasnodar Territory, planting daffodils is recommended in late autumn - at the end of November. How to store onions As soon as the bushes of daffodils disintegrate, you can start digging bulbs. This should be done carefully with a small fork. The bulbs are cleaned of dried stalks and leaves, old outer scales and laid to dry in a cool place. As soon as the roots dry out, remove the remains of the soil from the bulbs. Carefully separate the "kids", which are weakly attached and almost fall off themselves. Immediately carry out the sorting and discard the soft, diseased or deformed onions. Quality planting material is washed under running water. For disinfection bulbs are placed in a weak solution of potassium permanganate for 15-20 minutes. Then the tubers at a temperature of 25 ° C dried in a ventilated place and left for storage. In order not to lose the quality of planting material, it is important to choose the right place for storing tubers until the autumn planting. It is necessary to take into account the property of daffodil bulbs to release a special harmful gas. If the tubers are stored indoors without airing, then the bulbs themselves may suffer from hazardous secretions. Therefore, the tubers of daffodils after digging placed in a box, which is placed under a canopy. If it so happened that in the fall it was impossible to plant the daffodils, then they should be prepared for long-term winter storage. - A suitable room option is a dark room, with an air temperature of about 10-15 ° C. - Optimum humidity - 70-75%. It is recommended to put the bulbs in one layer - it will be easier to identify the tubers affected by rot or other diseases. If an unpleasant smell suddenly appears, it is recommended to sort out planting material immediately. White, yellow spots on the bulbs - a signal of the appearance of infection. Sick and soft tubers immediately discarded. To prevent the spread of disease, it is advisable to periodically inspect all tubers. How to properly land Choosing the time when to plant daffodils in the open ground in the fall, it's time to go directly to planting a flower. When choosing the location of the beds with daffodils, preference is given to the site, protected from the winds and at least half a day illuminated by the sun. It should be borne in mind that in strong bright light flower petals can simply "fade". A great option for flower planting is the edges of tree trunks, free space between deciduous trees. Avoid planting flowers in the dense shade of evergreens. Selection of soil and fertilizers During the autumn planting of the bulbs, soil preparation at the site begins in the summer. The best soil composition for flowers is loam. But quite well grow daffodils and on other soils. A suitable acidity of the earth is pH 6.5-7.0. - If the land is dominated by sandy earth, then over time the bulbs of daffodils will shrink. And during severe frosts the sandy ground quickly freezes, which can lead to the death of planting material. Therefore, under the flowers it is recommended to specially enrich the soil - make humus, a little clay. - And clay areas, on the contrary, “facilitate” - they add sand at the rate of 20 kg per square meter of flowerbed. Soil enrichment is also practiced 2-3 months before planting. What fertilizer to apply to the soil before planting? The traditional option - humus, compost. When digging the area add 15-20 kg per square meter. It is recommended to dig the ground deep - at least 25-30 cm. After planting, it is not necessary to add a special dressing to the soil. Since organic fertilizers were used in the digging of the earth, and mineral - when planting bulbs. Novice flower growers should take into account that fertilizing the soil does not immediately affect the flowers. This is due to the fact that in the first place plants spend a supply of nutrients from tubers. The nuances of planting bulbs When preparing planting material it is recommended to sort the bulbs by size. This is necessary to determine how deep the tubers are planted. It is believed that the optimum depth of the hole is three bulb heights. The correct reference points: for large bulbs, dig holes 15-20 cm deep, and for small ones 10-15 cm deep. In preparing the holes, several more subtleties need to be taken into account: - if the tubers are positioned slightly higher than it should be, then the daffodil will bloom a little earlier than the allotted time, and more babies will form, - with a deeper planting of onions, the flowering of plants will begin later and the babies will form less. How to plant daffodils in the open ground in the fall - stages: - Dig holes of appropriate depth. If the bulbs are large, then the distance between the holes make 15-20 cm, and if small - 7-10 cm. - At the bottom of each recess is placed a drainage layer of sand, which is slightly moisturized. - The bulbs are laid out on the pits, slightly pressing into the sand, so as not to form a void. - Some wood ash is poured into the pits. - The wells are filled with a nutrient soil mixture fertilized with mineral fertilizers (containing potassium and phosphorus in half of the normal rate). Garden beds or flower beds must be watered in dry weather. Using several landing patterns, you can get different visual effects. Naturally look flower beds, in which the onion planted in a chaotic manner. If the holes are arranged in a checkerboard pattern, then you get a uniform blooming "carpet". Video: planting daffodils in the fall, when and how to plant Landing in containers Daffodils do not relate exclusively to garden flowers. It is easy to grow a graceful plant at home. Experienced growers recommend to pay attention to the varieties Ziva, Paper, Avalansh - as the most unpretentious and long blooming. It is best to germinate and bloom large bulbs. It is possible to germinate a plant in pots with dimensions: height up to 15 cm, diameter 9-13 cm. The bottom of the container must necessarily have several openings. Stages of planting daffodils in the fall in containers: - a drainage layer about 3-4 cm thick is laid on the bottom of the container and soft fertile soil is filled up, - Tubers are laid on the soil and slightly pressed. The number of bulbs is determined by the diameter of the pot. In a container with a diameter of about 9 cm, you can plant three small bulbs, - planting material is watered and placed in a dark cool (temperature of 5-8 ° C) for three months. During this period, the tubers are watered twice a month. - when the containers with the bulbs are returned to a warm, bright room, the frequency of watering is increased (watered as the soil dries). As soon as sprouts appear, narcissus is fertilized with nitrogen-potassium fertilizer. If the flowering plant is placed in a cool room (temperature 10-12˚С), then the flowering period will last almost three weeks. Terms of planting tubers are selected individually. If you like to admire the elegant flowers at the beginning of winter, then the planting material is planted in September. And if you want on March 8 to please your closest women with delicate buds, then in the end of November you can plant onions. Observe a special mode of watering is not required. The wells are watered when the soil dries. After watering is recommended to loosen the soil. If rainy cool weather persists for a long time, then it is advisable to cover the planting of the narcissus with a film so that the bulbs do not rot. In winter, it is necessary to protect the planting of the bulbs in order to prevent the freezing of planting material. You can use peat, dry leaves. To save the tubers, it is enough to pour covering material with a layer of 10-15 cm. Gentle and touching daffodil blooms in early spring and picturesquely adorns the plots and flowerbeds. We described the characteristics of planting daffodils in the fall - when and how to plant flowers. It is enough to pay a little attention to the plant so that bright flowers each season will delight those around you.

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He wished to be the chancellor of a liberated not a defeated Germany, said Willy Brandt on the evening of his election victory in 1969. Yet only on October 3, 1990, was Germany liberated. Better still: Germany liberated itself. Not all alone, of course. Every German politician pays tribute to Gorbachev, to the pioneers of emancipation in Eastern Europe, to the Americans, French, and British, without whom, as authors say in their Acknowledgements, this book could never have been written. But it was the Germans who wrote the book. For all the discontinuities of West German policy since 1949, one can but admire the grand continuity in which all chancellors, from Adenauer to Kohl, all foreign ministers, all federal governments over forty years, now this way, now that, now in the West, now in the East, pursued the cause of German liberation. Historians will argue whether Adenauer’s integration into the West or Brandt’s Ostpolitik contributed more to the success of the past year. There is much to be said for the claim that the East Central European year of wonders, ’89, was a late triumph of Adenauer’s “magnet theory”—the idea that the attraction of a free and prosperous West Germany embedded in a free and prosperous Western Europe would sooner or later draw the unfree and impoverished East Germany irresistibly toward it. But could the magnet have exerted its full attractive force if the blocking iron curtain had not first been drawn back by the Ostpolitik which Willy Brandt launched in the late 1960s? And it was not Bonn’s Western but rather its Eastern ties—above all, those to Moscow—which directly permitted the transformation of an East German movement for freedom into an all-German state of unity. Yet this East German rising for freedom was not contemplated in Bonn’s Deutschlandpolitik. Those in the GDR who contributed most to Germany’s peaceful October revolution—the tiny minority of human and civil rights campaigners—had benefited least from the Federal Republic’s governmental policy toward the GDR. Bonn politicians now ritually celebrate the “peaceful revolution.” Two years ago most of those same politicians would have described it as “dangerous destabilization.” Yes, it was a “dangerous destabilization” that made German unification possible. Without the brave minority that faced down armed police on the streets of Leipzig, Dresden, and Berlin, the ultimate goal of Bonn’s policy would never have been achieved—Gorbachev or no Gorbachev. (The real greatness of this year’s Nobel Peace Prize winner consists in the ability to accept often undesired and unintended faits accomplis—or what Mr. Gorbachev likes to call “life itself.”) The pioneers of social emancipation and democratization in the GDR were then rapidly overtaken by those who wanted to have done with the GDR altogether. I recorded in these pages the electrifying moment at which, after the opening of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, the chant of the crowds changed from “Wir Sind Das Volk” (“We Are the People”) to “Wir Sind Ein Volk” (“We Are One People”).1 That translated into a vote heavily in favor of Chancellor Kohl’s Christian Democrats in the March 18, 1990, elections. It was, as I also recorded in these pages, essentially a vote for rapid unification.2 By this time the two parallel sets of negotiations for unification, the “internal” ones, between the two German states (“1+1”), and the “external” ones, between the two German states and the four post–1945 occupying powers (“2+4”), were already under way. Chancellor Kohl, after giving initial consideration to alternative models, such as that of a Vertragsgemeinschaft (“treaty community”) or confederation, had decided by the end of January to go full steam ahead for one federal republic. The votes of the East German population gave him the domestic political strength to do this. It was his political decision, against the advice of most experts, to introduce monetary union on July 1, and to do so with a large degree of one-to-one (DM:GDR Mark) parity. This had traumatic impact on the East German economy—according to West German statistics, industrial output in August 1990 was down 51 percent from that of August 1989—which in turn imparted a desperate urgency to the last months of negotiation. To describe these seven hectic months of intricate negotiation would require not an article but a compendium. The treaty on unification between the two German states, the Einigungsvertrag of August 31, is a book in itself—243 pages of small print in the official government Bulletin. Formally, they were “1+1” and “2+4” negotiations. In practice they were “1+1/4” and “1+1+1” negotiations. The first and last freely elected East Berlin government was not an equal partner in the German–German talks. The Bonn government basically set the terms of the internal unification, its officials drafting treaties that bore a remarkable resemblance to the finished product. Many East German politicians, and intellectuals in both halves of Germany, were under-standably miffed by this procedure. “Anschluss,” said some. Yet was it not for this that the majority of the people had voted in March? And, despite widespread economic distress, the majority expressed its basic satisfaction with the result, on October 14, in the first elections for the five reconstituted historic Länder (states) of the former GDR. Chancellor Kohl’s CDU was the overall winner everywhere except in Brandenburg (where the Social Democrats’ leader is a prominent Protestant churchman), and secured more than 45 percent of the vote in Saxony and Thuringia. The external negotiation was basically between the Federal Republic, the Soviet Union, and the United States, in that order. The Bonn government makes no secret of the fact that it was the United States, rather than France or Britain, that was its crucial Western supporter in the whole process. Washington was not just self-evidently more important in talks with Moscow, but also more unreservedly supportive than London or Paris—a fact that has done some damage to the Franco-German “axis.” Yet the central negotiation was that between Bonn and Moscow. In Moscow in February, Chancellor Kohl secured Gorbachev’s assent to unification in one state. In Stavropol in July, he secured Gorbachev’s assent to the full sovereignty of the united state, including its membership in NATO—although a NATO redefined by the “London Declaration” a few days before. Soviet troops would leave Germany by 1994. In return, the united Germany would have no ABC—atomic, biological, or chemical—weapons and no more than 370,000 men and women under arms; it would make a hefty financial contribution to the repatriation costs of Soviet troops; and it would become, even more than it was already, Gorbachev’s leading Western partner in his desperate attempt to modernize and bring “back [?] to Europe” the Soviet Union. That was the essential German-Soviet deal which opened the door to unification on Adenauer’s terms. To celebrate this remarkable deal, Kohl and Gorbachev appeared in V-necked cardigans and open shirts. Surrounded by men in suits, they peered into a Caucasian river and mused upon the meaning of life itself. In Europe these days, “sovereignty” is a controversial word—and not just for Mrs. Thatcher or Jacques Delors. When German conservatives celebrate Germany’s recapture of full sovereignty, German liberals (and liberal conservatives) hasten to say, “But of course this is no longer sovereignty in the classical sense,” and “After all, we share sovereignty in the European Community.” So let us put it more precisely. Until October 3, 1990, the Federal Republic had somewhat less freedom of action than the United Kingdom or the French Republic, both de jure and de facto. After October 3, 1990, it has almost precisely as much de jure, and de facto slightly more. Britain and France have no comparable international treaty restrictions on their armed forces. But their relative economic weakness and their geopolitical position give them less room for maneuver than Germany, which is once again the great power in the center of Europe. The liberation from the bonds of the Western allies’ residual rights over Berlin and “Germany as a whole” is but a marginal advantage by comparison with the liberation from the half-nelson grip of Soviet control over East Germany. At a meeting in Moscow just a few days after unification I heard a very senior German official say simply: “Now we are no longer open to blackmail.” “Are the Russians our brothers or our friends?” asked an old East German joke. Answer: “Our brothers—you can choose your friends.” By 1994, at the latest, the brothers will be gone—and Germany can choose her friends. October 3 will now officially replace June 17, the anniversary of the East German rising of 1953, as “the day of German unity.” A better description might be “the day of German liberty.” Externally, the new German state is free—and can use its new freedom of action for good or ill. Internally, more than sixteen million men and women are free who until a year ago were not. Of course they have hard times ahead. Of course their new freedom is relative. But one of the messages of the East Central European “1989” is precisely to warn against the confused and exaggerated relativization of values in which all too many German intellectuals so wordily indulged over the last decade. A few weeks before the great day we had to stay with us in Oxford a young man, Joachim. As the son of a very remarkable Protestant priest in East Berlin, he had been prevented from completing an ordinary secondary schooling. When I visited him in the early summer of 1989, at the rectory behind the Wall, he described to me how small demonstrations to protest against the falsification of the local election results (in May), and the East German leadership’s endorsement of the repression on Tiananmen Square, had been brutally dispersed. Here, in this very garden, the marchers had assembled. There, on that street, they had been pulled away, the police dragging them along the cobbles by their long hair. He was pale, nervous, angry. In the early autumn of 1989 he wrote me from West Berlin. He had fled across the frontier from Hungary to Austria. (On the first attempt, the Hungarian border guards had caught him and turned him back.) Life in the West seemed to him in some ways poorer than in the East, he wrote, “inwardly poorer.” But he was still glad to be here, “and I hope to remain so.” Yet the separation from his family, just a few miles away in East Berlin, was very bitter. His little brother and sister had insisted that their mother take them to a point near the Wall where, clambering on some stones, they could at least see their big brother, a distant figure waving from a platform on the other side. Now, in the early autumn of 1990, he was a different man: bronzed, confident, relaxed. He had just been to America for the first time. “That’s great!” he kept exclaiming, colloquially. He was just off to Dublin to improve his English. But he would probably go back to join his family in Berlin for Christmas. Suddenly he was the citizen of a free, prosperous, and—dare one say?—normal country. The word “liberation” has long been tainted in Central Europe, and most especially since the Soviet “liberation” of 1945. But there comes a time when even the most polluted words must be reclaimed. This, in a single life, was liberation. So when around half past two on the morning of October 3, as we wandered through the streets of Frankfurt, none of our party being perhaps entirely sober, Adam Michnik turned to me and said, “Now tell me, Tim, what do you really feel about German unification?” my immediate response was “You know, I really am pleased.” And when, seven hours later, and not perhaps entirely rested, I set out from the Hotel Unter den Linden in the former East Berlin to walk westward through the Brandenburg Gate (look for the new asphalt, it’s all that’s left of the Wall) and across a corner of the Tiergarten to the official ceremony for German unity in the Berlin Philharmonic concert hall, my step was light. At first glance I thought the governing mayor had acquired a wig. But when he began to speak I, together with the rest of the gala audience in the Philharmonic, soon realized that this was an uninvited guest. He had walked through all the security controls and right up to the microphone. Before him, in the first row, sat President Richard von Weizsäcker, Chancellor Helmut Kohl, Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher, grand old Willy Brandt, and behind them the country’s most important political leaders. If the uninvited guest had been a terrorist with a gun, he could have decapitated the German body politic, on the day of unification. Fortunately he was just a nut with a cardboard folder containing a long speech. “Allow me fifteen minutes,” he said, and began a complicated tale of some outstanding grievance against the Justice Ministry. After several seconds of silent bewilderment, the audience began loudly to applaud him, hoping to clap him away. He would not stop. The master of ceremonies, in white tie and tails, politely asked him to leave the stage. On he went, describing in detail the excellent wine he had drunk in the course of his extensive litigation. The interior minister, Wolfgang Schäuble, could be seen rising from his seat. After whispered consultations, and a good minute more of barmy speech plus ironic applause, two plainclothes policemen very gently led this Herr Mitty away. (According to subsequent press reports they simply took him out to the entrance and released him into the holiday crowd.) Then, at last, we looked down on the familiar bald pate of the governing mayor of Berlin, the next speaker on the official program. Far more than any of the official speeches, the proclamations of peace and good will to all men, the painfully responsible press commentaries, more even than the grave and beautiful cadences of Richard von Weizsäcker, this little incident exemplified everything that was good about the unification ceremonies, indeed that is good about the forty-one-year-old Federal Republic of Germany: civil, civilian, civilized. The small deed matched the big words—and the music, which was splendid. With hindsight, since Wolfgang Schäuble was actually shot and badly wounded by another disturbed man at a rally less than a fortnight later, the episode looks less amusing. And of course, the German police are not always so civil. That same afternoon there was what seemed a quite excessive police turnout in the center of Berlin to control a demonstration against unification by squatters, anarchists, and the far left. Riot-squad vans roared through the former Checkpoint Charlie (now a flea market) into the former East Berlin, and police helicopters chuntered overhead, as if to say, “We are the masters now.” Yet the way in which Herr Mitty was treated was nonetheless representative of celebrations that were peaceful and merry, without being triumphalist. In fact, it all seemed almost too good to be true. Like the East Central European revolutions of 1989, the German wonder of 1990 was so swift, peaceful, and civil that it is still hard to believe it has really happened. If the first unification of Germany was made with blood and iron, the second took only words and money. Among the countless intellectuals asked by newspapers for their response to unification, the (once East) German writer Reiner Kunze stood out. “I expect of Germany,” he replied, “that after October 3, 1990, it will prepare itself for this day.” There is still a vast gulf between the new pays légal and the pays réel, between the legal fact of unity and the social fact of continued division. On the backstreets, in the factories, and in many, many heads, the GDR still exists. Something like one out of every ten in the former GDR workforce is unemployed. Pensioners have been terribly hard hit by the upward leap in prices. Tenants fear for their security—not to mention their low rents—as old private landlords return, or new ones arrive. And the psychological adaptation after forty years of socialism is perhaps even more difficult than the material ups and downs. How long will it take before Germany is prepared for October 3, 1990? Estimates vary widely of the number of years it will take before the five Länder of the former GDR are pulled up to a level comparable with that of even the poorest Länder of the old Federal Republic. Undeterred by their failure to reveal the full disastrous state of the East German economy in the past, economists and research institutes are making confident predictions about its future. As diverse are the estimates of the financial cost of reconstructing East German industry. The round figure of a trillion Deutschmarks over ten years is tossed about, but the greatest part of this would be private investment. Chancellor Kohl has bravely promised an official guess at the costs, even before the federal election on December 2. The finance minister, Theo Waigel, does not quite say “read my lips,” but reckons the government should be able to get by without major tax hikes. In the former GDR, as elsewhere in the former Eastern Europe, the costs and problems of economic transformation are far bigger and more fundamental than in Western Europe after 1945. But if anyone in Europe can master the task of postcommunist economic reconstruction, it is the Germans. The real question is less the economic cost as such than the political implications of the economic cost. These will be seen first on the streets rather than in parliament. The enthusiasm with which ordinary West Germans greeted their liberated compatriots a year ago has largely evaporated, as the newcomers take scarce housing and jobs from poorer West Germans, and jam the check-out lines at the cheaper supermarkets. But the swelling resentment against the so-called Ossis (as opposed to Wessis) is sweetness and light compared with street attitudes to Poles, Romanians, and Turks. In a West Berlin supermarket a sign says: “Polish citizens may only purchase one carton.” At present the new Germany is home to some five million foreigners, out of a total population of 78 million. With the social tensions that will arise from the reconstruction of the East, the tolerance even of those foreigners who have lived in Germany for a long time is likely to diminish. Already one hears of second-generation Turkish-German citizens losing their jobs to East Germans. It is here, on the streets, that the political culture of the Federal Republic will be put to the test. At the same time, with the combination of political liberation and economic disintegration in the former Eastern Europe and the Soviet Disunion, the press of would-be immigrants or Gastarbeiter (“guest workers”) will increase, adding to the existing pressure from across the Mediterranean. A new specter is haunting Western Europe: the specter of a postcommunist Völkerwanderung. This is a formidable challenge for the whole European Community, but for Germany above all. How will it cope? By building a new wall along Germany’s new eastern frontier, the Oder-Neisse line? Or by opening to the East while supporting, with more billions of Deutschmarks, the transformation to a market economy from Poznan to Vladivostok, thus encouraging the Völker to stop wandering westward? The answer given by Germany’s political leaders is, not surprisingly, a qualified version of the latter possibility rather than the former. “We lift our voice for a constructive and common Ostpolitik,” said President von Weizsäcker in his October 3 speech. “All the frontiers of Germany should become bridges to our neighbors.” But even as he spoke, on the day of unity, a visa requirement was introduced for all Poles, many of whom had previously been able to travel without visas to East Germany and West Berlin. So if the German–Polish frontier was a bridge, it was a half-closed one. Reality did not quite match up to rhetoric. However, the Bonn government has now declared its readiness in principle to lift the visa requirement for Poles as they have already done for Hungarians, Czechs, and Slovaks. Altogether, the problem with the foreign policy of the new Germany would seem to be not that it has any bad intentions but that it has too many good ones. Hans-Dietrich Genscher says: “We Germans want nothing else than to live in freedom, democracy, and peace with all the peoples of Europe and the world.” A modest aspiration. Germany, he declares, will have “a policy of the good example.” No one will use Bismarck’s famous phrase about Germany as Europe’s “honest broker.” But as Richard von Weizsäcker’s unification speech reached its crescendo with an appeal to Germans to set about “preserving the creation” (i.e., the natural world), I could not help recalling the description of Germany’s possible role that Bismarck rejected in his “honest broker” speech. Germany, said the chancellor of the first unification, should not aspire to be the schoolmaster of Europe. The schoolmaster of Europe—that seems to me perhaps the best summary in a phrase of the aspirations of Germany’s present political leadership. The schoolmaster has passed his own exams over the last year with flying colors. There is a great deal of sense in what he has to say. But one does wonder how much of the school book can ever be translated into practice, even by the Germans themselves—let alone by more recalcitrant pupils (J. Delors, smirking in the front row; F. Mitterrand, looking grandly out of the window; M. Thatcher, giving her own lesson in the corridor). Are they not perhaps aiming a little too high? As Robert Browning has it in “A Grammarian’s Funeral”: That low man goes on adding one to one His hundred’s soon hit: This high man, aiming at a million, Misses an unit. In the immediate future, German foreign policy will face some hard choices. American readers may think first of the decision about how far, and in what form, Germany should take greater responsibility outside Europe. Within Europe, I see two major choices, which in a deeper sense are one. The first concerns the former Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the second, the (West) European Community. Since 1955, when Adenauer opened diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union (but with no other Soviet bloc state), then very clearly since the Moscow Treaty of 1970, the relationship with the Soviet Union has taken top priority in Bonn’s Ostpolitik. On a sober analysis of national interests, this was wholly understandable. As many observed, “The key to German unity lay in Moscow”—from May 8, 1945, one might say, until October 3, 1990. Plainly this priority remained throughout the negotiations on German unity. Chancellor Kohl emphasized that he would have liked to sign a comprehensive friendship treaty with Poland at the same time as he signed the treaty with the Soviet Union. As it turned out, in 1990 as in 1970, the Moscow treaty preceded the Warsaw one, which is still to be negotiated. And what a treaty this Moscow one is! Francis Fukuyama proclaimed the end of history, but the German–Soviet friendship treaty, initialed in Moscow on September 13, goes one step further. “The Federal Republic of Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,…” says its preamble, “wishing finally to put an end to the past…” (in dem Wunsch, mit der Vergangenheit endgültig abzuschliessen). “Determined to follow on from the the good traditions of their [i.e., Germany and the Soviet Union’s] centuries-old history,” the two sides produce another catalog of good intentions, mainly gluing together prefabricated phrases from German–Soviet documents of the last twenty years, but also declaring: They will never and under no circumstances be the first to use armed forces against each other or against other states. They call upon all other states to join in this commitment to nonaggression. If we take this literally, it means that Germany is joining the Soviet Union in calling upon, say, the United States not to use armed force against, say, Iraq. “But,” your German colleague will respond privately, “you mustn’t take it literally!” Then why write it if you don’t mean it? Well, to get Russian agreement to unification of course! Fair enough: Machiavelli dressed as Luther. The question then becomes: Is this really the last page of an old chapter—the forty-five-year-long story of German liberation—or the first page of a new one? (“Germany and the Soviet Union at a New Beginning,” a headline in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung memorably announced at the time of the Stavropol agreement in July.) Time will tell—meaning, the Germans will decide. Or perhaps, will not decide. For my impression is that Germany policy makers do not at the moment have a private set of priorities in Ostpolitik that is much clearer than the public rhetoric. On present form, the consciousness of promises made, gratitude, habit, the faint hope of great markets to open, above all a deep fear of disorder and chaos—the dreaded “instability”—all this will incline Bonn to make quite substantial efforts to help the Soviet leadership (and nota bene the Soviet leadership, rather than, say, the Russian, Ukrainian, or Baltic leaderships) to proceed along the path of economic transformation. Yet the Soviet Union is collapsing at such a rate that these efforts are probably doomed to failure, at least in this well-ordered form (Germany–Soviet Union). Moreover, so long as the Soviet–American relationship remains highly cooperative, German–Soviet cooperation need not adversely affect German–American relations. In the short term, then, the three sides of the “Big Three” triangle of post–cold war Europe, America–Germany–Russia, can probably remain more or less in sync. The immediate problem lies closer to home. At the same time as promising extensive help to the Soviet Union—to be set out in a second comprehensive treaty on economic, scientific, and technological cooperation—German policy makers say they want especially to help their neighbors in “Central, Eastern, and South Eastern” Europe. But as the Germans have themselves discovered in the GDR, the problems and costs of the transition from a planned to a market economy are vast. If this is true of the small and relatively prosperous GDR, how much more is it true of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland, let alone of Romania and Bulgaria—not to mention the east European republics of the Soviet Union! If German, European, and Western help is spread more or less indiscriminately across this whole vast region, then the three mutually dependent transitions—to market economy, parliamentary democracy, and the rule of law—will not succeed even in the nearest east of Europe, in East Central Europe.3 And then that region could indeed become Europe’s Near East: not the Central Europe of the intellectual antipoliticians’ dreams, but the Zwischeneuropa of nightmare, an area of weak, undemocratic states, riven by social and national conflicts. This would obviously be bad for all of Europe, but it would be especially bad for Germany, since the resulting chaos would be just fifty kilometers east of the capital, Berlin. The pressure of immigrants would grow not decline, and they would be knocking first at Germany’s doors. “The western frontier of the Soviet Union must not become the eastern frontier of Europe,” says President von Weizsäcker. A noble sentiment, but open to question in two respects. First, the Soviet Union is ceasing to exist, and Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians, and Ukrainians no longer wish to recognize that line as “the western frontier of the Soviet Union.” (The Ukrainian republic recently signed a separate treaty with Poland, including mutual recognition of frontiers.) Second, if we understand by “Europe” a community of more or less liberal democratic states with social market economies, then the real question for the next five to ten years is not “Will Europe end on the present western frontier of the Soviet Union?” but rather, “Will Europe reach even that far?” Unless a clear and very high priority is given by Germany and the whole European Community to East Central Europe, where the transition still has a sporting chance, Europe—in the constitutional and economic sense—will not end on the river Bug. It will end on the Oder and Neisse. This relates intimately to the second hard choice that faces German policy, that about the (West) European Community. As national unification reached its climax, so German policy makers and commentators redoubled their insistence that the EC must move forward, both in domestic and in external policy. Where Bismarck said, “Let us put Germany in the saddle,” the Nestor of German liberal journalism, Theo Sommer, says, “Now we must put Europe in the saddle.” Poor girl: up into the saddle, whether she wants it or not. And of course she herself is, as always, in several minds. A significant part of Germany’s present political elite still has a genuine commitment to moving forward to closer integration at the EC intergovernmental conferences on political and on economic and monetary union (although there are also substantial reservations, for example on the part of the Bundesbank, which fears a softening of the Deutschmark). This commitment is shared, in different ways and varying degrees, by significant parts of the political elite in most of the other continental members of the EC. But there is one quite fundamental and immediate problem. Germany’s present political leadership says it wants to deepen the Community, but also in the foreseeable future to widen it, to include East Central Europe and some EFTA countries. But many people at the highest levels of the EC consider deepening and widening to be not complementary but contradictory goals. Jacques Delors argues that in order to deepen, for example by adopting a common currency and central bank, you cannot afford to widen. Mrs. Thatcher advocates a rapid widening, partly out of genuine concern for the fledgling democracies of East Central Europe, but also to foil brother Jacques’s designs of rapid deepening. One can quite plausibly argue that the EC is on the horns of a dilemma. If it moves forward soon in the general direction of a United States of Europe, then East Central Europe will join it only late or never. If East Central Europe joins soon, then the EC will move forward in the direction of a USE only late or never. In the former case, the position of the former Eastern Europe will differ from that of the former Soviet Union in degree, but not in kind. “Europe” will, in some very significant senses, end on the Oder-Neisse line. In the latter case, however, in a looser “Europe des Patries,” Germany would willy-nilly come back somewhat more to the old post-Bismarckian dilemmas of the nation-state in the middle. So German policy makers quite rightly see that they must try to do both. But how? There are a few people in Germany seriously seeking answers. (Perhaps it is always only a few.) Whether they find any, and, if so, what those answers will be, we will probably begin to learn only after the federal election on December 2. The starting point must surely be, as it was for Adenauer and Brandt, the definition of national interests. For the last forty years (some would say, for the last two hundred) the question of German national identity has provoked some of the longest, deepest, most contorted answers ever given to any question by any branch of humankind. The question of national interest, however, has been much easier to answer. For the last forty years the answer was, in a nutshell: “recovery of sovereignty and overcoming the division of Germany.” Now, in one united, western Germany, the question of national identity should be easier to answer—although to judge by the hypochondriac effusions in recent weeks of many German writers lamenting unification (like Günter Grass) or discovering a late love for the cozy old Federal Republic (like Patrick Süskind), there is no guarantee that their answers will actually become so. The question of national interest, by contrast, necessarily becomes more complicated. On my analysis, beside the consolidation of the constitution of liberty and an open society inside Germany, the first strategic answer would be: to combine in one design the (still just possible) enterprise of sustaining the democratic transition in East Central Europe and that of further, primarily political, integration of the EC. If, however, such a design is not clearly spelled out, if the hard choices are ducked, then national (and therefore European) interests will be defined on the hoof—dictated either by dramatic external developments, such as the further collapse of the Soviet Union, or by domestic pressures, such as swelling resentment against immigrants, or by a combination of both. The second part of my answer to Adam Michnik, on the streets of Frankfurt, at two-thirty on the morning of German unification, was: “If I have a fear for the next few years it is not that Germany will turn outward in any sort of bid for great power (economic) domination, but rather that it will turn inward, become obsessed with the problems flowing from unification, a little self-pitying, self-protective, and with a wall on its eastern frontier which its other West European partners will only help to reinforce.” In short, the German eagle is unbound. The broken chains lie on the hillside. He has raised his wings a little, and given a few friendly cries. Will he now spread his wings and rise up, this time to help, not to attack? Or will he rather, like the eagle donated to the Washington zoo by Chancellor Helmut Schmidt, sit sulkily on his perch, gobbling his ample food and disconsolately scratching his breast feathers with that great beak? —October 25, 1990 November 22, 1990 “The German Revolution,” The New York Review, December 21, 1989. See also the extended account in my The Magic Lantern: The Revolution of ’89 Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin and Prague (Random House, 1990). ↩ “East Germany: The Solution,” The New York Review, April 26, 1990. ↩ See my “Eastern Europe: Après le Déluge, Nous,” The New York Review, August 16, 1990. ↩

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Parshas Acharei Mos: G-d spoke to Moshe after the death of Aharon’s two sons, who had brought an [unauthorized] offering before G-d and died. G-d told Moshe, “Speak to your brother Aharon, and let him not enter at just any time the [Inner] Sanctuary beyond the partition concealing the Ark, so that he may not die, since I appear over the Ark cover in a cloud …” (VaYikrah 16:1) Parashas Acharei Mos begins with a somewhat detailed description of the Yom Kippur service, as performed in the Mishkan and Temple times. As to why the Torah was compelled to link Yom Kippur to the death of Aharon’s sons, there are a number of reasons. Rashi cites the most obvious one: Nadav and Avihu died because they had entered the very same area without G-d’s permission, and the mention of their deaths emphasizes the danger of doing so. Another explanation is that the death of a tzaddik atones for the generation (Moed Katan 28a), just as Yom Kippur itself does. It could be that the death of a single tzaddik could replace the need to destroy countless individuals. A less obvious explanation emerges out of the general theme of the entire book of VaYikrah, and is alluded to by the Yom Kippur service: “He shall take a censer full of burning coals from off the altar before G-d, and his hands full of finely-beaten aromatic incense, and bring [them both] into the [Inner] Sanctuary beyond the cloth partition. (VaYikrah 16:12) The incense referred to is the same as that mention in the following Talmudic statement (and also read each morning as part of the Morning Service): The rabbis taught: How is the incense mixture formulated? Three hundred and sixty-eight maneh … from which the Kohen Gadol would bring both his handfuls on Yom Kippur. He would return them to the mortar on the day before Yom Kippur, and grind them very thoroughly so that it would be exceptionally fine … (Krisos 6a) The incense used on Yom Kippur was not a different mixture of spices, specially formulated for Yom Kippur, as one might have thought. It was, in fact, the exact same mixture of spices used for the Incense-Offering all year round, with one exception: it was ground extra fine; Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, required “extra fine” ketores (incense). Ketores represents many things, but specifically something called “Da’as,” which literally translate as “knowledge,” but specifically alludes to a deeper, more spiritual understanding of the way G-d runs His world. In other words, there is da’as, and then there is Da’as, and Ketores represented the latter. It is this level of knowledge to which Shlomo HaMelech, the person known for his high level of wisdom, referred: If you seek it like money and pursue it like hidden treasures, then you will understand fear of G-d, and you will find Da’as Elokim (the knowledge of G-d). (Mishlei 2:4) It had been an Incense-Offering that Nadav and Avihu had brought without authorization. What role does the grinding play in all of this? One not unlike the role grinding plays in the production of flour from wheat: If there is no flour, then there is no Torah … (Pirke Avos 3:21) Flour comes from grinding wheat, which the Ultimate Wisdom made for this purpose. Through this, man is dis tinguished from the rest of the animals, as the Talmud states (Pesachim 118a): At the time The Holy One, Blessed is He, told Adam, “It will bring forth thorns and thistles … ” tears formed in his eyes. He said before Him, “Master of the Universe! Will I and my donkey eat from the same trough?!” What this means is that, had it not been that his food was ground finely, he would not have been able to achieve the completion of Torah (i.e., receive Torah at Mt. Sinai 26 generations later) … (Meiri, Commentary on Pirke Avos, 3:21) Wheat is coarse and barely food, fit primarily for animal consumption. However, by grinding wheat into flour, the wheat becomes refined and elevated to the level of food fit for humans, though it is barely edible to animals. What the Meiri is pointing out is this process is representative of a similar process in the world of ideas, one that transforms “coarse” ideas into refined ones, spiritually “coarse” individuals into godly ones. What this means is that, like food, ideas rarely come “ready-to-eat.” They must undergo a process that reveals the hidden “kernel” of truth within, the main staple of an intellectually-honest diet. In life, and especially in the realm of the intellect, very little is as it appears on the surface; truth is what emerges after “raw” truth has been ground down to its essence, a procedure known as the Talmudic process (see, “Redemption to Redemption,” Part Two: Pesach, Chapter Two: The Centrality of Speech, on the Project Genesis Website). Every day of the year ground incense was used, because all year round Da’as must be ground and refined. However, on Yom Kippur, we use finely ground Ketores/Da’as, because this is the one time of year we seek perfect atonement, and above all, kedusha (holiness). And, as the Torah is pointing out, it is refined Da’as that is at the root of both, as we will soon discuss. Had Nadav and Avihu refined their already refined da’as even more, the Torah is telling us, like so many others before them, including Adam HaRishon himself, their mistake could have been avoided. G-d spoke to Moshe saying, “Speak to the assembly of the children of Israel and tell them, ‘You must be holy, because I, G-d your G-d, am holy.’ ” (VaYikrah 19:1) In the Chazzan’s repetition of the Shemonah Esrai, there is the inclusion of Kedusha, something that can only be said within a minyan. One could ask: Shouldn’t Kedusha come at the end of Shemonah Esrai, as a climax to a growth process that began with the first blessing, “You give man knowledge?” After all, all these blessings deal with basic everyday needs (knowledge, health, sustenance, etc.); holiness is something to which one ultimately aspires, and rarely achieves. The Shemonah Esrai seems to indicate just the opposite, as if to say that holiness is the “gate” one must “pass through” in order to fulfill our most basic needs, including atonement (to which the second and third blessings refer). Holiness is like a mikvah of sorts, cleansing, purifying the person for a relationship with G-d, the Source of All Blessing. Indeed, the Rambam calls Yom Kippur (the holiest day of the year) a “mikvah” through which sincere penitents are purified. How does holiness achieve this? The concept of something being “kadosh” (holy) is the idea of it being “nivdal,” or separate (Kiddushin 2b, Tosfos, q.v. D’assur lah), to use the language of the Maharal. As the Nefesh HaChaim (Part Three) explains, the name of G-d, “HaKodesh Baruch Hu,” “The Holy One, Blessed is He,” alludes to two aspects of G-d, part that is nivdal (The Holy One) and totally unaffected by the actions of men, and part that is affected by our good (or, G-d forbid, bad) deeds. The process of separating and becoming separate is entirely intellectual. This is indicated by the Talmud, when discussing the placement of Havdalah (which separates between Shabbos and the rest of the week) in the Motzei Shabbos Shemonah Esrai: Havdalah is said within the blessing “You give man knowledge …” For what reason? Rabbi Yosef explained: Since Havdalah is a matter of wisdom, it was placed in the blessing that deals with wisdom. (Brochos 33a) If so, then holiness, as defined by the Torah, is not so much the act of being separate as it is one of intellectually making distinctions (which may or may not result in actual physical separation, depending upon the circumstance and its needs). If so, this would explain the great disparity between the Jewish concept of holiness and the non-Jewish concept of holiness, which often resulted in the slaughter of countless innocent victims. Therefore, the pursuit of holiness in the eyes of the Torah is the pursuit of truth, and the more refined the truth becomes, the more one is able to distinguish between good and bad; ipso facto, one becomes holier. This is what the Talmud means when it writes: A person doesn’t transgress unless a spirit of insanity overcomes him. (Sota 3a) In other words, if a person is truly clear about life, what it is about and how best to fulfill it, he not only has difficulty committing transgressions, but even if he does, he is cognizant of what was transgressed and yearns to correct it, at any cost. How can we atone for transgressions we barely relate to, and whose seriousness we can barely discern? This is the message of the following story: The revered Sa’adyah Gaon used to travel and speak in many places to inspire Jews to do tshuva. Upon arriving at one particular town, the Gaon checked into a small inn to stay for the night before speaking the next day. After receiving the key from the Innkeeper, who was a Jew and who had not recognized his holy, but humble guest, he set out for his room to prepare for the night. The next day, the Innkeeper was among the make townspeople who came out to hear the great Sa’adyah Gaon speak, and to his horror, it was the man who had checked into his inn the day before. After the Gaon spoke, the man rushed to the platform upon which the Gaon had delivered his “shmooze,” and threw himself at his feet and cried. “What is the matter, my dear fellow? Why do you cry like that? How can I help you?” the Gaon pleaded with the broken man. “I didn’t know it was you! Had I only known it was you …” and the man cried even louder. “But you treated me just fine,” the Gaon reassured him. “I have no complaints against you …” “Yes, but had I known who you are, I would have treated you with even more respect!” After his return to his own town, one evening a man could be heard outside in the snow crying like a child. The Gaon’s students ran out to see who it was, and were shocked to find their master rolling in the snow, crying like a baby! “Rebi!” they cried out. “What is it?! Why do you cry like that?!” The Gaon related the story of the Innkeeper, and concluded by adding, “I thought I had done tshuva for my past mistakes, until I learned from the Innkeeper that tshuva is dependent upon one’s understanding of whom they are serving. Everyday my understanding of The Holy One, Blessed is He, grows, and I cry now because I am finally able to appreciate just how severe my mistakes have been!” Having passed the “gate” of holiness by developing a discerning mind, we are now better able to ask G-d for the basic needs of daily life, and better able to appreciate the fact that He fulfills those needs for us. We can also better understand why the laws of forbidden foods precede this week’s parsha, and the laws of forbidden relationships end it; in each case, the Jew is forced to distinguish between what is permissible, and what is not, something that tends to make a person more sensitive and spiritually aware. This parsha is filled with many mitzvos, diverse in nature and seemingly, without any unifying thread. One such mitzvah is: Do not swear falsely by My name; you will be desecrating your G-d’s name. (VaYikrah 19:12) Though many people are quick to add the words, “I swear …” when trying to validate their statement to other people, the Torah-Jew is quick to add, “Bli neder” (“Without Vow”), to any statement that has the potential to end up desecrating the holy name of G-d. Since the formula for a vow often included invoking the name of G-d to make it binding, “Bli neder” is a way of reversing this procedure. So central is this idea that Yom Kippur begins with Kol Nidrei, which is a procedure to publicly cancel vows made during the previous year. It is not that a Torah-Jew’s word is meant to be unreliable; there are plenty of “curses” reserved for the person whose mouth does not match his heart, and who does not keep his word. It is just that we try to take the name of G-d seriously, and give it due weight by invoking it only in cases of certainty, or in other extreme situations. To help us appreciate this, the Talmud states (Shavuos 39a): The entire world shook when The Holy One, Blessed is He, said at Mt. Sinai, “Do not swear falsely by the name of G-d, your G-d …” (Shemos 20:7) Concerning all other transgressions in the Torah it says, “He will forgive,” but with respect to a false oath, it says “I will not forgive.” For all other transgressions, only the sinner is punished; here the punishment extends to the family as well … For all other transgressions, only the sinner is punished; here the whole world is punished. With respect to other transgressions, through the merit of the sinner’s ancestors the punishment can be postponed for two or three generations; here, punishment is immediate … Things indestructible by fire or water are destroyed by false swearing. And so on. Within all of this lies the theme of Parashas Kedoshim, and all of Judaism for that matter. One of the most remarkable things is the way many Jews are ready to “blow off” Torah Judaism out of ignorance, in spite of an unparalleled claim, one that, at the very least, should could a person cause to think. Torah Judaism is the only “religion” in the world to claim that G-d “came down” to meet us, and, as a result, gave over His entire Torah, word-for-word, letter-by-letter, to the Jewish people. The midrash says that even after the Jewish people had told Moshe to receive the rest of Torah (after having personally received the first two of the Ten Commandments) on their behalf, still, they were able to overhear G-d talking to Moshe on Mt. Sinai. Now, that may be a hard claim to accept for a disbeliever, but it is certainly a claim that needs to be either verified or disproved. But to do neither and to act with certainty as if G-d is not there and that Torah is not true, that is tantamount to wantonly committing spiritual suicide! I once asked someone, who was arguing against Torah, about his background. Admittedly, his was a limited background, barely having learned Chumash with all the traditional commentaries, let alone Talmud extensively. But, he told me, that it didn’t make a difference; he could see the irrelevance of Judaism from what he had seen. So I asked him, “What if G-d is really there? What if He really did give the Torah? And what if the only reason you can’t see this is because of what you don’t know, not because of what you have learned? Then what?” He stopped, and he thought about it for a moment, and then he told me, “Then I’ll be in big trouble … Big trouble.” All of sudden, the confidence was gone from his voice as he listened to and felt the weight of his own words. He realized how lightly he had actually taken the whole concept of G-d. Why? Because lightening does not come down from the sky every time a Jew transgresses; because bad people get away with murder, literally; and ultimately, because some very good people seem to needlessly suffer, and G-d seems to do nothing about it! So the Talmud adequately deals with all those issues, and Kabballah fills in some very important gaps. But the starting point to becoming holy, and then to becoming a fitting receptacle for the light of G-d and Da’as Elokim, is to take the idea of G-d seriously, very seriously. Sefiros HaOmer: Part Two What makes the counting of the Omer so mystical is the fact that it ends off with the following paragraph (though many avoid this paragraph completely): Master of the Universe, You commanded us through Moshe, Your servant to count the Omer-Count in order to cleanse us from our encrustrations of evil and from our contaminations, as You have written in Your Torah, “You are to count from the day after the rest day, from the day you brought the Omer-Offering that is waved; they are to be seven complete weeks. Until the day after the seventh week you are to count fifty days” (VaYikrah 23:15), so that the souls of Your people Israel be cleansed of their contamination. Therefore, may it be Your will, G-d, our G-d and the G-d of our Forefathers, that in the merit of the Omer-Count that I have counted today, that there be corrected whatever blemish I have caused in the sefirah (and here we insert the sefirah that corresponds to the day itself). May I be cleansed and sanctified with the holiness of Above, and through this may abundant bounty flow in all the worlds. And may it correct our lives, spirits, and souls from all sediment and blemish; may it cleanse us and sanctify us with Your exalted holiness. Amen, Selah! And you thought you were only counting the Omer! First of all, what are “encrustations of evil,” and where did I get them from? Secondly, what’s a sefirah, and what damage did I do to it? Thirdly, why is the technical counting of the Omer so Kabballistic?! The begin with, during this particular period of time we are climbing spiritually from Pesach to Shavuos, from darkness to light, and from the hiddenness of G-d’s hand to the revelation of it. In other words, the period of time between Pesach and Shavuos is a time of great spiritual rectification, when we “clean” out the “pipes” through which G-d’s light is meant to flow down to us. The pipe does not run uninterrupted; it has valves, spiritual valves which can be used to lessen the flow of light between G-d and us when necessary, and to increase it when we are worthy. The complete closing of even a single valve would plunge creation into non-existence. The partial closing of the valve results in what is termed “hester panim,” or the “hiding” of G-d’s face (presence). An open valve results in a good flow of light, miracles, and the undeniable belief in G-d (like in Egypt, at the splitting of the sea, and at Mt. Sinai). Those valves are called “sefiros,” and each of the ten sefiros have different names because they cause a different level of filtering of G-d’s light, and result in a different manifestation of G-d’s traits. Who controls those valves? As the Nefesh HaChaim points out, we do. Through learning Torah and doing mitzvos we cause the valves to open and the light and blessing to flow through them to us. Transgressions close the valves and block them with spiritual filth, and being denied the holy light from Above, we do become mired, making us more physical and less spiritual in everyday life. But if there are ten sefiros, then why do we only mention seven of them, and their subsets? The answer to that question is very deep, but in short, it is because the top three sefiros (Keser, Chochmah, and Binah) are so holy that to us they are completely imperceptible, and therefore effect on our world is, for the moment, hidden from us. Instead we deal with the bottom seven sefiros because their effect is more noticeable on our world. Next week we will discuss, b”H, what goes wrong in life and how it effects the sefiros, what we’re supposed to be working on during this period to fix it, and how the concept of the Omer directly addresses this issue. (Hint: add up the numerical value of the word “omer” when spelled without a “vav,” as it appears in the Torah in Shemos 16:32 when talking about the munn). Copyright © by Rabbi Pinchas Winston and Project Genesis, Inc. Rabbi Winston has authored many books on Jewish philosophy (Hashkofa). If you enjoy Rabbi Winston’s Perceptions on the Parsha, you may enjoy his books. Visit Rabbi Winston’s online book store for more details! www.thirtysix.org

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We all experience “down days” when life looks anything but rosy. But when those days become weeks or even months, it may be time to seek help. Whether it’s anxiety, burnout, stress, or a more serious mental health issue, therapy may be just what the doctor ordered to help you find your footing when life seems out of control. Continue reading to learn more about the benefits of therapy and explore the most popular types of therapy. Don’t think therapy is for you or someone you know? Think again. According to the National Alliance on Mental Illness, one in five adults in America experience some type of mental health disorder and one in 20 suffers from a serious mental illness. (55) Everyday mental health problems can include anxiety (affecting 19% of adults), relationship issues, substance abuse, and even loneliness. (1)(33)(35)(55) Serious mental illness includes bipolar disorder, major depression, personality disorders, and psychotic disorders like schizophrenia. Whether minor or major, these illnesses can impair a person’s ability to function on a day-to-day basis. (13) If something triggers distress or interferes with your daily life or relationships, therapy may help. Did you know? Only about 44% of people with mental health issues seek help. (34) What is therapy? Therapy—or more specifically psychotherapy—in one form or another can be traced as far back as ancient Greece. (32) But modern talk therapy has much more familiar roots. Considered the “father of psychotherapy,” Sigmund Freud was one of the first, and likely the most famous, doctors to employ talk therapy to treat patients with mental and emotional problems. (48) Since Freud’s groundbreaking work in the early 19th century, talk therapy has become standard practice in the world of psychology. Today, psychotherapy helps millions of people learn how to deal with a broad range of mental illnesses and emotional difficulties so they can increase their sense of well-being and function better in the world. (53) During a therapy session, a therapist will use one or more types of scientifically-validated therapies to help the patient work through their problems. (53) The most common forms of psychotherapy include cognitive behavioral therapy, dialectical behavior therapy, couples or family therapy, and group therapy. (41) The importance of therapy in mental health According to the National Institutes of Health, a mental illness can be defined as a health condition that changes a person’s thinking, feelings, or behavior (or all three) and causes distress and difficulty functioning. (21) Therapy can provide a safe, empathetic, and non-judgmental space in which to deal with psychological or emotional issues. (26) These problems can be classified as major, moderate, or mild. However, when most people think of therapy, they typically think of its benefits for major or long-term psychological problems such as: - Anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and phobias - Eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia - Mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder - Personality disorders such as antisocial behavior, borderline personality disorder, and narcissism - Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including trauma from mental and/or physical abuse or wartime experience - Psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia (33) But the benefits of therapy can improve the lives of people with mild-to-moderate forms of mental health issues. A therapist might be useful if you find yourself struggling with any of the following: - Addiction, such as drug, food, and internet/smartphone addiction (12)(30)(31) - Anger and aggression management (27) - Family problems (45) - Grief (23) - Relationship issues (6) - Serious illness (44)(54) Why therapy is good for everyone Whether your mental health is terrific, mediocre, or severe, interfering with your ability to function on a frequent basis, therapy can help. In addition to helping those with serious mental illness, psychotherapy can provide a safe space to talk about everything from grief to family problems to the inability to forgive. If you’re going through a difficult time—like a tough breakup or the transition into retirement—talk therapy can help you deal with it. (4) Therapy can also boost well-being by helping to improve self-confidence, cultivate resilience, and clarify goals. By focusing on personal growth, well-being therapy may benefit anyone looking to optimize their life. (14) Historically, however, therapy has been stigmatized, and that has prevented many people from seeking out this useful type of treatment. (39) Fortunately, professional and Olympic athletes like Kevin Love, Michael Phelps, Naomi Osaka, and Simone Biles are speaking out about their own struggles and the importance of mental health. (15) This may help to ease the stigma surrounding mental health issues and open the door to a wider acceptance of therapy for everyone. Did you know? The American Psychological Association (APA) notes that about 75% of people who embark on therapy experience at least some benefit. (49) Types of therapy There are numerous types of psychotherapy, each with its own benefits. Here are six of the most popular. 1. Cognitive behavioral therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) uses talk therapy to explore the relationship between a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This can help to identify unhealthy or self-destructive patterns so that the patient and therapist can work to reduce or eliminate them. (51) Studies show that it can be helpful for those with: - Anxiety (9)(25)(50) - Depression (8)(36) - Eating disorders (28) - Insomnia (8)(42) - OCD (9)(38) - Panic disorder (37)(40) - PTSD (5)(16) - Substance abuse (43) 2. Dialectical behavioral therapy This type of therapy was originally developed to treat people with borderline personality disorder who were chronically suicidal. (29)(50) Today its use has expanded to help people develop new coping skills and find a balance between acceptance and change in their lives. One randomized controlled trial found that dialectical behavioral therapy was also effective for those with eating disorders. (41) 3. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy has been found to help those suffering from PTSD. During this type of therapy, a person is asked to recall disturbing memories and images while simultaneously focusing on eye movements, finger tapping, or another kind of external stimulus. The person is then asked to focus on any new associations or sensations and make a positive statement about the traumatic memory. The process is then repeated with the inclusion of the positive statement. This type of therapy is designed to desensitize the negative aspects of the traumatic memory. (41) Studies suggest that EMDR may be better suited than CBT for treating PTSD. (11) 4. Family and couples therapy All families and couples experience bumps along the road. By counseling all family members involved, therapy can improve communication, address any behavioral or substance issues, enhance coping skills, and provide support. (2) One meta-analysis in the journal Family Process reported that families experiencing challenges with behavior or substance abuse can benefit from structured family therapy to a greater degree than using other types of therapy. (18) Another study published in the journal Psychotherapy suggests that couples therapy is effective for resolving conflict or distress the couple is experiencing. (19) 5. Group therapy Group therapy is often used for those dealing with addiction, anxiety, depression, LGBTQ issues, loss, OCD, or a serious illness. (17)(52) During a group session, which is led by a trained therapist, a small group of people experiencing similar challenges can share their experiences and support one another. An analysis of 42 studies that appeared in Psychotherapy Research found that group therapy provided better results than standard treatment for mood disorders. (22) When combined with CBT, group therapy has been shown to be particularly effective for addiction and OCD. (24)(46) 6. Interpersonal therapy This type of therapy focuses on a person’s relationships with others and is used to improve social strategies for people experiencing depression or social isolation. (41) One study involving 162 new moms suffering from postpartum depression found that 12 weeks of interpersonal therapy—with or without antidepressant medication—improved the participant’s mood and social adjustment. (37) How to find a therapist There are several resources to help you find a therapist in your area. The APA suggests starting your search at the Psychologist Locator or the National Register of Health Service Psychologists if you live in the U.S. (20) Individuals living in Canada can check out Good Therapy.org for a comprehensive listing of Canadian therapists, counselors, and psychologists. Prefer online sessions? There are a growing number of online resources that provide web-based, text, and/or phone or video telehealth services. Research suggests that this type of therapy is just as effective as face-to-face therapy for anxiety and depression. (3)(7) Whichever style of therapy fits your comfort zone, the APA recommends asking a few key questions before beginning therapy: - Is the therapist licensed? - Is the therapist experienced in dealing with your specific problem? - What kind of therapy does the therapist specialize in? - Is the therapy covered by your health insurance? If so, are there limits to the number of sessions covered by your insurance? (20) The bottom line The benefits of therapy can be observed in supporting a wide range of mental health issues. Just remember, not every type of therapy works for every person or every situation. Whether you opt for in-person, online, or telehealth sessions, it’s important that you trust your therapist and feel comfortable with them. 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Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(7), 949. - Hartnett, D., Carr, A., Hamilton, E. & O’Reilly, G. (2017). The effectiveness of functional family therapy for adolescent behavioral and substance misuse problems: A meta-analysis. Family Process, 56(3):607-619. - Hewison, D., Casey, P. & Mwamba, N. (2016). The effectiveness of couple therapy: Clinical outcomes in a naturalistic United Kingdom setting. Psychotherapy (Chic), 53(4):377-387. - How do I find a good therapist? (2017). American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/patients-and-families/finding-good-therapist - Information about Mental Illness and the Brain. (2007). National Institutes of Health (US); Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. NIH Curriculum Supplement Series . Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20369/ - Janis, R.A., Burlingame, G.M., Svien, H., Jensen, J. & Lundgreen, R. (2021). Group therapy for mood disorders: A meta-analysis. 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More background info: For more general background information on leprosy – or Hansen's Disease to use the politically correct name – see under Leprosy Museum Kalaupapa is a remote, isolated peninsula of flat land situated on the northern coast of Molokai island, Hawaii , and separated from the rest of the island by steep cliffs over 500m (1600 feet) in height. It was thus chosen as a naturally isolated site suitable for establishing a leper colony. This happened in the second half of the 19th century when the disease was spreading throughout the Hawaiian islands, so that the then king was pressured into having the sufferers isolated by force. The initial group of outcast lepers arrived in early 1866. The first arrivals were basically just dumped there, left to fend for themselves, with no aid or assistance provided. The initial settlement that was formed was on the harsher windward (wet and windy) eastern shores at Kalawao, but this was later moved the less exposed leeward western area of Kalaupapa. Before all this, the peninsula had long been inhabited by indigenous Hawaiian communities – when the leper colony was established, these Hawaiians were displaced … adding yet another dark element to the place. But of course it was the hardship of those banished to this place, with all ties to their former lives severed, that forms the main core of Kalaupapa's tragic story. A forced exile with no hope of escape. In those days, being diagnosed with leprosy not only meant a virtual death sentence, your previous life was taken from you as well, so to speak, by severing all ties to former friends and relatives. Some 8000 Hawaiian families were affected by this isolation policy. In some cases spouses refused to be separated from their loved ones and came along to the colony as so-called “ko'kua” ('helpers'). And then there was the church ... in particular one Belgian priest who was to become the saint of Kalaupapa: Father Damien . His real name was Joseph de Veuster and he had come to Honolulu as a young man in 1864, where he was ordained later the same year. He arrived in Kalaupapa in 1873, aged 33 after having learned of the appalling conditions under which these wretched exiles had to live. He found his mission. And his work to improve the lives of his Kalaupapa flock, with much personal commitment, both in medical care, religious services but also in many very practical ways (building houses, planting trees), soon became legendary. In 1885, Father Damien was diagnosed with leprosy himself – and four years later he died of the disease, aged 49. This further heightened his legendary status. He now was a true martyr as well! (In a less sympathetic interpretation he was partly blamed himself for not having kept enough distance from the infected and for not having followed a sufficient hygiene regime, but so what ...) His heroic martyrdom and stature were later officially recognized by the Catholic Church too, first in 1977 when the Vatican declared Father Damien “venerable”, then in 1995 when Pope John Paul II “beatified” him, and then in 2009 this was finally followed by Pope Benedict fully “canonizing” him, i.e. officially declaring him a saint . In popular legend he had long become known as the “leper priest” anyway. This legend also made it into a movie: “Molokai: The Story of Father Damien” (a 1999 international film production starring David Wenham and Peter O'Toole). Initially Father Damien was buried at one of his churches, St Philomena in Kalawao, the original settlement on the Kalaupapa peninsula. In 1936 his body was returned to his homeland Belgium , where his grave can be found in the crypt of the small St Antonius church in Leuven. In 1995, however, remains of his right hand were returned to Molokai as a relic and reinterred in the original grave site. Father Damien was not the last saint of Kalaupapa. Mother Marianne Cope, who had come to Kalaupapa in 1888 as Father Damien was dying, to look after him and to take over parts of his role after his death, was also canonized by the Pope in 2012, as Kalaupapa's (so far) second official Saint. The leper colony was strictly speaking not the only settlement on Kalaupapa peninsula. In 1906, a massive lighthouse was built (at the time the “brightest light in the Pacific”!) at the northern tip of the peninsula and alongside it houses for the lighthouse keepers and their families were provided. Their isolation was in way even greater, as they were prohibited from having any contact with the leper community just a mile and a half away. Yet despite the rules and the fears it is said that some interaction did indeed take place, when members of the community came up to the lighthouse to speak to the keepers' families to comfort them in their loneliness! The lighthouse's beam of light sweeping across the ocean and along the sea cliffs was also cherished by the settlement's inhabitants as something soothing – and they'd often come out at night just to watch it. The lighthouse was automated in 1966, and the last keeper departed for good. The old light may be gone, but the slender white tower is still one of the most noticeable landmarks of the area. Outside of Kalaupapa and Hawaii, meanwhile, medical science made progress in understanding the true nature of leprosy. Already in 1873 the bacillus causing the disease was discovered by one Dr. Hansen . It has hence also become known as Hansen's Disease since (see Leprosy Museum ). Yet it took until the 1940s for a proper cure to be developed. The new sulfone drug, an antibiotic to treat leprosy , first applied in Kalaupapa in 1946 soon proved to be highly successful. It also turned out that sufferers treated with the drug ceased to be contagious. This spelt dramatic changes to the world's leper colonies. In the case of Kalaupapa and Hawaii , the official isolation policy was not abolished until 1969! Yet in practical terms it had already more or less ended by 1950. Formerly exiled patients were now allowed to travel – and people from the outside world came to visit Kalaupapa, including famous celebrities (e.g. Shirley Temple and John Wayne). Public attitudes towards the disease and the people afflicted with it, who had been so deeply stigmatized for millennia, were clearly beginning to change. Despite all that, many Kalaupapa residents who were now free to leave their place of exile did not want to go. They had become attached to their little isolated piece of land and its spirit of community. The former prison had become home. Still today a number of former patients (over a dozen, at the time of writing) remain as residents in Kalaupapa, wishing to live out their lives here. It was partly for their protection, to make sure their wishes are respected and their memories honoured, that Kalaupapa was made a National Park in 1980 (after it had already been designated a National Landmark four years earlier). Outside access to the settlement is therefore tightly controlled and visitors are required to respect the residents' privacy. Not all residents of Kalaupapa are former patients, though. In fact the majority are now National Park employees. The physical isolation of Kalaupapa has hardly changed. Land access is limited to a steep mule path. Otherwise there's only an airstrip for small aeroplanes. Once a year a barge delivers goods by sea that are too bulky to make it to the island any other way (cars, for example). Currently the National Park service is addressing the question of what is to become of Kalaupapa in the future when no more former patients live here and the co-management with the Department of Health will, for that reason, end. A number of alternative plans are under consideration. This may include the opening of a proper museum at the site (a sizeable collection of objects has already been accumulated). Whether access to the public will be eased remains to be seen. Issues at stake also include environmental ones. For instance, the National Park also contains rare species not found anywhere else, and these will require continued protection. What there is to see: When I toured Kalaupapa in August 2015, I took the fly-in option from Honolulu – so I can't say anything about the mule rides or hiking the mule track. See below for the different practicalities! The flight was by a single-engine 12-seater aircraft – which in itself is quite cool! As such planes fly fairly low you also get splendid views over parts of O'ahu and Molokai (the latter especially on the flight out of Kalaupapa). I like flying in such small planes, but for some it may be a challenge, especially if you are prone to motion sickness – these flights can be bumpy, in particular on arrival at Kalaupapa. Once at Kalaupapa airport, which is basically just a shed with next to no facilities (other than a toilet and a drinking water fountain, but no staff), we were just told to wait until the tour guide came to pick us up. The pilot then took off with the plane and we were left alone. Walking off on your own is not allowed, so we just had to wait. And wait … and wait. As it turned out the mule rides (see below) had taken longer, so the tour bus with the mule riders and the guide was late. But this is Molokai. Nothing is rushed here. Inside the terminal building a couple of plaques provide some information about Kalaupapa, the nature of leprosy/Hansen's Disease and Father Damien (see background The tour bus, when it finally did arrive, turned out to be a veteran US school bus, I guess a vintage from the 1950s, which would probably not be deemed roadworthy on regular roads. But for the virtually traffic-free tracks on Kalaupapa it was still OK. The guide was also the driver and so, after a short introduction, we rumbled along towards the main Kalaupapa settlement. We passed the long line of graves between the road and the west coast. Some 8000 people died here, after all, so it is quite a field of tombs. Our first proper stops where we could get out, however, were at the village snack bar, where people could purchase supplies to see them through the next couple of hours, and then at the bookstore, where souvenirs, DVDs and reading material were on sale. But that's where the commercial side to the tour ended. We were shown the monuments to Father Damien and Mother Marianne, ruins of the old hospital, the landing stage, churches and other buildings – and the guide relayed the background story in a well-prepared narration (if delivered a bit insecurely at times – she was new to the job). In the main church of the present settlement, the current priest gave a short talk about Kalaupapa, its history and church affiliation – all in a very light-hearted humorous way (he was Irish!). The settlement seemed very quiet and almost like a ghost town – we never saw anybody going about whatever business. Yet many of the houses looked well kept and clearly lived-in. Others had obviously long been abandoned. In front of one of them I also spotted a hilariously dilapidated wreck of a 1930s car. We then headed over to the other side of the peninsula, to Kalawao, where the first settlement and Father Damien's main place of activity used to be before being moved to the leeward side of Kalaupapa. En route the guide also pointed out ruins of a former leprosy study station as well as some ancient indigenous Hawaiian archaeological relics from earlier times before the establishment of the leper colony in the 19th century. At Kalawao we took a lunch break – at an overlook opening to a view that could hardly be any grander: the northern Molokai sea cliffs , at 2000-4000 feet (600-1200m – sources vary in the actual figures given) they are the largest in the world! They're covered in lush rainforest green and accompanied by little islets and steep sea stacks that jut out from the sea like giant sharks' teeth. If you want the ultimate million dollar view in Hawaii , this has to be it! Hard as it was, eventually we had to drag ourselves away from this killer view and get back on our bus. The next stop was just a few hundred yards up the track: St Philomena church with the original grave of Father Damien in the cemetery next to it. Inside the church is a wooden bust of the man. You can tell that the church had been refurbished not too long ago (in 1988), after it had been abandoned since 1932. This church is actually the only remaining building of the old Kalawao settlement still standing. But a plaque outside the church has a map and information about this first Molokai leper colony and its history. On the way back we passed another small church, an ex-cemetery and viewpoints that afforded great views into one of the steep-sided valleys that cut deep into the high cliff face. The bus took us back to Kalaupapa settlement and past the seaside stretch of graves by the road to the airport, where those taking a plane were dropped off. The rest of the group, i.e. those on mule rides, and one brave hiker, were then driven back to the foot of the cliffs to the bottom of the track (see access There was another long wait for the plane – and we could take our time enjoying the views, including that of the tall white lighthouse that stands as a beacon at the northern tip of the Kalaupapa peninsula. The plane finally arrived and soon we were taking off – and were in for one more special treat: the plane swept north and east before turning back south-west towards O'ahu, so that we could get one last and even more glorious view of the north Molokai sea cliffs in all their breathtaking glory. on a peninsula on the northern coast of Molokai island, Hawaii Google maps locators: Access and costs: quite restricted, by organized guided tour only; together with transport these can be very expensive. Details: There is no general public access to Kalaupapa at present (unless through a personal invitation by a resident). The only feasible way for tourists to get there is through an organized tour. The tours of Kalaupapa itself are offered by a single operator, Father Damien Tours. Taking this tour is mandatory when visiting the site – you are not allowed to wander around freely. (This is at the residents' request.) Nor can you make your own way to Kalaupapa and just turn up – without the pre-arranged permit, access will be denied. For getting there, i.e. to the starting points(s) of these tours, there are basically three alternatives: The most convenient, comfortable and least time-consuming way is flying in: Damien Tours arrange combined tour packages with a small charter flight carrier operating out of Honolulu airport, on O'ahu. These packages cost 298 USD per person (at the time of writing). There are also flights from Maui, and even though the distance is shorter, these are even more expensive (ca. 400 USD). Flights can also be arranged from Molokai itself, but these do not seem to be available all the time, and flights and the tour may have to be booked separately. Enquire with the operators. The main other mode of getting to Kalaupapa is by mule! The famed Kalaupapa Mule Rides depart from a stable on topside Molokai and proceed down a ca. 3.5 mile (ca. 5 km) steep path with 26 switchbacks. At the bottom you'll join the mandatory Father Damien Tour of the settlement itself. The package of both together (tour and return mule ride) costs ca. 200-250 USD. You can book this either through Father Damien Tours or direct with Kalaupapa Mule Tour. For both mule ride and flying in, a weight restriction of 250 lbs (ca. 113 kg) applies, and that more strictly for the mules .. by plane there may be the option of still going, but a surcharge may apply to overweight passengers, whereas the mules will not carry anybody heavier than the stated limit. Finally, there is also the option of hiking the mule track on foot. Needless to say this is a demanding hike so you'll have to be in very good physical shape to attempt this (take plenty of water! … and food, as well as sunscreen). This is, however, the cheapest way. Costs for the tour and park entrance fees/permit when hiking are between 55 and 70 USD. There is also the option of combing these different modes of getting there, e.g. take the mule ride down and fly out. Prices for these combinations have to be enquired about with the operators. Tours only operate Monday to Saturday – the park is CLOSED to all visitors on Sundays! The complete package for flying in and for the mules rides is scheduled for 8 a.m. to 3 p.m.; but be at the airport (or the mule stable) about half an hour earlier; and be prepared for delays. Whether tours run or not is also weather-dependent. If the weather is too bad, they may have to be cancelled – this applies especially to flights. These can be very bumpy at the best of times, but strong winds can make landing at Kalaupapa impossible. When I did the fly-in package the plane did not depart from the general international/domestic airport of Honolulu but from the charter flight company's own private terminal on the other side of the airport complex. Father Damien Tours offer free pick-up and transfer from your hotel – provided it's on their list of hotels in Waikiki or Honolulu. Since I wasn't staying at any of those (but in Aiela), I had to make my own way there (I was given directions over the phone the day before). When starting the tour from Molokai you have to make your own way to the mule ride stables, or you can get a taxi from Molokai airport (ca. 30 USD). In any case, book well in advance, as places on the tours, seats in the small aircraft and numbers of mules are strictly limited! (18 mules, ca. 12 seats on the planes, and the maximum total number allowed on the tour is 100). There is also an age restriction: you have to be over 16 years to be allowed on any of these tours. Within the Kalaupapa settlement there is a code of conduct in place which prohibits, for instance, taking photos of residents. A respectful behaviour is generally expected of everybody going there. Time required: basically the best part of a whole day. The guided tour on the ground may be only a few hours, but getting there and back will take at least as long. Obviously, if you're hiking this will take the longest, though mule rides aren't speedy either. When flying in, you have to factor in long waiting times until the groups meet and the tour as such commences. This is not a tour for impatient people! Combinations with other dark destinations: see under Hawaii Combinations with non-dark destinations: Arguably, it is the stunning scenery that is one of the main reasons for coming here, so Kalaupapa itself provides the non-dark combination. The rest of Molokai also has a few things to offer, especially to those who prefer a slow-paced, relaxed island atmosphere and an off-the-tourist-tracks remoteness. The eastern half of the island has the wilder, more tropical scenery, with Halawa Valley possibly the highlight (thanks to a picturesque waterfall). In contrast, the western half of the island is more arid and much less dramatic in appearance, but it has the island's only resort hotel, complete with beach and golf course. Though if that's what you want you could just as well stay on O'ahu … See also under Hawaii - Kalaupapa 01 - the only land access to Kalaupapa - Kalaupapa 02 - along a steep zig-zagging mule path - Kalaupapa 03 - or you can fly in by small plane - Kalaupapa 04 - remote Kalaupapa airport - Kalaupapa 05 - no services - Kalaupapa 06 - the tour is by an old school bus - Kalaupapa 07 - the colony naturally walled in by high cliffs - Kalaupapa 08 - Father Damien monument - Kalaupapa 09 - Mother Marianne legacy too - Kalaupapa 10 - book shop - Kalaupapa 11 - church - Kalaupapa 12 - inside the church - Kalaupapa 13 - the current pastor giving a talk - Kalaupapa 14 - old car wreck - Kalaupapa 15 - Hawaii pidgin - Kalaupapa 16 - mango tree - Kalaupapa 17 - vestiges of the older settlement - Kalaupapa 18 - high sea cliffs to the east - Kalaupapa 19 - St Philomena church - Kalaupapa 20 - original grave of Father Damien - Kalaupapa 21 - cemetery with a killer view - Kalaupapa 22 - steep valley - Kalaupapa 23 - another cemetery in the current village - Kalaupapa 24 - yet more graves - Kalaupapa 25 - lighthouse - Kalaupapa 26 - super scenic, but super isolated - Kalaupapa 27 - the settlement seen from the air - Kalaupapa 28 - Molokai topside

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Will the Aral Sea ever come back? IN SEPETEMBER 1995, the presidents of the five republics which constitute the watershed of the Aral Sea - Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan met in Nukus, the capital of Karakalpakstan, the autonomous republic of Uzbekistan (the worst affected by the tragedy). This was the fourth meeting of the presidents within three years. The objective - to deal with the Aral Sea crisis and effectively try and contain the terrible after-effects of this gigantic ecological disaster. The meeting was preceded by an international conference where the presidents called upon the international community to help them save the Aral Sea. A resolution was taken up to formulate a regional treaty to share the waters of the rivers feeding the Aral Sea. Since these states were until recently part of the former Soviet Union, non-governmental oTganisations have rarely been involved in ecological work. But Significantly, for the first time, on paper at least, the official Nukus Declaration stated government intent to provide space for NGOS to be involved in the revival of the Aral Sea. The conference laid bare all the elements of the crisis - the need for humanitarian aid, the need for plans to move towards humanitarian aid, to move towards "sustainable development" and ecological restoration. But the one question uppermost in the minds of concerned environmentalists - Will the Aral Sea ever recover its former glory? - remained unanswered! The genesis The quest for self-sufficiency is indisputably a lofty goal, a meaningful aspiration, especially when it seeks to change the destiny of a land and its teeming millions. But sometimes when dreams run contrary to reason, failing it) take cognizance of ground realities and existing truths, the outcome can be devastating. The Aral Sea crisis is one such disaster. A colossal blunder borne of short-sighted planning triggered by nothing but an all-consurning concern for self-sufficiency. Ever since Lenin had decreed in 1919 that USSR Should become self-sufficient in cotton, the country"s central planners concentrated on cotton production. A process that set into motion a series of chain reactions leading to a calamitous, culde-sac gateway to eventual catastrophe. The future as perceived by the Soviet planners, lay in the development of ambitious irrigation schemes that would milk the rivers to quench the growing, almost insatiable demands of cotton production. And if at the end of it all a sea was to be The mighty Aral Sea: paying the dues of dreams gom awry sacrificed, what of it? So the Aral Sea was made to pay for I consequences of mega planning that paid no heed to"ecolo) cal considerations. One of the most ancient lakes on earth, the Aral Sea Which is bounded by three deserts and shared by the five newly independent republics of Central Asia, bad been ussR"s Second largest inland waterbody and the world"s fourth largest intand sea. Fed mainly by two rivers - Amu Darya and Syr Darya A which collect the runoffs and glacier melts from the Pamir arki Two Shan mountains of Tajikistan and Kyrgy7stan - the.A had an average depth of 16 metres and a maximum depth of 68 metres with a salt content of I per cent only. It had abu4 dant fish resources and a busy shipping trade extending from its northern port of Aralsk in Kazakhstan to the river ports of Amu Darya, some as remote as Tajikistan. But all this was about to change. The Aral Sea and the adjoining tract of Central Asia were Soon to feel the effects of these changes. More than three-quarters of the territory in Central Asia is desert lowland, part of a closed basin with no open sea or ocean outlet. Its hydrological cycle is strongly affected by the prevalent climatic features. There is very, little rainfall in the lowland land plains as all the monsoon-bearing winds from the Indian ocean to the south are blocked by the high Himalayan Peaks.The high temperatures, low humidity and high solar Tradition combine to create very high evaporation rates. The fertile irrigated land between the two rivers is an Ancient area of human settlement and has a history of approxImately 3500 years. Sophisticated water distribution systems it ma&tion here, especially in the regions of and and Fergana. Archaelogical research has w vraerns that irrigated millions of hectares. mom o( water was locally managed by village obach allocated and controlled water use and also enforced waterlaws. According to tradition, users of irrigation water took partin the construction and maintenance of irrigation network. When Russians conquered the Khanates of Turkestan (now,central Asa) in the late 19th century, they introduced " wduvAogies aml began large-scale cotton cultivation 16 dhe consolidation of Soviet power in the "20s, extensively developed in suitable areas. Sovictisation led to a diminished appreciation by the inhabitants of the precious character of its water resources. As recently as the late"50s, most surface water for irrigation came from smaller streams and only about 15-17 per cent of the Amu and Syr Darya flows were used for irrigation. Because of the low level of irrigation, the volume of the Aral Sea basin was more or less in equilibrium, the evaporation from the surface being counterbalanced by the river inflow, groundwater aquifers and rainfall. The volume of water fluctuated by only 100- 150 cu krn and the surface area by 4000 sq km. Sponging of a sea When the decision to divert the waters of the two major rivers feeding the Aral Sea, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, was implemented, the fate of the once mighty Aral Sea and the inhabitants of the region was sadly, and irrevocably sealed. These diverted waters were to irrigate the ancient steppes (grasslands) of Central Asia which had traditionally supported shepherds and nomads. But the Soviet planners were fully aware that this diversion would eventually starve the Aral Sea and compel it to shrink. They therefore had a contingency plan up their sleeves - the waters of the Siberian rivers flowing into the Central Asian region would be diverted to the Aral Sea to bolster the loss of Amu Darya and Syr Darya river flow. However, while the Central Asian irrigation plan went on stream, the plan to divert the Siberian rivers encountered stiff opposition from several ecologically concerned Soviet scientists. Struck down by the sheer vehemence of such over- whelming protest, the planners backed off leaving the poor Aral Sea to face the brunt of a decision that was to recoil most tragically on its perpetrator and victims alike. The excessive use of water for irrigation of cotton and rice fields upstream had its inevitable consequences - the sea level began to decline. In fact the total volumeofwaterin theAralSea is nowa quarterofivitatitused to be while the salt concentration has increased. Meanwhile the irrigation schemes continue to affect the water flow of all the rivers; it has sponged away more than 90 per cent of the natural flow of water from the Tian Shan (formerly known as Tien Shan) mountains. Riverflow in the lower course of the Syr Darya came down to zero in the late "70s and the Amu Darya flow has reduced to just 5 cu kno of water a year. In some dry years in the "80s no water flowed into the Aral Sea at all. Once coastal towns like Muynak and Aralsk now have very little water, As a result of this water crisis, the sea level which had remained almost constant in the two centuries prior to 1960 at about 53 metres has fallen by more than 12 metres and the surface area has nearly halved. The seashore has receded dramatically along its shallow eastern bank, in some places, more than 120 kin away. The three worst affected areas as a result of this ecological change are the province of Dashkovuz in Turkmenistan, the autonomous republic of Karakalpakstan in Uzbekistan and the province of Kzyl Orda in Kazakhstan. Almost 3 million people living in the regions adjoining the Sea, and dependent on the quality of natural resources for their survival and livelihood, now face a serious crisis because of the ensuing destruction and toxification. According to a World Bank official, ifpresent trends continue, the Aral Sea will most probably disappear in 20 years time. The exposed sea bed which covers an area of 33,000 sq krn is today like a vast sandy desert being eroded by strong winds, everyday. On this clesertified former seabed, a white alkaline soil has developed. It is estimated that 200,000 tonnes of toxic salt and sand are carried away every 24 hours and deposited over a wide area, posing a serious threat to the plants and soils in the agricultural areas of the basin. Inevitably, a catastrophe of such major dimensions is bound to throw established patterns of life and its environment out of gear. For instance, agriculture, the mainstay of the region"s economy has been hit badly by the sudden change in climate. Scientists believe that the rainfall patterns in the mountainous regions of Central Asia may be altered by the destruction of the Sea. Winters have in any case become colder and summers hotter as average seasonal temperatures have shot up by almost 20c. As a barrier against cold winds from the north and hot winds from the south, the Aral Sea originally had a substantially moderating function in the regional climate, serving as a catalyst for formation of clouds due to the masses of water vapour rising from its surface. This moisture replenished the ice and snow of distant mountains, completing the region"s water cycle. The microclimate of this region has become much more continental - hotter summers, cooler winters, less rainfall and lower humidity- These climatic trends have reduced the growing season, as a result of which cotton cultivation is becoming increasingly risky and is being replaced by rice paddies. Biodiversity ... on the verge of extinction One-sixth the area of USSR, yet boasting of one half its biodiversity, the Aral Sea basin had developed a wealth of biodiversity comparable to that of Africa! But today, at stake are the lives of more than 500 species of birds, 200 species of mammals, 100 species of fish and tens of thousands of insects and other invertebrates in Central Asia. The drying of the Aral Sea, its riverine deltas and surrounding wetlands has resulted in vast changes in the habitat for plant and animal life. The lakes and bogs which earlier covered an area of 300,000 ha in the western and central areas of the Amu Darya delta have been replaced by thick salt marshes and salt flats. Reeling under the impact of this destruction are the region"s wealth of wildlife, its flora and fauna related to the water habitats. Among the endangered species are the Saigak antelope, the Asian wild burro and several others. It is estimated that of the original 179 animal species of the riverine deltas, only 38 remain. The watery ma7.e of the riverine deltas once hosted large populations of boar, deer, muskrat and egret, which have now all but disappeared. Numerous species in the Aral Sea have already become extinct. The high salt concentration of the sea has become too much for the fish and other flora and fauna to survive. All the commercial 20 species of fish that were once harvested from the Aral Sea have disappeared. The dry seabed and deltas are now being taken over by rodents and other desert species known to be disease carriers. Desertification has replaced large areas of water-retaining black saxual trees, water-fringing tugay forests and reeds with salt and drought-resistant plants. The tugay forests consisting of dense groves of water-loving plants have been refuge to a wide variety of flora and fauna. But the extent of these forests has been reduced to 10 per cent of what it was in the early part of this century. Cry, the beloved country! When the beneficiaries of the irrigation schemes have now begun to feel the bite of ecological changes, how weighed down and desecrated would the land itself feel as the sudden, cruel winds of change strip it so completely of its natural resources? Turkmenistan, the hottest and driest of the Central Asian states, was once dominated by a pastoral culture like other Central Asian states. Its land use was converted to irrigated agriculture with the extension of the Kara-Kum canal. The population has increased and there has been a growing imbalance between the native skills of the people and the skills of irrigated agriculture required to maintain the productive capacity of the land. Many irrigated lands close to Tedzhen on which cotton was grown in the 1980s, now lie totally abandoned. Kazakhstan, the eight largest country in the world with an area of 270 mha (almost equal to India) is suffering from serious forms of land degradation. Overuse has resulted in the loss of nearly 30 per cent of humus content of most agricultural lands. A substantial amount of land has also been conta minated by atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons Waterlogging, salinisation, poisoning by pesticide are only some of the effects unleashed by human thoughtlessness on this unsuspecting land. Poor drainage has also caused the water table to rise in many areas. The declining flow of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers has meant that nearly all the salts that the river waters once washed away from the fields and deposite in the Aral Sea are being deposited in the basin itself, including the precious irrigated lands. The ecological disaster had evidently turned a vicious, full circle. The very crop for which the entire scheme was begun is today adversely affected by the scheme. Part of the problem of the Aral basin arises out of the extremely inefficient use of irrigation water. While cotton plants need only 8,000- 10,000 cubic metres (cu in) of water per hectare, average water withdrawal per hectare was as high as 18,700 cu in / ha at one time. This overuse of irrigatiall water has led to heavy salinisation of croplands which nunica that all new fields have to be heavily washed to leach out dif salts and almost all irrigated lands have to be periodically leached. But poor drainage makes the leaching process less effective and wastes further quantities of water. Once known" as the"whitegold", cotton todayparadoxically enough, symbolize the ecological woes of the country. It is not just water that was over-liberally used on the cotton farms of Central Asia. These fields were also indis criminately daused with poisonous chemicals. Huge quanti- ties bertiocides and pesticides were used to combat pests and diseases whiich had acquired immunity due to monocultural Bv the end of 1980, more than 3 cu.km. of drainage cmatxnanated with agricultural chemicals from Uzbek pirlixern fwIds was being annually dumped into the Amu Goaltv affet:ting the downstream water users and the Hes" quantities of fertilisers were used to provide so the exhausted and overwashed soils and defoliants said ersnivuvelv to ease mechanical harvesting of cotton wunnit the leaves. The effects of these chemical overdoses on women and children who continue to manually harvest muchof &t cotton crop is yet to be established. Water pollution is the main cause of the high incidence of Typhoid,hepatitis and other intestinal infections. Not an Unexpected development at all, considering that in manyareas Sewage is discharged into natural or artificial water bodies. drinking water sources have been poisoned by pesticides excess salts, agricultural runoffs and pr waser Worse, only 2.3 per cent of settlements in the mt kral region have centralised water supply, leaving man of the people to depend on contaminated wells or meals. These highly polluted waters contain phenols, nitrogen compounds, pesticides, organic matter and sulphates up to 10 times the maximum permissible concentration by USSR standards. Local concentration in small water bodies and drainage channels are often much higher, Mineral content of drainage from fields is often as high as 15 gin / hire. In fact, over half of the water centrally supplied by the government to rural areas in the four provinces of Uzbekistan, does not meet the government"s own bacteriological and chemical standards! A question of survival now With the closure of fishing and shipping industries, all related economic activities too have collapsed. Total job losses in the fisheries sector of the Aral zone are estimated at a staggering 60,000 since 1950. An idea of the acute devastation that has engulfed this region can be obtained by the picture that the former fishing town of Muynak which lay on the shores of the Aral Sea, presents today. Its population has declined from 45,000 in 1960 to 27,000 in 1994 (see box on Muynak). Other nearby towns and villages too have had to watch in mute horror, the devastation of their economics with no prospect of new industries or any other alternatives coming in. The highest level of unemployment in Kazakhstan is in the Aral Sea region and amounts to approximately 17.5 per cent. Women have been specially affected. Almost half of them are presently unemployed. Youth unemployment has reached new highs. Alcoholism, crime and other aberrative trends have begun to destroy the traditional lifestyle of the region. Emigration appears the only answer for many people. Says an UNEP report, "There is hardly any other region on the planet, except perhaps Chernobyl, where a profound environmental crisis has affectedsuch largeareas, and the lives of so manypeople." Viewed from a short-term perspective, the bargain of sacrificing the Aral Sea for cotton production may have looked profitable, but its long-term costs are only now beginning to be paid by the people of Central Asia. Rearing its ugly head .... disease and health problems Although the relationship between environmental degradation and various illnesses in the region have yet to be conclusively proven, the links are undeniable. Poor nutrition, unsafe drinking water, lack of hygiene and health care are indisputably major contributory factors in the increasingly failing health of a tragically afflicted people. The damaging effect of the salt, dust and poison-laden air from the exposed sea bed on health and living conditions can no longer be denied. People living along the Amu Darya and Syr Darya are further affected by heavy pesticide residues in their drinking water. The abnormally high levels of infant mortality and morbidity in the Aral region are clear evidence of dangerously poor health conditions. As a UNDP publication puts it, "Illness rates are appalling, and infant mortality rates are the highest.." Today anaernia, tuberculosis and cancers are rife in the region, occuring at levels far higher than elsewhere in Central Asia. Many children are born with defects. Poor quality drinking water is linked to growth in serious diseases like hepatitis, typhoid, throat cancer, liver ailments, kidney failure, gallstones and birth defects along with high mortality whose rates in the Aral Sea area of Uzbekistan increased by 20 per cent from 1980 to 1989 and have consistently been the highest in the republic. The Aral Sea region suffers the highest infant mortality rates in the former Soviet Union: reported figures in the late 1980s were as high as 60 in Karkalpakstan and 75 in Dashkhovuz province in Turkmenistan as compared to the USSR-wide average of 25. These negative changes in the health situation have become particularly noticeable in the last 10 years. Ninety per cent women of Karakalpakstan have been particularty hard-hit by disease, specialty anaernia, contributing to both maternal mortality and the ill-health of newborns. Maternal mortality in the region - estimated at 120 per 100,000 live births in Karakalpakstan - is also higher than the average in the country while nutritional deficiency problems are widespread. This is partly because important foods are no longer locally produced and are therefore not available or are too expensive because land traditionally devoted to fruit and vegetables has been turned over to cotton. Diseases of the respiratory tract have been attributed to decreasing humidity levels, dust storms from the poisoned seabed and contact with pesticide and defoliant residues. "Our people are dying like flies," claims Oral Ataniyazova, a Nukusbased gynaecologist and obstetrician, who now runs a NGO (See Interview on page 54). She holds the high levels of heavy metals, salts and toxic substances like organochlori4c pesticides in drinking water and vegetables largely responsible for this depressing state of health. In a paper presented at September Nukus conference, Ataniyazova presented data on women"s health based on a record of all births C Muynak during 1990-91. Her study revealed that the area is marked by severe reproductive problems of anaemia haemorrhaging during the birth process, late deliveries, and a peculiar newborn pathology where the infant birth weight is 4.5 kg or more. Ataniyazova does not agree with the view that anaemia due t9 a diet deficient in iron. Since Karakalpakstan was designated by the USSR health ministry as an area deficient in iodine adequate supplements of iron, vitamins and iodine had bem made available to all pregnant women. Moreover, the drinking water in any case contains iron. Diet, according to her, had not changed in more than 10 years and yet anaemia rose from 17 per cent in 1982 to 89 per cent in 1992 according to statistics provided by the Karakalpaki government. Ataniyazova argues that the greater frequency of "severe anaemia" in Muynak shows that environmental condition there may be a factor, and this could be because of the rise in pollution with trace metals. A recent study from Bulgaria has also shown that anaernia was.associated with higher lead sure of women living in the vicinity of smelters. In even 75 per cent of infants and over 80 per cent of found to be anaemic. The high proportion of very large babies in and the longer gestation period, in Ataniyazova"s point is not a healthy sign. This may reflect a in endocrine function. Her research suggests that mother"s thyroid function can be compromised chronic exposure to high levels a mixture of pollutants. S. concludes, "the idea that big babies are better may riot be valid in an area of extreme and unrelenting pollution." Not everybody in the medical profession is, however, convince that these complications arise from environmental pollution. A cautios tious official Of WHO, its execul director for health and envir ment, W Kreisel, told the Nuku conference that while, "for solf of these diseases, an environ mental etiology is clear ---for others, direct environmental causation may be suspected or lei direct environment-health links assumed." Nevertheless, he agree that there is an urgent need to improve the quality and availability of information on evi ronment wind health in the region. Notwithstandihg all the health afflictions set loose by this crisis ,"The ecological disaster that has occured in the Aral Sea region,"according to Ataniyazova, "provides a tragic but unique oppertunity to observe the human capability to reproduce under extreme circumstances." It is indeed an irony of their lives that even as they have Welcome independent and sovereign republics, the people of Central Asia have to face up to the acute reality of their existence Wiff resource base which they share with each other & can only be managed properly on an integrated oleo the Central Asian republics establish economic pI mechanisms for effective use and sharing of In sesources, their ecological and economic condition We moo a deeper and deeper crisis. It is to the credit membership of these states that they have moved fast pda* this fact and have set up several intergovernmental stra Mres to coordinate all efforts. "Just as we maiwai in recent years, we can easily see water wars in the future," said ambassador Bo Kjellen of Sweden who has been deeply involved with the negotiations on the UN desertification convention. The governments of the Aral basin are confronted by two significant challenges. One, reaching a lasting consensus on the allocation of the scarce life-giving water in a region with rapidly growing needs, and two, finding a strategy for each country to ameliorate the environmental consequences of past unsustainable policies. Co-operation among the five states is critical for the management of the Aral basin. Water-rich Kyrgyztan and Tajikistan contain the sources of Amu Darya and Syr Darya (together with Afghanistan across a short stretch of the border), while Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan share the lower reaches. The Aral Sea itself is shared by Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Water storage for power generation and deterioration of water quality in the upper reaches have severe consequences for agriculture, industry and human needs in the lower reaches. During the days of the Soviet Union, several matters were much easier. For example, Kyrgyzstan would release water from its Toktogul reservoir in summer for similar situation exists with the hydroelectric reservoirs in Tajikistan. A 1992 agreement acknowledges the need for equitable use of water resources and the mutual responsibility of the five nations for rational utilisation and protection. It is widely recognised that a functioning legal system is necessary for the effective management of natural resources, but adaptation of laws from the Soviet system to the new cultural and political climate of the region is a difficult, complex and time-consuming task. The land question Given the experience of India and other countries, it is possible to argue that sustainable development is not possible without sustainable land-use. The Aral basin is not the only dryland region of the world which has suffered acutely from the conversion of grasslands and nomadic lifestyles to irrigated agriculture and settled cultures. Take Uzbekistan"s land-use statistics. Of the total 44.46 million hectares of land Uzbekistan, 61 per cent is used for agric tural production. Of the latter, only 12.26 per Salinisation: cent is irrigated agricultural land, on which considerable attention was focussed in Nukus. Sadly, hardly any attention is being paid to the 83.33 per cent of this agricultural land which is used as hayfields and pastures. Already, the pasture 14nds of the region are in a highly degraded state according to a World Bank paper. Erosion is taking place at an alarmingly high level in the Southern Kazakhstan steppe and in mountain valleys as overgrazing has left the soil compacted and degraded the vegetal cover. Further, the severity of degradation in most of the and near water sources occurs due to the accumulation of animals. These lands then get heavily eroded by wind and water. It is obvious that the tiny irrigated lands and their efficient use can only be a part of the solution. As the region"s population grows - and it is growing quite rapidly - more food will be needed and since the region is very dry, more water will be needed to farm the lands. Thus, 40 years later, all the water saved through efficient water management will once again be harnessed to meet basic needs. The question that many environmentalists in the Thar desert of India have raised - should the irrigation waters from the Himalayan mountains be used to convert grasslands to irrigated farmlands or should they be used to strengthen the original land-use of pastoralism by irrigating grasslands (which requires very little water) and stablising and enhancing taking its toH of life, land and industry animal care activities - is a question that is equally relevant Central Asia. But these are perspectives that will not emergency from Western ecological consultants who give advice to World Bank since these viewpoints as a whole are too alien as far as they are concerned. These are issues that must organise cally emerge from the people of Central Asia themselves if the wish to acquire any strength or roots. Closely related to the question of land-use is the issue 0f traditional knowledge. Neither the governments not emergency have accorded any attention to this point. This is an ancient region which once had highly developed and independent CA tures. Those cultures must have developed a lot of knowledge about their natural resources and management technique Today, that knowledge needs to be carefully brought to fore as it can provide numerous answers to the difficult issue of sustainable land-use. It is indeed strange that even when independent nations turn to their traditions, tracing their ecological roots rarely receives much priority. The third and most important issue for Central Asians - who gave the world the concept of the mohalla (urban commi. nity) - is the recreation of a strong civil society, a feature totally destroyed by the Soviet rule. No matter how massive the invest ments to improve the living standards of the people or restore the ecology, unless local communities and citizens" groups are Once again empowered and supported to participate in and determine natural resource management, there can be no guarentee that future state decisions will not rock the boat again Creeping environmental problems will be noticed as and acted upon only if local democracy and transparency were to prevad. To begin nationhood with such a heavy burden of ecological destitution is not an enviable situation. India got rid of the British newtv 50 years ago but much of the ecological and cul- dawaction that the colonisers had wrought upon India to be reversed. Besides, India did not have a disaster of such horrendous proportions. The Central Asians indeed, face a formidable if not daunting task ahead. The World Bank is very clear in its mind that reforms Together with effective regulatory mechani -sms are critical for Nowmal mource management. In a paper presented at Obho an ip , ice, Milka Kirova of the Aral Basin Unit of hiloW stated, "In the Aral Sea region, the problems dffam and sustainable use of land and water will have 10mgypeacbed by budding incentives, regulating undesirable and changing institutions." The main focus of me developed by the World Bank, UNDP the assistance of the five Central Asian states, and the irrigation reforms is a key element of that the Bank is pushing. Most farming was and collective farms. Individual farming was sanaH household plots. Unfortunately, the of the five Central Asian nations do not allow of land- The best alternative then, according defined, secure and freely-transferable long-term rights. At present a number of restrictions on and-use apply, creating insecurity about land tenure, which prevents peasants from making appropriate investimate in the land. Apart from market reforms, the second key agenda that The UNDP at World Bank, international NGOs and the local NGOs pushed at the %ukus conference was people"s participa Tion. To participatory mechanisms, the Bank PW support to existing social scientist-NGO network to establish a network of local managers with sufficient capacity in participatory nasiagement. But not everyone is convinced is were keen to promote NGos and so participate in the management of natural NGOs present at the Nukus conference bas been dragging its feet on a number of Am are needed to promote the growth of the Aral basin countries. Several Central Asian s in legal terms like any commercial no separate legal registration and are not as a non-profit entity. And without regis camiot even open a bank account. Yet the NGO sector is a growing. Scientists like Oral Ataniyazova maintain they were able to do more as NGOS while ministering to the people in theregion, but others admit they have had to tread carefully so as not annoy the powers that be. The World Bank also wants water charges to be introduced together with improvements in water management, irrigation and drainage systems. As the Bank points out, "It is impossible to sustain agricultural production without irrigation in the Aral Sea basin. Therefore, it is extremely important to create incentives for efficient use of irrigation water since agriculture is the major water consumer in the region and the cause of pollution in the middle and lower reaches of the rivers." Notwithstanding all the parameters and conditions laid down by various bodies, the fact remains that there appears to be a lack of desire "to iave the Aral Sea itself, a fact that is evident in the emerging structure of the Aral Sea programme. A UNDP publication lists 8 components of the programme: new water legislation; water and environment monitoring; water and waste treatment and water management which will increase water flow; ecosystem restoration in the Aral seabed and riverine deltas; improvement of drinking water quality; improvement of upper watersheds; automatic river regulations systems and a development of regional institutions for basin ecosystem management None of these components add up to a clear and precise picture of what the Aral Sea will be like in the years to come. These efforts may improve living standards and agriculture in the region but what will they mean for the Aral Sea? Finally, there is a lesson worldwide for all those concerned about the environment. And that is of commodity prices. The former Soviet Union imposed commodity production on the region but never prepared to pay the full price, including the ecological costs of that production. Not surprisingly, the disaster that crept up on them, was slow, unseen and unheard of,in the corridors of power. It is a lesson for all nations to learn from in this age of globalisation. As a Dutch ecologist present in Will my Aral Sea ever be the Nukus pointed out privately, the crisis in Central Asia is so visible and stark only because we are dealing the unique situation of a closed basin. "If the North Sea was not an open sea, then all the poisons we have dumped in that sea would have created a very similar problem for the Dutch," he argued. And rightly so, as this would apply to numerous other countries too. All economic systems must learn to pay the ecological costs of their production and consumption. It is clear that the Soviet leaders just wanted to wear their cotton shirts far too cheaply. In the process, the Central Asians lost their shirts. Can the Aral Sea be saved? When the Aral Sea story broke across the world, the Washington Post wrote, "Saving the Aral is a now-or-never endeavour." The Germans rushed to provide funds for a small biological station in Muynak to monitor changes in the Aral. The grim truth behind theAral Sea crisis is that, while the situation calls for immediate succour, the solution would involve a long haul struggle. As Michael Glantz of the National Centre for Atmospheric Research in Colorado (USA) rightly observed, the Aral Sea crisis took 40 years in the making. Slow changes spread over a long time finally resulted in the mammoth set of problems that tilted the ecological balance of the region. Therefore, only "creeping environmental solutions" can help the Aral Sea crisis a they, could well take another 40 years. Can the Aral Sea wait for so long? As per the admission of a UNDP publication, "The Artic Sea crisis has been brought about through long-term neglect, of both the rivers" r. in supporting the ecologiM Can the Aral Sea be saved7 When the Aral Sea story broke across the world, the Washington Post wrote, "Saving the Aral is a now-or-never endeavour." The Germans rushed to provide ftinds for a small biological station in Muynak to monitor changes in the Aral.The grim truth behind the Aral Sea crisis is that, while the situation calls for immediate succour, the solution would involve a long haul struggle. As Michael Glantz of the National Centre for Atmospheric Research in Colorado (uSA) rightly observed, the Aral Sea crisis took 40 years in the making. Slow changes spread over a long time finally resulted in the mammoth set of problems that tilted the ecological balance of the region. Therefore, only "creeping environmental solutions" equilibrium of the sea basin the domestic needs of shol term planning. It is now ger ally acknowledged that excessive diversion of water agricultural purposes was I main contributor to the balart ing of the basin ecosystem The report further "However, it is probably Poll cally unrealistic to expect use to be reduced significanq& given the fragile state of regional economies. In order maintain even shrunken level would requirIv yearly inflow of 30-40 cu km amount of water which impossible to get without infla ting grave damage on regionji agricultural production." In economic terms it is simply impossible to reverse the land-use situation so dramaticatically that the Aral sea can be restored to its former glory. Worseaccording to one school of thought, it is now ecological impossible to recreate the Aral sea ecosystem that has been destroyed. In fact a senior World Bank official confided that since the Aral Sea was a saline lake and not a freshwater one, as the volume of water reduces the salinity levels increase killing all those species which were lonely tuned to the low salinity levels. Therefore, pouring in a lot of water now back into the A can only dilute the salinity and not revive either the destroyer life forms or the original ecosystem. Besides, bringing the All Sea back to its original glory would require at least 10 per cent more water than that formerly carried by the two rivers, Darya and Syr Darya. In any case it is a moot point which the two rivers have the same water conveyance capacity today . According to a UNDP publication, "The eventual cost of halting the degradation and repairing the damage win probably run into billions, spread over decades." Nevertheless the world owes the long suffering people of the region an answer But who will bell the cat? Who will tell the beleagured million that this human-made crisis may now now have gone beyond human redemption? Is the truth indeed the truth? That even Central Asia could once again free up its enslaved rivers, Aral Sea will probably never be the same again!

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The Fenian Cycle in Irish and Scots-Gaelic Literature, by Joseph J Flahive, Cork Studies in Celtic Literatures, 416 pp, €12, ISBN: 978-0995546905 The Early Finn Cycle, by Kevin Murray, Four Courts Press, 200 pp, €24.95, ISBN: 978-1846826306 Caoilte mac Ronáin of the Fianna once declared that if he had seven tongues in his head, he still couldn’t give a full account of all the virtues of Fionn mac Cumhaill. Writing a comprehensive guide to the vast extant body of texts, lore and traditions concerning Fionn seems an equally daunting prospect, but this is what the authors of the two books under review here have set out to do: Kevin Murray concentrates on early Fionn texts, that is to say up until the beginning of the Early Modern Irish period (c 1200), while Joseph Flahive’s book covers the entire manuscript tradition from the earliest mentions of Fionn up until the nineteenth century. The authors cover both primary sources and secondary commentary. Material dealing with Fionn is known as an fhiannaíocht in the Irish language and as the Fenian or Finn Cycle in English (Finn is an earlier spelling of Fionn): the English term derives from the literary critical concept of a literary cycle which is used to denote a group of texts that cohere with one another, taking place in the same world and featuring common characters and locations as well as shared references. The earliest reference we have to Fionn mac Cumhaill is a brief one in a poem by Senchán Torpéist which may date back as far as the seventh century, and in which he is depicted as belonging to an evil band of men who cause warlike brandishing from ships, a negative portrayal which may seem surprising to those more familiar with the later stages of the Cycle. Fionn’s Fianna are based on the historical institution of the fían that provided an outlet for the energies of young free-born men who had not yet come into their inheritances, allowing them to form bonds with people outside their own kinship groups and improve their hunting and fighting skills; the early law texts suggest that fíana also performed a role in maintaining law and order. They were, however, seen by the church as a disruptive force given to robbery and plundering, which would explain why such groups are vilified in early writings; it was only after the fían as an institution had disintegrated that a more accepting attitude towards fictional fíana could be permitted. Other fían-leaders besides Fionn feature in early Irish literature and thus Murray devotes a chapter to the best-documented of these, Fothad Canainne, demonstrating that he was the star of his own literary cycle, of which only fragments now remain, before being subsumed into the Finn cycle. There was also a regional component to the cultivation of the early Finn Cycle, one example being three interlinked tales probably of the eighth century and set around the river Suir near Cathair Dhún Iascaigh (modern-day Cahir, Co Tipperary) – Bruiden Átha Í (The Contention of Áth Í), Marbad Cúlduib (The Slaying of Cúldub) and the tale now known as “Finn and the Man in the Tree”. These, like many of the early Finn texts, are short but they are also highly allusive, open to multiple interpretations and rich in intertextual connections, as Murray deftly illustrates, and we are left in no doubt but that they represent the remains of a rich localised tradition. Murray takes the conventional view that the Finn Cycle remained in a relatively marginal position until the later Middle Irish period (the latter end of the period 900-1200), when it began to enter into the literary mainstream. Summarising the views of earlier scholars who have sought to explain this phenomenon and adding some further explanations of his own, Murray argues that this demarginalisation was a complex process driven by multiple factors, including the growth of dinnshenchas (lore of places) which features references to Fionn and his fían, the development of an ideology of national identity in the Middle Irish period which led to the Fianna beginning to be depicted as serving all of Ireland, the use of the Finn cycle as a means of interpreting contacts with the Vikings, the appropriation by the filid of syllabic metres previously cultivated by the lower poetic grade of the baird, and the contribution of oral tradition to the written tradition. Flahive, on the other hand, challenges the accepted view that the evidence we have for the early Finn Cycle is sparse: he argues that the main features that characterise the later tradition are evident from an early date. He remarks that seemingly obscure references to Fionn and his Fianna in non-literary texts such as glossaries and commentaries can, with careful study, add to our understanding of the Cycle at this early stage and reminds us of the possibility that there may be more early references to Fionn “lurking” in non-Finn Cycle texts in the manuscripts. Debate on the extent and prominence of the early Cycle is likely to continue and will be enriched by Murray’s forthcoming catalogue of the early Finn texts, which grew to such length that it could not, as originally intended, be included as an appendix to his book under consideration here. In Acallam na Senórach (The Dialogue of the Ancients), Fionn’s son Oisín and Caoilte mac Rónáin have survived into christianised Ireland. Caoilte journeys around the country revealing his knowledge of the landscape and recounting to Saint Patrick numerous tales from the Fenian past. Murray stresses the singular approach of the author of the first recension of the Acallam, which was compiled in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century: Though it is composed of traditional materials, the combination of its circular narrative, its pre-occupation with the politics (especially Church politics) of the day, and its juxtaposition and harmonisation of the views and role of the Church, the fían and the Otherworld inhabitants (the Túatha Dé Danann), is unique to its author. It is like using the stones of an Irish thatched cottage to construct a Swiss chalet: the materials may be the same and may be re-used with profit, but the construction methods and outlook of the builder are different. Our knowledge of the sources the author of the Acallam drew on is incomplete: he may have drawn on oral traditions as well as written texts that did not survive into the present. Murray suggests that the Kalevala, an epic of Finnish poetry compiled by Elias Lönnrot in the nineteenth century, might provide a model for understanding the approaches taken by the Acallam’s author over six hundred years earlier: this section of the discussion is brief but indicates that comparative studies of similarly compiled texts, both medieval and modern, could increase our appreciation of the achievement of the Acallam’s author. While the Acallam was indeed unique, it also had a great influence on the subsequent development of the Finn Cycle: later recensions of it were made and these continued to be copied in manuscripts up until the nineteenth century, undergoing continuous adaptation and modification to suit the needs of scribes and patrons. Flahive thus states that the Acallam may be classified as “more … a genre than a text”. Many consider the Acallam to be the most accomplished achievement in the whole of the Finn Cycle but Flahive takes a more nuanced view: the Acallam, he states, is the first unabashed celebration of the heroism of the Fianna and it is in it that the element of learned lore and placename lore in fiannaíocht receives its fullest treatment but, on the other hand, many of the most significant events in the lives of Fionn and the Fianna are not portrayed in the Acallam so it cannot be seen as the “focal point” of the Finn Cycle as the Táin might be for the Ulster Cycle. Readers or listeners were expected to draw on their own pre-existing knowledge of fiannaíocht in interpreting the Acallam, and the same applies for other Fionn poems and tales: [T]he sense of a continuous plot central to the whole cycle … primarily resides in the audience’s own structuring of the events [of a given text] in reference to the life of Fionn, to which any number of additional adventures may be affixed. The publication of Ann Dooley and Harry Roe’s translation of the Acallam under the name of Tales of the Elders of Ireland and as part of the Oxford World’s Classics series in 1999, means that it is more accessible to the general public than ever before. The Acallam has also received a good deal of attention from scholars in recent years: we now have a number of fine studies that elucidate its literary features and its historical background. However, we do not yet have a critical edition of the Irish text that draws on all five manuscript witnesses to the first recension and it is likely that study of the lesser-examined sources will lead to new developments in our interpretation of it. This question of sources is one that recurs frequently in both Murray and Flahive’s discussions of the Finn Cycle as a whole: there is still much work to be done in editing manuscript texts, painstaking but important work that does not always get the recognition it deserves from a modern university system focused on short-term outcomes. Tóraíocht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (The Pursuit of Diarmaid and Gráinne) is undoubtedly the best-known of the Fenian prose tales. One reason for its popularity, Flahive proposes, is that its love-triangle plot is reassuringly familiar to modern readers. The fact that numerous stone monuments around Ireland were thought to be resting places of the lovers and thus given the name “Leaba Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne” (“the bed of Diarmaid and Gráinne”) lends an added charm to this tale. Our earliest source for the Tóraíocht is a manuscript written by the scribe Dáibhí Ó Duibhgheannáin in 1651 but it is believed to have existed in the same form as far back as the fourteenth century. Flahive notes that the Tóraíocht is unusual among the Fenian prose tales in that it features the death of one of the main members of the Fianna, Diarmaid: the reason for this is that it draws on an inherited plot rather than being a story presented as happening at some point in the “heyday” of the Fianna, as is the case with the other Fionn prose tales. For those wishing to explore the background to the Tóraíocht in greater detail, Murray provides a useful overview of other narratives featuring Diarmaid and Gráinne, looking at texts from the Middle Irish period down to folklore collected in modern times. Flahive’s scholarly work on the Finn Cycle has focused on the Fionn poems or lays and they are treated at some length in his book. The lays were popular and were sung in Irish- and Gaelic-speaking districts of Ireland and Scotland into the twentieth century. Most but not all of the lays are later than 1200: Murray guides us through the early lay tradition, stressing the continuity between the medieval and modern poems. Flahive states that the lays were the most productive form of fiannaíocht from the end of the Middle Irish period until the eighteenth century. He places particular importance on the lays in the late fourteenth century Leabhar Ua Maine: whereas in earlier heroic verse, it was the norm to present lore as isolated information, in these lays, the lore is incorporated into a narrative tale. One of the lays in Leabhar Ua Maine, for example, tells the history of Oscar’s sword, which belonged to figures such as Saturn, Hercules, Caesar and Cú Chulainn before it came into his possession. The early sixteenth-century Book of the Dean of Lismore compiled mostly by James MacGregor, the dean of Lismore in Perthshire, Scotland and Duanaire Finn (Fionn’s Poem Book), written for the Antrim nobleman and soldier Somhairle Mac Domhnaill in Louvain in the Spanish Netherlands in 1626-27 are important sources for the lays. Duanaire Finn, Flahive reminds us, has an antiquarian focus and most of the lays it contains were already quite old at the time of its compilation: it features some lore poems of the type common in Acallam na Senórach but most of the lays it contains fall under the label of narrative heroic verse, which was to become extremely popular in later centuries. Duanaire Finn was moved to Rome at the time of the French Revolution, and smuggled out of the Vatican after the defeat of the Papal States in 1870 before it was brought to Ireland: Flahive notes that the lays in it depict a considerable number of milestones in the life of Fionn, many of which are not found elsewhere, so we are indeed fortunate that it survived its turbulent history. The contents of the Book of the Dean of Lismore are more modern than those of Duanaire Finn, even if it was written about a century earlier. The unusual system of orthography used in writing this manuscript is based on Lowland Scots rather than traditional Gaelic spelling meaning that specialised study is required before scholars can engage with the original texts. A half quatrain from an example cited by Flahive will suffice to show the difficulties: “Troyg lwm twllych ni faynith / Ag ni clerchew fa zeirse.” This can be transliterated into Gaelic spelling as “Truagh liom Tulach na Féine / ag na cléirchibh fá dhaoirse” (“It grieves me that the Hill of the Fian is subjugated by the clerics”). Flahive informs us that Donald Meek and William Gillies are preparing a new edition of the lays of Book of the Dean: this will be a boon to scholars and the public, as the existing editions do not represent the manuscript texts adequately. Manuscripts rather than printed books were the principal means of transmission of Irish-language texts until the time of the Irish Revival and Fionn lays and tales fill hundreds if not thousands of pages in these manuscripts. While literacy levels were low in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the custom of reading aloud from manuscripts meant that such texts could have a surprising reach. Flahive states that the literary tradition of fiannaíocht had ceased to be productive by the mid-eighteenth century but I would suggest that it is difficult to be certain about this given our present state of knowledge. From the early eighteenth century onwards, many of the Fionn lays were compiled as one text in the manuscripts under the title Agallamh Oisín agus Phádraig (The Dialogue of Oisín and Patrick). This dialogue is clearly inspired by the earlier Acallam but is more combative in tone as Oisín is reluctant to accept Patrick’s teachings. There are a number of versions of this Agallamh but the first copy of a particularly developed version first emerges in a Kerry manuscript written between 1775 and 1781. Some of the lays in this Kerry version of the Dialogue are old but many are not found in any earlier sources: it is, of course, difficult to date these “new” lays with any exactitude but the language in them does not appear to be very old and thus, a case could be made for this version of the Dialogue as evidence that the tradition still had some life in it towards the end of the eighteenth century. Unlike the recensions of Acallam na Seanórach, whose endings are lost or oddly abrupt, this version of the Dialogue depicts the end of Oisín’s dialogue with Patrick and the death of the former (Caoilte does not feature in this later Dialogue). It is also worth noting that many scribes who copied Fionn texts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries engaged with them in a highly creative manner, paying attention to the ordering and presentation of the texts in manuscripts and sometimes adding translations, glosses and interpretative notes. In traditional Gaelic culture, people believed that Fionn was a historical figure but this assumption could not remain unquestioned. Flahive remarks that the Annals accept the historicity of Fionn, providing him with an appropriate genealogy and gliding over the more fanciful elements of fiannaíocht lore. Geoffrey Keating (c1580-c1644) took a more forthright approach, stating boldly that certain elements of fiannaíocht were clearly fictional: “It is clear that the ‘shanachies’ do not, and did not, regard the Battle of Ventry as a true history, but that they are assured it is a poetical romance, which was invented as a pastime.” Yet Keating believed that there was a historical core to the Finn Cycle, and he incorporated many passages of fiannaíocht into his magnum opus, the Foras Feasa ar Éirinn (The Foundation for the History of Ireland). His views of the Fianna were held by many until the twentieth century. An interesting alternative view is to be found in the first full Gaelic-language printed book, Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh, a translation of the Book of Common Order published by the Protestant reformer John Carswell in Edinburgh in 1567. Carswell condemns the “unprofitable, annoying, lying, worldly adventures that were composed about the Tuatha Dé Danann, and the Sons of Míl, and about the heroes, and about Fionn mac Cumhaill with his Fiana”. Flahive suggests that Carswell may in fact have shared Keating’s views that there was a kernel of historical truth in these “worldly adventures” but Carswell’s aim in Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh was to contrast the futility of reading Fionn lore with the benefits of reading the Gospel. Following on from these two views on the historicity of Fionn, Flahive provides a concise account of the views of other historians and antiquarians on Fionn down to the twentieth century, an analysis which ties in neatly with both Flahive and Murray’s accounts of our present-day understanding of the origins of Fionn. Murray examines the parallels that have been drawn between Fionn and King Arthur, the otherworldly Welsh figure Gwynn ap Nudd, and the Irish god Lug, arguing that these allow us to better understand certain aspects of Fionn’s personality and his role in fiannaíocht narratives. In the early twentieth century, it was thought that Fionn might represent a euhemerised god but, as Flahive mentions, modern-day scholars tend towards scepticism on this question. Whatever about his origins and despite his extraordinary qualities and abilities, Fionn is depicted in the literature as a mortal man and a number of different accounts of his death are given, from the Middle Irish texts down to modern folklore. Murray notes that many of these accounts depict him as a feeble character hoping to die in one last blaze of glory. One cannot discuss the later Fionn lays without considering the influence of James Macpherson’s “translations” of the poems of Ossian (Oisín) which were published from the 1760s onwards, taking the London literary scene by storm. Macpherson’s poems of Ossian were in fact only loosely inspired by the genuine Fionn poems he would have had heard in the Scottish Gàidhealtachd: his translations were for the most part the product of his own imagination. Macpherson’s works also became popular in continental Europe and were translated into French, Dutch, German, Swedish, Latin, Italian and other languages; they influenced numerous writers, poets, composers and artists such as Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Ingres, Mendelssohn and Beethoven. This popularity was fleeting and Macpherson’s oeuvre is read by few people in any language today yet traces of the craze lived on long afterwards: this is why two nineteenth century kings of Sweden bore the Irish name Oscar (the son of Oisín) or why to this day, the Parisian perfumery Orizia sells a fragrance called “Rêve d’Ossian” (“The dream of Oisín”), inspired undoubtedly by Ingres’s painting Le Songe d’Ossian. Scholarship on Macpherson’s Ossian continues apace, exemplified by the Ossian Online project (http://ossianonline.org/), which aims to make all early editions of Macpherson’s publications available online as well as being a nexus for research on this topic. Because Flahive’s book deals specifically with “traditional” Fenian literature, publications in this area are outside his remit: his focus is thus on the effects of Macpherson on the understanding and transmission of the Finn Cycle within Gaelic and Irish-speaking areas. Flahive sees Macpherson’s legacy in Scotland as a “mixed blessing”: His works give a very distorted view of the Finn cycle, but on the other hand they had the effect of attracting attention to the genuine tradition, which meant that more poems and tales were collected and studied than might otherwise have been the case. Macpherson also had some influence on Scottish-Gaelic practitioners of Fionn lore: Duncan Kennedy, for example, in the eighteenth century made manuscripts containing “authentic traditional material alongside creative adaptations of original lays, in which he made the tone more like Macpherson’s”. Macpherson caused outrage in Ireland when he claimed that Fionn was originally of Scottish origin: this claim was of course rebutted by Irish scholars but it does not seem that Macpherson’s works influenced the style of Fionn lays in Ireland as happened in some instances in Scotland. However, I suggest that the influence of the controversies caused by Macpherson accounts to some extent for the concerns of nineteenth century scholars and editors regarding the authenticity of some of the later Fionn lays. Standish Hayes O’Grady (1832-1915) questioned whether “Caoidh Oisín i ndiaidh na Féinne” (“Oisín’s Lament after the Fianna”) was a genuine part of the tradition and there was also debate about the authorship of “Laoi Oisín i dTír na nÓg” (“The Lay of Oisín in the Land of Youth”). Both these lays date probably to the eighteenth century but in terms of content and style, there is a clear continuity between them and lays composed in earlier centuries. The plot of the latter lay is, of course, now probably better-known than any other: this is partly thanks to the fact that it was the inspiration behind WB Yeats’s poem “The Wanderings of Oisín”. Fionn was a complex character and while he receives great praise from Oisín and Caoilte, a less glorious side of his personality emerges occasionally: he is in some ways an eternal outsider, he can be cruel and vengeful, and his romantic relationships with women tend to be fleeting and unsuccessful. It is ironic that Fionn stories and lore are transmitted primarily through children’s books nowadays: there are quite a few Fionn tales that are distinctly unsuitable for younger readers. Of course, literary writers in both English and Irish have drawn on elements of the Finn Cycle too but such reworkings are outside the scope of the two books under consideration here. Murray and Flahive’s volumes are both written in a clear, lively style with substantial footnotes for those who want to delve deeper into any given topic. Murray’s book contains detailed studies of many early Finn texts, some of which have received little attention before now. Flahive’s book is more concise but no less valuable for that. The two books are best read in conjunction with one another and they will certainly be of great utility to anyone hoping to navigate the rich and complex world of fiannaíocht. Síle Ní Mhurchú is a lecturer in the Department of Modern Irish, University College Cork.

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You may design an entire outdoor seating area with a bit of imagination. Peter Donegan Landscaping used precise straight lines to create this multi-level raised bed. A lamppost and potting shed are included. You can make seats for the outside dining area by adding a bench piece similar to the one at the rear of the front bed. This garden will seem natural and rustic as the plants mature and the wood ages. Grow Bag Raised Beds Since raised bed gardens are well above the subsurface frost line, the soil warms up more quickly in the spring, allowing you to begin planting earlier. Your choice of bed material matters because metal retains more solar heat. However, grow bags are a fantastic alternative because their soil defrosts rather rapidly, and they don’t freeze solid. Furthermore, it is a fantastic technique to supply the heat required for developing Mediterranean plants like sage and lavender. Even while using grow bags might seem too simple, you might quickly have a substantially raised bed garden! Herb Spiral Garden Popular permaculture methods include spiral gardens. They expand the area that may be used for planting without taking up additional garden space. You can rapidly construct them out of brick, stone, or wood or just pile them up on the earth. An eye-catching focal point in your garden is created by the distinctive shape and swirl of plants. In this picture, herbs are the preferred plants, but you may use the spiral pattern to produce any kind of plant. Using animal feeding troughs to construct raised bed gardens is among the simplest methods. No assembly is required, but drill some drainage holes in the bottom before adding the soil. In addition to giving the park an industrial appearance, the metal transmits heat, warming the soil in the spring. Depending on the style you want, and what’s available, you can utilize either new or used troughs. Your choice of what to cultivate will determine whether the plants may need extra water during the hottest part of summer. Location and set-up For maximum plant health and productivity, most vegetables should receive at least eight hours of direct sunlight daily. The more sun, the better, so locating your garden in the sunniest part of your yard makes sense. Avoid low, moist areas where the ground might remain wet. You’ll need reasonably simple access to a hose because your garden has to be watered during the growing season. The most important component of a thriving garden is healthy soil. When you fill your raised bed, you immediately have an advantage over a typical garden. You can fill it with a soil mixture that is better than the local soil in your yard. Your plants’ roots will spread out freely in loose soil rich in nutrients and organic matter, giving them access to the water and nutrients they need to thrive healthily. Get rid of any perennial grass or weeds in the area before putting your raised beds in their final position. To increase drainage and moisture retention in the raised beds, loosen the native soil to a depth of 6 to 10 inches using a garden fork or shovel. Additionally, even in a raised bed that is only 5″ high, your plants will perceive a 12-18″ bed deep. Gives you enough room to grow full-size tomato plants, carrots, potatoes, and practically any other vegetable you could ever want. Raised beds’ drainage and moisture retention will both improve as a result. Buy your dirt in bulk, either by the cubic foot or cubic yard, if you’re filling more than one raised bed. Use the soil calculator to calculate the total amount of soil you’ll need for each bed. We advise these ratios in the majority of circumstances: - 60% of it is topsoil. - Compost makes up 30% - Potting soil, a soilless growth mixture made up of peat moss, perlite, and/or vermiculite, makes about 10% of the total. The volume of the soil varies depending on the source; remember that proportions are approximate. For example, if the calculator says your bed needs.444 cubic yards of dirt, go ahead and purchase a half yard. A 50/50 mixture of compost and soilless growth media (often referred to as “potting soil”). may be a suitable replacement if you do not have access to high-quality topsoil. Peat moss shouldn’t make up more than 20% of the whole mixture if you decide to add it to the bed. Due to its inherent acidity, peat moss is an unsuitable medium for growing crops. Plants for raised bed Given the right conditions, one of the most fascinating aspects of a raised bed garden is that practically anything may be grown there. Think of the opportunities! You want to think about a few things before choosing your plants. Here are some things to think about, as well as some suggestions for planting, in case you need some help. Oh, and if some plant names sound unfamiliar to you, don’t worry; they are all relatively common and simple to get wherever you buy your plants. Plant the kinds of veggies that you enjoy eating in your garden. If you like salads grow head lettuce, a lettuce cutting mix, cherry tomatoes, cucumbers, and carrots. Plant potatoes, onions, peppers, leeks, and herbs if you enjoy cooking. At least one veggie that is unfamiliar to you should be included. Half the fun is in the search. Simply described, perennial plants live for several seasons or longer. These plants come back on their own every year. Perennials including daylilies, lavender, oregano, rhubarb, raspberries, and hostas do nicely in raised beds. You should be aware that if you plant these in your bed, they will stay there for a long time (unless you choose to uproot them, of course!). What to plant The goal of raised bed gardening is to produce as much as possible. Growing as much food as possible while avoiding the urge to cram too many plants in is the problem. Because of the stress caused by inadequate air circulation and competition for water, nutrients, and root space, overcrowded plants can never attain their full potential. Although you may start most of the vegetables you wish to grow from seed in your garden, it’s often best to start with a plant. Usually, starting with a plant cuts down the amount of time needed to harvest by a month or more. A tomato or pepper plant starts from seed in the garden in a cold climate where the growing season may be fewer than 100 days and will not have enough time to mature before frost. Occasionally, purchasing a few plants rather than an entire packet of seeds makes more sense. If you’re only planting one or two of a particular vegetable (like broccoli or tomatoes). Root crops like carrots and beets, beans, peas, maize, cucumbers, squash, and salad greens are examples of vegetables that can be put straight into the garden from seed. These crops are sometimes sown directly because they do not transplant well, and placing the seeds where they will flourish is crucial. A packet of seeds is more cost-effective than several six-packs of lettuce seedlings for salad greens, which germinate and grow nicely. Potatoes can be cultivated from seed, although hardly anyone does. A new potato plant can be grown from a tuber rather than a seed more quickly and easily. You can also plant seeds of onions in your garden. Still, they often go in as plants or as “sets,” They come from the previous crop season and are little, mature onions. Typically, sets are also used to plant shallots and garlic. Leeks are planted as young plants in the garden. Some herbs should be planted, while others (like dill and cilantro) should be sown directly where they grow. When to plant When deciding when to plant your garden, there are several things to consider. The kind of plant you’re putting in comes first. Some plants, like broccoli and lettuce, can withstand chilly temperatures. Other plants, including basil and tomatoes, are susceptible to harm or death at temperatures below 40 degrees. The ideal time to plant any crop can be determined by consulting our Vegetable Encyclopedia. Frost dates and soil temperature are other crucial factors. The primary gardening season in planting zones 3 to 6 is between the first and last dates of the frost. The garden should not be used for cold-sensitive plants until all frost threats have passed. Depending on your growing zone, this typically falls between March and May. Check the USDA zone map if you don’t know your growing zone. If you cultivate in zones 8–10, heat rather than cold may dictate when to plant what. To avoid midsummer heat, gardeners in warm climates frequently plant in the fall rather than the spring. Others prepare for early fall and late winter planting seasons each year. Another crucial factor for planting time is the soil temperature. The majority of plants do best in soil that is between 60 and 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Some plants, such as spinach and peas, germinate and grow well in chilly (45°F) soil. Others, like melons and eggplant, require soil warmer than 60 degrees F to germinate or grow properly. For each crop, the Vegetable Encyclopedia offers planting advice. Tomatoes, peppers, squash, and maize are some vegetables that are usually only planted once each growing season. Other crops, like beans, peas, and salad greens, can be grown, picked, and seeded early, then grown again later in the season for a second harvest. To help you increase production, The Vegetable Encyclopedia offers crop-specific growing (and replanting) advice. The area must be thoroughly watered to a depth of several inches after the seeds have been sown. Until the seeds sprout and the young plants have developed their first sets of genuine leaves, the soil should remain constantly moist. Before the seedling inside can emerge, most seeds have a tough outer layer that must be softened for several days. The process will be stopped if the soil dries out during this time, and you might have to reseed. Garden cloth (or shade netting in the summer) can cover newly planted areas to keep the soil evenly moist. Once the seedlings are growing and the plants are established, this cover can be removed. Young seedlings should ideally be put in the garden under calm, cool, and rainy conditions. They will suffer if seedlings are planted on a sunny, hot, or windy day. After planting your fresh seedlings, give them plenty of water. Cover them for a few days with garden fabric if the weather isn’t cooperative. Before the plants can draw moisture and nutrients from the soil, they must have time to grow new roots. You might want to devise another solution to protect them from the sun and drying wind if you don’t cover them with garden fabric. For the first several weeks, ensure to water these young plants every day or every other day. Raised bed planting You’ve created the ideal vegetable garden with raised beds or repurposing an old item. The exciting part is about to begin: filling it. Later in the season, enjoy your abundant harvest. You can reach into raised garden beds to plant and weed, which is one of its advantages. You aren’t trampling the earth by going through the garden. Your garden soil will therefore continue to be beautiful and loose and friable. Planting raised bed vegetable gardens. Consider the sun’s direction before planting; you don’t want your taller plants to block out anything behind them. I once ignored the seed packet and planted zinnias in the front of my raised beds. The blossoms reached a height of almost three to four feet! Evidently, they weren’t of the attractive, low-mounding sort. Planting heat-loving fruit and vegetables like tomatoes, melons, cucumbers, squash, etc., needs at least six to eight hours of sunlight per day (preferably closer to eight). Whether sowing seeds or planting seedlings, read the seed packet or label tag carefully to know what conditions the plants need to thrive. Why plant intensively in raised beds? Intensive planting is a practice that minimizes the amount of open area weeds in the garden to thrive. When seedlings are planted closely together, the plants cover the soil like a living mulch, keeping it cool and lowering evaporation. Plants that do well when planted densely include lettuce, spinach, mustard greens, and arugula. Succession planting in raised beds So now we come to succession planting. There’s no reason why you can’t plant new vegetables where your spring harvests, like peas and root vegetables, were pulled out or where your summer garlic yield was taken out. Under your grow lights, you might wish to give seeds a head start. Remember the compost tip when planting: amend the soil to add some nutrients and boost a plentiful harvest. For a garden to thrive, the soil must be in good health. Tending your garden Planting intensively keeps weeds to a minimum. You may need to weed a little in the early spring every week, but your weeding chores should be over by midsummer. You should eliminate weeds as soon as they appear to prevent your vegetable plants from competing with them for moisture, nutrients, and root space. Watering duties should be modest once plants are well-established. A second midseason fertilizer treatment typically benefits crops that take three to four months to mature. Monthly water-soluble fertilizer benefits almost all plants, mainly if it contains humic acid, seaweed, and fish emulsion. These water-soluble nutrients are quickly absorbed by plants and support their continued health under stressful conditions. This is a simple method for reducing insect and disease issues. As soon as your garden produces food that appears fit for consumption, you can start harvesting it. Crops are often at their peak of maturity or just before when they are tastiest and most nutrient-rich. Eliminate any damaged or diseased plant material and any spent fruit or foliage. Keep a watch out for pests and take immediate action to resolve any difficulties. For some plants to develop properly and yield a decent crop, such as pole beans and most tomatoes, a cage, trellis, or other support is required. Additionally, plant supports save space, maintain order in the garden, and facilitate harvesting. To maintain their health and increase yield, you must fertilize your plants. We advise using an organic fertilizer that is granular, all-purpose, and repeated midway. You might also need plant ties, a watering bucket or wand, and garden cloth (row coverings) for transplanting and frost protection. See all of our raised bed gardening goods for further inspiration. Mother Nature would happily offer an inch of rain each week to keep our veggies and flowers happy in an ideal world. Because that’s probably not going to happen, we must ensure our plants get the water they need to thrive. A rain gauge will help you track how much rain has fallen, but that’s only part of the story. The capacity of various soil types to hold water varies. Because each tiny clay particle has a large surface area for the water to cling onto, clay-based soil hangs onto the water. Sandy soil, with its larger particles, allows for rapid water permeability. A healthy loamy soil drains well while also holding some moisture. Compost enhances the soil’s capacity to provide your plants with the ideal water. Sandal soil can be compared to a wire basket filled with golf balls: turn on the hose, and water will flow right through. Composting is similar to adding sponges; some water still passes through while some are captured by the sponges. Clay soils benefit from compost by becoming more aerated and having more excellent drainage. Plants may drown if the soil remains wet for several weeks because they absorb oxygen through their roots. Compost and raised beds can help stop this from happening. With your hands, you can measure soil moisture the most effectively. The soil should feel slightly damp—like a sponge that has been wrung out—when you press your finger into it. Don’t just feel the surface; dig your fingertips down to the root zone, about 3 inches deep, at least once per week. Plants may wilt during the warmest times of the day. This does not necessarily mean that they are dehydrated. Often, it’s only a technique for the plant to stop moisture from evaporating through its leaves. The actual tale can be learned from the dirt. In a raised bed garden, dense planting reduces moisture loss. Plants cover the soil’s surface and aid in wind protection for one another. Mulching around plants with 2-3″ of shredded leaves or straw is another effective way to maintain soil moisture and add organic matter. Suppose you decide that your garden does indeed require watering. You then have a few choices, Including a watering wand that will quickly deliver a significant amount of water to the desired location. If you are too busy to water during the week or will be away in August. You can purchase a water timer to activate a sprinkler or soaker hose. Drip irrigation systems with emitters leak water gradually at the soil level. They are a very efficient way to the water. Don’t let the soil dry out completely to keep your plants healthy and productive. If delicate root hairs die, the plant must direct its energy to re-growing them rather than producing fruit. Water-stressed plants can also become bitter and harsh.

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NACLA Report on the Americas, Spring 2012 Hundreds of demonstrators marched through the streets of Port-au-Prince, protesting the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Some held signs reading, “MINUSTAH and Cholera Are Twins” and “Haiti Without Occupation.” It was October 19, 2011—the one-year anniversary of the discovery of the first cholera case in Haiti in over a century. The disease has now killed 7,000 people and infected more than half a million. From the start, cholera victims, witnesses, and medical professionals had a hunch how the deadly epidemic had started. United Nations peacekeepers from Nepal, where cholera is endemic, had been seen dumping sewage into the Meille River, a tributary of the Artibonite, which provides drinking water to tens of thousands of people. Several scientific studies, and eventually a report from the UN itself, showed the clear link between UN troops and the cholera outbreak. This story is perhaps the most well-known of the scandals surrounding the 12,000-plus UN force in Haiti, which began following the 2004 coup against the democratically elected government of Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The outrage was given renewed publicity in November, when the Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti and the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux in Haiti filed a complaint at the UN seeking damages on behalf of 5,000 cholera victims. But reintroducing a devastating disease to a country woefully ill-prepared to contain it is just one of many crimes that have marked MINUSTAH’s seven years in Haiti. Others include the killings of civilians, rape, the impregnation of underage girls, and involvement in child prostitution. Yet MINUSTAH’s very existence—and the heavy U.S. role in guiding it—likely remains unknown to most U.S. citizens. In Haiti, meanwhile, and increasingly in Latin America as well, opposition to MINUSTAH is growing, part of a larger call for economic and social solutions to Haiti’s problems instead of military responses. MINUSTAH includes 8,856 military troops and 3,582 police from 56 countries around the world. Yet classified U.S. State Department documents made available by WikiLeaks reveal that the United States has a leadership role behind the scenes. “[MINUSTAH] is an indispensable tool in realizing core USG policy interests in Haiti,” a 2008 cable by then U.S. ambassador Janet Sanderson states, noting further on that it “is a financial and regional security bargain.” Sanderson describes MINUSTAH’s role as a proxy force, in place of U.S. troops: “In the current context of our military commitments elsewhere, the U.S. alone could not replace this mission.” “MINUSTAH is how the U.S. has outsourced its control of Haiti,” attorney Bill Quigley explained in Port-au-Prince, as I and other members of a fact-finding delegation listened to him describe Haiti’s security situation. As a lawyer with the Center for Constitutional Rights, and someone with long-term involvement in Haiti, Quigley has witnessed many impacts of U.S. intervention in the country. Raymond Paul, a grassroots leader, liberation theologian, and former political prisoner, has experienced the upheaval and violence that U.S. usurpation of Haitian democracy has meant. “Every time the Haitian people decide to exercise their right to vote, they manage to organize a coup against that government,” he said of the United States. Sanderson’s cable is clear that the United States is indeed continuing to intervene in Haiti—through MINUSTAH: “Without a UN-sanctioned peacekeeping and stabilization force, we would be getting far less help from our hemispheric and European partners in managing Haiti.” Sometimes this “managing” has included the use of MINUSTAH forces to commit human rights abuses at the behest of Haiti’s powerful elite. Another cable, from 2006, describes a meeting between elites and then U.S. chargé d’affaires in Haiti Timothy Carney. The business leaders urged Carney to allow MINUSTAH to carry out violent raids in the Cité Soleil slum—a center of anti-coup sentiment—and “pleaded” with him for more ammunition for the police. The cable makes clear that Carney gave the green light for such a raid, even though “such an operation would inevitably cause unintended civilian casualties given the crowded conditions and flimsy construction of tightly packed housing in Cité Soleil.” Because such areas were repeatedly targeted for these raids, especially in the two years following the 2004 coup, in which Haiti was governed by an unelected regime, many coup opponents and analysts have suggested that MINUSTAH’s role has largely been one of political containment—a conclusion supported by statistical evidence. A 2006 study in The Lancet concluded that there were some 4,000 political killings during this period, almost half of which were committed by anti-Aristide groups, the Haitian National Police, or (coup) government forces. (Respondents surveyed for The Lancet study did not identify pro-Aristide groups as responsible for any of the murders.) WikiLeaked documents also reveal that MINUSTAH participated in other political activities, such as spying on student groups, and that it sought to keep Aristide from returning from his exile in South Africa. “It’s clear that MINUSTAH has not come to protect the Haitian people, but to protect the minority that is close to the U.S.—the rich,” explained René Civil, a grassroots activist and former political prisoner. Civil’s comments were echoed by Yves Pierre-Louis, Port-au-Prince editor for the newspaper Haïti Liberté: “Every time we ask for food, for land to cultivate, the government authorities call on MINUSTAH to tear gas people, to shoot,” he said. But the U.S. government’s political motives behind MINUSTAH are not confined to Haiti. The force includes troops from several left-leaning Latin American governments—but not Venezuela, whose president, Hugo Chávez, has been outspokenly opposed to the occupation. As one WikiLeaked State Department document explains, “An increasingly unifying theme that completely excludes Chavez, and isolates Venezuela among the militaries and security forces of the region, is participation in international and regional peacekeeping operations.” While South American nations have increasingly moved away from U.S. foreign policy goals in a number of areas, involvement in MINUSTAH—whose troops are led by Brazil—remains one area where the United States is getting its way. This could be a dangerous precedent, considering that MINUSTAH is in effect a foreign military force that was sent in to ensure the outcome of a U.S.-orchestrated coup d’état. South American support for MINUSTAH conflicts with the firm opposition to coups these countries have demonstrated in response to situations in Honduras (2009), Bolivia (2008), and Ecuador (2010). In the latter two cases, Latin American solidarity was important in preventing destabilization attempts from succeeding. Disturbed by the many reports of MINUSTAH’s rights abuses, the School of the Americas (SOA) Watch organized a large delegation to Haiti in October to see up close how UN troops interacted with the Haitian people. We spoke with representatives of over a dozen community, human rights, women’s rights, or similar organizations, and visited schools, foundations, clinics, feeding programs, slums, and camps housing thousands of people made homeless by the January 2010 earthquake. Everyone we asked had complaints about the UN mission. This anti-MINUSTAH commentary was complemented by the pervasive “Aba Okapasyon” (“Down With the Occupation”) or “No UN” graffiti we saw throughout Port-au-Prince. The “blue helmets,” as they are known, had a ubiquitous and intimidating presence in the capital city, sometimes making a point of showing the massive rifles they carried. Ironically, the UN Security Council extended MINUSTAH’s mandate another year just days before the cholera outbreak anniversary. The discrepancy between MINUSTAH’s actions, in its negligence in causing a disease epidemic, and its mandate to, among other things, ensure “a secure and stable environment” and to “promote and protect human rights” was not lost on its critics. But it also fit a pattern. The Security Council cited gender-based violence (known as GBV in NGO and UN jargon) as one reason for the mandate extension. Yet women’s organizations we talked to told us plainly that MINUSTAH isn’t doing anything about GBV, even though it’s a much bigger problem now in post-quake Haiti. Women and girls in the many tent camps throughout Haiti are regular targets of attack. “Since the earthquake, there has been a big increase in violence against teens and children—as young as 17-months-old,” explained Jocie Philistin, Project Coordinator for Commission of Women Victims for Victims (KOFAVIV), which is composed of sexual-assault survivors. KOFAVIV provides an array of support services for survivors, and ways for them to become more empowered and help prevent future attacks. The New York-based organization Digital Democracy has partnered with KOFAVIV to create an emergency response system for sexual assault victims, and to track assaults as they occur. “For 2011, we have 350 cases [of assault] in the database so far,” Digital Democracy’s Emily Jacobi said. “60 percent of these are children.” “MINUSTAH is supposed to represent security, but they don’t come into the camps at all,” a representative of another organization, Women Alert and Fighting for the Development of Haiti (FEMCADH), told us. Other women sexual-assault survivors had similar complaints: MINUSTAH hasn’t fixed anything; MINUSTAH assaults people; there is more violence because of them; their presence perpetuates itself. During our trip, we spoke to Ansel Herz, an independent journalist who broke the story of MINUSTAH troops fathering children in the town of Port Salut and leaving the mothers (one being a 17-year-old girl) behind, as well as the story of the troops’ rape of an 18-year-old man. Herz told us about what he observed during his time in Haiti covering MINUSTAH. “MINUSTAH’s actions create a huge imbalance of power and a lot of unreported abuses,” Herz said. “MINUSTAH says the problems are because of just a few bad apples, not the fault of the mission as a whole. That’s the official line.” The abundance of recorded misdeeds is evidence that the “few bad apples” excuse is incorrect. Yet, so far, there have been few repercussions for the mission—either its leadership or the troops themselves. When over 100 Sri Lankan troops were found to be soliciting prostitution, including from children, they were sent home. Under the Status of Forces Agreement that governs MINUSTAH behavior, the UN troops have immunity from the Haitian justice system. The country contributing the respective troops is supposed to punish them, but there is little evidence that the Sri Lankan troops ever faced justice. As several Haitian organizations have pointed out, the Haitian government has also been negligent in following up with Sri Lanka to ensure accountability. Another case, that of Gérard Jean-Gilles, has been a nonissue for the UN and the international community, despite the troubling facts. Jean-Gilles, a 16-year-old boy who did tasks for Nepalese MINUSTAH troops, was found hanging from a tree inside the UN base at Cap Haitien shortly after employees of the nearby Hotel Henri Christophe heard cries from inside the base: “They are suffocating me.” The UN troops reported that Jean-Gilles had committed suicide, but this was later ruled out during the autopsy, according to reporter Thalles Gomes. The UN troops’ story, as Gomes reported for Brasil de Fato, also “did not explain how the young Gerald [sic] had managed to get into the military base, tie a rope on the patio and hang himself without any soldiers noticing.” In a report on the case, Herz noted that just a day before his death, the troops’ interpreter accused Jean-Gilles of stealing $200 from her and that other Haitians working at the base said that the interpreter was having an affair with the base commander. MINUSTAH impeded the investigation of Jean-Gilles’s death, among other things arguing that the interpreter had impunity, even though she was only a contractor for the troops. The judge pursuing the case concluded, “The UN is blocking the Haitian justice system.” Herz also documented another repeat offense by UN troops: pollution. He described chemical and other waste dumping at the MINUSTAH base at Port Salut in a report for Inter Press Service: “IPS observed foul-smelling fluids passing through white pipes above- and below-ground alongside a dirt road that leads to one of the U.N. bases.” Similar dumping was how MINUSTAH appears to have caused the cholera outbreak. Considering the scarcity of safe drinking water in Haiti, and the numerous tent camps, Haiti was a prime candidate for waterborne disease to spread rapidly and widely. All it needed was for the pathogen to be introduced. While cholera may be the most common source of people’s anger and impatience with MINUSTAH—over 80% in the greater Port-au-Prince area believe the force is responsible for causing the epidemic, according to a forthcoming study for the University of Michigan and Small Arms Survey—it was almost certainly a case of negligence, albeit criminal. But MINUSTAH has killed civilians outright as well. Following the 2004 coup against Aristide, the climate was one of open political repression, with Fanmi Lavalas (Aristide’s political party) and Aristide government officials put on “Wanted” posters and hunted down—some imprisoned, some killed. “After the coup in 2004, if René [Civil] and I were found in the country, we would have been chopped up,” Raymond Paul explained. “Thank God we were not found in the country.” While there is little evidence of MINUSTAH involvement in these killings, some were carried out by Haitian police as armed UN soldiers stood by. The Haitian elite, many of whom helped to orchestrate the coup, saw MINUSTAH as a tool of repression to be used to quell opposition to the new order being imposed on the country at the time, as the aforementioned cable by Carney describes. The subsequent raids on Cité Soleil and other slums, and earlier operations—most notably an assault on July 6, 2005, targeting gang leader Dread Wilme—resulted in over a dozen civilians being shot, with an unknown number killed. The high toll should come as no surprise, considering that MINUSTAH fired some 22,000 rounds in just seven hours that day, according to declassified U.S. Embassy cables. But even in the years since the interim regime left power, MINUSTAH has continued to curtail political expression. Most notably, MINUSTAH troops have violently suppressed demonstrations, often in coordination with the police. UN troops repressed protests in November 2010 against MINUSTAH’s role in the cholera outbreak and other abuses with tear gas and live ammunition, killing three protesters in one week. And as recently as 2010, MINUSTAH troops have been accused of aiding a massacre, at the Les Cayes prison. But most of those we talked with were equally opposed to the new president Michel Martelly’s idea to reconstitute the Haitian armed forces, as a replacement for MINUSTAH: “The same people responsible for deaths and human rights violations in the past are now looking to come back into power,” a student, who did not wish to be named, told us, referring to former army officers. “This is very traumatic for families of those killed in the past.” The modern Haitian army was disbanded by Aristide in 1995 following a survey showing overwhelming popular support for the measure. It had been created by U.S. Marines during the U.S. occupation of the country (1915–34) and it historically acted almost exclusively as a tool to be used against the Haitian people, especially under the dictatorships of “Papa Doc” (François) and “Baby Doc” (Jean-Claude) Duvalier (1957–86), and then by post-Duvalier dictators. When Aristide finally came to office with Haiti’s first democratic elections, the army ousted him in a coup just eight months into his term. “It’s scary when you think about the return of the Haitian army, that has the habit of violating people’s rights,” Civil said. “It’s scary to think about that, when we know what they did in the past.” Civil worries that the army’s return could mark a return to the Duvalierist era, when openly discussing opposition to government policy was not possible. “We don’t need the military, we need solidarity,” one student told us. His opinion does not appear to be isolated; a majority oppose the army’s reconstitution, according to a new survey. Several analysts and activists we spoke with suggested that the money required to bring back the army would be better spent rebuilding a country still reeling from the 2010 earthquake. Many in Port-au-Prince also suggested that the more than $2 million spent each day on MINUSTAH could be put to more effective use as well. “MINUSTAH gets almost $1 billion per year. If this were spent on agriculture, health, education, the violence and insecurity would diminish,” Haïti Liberté editor Pierre-Louis said. Indeed, in a country where so much industry is privatized, the huge amounts spent on MINUSTAH—the many trucks, tanks, and other vehicles, and the mission’s many bases scattered throughout the country—seems a dubious priority. Money for either the army or MINUSTAH’s budget could instead be used to invest in the Haitian people by, for example, providing free primary and secondary education. But most Haitians, despite the high poverty and unemployment in their country, have to pay in order to send their children to school. Opposition to MINUSTAH seems to be growing. Not only have demonstrations increased since the start of the cholera epidemic, but recent surveys show that a large majority of people want the UN Mission out of the country, soon. A survey conducted by Columbia University students in August found that 65% said they want MINUSTAH to withdraw within a year (of these, 10% wanted the force out within six months, and 30% wanted immediate withdrawal). If truly representative of the Haitian population, this means that most people want MINUSTAH out before its mandate expires in October 2012. The anti-MINUSTAH sentiment has sparked a solidarity movement. In October, various Latin American Nobel Peace laureates, intellectuals, and other prominent figures sent a letter to the MINUSTAH member governments of Latin America, urging a timetable for the rapid withdrawal of the mission, or, failing that, for the countries to unilaterally withdraw. On November 5, the first continent-wide conference against the “occupation” of Haiti was convened in São Paulo, Brazil, with participation from over 600 members of trade unions, social movements, political parties, and other organizations, from several countries. The concluding statement called for the mission’s immediate withdrawal, noting that “Haiti needs doctors, engineers, teachers and technicians—not occupation troops.” This message was in sync with what we heard in Port-au-Prince. “The solution is not military, it is social and economic,” Pierre-Louis explained. “Eighty percent of the population has no work. Only 20% to 30% can read or write. Health care is zero—nothing.” The fact-finding delegation to Haiti also propelled SOA Watch to take an active role in the campaign for MINUSTAH withdrawal, making the connections between the SOA and the U.S. role behind MINUSTAH. “MINUSTAH is like the SOA in that it’s an outsourcing of U.S. military power,” SOA Watch’s Becca Polk concluded. “Every dollar given to the military is a theft from the people of Haiti,” SOA Watch founder Father Roy Bourgeois told reporters in Port-au-Prince. Dan Beeton is International Communications Coordinator with the Center for Economic and Policy Research (www.cepr.net). He traveled to Haiti in October as part of a School of the Americas Watch–organized fact-finding delegation. Ansel Herz, “Oct. 19 Demonstration Marking One-Year Since Haiti Cholera Outbreak,” Flickr, flickr.com/photos/mediahacker/sets/72157627807812733/with/6261615916/. Paul Farmer, Haiti After the Earthquake (Public Affairs, 2011), 188–90. UN News Centre, “Post-Earthquake Assistance in Haiti Shifts to Reconstruction – UN,” January 6, 2012. Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti and Bureau des Avocats Internationaux, “Petition for Relief,” submitted to the United Nations on November 3, 2011, available at ijdh.org. MINUSTAH, “MINUSTAH Facts and Figures,” United Nations (website). Janet Sanderson, “Why We Need Continuing MINUSTAH Presence in Haiti,” U.S. Embassy Port au Prince cable 08PORTAUPRINCE1381, October 1, 2008, released by WikiLeaks. Amnesty International, “Haiti: Political Prisoner Annette Auguste Finally Released Following 26 Months of Detention,” August 31, 2006, available at amnesty.ca. Sanderson, 2008. Timothy Carney, “Haitian Private Sector Leaders Call for General Strike Due to Rising Insecurity,” U.S. Embassy Port au Prince cable 06PORTAUPRINCE29, January 6, 2006, released by WikiLeaks. See, for example, Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of Containment (Verso, 2007), 281–86; Athena Kolbe and Royce Hutson, “Human Rights Abuse and Other Criminal Violations in Port-au-Prince, Haiti: A Random Survey of Households,” The Lancet 368 (September 2006): 6–9. Dan Coughlin, “WikiLeaks Haiti: US Cables Paint Portrait of Brutal, Ineffectual and Polluting UN Force,” The Nation, October 6, 2011; Center for Economic and Policy Research, “MINUSTAH Brought Cholera Into Haiti; Sought to Keep Aristide Out,” Haiti Relief and Reconstruction Watch (Blog), July 1, 2011. Craig Kelly, “A Southern Cone Perspective on Countering Chavez and Reasserting U.S. Leadership,” US Embassy Santiago cable 07SANTIAGO983, June 18, 2007, released by WikiLeaks. For detailed accounts of U.S. involvement in the coup, see Hallward and Randall Robinson, An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, From Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President (Basic Civitas Books, 2007). Ansel Herz, Matthew Mosk, and Rym Momtaz, “U.N. Peacekeepers Accused of Sexually Assaulting Haitian Teen,” ABC News, September 2, 2011. BBC, “Sri Lanka to Probe UN Sex Claims,” November 3, 2007. Lanka News Web, “Sri Lanka: Concluding Observations of the Committee Against Torture,” November 26, 2011, available at lankanewsweb.com. Bri Kouri Nouvèl Gaye, Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) Haiti, Let Haiti Live and UnityAyiti, “Haiti’s Renewal of MINUSTAH’s Mandate in Violation of the Human Rights of the Haitian People,” Submission to the United Nations Universal Periodic Review, March 24, 2011, available at ijdh.org. Thalles Gomes, “Morte de jovem haitiano gera novos protestos contra a Minustah,” Brasil de Fato, September 13, 2010, English translation available at lo-de-alla.org. Ansel Herz, “The Death of Gérard Jean-Gilles: How the UN Stonewalled Haitian Justice,” Haïti Liberté 5, no. 10 (2011). Ansel Herz, “Other Complaints Dog U.N. Mission,” Inter Press Service, September 7, 2011. Athena Kolbe and Rob Muggah, “University of Michigan Study and Small Arms Survey of Health and Safety in Urban Haiti” (forthcoming). Thomas M. Griffin, “Summary Report of Haiti Human Rights Delegation—March 29 to April 5, 2004,” National Lawyers Guild International Committee (website), nlginternational.org. See, for example, Thomas Griffin, “Haiti: Human Rights Investigation, November 11–21, 2004” (Center for the Study of Human Rights, University of Miami School of Law, 2005), 31–34; Harvard Law Student Advocates for Human Rights and Centro de Justicia Global, “Keeping the Peace in Haiti? An Assessment of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti Using Compliance with its Prescribed Mandate as a Barometer for Success” March 2005, available at fidh.org. For one explanation of elite motivations for wanting a crackdown on gangs see Hallward, 201–02. James B. Foley, “Human Rights Groups Dispute Civilian Casualty Numbers from July 6 MINUSTAH Raid,” U.S. Embassy Port au Prince cable Port au Prince 001919, July 26, 2005, released under Freedom of Information Act to Keith Yearman. Center for Economic and Policy Research, “MINUSTAH Responds to Day of Protests By Tear-Gassing IDP Camp,” Haiti Relief and Reconstruction Watch (blog), November 18, 2010. Free Speech Radio News, “A Test for Haiti’s Prisons As Trial Opens in 2010 Killing of Inmates,” October 18, 2011. Trenton Daniel, “Study Suggests Homicides Dropping in Haiti Capital,” Associated Press, November 16, 2011. MINUSTAH, “MINUSTAH Facts and Figures.” Pi James, “Podcast #27: Educating Haiti’s Children, Six Months On,” UNICEF, July 12, 2010. Grant Gordon and Lauren Young, “Haitian Perspectives on MINUSTAH Before the Mandate Renewal,” October 12, 2011, available at theglobalobservatory.org. Adolfo Pérez Esquivel and others, “Letter to Latin American Presidents Re Withdrawal of MINUSTAH, October 5, 2011, availabe at soaw.org. Laura González, “Sao Paulo Anti-Occupation Conference: The Continent Has Raised its Voice for Haiti,” Haïti Liberté 5, no. 19 (2011). Father Roy Bourgeois, “Standing Against Militarism and Violence: From Haiti to Fort Benning,” Common Dreams, November 18, 2011.

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A radiator cap is a vehicle component responsible for keeping engine coolant and maintaining pressure in the cooling system. A pressure of 13 to 16 PSI is ideal for automotive cooling systems. The radiator cap’s role is to keep the pressure at a steady level. Leaking coolant, the occurrence of white streaks, and hose bursts caused by coolant pressure variations are all bad radiator cap symptoms. Fortunately, there are ways to detect a damaged radiator cap before something like this occurs. The time and money you’ll save by understanding how to check your car for a faulty radiator cap far outweighs the risk of being stuck or even worse. This article will show you how to learn more about this issue and how to avoid it before anything bad happens to you. If you’re curious about this topic, read on! What Exactly Is A Radiator Cap? Even though it’s called a radiator cap or lid, this component has a more important role than its name suggests. This radiator cap not only serves as a lid to the enclosed reservoir for coolant but also serves as a two-way valve. It ensures that the radiator is kept at the proper pressure to function properly. This pressure is crucial because it raises the coolant’s boiling point inside the radiator. The normal boiling temperature is 212 degrees Fahrenheit. But when the pressure inside the radiator is added, this figure jumps tremendously, allowing the liquid to move freely around the radiator without vaporizing. The majority of radiators have a pressure of around 15 PSI. However, depending on the type and model of the car, you may discover others with pressures ranging from 12.5 PSI to nearly 22 PSI. The cap’s job is to keep this pressure inside the radiator constant. This will allow the radiator to function properly, preventing the coolant from boiling and leaking. As a result, if the radiator cap fails, you will surely experience bad radiator cap symptoms. However, you’ll start to notice certain bad radiator cap symptoms before any potentially dangerous problem emerges. What Is The Purpose Of The Radiator Cap? The radiator cap is probably the most neglected part of your vehicle’s cooling system, but it’s also the most spectacular. The radiator cap has four roles, and if any of them isn’t functioning properly, you’ll have issues. These are the functions: - To increase the cooling system’s pressure. - Excess pressure is released into the reservoir. - Ensures that the cooling system is completely sealed. - Through a vacuum valve, coolant is directed to the radiator. To begin with, your radiator cap pressurizes the system. The coolant’s boiling point is raised as a result of the increased pressure. Because of this, if coolant leaks from the radiator cap, it may burn off on the engine but not inside the system. The coolant will boil if you don’t have a pressurized system, and your engine won’t cool down properly. Second, while some pressure is beneficial, too much can be harmful. The cap and any other weak places in the system can be blown out by too much pressure. Hoses are also at risk. The radiator cap has a predetermined point when it opens up to transmit the extra pressure to the reservoir. It has an open additional coolant pipe to release the pressure safely. The third function of the radiator cap is to keep the system sealed. Taking the radiator cap off allows you to add coolant directly to the radiator. But you must not do it while the engine is running because doing so introduces air into the system, which is harmful. Finally, as the coolant cools, it contracts, lowering the amount of coolant in the radiator. To keep everything at the proper level, the vacuum valve on the radiator cap pumps extra coolant to the radiator. The Bad Radiator Cap Symptoms And Signs Now that you know what the radiator cap accomplishes, it’s a good idea to understand how to recognize the indicators that it’s broken or malfunctioning. If you notice any of the following bad radiator cap symptoms, you most likely need it to be replaced: 1. Coolant Leakage Breakage of the coolant system’s radiator cap can cause the coolant to vaporize, putting seals, gasket, and hose joints under stress and causing them to fail. Coolant leaks can develop over time, and you’ll notice them as pools of brightly colored liquid appear beneath your car. Look up the cap for signs of wear and breakage if you notice such leaks. Some of these leaks, on the other hand, will only occur when your engine is fully operational, causing coolant to spray out of the pipes and seals. Grabbing each pipe is one approach to pinpoint the source of a leak. Any damaged seals or gaskets should leak a tiny amount of fluid due to the increased pressure. You’ll need to fix the pipe and seal, as well as inspect the radiator cap, which could be the source of the leaks. 2. Discoloration Or Sluggishness In Coolant Yellow or bright green is the standard color of most radiator coolants. Clean coolant will change color or become less viscous when dirty coolant, such as rust from radiators, oil leaks, or transmission fluid, is introduced into the cooling system. Overheating is often the result of sluggish coolant that cannot flow effectively through the engine’s cooling channels. Since coolant is the sole fluid intended to be in the cooling system, the discolored coolant should likewise be a serious concern. 3. Engine Overheating Radiator caps that fail due to a lack of pressure reduce the boiling point of the cooling liquid, resulting in a lack of engine heat absorption. A radiator cap failure can cause an engine to overheat due to air pockets in the coolant. The temperature reading on the dashboard gauge will increase significantly if the expansion tank cap is defective. When engines overheat, they harm various auto parts, resulting in extensive damage to the car. It’s vital to bring your car to a complete stop as soon as you detect your engine is overheating. Allow your car to cool completely before checking under the hood to avoid any accidents. 4. Backing-Up Of Antifreeze In The Overflow Tank You’ll notice the coolant was backing up into the reservoir at some point. If the radiator cap is not properly operating and performing, this could happen. If your radiator cap fails to function properly, the coolant will not return when it is needed. This is another bad radiator cap symptom. If you see any of these signs, you should inspect the radiator cap right away and get it fixed. 5. Steam From The Engine Another bad radiator cap symptom is steam coming out of the hood of your car. A defective seal or radiator cap allows coolant to escape as gas, resulting in blowing steam. A steamy engine indicates overheating. Most of the time, steam emerges from the engine hood. Simply keep an eye out in front of your car windscreen for any vapor and check your temperature monitor in the dashboard panel if applicable. If the gauge indicates that you are in the HOT position, you must come to a complete stop in the safest spot possible. This indicates that your engine has overheated. Trying to get rid of steam can be quite dangerous when it’s still steaming under the hood; therefore, drivers should use caution when doing so. Before you open the hood to check your engine problems, turn off your car and let it cool down for a few minutes. Overheating occurs when the coolant reservoir does not have enough heat capacity to handle the heat generated by the engine. 6. Radiator Hoses Bursting Or Collapsing Hose warping occurs as a result of fluctuating radiator pressure caused by a faulty radiator cap. Low pressure causes a vacuum in the hose, causing it to collapse. Higher pressures, on the other hand, destroy the hoses. When a hose ruptures, coolant sprays into the engine compartment, reducing the amount of coolant available and causing the vehicle to overheat. A lot of the time, higher pressures just make little holes in the hose rather than fully tearing it in two while driving. This is not evident when the car is turned off and has cooled down due to the hoses contracting in colder temperatures. However, when you park your vehicle at your destination, the holes are visible due to frequent coolant loss and puddles on the ground. After driving a short distance, check your overflow reservoir for leaking hoses. 7. The Reservoir Is Constantly Overflowing When the pressure exceeds the recommended amount, the engine should release coolant into the overflow reservoir to equalize the pressure. However, if your radiator cap is damaged, your car may leak coolant into the reservoir without the help of an overly high-pressure trigger. Due to which the radiator loses pressure, leaving it with little or no pressure. Low pressure is thus one of the bad radiator cap symptoms. Low pressure causes the radiator coolant to boil away, causing the engine to overheat and fail. Therefore, as soon as you discover bad radiator cap symptoms related to overflowing, you should replace the radiator cap. 8. Airflow Into The Cooling System Air entering the cooling system is another indicator of bad radiator cap symptoms. Unfortunately, the air in the cooling system is unlikely to be detected until the hoses and tubes begin to collapse. When the vehicle shuts down and cools down, low pressure and vacuum spaces in the cooling system induce breakage. Because of the low pressure, the tubes crack, resulting in leaks. 9. Low Levels Of Coolant All of the aforementioned conditions might result in low coolant levels in the radiator in one way or another. You observe, however, that the issues all circle around a faulty radiator cap. In the same way that broken hoses create leaks, blocked radiator caps generate pressure build-up and leaks that dramatically diminish coolant levels. Aside from causing pressure variations, radiator caps that don’t seal properly can also lead to leaks and overflowing reservoirs. One of the key bad radiator cap symptoms to look out for is low coolant levels or your automobile losing liquid coolant faster than usual. 10. Radiator Has A White Streak When you discover white streaks on your radiator, it’s a more delicate warning that something is amiss with your cap. When coolant spills from your radiator’s top, it dries and leaves these white streaks behind. The good news is that if you haven’t seen any coolant pools under your car, the issue isn’t too serious as long as you take care of it quickly. The bottom line is that these streaks indicate that your radiator is leaking from the top on a regular basis or when it is under pressure when your car is running. The problem should be resolved by replacing the cap. Location Of The Radiator Cap Many folks ignore the radiator cap, but it’s usually easy to locate. To begin, look for the radiator, normally located near the front of the engine area. The radiator cap is found on the top of the radiator, usually on the left or right side, but it can also be found in the middle. You’ll need to press down on the radiator cap and twist it off once you’ve found it. It’s critical not to remove the radiator cap from a hot engine. Because the system is pressured, all pressure must be released as soon as the cap is removed. You will not only lose a lot of coolants as it shoots out of the radiator cap opening, but it will also be boiling. The Radiator Cap: How To Check And Replace It Now that you’re aware of the bad radiator cap symptoms and signs, you can easily check the area around it to see whether your car is in danger of further damage or repair costs. The radiator should never be opened when it is hot. Before you open the radiator, let the engine cool completely. The radiator is under a lot of pressure and heat. When you try to open a heated radiator, hot steam and coolant will pour out, and you will very certainly get burned. 1. Assessing The Cap Check that the pressure indicated on the radiator cap matches the cooling system pressure recommended by the manufacturer before proceeding with the diagnosis. This information can be found in a repair handbook, a factory service manual, or the internet. Visually inspect the cap to ensure that the spring is free to move and that there is no debris or rust beneath it. 2. Cap Replacement - Allow your car to cool down after turning it off. It’s unsafe to open your hood and handle hot engine parts because it can cause serious harm. - Locate the radiator cap and unwind it carefully to allow it to open. As you unscrew the cap, you should expect a small burst of pressured steam from the radiator. To avoid getting burned, please handle the cap with protective gloves or a thick towel. After you’ve successfully unscrewed the cap, pull it to remove it. - To gain access to the entire radiator, remove the mounting shield bolts. - Loosen the radiator drain plug once the radiator is accessible. The radiator coolant fluid will begin to drain at this point. You may get rid of antifreeze spills by soaking them up with sand or baking soda. You can also use towels to clear up the debris as efficiently as possible. - Remove all of the mounting bolts from the reservoir and the coolant overflow tube from the radiator neck once all of the fluid has been drained. To guarantee that the defective radiator causes no more damages, remove all fluid coolant and inspect the radiator parts. - Make sure your new radiator cap matches the original radiator cap that came with your car. Replace the old radiator cap with a new one and refill the radiator with fresh coolant. - Tighten the mounting bolts as much as possible and start your car to test your rebuilt cooling system. Keep an eye on the newly installed cap for any discharge or bubbling. 3. Radiator Pressure Testing You can examine the cooling system in your garage if you have a radiator pressure tester. This may assist you in locating leaks or determining whether the radiator cap has failed. This tester is also available for rent or purchase at your local auto parts store or on Amazon. - To begin, lift the hood and look for the radiator. It is typically seen directly in front of the vehicle’s engine. Push the radiator cap down and then twist it counter-clockwise to remove it. - Screw the cap adapter onto the end of the pressure tester. Continue screwing until you can no longer screw it. - Screw the opposite end of the cap adapter onto the radiator filler neck until it is tight after you’ve fastened the cap adapter to the pressure tester. The pressure gauge should now be firmly attached to the radiator. If it isn’t, it’s possible you’re not using the right adaptor for your radiator. - Pump the tester using the pump handle until the pressure indicated on your radiator cap is reached. Check to see if the pressure can be stored in the gauge. - You have a cooling system leak if the pressure begins to drop despite a good seal against the radiator filler neck. It’s preferable to look for external coolant leaks when the system is pressured because they’ll be simpler to spot. Any components that are leaking will need to be replaced. - After you’ve completed your pressure test, cautiously remove the radiator cap adapter, so the coolant doesn’t leak all over the place. It’s a good idea to keep a pan or bucket on standby to capture any spills. Refill any lost coolant and clean up any spilled coolant on the ground. Is It Possible To Drive With A Radiator Problem? A defective radiator will severely harm your vehicle’s engine. This causes your vehicle’s engine to overheat, which can cause major damage to the engine and, in some cases, lead to the head gasket failing. Driving your car with a broken radiator may result in extra damage and, in some instances, highly expensive repairs. If you notice that your vehicle’s engine is overheating, it is preferable to pull it rather than drive it or allow the car to cool down. If you cannot get your vehicle to function normally at a regular temperature, you must have it towed to a nearby shop for repair. How Can You Tell If Your Radiator Cap Is Bad? A faulty radiator cap may not necessarily appear to be faulty. One or more of the bad radiator cap symptoms I mentioned earlier will almost always be present, which will aid your inquiry. You may notice evidence of dried coolant leakage around the cap and down the side of the radiator if the radiator cap has completely failed. The dried coolant has a flaky, chalky look. A defective radiator cap may not tighten properly onto the radiator when the engine is running, resulting in a lovely fragrance of coolant emanating from the engine. When the engine gets hot, there may be a little quantity of steam coming from around the radiator cap. When Should You Replace Your Car’s, Radiator Cap? The radiator cap on your car is recommended to be replaced every 3 to 4 years or 50,000 miles. The reason for this is that your car’s radiator cap will deteriorate over time. Even if it hasn’t failed totally, it won’t be performing as efficiently as it could, which can impact the cooling system’s performance. The radiator cap is inexpensive and straightforward to repair, costing between $15 and $25. Therefore inspect it regularly and replace it before it completely breaks. Cost Of Radiator Cap Replacement The cost of replacing a radiator cap is determined by the type of radiator cap and the required pressure rating. It can cost anywhere between $10 and $250. The cooling fan assembly is part of a pricey pressure cap replacement. You should also think about the type of vehicle you own. The more modern your car is, the more expensive it will be to replace it. Radiator cap replacement parts may be readily available and thus much easier to repair if you have an earlier model vehicle. Consider how much more difficult it will be to replace your radiator. Replacing the cap is inexpensive, but replacing the entire cap, hose, and coolant reservoir can be quite costly. The cost of replacing a radiator cap may also include labor fees. Small garages and auto repair shops may have lower prices than big repair shops with hefty fees. Is It Possible To Get A Bubble From A Faulty Radiator Cap? A radiator cap is required to keep the coolant in the radiator stable. Damaged radiators cannot maintain the coolant flowing smoothly through the pump, block, and radiator as a result. In the form of steam bubbles, bad radiators leak coolant fluid through the radiator neck. Overheating and gasket failure can occur as a result of coolant leakage. Coolant leaks should be checked and repaired as soon as possible to prevent further engine damage. Additional Tips On Faulty Radiator Cap Signs In the midst of all of this talk about diagnosing and changing your radiator cap, it’s crucial to remember that good maintenance is your preventative measure against a defective cooling system. Here are a few things to think about: - Ensure that you have adequate fluid levels at all times. Always keep a 50/50 water/coolant mixture on hand, or purchase a coolant mixture that has already been prepared. - Always ensure the cap is securely fastened. - Your radiator should be thoroughly cleaned. If you clean your radiator regularly, say twice a year, it will benefit your system greatly. - Having your radiator drained and filled once a year is a good idea. Bad Radiator Cap Symptoms – Final Words: Knowing when to replace your radiator cap will help you avoid future cooling system problems and give a quick fix if your engine overheats or coolant leaks all over your driveway. If you observe any of these bad radiator cap symptoms, inspect the radiator cap for visible damage or replace it to see if the problem is resolved. A new radiator cap will only set you back a few bucks, but if addressed early enough, it can save you hundreds of dollars in repairs. You should get your automobile checked and regularly maintained to avoid engine trouble, radiator problems, and other vehicle issues. Don’t wait if you suspect bad radiator cap symptoms. These tools have been tried and tested by our team, they are ideal for fixing your car at home.

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The evolution of computer tools has played a key role in the development of the geographic information domain since the end of the 20th century. The joint emergence of information and communication technologies and the increased circulation of data, particularly following the advent of the Internet, have made geomatics a new and indispensable discipline. It uses a specific vocabulary and uses unique technologies called geographic information systems (GIS). GIS use a multidisciplinary and multi-thematic approach for a wide variety of issues in domains such as meteorology, transport networks, marketing, security, agriculture, planning and town planning. The wide range of definitions describing GIS shows that these systems cannot simply be considered as spatialized data processing software. The definition provided by Françoise de Blomac illustrates this concept well: “A GIS is an organized combination of computer hardware, software, geographic data and staff capable of entering, storing, updating, manipulating, analyzing and presenting all forms of geographically referenced information” (De Blomac et al., 1994). Functions of GIS Several functions can be assigned to these systems, thus making them comprehensive knowledge, decision-making and communication tools. - The creation and collection of georeferenced data, from multiple sources and highly diverse formats. Examples include the digitization of maps or aerial photographs, the digitization and geocoding of field data, and the spatial, temporal and structural harmonization of data. - The storage, organization and spatialization of this information via a database management system (DBMS). - The display and overlay of different layers of geographic information in the form of maps to obtain a spatialized visualization of terrestrial phenomena. - Querying, spatial and/or statistical analysis to highlight trends and geographic interactions between these different phenomena. What types of data can be used in a GIS? Fernandez-Falcon et al. (1993) estimate that over 80% of information has a spatial reference. Technically, these data can be one of two types: images or vectors. Images, also called rasters, are made up of a matrix of georeferenced pixels to which radiometric color values are assigned. Aerial photographs and topographic maps are examples of commonly used rasters. Vector data are composed of geographic objects with basic forms. The points are XY coordinates, the lines are a succession of XY coordinate points and the polygons are a succession of XY coordinate points that delimit a closed surface. The presentation of all this information in superimposable layers enables users to visualize a real phenomenon. GIS layers (modified, from ESRI France). Basic spatial analysis tools GIS provides us with a large number of spatial analysis tools to evaluate the geographic structures and processes of different datasets. These tools are based on different concepts such as distance, spatial interaction and centrality. Powerful spatial analysis tools can be used in the field of environmental health. Geocoding is used to locate objects or people across the world by transforming a postal address (i.e. an implicit geographic reference) into spatial coordinates (an explicit geographic reference). ⇒ In environmental health, geocoding is used to locate patients via their residential address, or to identify a site sampling point on the map. Distance / area analysis This tool is used to identify the closest objects, calculate the area of a polygon, and create buffer zones. ⇒ In environmental health, these tools can be used to generate proximity indicators, including the calculation of how many dangerous industrial sites are located within 10 km of a commune, the identification of patients living within 300 meters of a major road, or the identification of areas that will be affected by a source of pollutants by examining the direction of prevailing winds. Creation of buffer zones (Campbell J & Shin M, 2011). Overlay or spatial join Used to select entities according to the spatial relationship between them and highlight the resulting statistical indicators. ⇒ In environmental health, the spatial join makes it possible to calculate the amount of cultivated land within a given territory and the number and total length of the roads that cross a municipality, or indeed to combine measurements of pollutants carried out within the same geographic area (neighborhood or municipality). These tools can also be used to identify sensitive populations (nurseries, hospitals) that could be exposed to dangers such as industrial hazards or contamination. Spatial trend analysis Although mapping is useful when evaluating the spatial trends of a geographic phenomenon, spatial models are needed to understand and quantify these patterns. These models are based on inferential statistics, and assess the significance level of a spatial trend in data: the entities or the values associated with the entities are not a spatially random model in themselves. ⇒ In environmental health, these tools can be used to identify environmental blackspots, i.e. highly polluted and densely populated geographic areas. Although a sampling point with a high pollution value is of interest, it does not necessarily indicate a statistically significant hotspot. A hotspot is indeed considered to exist when an high value is recorded for an entity that is surrounded by other entities that also show high pollution values. In this case, Getis-Ord Gi * spatial statistics software identifies the statistically significant spatial aggregation of high values (hotspots) and low values (coldspots). Spatial epidemiology tools The mapping of health data begins with the geocoding of patients via their home address. The data are then aggregated for the most appropriate spatial unit for the study (e.g.: region, county, municipalities or districts). Disease incidence mapping is based on the calculation of indicators that have been aggregated within geographic units and shows the proportion of ill individuals within the population: the number of cases of illness per 100,000 inhabitants per commune, for example. These impact indicators are considered to be very “unreliable” for small populations or rare diseases, leading to a result that has high levels of cartographic noise and is difficult to interpret due to the high heterogeneity of population densities within the territory. In addition, showing these indicators as uninterpreted data on a map leads to the individual evaluation of risks in each geographical unit without taking the information provided by neighboring areas into account. Yet the frequency of a disease in a geographic area to those observed in neighboring areas due to the phenomenon of spatial autocorrelation. “Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than far things.” (Waldo Tobler, 1970) This resemblance phenomenon is used to present reliable maps of the spatial distribution of disease frequency by reducing the variance of the risk estimates through the use of models for smoothing these indicators (Clayton & Kaldor, 1987). These models were developed to provide a more reliable estimation of the spatial structure underlying the incidence and to smooth the background level observed for areas with a low number of cases by sharing the information provided by neighboring units (Elliott & Wartenberg, 2004). Result of applying smoothing standardized mortality ratios (Rican, 1999). Several smoothing models are described in the literature (Auchincloss et al., 2012). Those most commonly used to estimate the risks of rare diseases include the hierarchical Bayesian models, and notably that of Besag, York and Mollié (1991), which can simultaneously identify global and local spatial structures. Disease mapping techniques are used to assess the spatial heterogeneity of health event incidence. Although these techniques are essential to provide a picture of the geographic distribution, they cannot be used to detect areas of atypical incidence, called clusters, or assess their significance. A cluster is an “abnormally” low or high concentration of cases compared to values that are expected in the area. Spatial scanning methods such as scan statistics can be used to identify these atypical geographic areas. Developed by Martin Kulldorff in the late 1990s, scan statistics detect clusters of spatial, temporal and spatio-temporal events without any pre-selection bias. This detection can be validated by a significance test for each cluster and can be adjusted according to confounders such as age and sex (Kulldorff 1997; Kulldorff et al. 1998). This statistics method has two stages. In a first detection phase, the study area is scanned by a window of variable shape and size scans in space and/or time to record the events occurring in the centroid of each geographic unit (geographic center represented by XY coordinates). A probability function (the relative risk: RR) is then calculated for each location and window size according to the distribution of cases of disease and following a Poisson law. The RR depends on the number of cases observed both inside and outside the scan window. A small sample of the many scan windows used by SaTScanTM (modified from Kulldorff, 1999). In a second phase, statistical inference is used to determine cluster significance level. The null hypothesis corresponds to the absence of a cluster (the risk is homogeneous and constant across the entire area and/or the study period), and the alternative hypothesis corresponds to the detection of at least one atypical cluster (different levels of risk are observed inside and outside the window). Scan statistics were first used as an epidemiological application for childhood leukemia and breast cancer mortality in the New York region (Hjalmars et al. 1996; Kulldorff et al. 1997). This method was then widely applied around the world, with more than 200 publications concerning 40 different themes including criminology, botany and archeology listed on the website that offers a free download of the software (SaTScan). A more advanced version of scan statistics makes it possible to estimate non-homogeneous risks within each cluster detected (Kulldorff, 1999). Indeed, the isotonic version of SaTScanTM can determine several risk levels within the same cluster through a decreasing isotonic regression function according to the distance from the center of the cluster. This function provides additional information, in particular for the precise identification of atypical zones of incidence (epicenter) for large clusters. Principle of the isotonic scan statistic. Most databases from physico-chemical and biological monitoring of the environment can provide geostatistical information. The nature of this information can be defined by quantitative measurements in a sample of spatially geolocated points. The logistics and high costs involved in the collection and analysis of samples requires the prior establishment of sampling plans. The spatial distribution of the samples can then prove to be heterogeneous across the area studied. Through the development of spatial analysis methods, global maps of these indicators of environmental media quality have been created, permitting the assessment of the main trends of each observed phenomenon (Ripley, 1981; Cressie, 1993). Spatial interpolation is a means to carry out the statistical estimation of spatialized data. It is based on the principle that measured and georeferenced point observations provide the most probable value of the observed parameter (called the ‘regionalized variable’) at any geographical point in the spatial domain studied (Hengl, 2007). The result is a cartographic production of estimates for each point of a regular grid that covers the study area. In environmental health, spatial interpolation can be used to generate pollutant exposure proxies, namely to predict the level of environmental contamination across a geographic area such as a neighborhood or a commune, or even within the specific areas where the patients live. General principle of spatial interpolation Different observation points can be used to predict the value of a point for which no sample has been collected by using the simplified mathematical formula of spatial interpolation, which is similar to a weighted arithmetic mean of the observed values (Li & Heap, 2014): where ^z is the estimated value of the random variable at x0 point of interest, z is the observed value at the sample point xi, λi is the weighting factor assigned to this sample point and n is the number of samples used for estimation. Simplified diagram of spatial interpolation. Two main approaches Spatial interpolation methods can be classified according to two main approaches: the deterministic approach and the geostatistical approach. The main difference between these methods is how the weight of each observation point is assigned in the calculation of estimates. Deterministic methods of interpolation are essentially based on mathematical and geometric properties, and do not consider the spatial structure of the phenomenon. The weighting is linked to the Euclidean distance between the observation site and the prediction site. The closest observation sites therefore have a greater influence in the calculation, while a low or null weight is generally attributed to the most distant sites. Estimation of the nitrogen dioxide concentration in the Alsace region using different deterministic methods: (A) nearest neighbor, (B) moving average, (C) inverse distance weighting and (D) inverse distance squared weighted interpolation (modified from Lemarchand & Jeannée, 2009). Probabilistic (or stochastic) interpolation methods are considered to be geostatistical methods because they are directly derived from the geostatistical analysis of observation data and take the concept of natural phenomenon into account (Cressie, 1993; Goovaerts, 1997). As well as using a deterministic structure, these methods include notions of random errors to mimic the spatial behavior of a natural phenomenon (Hengl, 2007). Among these geostatistical methods, kriging is considered to be the optimal interpolation method for environmental phenomena. This method minimizes prediction error by taking the spatial dependence structure of the data into account. Kriging uses observation data and the modeling of an experimental variogram to assign a weight to each of the sites measured using the covariance between these points, according to the distance between them. Here, weighting is a function of several components: the distance between the observed value and the value to be estimated (similar to the deterministic approach), the spatial structure of the sampling (presence of voids or clusters of measured points) and the spatial behavior of the observed phenomenon (fast or slow spatial variability, preferential direction, etc.). Example of an experimental variogram showing the difference in value between the pairs of points according to the distance between them (ArcGIS® software). Kriging methods also have other advantages. For example, it is possible to define a more or less significant weight according to the direction (i.e. the anisotropy phenomenon). This makes it possible to consider influences such as the origin of prevailing winds when monitoring a chimney plume, or the direction of river flow when monitoring sediments (Merwade, 2009). Another advantage of certain kriging methods (called co-kriging) is the opportunity to improve the variogram calculation by integrating auxiliary variables that evolve in space in the same way as the regionalized variable (Lemarchand & Jeannée, 2009). However, the most valuable aspect of this method compared to other possibilities is the calculation of a probable estimation error for each unsampled point. This prediction error is generally higher in areas that have few samples and when close to points where extreme values were observed. A phenomenon showing high spatial variability entails higher levels of uncertainty. Kriging results (ArcGIS® software). Top: Mapping of the random variable prediction. Bottom: Mapping of prediction error. Auchincloss AH, Gebreab SY, Mair C, Diez Roux AV. 2012. A review of spatial methods in epidemiology, 2000-2010. Annu Rev Public Health, 33: 107-122. Besag J, York J, Mollié A. 1991. Bayesian image restoration, with two applications in spatial statistics (with Discussion). Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 43(1): 1-59. Campbell J & Shin M. 2011. Essentials to Geographic Information Systems. Flat World Knowledge, Inc. 171p. Clayton D & Kaldor J. 1987. Empirical Bayes estimates of age-standardized relative risks for use in disease mapping. Biometrics, 43: 671-681. Cressie NA. 1993. Statistics for Spatial Data (revised edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. De Blomac F, Gal R, Hubert M, Richard D, Tourret C. 1994. Arc/Info, concepts et applications en géomatique. Paris, Hermès, 256 p. Elliott P & Wartenberg D. 2004. Spatial Epidemiology: Current Approaches and Future Challenges. Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol 112: 998-1006. Fernandez-Falcon E, Strittholt JR, Alobaida AI, Schmidley RW, Bossler JD, Ramirez JR. 1993. A Review of Digital Geographic Information Standards for the State/Local User. URISA Journal, Vol 5 (2): 21-27. Goovaerts P. 1997. Geostatistics for Natural Resources Evaluation. Oxford University Press, New York. Hengl T. 2007. A Practical Guide to Geostatistical Mapping of Environmental Variables. Office for Official Publication of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 143p. Hjalmars U, Kulldorff M, Gustafsson G, Nagarwalla N. 1996. Childhood leukemia in Sweden: Using GIS and a spatial scan statistic for cluster detection. Statistics in Medicine, 15: 707-715. Kulldorff M. 1997. A spatial scan statistic. Communications in statistics: theory and methods, 26 (6): 1481–1496. Kulldorff M, Feuer EJ, Miller BA, Freedman LS. 1997. Breast cancer in northeastern United States: A geographical analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146: 161-170. Kulldorff M, Athas WF, Feurer EJ, Miller BA, Key CR. 1998. Evaluating cluster alarms: a space-time scan statistic and brain cancer in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Am J Public Health, 88 (9): 1377–1380. Kulldorff M. 1999. An isotonic spatial scan statistic for geographical disease surveillance. Journal of the National Institute of Public Health, 48: 94–101. Lemarchand O, Jeannée N. 2009. Méthodes de cartographie et approche géostatistique – La cartographie de la pollution au dioxyde d’azote en Alsace. Cahier des thèmes transversaux ArScAn, 9: 203-214. Li J & Heap AD. 2014. Spatial interpolation methods applied in the environmental sciences: a review. Environmental Modelling & Software, 53: 173-189. Merwade V. 2009. Effect of spatial trends on interpolation of river bathymetry. Journal of Hydrology, 371: 169–181. Rican S. 2007. Représentation cartographique des données sanitaires. Séminaire ORS Île de France « De la mesure des expositions à l’évaluation des conséquences pour la santé : le traitement spatialisé des données ». Paris, 7 septembre 2007. Communication orale. Ripley BD. 1981. Spatial Statistics. New York: Wiley. Tobler W. 1970. A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region. Economic Geography, 46: 234–40.

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Heiko Bleher looks at the Mormyridae family of fish that locates and communicates by using its own electricity. There are more than 190 valid species of elephantnoses in the Mormyridae family and they belong to the Osteoglossiformes order. Their distribution is confined to the African continent, but I've found from the lower Nile to South Africa in almost every type of water. They are mostly night active and best known for the species with elongate body forms or tube snouts — and for the organ they use to generate electric fields to help them navigate, detect prey and communicate in a process known as electro-location. The South American Gymnotiformes, including the Black ghost knifefish, also have electric organs that operate in a very similar way. Some knifefishes even have a similar head form, arealso night active and live in very similar habitats. However, they are not thought to have shared any recent ancestry. The elephantnose’s specialised organ is in the caudal peduncle which discharges the pulses. Each one builds up an electrical field around the fish and is sensed by cutaneous (skin) electro-receptor organs distributed over most of the body surface. Nearby objects distort the field and cause local alteration in current flow in the electro-receptors closest to the object. By constantly monitoring responses of its organs, a fish can detect, localise, identify objects and communicate with others up to about 3m/10’ away. When the fish is resting discharge frequency is low, but this rapidly increases to between 80 and 100 pulses per minute when disturbed. However, the strength of electricity created, about one volt, is not enough to seriously shock a human. Mormyrus rume is an exception, giving off 25 volts. Its discharge can be felt by touching the caudal peduncle of the fish when taken out of the water. Covering the genera There’s a total of 21 genera in the Mormyidae family and here I’ll cover the genera and species found in the hobby, imported or occasionally bred. Mainly because of their often cryptic habitat and because they are night active, there are still many undescribed and unknown species. The known genera are: Brienomyrus, Brevimyrus, Boulengeromyrus, Campylomormyrus, Cyphomyrus, Genyomyrus , Gnathonemus, Heteromormyrus, Hippopotamyrus, Hyperopisus, Isichthys, Ivindomyrus, Marcusenius, Mormyrops, Mormyrus, Myomyrus, Oxymormyrus, Paramormyrops, Petrocephalus, Pollimyrus and Stomatorhinus. Did you know? Elephantnoses even amazed the ancient Egyptians! We know from records from 2450-2350 BC that many carvings were made of them and still these survive, as in the tomb of Idout, tomb of Ti and tomb of Mereruka, and also in some beautiful paintings. To that dynasty of Egyptians these fishes were sacred, a symbol of fertility and one of the forms of the goddess Isis is depicted with one in her hand. The first scientific record of an elephantnose comes from Forskål in 1775 with Mormyrus kannume, followed by Linnaeus (1758) with three more species (cyprinoides, anguilloides and cashive – pictured above), also from the Nile. The fifth Nile species, niloticus, was published in 1801 by Bloch and Schneider. These were mostly those already known from ancient paintings and carvings. It took almost another 50 years before new elephantnoses were described and only Peters, in 1852, mentions the first from Mozambique and Castelnau, in 1861, another from the Zambezi river. Others followed, but Boulenger was the specialist, describing between 1890 and 1920 almost 60 new species from all over Africa and which are still valid today. Last year five new species of Pollimyrus were described from a very small area in the Odzala National Park of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in a recent publication by Lavoué, Sullivan and Arnegard. This shows how many species are still undiscovered in Africa. These fishes live in amazing habitats and have evolved extraordinary adaptations among individuals found in a completely different location of the same river. Each snout is specialised to the nature of the river floor in which it feeds. Long and thin ones allow fish to probe for food in deep and small-grained gravel or sand, while short and fat ones enable them to feed on algae-caked bedrock. The species Gnathonemus petersii from the lower Niger basin, was one of the first to arrive in the hobby and it remains the most popular. It’s also the reason that the common name of elephantnose evolved. Its chin is prolonged as a fleshy, sensitive finger to search and find food in the soft ground and between small stones, while the mouth remains in the normal position. However, species of the genus Campylomormyrus, for example, have the snout extended into a long downwards-curving tube. In this case the small mouth is at the end of the tube. Not all elephantnoses have elongated snouts. Petrocephalus species (above) have an almost bulldog-like appearance. Although they have poor eyesight, they have extremely large brains, between one-fifth and one-eighth of their body weight. This is more than 25 times the relative weight of a pike’s brain and approaches the human ratio of about one twenty-fifth to one-fortieth. Their cerebellum is greatly enlarged and this is related to the perception of the fishes’ electric field. It’s uncertain when the first elephantnoses arrived in the hobby but we identify Gnathonemus petersii (above) with the family and it is widely found and exported from Nigeria. The other Gnathonemus species have hardly been exported. Gnathonemus can grow to maximum of 25cm/10” TL. The species of the genus Brienomyrus are rarely more the 12-15cm/ 4.8-6". B. longianalis is exported from Lagos, Nigeria, as are three unidentified species: B. sp. 1, B. sp. 2 and the undescribed B. sp. 3 from the lower Congo. This is in addition to B. sphekodes from the Doumé region in the Congo and B. tavernei from the Tumbwe river system in the DRC which are rarely exported from Kinshasa. The two species, or variants, of the genus Brevimyrus are infrequent in the hobby, but the Niger species pictured above, originally from Gambia, has also been exported from West Africa together with Brevimyrus sp. 1, from the lower Niger river delta, in Nigeria. They remain around 10-12cm/4-4.8” TL. The monotypic Boulengeromyrus knoepffleri, with its amazing snout, is from Gabon, recorded at a maximum 30cm/12” and a hobby rarity. On the other hand, the species of Campylomormyrus is probably the most colourful elephantnose, at least in the juvenile stage. Some grow to 60cm/24” and are often colourless at that size. They are confined to the Congo basin, are popular in the hobby, but infrequently exported. The species C. alces (above) C. cassaicus and C. christyi, are spasmodically exported from Kinshasa, as is C. elephas and C. cassaicus. However, the very long-snouted C. curvirostris, C. numenius and C. tshokwe rarely arrive in the hobby. To my knowledge the species of the genus Cyphomyrus was never imported and the monotypic Genyomyrus donnyi (pictured above) rarely so. The latter is easy identified by its unique lower snout. I have collected them several times, but brought back only a few specimens from the upper Congo and it was difficult to reach the upper Lufira waterfall where they’re found. They are solitary fishes and the largest recorded was 45cm/18”. The monotypic genus Heteromormyrus from Angola has never been in the hobby. Members of the genus Hippopotamyrus are rare, but H. aelsbroecki and H. weeksi from the Congo basin, are seen more than H. discorhynchus from the rivers in the southern Lake Malawi region in Mozambique, they grow hardly longer than 12-15 cm/4.8-6”. There are also monotypic species from the Nile and the mostly desert regions of Mali, Burkina Faso and central Niger River regions, where several subspecies have been recognised. Hyperopisus bebe, which in most places is a food fish, is rarely in the hobby. It grows to 50cm/20” and has hardly any colour. However, the small monotypic Isichthys henryi is beautiful and a very different elephantnose species and excellent for smaller aquaria. It is occasionally found — unlike, to my knowledge, the two described species of the genus Ivindomyrus from Gabon and DRC. The Marcusenius genus (pic shows M. monteiri) was named after ichthyologist Johann Marcusen who published extensively on elephantnoses. Its species have a short and blunt snout, their mouth is terminal and a fleshy prominence extends ahead of the lower jaw. They are found in most parts of Africa and 35 species are recognised valid. Most common in the hobby is M. cf. macrolepidotus. Growing to 25cm/10” it has a nice marble colour and looks like the described species from Mozambique. Also shipped out regularly are M. cyprinoides (above) from the lower Niger: M. senegalensis, of which I found two races in the Niger, as well as M. sp. 1, (still unidentified). The most beautiful is M. moorii (above) which I found in southern Cameroon but is rarely exported. Also desirable is M. livingstonii from Lake Malawi, but it’s not found in the hobby. Mormyrops have the largest fishes in the family, with specimens collected at 1.5m/5.2’. My largest was near Limala, on the Congo in 1986, and that was M. curtus at 130cm/4.3’. Mormyrops are all elongate to anguilliform and have a terminal mouth. They have strong, truncate or notched teeth and can be very aggressive. Hobbyists should avoid M. curtus and M. anguillioides (pictured above). My only suggestions for aquarium life would be the small and peaceful M. parvus and similar looking M. sirenoides. Species occasionally found from the Congo are M. lineolatus which I found in the upper river and M. engystoma from the lower basin. They remain between 15-20cm/6-8” and need hideaways in the aquarium. If kept in twos they could fight. The Mormyrus genus with 22 species is easily recognised by very long dorsal fins and very short anal fins. Most have a tubular snout and largest specimens can grow to 45cm/18”. Few reach the hobby, mostly M. rume from Nigeria and M. caballus from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRG). M. caschive and M. ovis from above Lufira waterfall. M. macrophthalmus, is a strange looking fish, hardly exported, and even less so is M. hasselquisti from the middle Niger. None have shown to be aggressive, but keep three or more together. The two long-snouted Oxymormyrus species (picture shows O. boulengeri) are small and unique, hardly more than 20cm/8”, but hardly found in the hobby. They are also difficult to collect from inaccessible crevices. Almost all the seven known Paramormyrops species are restricted to lower Guinea, except for P. kingsleyae, and rarely found in the hobby. Most are less than 10cm/4” and have a non-tubular snout, often bluntly rounded or tapering to a gentle point. The mouth is small and terminal. Some of the 28 species of Petrocephalus can be found in the hobby, but only P. ansorgii and P. pallimaculatus from the Niger river are shipped from Lagos. The Congo species, P. simus, with silver body and black spot below the dorsal fin and P. cf. microphthalmus (similar to P. ansorgii), are rarely exported. Petrocephalus are also small, rarely over 10cm/4” and peaceful. There’s 17 small species from Pollimyrus and almost all will suit a biotope correct aquarium. There’s only four or five in the hobby, but P. isidori from the Niger, has been bred many times. P. adspersus and P. isidori are frequently exported from Lagos. P. lhusyii is beautiful, hardly 8cm/3/1”, so ideal for smaller aquaria. Stomatorhinus has never been in the hobby. these are 4-10cm/1.6-4” long. Also in the Osteoglossiformes order with elephantnoses are the Arowana (Osteoglossidae), Pirarucú (Aprapaimidae), butterflyfishes (Pantodontidae), mooneyes (Hiodontidae), knifefishes (Notopteridae) and Aba aba (Gymnarchidae). How do I keep them? Don’t place them in a small aquaria. Each tank should be at least 100cm/40” long, and the bigger the better. As for décor this depends on the species. Gnathonemus petersii, the one most frequently seen in the hobby, needs fine sand in at least some part of the aquarium. This species must be kept in groups of at least five, as they live only in groups —which is not the case with most of the other elephantnose species. The aquarium also needs some gravel and, if you wish, some larger stones and well-watered driftwood and leaves. There are rarely plants in the natural elephantnose habitat, but go for Crinum natans, Bolbitis heudelotii and Anubias species if wanting greenery. The larger species should have larger tanks and be kept in pairs or groups of three or more. No elephantnose fish should be kept alone. Aquariums for any of the Marcusenius species should be at least 100cm/40” long and for Mormyrus at least 150cm/60” — likewise the other larger species. What food should I feed them? The mouths of most elephantnoses are small with a few weak teeth, so food should be offered accordingly. In nature most feed on aquatic insects, their larvae and snails. The very large ones also take fishes. In aquaria offer Rotifera (rotifers), Cladocera (water fleas) and Copepoda (copepods) with a variety of foods. I have often seen elephantnoses become very skinny in importers, shops and private aquaria and die quickly because of not enough food or the correct nutrition. They need mosquito larvae, bloodworms, white worms, black worms, Daphnia, Tubifex and Cyclops, if not live then at least frozen. If you can’t get hold of these, or are unable to offer them every day, don’t keep elephantnoses! Can I spawn them? Spawning is not as difficult as it seems. Frank Kirschbaum proved it with four species from four genera by simulating the high water season, by raising the water level and reducing conductivity to imitate rain. He also proved that mormyrids kept under such conditions for two to four weeks will attain sexual maturity and begin to spawn. Regular spawning at intervals of several days follows, with length of interval varying according to the species. It’s five to eight days for Pollimyrus isidori, 20 to 30 for Mormyrus rume and between 30 and 50 days for Campylomormyrus cassaicus (pictured above) These mormyrids are typical fractional spawners and their period of reproductive behaviour continues, sometimes for many months, until low water conditions (a rise in conductivity) trigger a cessation of activity. After three to four weeks the sexual organs become inactive and the fishes await the next high water to trigger further ripening of their gonads — which was the case in nature when I saw them spawning during the rise of water. One example is Pollimyrus isidori, which can become sexually mature at 6cm/2.4”. To simulate the rainy season get an aquarium of at least 120 x 50 x 60cm/48 x 20 x 24”, as the male will already occupy a territory of 50-100cm/20-40” across. Conductivity should go from 2,400 µS/cm slowly down to 200, water level from 25/10” to 45/18” or 50cm/20” high and pH from about 7, dropping to below 5. The male will build a nest of plant material in his occupied territory, so make some available. When spawning the ripe female invades his territory and deposits her eggs on the substrate near the nest. The male gathers them — and 80 and 200 may be laid in a single night — puts them in the nest where he guards and tends them. The embryos hatch on the fourth day and the larvae start to take Artemia from about the thirteenth day. They remain under guard near the nest for some time. During courtship, acoustic signals created by the male are used for communication between sexes. It was similar with Mormyrus rume (pictured above) which were sexually mature at about 15cm/6”, Camphylomormyrus cassaicus were best, with a ratio of two males to three females in an aquarium at least 200cm/80” long and were also sexually mature at 15cm/6”. Hippopotamyrus pictus also bred this way. For most Congo basin species you could add Distichodus sexfasciatus, D. noboli, Phenacogrammus interruptus, P. caudalis, P. caudomaculatus Ctenopoma acutirostre, Synodontis contractus, S. nigriventris, S. flavitaeniatus, Pantodon buchholzi and possibly Hemichromis stellifer and Xenomystus nigri. For Nigeria species try Pantodon buchholzi, Brycinus longipinnis, B. chaperi, Arnoldichthys spilopterus Ladigesia roloffi (at least five), Microctenopoma ansorgii and Gnathonemus petersii (also five). Aquarium operates by fish power The features for electro-location, as used by elephantnoses, are so ingeniously constructed that researchers sought to mimic their capabilities and, by the 1980s, experts at Aquarium Nancy in France had all their computers run by the electric discharge of Gnathonemus petersii — the elephantnoses I had supplied to them. The big clock at the entrance of the aquarium has been powered for 20 years solely by the discharge of a large Gymnarchus niloticus. Mystery of the flashing water I once had an incredible night experience with elephantnoses in the Lake Mai Ndombe region of the Democratic Republic of Congo. While out collecting in the flooded rainforest in some 50 cm/20” of clear water, my flashlight batteries ran out. It was pitch dark and I looked in the water where I was standing and suddenly it started to blink around me. Near my legs was a group of five or six elephantnoses swimming over fallen leaves and tree branches. Why could I see them? Their eyes were flashing on and off in bright (infra-red?) colours and, while watching this for some 15-20 minutes, I began to realise that they were using some form of communication, like Morse signals. At least one pair was mating at the same time, twisting around each other. It was an amazing sight — a spectacle I’ll never forget. Why not take out a subscription to Practical Fishkeeping magazine? See our latest subscription offer.

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Microirrigation systems can deliver water and nutrients at controlled frequencies directly to the plant's root zone. With microirrigation systems an extensive network of pipes is used to distribute water to emitters which discharge it in droplets, small streams or through mini-sprayers. Over the last two decades, microirrigation systems continue to be used in trees and other horticultural crops because of their adaptability for both irrigation and freeze protection. Microirrigation, properly managed, offers several potential advantages over other methods of irrigation: - Comparable water application uniformity. - Improved water use efficiency. - If scheduled properly, minimized deep percolation and runoff. - Efficient delivery of fertilizer (fertigation) and other chemicals (chemigation) trough the irrigation system. - Ability to irrigate land too steep for irrigation by other means. The plugging of emitters is one of the most serious problems associated with microirrigation use. Emitter plugging can severely hamper water application uniformity. Causes of Emitter Plugging Emitter plugging can result from physical (grit), biological (bacteria and algae), or chemical (scale) causes. Frequently, plugging is caused by a combination of more than one of these factors. Influence of the Water Source The type of emitter plugging problems will vary with the source of the irrigation water. Water sources can be grouped into two categories: surface or ground water. Each of these water sources produce specific plugging characteristics. Algal and bacterial growth are major problems associated with the use of surface water. Whole algae cells and organic residues of algae are often small enough to pass through the filters of an irrigation system. These algal cells can then form aggregates that plug emitters (Haman 1987c). Residues of decomposing algae can accumulate in pipes and emitters to support the growth of slime-forming bacteria. Surface water can also contain larger organisms such as moss, fish, snail, seeds, and other organic debris that must be adequately filtered to avoid plugging problems. Groundwater, on the other hand, often contains high levels of minerals in solution that can precipitate and form scale. Water from shallow wells (less than 100 ft) often will produce plugging problems associated with bacteria; chemical precipitation is more common with deep wells (Knapp et al. 1986). Physical plugging problems are generally less severe with groundwater. Sources of physical plugging problems include particles of sand and suspended debris that are too large to pass through the openings of emitters. Sand particles, which can plug emitters, are often pumped from wells. Water containing some suspended solids may be used with microirrigation systems if these suspended solids consist of clay-sized particles, and flocculation does not occur. Research has shown that using water with over 500 ppm suspended solids did not cause emitter plugging as long as the larger particles were filtered (Pitts 1985). Under some conditions, however, clay will flocculate and form aggregates causing plugging. Unflocculated clay and silt-sized particles are normally too small to plug emitters. Turbidity is an indicator of suspended solids, but turbidity alone is not an accurate predictor of the plugging potential of a water source. Turbidity should be combined with a laboratory filtration test to measure plugging potential (Gilbert and Ford 1986). A microirrigation system can provide a favorable environment for bacterial growth, resulting in slime buildup. This slime can combine with mineral particles in the water and form aggregates large enough to plug emitters. Certain bacteria can cause enough precipitation of manganese, sulfur, and iron compounds to cause emitter plugging. In addition, algae can be transported into the irrigation system from the water source and create conditions that may promote the formation of aggregates. Emitter plugging problems are common when using water that has high biological activity and high levels of iron and hydrogen sulfide. This is a frequent problem in Florida, because iron and sulfur are common constituents of many Florida waters. Soluble ferrous iron is a primary energy source for certain iron-precipitating bacteria (Gilbert and Ford 1986). These bacteria can attach to surfaces and oxidize ferrous iron to its insoluble ferric iron form. In this process, the bacteria create a slime that can form aggregates called ochre, which may combine with other materials in the microirrigation tubing and cause emitter plugging (Ford and Tucker 1975). Ochre deposits and associated slimes are usually red, yellow, or tan. Sulfur slime is a yellow to white stringy deposit formed by the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide commonly present in shallow wells in Florida. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) accumulation in groundwater is a process typically associated with reduced conditions in anaerobic environments. Sulfide production is common in lakes and marine sediments, flooded soils, and ditches; it can be recognized by the rotten egg odor. Sulfur slime is produced by certain filamentous bacteria that can oxidize hydrogen sulfide and produce insoluble elemental sulfur. The sulfur bacteria problem can be minimized if there is not air-water contact until water is discharged from the system. Defective valves or pipe fittings on the suction side of the irrigation pump are common causes of sulfur bacteria problems (Ford and Tucker 1975). If a pressure tank is used, the air-water contact in the pressure tank can lead to bacterial growth in the tank, clogging the emitter. The use of an air bladder or diaphragm to separate the air from the water should minimize this problem. Water is often referred to as the universal solvent since almost everything is soluble in it to some extent. The solubility of a given material in water is controlled by variations in temperature, pressure, pH, redox potential, and the relative concentrations of other substances in solution. Three gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide) are important in determining the solubility characteristics of water. These gases are very reactive in water, and they determine to a significant extent the solubility of minerals within a given water source. In order to predict what might cause chemical plugging of microirrigation system emitters, the process of mineral deposition must be understood. Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is of particular importance in the dissolution and deposition of minerals. Water absorbs some CO2 from the air, but larger quantities are absorbed from decaying organic matter as water passes through the soil. Under pressure, as is groundwater, the concentration of CO2 increases to form carbonic acid. This weak acid can readily dissolve mineral compounds such as calcium carbonate to form calcium bicarbonate which is soluble in water. This process allows calcium carbonate to be dissolved, transported, and under certain conditions, again redeposited as calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is the most common constituent of scale. Calcite, aragonite, and vaterite are mineral forms of calcium carbonate that have been found in carbonate scale. Calcite is formed at temperatures common within microirrigation systems, and is the most common and stable of the mineral forms. Calcium minerals occur extensively in the form of limestone and dolomite (magnesium-calcium carbonate). Calcite is the principal constituent of limestone, and occurs in many calcareous metamorphic rocks such as marble. Therefore, it is not surprising to encounter calcium carbonate in solution in almost all surface and ground waters, especially in Florida where much of the groundwater is pumped from large underlying limestone formations. As groundwater passes through these limestone formations it dissolves the limestone and carries calcium carbonate with it. Chemical plugging usually results from precipitation of one or more of the following minerals: calcium, magnesium, iron, or manganese. The minerals precipitate from solution and form encrustations (scale) that may partially or completely block the flow of water through the emitter. Water containing significant amounts of these minerals and having a pH greater than 7 has the potential to plug emitters. Particularly common is the precipitation of calcium carbonates, which is temperature and pH dependent. An increase in either pH or temperature reduces the solubility of calcium in water, and results in precipitation of the mineral. When groundwater is pumped to the surface and discharged through a microirrigation system, the temperature, pressure, and pH of the water often changes. This can result in the precipitation of calcium carbonates or other minerals to form scale on the inside surfaces of the irrigation system components. A simple test for identifying calcium scale is to dissolve it with vinegar. Carbonate minerals dissolve and release carbon dioxide gas with a fizzing, hissing sound known as effervescence. Iron is another potential source of mineral deposit that can plug emitters. Iron is encountered in practically all soils in the form of oxides (Cowan 1976), and it is often dissolved in groundwater as ferrous bicarbonate. When exposed to air, soluble ferrous bicarbonate oxidizes to the insoluble or colloidal ferric hydroids and precipitates. The result is commonly referred to as 'red water,' which is sometimes encountered in farm irrigation wells. Manganese will sometimes accompany iron, but usually in lower concentrations. Hydrogen sulfide is present in many wells in Florida. Precipitation problems will generally not occur when hard water, which contains large amounts of hydrogen sulfide, is used. Hydrogen sulfide will minimize the precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaC03) because of its acidity. Fertigation is the application of plant nutrients through an irrigation system by injection into the irrigation water. Fertilizers injected into a microirrigation system may contribute to plugging. Field surveys have indicated considerable variation in fertilizer solubility for different water sources (Ford 1977). To determine the potential for plugging problems from fertilizer injection, the following test can be performed: - Add drops of the liquid fertilizer to a sample of the irrigation water so that the concentration is equivalent to the diluted fertilizer that would be flowing in the lateral lines. - Cover and place the mixture in a dark environment for 12 hours. - Direct a light beam at the bottom of the sample container to determine if precipitates have formed. If no apparent precipitation has occurred, the fertilizer source will normally be safe to use in that specific water source (Gilbert and Ford 1986). Prevention of Emitter Plugging A properly designed microirrigation system should include preventive measures to avoid emitter plugging. Differences in operating conditions and water quality do not allow a standardized recommendation for all conditions. In general, however, the system should include the following: - a method of filtering the irrigation water. - a means of injecting chemicals into the water supply. - in some cases a settling basin to allow aeration and the removal of solids. - equipment for flushing the system. Prevention of plugging can take two basic approaches: 1) removing the potential source of plugging from the water before it enters the irrigation system; or 2) treating the water to prevent or control chemical and biological processes from occurring. Both approaches will be discussed. In many cases, a combination of both approaches will be applicable. Water Quality Analysis Knowing the quality of proposed irrigation water is necessary before designing a microirrigation system. Water quality analyses are performed at water testing laboratories (e.g. UF/IFAS Soil and Water Testing Laboratory, Gainesville). A water analysis specifically for microirrigation should be requested. The analysis should include the factors listed in Table 1. If the source is groundwater from a relatively deep well (over 100 ft), analysis for bacteria population may be omitted. Conversely, if the source is surface water, hydrogen sulfide will not be present and can be omitted. Table 1 provides concentration levels for evaluating the water quality analysis in terms of the potential for emitter plugging. A water quality analysis usually lists electrical conductivity in micromhos per centimeter (mho/cm). To estimate parts per million (ppm) dissolved solids as shown in Table 1, multiply mho/cm by 0.64. For example, if the electric conductivity meter reads 1000 mho/cm, then dissolved solids can be estimated as 640 ppm. Hardness is primarily a measure of the presence of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), and is another indicator of the plugging potential of a water source. If Ca and Mg are given in ppm rather than hardness, hardness can be estimated from the relationship shown in Equation 1: where calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are given in milligrams per liter (mg/L or ppm). Hardness = (2.5 X Ca) + (4.1 X Mg) Note that 1 mg/L equals 1 ppm. If the analysis lists the Ca and Mg concentrations in milliequivalents per liter (meq/l), they can be converted to ppm by the factors shown in Equation 2: This method of estimating hardness may give results that vary somewhat from results obtained for total hardness by laboratory methods. However, the estimate is normally adequate for use in Table 1. Ca (meq/L) X 20 = Mg (ppm) Mg (meq/L) X 12 = MG (ppm) Filters for Prevention of Physical Plugging Many types of microirrigation filter systems that will perform adequately are available commercially. Important factors to consider in selecting a filtering method are emitter design and quality of the water source. Consider the emitter's minimum passageway diameter when selecting the filter mesh size. Filters should be sized according to the emitter manufacturer's recommendations or, in the absence of manufacturer's recommendations, to remove any particles larger than one-tenth the diameter of the smallest opening in the emitter flow path. Screen filters come in a variety of shapes and sizes. A typical design is shown in Figure 1. Screen material may be slotted PVC, perforated stainless steel, or synthetic or stainless steel wire. Mesh size—the number of openings per inch—determines the fineness of the material filtered. Surface water sources should have a coarse screen filter installed on the pump inlet (suction) line to block trash and large debris. To avoid floating debris, the pump inlet should be located two feet below the water surface but suspended above the bottom. Screen filters remove only small amounts of sands and organic material before clogging and causing a flow rate reduction. Two or more filters installed in parallel will increase the time between screen cleanings. Screen cleaning can be a manual or automatic operation. Wafer (disc) filters consist of a stack of washers that provide a filtering surface area for the water to pass over as it flows through the filter (see Figure 2). These filters are sized based on the equivalent screen mesh filter size. They also require periodic cleaning. Some manufacturers provide an automatic backflush feature. Wafer filters provide more filter surface area than screen filters of the same size. Media (sand) filters are available with the capacity to efficiently remove most types of physical plugging sources (see Figure 3). These filters will remove colloidal and organic material usually present in surface waters. The size and type of media used determines the degree of filtration. The finer the media, the smaller the particle size that will be removed. Table 2 shows the relationship between sand grade and screen mesh size. Size of the media filter required is determined by the flow rate of the system, and is measured by the top surface area of the filter. Media filters should be sized to provide a minimum of one square foot of top surface area for every 20 GPM of flow, or as the manufacturer recommends. Filters are cleaned by reversing the direction of water flow through them; this procedure is called backwashing. Backwashing can be manual or automatic, on a set time interval or at a specific pressure drop. When using a media filter, install it with an additional screen filter (200-mesh or manufacturer's recommendation) downstream to prevent the transport of sand to the irrigation system during the backwash procedure. For more information on the selection, operation and maintenance of media filters, see Agricultural Engineering EDIS publication WI008, Media Filters for Trickle Irrigation in Florida. Vortex or centrifugal filters (Figure 4) effectively remove sand and larger particles, but are not effective at removing algae, very fine precipitates, and other light-weight materials. This type of filter should be used as the first filter if the water source is a sand pumping well or a fast-moving stream. It should be followed by a media and screen filter for surface water sources, or screen or wafer filter for well water. In addition to filtration, the quality of water with high levels of solids can be improved with settling ponds or basins to remove large inorganic particles. Settling ponds can also be used for aeration of groundwater containing high amounts of iron or manganese. Experiments have shown that a ferrous iron content as low as 0.2 ppm can contribute to iron deposition (Gilbert and Ford 1986). Iron is very common in shallow wells in many parts of Florida, but it can often be economically removed from irrigation water by aeration (or by some other means of oxidation), followed by sedimentation and/or filtration. Existing ponds can sometimes be used as settling basins. They need not be elaborate structures; however, settling basins should be accessible for cleaning, and large enough that the velocity of the flowing water is sufficiently slow for particles to settle out. Experience based on municipal sedimentation basins indicates that the maximum velocity should be limited to 1 foot per second. A settling basin should be designed to remove particles having equivalent diameters exceeding 75 microns, which corresponds to the size of a particle removed by a 200-mesh screen filter. The basin works on the principle of sedimentation, which is the removal of suspended particles that are heavier than water by gravitational settling. Materials held in suspension due to the velocity of the water can be removed by lowering the velocity. In some cases, materials that are dissolved in solution oxidize (through exposure to a free air surface), precipitate, and flocculate to form aggregates large enough to settle out of the water. Settling ponds are also recommended when the irrigation water source is a fast-moving stream. Velocity of the water is slowed in the settling pond, thus allowing many particles to settle out. To minimize sediment build up, regular flushing of drip irrigation pipelines is recommended. Valves large enough to allow sufficient velocity of flow should be installed at the ends of mains, submains, and manifolds. Also, allowances for flushing should be made at the ends of lateral lines. Begin the flushing procedure with the mains, then proceed to submains, manifolds, and finally to the laterals. Flushing should continue until clean water runs from the flushed line for at least two minutes. A regular maintenance program of inspection and flushing will help significantly in preventing emitter plugging. To avoid plugging problems when fertigating, it is best to flush all fertilizer from the lateral lines prior to shutting the irrigation system down. Chemical treatment is often required to prevent emitter plugging due to microbial growth and/or mineral precipitation. The attachment of inorganic particles to microbial slime is a significant source of emitter plugging. Chlorination is an effective measure against microbial activity (Ford 1977; Ford 1979a,b,c; Tyson and Harrison 1985). Use chlorine and all other chemicals only according to label directions. Acid injection can remove scale deposits, reduce or eliminate mineral precipitation, and create an environment unsuitable for microbial growth (Cowan 1976). Chlorination is the most common method for treating bacterial slimes. If the microirrigation system water source is not chlorinated, it is a good practice to equip the system to inject chlorine to suppress microbial growth. Since bacteria can grow within filters, chlorine injection should occur prior to filtration. Liquid sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)—laundry bleach—is available at several chlorine concentrations. The higher concentrations are often more economical. It is the easiest form of chlorine to handle and is most often used in drip irrigation systems. Powdered calcium hypochlorite (CaCOCl2), also called High Test Hypochlorite (HTH), is not recommended for injection into microirrigation systems since it can produce precipitates that can plug emitters, especially at high pH levels (Tyson and Harrison 1985). The following are several possible chlorine injection schemes: - Inject continuously at a low level to obtain 1 to 2 ppm of free chlorine at the ends of the laterals. - Inject at intervals (once at the end of each irrigation cycle) at concentrations of 20 ppm and for a duration long enough to reach the last emitter in the system. - Inject a slug treatment in high concentrations (50 ppm) weekly at the end of an irrigation cycle and for a duration sufficient to distribute the chlorine through the entire piping system. The method used will depend on the growth potential of microbial organisms, the injection method and equipment, and the scheduling of injection of other chemicals. Ford (1979c) developed a key that recommends chlorine injection rates for Florida conditions and irrigation systems. The amount of liquid sodium hypochlorite required for injection into the irrigation water to supply a desired dosage in parts per million can be calculated by the simplified method in Equation 3: For more detailed information on injection rates, volumes and durations, the reader is referred to Clark et al. (1988). I = (0.006 X P X Q)/m I = gallons of liquid sodium hypochlorite injected per hour, P = parts per million desired, Q = system flow rate in gpm, m = percent chlorine in the source, normally 5.25% or 10%. When chlorine is injected, a test kit should be used to check to see that the injection rate is sufficient. Color test kits (D.P.D.) that measure 'free residual' chlorine, which is the primary bactericidal agent, should be used. The orthotolidine-type test kit, which is often used to measure total chlorine content in swimming pools, is not satisfactory for this purpose. D.P.D. test kits can be purchased from irrigation equipment dealers. Check the water at the outlet farthest from the injection pump. There should be a residual chlorine concentration of l to 2 ppm at that point. Irrigation system flow rates should be closely monitored, and action taken (chlorination) if flow rates decline. Chlorination for bacterial control is relatively ineffective above pH 7.5, so acid additions may be necessary to lower the pH to increase the biocidal action of chlorine for more alkaline waters. This may be required when the water source is the Floridian aquifer. Since sodium hypochlorite can react with emulsifiers, fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides, bulk chemicals should be stored in a secure place according to label directions. Acid can be used to lower the pH of irrigation water to reduce the potential for chemical precipitation and to enhance the effectiveness of the chlorine injection. Sulfuric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acid are all used for this purpose (Kidder and Hanlon 1985). Acid can be injected in much the same way as fertilizer; however, extreme caution is required. The amount of acid to inject depends on how chemically base (the buffering capacity) the irrigation water is and the concentration of the acid to be injected. One milliequivalent of acid completely neutralizes one milliequivalent of bases. If acid is injected on a continuous basis to prevent calcium and magnesium precipitates from forming, the injection rate should be adjusted until the pH of the irrigation water is just below 7.0. If the intent of the acid injection is to remove existing scale buildup within the microirrigation system, the pH will have to be lowered more (Cowen and Weintritt 1976). The release of water into the soil should be minimized during this process since plant root damage is possible. An acid slug should be injected into the irrigation system and allowed to remain in the system for several hours, after which the system should be flushed with irrigation water. Acid is most effective at preventing and dissolving alkaline scale. Avoid concentrations that may be harmful to emitters and other system components. Phosphoric acid, which is also a fertilizer source, can be used for water treatment. Some microirrigation system operators use phosphoric acid in their fertilizer mixes. Caution is advised if phosphoric acid is used to suppress microbial growth. Care should be used with the injection of phosphoric acid into hard water since it may cause the precipitation of calcium carbonate at the interface between the injected chemical and the water source. For safety, dilute the concentrated acid in a non-metal, acid-resistent mixing tank prior to injection into the irrigation system. When diluting acid, always add acid to water, never water to acid. The acid injection point should be beyond any metal connections or filters to avoid corrosion. Flushing the injection system with water after the acid application is a good practice to avoid deterioration of components in direct contact with the acid. Acids and chlorine compounds should be stored separately, preferably in epoxy-coated plastic or fiberglass storage tanks. Acid can react with hypochlorite to produce chlorine gas and heat; therefore, the injection of acid should be done at some distance (2 feet), prior to the injection of chlorine. This allows proper mixing of the acid with the irrigation water before the acid encounters the chlorine. Hydrochloric, sulfuric, and phosphoric acids are all highly toxic. Always wear goggles and chemical-resistant clothing whenever handling these acids. Acid must be poured into water; never pour water into acid. Scale inhibitors, such as chelating and sequesting agents, have long been used by other industries. A number of different chemicals are being marketed for use in microirrigation systems to prevent plugging. Many of these products contain some form of inorganic polyphosphate that can reduce or prevent precipitation of certain scale-forming minerals. These inorganic phosphates do not stop mineral precipitation, but keep it in the sub-microscopic range by inhibiting its growth. Probably the most commonly used of these materials is sodium hexametaphosphate—as little as 2 ppm can hold as much as 200 ppm calcium bicarbonate in solution (Cowan and Weintritt 1976). Sodium hexametaphosphate is not only effective against alkaline scale, but also forms complexes with iron and manganese and can prevent depositions of these materials. Although the amount of phosphate required to prevent iron deposits depends on several factors, a general recommendation is 2 to 4 ppm phosphate for each ppm of iron or manganese (Cowen and Weintritt, 1976). These phosphates are relatively inexpensive, readily soluble in water, nontoxic, and effective at low injection rates. Algae problems which often occur with surface water sources such as a pond can be effectively treated with copper sulfate (CuS04). Dosages of 1 to 2 ppm (1.4 to 2.7 pounds per acre foot) are sufficient and safe to treat algae growth. Copper sulfate should be applied when the pond water temperature is above 60°F. Treatments may be repeated at 2 to 4-week intervals, depending on the nutrient load in the pond. Copper sulfate should be mixed into the pond (i.e., sprinkled into the wake of a boat). The distribution of biocides into surface water must be in compliance with EPA regulations. Copper sulfate can be harmful to fish if alkalinity, a measure of the water's capacity to neutralize acid, is low. Alkalinity is measured volumetrically by titration with H2S04 and is reported in terms of equivalent CaC03. Table 3 provides a reference for determining rates to add copper sulfate given different alkalinity levels. Repeated use of copper sulfate can result in the buildup to levels toxic for plants. Several types of injection systems, available commercially through irrigation equipment suppliers, are commonly used with microirrigation: venturi, pressurized mixing tank, pump suction line method, and metering pumps (see Figures 5 through 8). Whichever method is used, there must be some way of controlling injection rates. Figure 5 shows a venturi injector in which the injection rate depends upon the creation of a 'low' pressure area as water flows through a constriction in the line. Since injection is based on the pressure differential that results, the rate of injection depends on pressure, flow, and the level of solution in the supply tank. Figure 6 shows a pressurized mixing tank where the solution is placed in a flexible membrane. Water entering the supply tank displaces solution from the membrane into the line. The injection rate is controlled by adjusting valves both on the main line and from the solution supply tank. The pump suction line method is shown in Figure 7. With this method the pump must be resistant to any chemical that is to be injected. Because of backflow prevention regulations, this method is only permissible under certain conditions. Figure 8 shows a metering injection pump. These are often positive displacement injectors which rely on either a diaphragm or a piston-driven pump which produces a higher pressure in the chemical injection line than that in the irrigation pipeline. The injection rate can be very precisely controlled with this method, and it is recommended when a constant level of chemical concentration must be maintained in the system supply line such as when pesticides are injected. To ensure that the water source does not become contaminated, Florida law, EPA regulations, and county and municipal codes require backflow prevention assemblies on all irrigation systems injecting chemicals into irrigation water. For detailed information on these requirements, the reader is again referred to UF/IFAS Extension Bulletin 217. Appropriate backflow prevention should include the following setup: - a check valve upstream from the injection device to prevent backward flow. - a low pressure drain to prevent seepage past the check valve. - a vacuum relief valve to ensure a siphon cannot develop. - a check valve on the injection line. Figure 9 shows the proper arrangement of equipment. If an externally-powered metering pump is used for injection, it should be electrically interlocked with the irrigation pump. This interlock should not allow the injection pump to operate unless the irrigation pump is operating. If irrigation water is being used from municipal or other public water supply systems, special backflow precautions must be taken. - Emitter plugging can occur from physical, biological and chemical causes. - A water quality analysis is vital to the proper design and operation of the microirrigation system. - Every microirrigation system needs some method of filtration. - Regular flushing of the lateral and main lines will help to prevent plugging. - Most microirrigation systems will require a method of chemical treatment of the water source, and a backflow prevention system will also be required. Cowan, J.C. and D.J. Weintritt. 1976. Water-formed Scale Deposits. Gulf Publishing Co. Houston TX. Dupress, H.K. and J.V. Huner. 1984. Third Report of the Fish Farmer. United States Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. PP. 202. Washington, D. C. Fereres, Elias. 1981. Drip Irrigation Management. Leaflet 21259. Division of Agriculture, University of California. Ford, H.W. and D.P.H. Tucker. 1975. Blockage of Drip Irrigation Filters and Emitters by Iron-Sulfur- Bacterial Products. Hort Science 10 (1): 62-64. Ford, H.W. 1979a. The Present Status of Research on Iron Deposits in Low Pressure Irrigation Systems. Fruit Crops Mimeo Report FC 79-3. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Ford, H.W. 1979b. The Use of Chlorine in Low Pressure Systems Where Bacterial Slimes are a Problem. Fruit Crops Mimeo Report FC 79-5. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Ford, H.W. 1979c. A Key for Determining the Use of Sodium Hypochlorite (Liquid Chlorine) to Inhibit Iron and Slime Clogging of Low Pressure Irrigation Systems in Florida. Lake Alfred, CREC Research Report CS 79-3. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Ford, H.W. 1977. Controlling Certain Types of Slime Clogging in Drip/Trickle Irrigation Systems. Proceedings of the 7th International Agricultural Plastics Congress, San Diego, California. Ford, H.W. 1987. Iron Ochre and Related Sludge Deposits in Subsurface Drain Lines. Cir. 671. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Gilbert, R.G and H.W. Ford. 1986. Operational Principles. Chapter 3. Trickle Irrigation for Crop Production. (ED. Nakayama and Bucks) Elsevier Science Publishers. Amsterdam, Netherlands. Haman, D.Z., A.G. Smajstrla and F.S. Zazueta. 1987a. Settling Basins for Trickle Irrigation in Florida. AE-65. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Haman, D.Z., A.G. Smajstrla and F.S Zazueta. 1987b. Media Filters for Trickle Irrigation in Florida. AE-57. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Haman, D.Z., A G. Smajstrla and F.S. Zazueta 1987c. Water Quality Problems Affecting Microirrigation in Florida. Agricultural Engineering Extension Report 87-2. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Haman, D.Z., A.G. Smajstrla and F.S. Zazueta. 1988. Screen Filters for Irrigation Systems. AE-61. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Knapp, M.S., W.S. Burns and T.S. Sharp. 1986. Preliminary Assessment of the Groundwater Resources of Western Collier County, Florida. Technical Publication #86-1, South Florida Water Management District. Nakayama, F.S. and D.A. Bucks. 1986. Trickle Irrigation for Crop Production. Elsevier Science Publishers. Amsterdam, Netherlands. Pitts, D.J., J.A. Ferguson and J.T. Gilmour. 1985. Plugging Characteristics of Drip-Irrigation Emitters Using Backwash from a Water-Treatment Plant. Bulletin 880, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. Pitts, D.J. and P.L. Tacker. 1986. Trickle Irrigation: Causes and Prevention of Emitter Plugging. MP 271, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. Smajstrla, A.G., D.Z. Haman and F.S. Zazueta. 1986. Chemical Injection (Chemigation) Methods and Calibration. Agricultural Engineering Extension Report 85-22. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Smajstrla, A.G., D.S. Harrison, W.J. Becker, F.S. Zazueta and D.Z. Haman. 1988. Backflow Prevention Requirements for Florida Irrigation Systems. Bulletin 217. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Smajstrla, A.G. 1988. Backflow Requirements When Using Public Water Supplies. Bulletin 248. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Todd, D.K 1980. Groundwater Hydrology. p. 282. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y. Tyson, A.W. and K.A. Harrison. 1985. Chlorination of Drip Irrigation Systems to Prevent Emitter Clogging. Misc. Publ. 183. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia. Criteria for plugging potential of microirrigation water sources. Sand media size and screen equivalents. Copper Sulfate (CuSO4) Levels Safe for Fish.

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The generic meaning of sanctification is "the state of proper functioning." To sanctify someone or something is to set that person or thing apart for the use intended by its designer. A pen is "sanctified" when used to write. Eyeglasses are "sanctified" when used to improve sight. In the theological sense, things are sanctified when they are used for the purpose God intends. A human being is sanctified, therefore, when he or she lives according to God's design and purpose. The Greek word translated "sanctification" (hagiasmos [aJgiasmov"]) means "holiness." To sanctify, therefore, means "to make holy." In one sense only God is holy ( Isa 6:3 ). God is separate, distinct, other. No human being or thing shares the holiness of God's essential nature. There is one God. Yet Scripture speaks about holy things. Moreover, God calls human beings to be holy as holy as he is holy ( Lev 11:44 ; Matt 5:48 ; 1 Peter 1:15-16 ). Another word for a holy person is "saint" (hagios [a&gio"]), meaning a sanctified one. The opposite of sanctified is "profane" ( Lev 10:10 ). From time to time human beings are commanded to sanctify themselves. For example, God commanded the nation of Israel, "consecrate to me every firstborn male" ( Exod 13:2 ). God said through Peter, "in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord" ( 1 Peter 3:15 ). One sanctifies Christ by responding to unbelievers meaningfully, out of a good conscience and faithful life. God calls his own to set themselves apart for that which he has set them apart. Sanctify, therefore, becomes a synonym for "trust and obey" ( Isa 29:23 ). Another name for this action is "consecration." To fail to sanctify God has serious consequences ( Num 20:12 ). Human beings ultimately cannot sanctify themselves. The Triune God sanctifies. The Father sanctifies ( 1 Cor 1:30 ) by the Spirit ( 2 Thess 2:13 ; 1 Peter 1:2 ) and in the name of Christ ( 1 Cor 6:11 ). Yet Christian faith is not merely passive. Paul calls for active trust and obedience when he says, "Since we have these promises, dear friends, let us purify ourselves from everything that contaminates body and spirit, perfecting holiness out of reverence for God" ( 2 Cor 7:1 ). No one may presume on God's grace in sanctification. Peter reminds believers to be diligent in making their calling and election sure ( 2 Peter 1:10 ). A person or thing can be sanctified in two ways according to God's creative purpose or according to God's redemptive design. All sanctified in the first sense are used by God in the second sense. Not all God uses in the second sense are sanctified in the first sense. Sanctification According to God's Creative Design. God created the universe and human beings perfect (i.e., sanctified). Everything and everyone functioned flawlessly until Adam and Eve believed Satan's lie. The fall plunged the human race and the universe into a state of dysfunction ( Gen 3:14-19 ). Neither was so distorted by the fall so as to obliterate God's original purpose and design completely. Fallen human beings still bear God's image ( James 3:9-10 ). Fallen creation still witnesses to God's existence and attributes ( Psalm 19:1-6 ; Rom 1:20 ). Yet both, depending on the analogy employed, are skewed, broken, fallen, dysfunctional, "unsanctified." The imperfect state of creation is a reminder that God's fully sanctified purpose for it has been disrupted by sin. Evil is the deprivation of the good that God intends for the creation he has designed. The creation groans, awaiting its sanctification when everything will be set right ( Rom 8:21-22 ; Rev. 20-21 ). Human beings, made in God's image, were the pinnacle and focus of his creation. The sanctification of human beings, therefore, is the highest goal of God's work in the universe. God explicitly declared it to be his will ( 1 Thess 4:3 ). He purposed that human beings be "like him" in a way no other created thing is. Human beings are like God in their stewardship over creation ( Gen 1:26-31 ). Yet this role is dependent on a more fundamentally important likeness to God moral character. By virtue of God-given discretionary autonomy (faith), human beings may so depend upon God that his moral character (communicable attributes) are displayed. The unsanctified state of fallen humanity is not caused merely by lack of effort or poor motivation. It constitutes an inherent structural flaw. When Adam sinned, he and his race forfeited that which made it possible for them to function as designed the presence of God himself. Adam and Eve's prefallen sanctification was not a result of their inherent capabilities. God's indwelling presence was responsible for the manifestation of his attributes in them. Sanctification always requires God's presence. His presence is more than his "being there" a corollary of his omnipresence. It is his dynamic presence, producing fruit for which he alone is the source. "Indwelling" is not God's way of getting close to us sensually. It is a theological, rather than experiential, reality; it is "experienced" by faith, not by feeling. Human beings "fall short of God's glory" ( Rom 3:23 ) because they lack God's presence, which produces glory. "Glory" is always the manifestation of the attributes of God resulting from the presence of God. God's presence was the essential missing factor in Adam and Eve's postfall state. God called out to the fleeing man, "Where are you?" ( Gen 3:9 ). God was not seeking information. He was clarifying to sinful humanity that his presence was now lost. God sought Adam and Eve, indicating that restoration of the original purpose would be undertaken by him. Sanctification, therefore, is exclusively the work of God in grace ( Lev 21:8 ; Ezek 20:12 ; Heb 2:11 ; Jude 1 ). Functioning moral likeness to God, lost in the fall, is restored through God's redemption in Christ ( Eph 4:23-24 ; Col 3:9-10 ). Human beings are "made holy" through Christ's work. The blood of Jesus Christ sanctifies ( Heb 13:12 ) because his substitutionary atonement reversed all of the dysfunctional, as well as legal (i.e., guilt), effects of sin. Human beings are progressively sanctified now through faith in Christ and by the indwelling Spirit ( 2 Cor 3:18 ), while awaiting full sanctification at the resurrection. Believers under both the old and new covenants are sanctified the same way by grace through faith. Sanctification According to God's Redemptive Purposes. In addition to designing the goal of creation (functioning human beings in a fittingly perfect environment), God has also designed the means of achieving that goal. He not only wants to make the universe, especially human beings, sanctified. He also uses sanctified (set-apart) means to accomplish his end. God calls specific people at specific times to be sanctified for a particular role in his redemptive program. God uses all people for his purposes, even those who defy him ( Rom 9:21-22 ). For example, God used Pharaoh even though he did not let Israel go ( Rom 9:17 ). God also used Cyrus, a pagan ruler, to discipline Israel ( Isa 45:1 ). The Scripture, however, is largely the story of how God wants to use willing "vessels." He set apart some to be kings, priests, and prophets. God sanctified Jeremiah even before birth for his prophetic ministry ( Jer 1:5 ). The Holy Spirit "set apart" Paul and Barnabas for missionary service from among the gathered church ( Acts 13:2 ). Every believer has a "calling" or "vocation" based on "gifting." Just as each Israelite had a role in the corporate life under the old covenant, so the church functions by the ministry of gifted and called individuals. Each one has a gift. The prominence of ministry will vary from person to person. Yet each sanctifies his or her calling through faithfulness. It is possible, to one's peril, to confuse God's calling to "be redeemed" and God's calling to "be a redemptive agent." The former is a prerequisite for the latter. The latter cannot substitute for the former. Many Israelites were unsanctified personally because they presumed that their calling to be a redemptive nation guaranteed God's sanctifying grace. They disregarded God's Word, lacked faith in God ( Heb 4:2 ), and became proud of their achievements. Jesus spoke his harshest words against the unsanctified Pharisees ( Matt 23 ). God judged Israel as a nation by setting them aside as God's channel of blessing for the world ( Matt 21:43 )this but for a time. God is determined to fulfill all of his promises to his redemptive channel ( Rom 11:25-29 ). God used Israel, nevertheless, as a disobedient people. From a remnant within ethnic Israel, God built his church. Paul confronted an oft-posed question, "How can an elect [i.e., sanctified] nation be lost?" (Rom. 9-11). He reminded his Jewish audience that when God elected Israel to be a redemptive agent ( Gen 12:1-3 ), he did not guarantee redemption for every Israelite. Paul also warned non-Israelite believers, likewise blessed as redemptive agents (the church), not to confuse privilege with standing when he said, "Do not be arrogant, but be afraid. For if God did not spare the natural branches [Israel], he will not spare you either" ( Rom 11:20b-21 ). Jesus Christ: The Sanctifier and Model of Sanctification. The singular means of God's sanctifying grace is Jesus Christ: "We have been made holy through the sacrifice of the body of Jesus Christ once for all" ( Heb 10:10 ). Christ was qualified to sanctify because he himself had been sanctified through suffering ( Heb 2:10-11 ). First, Jesus Christ was the only human being since the fall to live a continuously, perfectly sanctified life. He was without sin, therefore, without guilt or dysfunctionality. He was sanctified from the moment of his conception ( Matt 1:18-20 ; Luke 1:35 ). He was rightly called the "Holy One of God" ( Mark 1:24 ), sanctified by the Father ( John 10:36 ). In his character, therefore, Jesus Christ was morally sanctified. Second, he was vocationally sanctified. Christ did what the Father called him to do ( John 5:19 John 5:30 John 5:36 ; 6:38 ; 8:28-29 ; 12:49 ). He accomplished his vocational purpose through time, yet he continually fulfilled his moral purpose. He sanctified himself by fulfilling his unique calling as the Messiah ( John 17:19 ), being declared the Son of God at his resurrection ( Rom 1:4 ). Jesus Christ, therefore, is the model human being for both moral and vocational sanctification ( Php 2:5-11 ). Just as all forgiveness of sin was provisional until the ministry of the Messiah was complete, so all sanctification was provisional ( Heb 9:13-14 ; 10:10-12 ). The incarnation was an indispensable means for sanctifying humanity because it was necessary that the sanctifier be from within humanity ( Heb 2:11 ). Christ's sacrificial offering of himself to God achieved comprehensive sanctification for all people ( Hebrews 10:10 Hebrews 10:14 Hebrews 10:29 ; 13:12 ). In addition, the return of Christ will mark the beginning of remade heaven and earth ( 2 Peter 3:10-13 ). Anything that prefigured the work of Christ was holy in a redemptive sense. Something need not be inherently holy to serve a sanctifying purpose. Though God instructed his people to choose animals for sacrifice that were "without spot, " this was technically impossible. Only the unblemished Lamb of God was qualified to sanctify the world. Nevertheless, the lambs, bulls, and goats used in the ceremonial sacrifices in the Old Testament were sanctified because they anticipated the one sacrifice for sins forever. Jesus was the fulfillment of the Old Testament offices of prophet, priest, and king. Yet many of these are not numbered among God's faithful. Everything is rendered holy by its proper use. The New Testament emphasis is that everything can be sanctified in a redemptive sense. When the believer glorifies God by thanking God for everything ( 1 Cor 10:31 ; 1 Thess 5:18 ), the believer thereby sanctifies everything. Nothing that God has created is unclean in itself. Its misuse renders it unclean. God has ordained specific means, however, by which the church sets Christ apart. For example, participation in the new covenant "Table of the Lord" sanctifies the believer. Apart from what Christ has done, the exercise of eating bread and drinking wine would be common. God sanctifies a believer through his or her faithful remembrance of Christ's redemptive work according to the command of the Lord. People may so profane the Lord's Supper so as to receive judgment prematurely from God ( 1 Cor 11:27-32 ). Worship under the old covenant foreshadowed Christ. Israel was ever conscious of the "sanctuary" (hagion [a&gion])the place where God resided and which he loved ( Mal 2:11 ). During Israel's captivities, the people were separated from the sanctuary and, hence, alienated from the assurance of God's saving blessings. It was the geographical and spiritual center of the nation's life. The material used for the earthly sanctuary was made "holy" by virtue of its use. God stipulated strict standards for the sanctuary's construction (Exod. 25-40) and operation (Leviticus). Everything to do with the tabernacle and temple was holy: garments ( Exod 28:2 ), anointing oil ( Exod 30:25 ), crown ( Exod 39:30 ), linen tunic ( Lev 16:4 ), convocation of the people ( Lev 23:2 ), water ( Num 5:17 ), vessels ( Num 31:6 ), utensils ( 1 Kings 8:4 ), ark ( 2 Chron 35:3 ), day ( Ne 8:11 ), and place ( Exod 28:29 ; 1 Kings 6:16 ). The items and procedures had typological significance. Although every typological feature cannot be established with absolute precision, Scripture indicates that the tabernacle and temple, including its priestly service, foreshadowed Christ ( Heb 8:5 ; 9:23 ). The old covenant sanctuaries were merely provisional. Only Christ could take away sin, "perfecting for all time those who are being sanctified" ( Heb 10:14 , marginal reading ). The Hebrew writer contrasts the earthly sanctuary of Israel with the heavenly sanctuary. It was the latter that Christ entered and opened for all who come to God through him ( Heb 8:1-6 ; 9:23-26 ; 10:19-22 ). Old and new covenants are linked by Christ. For example, the Sabbath and other designated days were to be kept "holy" ( Gen 2:3 ; Exod 20:11 ; Num 29:1 ). Christ is the Sabbath rest for believers ( Heb 4:1-11 ). Because of the sanctifying ministry of Christ, each day may be lived equally to the glory of God. Even in cases when believers differ in this matter, Paul urges all to live each day for the Lord ( Rom 14:5-12 ) for he is the "substance" ( Col 2:16-17 ). God's name is to be sanctified ( Psalm 103:1 ; Isa 29:23 ). We sanctify God's name when we worship him properly. Christians are "sanctified in Christ Jesus and called to be holy" ( 1 Cor 1:2 ). Jesus taught us to pray, "Our Father hallowed [sanctified] be your name" ( Matt 6:9 ). Praying in Jesus' name sanctifies our prayers ( John 15:16 ). Key Concepts. God's usual modus operandi is to sanctify common things for his redemptive purposes, rather than to employ perfect heavenly things ( 1 Cor 1:26-31 ). He sanctified common coats of skin to cover Adam and Eve's nakedness ( Gen 3:21 ). He sanctified a common man, Abram of Ur, in order to make a great nation ( Gen 12:1-7 ). He sanctified a common bush in the Sinai desert from which to commission a man to lead Israel out of bondage. Moses stood on "holy ground" ( Exod 3:5 ), on a "holy mountain" ( Eze 28:14 ). God made Jerusalem a "holy city" ( Neh 11:1 ; Isa 48:2 ). In dramatic fashion, God sanctified the common womb of a common virgin girl by which to incarnate his Son. God's presence was with her ( Luke 1:28 ). Jesus sanctified the world by his presence, "tabernacling" with us ( John 1:14 ). God's method is grace. He alone is to be credited. God's law is holy ( Rom 7:12 ). Christ sanctified God's Law by fulfilling it ( Matt 5:17 ). That means Christ fulfilled the ceremonial purpose of the Law by being the antitype of all that it prefigured, and fulfilled the moral demands of the Law by living perfectly according to its standards. The "law of Christ" ( Gal 6:2 ) is synonymous with the moral demands God places on all humanity. We sanctify God's Law by obeying it. Obedience is not contrary to faith. It is not works-sanctification. Biblical faith is a faith that works (James 2). The New Testament is full of commands, imperatives laws. God is pleased when the believer does "good works, " for he designed them from the beginning ( Eph 2:10 ). It is understandable why some downplay or even deny any present usefulness of "law" in the sanctification of believers. They appeal to such verses as, "you are not under law, but under grace" ( Rom 6:14b ). They are right that "law" is not the dynamic that sanctifies ( Heb 7:18-19 ). But the Law was never given for that purpose ( Gal 3:21 ). Its purpose for unbelievers is to show them how far from the original design they have come. It has an evangelistic purpose ( Gal 3:24 ). Its purpose for believers, however, is to guide them to where grace is leading them. The old covenant anticipated a fuller application of the Law. God said to Old Testament Israel that he would inaugurate a new covenant in which he would put his Law within them, and write it on their hearts ( Jer 31:33 ; Heb 8:10 ; see Ezek 36:27 ). Jesus reiterated, however, the continuing sanctifying function of the moral law, which can never be superseded ( Matt 5:17-20 ). Legalism threatens sanctification by distorting the biblical teaching about the Law to the opposite extreme. In short, legalism is substituting law for grace, achievement for faith. The Pharisees followed the Law, having first tinkered with its meaning and application. Yet they would not come to Christ ( John 5:39 ). The Judaizers followed after Paul, preaching a pregospel "gospel" of legalism. Paul flatly condemned it ( Gal 1:6-9 ; 2:16 ; 3:11 ). It is legalism when one obeys in order to glorify self before God or others ( John 5:44 ). Similarly, insisting that forgiveness from unremitted guilt requires more "work" or "penance" from the supplicant is legalism masquerading as humility. Sanctification is applied justification. By its very nature justification does not have a progressive character. It is God's declaration of righteousness. The focus of justification is the removal of the guilt of sin. The focus of sanctification is the healing of the dysfunctionality of sin. Since all spiritual blessings, justification and sanctification included, are the Christian's the moment he or she is "in Christ" ( Eph 1:3 ), sanctification is total and final in one sense ( Acts 20:32 ; 26:18 ; 1 Cor 6:11 ). Yet, unlike justification, sanctification also continues until it will be consummated when Jesus Christ returns. For then we will be like him ( 1 John 3:2 )perfect and complete. Sanctification, therefore, has an initial, progressive, and final phase. A believer's present preoccupation is with progressive sanctification ( 2 Cor 3:18 , note the present continuous tense, "are being transformed" ), by which the child of God lives out the implications of initial sanctification with an eye to the goal of final sanctification. The sanctified life is victorious ( Rom 8:37 ), though it is lived out in the context of temptation and suffering. God promises the "overcomers" in Revelation 2 and 3 to restore all that was lost in the fall ( Romans 2:7 Romans 2:11 Romans 2:17 Romans 2:26 ; Romans 3:5 Romans 3:12 ). In sanctification, the believer is simply applying the implications of his or her justification. The Holy Spirit is the dynamic of sanctification. Jesus said that he had to go away so that the Holy Spirit would indwell believers ( John 14:16-20 ). The "Holy" Spirit is so named not because he is more holy than the Father and the Son, but because his specific ministry vis--vis salvation is sanctification ( Rom 15:16 ; 1 Thess 4:3-4 ; 2 Thess 2:13 ; 1 Peter 1:2 ). The Spirit that inspired the Word of God now uses it to sanctify. Jesus, therefore, prayed concerning his own, "Sanctify them by the truth" ( John 17:17 ). The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of truth ( John 16:13 ). The blessing of the new covenant is the presence of the Spirit ( Ezek 36:27 ; Gal 3:14 ). The Holy Spirit not only is the restoration of the presence of God in believers; he also equips believers to serve the church and the world. As the fruit of the Spirit are the result of the reproduction of godly character in believers ( Gal 5:22-23 ), so the gifts of the Spirit ( Rom 12:4-6 ; 1 Cor 12 , 14 ) are the means by which believers serve others. Though God sanctifies by grace, human beings are responsible to appropriate God's grace by faith. Faith is "the" means of sanctifying grace. The Bible indicates that there are other means at the disposal of believers to promote the direct faith the Word, prayer, the church, and providence. The Word reveals God's will ( John 17:17 ). Prayer allows the believer to apply faith to every area of life. The church is the context in which mutual ministry takes place. Providence is God's superintendence over every detail of life so that a believer will always have a way to grow in grace. Whether abounding or not ( Php 4:11 ), whether certain of the outcome or not ( Est 4:11-5:3 ), the people of God may sanctify each situation knowing that God has allowed it and is present in it. In the case of temptation, the believer knows that there always will be a sanctifying faith response available ( 1 Cor 10:13 ). When God disciplines his children, it is for their good, that they may "share in his holiness" ( Heb 12:10 ). God detests sacrifices that are not offered by faith ( Psalm 40:6 ; Heb 10:5-7 ). On the other hand, a person is sanctified by presenting to God offerings that he proscribes ( 1 Sam 16:5 ; Job 1:5 ). In New Testament language, we present ourselves as "living sacrifices" ( Rom 12:1 ). According to the old covenant, sacrifices are usually slain. Yet in the new covenant a believer dies with Christ in order to live a new holy life in the power of Christ's resurrection and in identification with Christ's suffering ( Rom 6:1-11 ; Gal 2:20 ; Php 3:8-10 ). A believer grows in sanctification by living according to his or her new identity. Before being "in Christ" the believer was "in Adam" ( Rom 5:12-21 ). To be "in Adam" is to be spiritually dead. Death means "separation, " not "annihilation." A spiritually dead person is separated from God, the Life which alone can make one "godly." While separated from God, the unbeliever develops a working relationship with three related counter-sanctifying influences the world, the flesh, and the devil. "The world" provides an allure to which "the flesh" readily responds, so that the believer has a topsy-turvy outlook that places created things before the Creator ( Rom 1:23-25 ). All the while "the devil" Satan, the liar and slanderer of God along with those under his sway, give hearty approval. Faith in the gospel places the believer "in Christ, " where everything becomes new ( 2 Cor 5:17 ). Scripture calls all that the "new" believer was outside of Christ the "old man" or "old self." That identity has passed away through faith-solidarity with Christ in his death. The new identity is characterized by faith-solidarity with Christ in his resurrection so that "we might bear fruit to God" ( Rom 7:4b ; cf. Rom 6:1-11 ; Col 3:1-4 ). Formally, the transformation by faith is immediate, but does not automatically result in changed thinking or behavior. The world, the flesh, and the devil still operate in their usual insidious way, but the power of each has been rendered inoperative ( Rom 6:6 ; Heb 2:14 ) for those who live by faith according to their new identity. Faith includes repentance identifying and forsaking everything that characterizes the "old man." Faith also includes trust living in the light of everything that characterizes the "new man, " even if it doesn't "feel" right. All of this is done in hope, or forward-looking faith confidence that God will carry out his sanctifying purposes to the end. When Christ returns to complete his work, he will remake the world, resurrect believers, and banish Satan eternally. Sexual purity is a frequently mentioned application in Scripture of a properly functioning sanctified life ( 1 Cor 6:18-20 ; 1 Thess 4:3-8 ). This is so, in part, because marriage is the most revealing context from which to understand Christ's sanctifying purpose for the Church ( Eph 5:25-30 ). Believers' bodies are sanctified by controlling them in such a way that God's purposes are being fulfilled by them ( Romans 6:19 Romans 6:22 ; 12:1-2 ; 1 Thess 4:4 ). Sanctification has a negative and positive orientation. Negatively, sanctification is the cleansing or purifying from sin ( Isa 66:17 ; 1 Cor 6:11 ; Eph 5:26 ; Titus 3:5-6 ; Heb 9:13 ). The laver in God's sanctuary provided a place for those offering sacrifice to God to ritually cleanse themselves. Christ cleanses the sinner once for all. The believer testifies to this through a lifestyle of self-denial ( Matt 16:24 ). Biblical self-denial is not asceticism withholding pleasure or causing pain as an inherent means of spiritual growth. It is placing the interests of God before the interests of self. Believers do not deny or ridicule legitimate human desires. These desires, however, need to be continually prioritized according to God's purposes ( Matt 6:33 ). Positively, sanctification is the growth in righteous attitudes and behavior. Good deeds ( Eph 2:10 ), godliness ( 1 Peter 1:15 ), Christ-likeness ( 1 Peter 2:21 ), and fulfilling the demands of the Law ( Rom 8:4 ) are all ways of referring to the product of sanctification. The believer "presses on" by laying hold by faith on the promises of God ( Php 3:12 ), striving according to his indwelling resources ( Col 1:29 ). The initial avenue of spiritual experience is the mind. Faith must have an object. God transforms believers from a worldly perspective and lifestyle by renewing the mind ( Rom 12:2 ). The Word of God makes us wise ( 2 Tim 3:15 ), for "faith comes from hearing the message, and the message is heard through the word of Christ" ( Rom 10:17 ). We need the mind of Christ ( Php 2:5 ), by which we take every thought captive ( 2 Cor 10:5 ). The result of sanctification is glory the manifestation of God's presence. Glory is symbolized by a fire that does not consume ( Exod 3:5 ), by a visible pillar of cloud and fire hovering above the Holy of Holies ( Exod 40:34-35 ), by fire and violent quaking accompanying the giving of the Law on Sinai ( Exod 19:18 ), and by the splendor that will accompany Christ's return to earth ( Rev 19 ). God's sanctifying presence among people results in the manifestation of his glorious moral attributes. The new covenant brings greater glory than the old ( 2 Cor 3 ). The Spirit occupies the place in the new covenant that the Lord did in the old covenant ( 2 Cor 3:17 ). He progressively grows believers into God's likeness from glory to glory ( 2 Cor 3:18 ). So, whereas sanctification has been accomplished fully and finally in Christ and all those who are in Christ are positively sanctified, the Christian is progressively sanctified through the Spirit's ministry. The New Testament stresses moral, not ritual sanctification. Christ's atoning work put an end to the ceremonial foreshadowing of Israel's cultic practice. Jesus' reference to the temple altar in Matthew 23:19 was from the perspective of the practice he came to supersede. A sanctified believer has assurance that he or she is Christ's. The call to sanctification reminds the Christian that he or she cannot presume upon justification. Professing believers are to "pursue" sanctification ( Heb 12:14 ). Apart from God's sanctifying work in human beings, "no one will see the Lord" ( Heb 12:14 ). God will judge any person claiming identification with Christ while not actively engaged in pursuing sanctification ( Matt 7:21-23 ). John bases assurance on a faith that perseveres in sanctification ( 1 John 2:3-6 ; 5:2-4 ). Though sanctification is never complete in this life ( 1 John 1:8-10 ), it is not an optional extra tacked on to justification. Bradford A. Mullen Bibliography. D. L. Alexander, ed., Christian Spirituality; J. S. Baxter, Christian Holiness: Restudied and Restated; G. C. Berkouwer, Faith and Sanctification; M. E. Dieter, et al., Five Views of Sanctification; S. B. Ferguson Know Your Christian Life: A Theological Introduction; D. C. Needham, Birthright: Christian, Do You Know Who You Are?; J. I. Packer, Keep in Step with the Spirit; W. T. Purkiser, et al., Exploring Christian Holiness. Copyright © 1996 by Walter A. Elwell. Published by Baker Books, a division of Baker Book House Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan USA. All rights reserved. Used by permission. For usage information, please read the Baker Book House Copyright Statement. [N] indicates this entry was also found in Nave's Topical Bible [T] indicates this entry was also found in Torrey's Topical Textbook [E] indicates this entry was also found in Easton's Bible Dictionary Bibliography InformationElwell, Walter A. "Entry for 'Sanctification'". "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology".

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Keep Fighting Fit It’s only common sense to keep our bodies as healthy as we can to help us to fight off all kinds of illnesses. Obviously, we’re always going to encounter germs in our daily lives but keeping our immune systems in good condition is an excellent defense strategy. Follow these steps: - Get enough sleep, ideally seven or eight hours each night. - Try to reduce stress where you can in your life. - Make sure you’re on a diet that contains plenty of plant-based antioxidants, minerals and vitamins and eat healthy food to keep your body and immune system in good shape. - Make sure that you always get enough exercise whenever you can to keep everything in working order. - Stop consuming all sugar - Stop smoking or vaping immediately. Wear Mask Protection Get some N95 facemasks before supplies are gone. - An N95 respirator is a respiratory protective device designed to achieve a very close facial fit and very efficient filtration of airborne particles. - The ‘N95’ designation means that when subjected to careful testing, the respirator blocks at least 95% of very small (0.3 micron) test particles. If properly fitted, the filtration capabilities of N95 respirators exceed those of facemasks. However, even a properly fitted N95 respirator doesn’t completely eliminate the risk of illness or death. N95 respirators aren’t designed for children or people with facial hair. Because a proper fit cannot be achieved on children and people with facial hair, the N95 respirator may not provide full protection. A full list of FDA approved respirators is provided below. These might already be out of stock everywhere but put orders in regardless of the backorder. - 3M™ Particulate Respirator 8612F - Pasture Tm F550G Respirator - Pasture Tm A520G Respirator Wear Eye Protection Transmission through the eye is a common vector for the aerosolized virus. One of the common transmissions is touching public items then touching your face and transmitting it through the eye. Frequent hand washing and excellent hygiene are paramount. It’s important to be aware that there are at present no antiviral treatments that are effective for the treatment of Covid-19. There are currently no vaccines available for SARS-CoV-2. The present treatment approach is for supportive care and symptom management only. If people become severely ill, vital organ function support is necessary, usually in a hospital or ICU setting. Here’s a link to the number of drugs that as of February 2020 were being studied for the treatment of Covid 19. . The CDC also has a site discussing antiviral medications for the flu here. A Chinese multicenter collaboration group suggested this malaria drug might be useful for the treatment of Covid-19 pneumonia. In another recently published paper, the use of hydroxychloroquine, 400 mg twice daily followed by a maintenance dose of 200mg twice daily for four days, was found to be more potent than chloroquine to inhibit SARS-CoV2. Hydroxychloroquine was also shown to have fewer side effects than chloroquine while still addressing the inflammatory cytokine storm induced by the virus. The recommended dose of chloroquine phosphate was 500mg twice daily for ten days. This drug is traditionally is used as an antiparasitic and has been studied for the treatment of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus. This drug has been shown, in test tube studies at least, to have activity against MERS-CoV and other coronaviruses. Further studies are being undertaken to determine its true efficacy. The recommended dose was 1000mg twice daily for 10 days. HIV Drug - Kaletra (lopinavir-ritonavir) A 62-year-old man who became Spain’s first coronavirus patient is believed to have made a full recovery after being treated with an HIV drug called Kaletra or lopinavir-ritonavir. Miguel Ángel Benítez was admitted to the Virgen del Rocio Hospital in Seville, where he received an antiretroviral drug, which has been used to treat HIV and AIDS for over ten years. The drug was combined with interferon beta, which is a protein that prevents cells from becoming infected and is administered to multiple sclerosis patients. Santiago Moreno, head of infectious diseases at the Ramón y Cajal hospital in Madrid, said that the “SARS-CoV-2 protease is very similar to that of HIV,” using a name that sometimes refers to the novel coronavirus. Mast Cell Activation Syndrome (MCAS) In this February 2020 article it was discussed that “Coronavirus infection (regardless of the various types of corona virus) is primarily attacked by immune cells including mast cells (MCs), which are located in the submucosa of the respiratory tract and in the nasal cavity and represent a barrier of protection against microorganisms. Virus activate MCs which release early inflammatory chemical compounds including histamine and protease; while late activation provokes the generation of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members including IL-1 and IL-33.” The article proposes for the first time that inflammation by coronavirus may be inhibited by anti-inflammatory cytokines belonging to the IL-1 family members. It may be that individuals with MCAS are at higher risk for developing the serious consequences of this infection and thus may benefit from much stricter control of the mast cell activation syndrome if infected. Nebulized cromolyn and/or glutathione or n-acetyl cysteine (NAC) and/or IV Benadryl may be extremely helpful in these conditions. In addition to the previous suggestions, there are a number of natural substances and supplements that can be of help in lowering your risk of becoming infected with the current coronavirus. Many of these approaches are not specific treatments for the coronavirus but have been studied and referenced in the literature as having antiviral effects. It’s common knowledge that vitamin C is good for us but there have been clinical trials in China regarding the intravenous use of vitamin C to help treat patients suffering from Covid-19. A dose of between 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight (this is equal to quite a low dose of between 7.5 and 15 grams for a 180 lb person) was given to patients intravenously for three consecutive days and was very effective. There are currently three clinical trials sponsored by the Chinese government studying vitamin C. Dr. Tom Levy and Dr. Jeanne Drisko from the integrative U.S. medical community are involved in the Chinese studies. Dr. Richard Cheng MD PhD, who has been studying IV vitamin C, is suggesting the use of oral vitamin C. The one study can be found at the clinicaltrial.gov website. High dose vitamin C at 20 grams has been used in ICUs for some time in an attempt to reduce mortality from septic shock, in one study from 40% to 4%. However, most hospitals refuse to administer IV vitamin C for viral infections since it’s not considered standard of care. It’s quite likely that these Chinese studies will place high dose IV vitamin C therapy for viral infections a part of mainstream treatment in the future. In the United States, doctors who have pioneered vitamin and mineral therapies have also been studying the effects of intravenous vitamin C, with a February 2020 paper being published. “Early Large Dose Intravenous Vitamin C is the Treatment of Choice for 2019-nCov Infected Pneumonia” recommends this for the treatment for pneumonia resulting from the virus. A recommended minimum oral daily dose of vitamin C is 2,000mg. Twice daily dosing is recommended due to the water-soluble nature of vitamin C and the fact that it’s quickly metabolized. If one wants a liposomal formulation, certain brands do provide this option or you can make your own by adding https://klinghardtinstitute.com/one or two teaspoons of Body Bio PC (phosphatidyl choline) to 2 grams of powdered vitamin C and stirring it vigorously. Divide your dose and take twice daily. Watch for diarrhea if your dose is excessive. This is also very important. It’s recommended that we have a minimum of 2,000 IU and a maximum of 10,000 IU per day. The usual daily dosage for vitamin D is 1000 IU per 25 pounds of body weight. It’s best to get vitamin D levels measured and to have serum levels in Canada between 150 and 200 nmol/l. People tend to have lower vitamin D levels in the fall and winter months due to fewer hours of sunlight. However, our bodies need vitamin D to support our immune system so we need to make sure that we’re getting enough of this vital ingredient. All the cells in our bodies have receptor sites but only two types are in every cell. These are thyroid hormone receptor sites, which are responsible for metabolism, and vitamin D receptor sides. This gives you some idea of the importance of vitamin D in maintaining our overall health and wellbeing. Research indicates that vitamin D may even be more effective than the flu vaccine when it comes to flu prevention. Consequently, it’s a good idea to include vitamin D in the fight against Covid-19. It has been reported by many clinicians that high doses vitamin D of 50,000 IU over three days is highly effective in treating acute viral infections. This dosing is contraindicated in any person with lymphoid malignancies and in any patient with granulomatous diseases such as sarcoidosis, where high calcium levels are an issue. Also, a relative contraindication is pregnancy. This is by no means an approved treatment for Covid 19. This has been shown to be effective in fighting infections and also supports the immune system. Zinc can help to prevent coronavirus and other viruses multiplying in the throat and nasopharynx, which is the space above the soft palate at the back of the nose connecting the nose to the mouth and allowing us to breathe through our nose. When you begin to exhibit symptoms of the illness zinc capsules can be taken several times a day. The recommended dose for zinc is between 40 and 50mg per day. This has also has some antibacterial and anti-viral properties. If you use an official product such as Argentyn 23 you have a clear idea of how much silver you are putting into your body and don’t run the risk of taking too much. If you have viral symptoms, the recommended dosage is one teaspoon seven times per day. However, this is only a short-term solution as there are side effects such as skin discoloration if silver is used for too long. This herb has been used in traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda for a long time. It’s been shown that the herb’s compounds have anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antioxidant benefits. The herb boosts the immune system and is often employed to fight cold and flu symptoms. As a result it does have a role to play in treating the latest version of coronavirus, at least in the short term. One capsule twice a day is the recommended dose of the herbal supplement if you exhibit symptoms of the virus. There are a number of referenced articles that demonstrate its effectiveness against the influenza virus, particularly with regards to respiratory symptoms. Lyme patients with active disease may have a Herxheimer reaction as it increases lymphocyte proliferation and interleukin -2. Another natural short-term solution if you have typical flu symptoms, such as a cough, sneezing, and a runny nose, is elderberry extract taken up to six times a day. Elderberries come from the European elder tree, which is not the same as the American Elder, Elderflower, or Dwarf Elder. People believe the extract helps with the common cold, influenza, boosts the immune system, and reduces inflammation. Is also known as marigold and has been used as a medicinal herb for a very long time. The plant’s extracts have antiviral, antigenotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties that can be used to treat some of the symptoms of Covid-19. Also known as dandelion, this can also be used as an anti-inflammatory supplement. Dandelion also has antioxidant properties and some studies indicate that it has antiviral benefits and is good for our immune system. This is known to be a potent antiviral, particularly in animal models infected with corona virus. Dr. Ramzi Asfour, an infectious disease physician, suggests Beekeeper’s Natural propolis spray. Propolis increases cellular immune responses and has antiviral properties. Propolis can also be dispensed in a vaporizer (available from Ki Science) and has been shown to neutralize circulating mycotoxins in the air. CAUTION: Propolis is not to be taken if you have a Honey or Bee allergy. Most commonly known as skullcap, this is another flowering plant with medicinal qualities. It has been used to treat conditions such as respiratory infections and inflammation and have antibacterial, antiviral, and antioxidant properties. Also referred to as sweet wormwood this has been used in traditional medicine for some time and has been employed in medicines to treat malaria. There are some indications that the plant may also be used to treat some coronavirus symptoms, particularly the SARS related coronavirus. Dr. Klinghardt, in his extremely informative PowerPoint presentation, has recommended placing calendula, licorice, scutalaria, andrographis, artemisia, and dandelion tinctures, calculated for their weekly dose, in a blender with 100mls of clean water and 14 grams of vitamin C powder. Add two tablespoons of liquid Body Bio PC phosphatidyl choline and blend for a few minutes. Put this mixture in a glass and keep in the fridge. Each day, drink one seventh of the dose. Beyond Balance Herb Tinctures- IMN-V-III This product contains 19 different herbs with antiviral and immune modulating effects, including licorice, skullcap, dandelion, and rosemary. Some patients have access to peptides with immunomodulating effects. I recently returned from a peptide conference in Los Angeles and the following peptides were suggested for their antiviral and immune modulatory effects. - Thymosin alpha 1 - This is the most recommended peptide for immune stimulation. This should be used as a treatment adjuvant and a prophylactic and can help with many conditions beyond viral illness. The recommended daily dose in 450mcg. - Thymosin beta 4 - Natural killer cells are essential for defense against tumors and virus-infected cells. The cells are activated in by ONF-Gamma. This is activated by IL-18, which TB4 upregulates. Therefore, TB4 has ben studied for many Immune related diseases. Caution is warranted with cancer patients as it can increase the growth of cancers. - LL 37 (cathelicidin) - This peptide has broad spectrum antiviral/microbial, fungal effects. Peptides such as LL 37 are key components of innate defenses against infection, with both microbial and host defense modulatory functions. In addition to their well documented bactericidal potential, CHDP have more recently been shown to have antiviral properties. LL 37 has ben shown to be highly effective in preventing viral attachment to cells. It’s been used in several virus studies and has been anecdotally reported to work well with respiratory tract viruses. - Pentosan polysulfate - Polysulfates are highly potent and selective inhibitors of the in vitro replication of HIV and other enveloped viruses such as coronavirus. The anti-viral activity of polysulfates is a result of their shielding of the positively charged sites in the V3 loop of the viral envelope glycoprotein gpl120, which inhibits viral entry into cells and allows for immune clearance. The usual dose is 2mg/kg. - Selank - This is a variant of the immune molecule tufstin and has potent antiviral properties in addition to its neurological effects. The antiviral characteristics of Selank were evaluated both in vitro and in vivo against the influenza virus strain H3N2 and H5N1 and the type 1 and 2 Herpes virus. It was revealed that Selank might have a prophylactic effect during influenza infection and a therapeutic effect during a herpes virus infection. It could also be helpful with Covid-19. The Hoffman Centre Programs for cold and flu treatment We have developed a number of potential programs for acute cold and flu treatment. While the details aren’t specific to coronavirus many of the recommendations are applicable to dealing with virus that commonly infect us in the winter months. These recommendations are in no way a substitute for quick and rapid communication with your healthcare providers and the guidelines as issued via websites (like this one), previously mentioned at the beginning of this article. Any treatment that you decide to undertake should start at the first onset of symptoms. The following instructions are to be followed for the duration of symptoms unless otherwise stated. Immediately stop consuming any sugar, since this paralyzes your white blood cells, the body’s first defense against illness. Make sure you also get plenty of sleep, at least between 7.5 and 8.5 hours per night. Hot apple cider vinegar baths twice a day will help to speed up the progression of the cold and reduce your fever, potentially halving the amount of time you may have symptoms. Add two cups of apple cider vinegar to a full bath of hot water and soak for twenty minutes, remembering to fully submerge your body. If the illness has affected the chest, you can steam water over the stove, add eucalyptus drops, and breathe in the vapor for some relief from your symptoms. Please note that this treatment program is not to be undertaken if you are pregnant or breastfeeding. Adult Dosage (age 16 and up) Oscillococcinum is the first supplement to take at the first sign of a cold or flu. This works better for flu like symptoms (not cold symptoms) and you simply need to follow the directions on the package. - Vitamin D - 50,000 IU for three days. Contraindication to use of high dose vitamin D is lymphoid malignancies, pregnancy, and granulomatous diseases such as sarcoidosis - Mycelized vitamin A - 100,000 IU for three days. Contraindicated in pregnancy. - Vitamin C - 1 to 2g two to three times daily (titrate dose upward to bowel tolerance) - Astragalus Tincture - 1 dropper three times daily - Echinamide Anti-Cold tincture - 2ml three times daily - Probiomax probiotic - 1 capsule two times daily - Saccharomyces Boulardii - 2 capsules twice daily - Garlic/allicin - 2 capsules three times daily after meals. Open the capsule in 6oz of water and let sit for two minutes before drinking. - Argentyn 23 colloidal silver - 1 teaspoon three times daily in water - Andrographis - 2 dropperfuls twice daily in water - Transfer Factor Multi Immune - 2 capsules twice daily - DHEA - 50mg per day for two to three days will boost the immune system and fight infection. Note that this is for adults only. - For muscle aches take arnica and/or magnesium malate - 2 caps three times daily - Add anti-viral supplements such as olive leaf extract - 2 capsules three times daily, oil of oregano (brand name ADP) 2 capsules three times per day and lysine 500mg 2 capsules three times daily IV Treatment for 3 days - IV vitamin C - 15 to 35g once per day. Check for G6PG enzyme deficiency first - Alternatively - IV Hydrogen Peroxide, once per day Child Dosage (2 years and older) - Mycelized vitamin A – 10,000 IU for three days - Vitamin D - 10,000 IU for three days - Vitamin C - Between 250 and 500mg three times daily (to bowel tolerance) - Echinamide Anti-Cold - Between an third and a half a dropper three times daily - Probiomax probiotic - Half a capsule twice daily - Saccharomyces Boulardii - Half to a full capsule twice daily - Garlic - Half to a full capsule twice daily after meals. Open capsule in 6oz of water and let sit for two minutes before drinking. Note that it is difficult to get a child to take this. - Argentyn 23 colloidal silver - Half a teaspoon three times daily in water - Transfer Factor Multi Immune - 2 capsules daily Maintenance and Prevention Remember to stop consuming any sugar immediately, since sugar paralyzes your white blood cells, which provide your body’s first defense against sickness. Make sure you get at least 7.5 to 8.5 hours of sleep each night as well. This treatment program is not for women that are pregnant or breastfeeding. - Zinc - 30 to 50mg lozenges. The topical antimicrobial effect can be important in infections of the throat. - Biocidin throat spray - 2 sprays three to five times daily - Propolis throat spray – 5 sprays three times daily - Argentyn 23 throat spray- 3 sprays three times per day - See your doctor for a throat swab to exclude strep throat and/or mononucleosis CAUTION: Propolis is not to be taken if you have a Honey or Bee allergy. Use a Neti Pot, particular with upper respiratory infection, for three days. - Place one dropper full of Nasya wash into your Neti Pot with warm water and a heaping quarter teaspoon of pure non-ionized Neti Pot Salt. - Stir until salt is dissolved. - Add three drops of Echinacea Anti Cold and Core Phyto Lavage to the solution. Use this to perform the nasal wash as directed by the Neti Pot instructions on the bottle. - Add a quarter teaspoon of salt to the bottom of an empty spray bottle. - Add five drops of Thieves, an essential oil by Young Living, on top of the salt as this will help to dissipate it, - Fill bottle with warm water. Now you now have an air spray that will assist in lowering counts of viruses, bacteria, and molds in the air. - Spray your home, office, and other areas a couple of times a day. - You can also put Thieves drops into your palms and cup your hands over your face then inhale five or six times. - This will prevent you from contracting a sinus or lung infection, especially during long distance flights. Dr. Alex Vasquez Recommendations Dr. Alex Vasquez is an internationally recognized author, presenter, and teacher, particularly with regards to immune related disorders. He earned three doctorate degrees from fully accredited universities in the United States and has worked in various clinical facilities ranging from private boutique clinics to inpatient hospital settings. Dr. Vasquez has published 120 books, articles, letters and editorials in various magazines and peer-reviewed medical journals, including British Medical Journal, Journal of the American Medical Association, Nature Reviews Rheumatology, and Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. What follows are his recommendations for viral infections and are not meant to be specific treatments for any infections, particularly coronavirus. I’ve included these references for those curious patients who are always checking out protocols online. - Powdered Glycyrrhiza Glabra - 1.5g BID for a maximum of four weeks. Works as a tea. This is a great expectorant but avoid in heart failure patients, monitor BP and potassium - Zinc - Between 20 and 50mg a day - Selenium – 400 to 600 ug per day - Iodoral Iodine/Iodide - 12.5mg a day for two weeks - Melissa officialis - Dose variable depending on formulation - Carica papaya leaf extract - Grape seed extract (see Biotics Research Bio-Cyanidins below) - SAMe - 400mg TID plus Betaine TMG 3g BID for one week - Methyl-Folate - 1.6mg od for one to two weeks - Alpha Lipoic Acid - 300 to 400mg TID plus Thiamine 100mg (or B Complex High Potency) - NAC - 600mg BID to TID between meals - Paleo-Mediterranean Diet with no refined carbohydrates - Protectamin Whey Protein - 45g a day for immune dipeptides, if dairy tolerant - L-Glutamine powder - 9g TID between meals - Vitamin A - 100,000 IU load for three to five days, then 25,000 to 50,000 IU for two weeks (not during pregnancy) - Vitamin D3 - 100,000 to 300,000 IU load for one dose, then 10,000 IU for ten days to increase endogenous antimicrobial peptides - Nordic Naturals Arctic Cod Liver Oil without vitamin D - One teaspoon TID with meals - Selenium - 600-800mcg/d plus 800 IU vitamin E per day - Melatonin - 20mg qHS - Ubiquinol CoQ10 - 300mg od to protect the mitochondria - Biotics Research KappArest - Three capsules BID as NFKB hijacked by viruses for replication - Biotics Research Bio-Cyanidins - One tablet BID (contains marine pine bark and grape seed extract) - Biotics Research UltraVir-X - One capsule TID (Red-rooted sage, Boneset, Actratylodes, Sweet Violet, Wheat Grass, Bupleurum, Astralagus, Bee Propolis, Maitake, Black Walnut, Hesperidin, Rutin) - Biotics Research POA-Phytolens (Cats’ Claw, Lens esculenta extract) - One capsule TID - Consider broad spectrum multi such as Metagenics PhytoMulti at two tablets per day (adjust dosage of Zinc and Selenium above) CAUTION: Propolis is not to be taken if you have a Honey or Bee allergy. Treatment and Vaccines - There is no vaccine currently available to combat the current coronavirus outbreak. - The best advice is to protect yourself in some of the ways outlined above and avoid contact with infected individuals or locations where you might encounter potential carriers of the virus. - There’s no specific antiviral treatment that’s recommended for patients with the Covid-19 virus. - Those infected should receive the medical treatment required to deal with their symptoms, including care of vital organs in the most severe cases. - While we still don’t know everything about the current Covid-19 virus, common sense and taking precautions and preventative measures will be a great help. - The feeling in the medical community is that the virus is likely to become less aggressive and less dangerous over time, as many viruses do, although this is far from certain. - Many viruses adapt, mutate, and continue to live with us everyday. Time will tell if the latest threat will follow the same pattern in the coming weeks and months. As a final note, in the current circumstances, if you’re suffering from what you’d describe as symptom similar to flu such as a cough, fever, chills, or an aching feeling in the body, please don’t visit the office. If you have an appointment we can do a phone consultation instead or even connect via zoom online. Staying at home will allow you the opportunity to recover and also reduce the likelihood that you’ll pass on the virus to others. Courtesy of Tailor Made Pharmacy Expert consensus on chloroquine phosphate for the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za ZHi 2020 Feb 20. 43:E019 Epidemic Influenza and Vit D. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16959053 Biol Pharm Bull. 2009 Aug; 32 (8) : 1385-91 Ferreira L, Effect of the ethanolic extract from green propolis on production of antibodies after immunization against canine parvovirus (CPV) and canine coronavirus (CCOV). Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Research and Animal Science 49.2 (2012):116-121. http://www.revistas.usp.br/bjvras/article/view/40267 Dr Horowitz newsletter Antiviral Research 67, No 1 (2005): 18-23 Courtesy of Tailor Made Pharmacy. Dr. Bruce Hoffman, MSc, MBChB, FAARM, IFMCP is a Calgary-based Integrative and Functional medicine practitioner. He is the medical director at the Hoffman Centre for Integrative Medicine and The Brain Centre of Alberta specializing in complex medical conditions. He was born in South Africa and obtained his medical degree from the University of Cape Town. He is a certified Functional Medicine Practitioner (IFM), is board certified with a fellowship in anti-aging (hormones) and regenerative medicine (A4M), a certified Shoemaker Mold Treatment Protocol Practitioner (CIRS) and ILADS trained in the treatment of Lyme disease and co-infections. He is the co-author of a recent paper published by Dr. Afrin’s group: Diagnosis of mast cell activation syndrome: a global “consensus-2”. Read more about Dr. Bruce Hoffman.

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Climate and related controls on interglacial river sedimentation in lowland Britain 1 & John Lewin2 1. Godwin Institute of Quaternary Research, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, CAMBRIDGE CB2 3EN, England, UK 2. Institute of Geography & Earth Sciences, University of Wales, ABERYSTWYTH SY23 2DB, Wales, UK. Institute of Geography and Earth Sciencies, University of Wales, Aberystwyth SY23 2DB, Wales, U.K. Based on: Gibbard, P.L. & Lewin J. 2002 Climate and related controls on interglacial fluvial sedimentation in lowland Britain. Sedimentary Geology 151 , 187-210 . Phase ii , Phase iii Phase iii and Phase iv The block diagrams are available for viewing from the individual pages listed here. They are accompanied by short explanations. For more detail, readers should consult the further reading list below. Feel free to copy/paste images from these pages. - Interglacial fluvial sediments - Alluvial sedimentation styles - Identification and subdivision of interglacial Devensian (Weichselian) Late-glacial -Holocene (Flandrian) fluvial sequences as an analogue The pattern and implications of Interglacial fluvial sedimentation - Fph i. Late-glacial – interglacial transition (Substages late-glacial to I) - Fph ii. Full interglacial (Substage II) - Fph iii. Full interglacial (Substages late II – III) - Fph iv. Late interglacial rejuvenation and dissection (late Substage III to Early-glacial) - Full-glacial . - Discussion and Conclusions The figures were drawn by Owen Tucker of the Cartography and Reprographics Unit of the Department of Geography, University of Cambridge. Although interglacial fluvial sediments have been studied in detail, in particular to understand their stratigraphical significance for subdivision of fluvial and related sequences in general, most of the research has been undertaken by palaeontologists. This is because the sediments are often highly fossiliferous and therefore hold important implications for biostratigraphical and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. With all these studies, it is surprising perhaps that the sediments themselves have received relatively little attention. This is less true of Holocene (Flandrian; post-glacial) sequences which, often in association with archaeological investigations, have yielded important insights into sedimentation controls and timing. Whilst the importance of interglacial fluvial sediments cannot be overestimated for subdivision of Quaternary successions both within and beyond glaciated areas, the character of the sedimentary record at any one locality is markedly discontinuous, and shows high lateral facies variability. This includes a strong local ‘overprinting’ on any regional climate and environmental changes and, although often richly fossiliferous, sections frequently fail to provide unequivocal evidence of age. Preservation of materials from different parts of interglacial stages also appears to be markedly unequal. Therefore, setting aside questions concerning the number and correlation of interglacial (temperate) sequences in the region, these considerations point to the need to examine processes of interglacial sedimentation. They include both the likely changes in sedimentation style as interglacials proceed, and the effects they may have on preservation potential of earlier deposits. Some channel patterns involve extensive valley-floor reworking of alluvial sediments by laterally-mobile channels, as in the case of many braided streams. Others involve rivers of restricted mobility, together with overbank sedimentation which may blanket but not remove prior alluvial channels and deposits, as in the case of stable meandering or anastomosing rivers. The sequence of channel styles is important, because this determines both their amounts of vertical and lateral sedimentation within valleys, and the extent to which earlier materials are removed or remain to dominate later, less extensive depositional domains. This paper attempts a reconstruction of the sequence of fluvial sedimentation styles produced by rivers responding to cool temperate events repeatedly represented in the Pleistocene, to see if general patterns may be discerned. This is seen as especially important in that sedimentary styles and their sequences play a decisive role in determining the availability of a palaeontological record at any locality and time. The paper focuses on lowland Britain and its interglacial fluvial record, highlighting similarities and differences between events. Since the present interglacial period (Holocene or Flandrian) is apparently similar in most respects to those of at least the last 0.75 My, it is reasonable to seek Pleistocene analogues in Holocene floodplain sequences. The use of Holocene analogues for previous interglacial sedimentation patterns is therefore also discussed. For the purposes of this work, discussion is restricted to freshwater sequences, i.e. those sediments laid down entirely under a ‘normal’ middle-reach fluvial regime, downstream of predominantly erosional headwaters and upstream of any estuarine influences. The latter impose considerable modifications on fluvial sedimentary patterns, resulting from sea-level, tidal and water-mass interactions that impact on the entire sedimentary regime . Moreover, the volume of sediment deposited and therefore potentially likely to be preserved in estuarine situations is much increased. An example of interglacial estuarine sedimentation in the region is discussed by Gibbard (1994). - Gibbard, P.L. & Lewin J. 2002 Climate and related controls on interglacial fluvial sedimentation in lowland Britain. Sedimentary Geology 151, 187-210 . - Allen, L.G. & Gibbard, P.L. 1993. Pleistocene evolution of the Solent River of southern England. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 503-528. - Ballantyne, C. & Harris, C. 1994 The periglaciation of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press. - Bell, M. & Walker, M.J.C. 1992. Late Quaternary environmental change. Longmans: Harlow, London. - Best, J.L. & Bristow, C.S. (eds) 1993. Braided rivers . Geological Society Special Publication No.75, Geological Society: London. - Björck, S., Walker, M.J.C., Cwynar, L.C., Johnsen, S., Knudsen, K.L., Lowe, J.J., Wohlfarth, B. & INTIMATE Members1998. An event stratigraphy for the Last Termination in the North Atlantic region based on the Greenland ice-core record: a proposal of the INTIMATE group. Journal of Quaternary Science 13, 283-292. - Brakenridge, G.R. Widespread episodes of stream erosion during the Holocene and their climatic cause. Nature 283, 655-656. - Bridgland, D.R. 1994. Quaternary of the Thames. Chapman Hall: London. - Bridgland, D.R. 2000. River terrace systems in north-west Europe: an archive of environmental change, uplift and early human occupation. Quaternary Science Reviews 19, 1293- 1304. - Bridgland, D.R. & Allen, P. 1996. A revised model for terrace formationand its significance for thelower Middle Pleistocene Thames terrace aggradtions of south-east Essex. In: Turner, C. (ed.) The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe. Balkema: Rotterdam 123-134. - Bridgland, D.R. & Gibbard, P.L. 1997. Quaternary river diversions in the London Basin and the eastern English Channel. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 51, 337-346. - Bridgland, D.R., Gibbard, P.L. and Preece, R.C. 1990. Early Middle Pleistocene interglacial deposits at Little Oakley, Essex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B328, 307-339. - Brown, A.G. 1995. Lateglacial – Holocene sedimentation in lowland temperate environments: floodplain metamorphosis and multiple channel systems. Paläoklimaforschung Special issue 9, 1-15. - Brown, A.G. 1996. Floodplain palaeoenvironments. In: M.G.Anderson, D.E. Walling & P.D. Bates. Floodplain processes . J.Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, 95-138. - Brown, A.G. & Koegh, M.K. & Rice, R.J.1994 Floodplain evolution in the East Midlands, United Kingdom: the Lateglacial and Flandrian alluvial record from the Soar and Nene valleys. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A, 348, 261-293. - Brown, A.G. & Koegh, M.K. 1992. Holocene floodplain metamorphosis in the Midlands, United Kingdom. Geomorphology 4, 433-445. - Brown, A.G. & Quine, T.A. 1999. Fluvial processes and environmental change: an overview. In: A.G. Brown & T.A. Quine (eds), Fluvial processes and environmental change. J.Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, pp. 1-27. - Coxon, P., Hall, A.R., Lister, A. & Stuart, A.J. 1980. New evidence on the vertebrate fauna, stratigraphy and palaeobotany of the interglacial deposits at Swanton Morley, Norfolk. Geological Magazine 117, 525-546. - Ellis, C.E. & Brown, A.G. 1998. Archaeomagnetic dating and palaeochannel sediments: data from medieval channel fills at Hemington, Leicestershire. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25, 149-163. - Emery, D. & Myers, K.J. (eds) 1996. Sequence stratigraphy . Blackwell Science: Oxford. 297pp. - French, C.A.I. 1982. An analysis of the molluscs from an Ipswichian interglacial river channel deposit at Maxey, Cambridgeshire, England. Geological Magazine 119, 593-598. - French, C.A.I., Macklin, M.G. & Passmore, D.G.1992. Archaeology and palaeochannels in the Lower Welland and Nene valleys: alluvial archaeology at the fen-edge, eastern England. In: Alluvial archaeology in Britain . Oxbow Monograph 27. S.Needham & M.G. Macklin (eds), Oxbow Press: Oxford, pp. 169-176. - Gao, C. 1997.Sedimentology and stratigraphy of the River Great Ouse, Southern England. PhD thesis University of Cambridge. - Gao, C., Keen, D.H., Boreham, S., Coope, G.R., Pettit, M.E., Stuart, A.J. & Gibbard, P.L., 2000. Late Pleistocene deposits of the River Great Ouse at Fenstanton, Cambridgeshire, England. Quaternary Science Reviews 19, 787-810. - Gibbard, P.L. 1985. Pleistocene history of the Middle Thames Valley. University Press: Cambridge 155 pp. - Gibbard, P.L. 1988. The history of the great north-west European rivers during the past three million years. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B318, 559-602. - Gibbard, P.L. 1989. The Geomorphology of a part of the Middle Thames: forty years on. A reappraisal of the work of F. Kenneth Hare. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 100, 481-503. - Gibbard, P.L. 1994. The Pleistocene history of the Lower Thames Valley. University Press: Cambridge. 229pp. - Gibbard, P.L. & Pettit, M. 1978 The palaeobotany of interglacial deposits at Sugworth, Berkshire. New Phytologist 81, 465-477. - Gibbard, P.L. & Stuart, A.J. 1975. Flora and vertebrate fauna of the Barrington Beds. Geological Magazine 112, 493-501. - Godwin, H. 1956. History of the British flora. Cambridge University Press. - Green, C.P. & McGregor, D.F.M. 1980. Quaternary evolution of the River Thames. In: D.K.C. Jones (ed.) The shaping of southern England. Institute of British Geographers Special Publication 11, Academic Press: London., pp 177-202. - Green, C.P., Coope, G.R., Jones, R.L., Keen, D.H., Bowen, D.Q., Currant, A.P., Holyoak, D.H., Ivanovich, M., Robinson, J.E., Rogerson, R.J. & Young, R.C. 1996. Pleistocene deposits at Stoke Goldington, in the valley of the Great Ouse, U.K. Journal of Quaternary Science 11, 59- 87. - Gregory, K.G. (ed.) 1997. Fluvial geomorphology of Great Britain . Geological Conservation Review Series, 13, Chapman and Hall, London. - Holyoak, D.T. & Preece, R.C. 1985. Late Pleistocene interglacial deposits at Tattershall, Lincolnshire. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B311, 193-236. - Howard, A.J., Smith, D.N., Garton, D., Hillam & Pearce, M.1999. Middle to Late Holocene environments in the Middle to Lower Trent valley. In: A.G. Brown & T.A. Quine (eds), Fluvial processes and environmental change. J.Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, pp. 165-178. - Huntley, B.M. & Birks, H.J.B. 1983. An atlas of the past and present pollen maps of Europe: 0-13 000 years ago. Cambridge University Press. - Jones, R.L. & Keen, D.H. 1993 Pleistocene environments in the British Isles. Chapman Hall: London 346pp. - Keen, D.H., Bateman, M.D., Coope, G.R., Field, M.H., Langford, H.E., Merry, J.S. & Mighall, T.M. 1999. Sedimentology, palaeoecology and geochronology of Last Interglacial deposits from Deeping St.James, Lincolnshire, England. Journal of Quaternary Science 14, 411- 436. - Kemp, R.A. 1985. The decalcified Lower Loam at Swanscombe, Kent: a buried Quaternary palaeosol. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 96, 343-355. - Kerney, M.P. 1971. Interglacial deposits in Barnfield pit, Swanscombe, and their molluscan fauna. Journal of the Geological Society . 127, 69-93. - Knight, D. & Howard, A.J. 1994. Archaeology and alluvium in the Trent valley: an archaeological assessment of the floodplain and gravel terraces. Trent & Peak Archaeological Trust, Nottingham. - Knighton, A.D. & Nanson, G.C. 1993. Anastomosis and the continuum of channel patterns. Earth surface processes and landforms 18, 613-625. - Knox, J.C. 1993. Large increases in flood magnitude in response to modest changes in climate. Nature, 361, 430-432. - Lambrick, G. 1992. Alluvial archaeology of the Holocene in the Upper Thames basin 1971-1991: a review. In: Alluvial archaeology in Britain. Oxbow Monograph 27. S.Needham & M.G. Macklin (eds), Oxbow Press: Oxford, pp. 209-226. - Limbrey, S. & Robinson, S. 1988. Dryland to wetland: soil resources in the Upper Thames valley. In: P.Murphy & C.French (eds) The exploitation of wetlands. British Archaeological Reports, Research reports British Series, 186, 129-144. - Lowe, J.J. & Walker , M.J.C.1997. Reconstructing Quaternary environments. Second edition. Addison Wesley Longman: Harlow, 446pp. - Macklin, M.G. 1999. Holocene river environments in prehistoric Britain: human interaction and impact. Quaternary Proceedings 7, 521-530. - Macklin, M.G. & Lewin, J. 1986 Terraced fills of Pleistocene and Holocene age in the Rheidol Valley, Wales. Journal of Quaternary Science 1, 21-34. - Macklin, M.G. & Lewin, J. 1993. Holocene river alluviation in Britain. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie (Supplement), 88, 109-122. - Nanson, G.C. & Croke, J.C. 1992. A genetic classification of floodplains. Geomorphology 4, 459-486. - Nanson, G.C., Rust, B.R. & Taylor, G. 1986. Coexistent mud braids and anastomosing channels in an arid-zone river: Cooper Creek, central Australia. Geology 14, 175-178. - Needham, S.1992. Holocene alluviation and interstratified settlement evidence in the Thames valley at Runnymede Bridge. In: Alluvial archaeology in Britain. Oxbow Monograph 27. S.Needham & M.G. Macklin (eds), Oxbow Press: Oxford, pp. 249-260. - Petit, J.R., Jouzel, J., Raynaud, D., Barkov, N.I., Barnola, J.-M., Basile, I., Bender, M., Chappellaz, J., Davis, M., Delaygue, G., Delmotte, M., Kotlyakov, V.M., Legrand, M., Lipenkov, V.Y., Lorius, C., Pépin, L., Ritz, C., Saltzman, E. & Stievenard, M. 1999. Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420 000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. Nature 399, 429-436. - Petts, G. & Foster, I. 1985. Rivers and landscape. Edward Arnold: London, 274pp. - Phillips, L. 1974. Vegetational history of the Ipswichian/Eemian Interglacial in Britain and continental Europe. New Phytologist 73, 589-604. - Phillips, L. 1976. Pleistocene vegetational history and geology in Norfolk. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B275, 215-286. - Roberts, N. 1998. The Holocene. Blackwell: Oxford 316pp. - Robinson, M.A. & Lambrick, G.H. 1984. Holocene alluviation and hydrology in the upper Thames basin. Nature 308, 809-814. - Rose, J. 1995. Lateglacial and Holocene river activity in lowland Britain. Paläoklimaforschung Special issue 9, 51-74. - Rose, J., Turner, C., Coope G.R. & Bryan, M.D. 1980. Channel changes in a lowland river catchment over the last 13,000 years. In: Cullingford, R.A., Davison, D.A. & Lewin, J. (eds) Timescales in geomorphology. J.Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester., 159-175. - Rust, B.R. & Koster, E.H. 1984. Coarse alluvial deposits. In: R.G. Walker (ed.) Facies models. Geoscience Canada Special Publication Reprint Series 1, 53-69. - Schumm, S.A. 1977. The fluvial system. J.Wiley & Sons New York, London. - Schumm, S.A. 1991. To interpret the Earth: ten ways to be wrong . Cambridge University Press, 133pp. - Shotton, F.W. Goudie, A.S., Briggs, D.J. & Osmaston, H.A. 1980. Cromerian interglacial deposits at Sugworth, near Oxford, England, and their relation to the plateau Drift of the Cotswolds and the terrace sequence in the Upper and Middle Thames. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B289, 55-86. - Shotton, F.W. , Keen, D.H., Coope, G.R., Currant, A.P., Gibbard, P.L., Aalto, M., Peglar, S.M. & Robinson, J.E. 1993. The Middle Pleistocene deposits at Waverley Wood pit, Warwickshire, England. Journal of Quaternary Science 8, 293-325. - Smith, D.G. 1983. Anastomosed fluvial deposits: modern examples from western Canada. In; J.D. Collinson & J.Lewin (eds) Modern and ancient fluvial systems. International Association of Sedimentologists, Special Publication, 6, 155-168. - Smith, N.D., Cross, T.A., Dufficy, J.P. & Clough S.R. 1989. Anatomy of an avulsion. Sedimentology, 36, 1-23. - Sparks, B.W. & West, R.G. 1959. The palaeoecology of the interglacial deposits at Histon Road, Cambridge. Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 10, 123-143. - Sparks, B.W. & West, R.G. 1970. Late Pleistocene deposits at Wretton, Norfolk. I. Ipswichian interglacial deposits. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B258, 1-30. - Starkel, L. 1995. Reconstruction of hydrological changes between 7000 and 3000 BP in the upper and middle Vistula River Basin, Poland. Holocene. 5, 34-42. - Stuart, A.J. 1982. Pleistocene vertebrates in the British Isles. Longmans: London. - Törnqvist, T. 1993. Holocene alternation of meandering and anastomosing fluvial systems in the Rhine-Meuse delta (central Netherlands) controlled by sea-level rise and subsoil erodability. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 63, 683-693. - Turner, C. 1975. The correlation and duration of Middle Pleistocene interglacial periods in northwest Europe. In: Butzer, K.W. & Isaac, G.LL. (eds) After the Australopithecines. Mouton Publishers: The Hague, Paris, pp. 259-308. - van Huissteden, J., Gibbard, P.L. & Briant, R.M. 2000. Periglacial fluvial systems in Northwest Europe during Marine Isotope Stages 4 and 3. Quaternary International 79, 75-88. - Vandenberghe, J. 1993. Changing fluvial processes under changing periglacial conditions. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie (Supplement), 88, 17-28. - West, R.G. & Turner , C.1968. The subdivision and zonation of interglacial periods. Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 19, 93-101. - West, R.G. 1957. Interglacial deposits at Bobbitshole, Ipswich. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B241, 1-31. - West, R.G. 1968. Pleistocene geology and biology. Longmans Green: London. - West, R.G. 1980. Pleistocene forest history in East Anglia. New Phytologist 85, 571-622. - West, R.G. 1991 Pleistocene palaeoecology of central Norfolk . Cambridge University Press pp.110. - West, R.G., Lambert, C.A. & Sparks, B.W. 1964. Interglacial deposits at Ilford, Essex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B247, 185-211. - West R.G. Andrew, R., Catt, J.A., Hart, C.P., Hollin, J.T., Knudsen, K.-L., Miller, G.F., Penney, D.N., Pettit, M.E., Preece, R.C., Switsur, V.R., Whiteman, C.A. & Zhou, L.P. 1999 Late and Middle Pleistocene deposits at Somersham, Cambridgeshire, U.K.: a model for reconstructing fluvial/estuarine depositional environments. Quaternary Science Reviews 18, 1247- 1314. - Wymer, J.J. 1968. Lower Palaeolithic archaeology in Britain . John Baker: London.

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The Ottoman Empire was the preeminent Muslim state of the early-modern and modern periods. Arising in Anatolia in the thirteenth century, the Ottomans came to dominate the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeastern Europe. Although often perceived as a Middle Eastern power only, the Ottomans were an integral part of Europe. The Ottoman Empire’s relations with France and Austria (later Austria-Hungary) were often linked. For most of its history, the Ottoman state had good relations with France and fought with Austria. There were a number of factors that drove this dynamic. Most importantly, the Ottoman presence in the Balkans was a direct threat to the security of the Austrian Habsburg Empire. France too was often in conflict with the Habsburgs, and this brought the Ottomans and French together diplomatically and, sometimes, militarily. France also became deeply involved in the Ottoman territories, first through trade, then through investment. Only in the twentieth century did conditions change such that the Ottoman Empire allied with Austria-Hungary against France. THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 established the Ottomans as a world empire. The victorious Sultan Mehmed II, ”the Conqueror,” fully understood the significance of capturing the Byzantine capital. Wanting to preserve the city’s role as a center for world trade, Mehmed sent his personal troops into the city to protect the Byzantine palace and major marketplaces from looting. Mehmed’s campaigns into the Balkans began to concern the Austrian Habsburgs, but initially there was little direct contact. As for relations with France, French merchants began to increase their trade in the eastern Mediterranean in this period. Mehmed’s death in 1481 led to a succession struggle between his sons Bayezid and Cem. The civil war that followed Mehmed’s death pitted Bayezid, who was supported by the janissary slave soldiers, against his brother Cem, who garnered the support of the traditional Turkish aristocracy. Bayezid emerged victorious, and Cem fled. After seeking refuge in Cairo and among the Knights of Saint John on Rhodes, Cem was sent to France, where he was kept as a ”guest” at Bayezid’s request. This included an annual remittance from the Sublime Porte, the Ottoman seat of government, to Paris to cover Cem’s expenses. Cem spent the rest of his life as a pawn in international diplomacy, as the Christian powers used his claim to the Ottoman throne as a potential threat against Bayezid. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY The sixteenth century opened with a period of Ottoman expansion that greatly affected the Porte’s relationships with France and Austria. The questions surrounding Ottoman expansion—How far would they go? When would they advance? Could they be stopped?—became vital to the states of Europe. Sultan Selim ”the Grim” (1512-1520) defeated Shah Ismail Safavi at Chaldiran (1514), ending the threat of Persian expansion into Anatolia, and conquered the Mamluks in Cairo, which brought the central Islamic lands under Ottoman rule (1517). The conquest of the Levant was the fulfillment of Ottoman plans to secure control of east-west trade. The Ottomans now held all the major entrepots for silk and spices in the eastern Mediterranean, and their navy dominated the sea. Under Selim’s son, Suleyman ”the Magnificent” (1520-1566), the Ottoman Empire became a major participant in the diplomacy of Europe. Suleyman was deeply interested in events and developments in Europe, and quickly moved to expand the empire to the west, especially into Hungary. This brought the Ottomans into direct conflict with the Habsburgs in Austria. At the same time, Suleyman developed closer economic and diplomatic ties with France. Relations with both states were complicated by the advent of the Protestant Reformation. This period was one of competition for supremacy between three strong rulers: Suleyman, Francis I of France (1494-1547), and Charles V (1500-1558), the Habsburg heir in Spain elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Francis and Charles battled for control of northern Italy and supremacy in western Europe. Charles’s focus on the west led him to put his brother, Archduke Ferdinand (1503-1564), in charge of the eastern portions of the empire. The Ottoman-Habsburg rivalry took place in two areas: in the western Mediterranean against Charles and in Hungary against Ferdinand. Suleyman’s advances into Hungary were a direct threat to the Habsburgs in Austria. Suleyman first attacked Hungary in 1526. On August 28, 1526, a hastily mustered Hungarian force led by the young King Louis II met the larger and better-armed Ottoman army at Mohacs, a plain on the Danube south of the Hungarian capital at Buda. The Hungarians were no match for the Ottomans, whose artillery was particularly devastating. Over 10,000 Hungarian foot soldiers were killed, along with most of the nobility and bishops. King Louis fell from his horse while fleeing the battle and drowned. Within days, Ottoman forces occupied Buda and Pest. Suleyman, however, quickly withdrew, holding only the eastern third of Hungary. Louis’s death led to a succession struggle in Hungary. The majority of the nobles elected John Zapolyai as king, and he quickly acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty. However, Ferdinand of Austria, Louis’s brother-in-law, also claimed the Hungarian throne and occupied Buda in 1528. Securing control of Hungary became vital to Habsburg defense planning. Suleyman marched into Hungary to support Zapolyai in 1529, retaking Buda, and continued westward to besiege Vienna that fall. The siege began too late in the season and Suleyman was forced to raise the siege and march home. Hungary was divided into three parts: Ottoman, Habsburg, and royal Hungary under Zapolyai. In 1553 a treaty recognized both Zapolyai and Ferdinand as rulers over their respective territories in Hungary in exchange for annual tribute to the Porte. Full Ottoman annexation of royal Hungary came in 1541, prompted by Habsburg military action. In 1538 Zapolyai and Ferdinand concluded the Treaty of Varad by which Ferdinand would inherit Zapolyai’s lands in exchange for aid against Ottoman attacks. The agreement became problematic when Zapolyai had a son shortly before his death in 1540. The Porte recognized the child as king, obviating Ferdinand’s claims. Habsburg armies again tried to take Buda, and in August 1541 Suleyman marched to relieve the city. This time, however, he installed an Ottoman governor and provincial administration for Hungary. Ferdinand took full control of the western third of Hungary, already under Habsburg rule. In the western Mediterranean, conflicts with their mutual Habsburg enemies led Suleyman and Francis I to ally. France already had an amicable relationship with the Porte, having been granted its first capitulation, or trade agreement, in 1535. This agreement allowed French merchants to conduct business in the Ottoman realms and granted them extraterritoriality. In the same year, Charles V captured Tunis, prompting Suleyman to accept Francis’s offer of an alliance. Joint French-Ottoman naval operations against Charles commenced, and plans were made, but never carried out, for a joint attack on Habsburg territories in Italy. Poor relations with Charles ensured that Francis would remain on good terms with the Ottomans through the 1540s. Naval operations continued and the Ottoman fleet wintered in Toulon in 1543. Conflict with Charles also led Suleyman to support the Protestant Reformation. Charles was the leading Catholic king, and tried to suppress the spread of the Reform movement and bring the rebellious northern German princes back to the Roman church. Suleyman saw support for the Protestant princes as a way to strike at Charles and weaken the Habsburgs. The Protestants took advantage of Ottoman support and the growing Ottoman threat in the East to come to an agreement with Ferdinand. In exchange for help defending his lands they received religious tolerance for their churches. Charles V abdicated the throne in 1556 and divided his empire between his son, Philip II, who inherited Spain, the Netherlands, and Spanish holdings in the New World, and Ferdinand, who became Holy Roman Emperor. Philip II signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis with Henry II of France in 1559, thus ending the Habsburg—French rivalry. This, combined with domestic difficulties, led Suleyman in 1562 to make peace with Ferdinand, who agreed to pay annual tribute to the Ottomans. Ottoman-French trade relations were advanced with a new capitulation agreement in 1569. This agreement opened all Ottoman ports to French merchants and required all other western merchant vessels to sail under the French flag. French merchants took quick advantage of the new situation, and came to dominate Levantine trade. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY The seventeenth century opened and closed with major Ottoman wars with Austria. Border raiding by both empires’ garrisons escalated into a full-scale imperial war in 1592. This war, usually called the Long War, lasted until 1606. The Habsburgs took a number of Ottoman fortresses and won several major victories in the early years of the war, and anti-Ottoman rebellions broke out in Transylvania and Wallachia. The tide shifted after the Ottoman victory at Mezo Keresztes in 1596, yet the Ottomans were unable to press their advantage and the war devolved into a stalemate. By 1605 Habsburg anti-Protestant policies had alienated much of the population in Hungary and Transylvania, and those regions rebelled against Vienna. The war ended with the treaty of Sitva Torok in 1606. France remained a major trading partner with the Ottomans in the seventeenth century, but began to face serious competition from the rising trade powers of England and the Netherlands. French merchants had relied on the Venetian model of establishing close relationships with officials at the Porte to ensure trade access in the empire. As power in the Ottoman state became more decentralized, however, local officials and notables acted more independently. French merchants could no longer count on pressure from the central government to solve difficulties they were having in the provinces. English merchants were particularly successful in establishing themselves at the local level, and England’s share of Ottoman trade increased. Despite the growing competition from England, French merchants remained a vital part of the Ottoman economy. The relationship between France and the Porte remained cordial, especially as France came to replace Venice as the dominant western power in Levantine trade. French ships were even used to transport Ottoman officials. In the eighteenth century France came to dominate coastal shipping in the empire. France also continued to encourage the Ottomans to harass the Habsburgs in Austria, as French-Habsburg rivalry continued in the west. Ottoman withdrawal from Europe. Ottoman decentralization was halted in mid-century by the Koprulu family of viziers who reasserted the power of the central government. Part of their program was to revitalize the military, and this resulted in two major campaigns against Austria. The first began in 1663 under the personal leadership of Grand Vizier Fazil Ahmed Koprulu. Although the Habsburgs won the only major battle of the war, at Saint Gotthardt on August 1, 1664, the Ottomans came out ahead in the Treaty of Vasvar, which ended the war a few days later. The Habsburgs withdrew from the territories they had captured, and again agreed to pay annual tribute to Istanbul. The most important Ottoman western campaign of the seventeenth century was the siege of Vienna in 1683. Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha set out with a huge army to try to take the city that even Suleyman had not been able to capture. Delayed by sieges of smaller forts along the way, the Ottoman forces arrived at Vienna too late in the campaign season and with too little artillery to be successful. The siege was raised by an army led by Jan Sobieski, the king of Poland. The Habsburgs and their allies capitalized on the victory at Vienna by forming a Holy League to force the Ottomans out of Europe. Austrian forces took Pest in 1685 and Buda in 1686. By 1688 the Hungarian nobles had elected the Habsburg emperor king of Hungary, and Austrian forces had captured Belgrade. The Habsburg advance was halted by a new war with France and this allowed the Ottomans to regroup and counterattack. The Ottoman counteroffensive ended at the Battle of Slankamen (August 20, 1691) and the battle lines held along the Danube until 1699, when the Treaty of Karlowitz was negotiated. The Habsburgs gained Hungary and Transylvania as well as the right to look after the conditions of Catholic subjects of the Ottomans. Karlowitz was the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. Austria was now the dominant power in southeastern Europe. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY The Ottoman Empire and France maintained their close relations throughout most of the eighteenth century. Because of their own conflicts with Austria, the French often encouraged the Ottomans to fight the Austrians. Austria for its part was not averse to trying to take territory in the Balkans, but was usually unable to successfully fight the Ottomans on its own. Most often Austria allied with Russia, which emerged in this century as the major threat to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans first faced an Austrian-Venetian alliance in the war of 1716 to 1718. The Ottoman army made a very poor showing, and the war ended with the Ottomans ceding territory in the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718). The problems with their army set the Ottomans on a path of attempted military reforms, which led to a better force in the next contest with Austria and their ally Russia, in 1736 to 1739. The treaty that ended this conflict returned most of the territory the Ottomans lost at Passarowitz. Austria again joined Russia in attacking the Ottomans in 1788, but this war too ended with a negotiated peace at Sistova based on status quo ante helium in 1791. Because of good relations with France, the Porte often looked for French aid in its attempts at military reform. The Ottomans brought in a number of French military advisors, especially for help with new military technologies. Claude-Alexandre, Comte de Bonneval (1675-1747) and Baron Francois de Tott (1730-1793) both introduced modern artillery and military engineering as advisors to the Ottoman army. The French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon affected the Ottoman Empire as it did the rest of Europe. Austrian and Russian involvement in the wars against France gave the Porte some space to continue its reform efforts. The Ottomans finally clashed with France in 1798, when Napoleon invaded Egypt. The Egyptian campaign was designed to strike against France’s main enemy, Britain, but also led to the severing of amicable ties with the Ottomans. French troops handily defeated the Ottoman Mamluk forces in Egypt, and the French occupied the country for three years. The Ottomans then found themselves allied with Britain and Russia against their long-time friend, France. A joint Ottoman-British force recaptured Egypt, and with the French evacuation of the country relations were normalized with the Peace of Amiens, 1802. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY The dominant issue of Ottoman relations with France, Austria, and the other European powers in the nineteenth century was the ”Eastern Question.” In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the European states worried about Ottoman expansion. Now the concern was what would happen if the Ottomans withdrew from the Balkans or if the empire completely broke apart. As the nineteenth century progressed nationalist movements in the Balkans worked to secure their independence from the Ottomans. The European Powers each had different views about what should happen to the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted to dismember it and annex Slavic areas in the Balkans. Britain and France usually worked to shore up the Porte in the face of Russian aggression. For France, the need to counter Russian interests and preserve their economic investments in the Ottoman Empire offset their support for Balkan nationalist movements. The fate of the Ottoman Empire became a major issue in the balance of power that the European states tried to maintain. Austria also had conflicting interests with regard to the Eastern Question. The Habsburgs did take some land from the Ottomans, gaining control over Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1879. Despite this, Austria was less inclined to break the Ottoman state apart than other European powers. Although they had been the traditional enemy of the Ottomans, the multiethnic nature of the Habsburg state made any new national states in the Balkans a threat to the cohesiveness of their own empire. The creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867 did not change this attitude, especially among the Hungarians who did not want to be outnumbered by Slavs and Romanians in the new state. Great Power diplomacy affected internal developments in the Ottoman Empire. Muhammad Ali, the modernizing governor of Egypt, used French support in his bid for greater independence from the Porte. France also supported the establishment of Maronite power in Lebanon in the 1840s and again in the 1860s. France took territory directly from the Ottomans as well, occupying Algeria in 1830, and Tunisia in 1881. The balance of power broke down in 1853 with the Crimean War. The proximate cause of the war was a dispute over who would have preeminence at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. This dispute pitted Catholic France and Austria against Orthodox Russia. Both sides made demands of and threatened the Ottoman sultan. In 1853 Russia invaded the Ottoman Danubian provinces, and France and Britain sent troops to assist the Porte. When Austria entered the war Russia backed down. War fever was running high, however, and the British and French still had troops on the move. They decided to attack Russia in the Crimea, nominally in support of the Ottomans. The war was incredibly bloody, and dragged on for three years, ending in the Treaty of Paris (1856). Adding to their diplomatic interest in maintaining the balance of power, the European states were heavily invested financially in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans were already involved in the world capitalist system through trade, but industrial development in the nineteenth century deepened that integration. Modernization programs in industry and infrastructure were financed by foreign capital, mostly from France, Britain, and Germany. The great military expenditures of the Crimean War also necessitated large foreign loans. By the 1870s the Porte could not pay its loans, and in 1881 the European powers established the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, which came to oversee state finances and ensure repayment to European debtors. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The Ottoman Empire did not survive long into the twentieth century, nor did its long-time opponent, Austria-Hungary. Both multiethnic empires were broken apart in the aftermath of World War I. France would emerge from the war a victor, and, together with Britain, would oversee the dismantling of both empires. In 1912 the new national states in the Balkans— Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria—joined together to force the Ottomans out of Europe once and for all. Success against the Ottomans led the allies to fight against each other as well. A negotiated settlement was reached in 1913. The rise of Serbia posed a problem for Austria-Hungary, which ruled a large irredentist Serb minority. Common opposition to Russia brought the Ottomans, Habsburgs, and Germany together. The alliance with Germany led long-time Ottoman ally, France, to oppose the Ottomans. France and Britain finally “answered” the Eastern Question after World War I, when they imposed the Treaty of Sevres on the defeated Ottomans in 1920. The remaining portion of the empire was broken up, with the Arab provinces under the control of Britain and France through League of Nations mandates. Anatolia was divided into European spheres of influence. In the same way, the victors broke apart Austria-Hungary, giving some territory to existing Balkan national states, and creating new states in Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.

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A Helpful Guide The death of a loved one is a difficult time for anyone. But for someone suffering from PTSD, experiencing a death can be extremely difficult. In some cases, death may be the cause PTSD. What is PTSD and how does it affect the grieving process? Below is a helpful guide for understanding PTSD and grief and how to help yourself of someone you know cope through a difficult time. What Is PTSD? PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) occurs in some people who have witnessed or experienced a traumatic event. It’s classified as a psychiatric disorder characterized by both physical and psychological symptoms. What a person considers to be a traumatizing event is relative to the individual. But most common events that trigger PTSD in people are war crimes or combat, terrorist attacks, rape or sexual harassment, kidnapping, serious accidents, serious injury, close death encounters, and even natural disasters. These events needn’t be experienced firsthand to trigger PTSD in someone. Being a firsthand witness or continually being in close contact with traumatic events can also be triggering, such as a police officer who frequently investigates murder scenes or child abuse. People with PTSD have difficulty moving forward from their experiences. They may feel like they are continuously reliving their trauma and therefore find it difficult to function normally. Who Does PTSD Affect? PTSD is common among war combat veterans but anyone regardless of their occupation, gender, or race can experience PTSD. PTSD may even be experienced by someone who is deeply affected by the death of a loved one. Whether or not they witnessed their loved one pass in front of them. They may experience PTSD from the way in which their loved one passed (if it was from a random violent act or freak accident) or from not being able to cope with their absence in their life. Anyone at any age can develop PTSD, even children. While most people will experience at least one traumatic experience in their lifetime, not everyone develops PTSD. Why some people develop PTSD and others don’t isn’t 100 percent clear. However, there are known risk factors for developing PTSD which include: EXPERIENCING A TRAUMATIC EVENT AT A YOUNG AGE Children are more impressionable and have less life experience. A traumatic event may affect them more deeply because they have yet to develop the necessary mental capacity to understand it. Unfortunately, childhood trauma can stay with someone well into adulthood if they do not receive the help or support, they need. NOT HAVING ENOUGH SOCIAL SUPPORT Surviving a traumatic event leaves most people in a sensitive state. If you don’t have the right people in your life to help you through your mental distress, you are more likely to develop PTSD. It’s important to surround yourself with people who are patient and willing to let you talk about your experiences. Not having enough social support can make it more difficult to cope with PTSD. HAVING A HISTORY OF OTHER MENTAL HEALTH CONDITIONS Someone with an already fragile state of mind may experience trauma more intensely. Mental health conditions like depression or anxiety are a risk factor for PTSD and can make the condition worse. If you have a history of mental health problems and experience trauma, it’s important to get the help you need. GETTING INJURED OR SEEING SOMEONE ELSE GET INJURED DURING AN EVENT A gruesome injury can leave a mark on your mind long after the injury itself has healed. The pain and fear felt during the time of a serious injury sticks with you. It’s a reminder of how you never want to feel again. PTSD can develop after a serious injury because a person had such a terrible time recovering from their injury. It may make them avoid anything that could potentially cause them injury, even in the slightest. HAVING ADDITIONAL STRESS ON TOP OF THE EMOTIONAL EVENT Additional stress, like losing a job or the death of a loved one, can make any traumatic event more difficult to cope with. Too much stress can send you into a stress overload. PTSD may develop as a result. What Are Some Symptoms Of PTSD? There are some some common symptoms that you can watch out for if you suspect that someone you love may be suffering from PTSD. BEING TRIGGERED BY THINGS THAT REMIND YOU OF YOUR TRAUMA People with PTSD can have symptoms ranging from psychological to physical. Not everyone with PTSD may have the same symptoms. But most everyone will have difficulty with people or things that remind them of their past trauma. Reminders of the traumatic event they experienced or witnessed will take them back in their mind as if they were reliving it all over again. These thoughts are intense and disturbing and can make a PTSD sufferer feel as if they are physically experiencing the event in the present. For example, a person suffering PTSD from a near death experience from drowning may be extremely uncomfortable around water. Being near a pool, beach, lake, or even a filled bathtub may cause them intense anxiety. They will begin to relive their experience of drowning vividly in their imagination. Their body may even physically react to the mind’s belief that the lungs are being drowned by water. The person may feel as if they can’t breathe, though the sensation is purely psychological. INTENSE NIGHTMARES & FLASHBACKS PTSD sufferers commonly relive their trauma both in waking life and their dreams. They may experience intensely frightening nightmares that take them back to the event. These nightmares or night terrors can affect their sleep and make bedtime something they dread. Nightmares or visions can visit them in waking life as well with unexpected flashbacks. A PTSD sufferer may experience frequent flashbacks to the event either brought on by a trigger or from seemingly out of nowhere. Flashbacks to the events feel real in the PTSD sufferers mind and can cause them great distress. Which in turn can make it difficult for them to participate in their daily activities like work or social settings. After experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, it’s normal to feel an array of emotions. Someone with PTSD will have a much harder time dealing with their negative emotions and let them turn into habitual negative thinking. They may have a pessimistic view of the world or themselves. They may feel like there is no good left in this world or have bitter feelings towards others. GUILT OR SHAME In some cases, such as with combat veterans or sexual assault survivors, PTSD sufferers may feel intense guilt or shame. A war veteran may feel as if they didn’t deserve to live while their comrades died. He or she may feel shameful or guilty for not doing more to save them. In the case of the sexual assault survivor, he or she may feel that they somehow brought it on themselves. They might feel like they deserved what happened to them or that they didn’t try hard enough to stop it from happening. In both cases, PTSD sufferers may take these negative feelings out on themselves or those around them. DEPRESSION OR MENTAL ILLNESS PTSD sufferers are more prone to developing depression. Mood disorders and mental illness are just some of the complications of PTSD. Reliving their traumatic experiences makes it hard for them to focus on the good things in front of them. They may lose all interest in things they once enjoyed doing. Depression due to PTSD can feel like all hope is lost and that there is nothing left for them. These thinking patterns lead them down into a dark place that can be difficult to crawl out of. Some PTSD sufferers may experience suicidal thoughts. Their past trauma affects them so intensely they may feel the only way out is death. If you or someone you know is experiencing suicidal thoughts or has talked about hurting themselves, seek professional help immediately. ANXIETY, RESTLESSNESS OR IRRITABILITY It’s not uncommon for PTSD sufferers to have a change in mood rather frequently. They may have anxious thoughts or feelings, especially when faced with triggers that remind them of their trauma. Anxiety can manifest itself in racing thoughts, feeling fearful for no apparent reason, fast heart rate, dry mouth, shortness of breath, and even nausea. They may feel more anxious in large crowds or fear being alone depending on the type of trauma they experienced. Their anxiety may make them jittery or restless. They may feel uncomfortable being in one place for too long and have a fear of loud noises. Other times PTSD may make someone more irritable or angry. PTSD sufferers have a hard time dealing with their feelings and emotions. Taking out their anger and frustrations on other people may be the only way they know how to cope. ISOLATING FROM OTHERS PTSD may make you feel isolated from others. Someone who’s experienced a serious trauma may find it more difficult to relate to other people in their life. They feel alone in their trauma and don’t believe others can relate. PTSD sufferers will often isolate themselves from others including friends and family. They may have such feelings of guilt, sadness, or shame that in their mind, they feel unworthy of love. Maintaining or building new relationships may be a challenge and often something a PTSD sufferer will avoid. SELF DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR People who experience trauma sometimes have difficulty coping with their feelings. It’s common for many PTSD sufferers to turn to self-destructive behaviors, like substance abuse, to cope. They may also resort to risky behaviors like driving too fast, taking part in dangerous activities, or hypersexuality. How Can Grief Affect Someone With PTSD Differently? Grief and PTSD are both complicated. Each person deals with trauma and loss in their own way. Those who suffer from PTSD and experience the sudden loss of a loved one may be affected more deeply. Someone with PTSD is already a highly sensitive emotional state. They may be more hypersensitive to any kind of life situations, especially death. Grief can be more intense for someone who is diagnosed with PTSD. Grief affects us all differently. Some people take more time to overcome the loss of someone they loved, others move on very quickly. How well you knew the deceased and what your relationship to them was often contributes to how long or how deeply you grieve. Bereavement is different for everyone depending on their personality, coping skills, or other life conditions they are dealing with at the time. Prolonged grief or complicated grief is when grief or bereavement impairs your everyday life. While mourning the loss of a loved one feels devastating for everyone, normal grief has its stages. How long people grieve may differ from person to person but eventually, they can return to life as normal. Prolonged grief or complicated grief is different. About 1 out of every 10 people experience prolonged grief. The odds are even higher if you have PTSD. Prolonged grief is a combination of PTSD and separation distress. Symptoms Of Prolonged Grief Symptoms of prolonged grief are not dissimilar to symptoms of normal grief. However, those with PTSD or prolonged grief will experience these symptoms much more intensely. Their bereavement interferes with their daily lives and deteriorates their mental health. These symptoms include: - Intense yearning or longing for the deceased. They may have an unhealthy preoccupation with or difficulty accepting the death. - Negative thinking patterns, such as a feeling that life is unbearable, or all hope is lost. - A wish to die themselves to join their loved one in death - Intrusive, disturbing images of death, especially if their loved one died a violent or gruesome death. - Avoidance of triggers or reminders of the death COMPLICATED GRIEF & PTSD Prolonged and complicated grief are closely linked to PTSD. People diagnosed with PTSD from previous trauma will likely experience symptoms of prolonged and complicated grief. However, the sudden loss of a loved one may trigger PTSD in someone which leads them to experiencing prolonged or complicated grief. Someone with PTSD and complicated grief may feel unhealthy levels of guilt for how they treated their loved one in life or for surviving them. They may feel like they should have been the one to die instead. Or they may feel that they in some way contributed to their loved one’s death or were the cause of it. Complicated grief is often accompanied by emotional numbness and feelings of emptiness. They may have difficulty planning for the future because they can’t move forward from their grief. A person with PTSD suffering from complicated grief may have a loss of identity as if they don’t know who to be now that their loved one has passed. Their grief may lead them to isolate themselves from others and retreat more to themselves. In some cases, they may feel angry with themselves for not grieving in the “right way”. What Are Some Ways To Get Help Dealing With PTSD? It’s important for those experiencing PTSD and grief to seek help from professionals. If left untreated, PTSD and prolonged or complicated grief will impede your potential to lead a healthy, normal life. If you or someone you know is experiencing PTSD or prolonged and complicated grief, there are ways to get help. TALK TO A THERAPIST A licensed therapist or psychologist who specializes in PTSD or grief can help you unpack your difficult feelings. Lack of social support or someone’s inability to cope with their emotions can cause them to internalize their feelings. Being able to talk to someone about what you are feeling or going through is the first step in recovering from PTSD or grief. Talking about your trauma or grief is a release. It helps you to get out your feelings or negative energy. A trained therapist can guide you through your feelings and emotions. They will help you to open up and talk about your trauma. Therapy can help you learn to deal with your trauma or grief in a healthy manner rather than internalizing your pain or resorting to unhealthy behaviors. You can partake in therapy either one-on-one or in a group setting. There may be local group therapy sessions at your church or community center for grief or PTSD sufferers. TALK TO YOUR DOCTOR PTSD and grief disorders can lead to mental distress and mental illness like depression or anxiety disorders. While therapy can be extremely helpful, people suffering from severe mental illness may benefit from medication. Talk to your doctor about being prescribed medication to help with depression or anxiety. Medication is not a long-term solution but combined with cognitive therapy may help get you through the most difficult period of your struggle. LOOK FOR VETERAN RESOURCES If you are a veteran and are experiencing PTSD or grief disorders because of your time in service, you may qualify for veteran benefits. Contact your local Veterans Affairs (VA) office for resources to help with PTSD and grief. They may be able to provide you with helpful information for attending group therapy sessions, doctors, and mental health professionals who specialize in veteran PTSD or grief. Many of these services will be free or low cost as part of your veteran benefits. REACH OUT TO YOUR SOCIAL NETWORK Being able to talk to someone you know, and trust can be therapeutic. It’s always helpful to talk about your feelings and get them off your chest. Whether you attend regular therapy sessions or not, talking to friends and loved ones is beneficial. Your friends and family love you and want to help. Let them be there for you in your time of need, they are there for you to lean on. Strong social support is important for anybody regardless of their situation. Reach out to someone you know and trust in your social network. Often it may be a close friend or family member. But it could also be a trusted co-worker, associate, priest, preacher, or teacher. Find someone you know will be supportive and can help you find the help you need. JOIN A SUPPORT GROUP A group support group that focuses on grief or PTSD can be an excellent resource. Especially for those who have limited social support at home. Support groups allow people who are suffering from similar traumas to come together and share their experiences. Group therapy is helpful in letting others know that they are not alone. PTSD and grief are lonely. You may feel as if you are the only person in the world to feel as you do. But support groups help you realize that you are not alone. There are people who understand how you are feeling because they are going through something similar. Support groups can be a great form of therapy and social bonding. Check church groups, community centers, or local libraries for information on possible group meetups for PTSD or grief. What Are Some Ways To Get Help Dealing With PTSD? PRACTICE SELF CARE During difficult times it’s easy to let yourself go. Stress and grief can make simple self-care routines like hygiene, health, and sleep go by the wayside. Those who are suffering from PTSD may lose interest in self-care, especially if they are using self-destructive habits to cope with their pain. But not taking care of yourself can be a cycle of self-destruction in and of itself. Poor sleep, hygiene, or eating habits can make you feel sick, tired, or down in the dumps. Taking care of yourself is crucial for your health and your mood. Don’t neglect yourself. Try to get plenty of sleep and exercise. Even a short daily walk is enough to get your heart and endorphins pumping. Take pride in your appearance and bath regularly or schedule a weekly spa appointment. Make time to enjoy yourself by doing activities that help you relax. Getting a massage, hitting the gym, or doing something creative can be therapeutic. They can also help take your mind off your situation and give you a break from your feelings. Being surrounded by people, places, and things that remind you of your grief or trauma can make it harder to move on. When you’re healing from loss especially, it’s important to step away from you grief. Going on a vacation, day trip, or short getaway may help you to gain a new perspective on your situation. A new environment will take you out of your head and give you somewhere new to explore. You will have something else to focus on rather than your grief or trauma. You’ll be away from daily triggers that remind you of your situation. A short getaway will give you space to breathe and relax. Meditation is an ancient spiritual practice that originated in the far East. Today, meditation is practiced worldwide and has been shown to have many benefits. Meditation is the practice of clearing one’s mind for a given period. During this time, you can choose to focus on nothing, use visualization to focus on a specific image, or repeat a calming mantra. Meditation is said to improve focus, brain function, reduce depression and anxiety, as well as provide many other health benefits. You can use meditation for grief or PTSD. To do it, find a quiet, comfortable place where you can sit undisturbed for at least 10 minutes. Sit comfortably, close your eyes, and begin to focus on taking slow, deep breaths. Concentrate on quieting your thoughts and paying attention to the present moment. Consider using visualization techniques or repeating a mantra to help you focus. Or follow a guided meditation. Helping others less fortunate than you can help you gain a new perspective on your life. No matter how bad we got it, someone else has it worse. When you help others, you are doing good for the world and for yourself. Helping others ignites our human empathy and makes us feel grateful for what we have. It can help to take your mind off your own troubles when you’re helping someone else with theirs. Joining a volunteer group can be a rewarding experience. You will gain a community of like-minded people who are volunteering for the greater good. You will meet people from all walks of life that will expand your horizons. If you would like, you could choose to volunteer somewhere that meant something to the deceased. It could help you feel like you are honoring their memory in some small way. Alcohol may seem like an easy way to ease pain and help you relax. When you’re going through something as emotionally draining as PTSD and grief, it’s tempting to want to self-medicate with a glass of wine. But alcohol can worsen symptoms of PTSD or grief and interfere with treatment. It can also lead to an addiction which will negatively impact your health and relationships. As tempting as it may be to reach for the bottle after a difficult day, remember that there are healthier ways to relax and unwind. ENCOURAGE OPEN CONVERSATION The best support you can offer someone with PTSD and grief is a safe space to talk openly about their feelings. Let them know that you are there for them and willing to talk whenever they would like. Encourage open conversation for them to speak up about what’s on their mind. Talking about trauma or grief can act as a release. It’s helpful to get something off your chest when it’s been weighing on you for months, even years. Children who suffer from PTSD or grief should especially be encouraged to speak about their feelings. Children have a harder time communicating with adults due to their age. They may also feel as if their voice isn’t important because they are so young. Or they may not understand what it is they are feeling and have a difficult time putting that into words. Be patient with children and let them open up to you at their own pace. Do your best to let them know they can trust you and that you are there to help them. JEWELRY FOR REMEMBRANCE Remembrance jewelry is a way to honor and remember your deceased loved one. Cremation jewelry is jewelry that allows you to carry a small portion of your loved one’s ashes with you wherever you go. Personalized cremation jewelry can help you feel closer to your loved one and may help you cope better with their absence. Jewelry Keepsakes offers a variety of remembrance jewelry to help with healing from loss. From cremation jewelry to thumbprint keepsakes, and photo jewelry. Each jewelry piece or keepsake can be customized to fit your style and your specifics. We offer multiple ways to keep the memory of your loved one alive and help you always keep them close to your heart. Jewelry Made From Ashes Jewelry made from ashes allows you to carry your loved one’s ashes with you in the form of a ring, necklace, pendant, and more. Your loved one’s ashes are incorporated into the design of the jewelry itself. Each piece of handcrafted jewelry made from ashes from Jewelry Keepsakes is made with care and attention. We ensure your loved one’s ashes are handled appropriately and incorporated into the stone set of your jewelry. Jewelry made from ashes is a deeply personal keepsake that can aid in your grief process. Cremation jewellery and keepsakes hold a small portion of your loved one’s ashes in a built-in compartment. Cremation jewelry can be filled by you in the comfort of your own home. Many surviving relatives and spouses purchase cremation jewelry to carry the memory of their loved one with them close to their heart. Having a part of your deceased loved one with you can make it feel as if your loved one is still with you in both the physical and spirit sense. Thumbprint jewelry allows you to have the most unique part of your loved one on your person wherever you are, their thumbprint. Jewelry Keepsakes can incorporate your loved one’s thumbprint into your jewelry design. We can engrave your loved one’s thumbprint on pendants, keychains, and more. Thumbprint jewelry is a unique remembrance keepsake that gives you a more visual way to memorialize the deceased. Photo Engraved Jewelry Photo engraved jewelry uses laser engraving technology to delicately engrave your loved one’s image onto your choice of jewelry or keepsake. Photo jewelry makes a beautiful and personal gift for those who are grieving. A photo engraved keepsake helps keep the memory of the deceased alive for longer. Grieving persons can look at a photo of their deceased loved one wherever they are. We are even able to engrave the name of the deceased or a special message onto the jewelry as well. Photo Jewelry For Children Jewelry Keepsakes offers photo engraved remembrance jewelry for children as well as adults. Remembrance jewelry for children may help a small child cope with their recent loss. It will give them a physical symbol of remembrance for their deceased loved one. It can be the one constant in their life of ever-changing circumstances. A child will treasure their keepsake and keep it close to them for years to come. Resources For PTSD & Grief Survivors ADAA (Anxiety & Depression Association of America): Helpful links to information regarding PTSD and how to help those who are suffering from PTSD. Veterans Family United: A nonprofit that provides links to support groups and other resources for military veterans and their families. Veterans Affairs National Center for PTSD: Links to resources for veterans and their families. Mental Health America: A helpful list of links to support groups for a variety of conditions including PTSD. 10 Best Online Grief Support Groups in 2022: Links to online grief support groups for all situations. Guided Meditation for Grief and Loss: A 12-minute guided meditation to help you cope with grief. YouTube.com : YouTube has thousands of free guided meditations for grief, anxiety, PTSD, and more. Grief Counseling: A helpful article with info on how to know when to seek counseling for yourself or someone else for their grief. Help Guide: A guide to helping children through traumatic life events. PTSD & Grief Frequently Asked Questions What is post traumatic grief? Post traumatic grief is a reaction to a sudden loss of a loved one. Post traumatic grief is like PTSD in that it causes a person great emotional distress. A person with post traumatic grief will suffer from intense flashbacks or nightmares about the death, difficulty concentrating on anything but their loss, and an inability to be around things that remind them of death. Like PTSD, post traumatic grief can negatively affect someone’s personal and work life. Post traumatic grief usually occurs in people who have lost a loved one in a gruesome or violent way. Their death can be traumatizing for them, and they will grieve more intensely than normal. How can PTSD affect someone who has just lost a loved one? PTSD and grief can impact each other when experienced at the same time. Someone with PTSD may have a harder time dealing with their grief after the sudden loss of a loved one. They may grieve more deeply and for much longer than normal. It can negatively impact their mental health or worsen a mental illness they currently have. Who can be affected by PTSD? PTSD can affect anyone of any gender at any age. Anyone who witnesses or experiences a traumatic event is at risk for developing PTSD. However, the chances are higher if the person experiences the traumatic event at a younger age. Combat veterans, sexual assault survivors, or abuse survivors are most affected by PTSD. Though, any kind of trauma can be the cause of PTSD. How long does the symptoms of grief last for someone that has PTSD? Symptoms of grief for those who have PTSD can last anywhere from weeks to months, to years. Everyone has their own grieving timeline but those who have post traumatic grief typically experience symptoms for much longer than normal. If you or someone you know is having difficulty getting over a loss, and symptoms are interfering with normal life, it may be time to get professional help. Can PTSD be caused by the death of a loved one? It is possible to develop PTSD after the death of a loved one. It’s more likely for PTSD to occur after death if the death was sudden, violent, or if the person witnessed the death firsthand. PTSD after death is more likely to occur if the person had a close relationship or bond with the deceased. PTSD caused by the death of a loved one can lead to prolonged grief or complicated grief, both of which are characterized by intense difficulty getting over a death. What are symptoms of PTSD in children? Children diagnosed with PTSD may exhibit symptoms different than that of adults. Symptoms of PTSD in children may include separation anxiety from their parents, trouble sleeping or nightmares, losing previously acquired skills (such as toilet training), playacting their traumatic experiences repeatedly, new phobias and anxieties (such as a fear of monsters in the closet), irritability or aggression, and aches and pains with no apparent cause. PTSD And Moving Forward With Life PTSD and grief coexist in the same space. PTSD is triggered by traumatic events and death itself can be traumatic for some people. Coping with PTSD and grief in a healthy manner is the best way to ensure recovery. If you or someone you know is experiencing PTSD and grief, don’t be afraid to seek help. July 27, 2022 by Jeri K. Augustus

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Учебная работа. Origin and essence of global problems Origin and essence of global problems Origin and essence of global problems Culture and moral crisis War and peace problem Global problems is invitation to the human mind List of references all branches of the humans activity, as a kind of animate nature, problem intensity is observed. This intensity is very actual today. Topicality problems of contemporary humanity consist in civilization as such able not only self-destruction, but also destroy all milieu of lifes magnificence.present conditions at a civilization two ways of further history: or to fall into oblivion and to get lost weightless ashes in world space and to carry away with itself all live, or to comprehend all the experience and to pass from the development period «Homo sapiens» to the period «Person Wise». But on many signs the problem of a choice of a way now very few people interests. Global problems have planetary, universal character, infringe on interests of all people of the world, they threaten with degradation and death to all mankind. The majority of problems which today we connect with global problems of the present, accompanied mankind throughout all its history.of all, it is necessary to carry to them: ·problem of a preservation of peace on Earth; ·preservation of peace; ·overcoming of poverty, hunger, illiteracy; global problem nature philosophical Origin and essence of global problems an increasing number of philosophers, sociologists, historians incline to think that at the present stage of development of humanity the uniform civilization on all planets is formed. Acceleration of this idea in science and public consciousness promoted understanding of globalization of social and cultural processes in the modern world.it is necessary to understand as the term globalization of social and cultural processes? The etymological term «globalization» is connected with the Latin term «globe» — that is Earth, the Globe and means all-planetary nature of these or those processes. However globalization of processes is not only their ubiquity, not only that they cover all globe. Globalization is connected, first of all, with internationalization of all public work on Earth. This internationalization means that in present period all mankind is included into uniform system of welfare, economic, political and other relations, interactions and the relations. Thus, in present period, in comparison with last historical eras, the all-planetary unity of mankind which represents essentially new super system connected by the general destiny and shared responsibility steadily increased. Therefore scientists and philosophers consider lawful to speak about formation of a uniform civilization and need of new planetary style of thinking.globalist approach is brightly found in concepts «a post of industrial society», «a technological era» American sociologists D. Bella, Z. Bzhezinsky, A. Toffler, etc. These concepts I focus attention on that fact that any technological revolution leads to profound changes not only in productive forces of society, but also in all way of life of people. Feature of the modern technological revolution connected with information of society, consists that it creates essentially new prerequisites for a universalization and globalization of human interaction. Thanks to broad development of mass media and communications, deepening of division of labor and specialization, the mankind unites in uniform sociocultural integrity. Existence of such unity dictates the requirements to mankind, as a whole, and to the individual.level of technical production and all human activity is higher, the there has to be an extent of development of the person, his interaction with environment, from here and new requirements to the personality above: in it high qualification, masterly mastering equipment, limit competence of the specialty have to be combined with social responsibility and moral universal values harmoniously.globalization of social, cultural, economic and political processes in the modern world, along with positive sides, generated a number of serious problems which received the name of «global problems of the present»: ecological, demographic, political, etc. All these problems are important for the real and future mankind. The concrete analysis of each of them is included in competence of special sciences: sociology, demography, etc. Philosophers concentrate attention world outlook the sense the vital questions, consider these problems from this made to this world».changes are a fruit of all cultural and converting and, first of all, productive activity of the person. The artificial environment gradually and inevitably comes on natural and absorbs it and it is one of the major factors, causing statement before mankind, an environmental problem.this regard special sharpness for people is gained by a problem of universal distribution in environment of productions and products, first of all, radiation and toxic types. In a year more than 20 tons of industrial and other wastes are the share of each inhabitant of Earth. More than 200 million tons of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and million tons of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere get to the atmosphere. And it already in the near future can cause atmosphere temperature increase, and after this, increase of level of the seas and flooding of considerable sites of land. As a result, one hundred millions people risk turning into «ecological refugees».problems of the present and, first of all, sharp aggravation of an environmental problem, set for mankind the task of search of new ways of development, reorganization of the relations with environment. century became an eyelid of global problems. Global problems — it is set of the most pressing vital questions on which progress and survival of mankind depends: the ecological crisis generated by catastrophic on the consequences by invasion of the person in the biosphere; accruing exhaustion of not renewable natural resources, prompt growth of population in the poor countries and sharp falling of birth rate in the countries developed.to all these troubles anthropological accident was added still: damage of a gene pool and as a result of it is emergence of the increasing number of mentally retarded and physically defective children. It is caused also by environmental pollution, including radioactive, and growth of consumption of alcohol, and destruction of the best people of society. The huge damage was caused to a gene pool by war, hunger and repressions: the first the best perished always, the most initiative, and the most talented.problems are called so because there is no country in the world which they anyway wouldn’t concern — and still because to solve them it is possible only by common efforts of all countries together.international terrorism which threatens all civilized mankind became one more global problem. Behind spikes in violence, murders of hostages, explosions of houses with people in the different countries stands, probably, the whole branched organization financed by large industrial groups or even by the whole states. Fight against the international terrorism became the most important global problem of the present, for its decision all democratic states of the world unite now.mass media became a global problem. The television and radio not only distributed information, but were also the powerful tool of cultural education of the people. But for the last 20 years in all developed countries such system of mass communication in which everything is centralized and monopolized was created.different groups of people in the different countries could interpret the events in own way. Now all information streams extend worldwide in essence from one center and most often give the distorted interpretations of the events. The vast majority of communication streams is made or controlled by narrow group of media oligarchs. Global society actually passed to owners huge «factory of dreams». For example, the American way of life becomes dominating for the whole world. The American cinema which is broadcast by all TV companies of the world, costs not much (why it is bought by all), and the maintenance of it «cultural consumer goods» — almost entirely blood, violence, continuous murders, etc.the huge mass of people the whole world is concentrated on the TV screen. Without television no ideas exist, no politicians function, any social movements are unknown if aren’t shown on the screen. Now policy — it that passed through the TV screen. Our concern in a crime rate or ecology is directly connected with in what volume these subjects are touched by mass media, first of all television. Our idea of the importance of some event that is of its eventness besides arises thanks to its demonstration by TV channels. In this sense not only certain politicians «become» television; television the policy becomes. All these is very disturbing symptoms of modern process of globalization.live during an era of mass functioning of the developed simulyars system. Simulyar — it is such copies or similarity which force out itself the original, become more important than the original. The object of advertizing, for example, has very remote relation to a «real» subject, to sell which the businessman tries. Buying it, we buy not so much a subject, how many its images. Objects of our aspirations (and, respectively, purchases) have very remote relation to our real requirements. Society as though ceases to exist seriously, symulyars, game, phantoms absorb everything. Probably, it testifies to the end of human history — if people don’t find forces to find or open new global meanings of the existence and mission. is society mini-model. Without family and family education, family care of the child wouldn’t be societies, or the states, ethnos. How social systems what would drill changed was carried by over people — the family always remained.family historically changed. During a matriarchy era when the power belonged to the women, everyone knew the mother, but nobody knew the father, instead of a family there were so-called chaotic sexual relations. Then the power passed to the man, and the father became interested in, that precisely the nobility, who his children whom to transfer the economy, the house. There was a pair family. It wasn’t fastened yet by laws and easily broke up and again was formed.the advent of the state and the right there were laws and on marriage, and gradually in Europe the monogamous family — one man and one woman started developing. However in some Muslim countries still, especially in villages, there are polygamous marriages. Under Muslim laws to the man about four wives are allowed to have, in some countries it is even more. In Nepal in the first half of the XX century the family was under construction by the opposite principle: one wife could have to five husbands. But in the majority of the countries the monogamous family became stronger and remains. The family brings up and develops feeling of mutual coherence of people, their ability to serve each other. The family is living in one house — it, according to L. Gumilev, an example of social system.should be noted that the family and now evolves, and, apparently, for the worse. At the beginning of the XX century for Europe the big family was typical, all lived together: parents, parents of parents, uncles, aunts, cousins, etc. Now the typical family — is parents (the father and mother) and one — two, at most three children. Children, having hardly become adults, try to leave as soon as possible a family and to get the house, to live independently. In the West countries it in general became the rule: the son or the daughter, having reached majority, separate and live, trying not to depend economically on parents, and parents aren’t torn by it to help, considering that they have to make the way in life in life.families, that is true originally, in heart — much less than thinks. Literally it is the rarest exceptions, but they are, and, looking narrowly there and here, now it is possible to learn such family. It is the oasis, the thrown live grain among dead fabric of marriage, it doesn’t hurry anywhere to anybody doesn’t «gather» and to itself «waits» for nobody. In it there is any own light, heat, poetry. Often it are silent families, that is all exclamatory or, at least, all fussy is excluded from them, their members «dig» the friend about the friend, that is occupied everyone with the business, but «about» each other, by all means in physical almost a contact. Such families are brought down in «small group» here is both light, and warmth of live character: it even is noticeable by not concentration, usual lack of «magnificence». Long and attentively studying their mental warehouse, always it is possible to notice that — whether in instincts, in guesses or in any warm atmosphere of breath — but their «religiousness» and «sanctity» of marriage is advanced slightly further, than ordinary, and a little deep into. For example, at them the religious feeling of children — religious feeling of the birth is noticeable. It affects in the note informing about «family addition», in a way of the invitation to «christening», is imperceptible — but with any solemnity in all this, at all absent in passive families where the birth almost also disappears, it makes same «awkwardness», as well as wedding. Without light of religion in mysterious «uses» of the life, people uncontrollably began to rot in them, and the «European» civilization, only «European», uncontrollably blurs from «passive» marriage simply in prostitution. There is no fire, there is no mysterious and burning fire of the pulling together person in «marriage» — it is so obvious and it is obvious only in Europe, with its beginning «degeneration»! We from within grew cold, the gulf in myself the sacred center and on a place sacred to it sacrifices having arranged dumped sewage. Here knot of European civilization, our philosophical defects, and griefs of our day. share of the population of developing countries on our planet makes 4/5 from all population, and to the middle of the XXI century will make 9/10 (forecast). These numbers are very disturbing!testify to obviously unsuccessful situation in the modern world. The vast majority of the population of developing countries has no normal living conditions. The economy of developing countries strongly lags behind a level of production of the developed countries, and it isn’t possible to reduce a gap yet.housing problem is very sharp: 3/4 population of developing countries live actually in insanitary conditions, 250 million people live in slums, 1,5 billion people are deprived of elementary medical care. About 2 billion people have no opportunity to use safe water for health. Over 500 million people suffer from malnutrition, and 30-40 million annually die of hunger.what their backwardness prevents developing countries to overcome? The reasons on it are a little.of all, it must be kept in mind that it is the agrarian countries. Over 90% of country people of the world but as it is paradoxical fall to their share, they aren’t able to support even themselves as population growth in them exceeds a gain of production of the food.reason needs to master new technologies, to develop the industry, a services sector, and demands participation in world trade. However it deforms economy of these countries.more reason of lag of developing countries — use of traditional power sources (physical force of animals, wood burning, and different organic chemistry) which in view of their low efficiency, don’t allow is increasing significantly labor productivity in the industry, on transport, in a services sector, in agriculture.there is also such reason, as a complete dependence from the world market and its environment. Even in spite of the fact that some of these countries possess huge stocks of oil, they aren’t able to control completely a situation in the world oil market and to regulate a situation in own favor.development of productive forces and the welfare environment of society are impossible without increase of an education level of all people, without mastering modern achievements of science and technology. However the necessary attention to them demands large expenses and, of course, assumes existence of pedagogical and scientific and technical shots. Developing countries in the conditions of poverty can’t solve these problems properly.large number of people in the world realizes that problems of the developing states, promptly comes to a history proscenium.destiny of these countries as now becomes obvious, concerns not only them. And business isn’t simple in our compassion, and in impossibility not to empathize their burdens, in difficulty to reconcile to scandalous social injustice.of lag of developing countries is necessary for all, including to the developed countries. It in many respects and, perhaps, even in the main thing defines destiny of mankind.political instability caused, first of all, by low level of economic development, constantly creates danger of emergence of the military conflicts in these regions. Now in the conditions of the complete world and promptly increasing availability of the perfect weapon they can have any, and even tragic consequences for other countries and for all mankind.and low level of culture with inevitability involve the uncontrollable growth of the population. Culture and moral crisis difficult phenomenon of public life can’t be estimated unambiguously «well» or «badly», as in it maybe that and another. A lot of things depend on criteria of an assessment. So, in spiritual culture of any society two equally real shapes differ: shape of stability, harmony, unanimity, and shape of changes, conflicts, intensity and unresolved problems. It should be meant in the analysis and an assessment of a condition of culture of any society, including ours.the scanty part of the state budget is spent for culture. Many centers of culture are closed, without having opportunity to cope with financial difficulties. The majority remained not to die away absolutely instead of bearing to people art and creativity, are compelled to be engaged in commerce.and further cultural development and moral is the most important condition of updating of our society. But the culture doesn’t stand still, it constantly changes. From there is a question: what culture to us should be revived?answer a question is not simply as can seem at first sight. After all in one society there is no uniform «true», «correct», «ideal» culture. It is impossible from the cultural heritage, developing for eyelids, to delete something, to leave something only for ideological reasons. As a rule, life itself selects the most valuable in moral and esthetic sense of work. Most often idealization of the past takes place when don’t want or aren’t able to estimate modern achievements really.the new, humane tenor of life based on the best national traditions of the past and the present, still shy, but forces the way through, rejecting all that prevented people to develop their inner world, to improve everyday life, to create under laws of beauty and moral purity.of protection and preservation of a cultural heritage of the past which has incorporated universal values, — is a problem all-planetary, features is having in everyone country. For our country this problem is particularly acute most. Fight against the religion, accepted in the 30th years of last century character of natural disaster, poured out in mass destruction of churches, in the next years the part of the Chinese city wall, Red gate, etc. D. Likhachev were demolished at the same time noticed that to known limits of loss in the nature are reparable. Otherwise business is with culture monuments. Their losses are, as a rule, irreplaceable because monuments of culture are always individual, each monument collapses forever.means of the latest developments of a scientific and technological revolution, mass media the cultural wealth which has been saved up by mankind, becomes more available, but each person still needs «to touch» them to become spiritually richer. All the matter is that the one, who looks for in culture only an entertainment, without having found it, easily finds substitute. The culture will organize human life, the culture of society consists from this that it is necessary to know and in what it is necessary to trust his members to work in the mutually acceptable way and to play socially significant roles. The culture, moral are created by people, in culture are trained as she isn’t given genetically, each generation reproduces it and transfers to the following generation. As a result of assimilation of cultural values, beliefs, norms, rules and ideals there is a formation of the personality and regulation of her behavior. Therefore revival of cultural and moral values — is one of significant problems of any society, the people, and the state. War and peace problem person always was at war with himself. From the Environmental problem general House — mother Earth is rather close. Length of its circle on the equator a little more than 40 thousand kilometers, a surface — 510 million km, from them less than a third — land. The sum of consumption of natural resources in kilocalories on each person per day made in prehistoric times — 2-4 thousand, now in the USA — 200-500 thousand. Meanwhile amplitude of demographic growth of mankind such is that at the time of the Roman Empire it made 150 million people, in ninety years — with 1840 on 1930 — the world’s population grew by billion and on as much for the last five years. To the middle of the XXI century population will reach a Global problems is invitation to the human mind is impossible to leave them. They can be overcome only. And to overcome efforts of each person and each country is in rigid cooperation for the sake of the great purpose of preservation of opportunity to live on Earth.history of evolution of life on Earth is a history of death of a huge number of animal species and plants which occurs as a result there is a discrepancy between the developed organisms adaptation forms to environment and most this Wednesday. Today, we are witnesses of how the mankind inevitably goes by the end.can’t ignore today, possibility of self-destruction of mankind so disturbing us. The future is opened before people. For this it is necessary to fight, and it in many respects depends on us.activity and as its products are, more than ever, sated today with scientific knowledge, reason. Biotechnology development, robotics, laser equipment, development of atomic and thermonuclear energy, creation of new constructive materials, technical use of high-temperature superconductivity, computerization of all our life open huge prospects in the solution of the problems facing modern society.world, undoubtedly, became more saturated diverse communications and the relations, at the same time and stressful situations. Dynamism, intensity of activity of people as in the nature, and the social environment, its escalating power and scales create unprecedented before, problems new to mankind.expectancy of people decreases, quality of life worsens, the number of heart, cancer, allergic diseases increases; ominously AIDS epidemic extends; more often cases of pathology of mentality meet; the quantity of the hereditary diseases worsening a gene pool of mankind increases; the huge number of people becomes victims of accidents at the enterprises, on roads; and as quality of the food worsened because of chemicalization; around the world international tension is sharply fueled; uncontrollably the crime grows.it is possible to claim, what presently people became more moral and happier than before? No. Never before people tested such alarm for the life and didn’t feel as unprotected as now! Each of the countries fought against the difficulties, without realizing that fact that the world entered a strip of huge general crisis, to leave from which in general it is impossible, without having understood global nature of danger, without having mobilized people of Earth for overcoming of its «difficulties». Only high-quality shift in all human thinking and behavior could break off this vicious circle of problems.so remains at the person though a hope gleam what it will sometime say goodbye to Global problems?problems of the present are complex and comprehensive. They are closely bound among themselves, with regional and national and state problems. In their basis — the contradictions of the global scale mentioning bases of existence of a modern civilization. The aggravation of these contradictions in one link conducts to destructive processes as a whole, generates new problems. Permission of global problems becomes complicated as well that level of management of global processes is still low from the international organizations, their understanding and financing from the sovereign states. Strategy of a survival of the person on the basis of the solution of global problems of the present has to bring the people to new boundaries of civilized development. List of references .HTTP://works. tarefer.ru/91/100775/index.html <HTTP://works.tarefer.ru/91/100775/index.html> .HTTP://www.bibliofond.ru/view. aspx? id=577230 .http://promeco. h1.ru/stati/index. php? Page=26

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The Metaverse Expands In the Metaverse era, all of the above challenges are likely to become more difficult or worse. This will make it more difficult for new platforms to emerge and for the Metaverse itself to be built. We want the Metaverse to be as inclusive as possible. This involves interconnecting all the devices and platforms that we use today, including our car’s security camera and workplace productivity software. It also includes new technologies such as VR and AR headsets and projection cameras and screens, wearables and other innovative ones like VR and AR headsets, AR headsets, wearables and many more. Many of these hardware and experiences, as well as others, will benefit or require the use of proprietary standards. Facebook has invested heavily in XR to create its own operating system and fight against the gatekeeping of mobile operating systems. It also wants to avoid Snap using a standard it created. This creates a burden for developers and could lead to a vicious cycle where no platform has enough users and no platform has enough content. We want to see many of the existing virtual experiences interconnect in new ways. The only thing a player has to share across Call of Duty and Fortnite, is their platform ID. This allows them to access online multiplayer. In the future, however, we will be able to move assets, items and achievements as well as currency, avatars, and other information (see Section #7). Many game publishers will still use their own engines, account systems, and accounts. They have many good reasons to do this (e.g. They have control over their tech pipeline, maximising their gross margins, and avoiding enabling other platforms. We don’t want publishers cut off from the interoperable Metaverse. They must invest in learning how another publisher’s engine works, then in porting their live-operated titles to them. Moreover, billions have been spent on non-gaming rendering software and scans. The software used by the TV and film industries is Maya, Houdini and Pixar’s RenderMan. Blenderman is used for CGI assets, sets and characters. The engineering industry, on the other hand, focuses on a variety of locally-developed solutions as well as AutoCAD. Each of these products has its own file types, proprietary codescs, metadata systems and rules. It is likely that highly verticalized software will excel at meeting specialized vertical requirements, at least in the near future. Interconnection is therefore difficult. We want to use as many existing models and investments as possible, just like gaming publishers, to build the Metaverse. Developers must be able to export their work from one platform, rendering engine, or engine to the next. Because the vast majority of Metaverse creations will be preserved and expanded upon, this is in contrast to many media products, such as movies, music albums and books, which are typically one-off P&Ls that generate a lot of revenue. Virtual experiences can be difficult to replicate — there is no’record’ or “copy and paste” option. This could lead to several negative outcomes for developers, particularly small developers. It can make it difficult to switch to platforms with better economics, functionality or growth potential. This would allow successful Metaverse platforms to rent-seek through policy changes and higher take rates, simply because a developer selected them years ago. Many of the developers of these platforms would be destroyed if they fail. We need to see developers thrive in order for the Metaverse to flourish. This means that it should be as simple to transfer a virtual immersive educational playground or AR playground from one platform or another as it is for a blog or newsletter to be moved. A Metaverse economy is also hindered by the limited player data and identity. The issue of toxic gaming is also important. Activision may ban Player B from Call of Duty because of abusive or racist language. But Player B can continue to troll Epic Games’ Fortnite (or Twitter, or Facebook). Player B can also create a new PlayStation Network account or change to Xbox Live. While this may result in fragmentation of his or her achievements some of these achievements remain locked to one platform. Publishers don’t wish to make other games better and they are not inclined to share play data. However, toxic behavior is not good for any gaming company and it can have a negative impact on everyone. Although banks and other financial institutions used to not share credit data, eventually they discovered that credit scores were a benefit for all. The competitors Vrbo and Airbnb have partnered with a third party in order to stop guests who have a history of bad behavior from booking future stays. Without identities, a go-everywhere AI assistant is not possible. Developers will benefit from better products and higher net revenues if Apple is forced to open its iOS platforms. Their apps will be more difficult to optimize and operate, and will require them to incur additional costs. It will not make sense to develop this service all internally, as it did with live gaming services. It’s possible that the leaders of the Metaverse’s virtual platforms will be more powerful and lucrative than the mobile leaders. These ‘operating system’ will be more powerful than Android and iOS today and cover a wider range of physical environments. They also have greater control over both labor and the creative product. As an example, consider the fact that millions of people are employed through their iPhones and do their work via their iPhones. However, this doesn’t mean that they can literally (or practically) work within iOS. Your daughter can access Zoom to get to school, but not the school, when she goes through Zoom. When you create or edit images in iOS, they are just stored there and not tied to the device. It is a huge risk to use closed tools to create experience that is locked to (and only discovered by) a closed platform. This closed platform also runs a closed player network and bills for that. These expanded powers will require additional checks and interchange options. The Metaverse will be more powerful and pervasive than any other. One central company will be able to control this and become a god on Earth. – Tim Sweeney (2016) We will need new technologies and tools to grow the Metaverse. These tools will include rendering, compute and XR as well as tools, projection, volumetric compression and AI. The quality and capabilities of these tools will determine what is built and how many builders. These tools and technologies also have their own rates, which can lock developers in, as well as the ways they restrict consumer choice and create new innovations. Emergent Interchange Solutions to the Metaverse Economics is a natural way to find solutions as interchange needs grow. To help developers create interchangeable 3D data, Disney’s Pixar has open-sourced its Universal Scene Description file (USD). Nvidia’s Omniverse platform uses USD to seamlessly bring together assets from Maya and Houdini, Unreal or AutoCAD into a shared virtual environment. Epic’s Twinmotion platform allows you to import models from almost any BIM or CAD program such as Archicad and Revit. It will then use machine-learning and AI to upgrade and seamlessly integrate them whenever possible. Cesium is an open platform that allows you to stream, analyze, and visualize 3D geospatial information using the 3D Tiles open standards. Upload your own data (e.g. Users can upload their own data (e.g. Any “developer”, e.g. This allows any “developer” (e.g. Epic Games has also introduced Epic Online Services (EOS) in 2020. This product line acts as ‘Fortnite live service in a box’. EOS provides everything Microsoft PlayFab or Amazon GameLoft does, but without the need for a cloud-server solution. It also doesn’t require any developer to use any Epic products (game engines, stores, publishing services, including its Epic ID system). Although Valve’s Steamworks can be downloaded for free, it will lock player data and graphs to Steam and require all games to launch via the Steam store (which means that you have to pay Steam’s store fees for life). EOS allows more games to interoperate more easily and cheaper than other platforms, while still allowing them access to the platform’s vast social graphs. Even though console platforms had the largest social graphs in gaming, they are still not moving. Another key interoperability solution for live services is Discord. Discord allows developers to connect directly to the platform and deploy best-in class audio and text communications to games. Developers also have access to Discord’s over 150MM active members. Both are essential components of online games today. The latter, however, is more popular than the Xbox, Nintendo, or PlayStation player networks. Although Discord’s core features are still lacking, like game analytics and entitlements management, it is easy to see the company expanding into these areas over time. Even partial use of Discord’s platform can have benefits. Independent developers have the ability to establish player bases without having to use a game store like Steam. They can also reduce their dependence on backend providers such as Microsoft PlayFab. Developers can choose to use a store for their game, but they don’t have to rely on its player network or other communication services. Native integration of Discord into Xbox Live has been achieved. In 2021, Sony announced plans for the PlayStation Network to be integrated with Xbox Live. This will allow both platforms to have less control over socializing and player networks. Discord achieved its market power specifically due to the fact that there was no way for closed platforms to block it. They controlled the in-game chat, but users could use Discord apps to communicate or switch off the in-game sound. Discord can also run in background. This is not possible with billing and social graphs analytics, etc. GGWP (Disclosure : a Makers portfolio firm) is collaborating with publishers to develop an opt-in system in which player behavior signals are fed into “global GGWP scores” that will reward positive actions across multiple games. Unity’s Unity Distribution Portal was launched in 2020. This allows developers to create one build of their app and then distribute it and manage it across all major app stores including Apple’s App Store, Google Play, and Google Play. For the Metaverse, a number of interchange formats and open standards are being promoted and invested in. OpenXR and WebXR are used for rendering. WASM is a portable binary-code format that executes programs. Tivoli Cloud is used to host virtual spaces. XRE provides an end-to–end solution for humans and AI. VRM is a file format used for 3D humanoid avatars. WebGPU, which is yet to be released, is designed for accelerated graphics, compute, and IPFS , which is a peer–to-peer data protocol and a peer–to-peer hypermedia protocols. Many Metaverse supporters hope that dissatisfaction over the Web 2.0 era will result in more successful and prominent open standards moving forward. These open standards must offer developers more profits than the closed platforms. These alternatives would be like trying to argue the technical merits and benefits of Esperanto in front of a developer who is fluent in English and whose customers and partners all speak English and whose customers and potential customers are German. This is difficult. Major platforms invest huge, losing investments in technology and customer acquisition (e.g. Developers can create a profitable market by purchasing consoles at a fraction of the cost. Today’s virtual leaders know this. They’re investing billions in R&D to make hardware that can be sold at a loss, funding independent developers, buyinggame creators and platforms. This is how they build competing XR standards for users while interlocking all their tools and/or tying their tools into gatekeeping functions like account systems and app stores. You can’t export an experience to Roblox or Fortnite.But you can’t import all your Instagram photos or likes into Twitter, TikTok, or Snapchat. Blockchain is a major interchange technology, which, although not open in the traditional sense of the word, retains many of the benefits and values of an open standard and looks set to flourish in the Metaverse. For more information, please read the following section: Payments and the Metaverse (and Blockchain). The Metaverse Intensifies All of the challenges listed above are at risk of becoming harder, or worse, in the Metaverse era. This, in turn, will make it harder for new platforms to emerge — and, frankly, for the Metaverse to be built. For example, we want as much of the world to integrate into the Metaverse as possible. This means interconnecting the many devices and platforms around us today, from your car and home-security camera, to your employer’s productivity software, and as well as altogether new ones, such as VR and AR headsets, projection cameras and screens, wearables, and more. As always, much of the aforementioned hardware and experiences will require, or at least benefit from, the use of proprietary standards. Facebook is investing heavily into XR specifically, so that it can establish its own operating system, fight back against the gatekeeping of today’s mobile operating systems, and avoid using a standard created by its direct competitors, such as Snap. All of this creates a burden on developers, and potentially a vicious circle, whereby no platform has enough users to develop for, and no platform has enough content to attract users. We also want many of the virtual experiences that already exist to interconnect in brand new ways. Thus far, the only ‘thing’ a player shares across Call of Duty and Fortnite is a controlled and the platform ID through which they access online multiplayer. But in the future, we’ll want to move assets, items, achievements, play history, currency, avatars and more (see Section #7). However, many game publishers will continue to use their own engines and account systems. And they have many valid reasons to do so (e.g. control over their tech pipeline, maximizing their gross margins, avoiding enabling competing platforms). But we also don’t want these publishers to be cut off from the interoperable Metaverse unless they invest in learning how to use another publisher’s engine, and then invest in porting their live-operated games to them. What’s more, billions of dollars have been invested into other non-gaming rendering solutions and scans. For example, the film and TV industry primarily uses software such as Maya, Houdini, Pixar’s RenderMan, and Blenderman for its CGI assets, sets, and characters. Meanwhile, the engineering industry focuses on a range of home-grown solutions, as well as AutoCAD. Every one one of these offerings has its own native file types, proprietary codecs, metadata systems, rules, and more. And it’s likely that, at least for the foreseeable future, heavily verticalized software will be best at addressing specialized vertical needs. This makes interconnection inherently difficult. However, as with gaming publishers, we want to leverage as many existing models, investments, and skillsets as possible to build the Metaverse. It’s critical that developers can easily export their work from one virtual platform, rendering solution, or engine to another. This is because the majority of creations in the Metaverse will be intended to persist, and be continuously expanded upon — in contrast to most media products (such as films, music albums, and books), which are largely one-off P&Ls with front-loaded revenues. However, virtual experiences aren’t easy to reproduce — there’s no ‘re-record’ or ‘copy and paste’. This could have several adverse outcomes for developers, especially small developers, making it a struggle to shift to new platforms that offer better economics, functionality, or growth potential. This, in turn, would make it easy for successful Metaverse platforms to rent-seek via policy changes and raised take rates — simply because, years earlier, a developer chose them. And if any of these platforms falters, many of their developers would be crushed. For the Metaverse to thrive, we need developers to thrive. And this means making it as easy to take a virtual immersive educational environment or AR playground from one platform to another as it is to move a blog or newsletter. The limited range of identity and player data, too, is an impediment to the Metaverse economy. Consider the issue of toxicity in gaming. Activision might ban Player B from Call of Duty for abusive or racist language, but Player B can then go on to troll on Epic Games’s Fortnite (or on Twitter, or Facebook). Player B can also just create a new PlayStation Network Account, or change to Xbox Live, and while that means fragmenting his or her achievements, some of these achievements are locked to a given platform anyway. Of course, publishers don’t want to make their competitors’ games better, nor are they usually inclined to share their play data. But no gaming company benefits from toxic behavior, and everyone is negatively affected by it. Banks and other financial institutions didn’t used to share credit data, either — but, eventually, they realized credit scores benefited all. Competitors Airbnb and Vrbo, too, are now partnering with a third party to prevent guests with a history of poor behavior from making future bookings. A go-everywhere AI assistant simply isn’t possible unless identities (among many other things) can interchange. Should regulators force Apple to open up the iOS platforms to enable direct installation, alternative app stores, alternative payment methods, and greater access to native drivers, developers will likely benefit from higher net revenues and better products. However, their apps will also become more technically complex to operate and optimize, and they will need to take on new costs as well. As with live services in gaming, it will make little sense to build this all in-house. More broadly, it’s likely that the leading virtual platforms of the Metaverse will be even more lucrative and powerful than today’s mobile leaders. This is because, compared to iOS and Android today, these ‘operating systems’ will span far more of the physical world, while also controlling more of both labor and creative product itself. Consider, as an example, the fact that while millions are hired through their iPhones today, and work using their iPhone, they don’t literally (well, literally virtually) perform their work inside iOS. When your daughter attends school via Zoom, she accesses Zoom and her school through her iPhone, but the school isn’t operated by the iPhone. And when you make or edit an image in iOS, it’s just stored there, not tethered inside of it. There is an enormous risk to using closed tools to build experience locked to (and only discovered through) a closed platform that also operates a closed player network that it exclusively bills for, too. Given these expanded powers, additional checks and interchange solutions will be crucial. This Metaverse is going to be far more pervasive and powerful than anything else. If one central company gains control of this, they will become more powerful than any government and be a god on Earth. – Tim Sweeney (2016) To grow the Metaverse, we will need many new tools and technologies. They will span rendering, compute, XR, payments, tools, projection, volumetric compression, AI, ML, you name it. And the quality and capability of these tools will be key to what’s built and by how many builders. But so too are the rates these tools and technologies require, the extent to which they lock in developers, and ways in which they limit consumer choice and the creation of competing innovations. Emergent Interchange Solutions for the Metaverse As the need for interchange solutions grows, economics tends to generate a solution. For example, Disney’s Pixar open sourced its Universal Scene Description (USD) file format to help developers create interchangeable 3D data. Nvidia’s Omniverse platform then uses USD to coherently bring together assets from Maya, Houdini, Unreal, AutoCAD, and more, into a shared virtual environment. Epic’s Twinmotion platform can also be used to import models from nearly any BIM and CAD program, such as Archicad, Revit, SketchUp Pro, RIKCAD, and Rhino, and will then use machine learning and AI to upgrade and integrate them wherever possible and in a matter of minutes. - Magento Pos - Shopify Pos - Bigcommerce Pos - Woocommerce Pos - Netsuite pos - Bigcommerce automation - Shopify automation In 2020, Epic Games also unveiled Epic Online Services (EOS), a new product line that essentially acts as ‘Fortnite live services in a box’. EOS offers everything that Microsoft PlayFab and Amazon GameLoft do, but for free, and without requiring a specific cloud-server solution, or obligating a developer to use any other Epic products (game engine, store, publishing services), including its Epic ID system. Valve’s Steamworks is also free, but it locks player data and graphs to Steam, and requires all games to launch through the Steam store, too (which also means paying Steam’s store fees forever). EOS, therefore, enables more games to more easily and cheaply interoperate, without locking themselves inside larger platform ecosystems, and while also accessing said platform’s large social graphs. Notably, none of the console platforms have as yet made the move, even though they have gone from having the largest social graphics in gaming to the smallest of any large platform. Discord is another key interchange solution in the live services category. Developers can plug directly into Discord’s platform to deploy best-in-class audio and text communications to their game and gain access to Discord’s network of over 150MM active players. The former is a critical component of almost ever online title today, while the latter is a player network larger than those of Xbox, Nintendo, and PlayStation. While Discord’s offering still lacks many core features, such as entitlements management, game analytics, and skill-based matchmaking, it’s easy to imagine the company expanding into many of these functions over time. Furthermore, even partial usage of Discord’s platform has benefits. For example, independent developers can more easily establish a player base without needing a game store such as Steam, while also reducing their reliance on backend providers like Microsoft PlayFab. And should a developer choose to use a game store, they need not rely exclusively on the store’s player network or communication services. The strength of the Discord ecosystem has already led to native integration into Xbox Live, and in 2021, Sony announced plans to do the same with PlayStation Network, thereby reducing both platforms’ control over player networks and socializing. Notably, Discord was able to achieve its market influence specifically because there were no API/rules the closed platforms could use to stop it. Yes, they controlled in-game audio chat – but users could just use Discord apps on their phones to communicate, or turn off in-game audio and run Discord in the background. This isn’t possible with billing, social graphs, analytics, etc. GGWP (Disclosure: a Makers portfolio company), meanwhile, is working with publishers to create an opt-in system where player behavior signals are fed into a “global GGWP score” that will reward positivity across multiple games. In 2020, Unity launched the Unity Distribution Portal, which enables developers to create a single build of their app, then distribute and manage it across all mobile app stores, including Apple’s App Store and Google Play. A number of open standards and interchange formats are also being touted and invested in for the Metaverse. For example, there’s OpenXR and WebXR for rendering, WASM for portable binary-code format for executable programs, Tivoli Cloud for virtual spaces, XRE is an end-to-end solution for hosting humans and AI in a virtual space, while VRM is a popular file format for “3D humanoid avatars”. The not-yet-released WebGPU is intended for accelerated graphics and compute, while Dat is a peer-to-peer data protocol, and IPFS is a peer-to-peer hypermedia protocol. Some Metaverse advocates hope that widespread dissatisfaction with the Web 2.0 era will lead to more prominent and successful open standards going forward. But for these open standards to “win”, they need to offer developers greater profits than those provided and controlled by the closed platforms. Otherwise, these alternatives are like arguing the technical merits of Esperanto to a developer well versed in English, and whose current partners and customers all speak English, and whose desired customers speak German. And this is hard. The major platforms make enormous, loss-making investments in tools and technology, customer acquisition (e.g. below cost consoles), and sometimes exclusive content, in order to establish a lucrative market for developers. And today’s virtual leaders, of course, know this. Which is why they’re spending billions of dollars on R&D for hardware that will be sold at a loss, funding independent creators, buying game developers and platforms, and building competing XR standards for their users, while also interlocking all of their tools into one another and/or tying them into gatekeeping functions such as app stores and account system. There’s a reason you can’t export an experience from Roblox to Minecraft or Fortnite, but just as you can’t easily import all your Instagram photos and likes into Twitter or TikTok or Snapchat. But there is one major interchange technology that, while not open in the traditional sense, retains most of the values and benefits of an open standard, and also looks likely to thrive in the Metaverse: blockchain. But for that, you’ll have to read the next section: Payments and The Metaverse (and Blockchain)

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Master and disciple In India it is often said that “the father is born again in the son.” This ancient adage applies also to the worthy disciple–in him the master continues his work. This being so, the character and mission of Jesus, the Christ of India, can be traced in that of his apostle Thomas. Thomas is a nickname derived from the Syrian (Aramaic) word t’omo, which means twin. The apostle’s true name was Judas, as is recorded in the ancient Syriac gospel texts, but it was not used in later gospel texts so he would neither bear the name of the Betrayer nor be mistakenly identified with him by those who would read or hear them read. Saint Thomas the apostle in India After the departure of Jesus from Israel and the empowerment bestowed on his apostles at Pentecost, it was decided that they would separate and go throughout the Mediterranean regions teaching those who sought the revelation of their own Christhood (which is what “Christianity” literally means). Accordingly, eleven of the twelve apostles and many of the seventy (Luke 10:1) determined through divination where they should go and preach the Good News of Christ. One alone did not participate in this, and that was Judas Thomas, the Twin. His assignment had been given him by Jesus himself. Thomas was to depart for India where he would live in the Himalayas with Jesus and those great masters who had taught Jesus before him. (See The Christ of India.) This was because Jesus had destined him for a work completely unlike that of the other apostles. He was to become the spiritual twin of his master, perhaps the most true in his likeness to Jesus both inwardly and outwardly. (It is a matter of record that Judas Thomas was also physically identical to Jesus. This was unusual but not impossible or even unknown, since he was a cousin of Jesus–as were most of the apostles.) In the forty days between his resurrection and his leaving Israel Jesus had fully outlined to the apostles and disciples how they should teach others who would also spiritually be his disciples through them. But in India Thomas was to teach and follow another form of the Christ Way. (This is not to imply that the teachings of the other apostles were not legitimate. They were simply different–but in time they became so altered as to be alien and antithetical to original Christianity.) So overwhelming did his task seem to Saint Thomas that he tried to avoid this mission. Yet it was not long before a government official from India came to Israel to find an architect for his king, who wished a palace built by an artisan from the land of the renowned Hiram Abiff, whose construction of the temple of Solomon was known throughout the world. Jesus manifested to him in a physical body and sold Saint Thomas to the man as a slave, giving him a signed document to that effect. When confronted with this document, Saint Thomas abandoned his resistance and left for India where he did in truth follow the steps of his master and become his twin in all things. In the life of Saint Thomas written by the Christian Gnostic Bardaisan (154-222), based on letters written by Saint Thomas, perhaps to his Persian disciples, he is referred to as: “Twin brother of Christ, apostle of the Highest who shares in the knowledge of the hidden word of Christ, recipient of his secret pronouncements.” Regarding the records of Jesus’ life that he found in the Himis monastery, Nicholoas Notovitch wrote this interesting remark in relation to Saint Thomas: “[The scrolls] may have actually been spoken by St. Thomas, historical sketches having been traced by his own hand or under his direction.” In the Himalayas Saint Thomas was reunited with Jesus until he received the inner call to return to the West for the impending departure of the Virgin Mary from this earthly life. Just as he had been separated from his brother apostles for a special mission, so he was in the final hour of the Virgin’s life. For he did not reach Ephesus in time to be present at her going forth from the body, but only came there on foot the third day after her burial. As he was approaching her tomb unawares, he was astounded to see her radiant living body emerge from the stone sepulchre and ascend. Realizing that she had finished her span of life without his being present, and fearing that he would never see her divine form again, he cried out to her in anguish of heart, imploring her not to leave him desolate. Looking upon him with loving tenderness, the Virgin took from her waist the belt she habitually wore and threw it down to him with words of blessing. Carrying the precious relic of her belt, Saint Thomas hastened into Ephesus and announced to the grieving apostles and all those gathered in the Mother’s house that she, too, was risen from the dead. Whereas he had doubted the good news of Jesus’ resurrection and had received proof of its reality by touching the resurrected body of his Lord, now it was Thomas who gave physical evidence that Mary, too, was “alive for evermore” (Revelation 1:18). The holy relic in India and Syria Saint Thomas took the Virgin Mother’s belt with him to India, and there it became the most valued treasure of his disciples, whose descendants in time came to be known as Saint Thomas Christians. A few centuries ago, in times of upheaval in India, it was taken into Syria, where during subsequent troubles in that country it disappeared. About thirty years ago the present head of the Syrian Jacobite Church, Patriarch Zachariah, felt an intense urge to find the belt, and began studying the ancient records concerning it. Noticing that one of the handwritten books he consulted had an unusually thick binding, he was inspired with the thought that the belt might be hidden there. Cutting it open, he found the prize, whose simple touch began to work great miracles. Most of the belt has been returned to India and enshrined in a great church where every Saturday (the day sacred to the worship of the Mother aspect of God in Hinduism) thousands of Christians, Hindus, and Moslems gather for the sacred Eucharist (Qurbana) and prayers to the Virgin. The miracles granted are beyond number. When I visited the shrine one Saturday as the guest of its administrator, Bishop Gregorios–who preached on the subject of the concept of Mahashakti (Supreme Power: the Divine Feminine) in Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam–I witnessed this wonderful demonstration that it is worship and not theologizing that can unite the adherents of all religions in love and harmony. Bishop Gregorios also spoke of Mahashakti being the same as the Holy Spirit, and the Virgin Mary as a perfect reflection of the Holy Spirit. To Qumran and India Before returning to south India for the fulfillment of his commission from Jesus, Saint Thomas went to visit the Essene communities of Israel, urging that some of them come with him to India to both escape the imminent destruction by the Romans and to help him in his spiritual work. Many did so, and a company of Essenes headed by Saint Thomas arrived in South India (Kerala) in 52 A.D. These Essenes started several villages in the same area. At the end of the twentieth century those sites were excavated and many coins like those found in the Qumran caves were unearthed. A Hindu Brahmin family near the town of Palur, Kerala, has a document of family history wherein it is written: “In the Kali year 3153 [52 A.D.] the foreigner Thomas Sannyasi came to our village and preached there.” It is noteworthy that Saint Thomas is described as a Hindu monk (sannyasi), which he would have to have been if he truly followed in the steps of Jesus. Ancient records say that frequently Jesus was seen in south India and mistaken for Saint Thomas. He and Saint Thomas were sometimes seen speaking together. Apparently Jesus occasionally came down from his Himalayan abode to visit Saint Thomas and supervise his work. The disciples of Saint Thomas In Mylapore near modern Madras, the apostle Thomas was pierced with a lance on December 19, 72 A.D., but did not die until December 21. He was buried nearby, and the earth from his tomb worked many miracles. In 1292 Marco Polo visited his tomb and took some of the red-colored earth from there. Upon his return to Venice he healed many people with it according to his own testimony. Since in India Jesus was known as “Isha” (the Lord), the disciples of Saint Thomas preferred to be called Ishannis, “of Isha” (just as Lutheran means “of Luther”). Nearly all those who accepted the teachings of Saint Thomas were devout Brahmins of the highest level (Nambudiri and Nair–many of them who had emigrated from Kashmir to Kerala) who were Shaivites of the strictest order. So strict and correct were the disciples of Saint Thomas in their Brahminical character and observance that they were frequently asked by the other Hindus to perform the rites of purification (shuddhi karanam) for defiled objects and even of Hindu temples. Thus the disciples of Saint Thomas were mostly of the Brahmin caste. Ancient Indian historical records sometimes refer to the Saint Thomas Christians as Naassenes. This may be a corruption of “Essene” but in the ancient Gnostic Christian texts discovered at Nag Hammadi, Egypt, we find the term “Nazoreans,” so the Saint Thomas Christians may also have used it in referring to themselves. If so, this would indicate their esoteric Christian character and affinity with those esoteric Christians of Egypt–most of whom were Essenes or descendants of Essenes. Regarding the Essenes, Alfred Edersheim, in his nineteenth century classic The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, wrote: “the general movement had passed beyond the bounds of Judaism, and appeared in some forms of the Gnostic heresy.” Because of the great number of Saint Thomas Christians in the southernmost state of Kerala, it is sometimes called “the country of the Nazaranis” even today. The daily train from Madras to Kerala is known as “the Nazarani Express.” When the Pope of Rome wrote a letter to the Saint Thomas Christians in the fourteenth century he addressed them as “the Nazarani Christians.” Considering the spiritual character of the Saint Thomas Christians this expression could mean that they were “Nazarenes”–followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Whatever the derivation, this was definitely a name sometimes used in reference to themselves. In the book of Acts it is said of Saint Paul by his accusers that he was “a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes” (Acts 24:5). The Saint Thomas Christians had much in common with both Hindus and Buddhists. In fact, Tamil historical records contemporaneous with Saint Thomas say that he taught “a Buddhist religion.” This was no doubt because of Saint Thomas’ intense monastic and philosophic nature which contrasted with the usual form of Hinduism at that time which consisted mostly of external rituals and the use of religion to attain utterly materialistic goals (karma khanda). “Surya Vamsa” was never used by the Saint Thomas Christians in speaking of themselves, but was current for centuries among the other Hindus in referring to them, and was even used on occasion in major legal documents. Surya Vamsa means “People of the Sun,” Surya being a Sanskrit word for the sun. They were also sometimes called by others Suryan or Suryani. These have been assumed to mean “Syrian” because of their ties with the Syriac (Aramaic)-speaking Christians of the Middle East. But they may really be derivations from Surya Vamsa. The Ishanni Sampradaya A sampradaya is a lineage of spiritual teaching stemming from an enlightened teacher, such as the Shankara Sampradaya, Ramanuja Sampradaya, Madhavacharya Sampradaya, or according to the form of God they particularly worship such as the Shaivite, Vaishnava, Shakta or Ganapatya sampradayas. Whatever distinctive customs a sampradaya might possess, they all consider themselves to be fundamentally followers of Sanatana Dharma, the religion based on the Vedas and the teachings of the vedic seers known as rishis. And the majority of their customs and spiritual doctrines are absolutely identical and harmonious with one another. The disciples of Saint Thomas were considered a sampradaya within Sanatana Dharma, not a separate religion. It is historical fact that they were an integral part of Hindu society in every way. Bar-Hebraeus, an early Syrian Christian writer, records that when Christians from Persia visited India the Saint Thomas Christians told them: “We are the disciples of Saint Thomas.” It was those Persians who created the phrase “Saint Thomas Christians” and first began to use it. But it was not used by the descendants of the first disciples of Saint Thomas. This fact underscores their fundamental difference from the religion derived from the other apostles. The witness of history History itself demonstrates the character of the disciples of Saint Thomas as a Shaivite sampradaya within Hindu religion. In 345 A.D., when the ruler of Carnellur gave the suburb of Muziris to the Ishannis for their exclusive use, they renamed it Mahadevar Pattanam, the City of Mahadeva (Shiva). The king, a Hindu, laid the first brick for the Ishanni temple that was built there, and upon its completion he led the first service of prayers to be conducted there. This would not have been done if the Ishannis were not themselves considered part of Hinduism. Eventually an Ishanni kingdom (district), with Mahadevar Pattanam as its capital, was established. Whenever a child reached the age of three years the Ishannis always had a Brahmin pandit come to their home and symbolically begin his formal education by guiding the child’s fingers to trace the mantra Om Sri Ganapataye Namah–“I bow to Lord Ganesha”–in a plate of rice before which a ghee lamp was burning that had previously been worshipped as an emblem of the goddess Saraswati, the goddess of wisdom and learning. Ganesha is the Hindu deity that is depicted with the head of an elephant and is the son of Shiva. He is always worshipped before any undertaking, including, in this instance, the beginning of education. It is interesting that many of the very old Ishanni (now Saint Thomas Christian) temples in South India have golden “dharma towers” in front of them just like those in the temples of Vishnu. The beginning of the end Because Kerala was a center of international trade, some contact took place between the Ishannis and the Christians of the Middle East and Europe. Some of these reported in the fourth century that the Ishannis had “lost their priesthood,” not understanding that Jesus and Saint Thomas were Nath Yogis who considered Sanatana Dharma and Yoga to be sufficient and had not taught or practiced anything else. After some centuries the Syrian Christians, some of which settled in Kerala, persuaded the Ishannis to adopt their rituals and worship. Nevertheless their distinctive ways and identity were preserved. At the coming of the Portuguese colonialists to India in large numbers, however, this began to change. Christians from Europe were always received in total friendship by the Ishannis and often given places to live. In many instances the Ishannis interceded with the local rulers in gaining residency and trade permissions for the Europeans. But sadly, on the part of the opportunistic Europeans there was no such sincere openness, and as soon as any political ascendancy was attained, pressure was brought to bear on the Ishannis to convert to the Christianity of the Westerners. This came to an appalling climax in the last year of the sixteenth century when the Portuguese Roman Catholic Archbishop of Goa, Alexius Menezes, summoned all the Ishanni clergy and a considerable number of laymen to the town of Diamper to supposedly bring peace and reconciliation between them and the Portuguese Catholics. In response one hundred fifty-three priests and about six hundred and sixty laymen attended. The Ishannis were asked to bring all their liturgical and theological texts–especially their ancient texts containing the teachings of Saint Thomas–so they could be “examined.” Believing that the Europeans wanted to sincerely discover the spiritual traditions of Saint Thomas, and therefore of Jesus, they did so. Their horror was boundless when they found themselves surrounded by Portuguese soldiers who forced them at gunpoint to surrender their precious manuscripts, which were then burned in their presence at the order of the Archbishop. Because of this “It is not possible to write a complete history of the Christians in South-West India, because the ancient documents of their churches were destroyed by fire at the Synod of Diamper in 1599,” as Cardinal Tisserant admits. “What history will not willingly forgive is the literary holocaust which was carried out on the authority of this decree, when all books that could be laid hands on were consigned to the flames. It was comparable in many ways with the vandalism of Omar, who by similar wanton destruction ordered the noble library of Alexandria to be consumed by flames. The Syrian Christians of today believe that because of this cruel decree, no records are available with them to recover and establish beyond all dispute their past Church history. None will deny that there is some substance in this belief” (S. G. Pothen, The Syrian Christians of Kerala). Among the books burned were many copies of three books. Two of them, The Book of Charms and The Ring of Solomon, were books of Christian magic. The third was a book on esoteric healing and the making of amulets from gems and herbs (as the Essenes had also done) called The Medicine of the Persians. They now exist only as nearly-forgotten names. Not only were the books brought to Diamper destroyed, Archbishop Menezes later went from church to church searching for more books and burning entire libraries in many places–even in areas where the Portuguese had no political jurisdictions whatsoever. The liturgical texts containing the rites of the Saint Thomas Christians were especially sought out and destroyed because they revealed how utterly the other churches had departed from the original ways of Christianity, and because they expressed the correct view of Jesus as a Son of God by attainment and not as the creator God incarnate. A list of forbidden books was made at Diamper, and any who read or listened to them being read were automatically condemned. Over the course of the next days the Archbishop also engaged in harangues to “correct” the ways of the Ishannis (henceforth to be known as “Saint Thomas Christians”) and bring them into conformity with those of “the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic See of Rome.” The official acts of the Synod particularly inveighed against the Ishannis who taught school and made provisions for the religious instructions of the students in Hindu religion, keeping the images of Hindu deities in the schools so the students could learn and perform their daily worship. Those who sent their children to schools taught by Hindus where they, too, worshipped the deities, were declared excommunicated (from a church to which they did not even belong!) and the children were forbidden to enter anything but a Portuguese-established church. The Ishanni participation in the worship of Hindu temples was the norm for them since they were a Hindu sampradaya, so that, too, was soundly castigated. Especially denounced was the use of Hindu rites of exorcism by the Ishanni priests, as well as other “idolatrous” and “superstitious” Vedic rituals. Priests who dared to have themselves registered as Nair Brahmins were condemned, not for a religious reason, but because it supposedly made them liable to be called up for military service. Saint Thomas had given the Ishannis a book which they used for divination to obtain guidance in the making of important decisions and to determine the future. This was a special target of the Portuguese, who also railed against their practice of divination, and all copies of this invaluable document were consigned to the flames of bigotry. The Ishannis considered astrology a legitimate means of forecast and guidance, and used it accordingly. Their priests were considered to be especially skilled in determining astrologically what days and times were the most favorable for marriage and the starting of journeys or any other type of endeavor. This is still retained by the Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala. In David Daniel’s book The Orthodox Church of India, published and sold by the Orthodox Church in India, we find this: “The Saint Thomas Christians are accustomed to consult astrologers to ascertain the auspicious moment for setting out for any purpose, e.g., for a journey, a wedding, etc. Drawing horoscopes is not uncommon amongst them.” Many of the Saint Thomas Christian priests to this day are astrologers and considered specialists in determining fortunate or auspicious times. Oddly, condemnation was even pronounced against the Ishannis’ laudable custom of adopting as many orphans as they could so they would not be homeless. This was a custom they had inherited from the Essenes. They were also condemned for piercing their ears and taking too many baths in a day! Being Brahmins, this was perfectly normal for them The Synod of Diamper did have one positive effect, though a backhanded one. By reading the fulminations against the “pagan” ways of the Ishannis and the official condemnations of them we are able to establish that the they were indeed orthodox Hindu Brahmins who revered Jesus as a teacher but considered themselves one with the other segments (sampradayas) of Hinduism. Hardly any of the Ishannis could even understand the language in which all this was done, and they were forced through cajolery and threats to sign documents of concurrence with all that had taken place–these documents being represented to them as nothing more than statements that they had been present at the gathering. Before sending those documents to Rome, Archbishop Menezes interpolated many items into the signed documents to make it appear that they had agreed to things either not actually spoken about or that were firmly resisted by them when they were brought up. Finally, “approved” Syriac (Aramaic) liturgical texts were issued to the clergy along with other written directives, and they departed in a daze to their flocks, accompanied by Portuguese “assistants” who were to make sure that they carried out the demands of the Europeans. When the Jesuits that were present at the Diamper assembly officially objected to the outrageous actions of Archbishop Menezes, he coolly remarked that “he behaved like that just to show the way of salvation to the assembled without hindrance.” Cardinal Eugene Tisserant was apparently of the same mentality when, in 1957, he wrote in Eastern Christianity in India: “Instead of destroying the existing Syriac manuscripts, he [Archbishop Menezes] could have had them corrected, but his method was that of certainty, so that any future heresy could be more easily averted.” Thus was the beginning of the great loss of identity and knowledge which today is no doubt irreparable. Some were the results of persecution and some the results of false friendship and influence on the part of Western missionaries. In this way both Catholic and Protestant Europe managed to wreak undeniable and profound damage on the Saint Thomas Christian Church. Slowly the Ishanni (Hindu) traditions were eroded until today only tokens remain. Their subsequent history and identity is so confused that even the Saint Thomas Christians of today are not sure about much of it. I have met Saint Thomas Christians that were basically standard contemporary Eastern Orthodox Christians, some that were more like rabid Protestant fundamentalists, and some that identified with Hinduism, kept the pictures and images of the deities, wore the sacred thread and rudraksha beads and put Shaivite marks on their forehead, and actively campaigned to wipe out all the innovations of the intervening centuries and return to their status as a Hindu sampradaya with traditional temples and worship. I saw the effects of this for myself when speaking at a church meeting in Niranam where Saint Thomas had founded the congregation. (Several examples of his woodwork–especially carvings in traditional Hindu temple style, since all the Ishanni temples were in that style–were shown to me.) During my talk, I felt so galled by not being able to speak freely of the higher, esoteric aspects of religion that I decided to break loose and say what I pleased, and hang the consequences. At the far back many very elderly men and women had been sitting with their heads bowed down in abject boredom and disinterest. But when I had spoken just a few sentences of real Christian belief, they all began looking eagerly at me, smiling, nodding and gesturing to one another in approval. At the end they all surged forward to express their appreciation of my talk. It was evident that as children they had heard the very things I was now speaking, but it had been a long and dreary time since those truths had been publicly expressed. Saint Gregorios of Parumala The crowning glory of Saint Thomas Christianity was the great bishop-saint Gregorios of Parumala, who lived in the nineteenth century. Every day in the major newspapers of Kerala strings of identical small icons of Saint Gregorios are printed, each one a thanksgiving for an answered prayer. In one city of Kerala I saw a shrine to Saint Gregorios at a bus stop with hundreds of candles burning before his icon in petition for those who had prayed there before proceeding on to work or school. The money contributed for the candles was there in an open box, but no one would think of stealing from it. It is a common sight along the roads in Kerala to see large wayside shrines with more-than-life-size icons of the saint enshrined in them. The tomb of Saint Gregorios in Parumala is visited daily by thousands and tens of thousands of pilgrims–Hindus, Christians, and Moslems–for whom it flows miracles and blessings beyond counting. I can bear witness that the moment you enter the boundaries of the island-shrine you step into another world altogether, and that the room where he left his body is one of the most spiritually powerful places I have ever been. Fortunately I was able to meditate there for some time. Here in America I met a remarkable yogi and Hindu scholar, Sri Nandu Menon. He told me that Saint Gregorios was the best friend of his strictly traditional Hindu Brahmin uncles, and spent a great deal of time with them in spiritual discussions. Nanduji told me that Saint Gregorios told his uncles that he considered his mission in life was to bring about the restoration of three essential teachings to the Saint Thomas Christian Church: - the belief in karma; - the belief in reincarnation; and - the belief that God and the individual spirit-self are one. Unfortunately it did not come about in India to the degree he desired. The situation today Despite the sad picture I have just given of the Saint Thomas Christian Church having lost most of its heritage from Saint Thomas, the good news is that history itself shows that Jesus was a Sanatana Dharmi and a Nath Yogi. And both traditions are intact and flourishing today. Therefore those who wish to truly be “of Christ” and follow him need only ensure that they are genuine adherents of Sanatana Dharma and Yoga. I say this because many sincere Westerners really do not know authentic dharma or yoga since they have believed those who themselves are neither dharmis or yogis–especially the “gurus” that abound in the West and throughout the world. The purpose of our website, ocoy.org, is to assist them in finding their way to real dharma and yoga. The Coonan Cross After the Roman Catholic Portuguese authorities had assassinated Mar Ahatalla, a Syriac Orthodox bishop who had come to India to find out why the Saint Thomas Christian Church had lapsed in its contacts with the Syriac Patriarchate, a multitude of Saint Thomas Christians gathered at Saint Mary’s Church at Mattancherry on January 3, 1653 and took a solemn oath on the Coonan Cross to no longer have any connection whatsoever with the Roman Church. So many had come for this oath-taking, that ropes were tied to the cross and the oath-takers held on to the ropes in order to be “touching” the cross. After this oath was taken, 199,600 Saint Thomas Christians severed all relations with the Roman Church, only 400 remaining loyal to Rome. Since that time the Saint Thomas Church has remained autonomous, its chief bishop bearing the title of Catholicos, as do some other heads of Eastern Churches such as the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Assyrian Church of the East and the Georgian Orthodox Church. The most important part of this picture is the clothing and hair of all the Saint Thomas Christians depicted taking the oath. They are wearing the Brahminical sacred thread, a sign of orthodox Hindu religion, as well as the shikha at the back top of the head, another symbol of the Brahmin caste. - If you have not already done so, we recommend that you read The Christ of India which tells of Jesus’ spiritual connection with India. - Also we recommend The Basic Beliefs of Saint Thomas Christianity, and Our View of Dharma as Saint Thomas Christians - Yogis Who Saw Jesus

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Celts to the Crèche c597-January 16, 649 AD On our 10th day of our pilgrimage with the Celts to the Crèche, we meet St. Fursey (Fursa, Fursei, Furseus) who was the first recorded Irish missionary to Anglo-Saxon England. He arrived in East Anglia in 633 AD with his younger brothers Foillan and Ultan, two years before St. Aidan (see Day 1 of Celts to the Crèche) established his famous monastery on Lindisfarne. This former Irish monk brought a renewed Christianity to East Anglia and established monasteries in both East Anglia and France. He is particularly famous for his horrific and very descriptive visions of Hell that he wrote down and which influenced Dante’s Inferno. Fursey’s name, “Fursa” in Old Irish means “model of virtue” which seems to agree with The Venerable Bede, the author of the well-known Ecclesiastical History of the English People who described Fursey as, “inspired by the example of his goodness and the effectiveness of his teaching, many unbelievers were drawn to Christ, and those who already believed were drawn to greater love and faith in him.” You may desire to continue reading more about Fursey or go on to the Meditation towards the end of this post before the footnotes and “Some Resources.” Meeting St.Fursey: I encountered St. Fursey through researching the life of Queen Hereswith (see day three of Celts to the Crèche), the sister of St. Hilda of Whitby. Even with his scary visions of hell, I found his peripatetic life to be intriguing and charming. A true Celtic wanderer who journeyed from Ireland to East Anglia and onto France setting up monasteries along the way. He has become a friend and my second Maine Coon Cat is even named for him. For Christmas 2016, my son commissioned an icon of Fursey for my gift. (I hope the real St. Fursey has a sense of humor and is even honored…well, at least a bit!). How we know about Fursey: What we know about Fursey mostly comes from an anonymous biography, likely written by someone who knew him and some even propose that it was written for the translation of his body to a permanent shrine in 653.1 Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People quotes from this early penned Life of Fursey which he called, “a little book on his life.” The earliest manuscript we have of this early life is in the British Library, Harley, MS 5041 ff.79-98. It was likely copied in northern France.2 A second life of Fursey was composed in Europe in the 11th or 12th century and there was an Irish version also.3 Early Life: Fursey was born in Ireland to noble parents, probably on an island in Lough Corrib, Co. Galway. He was baptized by St. Brendan the Navigator (his great uncle), (see day 20 of Celts to the Crèche), raised in County Kerry, and studied sacred scripture on the island of Inisquin in Lough Corrib, under the abbot St. Meldan called his ‘soul-friend.’ Fursey’s name, “Fursa” in Old Irish means “model of virtue” which seems to agree with Bede’s description of him, “inspired by the example of his goodness and the effectiveness of his teaching, many unbelievers were drawn to Christ, and those who already believed were drawn to greater love and faith in him.” 4 Fursey’s first monastery was at a place called Rathmat, which is likely Killursa (Fursa’s Church), in the north-west part of county Galway on the banks of Lough Corrib, still considered today as one of the best fishing lakes in Europe. Because of Fursey’s popular and charismatic style of preaching, he was overwhelmed with the crowds of Irish who wanted to follow him. While in Ireland, Fursey became very ill and had three visions, what we might call “near-death experiences” in which he saw purgatory and hell. He was told by Irishmen that he must return to his earthly life to preach and save humanity from the ravages of sin. When he awoke, he was healed, but his life dramatically changed. He also had three other visions of angels who took him on tours of of the next world. Mission to East Anglia, England: After establishing the monastery at Rathmat in his home country of Ireland, Fursey set sail with a few companions including his brothers for East Anglia in England in 630. This little mission band of peregrini were welcomed by the deeply devoted follower of Christ, King Sigibert who gave them the old Roman fortress of Cnobheresburg, thought to be the former shore fort of Burgh Castle near Great Yarmouth. The monastery was established in the northeast corner of the Cnobheresburg fort. This was the first recorded Irish mission to Southern England or may have been the first Irish mission to the entirety of England. While Fursey was in East Anglia he had further visions that became part of oral tradition that Bede records in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Begins his journey to France: About 641/644, St. Fursey left East Anglia to travel to Rome or maybe even Romania and then onto wherever the Spirit led him. In battle in either 635 or 641, King Penda of Mercia in England had killed Fursey’s great East Anglian supporters King Sigibert and Egric (likely Æthelric) who were joint kings. Æthelric was the husband of St. Hereswith (see day 3 of Celts to the Crèche). Fursey’s brother Ultan who had become a hermit in the area and his other brother Foillan and the priests Gobban and Dicull were left in charge of Cnobheresburg in East Anglia as Fursey continued his peregrinatio (voluntary exile for Christ). In the Annales Laubienses, it recounts Fursey’s journey to France and to the later arrival of his brothers in 649. It is thought that about 641, Fursey likely landed first in Brittany where he preached in Mayoc. Then he continued his pilgrimage at Mézerolles near the Sommes estuary where he was invited to stay by Duke Haimor of Ponthieu. The Duke’s son became ill very quickly and Fursey was able to save the young man. Erchinoald, the Merovingian mayor of the royal palace in Péronne heard about this miracle and invited Fursey to come to Péronne. Fursey declined the mayor’s invitation to stay at Péronne, but left some relics of St. Patrick and St. Meldan that he had brought with him from Ireland. Monasteries Fursey Established: St. Fursey not only established a monastery in Ireland called Rathmat, but also founded another one in East Anglia at Burgh Castle. He also established Irish style monasteries in France including Lagny east of Paris; Péronne; Mézerolles in the Somme; and likely another monastery at Fontanelle. Fursey’s influence was felt at the Fosses Monastery in Belgium founded by his brother Foillan. According to the Vita Fursei Abbatis Latiniacensis, the Duke of Ponthieu and Erchinoald of Péronne vied for Fursey to set up a monastery on their lands and even tried to give Fursey lands and money to get him to settle in their territory. The monastery at Péronne did grow up there very quickly, likely built up around the influence of Fursey and those relics of St. Patrick and St. Meldan. Fursey even prophesied that his own body would someday be buried there in Péronne. Lagny and Fontanelle Monasteries: Erchinoald along with King Clovis II and his wife, a former slave brought over from England, Queen Bathilde (see day 19 of Celts to the Crèche), gave the land for the Lagny Monastery. The monastery at Lagny was east of Paris on the Marne River, not far from Queen Bathilde’s later monastery at Chelles and also not far from the monastery of St. Burgundafara at Faremoutiers (see day 21 of Celts to the Crèche). Lagny was also near modern-day EuroDisney. Lagny was originally a Roman place called Latiniacum. According to legend, when Fursey chose Latiniacum, he drove his staff into the ground and a great spring bubbled out which not only furnished water to the monastery, but also served as a place of healing for all types of illness. Fursey also set up a small monastery at Mézerolles in the Somme region. Erchinoald also gave the lands of Wandregisel to Fursey, where he established another monastery, Fontanelle. It is an interesting note that Erchinoald had purchased Bathilde from the slave market and desired her to be his wife, but she declined by hiding so he could not find her, later marrying King Clovis II. Erchinoald thought so highly of Fursey that he asked him to be his son’s godfather. Fursey’s Place of Resurrection Decided by a Pair of Oxen: The Annals of Ulster record that in 649 that Fursey died. His death likely occurring following a trip to visit some Irish monks to his monastery of Mézerolles. It is recorded when St. Fursey died, that the Duke of Ponthieu and Erchinoald each claimed Fursey’s body for burial. To solve this peacefully, a pair of oxen was attached to his casket and sent wandering off to determine God’s will as to where Fursey’s burial place would be. The oxen took the road to Péronne and that is why Fursey is often depicted with oxen at his feet. Just as he prophesied, Fursey was buried at Péronne at the chapel on the land of Erchinaold and his wife Leutsinda. Some say that St. Eligius (Eloi), who was not only the Bishop of Noyon and advisor to Queen Bathilde (See day 19 of Celts to the Crèche), but also an esteemed metalworker, painstakingly designed and built the reliquary of St. Fursey. It is likely that the shrine was probably a large version of the Celtic house-shaped reliquaries. The text known as the Virtues Sancti Furseii describes his reliquary as a “little house” (domuncula). Eligius also designed the sepulchers of of St. Martin of Tours and the mausoleum of St. Denis of Paris. His sepulcher may have been larger than we expect for “a little house” and may have had a large, tall roof on it. Fursey’s shrine became a place of pilgrimage because his body was found to be incorrupt each time his casket was moved and it was said that it looked like he had just left his body. Irish pilgrims on the way to Rome flocked to St. Fursey’s shrine in Péronne in northern France to pray. Péronne’s Abbey was sold and then demolished during the French Revolution and part of that sacred site is now covered by the Palais de Justice. Fursey’s Brothers and Their Influence: Upon Fursey’s death in about 649, his brothers Foillan and Ultan left East Anglia and travelled (more likely escaped) to France. After King Penda of Mercia destroyed East Anglia, the two brothers salvaged all the treasured, handwritten manuscripts they could carry with them and crossed over the channel between England and France. Fursey’s brothers were received by King Clovis II of France and then they went on their way to preach in the lower Rhineland and Belgium where they founded a monastery at Fosses on land given to them by St. Itta (Ida, Iduberga). Itta was the widow of Pepin of Landen, who had been the the mayor of the palace of Austrasia under the Merovingian kings Dagobert I and later Sigibert III. Pepin was the founder of the dynasty that would later become known as the Carolingian dynasty. Not only was Itta influential in establishing the Fosses Monastery, now known as St. Maur Abbey in a Southeast area of Paris also founded the great double monastery of Nivelles and assigned her daughter Gertrude (later known as as St. Gertrude of Nivelles) (see Day 38 of Celts to the Crèche) as the first abbess. It is said that Nivelles was a “peculiarly” Irish monastery.At first, Ultan was the chaplain at Nivelles where some believe he taught the monks to chant. Later, Ultan became the first abbot of the monastery at Saint-Quentin and then succeeded Foillan at Péronne. As Foillan and three companions were returning from visiting Ultan in 655, the four were attacked and killed by bandits in the forest of Sneffe (Seneffe), where their bodies were hidden by the perpetrators. Ultan learned of his brother Foillan’s violent death by receiving a vision of a dove flying with blood-stained wings toward heaven. The Abbess Gertrude of Nivelles went to the place where Foillan was murdered and she retrieved his incorrupt body and returned with his remains to Nivelles. As a former Irishman, Foillan had a fondness for the earlier St. Bridget and introduced her to Belgium. Ultan died a natural death at the monastery in Péronne in 686, but was buried at Fosses Monastery. Fursey’s Continued Influence: The Vikings destroyed much of Lagny in the 880’s. Lagny was rebuilt over the years and during the French Revolution, a vast amount of Lagny’s art objects were stolen or destroyed including Fursey’s bust-reliquary which was melted down. It’s contents and part of Fursey’s head were salvaged and along with some relics from Péronne are now likely kept in the St. John the Baptist Church in Peronnne in a bronze, neo-Gothic reliquary from 1902. There are numerous churches and also holy wells with healing powers across France and Belgium named after St. Fursey. Throughout French history, there have been claims that St. Fursey protected them during times of war including King Louis IX who attributed his victory over English invaders in 1256. Bede’s quite graphic account of Fursey’s visions of the musical angels of heaven and the devils of hell were mesmerizing to the medieval mind. Some scholars contend that Dante’s Inferno was influenced by Fursey’s accounts of the fires of hell. Fursey is also attributed with many miracles during his lifetime and even posthumously. Each October (except in 2020 with the COVID-19 pandemic), the Fursey Pilgrims gather at Burgh Castle for a pilgrimage to Fursey’s East Anglia monastic site and each January, they sponsor a lecture on some aspect of Fursey and his times. Feast Day January 16 The Lorica of St. Fursey (prayer attributed to St. Fursey) Let us pray this beautiful Celtic prayer of St. Fursey as we pilgrimage together to that place of new life, the creche at Bethlehem. The arms of God be around my shoulders, the touch of the Holy Spirit upon my head, the sign of Christ’s cross upon my forehead, the sound of the Holy Spirit in my ears, the fragrance of the Holy Spirit in my nostrils, the vision of heaven’s company in my eyes, the conversation of heaven’s company on my lips, the work of God’s church in my hands, the service of God and the neighbor in my feet, a home for God in my heart, and to God, the father of all, my entire being. Amen. The Fursey Lorica from: Fursey Pilgrims.co.uk The British Library reference to the original text of the Lorica is: Add MS 30512 folio.35v This Lorica translation is quoted by John Ó Ríordáin in his book: The Music of What Happens. 1996. pp.46-47. The Columba Press. Dublin. 1 Brown, Michelle, “The Life of St. Fursey, Foreword,” in Rackham. Transitus Beati, Fursei,” p. iii. 2 Brown. The Life of St. Fursey, p. 16. 3 Brown. “The Life of St. Fursey”, Foreword. Rackham, p. iv. 4 Bede, III.19. © Brenda G. Warren and http://www.saintsbridge.org, 2018-2029. Unauthorized use and/or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this site’s author and/or owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Brenda G. Warren and http://www.saintsbridge.org (Celts to the Creche) with appropriate and specific direction to the original content. “Abbess Gertrude of Nivelles,” in McNamara, Jo Ann. Sainted Women of the Dark Ages. Durham, NC: Duke University, 1992. Additamentum Nivialense de Fuilano (The Nivelles Supplement to the Vita Fursei concerning Foillan) in Fouracre, Paul and Richard A. Gerberding. Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography 640-720. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996. Annales Laubienses. Brepolis Latin. Library of Latin Texts. Centre Tradition Litterarum Occidentalium, 2010. Atkinson, Sarah Gaynor. St. Fursey’s Life and Visions and Other Essays. M.H. Gill, Ltd: Dublin, Ireland, 1907. Blair, John. The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005. Blair, Peter Hunter. The World of Bede. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Brown, Michelle P. How Christianity Came to Britain and Ireland. Oxford, UK: Lion Hudson, 2006. _______. The Life of St. Fursey: What We Know; Why it Matters. Fursey Occasional Papers, No. 1. Norwich, UK: Diocese of Norwich, 2001. Casey, Aine. The Vita Fursei and Its Use by Bede and Aelfric. Fursey Pilgrims, 2010. CELT: The Corpus of Electronic Texts. The Life of Fursa Crook, John. English Medieval Shrines. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2011. Cronin, Anthony. ‘The Historical Saint Fursey: The Achievements and Legacy of Haggardstown’s Patron Saint, Journal of the County Louth Archaeological and Historical Society. Vol. 27, No. 4(2012), p. 536-552. County Louth Archaeological and History Society. Dahl, L. H. The Roman Camp and the Irish Saint at Burgh Castle with Local History. London: Jarrold and Sons, 1913. Desmay, Jacques. La Vie de S. Fursy, patron de la ville de Peronne, 1715. (google books) Dillon, Miles and Nora Chadwick. The Celtic Realms. Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2006. Duckett, Eleanor. The Wandering Saints of the Early Middle Ages. London: The Catholic Book Club, 1959. Dunn, Marilyn. The Vision of St. Fursey and the Development of Purgatory. (Fursey Occasional Paper Number 2). Norwich, UK:Fursey Pilgrims. 2007. Effros, Bonnie. Caring for Body and Soul: Burial and Afterlife in the Merovingian World. University Park, PA: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002. Fox, Yaniv. Power and Religion in Merovingian Gaul: Columban Monasticism and the Frankish Elites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Fouracre, Paul and Richard A. Gerberding. Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography 640-720. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996. “Fursa, ” by Michael Lapidge. Lapidge, Blair, Keynes, and Scragg. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford:Blackwell, 1999. Fursey Pilgrims. www.furseypilgrims.co.uk. Gallyon, Margaret. The Early Church in Eastern England. Lavenham: Terence Dalton Ltd., 1973. Geary, Patrick J. Before France & Germany: The Creation & Transformation of the Merovingian World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. Higham, Nicholas J. The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in early Anglo-Saxon England. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997. Jones, Andrew. Every Pilgrim’s Guide to Celtic Britain and Ireland. Ligouri, Missouri: Ligouri Publications, 2002. Jones, Kathleen. Who are the Celtic Saints? Norwich, UK: Canterbury Press, 2002. Jones, Trefor. The English Saints: East Anglia. Norwich, UK: Canterbury Press, 1999. Leyser, Henrietta. Beda: A Journey Through the Seven Kingdoms in the Age of Bede. London: Head of Zeus, 2015. Mayr-Harting. The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England. University Park, Pa.: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 3rd ed. 1991. Fordham University. Medieval Sourcebook: The Life of St. Eligius, 588-660. Milligan, K & R. Burgh Castle History and Guide. RPD Printers. 1983, 2011 reprint. Mitton, Michael. The Soul of Celtic Spirituality in the Lives of Its Saints. Mystic, CT: Twenty Third Publications, 1996. Ní Mheara (O’Mara), Róisín. In Search of Irish Saints. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1994. The Parish Church of St. Peter and St. Paul: Burgh Castle, Norfolk, 26th ed. RPD Printers, 2011 Pennick, Nigel. The Celtic Saints. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., 1997. Pestell, Tim. Landscapes of Monastic Foundations: The Establishment of Religious Houses in East Anglia, c650-1200. Woodbridge UK: Boydell Press, 2004. Plunkett, Steven. Suffolk in Anglo-Saxon Times. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2005. Rackham, Oliver. Transitus Beati Fursei: A translation of the 8th century manuscript. Life of St. Fursey. Norwich, UK: Fursey Pilgrims, 2007. Stokes, Margaret Macnair. Three Months in the Forests of France: a pilgrimage in search of vestiges of the Irish saints in France. George Bell and Sons, 1895. (available through google books). Wallace, Martin. Celtic Saints. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 1995. Warren, Brenda G. St. Fursey and His Lorica. January 16, 2109. Godspacelight.com Wood, Ian. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Routledge, 1993. Wooding, Jonathan. St. Fursey: Pilgrim and Visionary. Issue 7 of Fursey Occasional Papers, Fursey Pilgrims, 2015. Woods, Richard J. The Spirituality of the Celtic Saints. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2000. Yorke, Barbara. Nunneries and the Anglo-Saxon Royal Houses. London, UK: Continuum, 2003.

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|Sulfur Mustard (Yperite)||(HD)| |Soviet chemical weapons canister from an Albanian stockpile.| |Weapons of mass destruction| A chemical weapon (CW) is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on human beings. The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) states: "The term chemical weapon may also be applied to any toxic chemical or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves." They are classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), though they are distinct from nuclear weapons, biological weapons, and radiological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare). Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms, and may easily afflict others than the intended targets. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three modern examples of CW. Lethal, unitary, chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile and they constitute a class of hazardous chemical weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations. Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are nerve agents, GA, GB, GD, and VX as well as vesicant (blister) agents, which are formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the First World War, the effects of so-called mustard gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming. As of 2016, CS gas and pepper spray remain in common use for policing and riot control; while CS is considered a non-lethal weapon, pepper spray is known for its lethal potential. Under the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), there is a legally binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. Notwithstanding, large stockpiles of CW continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against putative use by an aggressor. International law on chemical weapons Before the Second World War International law has prohibited the use of chemical weapons since 1899, under the Hague Convention: Article 23 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land adopted by the First Hague Conference "especially" prohibited employing "poison and poisoned arms". A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles "the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases." The Washington Naval Treaty, signed February 6, 1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning CW but did not succeed because France rejected it. The subsequent failure to include CW has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles. The Geneva Protocol, officially known as the Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, is an International treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons. It was signed at Geneva June 17, 1925, and entered into force on February 8, 1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty. Ukraine is the newest signatory; acceding August 7, 2003. This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world." And while the treaty prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons, it does not address the production, storage, or transfer of these weapons. Treaties that followed the Geneva Protocol did address those omissions and have been enacted. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is the most recent arms control agreement with the force of International law. Its full name is the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction. That agreement outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which is an independent organization based in The Hague. The OPCW administers the terms of the CWC to 192 signatories, which represents 98% of the global population. As of June 2016, 66,368 of 72,525 metric tonnes, (92% of CW stockpiles), have been verified as destroyed. The OPCW has conducted 6,327 inspections at 235 chemical weapon-related sites and 2,255 industrial sites. These inspections have affected the sovereign territory of 86 States Parties since April 1997. Worldwide, 4,732 industrial facilities are subject to inspection under provisions of the CWC. Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from Nuclear warfare and Biological warfare, which together make up NBC, the military initialism for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (warfare or weapons). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons, which are primarily effective because of their destructive potential. Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to achieve an objective. It depends upon the unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized. A lethal agent is designed to injure, incapacitate, or kill an opposing force, or deny unhindered use of a particular area of terrain. Defoliants are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment. CW can also be used against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. Chemical payloads can be delivered by remote controlled container release, aircraft, or rocket. Protection against chemical weapons includes proper equipment, training, and decontamination measures. Countries with stockpiles CWC states with declared stockpiles Of 190 signatory nations to the CWC, state parties listed below have also declared stockpiles, agreed to monitored disposal, and verification, and in some cases, used CW in conflict. Both military targets and civilian populations have been affected; affected populations were not always damaged collaterally; instead, at times: themselves the target of the attack. As of 2015, only three nations are confirmed to have remaining stockpiles of CW: North Korea, Russia, and the United States. India declared its stock of chemical weapons in June 1997. India's declaration came after the entry into force of the CWC that created the OPCW. India declared a stockpile of 1044 tonnes of sulfur mustard in its possession. On January 14, 1993, India became an original signatory to the CWC. In 2005, among the six nations that declared stockpiles of chemical weapons, India was the only one to meet its deadline for chemical weapons destruction and for inspection of its facilities by the OPCW. By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted an extension for destroying the remaining CW until April 2009. It was anticipated that India would achieve 100 percent destruction within that time frame. On May 14, 2009, India informed the United Nations that it had completely destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, which oversees destruction measures, has announced "The government of Iraq has deposited its instrument of accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention with the Secretary General of the United Nations and within 30 days, on 12 February 2009, will become the 186th State Party to the Convention". Iraq has also declared stockpiles of CW, and because of their recent accession is the only State Party exempted from the destruction time-line. On September 7, 2011, Mr. Hoshyar Zebari entered the OPCW headquarters, becoming the first Iraqi Foreign Minister to officially visit since the country joined the CWC. On June 28, 1987, Iraqi aircraft delivered what was believed to be mustard gas in an attack against Kurdish people in Halabja and Sardasht. On two separate attacks against four residential areas, victims were estimated as 10 civilians dead and 650 civilians injured. Iraq massively used chemical weapons during Iran–Iraq war. Japan stored chemical weapons on the territory of mainland China between 1937 and 1945. The weapons mostly contained a mustard gas-lewisite mixture. They are classified as abandoned chemical weapons under the CWC; Japan started their destruction in September 2010, in Nanjing using mobile destruction facilities. Libya used chemical weapons, under Muammar Gaddafi's regime, in a war with Chad. In 2003, Gaddafi agreed to accede to the CWC in exchange for "rapprochement" with western nations. At the time of the Libyan uprising against Gaddafi, Libya still controlled approximately 11.25 tons of poisonous mustard gas. Because of destabilization, concerns increased regarding possibilities and likelihood that control of these agents could be lost. With terrorism at the core of concern, international bodies cooperated to ensure Libya is held to its obligations under the treaty. Libya's post-Gaddafi National Transitional Council is cooperating with the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons regarding the destruction of all legacy chemical weapons in the country. After assessing the chemical stockpiles, the Libyan government will receive a deadline from the OPCW to destroy the CW. Russia entered the CWC with the largest declared stockpile of chemical weapons. By 2010 the country had destroyed 18,241 tonnes at destruction facilities located in Gorny (Saratov Oblast) and Kambarka (Udmurt Republic), where operations have finished, and Shchuchye (Kurgan Oblast), Maradykovsky (Kirov Oblast), Leonidovka (Penza Oblast) while installations are under construction in Pochep (Bryansk Oblast) and Kizner (Udmurt Republic). As of 2016, Russia has destroyed around 94% of its chemical weapons and is planning to completely destroy its remaining stockpile by the end of 2018. Prior to September 2013, Syria was one of the 7 states that were not party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. It is, however, party to the 1925 Geneva Protocol and therefore, prohibited from using chemical weapons in war yet unhindered from the production, storage or transfer of CW. When questioned about the topic, Syrian officials stated that they feel it is an appropriate deterrent against Israel's undeclared nuclear weapons program which they believe exists. On July 23, 2012, the Syrian government acknowledged, for the first time, that it had chemical weapons. Independent assessments indicate that Syria could have produced up to a few hundred tons of chemical agent per year. Syria reportedly manufactures the unitary agents: Sarin, Tabun, VX, and mustard gas. - Al Safir (Scud missile base) In July 2007, a Syrian arms depot exploded, killing at least 15 Syrians. Jane's Defence Weekly, a UK magazine reporting on military and corporate affairs, believed that the explosion happened when Iranian and Syrian military personnel attempted to fit a Scud missile with a mustard gas warhead. Syria stated that the blast was accidental and not chemical related. In September 2012, information emerged that the Syrian military had begun testing chemical weapons, and was reinforcing and resupplying a base housing these weapons located east of Aleppo in August. On March 19, 2013, news emerged from Syria indicating the first use of chemical weapons since the beginning of the Syrian uprising. On August 21, 2013, testimony and photographic evidence emerged from Syria indicating a large-scale chemical weapons attack on Ghouta, a populated urban center. An agreement was reached September 14, 2013, called the Framework For Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons, leading to the elimination of Syria's chemical weapon stockpiles by mid-2014. On October 14, 2013, Syria officially acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention. The U.S. stored its chemical weapons at eight U.S. Army installations within the Continental United States (CONUS). The stockpiles were maintained in exclusion zones at the following Department of Army installations, (the percentages shown are reflections of amount by weight): - Tooele Army Depot (TEAD), Utah (42.3% of total stockpile) - Pine Bluff Arsenal (PBA), Arkansas (12%) - Umatilla Depot Activity (UMDA), Oregon (11.6%) - Pueblo Depot Activity (PUDA), Colorado (9.9%) - Anniston Army Depot (ANAD), Alabama (7.1%) - Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG), Maryland (5%) - Newport Army Ammunition Plant (NAAP), Indiana (3.9%) - Blue Grass Army Depot (BGAD), Kentucky (1.6%). The remaining 6.6% was located on Johnston Atoll in the Pacific Ocean. Currently stockpiles have been eliminated at Johnston Atoll, APG, NAAP, UMDA, PBA, TEAD, and ANAD. PUDA will begin elimination during the fiscal year (FY) of 2015, and complete in FY 2017. BGAD will be last to complete this elimination, which tentative dates have not been set As of 2016. The U.S. policy on the use of chemical weapons is to reserve the right to retaliate. First use, or preemptive use, is a violation of stated policy. Only the president of the United States can authorize the first retaliatory use. Official policy now reflects the likelihood of chemical weapons being used as a terrorist weapon. Non-CWC states with stockpiles Although Israel has signed the CWC, it has not ratified the treaty and therefore is not officially bound by its tenets. The country is believed to have a significant stockpile of chemical weapons, likely the most abundant in the Middle-East, according to the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service. In a 1983, CIA Report it was stated that Israel, after "finding itself surrounded by front-line Arab states with budding CW capabilities, became increasingly conscious of its vulnerability to chemical attack ... undertook a program of chemical warfare preparations in both offensive and protective areas ... In late 1982, a probable CW nerve agent production facility and a storage facility were identified at the Dimona Sensitive Storage Area in the Negev Desert. Other CW agent production is believed to exist within a well-developed Israeli chemical industry." In 1992, El Al Flight 1862 crashed on its way to Tel Aviv and was found to be carrying 190 liters of dimethyl methylphosphonate, a CWC schedule 2 chemical used in the synthesis of sarin nerve gas. Israel insisted at the time that the materials were non-toxic. This shipment was coming from a US chemical plant to the IIBR under a US Department of Commerce license. In 1993, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment WMD proliferation assessment recorded Israel as a country generally reported as having undeclared offensive chemical warfare capabilities. However, it is unclear whether Israel still keeps its alleged stockpile of chemical weapons. North Korea is not a signatory of the CWC and has never officially acknowledged the existence of its CW program. Nevertheless, the country is believed to possess a substantial arsenal of chemical weapons. It reportedly acquired the technology necessary to produce tabun and mustard gas as early as the 1950s. In 2009, the International Crisis Group reported that the consensus expert view was that North Korea had a stockpile of about 2,500 to 5,000 tonnes of chemical weapons, including mustard gas, sarin (GB) and other nerve agents. Manner and form There are three basic configurations in which these agents are stored. The first are self-contained munitions like projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets; these can contain propellant and/or explosive components. The next form are aircraft-delivered munitions. This form never has an explosive component. Together they comprise the two forms that have been weaponized and are ready for their intended use. The U.S. stockpile consisted of 39% of these weapon ready munitions. The final of the three forms are raw agent housed in one-ton containers. The remaining 61% of the stockpile was in this form. Whereas these chemicals exist in liquid form at normal room temperature, the sulfur mustards H, and HD freeze in temperatures below 55 °F (12.8 °C). Mixing lewisite with distilled mustard lowers the freezing point to −13 °F (−25.0 °C). Higher temperatures are a bigger concern because the possibility of an explosion increases as the temperatures rise. A fire at one of these facilities would endanger the surrounding community as well as the personnel at the installations. Perhaps more so for the community having much less access to protective equipment and specialized training. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted a study to assess capabilities and costs for protecting civilian populations during related emergencies, and the effectiveness of expedient, in-place shelters. The stockpiles, which have been maintained for more than 50 years, are now considered obsolete. Public Law 99-145, contains section 1412, which directs the Department of Defense (DOD) to dispose of the stockpiles. This directive fell upon the DOD with joint cooperation from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The Congressional directive has resulted in the present Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program. Some places where chemical weapons were tested, such as the San Jose Project in Panama, were not included in the disposal program. Thousands of mines on the island are still full of chemical gas and can be set off by passersby. Historically, chemical munitions have been disposed of by land burial, open burning, and ocean dumping (referred to as Operation CHASE). However, in 1969, the National Research Council (NRC) recommended that ocean dumping be discontinued. The Army then began a study of disposal technologies, including the assessment of incineration as well as chemical neutralization methods. In 1982, that study culminated in the selection of incineration technology, which is now incorporated into what is known as the baseline system. Construction of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) began in 1985. This was to be a full-scale prototype facility using the baseline system. The prototype was a success but there were still many concerns about CONUS operations. To address growing public concern over incineration, Congress, in 1992, directed the Army to evaluate alternative disposal approaches that might be "significantly safer", more cost effective, and which could be completed within the established time frame. The Army was directed to report to Congress on potential alternative technologies by the end of 1993, and to include in that report: "any recommendations that the National Academy of Sciences makes ..." In June 2007, the disposal program achieved the milestone of reaching 45% destruction of the chemical weapon stockpile. The Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) releases regular updates to the public regarding the status of the disposal program. By October 2010, the program had reached 80% destruction status. Chemical weapons are said to "make deliberate use of the toxic properties of chemical substances to inflict death". At the start of World War II it was widely reported in newspapers that "entire regions of Europe" would be turned into "lifeless wastelands". However, chemical weapons were not used to the extent reported by a scaremongering press. An unintended chemical weapon release occurred at the port of Bari. A German attack on the evening of December 2, 1943, damaged U.S. vessels in the harbour and the resultant release from their hulls of mustard gas inflicted a total of 628 casualties. The U.S. Government was highly criticized for exposing American service members to chemical agents while testing the effects of exposure. These tests were often performed without the consent or prior knowledge of the soldiers affected. Australian service personnel were also exposed as a result of the "Brook Island trials" carried out by the British Government to determine the likely consequences of chemical warfare in tropical conditions; little was known of such possibilities at that time. Some chemical agents are designed to produce mind-altering changes; rendering the victim unable to perform their assigned mission. These are classified as incapacitating agents, and lethality is not a factor of their effectiveness. Exposure during Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn During Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn, Service members who demolished or handled older explosive ordnance may have been exposed to chemical warfare agents. The chemical warfare agents in the ordnance identified thus far were blister agents (mustard agent) or nerve agents (sarin). Exposure to either agent was uncommon, with exposure to sarin being less common than exposure to mustard. The likelihood of long-term effects from a single exposure is related to the severity of the exposure. The severity of exposure is estimated from the onset of signs and symptoms coupled with how long it took for them to develop. The Department of Defense (DOD) wants to identify those who experienced symptoms following exposure to chemical warfare agent. DOD is interested in their symptoms and their current status. DOD wants to be sure that the exposure is documented in their medical record, that the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is informed, and that they understand their future health risks. DOD can provide them with information regarding their exposure to share with their health care provider, and recommend follow-up if needed. While DOD has identified some individuals, they are conducting medical record screenings on units, and reviewing Post Deployment Health Assessment and Reassessment forms to identify other exposed individuals. Because these methods have limitations, individuals are encouraged to self-identify by using the DOD Hotline: 800-497-6261 Unitary versus binary weapons Binary munitions contain two, unmixed and isolated chemicals that do not react to produce lethal effects until mixed. 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THE INDIAN OPTICIANIndia’s #1 Journal on Optics Home >> VISION CARE >> TECH UPDATE >> Revolutionary Bionic Eye Implant for UK patient DR MAHI MUQIT In a ground-breaking bionic eye implant, an 88-year-old woman from Dagenham in the UK became the first patient to detect signals electronically for the first time since going blind in her left eye. A grandmother of eight, the woman from east London suffers from geographic atrophy, a dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Millions of people worldwide suffer from this condition that can cause loss of sight. The implant offers the hope of partially restoring vision for people with geographic atrophy (GA), which is the most common form of dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD). This breakthrough surgery will help address the condition that is progressive and currently has no treatment. Some 4.8% of those over 65 years of age and 12% of those over 80 will be affected by dry AMD while GA affects 6.7% of the over 80s. In this pioneering eye implant, a microchip was implanted to help partially restore the woman’s vision. During the surgery that took place in December last year, a 2mm-wide microchip was inserted under the patient’s retina by surgically creating a ‘trapdoor’ for placing the chip. The patient wears a special pair of glasses that contains a video camera linked to a small computer attached to her waistband, thus making it possible for her to see. GLASSES BEING ADJUSTED ALL IMAGES COURTESY MOORFIELDS EYE HOSPITAL The process starts with the help of the chip that captures the visual scene projected by the glasses and transmits it to the computer. Instructions are sent back to the camera with the help of Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms that process this information. The glasses focus on what the AI perceives to be the main object in the image. The glasses then project this focused image as an infra-red beam through the eye to the chip, which in turn converts this beam into an electrical signal. This electrical signal passes through the retina cells and the optical cells into the brain, where it is interpreted as if it were a natural vision. Four to six weeks after the chip is inserted, it is tested by switching on the chip and that is what signals the patient to see. The patient received the Prima System device as part of the PRIMAvera study in France, a Europe-wide clinical trial for the new technology, backed by the National Institute of Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields and the UCL Institute of Ophthalmology. The patient further shared her journey in a statement released by the Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, a leading provider of eye health services in the UK, “Losing the sight in my left eye through dry AMD has stopped me from doing the things I love, like gardening, playing indoor bowls and painting with watercolours.” She further added, “I am thrilled to be the first to have this implant, excited at the prospect of enjoying my hobbies again and I truly hope that many others will benefit from this too.” The patient will now go through a rehabilitation programme to learn how to use the new vision that she has gained. The study particularly aims at quantifying the level of vision that is restored and the speed at which the processing takes place. Once the rehabilitation is complete, the patient will potentially be able to recognise items as small as words and be able to read again. This study is being led by Dr. Mahi Muqit, consultant vitreoretinal surgeon at Moorfields Hospital, honorary clinical lecturer at the UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, and National Institute of Health Research (NIHR) research investigator. He shared his thoughts on this exceptional operation, “This ground-breaking device offers the hope of restoration of sight to people suffering vision loss due to dry AMD. The success of this operation, and the evidence gathered through this clinical study, will provide the evidence to determine the true potential of this treatment.” A significantly positive impact can be expected in the lives of people suffering from this condition, all thanks to this bionic chip. The Indian Optician A-99, Defence Colony, New Delhi – 110024 Copyright © 2020 All rights reserved Join us on Social Media A-99, Defence ColonyNew Delhi – 110024 1. 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Help for Today — Hope for Tomorrow By clicking any link on this page you are giving your consent for us to set cookies. More Info [Gary Petty] Is God fair? Maybe you've struggled with questions like this. I mean questions like, why does He allow these bad things to happen to me? Is He even listening to me? Once upon a time, God granted someone an actual physical audience to answer these kinds of questions. How did God answer? If you have the opportunity to meet God face to face, what questions would you ask him? I mean, let's face it, we all have questions we'd like to ask God. I mean, why do you allow suffering? Why do you allow evil? Why don't you help us more when we're in trouble, or why do you allow children to die? There's something that you may have never thought about. Are there questions that God would like to ask you? Now why would God ask you a question? I mean, He's all knowing, right? I mean, what kind of answers would He expect from you? Well today we're going to look at an important book in the Bible that records the story of a man who asked God a whole series of questions. And God answered him by asking him a series of questions. By exploring this biblical story, you will discover some of the vital answers about life and your relationship with God. Now, the man we're talking about today lost everything. He lost his considerable wealth, his children, his status in society and his health. The man's story is told in the Old Testament book of Job. That's his name. An interesting thing about the book of Job is that the Bible doesn't tell us the name of the author or even the time period in which the events happened. Now some biblical historians think that Job lived during the time of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but no one knows exactly for sure. The book of Job may actually be the oldest book in the Bible. And it is a book about questions, questions that Job asked God, and questions that Job's friends ask him, and questions that God asks Job, and even some questions that God asks Satan. The answers we find in Job are profound and apply to you and me in our daily struggles. Job is introduced in this story as a wealthy farmer and rancher with a wife and many children, and he's obviously a man of status among his neighbors. In a very short period of time, Job's cattle and camels are all stolen, and most of his workers are killed by raiders. A messenger runs up to him and tells him how the sheep and shepherds were killed by a strange fire from heaven. And then another man runs up and tells him that all of his children were eating and drinking in the oldest son's house, and a wind storm comes along, and the house collapses, and they're all killed. And then Job became ill. He is inflicted with painful boils from head to foot, and he ends up spending his days and nights outside the city walls, sitting in a pile of ashes, scraping his seeping soars with shreds of broken pottery. Now, all of us could share a story about losing a loved one, a job, our health, our finances, but few of us have lost everything. How would you respond to losing everything? Well, let's see how Job responds to this. Okay, he loses everything. They come and they tell him how he's lost all his wealth and his possessions. And here's how Job responded, “Then Job arose, tore his robe and shaved his head, and he fell to the ground and worshiped.” When he, this calamity came upon him, and he found out about it, what the Job do? He worshiped God. And he said, “naked I came from my mother's womb, and naked shall I return there. The Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord.” And then he became terribly ill. So all these things happen. Then he becomes terribly ill, and what did he say? “Shall we indeed accept good from God and not accept adversity?” What a great expression of faith. Yes, God gives good things to us, and sometimes bad things happen. But slowly, as Job struggles with the shock, and the grief, and the pain, and the reality of what happened, and it begins to sink in, and Job begins to ask questions. It's very interesting. The first set of questions he asks aren't aimed specifically at anybody. He just says, why did I not die at birth? I mean, why am I alive? And all this has happened to me. Why did I not perish when I came from the womb? Why did the knees receive me, or the breasts that I should nurse? For now I would've laid still and been quiet. I would have been asleep. Than I would have been at rest. Job struggled with the overwhelming feeling that life had no meaning. There's no purpose. And through all this pain and all this grief, he just couldn't work through it. It was overwhelming. And he decided that it would be better that he'd never been born than to lose his wealth, and his children, and his health. And maybe you've experienced times when you felt like life had no meaning. Maybe you've asked the same questions that Job asks. And maybe you've thought that it's better that you've never been born, or you thought it would be better for me to die than to deal with what I'm trying to deal with in life. So what answers then did God give Job? Now, before we look at the answers, let's see how Job's situation gets even worse. Some of his friends show up. Okay, they come out into the outside the city walls around the ash heap he's sitting in, and they sit around, and they begin to tell him that his suffering is a direct consequence of all the sins that he's committed against God. So now what does Job say? I mean, Job's dealing with now all his friends telling him, this is your fault. And here's what Job says. What is man? He starts asking questions. He keeps asking questions. “What is man, that you should exalt him?” Now, this question is towards God. “That you should set your heart on him, that you should visit him every morning and test him every moment? How long will you not look away from me, and let me alone til I swallow my saliva? Have I sinned? What have I done to you, O watcher of men? Why have you set me as your target so that I am a burden to myself? Why do you not pardon my transgression, and take away my iniquity? For now, I will lie down in the dust, and you will seek me diligently, but I will no longer be.” He says, you know, God, there's going to come time you're looking for me and I won't even be here because I'm going to die. Now, how many times have you heard? I've talked to many people, older people, stricken with old age. They say, I can't take care of myself. And I'm a burden to others. I'm a burden to myself. So here we find the common questions that we ask God when we face terrible suffering. Why is God allowing this to happen? Why isn't God saving me? Is God angry with me? Am I being punished? And what was God's answer? Well, before we talk about that, we look at God's answer to Job 'cause he gives him an answer. He actually asked him questions. He answers his questions with questions. I want to tell you about today's free study guide.” Why Does God Allow Suffering?” As a pastor, I've shared many hours and offered many prayers with people asking the same questions Job asks. And you know what? In my life I've asked some of these same questions, as we go through the struggles we go through. Well, you can find the answers in God's word and how God can interact with you. Order your free copy, Why Does God Allow Suffering, by calling the number that's on your screen, or go to beyondtoday.tv, where you can read online, or order everything that we offer here on Beyond Today. So we're in the biblical book of Job. Job was a person who lost almost everything, everything that was important in his life. And he struggles with questions about his life, its meaning, and where is God, and this is so unfair. There's another interesting thing about this book, is that much of the book, the whole center part of it, records a long conversation between Job and his friends as they try to find answers to these questions about suffering and about God's fairness. Why is God being unfair? And as I said before, the conclusion of many of his friends was that, Job, this is your fault because you're being punished for your sins. And throughout the book, Job continues to ask God questions. Here's an interesting set of questions that he asks. He says, “for what is the allotment of God from above, and the inheritance of the almighty on high?” What is God doing? “Is it not destruction for the wicked and disaster for the workers of iniquity?” He said, isn't God's plan to punish bad people? “But does he not see my ways and count all my steps?” I mean, God, or Job here is struggling with God's fairness. I mean, God says I'll punish the wicked, and I will bless and reward the good. And he says, what have I done to be punished beyond most anybody else? And it's interesting, in his own defense Job declares that he had lived a good life, and he talks about how he loved his neighbor, and he had always been honest. He even talks about how he'd been faithful to his wife. And so why was God being so unfair that all these terrible things are happening to him? What Job didn't understand is one of the greatest lessons in the book of Job. You see, he was a participant. He didn't know it at the time. He was a participant in an epic battle for the hearts and minds of human beings. You have to go back to the first two chapters of the book of Job, because it is in these two chapters that we find the background to what's happening in Job's life. The setting in those first two chapters is Satan comes to God. He comes to God and there's a conversation. Satan, who's a real being. The New Testament, calls him the god of the world, an angel who turned against God and introduced evil to humanity. And he is before God, and what's fascinating is that God asks him a question. In this book of questions, at the very beginning, there's a question. And what he says to him or asked him, he says, have you considered my servant Job? That there was none like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man, one who fears God and shuns evil. What an amazing statement from God about this man. He said, now there's a man who follows me, who obeys me. Have you noticed him? And Satan's response is, well, yes he follows you. He obeys you because you reward him so much. Take away all those blessings, and Job will turn against you. God then allows Satan to try to influence Job. He says fine, you can influence him 'cause you're going to fail. And what does Satan do? Satan's way of trying to influence Job is he destroys his property, destroys his business, kills his children, and ruins his health. Wow. God allowed this to a man that He said was righteous. He allows this. And this is one of the important central themes in the book of Job. God is still the sovereign King over the universe, but he has allowed Satan to have some power over humanity for a time. And this means that you and I, just like Job, are involved in a spiritual battle to either serve our creator God or to serve the adversary. And this is a reality that many times Christians don't think about. The truth is that all of us are going to serve one or the other. And the idea that I'm going to just face life on my own terms means that you have chosen not to serve God. We're to serve God on his terms. The most remarkable part of Job's story is that after many hours of these human arguments, and questions, and accusations, and personal justification, guess who shows up? God. It's interesting. He shows up in a tornado just to get their attention. That's how He shows up. And yet He doesn't immediately answer Job's questions. He asked Job some questions. In fact, there's numerous chapters here of God asking him questions and here's what God first asked him. It says, “Then the Lord answered Job out of the whirlwind and said, who is this who darkens counsel by words without knowledge? Now prepare yourself like a man, and I will question you and you shall answer me.” Anytime God says, “stand up like a man, I have something I want to ask you,” you're in real trouble. Okay, understand that? He says, where were you? Okay, let's get some questions from God. Now let me ask you some things. “Where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth? Tell me if you have any understanding? Who determined its measurements? Surely you know.” He says, surely you know exactly how big the earth is and how much it weighs. Surely you know that. I mean, you're asking me some questions. These are the simple questions I'm going to ask you. “Or who has stretched the line upon it? Or what were its foundations fastened? Who lays its cornerstone?” What an interesting set of questions. Explain to me the universe. Then he asked him a whole other set of questions. Questions like, have the gates of death been revealed to you? Explain to me death? Just to explain that. What happens when you die? Do you know the ordinances of the heavens? Have you figured out all the laws that keep everything in motion and cause this to happen? He asked him at one point, have you given the horse strength? Explain how animals are alive. Just explain that. And does the hawk fly by your wisdom? Does a hawk fly because you figured out how to make a bird? Just, that's all I want to know. Just answer these questions for me. And He asked question after question, and then He asked him the most pointed of all these questions when He asked him, “shall the one who contends with the almighty, correct Him? He who rebukes God, let him answer it.” Okay, you've been asking me questions now, a lot of questions, and you've been correcting me and telling me that somehow I've been wrong here. So it's time now for you to answer my questions. Now we're going to talk about this interaction more between God and Job, but if you're struggling with these kinds of questions, you need to order our free copy of, or your free copy of Why Does God Allow Suffering? The study guide includes a section on how to find good, even in suffering, and the hope that only God can give you, and the great purpose of your life. You can discover God's promise to give you comfort and create in you his ultimate future in spite of your present distress. Order your free copy of Why Does God Allow Suffering by calling the number on your screen or going to beyondtoday.tv, or you could, beyondtoday.tv where you can read it or download it. What a story we've been reading, right? Job, a man overwhelmed by grief and physical pain, a man disillusioned with the apparent futility of life, challenging God with a series of questions. God responded by challenging him with a series of questions, like explain the universe. Explain all the wonder and intricacies of nature and creation. Just explain what happens after death. Just answer those simple ones and we'll be sort of on even terms here. And here's Job's final answer. This is a long book. And finally, after all these questions, here's what Job says. I know that you can do everything. He didn't even ask a question. He just realizes, uh-oh, this is a lot bigger than I ever imagined. It's a lot more amazing than I ever imagined. It's a lot stranger than I. This is God. He says that “no purpose of yours can be withheld from you. You asked, who is this who hides counsel without knowledge? Therefore I have uttered what I did not understand, things too wonderful for me, which I did not know. Listen, please, and let me speak. You said, I will question you and you shall answer me. I have heard you by the hearing of the ear, but now my eye sees you, and therefore I abhor myself and repent.” Job's problem wasn't that he was living in rebellion against God. I mean, God told Satan that Job was a righteous man. His problem was that he didn't understand his nothingness without God. When he finally got a glimpse into the true nature of God, he became acutely aware of his smallness, and spiritual poverty, and of God's greatness and goodness. You see, God is asking you the same questions. He's asking you and I the same questions. He's challenging us every day the same way he challenged Job. The questions are, do you really understand who I am? We may know about God, as Job said, but do we really know the being who reveals Himself in creation, who reveals Himself through the Bible, who reveals Himself through the power of His Holy Spirit? Do you experience His presence in your life? King David of Israel was faced with the unsolvable issues of life, and he cried out to God to answer his prayers. And the answer he received is very similar to the answer that Job received. This is in Psalm 27, and here's what David wrote. “Hear, O Lord, when I cry with my voice. Have mercy also upon me and answer me. I need answers. I am lost here.” And here was God's answer. He says, “when you said, this is God's answer, seek My face,” David said, “my heart said to you, your face, Lord, I will seek. Do not hide your face from me. Do not turn your servant away in anger. You have been my help. Do not leave me nor forsake me, O God of my salvation.” God told David to “seek My face.” Little less dramatic than showing up in a tornado and saying, hey, I got some questions for you about me. But he didn't want Job or David to make the same mistake we all do as human beings. We make God in our own image. God said, no, you’ve got to know me, who I am. You just can't make me up in your own image. Now, how can you seek to know God in the way that God led both Job and David to know him? Well, first of all, you ask God to reveal Himself to you. You seek His face. You see, God wanted David to seek His presence in his life. And in doing so, David would get a glimpse into God's greatness and the goodness of the creator. There's something intimate and God's prompting David to seek Him and David's desire to seek Him. David's desire to see God, His presence reminds me of when one of my daughters was very small, and she was talking, and dad wasn't paying a lot of attention. And I was sitting down. The next thing I know these two little hands touch my face, turn me so that I was looking right in the eyes, and then she just kept talking. She was seeking my face. You see, this is a core need that God designed in all of us. We need to know God. And Job finally realized he needed to live his days seeking the reality of God and desiring His presence. God wants you to seek His face. You have to pray for His love and guidance to be shown to you. And you must humbly repent as Job did. Then you must search the scriptures to find out about how God reveals Himself and about His attributes, His character, who He is. See, the Bible reveals the reality of the true God. He's all powerful. He's all intelligent. He possesses all creativity and wisdom. He expresses perfect emotions. He is the ultimate good revealing the ultimate love. He hates evil. He's omnipresent. He's able to read all of our thoughts, and ultimately he controls human history, human beings. We all have this limited understanding of God because He's beyond our comprehension. But the more that each of us in our own way understands Him as He really is, not as we make Him, but as He really is, the more we can actually love Him, and trust Him, and obey Him. One of our great human weaknesses is that we try to make God in our own image. And the more we see God in our own corrupted, weak image, the less we're able to respond to him in love, faith, and obedience. It's only when we see Him really. Now here's what happens to you when you see God's face. You begin to trust in God as your Creator and Father, because you give Him control of your life. You begin to trust God to guide your life, even when your personal situations don't make any sense. You start to deal with the paradoxes of life, and there's lots of them. That's why there's so many questions. You begin to actively see God is the source of truth and to seek His presence in your life. God becomes real. He becomes real to us. I encourage you to order your free study guide. Why Does God Allow Suffering? The study guide will help you explore some of the greatest questions of life and find practical answers in your Bible. Call the number on your screen right now, or go to beyondtoday.tv, where you can read it or order it online. When Job finally received a little understanding of what it really means to seek God's face, face to face literally now, he realized that his previous understanding of God was based on things too wonderful for me, which I did not know. Here's one of the great lessons we learned from the life of Job. Without God in our life's journey, we are left with unanswerable questions and no hope for the future. When we seek God, He becomes the answer. It is God Himself who becomes the answer. When we seek His presence, He becomes our hiding place and our strength. When we seek His will, His desires become our desires. When we seek His ways, then we begin to obey Him. We have to seek all this, because when we're doing this, we are seeking God's face, which means His presence. And when you become, when you have God become the center of your life, the absolute center of your life, not all the other stuff we have in the center, when God becomes the center of our lives, and Jesus Christ His son, then you will spend your life seeking His face. That's what we do. His presence, His guidance, His love, and you will begin to anticipate and have hope in a future when you will actually see Him face to face. [Narrator] We've prepared a special study aid, Why Does God Allow Suffering, to help you learn what the Bible says about this challenging topic. Why Does God Allow Suffering will take you through a biblical study to help you understand why our world suffers from evil and unspeakable tragedy. Call us now for your free copy at 1-888-886-8632, or go online at beyondtoday.tv. And when you do, we'll also send you a free subscription to Beyond Today magazine. This special publication will help you make sense of often chaotic and confusing events in our world today. And once again, to order your free copy of Why Does God Allow Suffering and your free subscription to Beyond Today magazine, call 1-888-886-8632, or go online at beyondtoday.tv. [Gary Petty] Hi, I'm Gary Petty, a pastor with United Church of God. If you're looking for a church that encourages living with the word of God really teaches, you found the right place. We're a community of believers dedicated to seeking the truth and preaching the good news of the coming kingdom of God. We'd like to welcome you to come and join us on this spiritual journey. We have hundreds of congregations around the United States and across the world. Visit ucg.org to find a church near you. We're looking forward to meeting you soon.

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From he asses to the asses, Ireland was still a place where education was seen as Ideological and a “preserve of the middle classes”. The church/religious orders were still underpinning the structures in education. The asses was the era of the Gaelic League, and an attempt at reviving the ancient life of Ireland as a Gaelic State. During this time little was done to tackle the low levels of participation in education, especially amongst some groups of society, particularly people from poorer socio economic areas, people from rural areas, and girls in education. It was essentially a period of stagnation from the mint of view of any development by government, or any change in attitude from the public towards education. Children were needed on farms to make ends meet. From the mid-sixties onwards however, things began to change. Over the course of the paper hope to show how the general public understanding of and attitude towards education changed. Will discuss how the government’s attitude towards education also changed, in a number of ways, including how it was provided, and also what was provided as education. Logic, Curriculum, Access and Financing are areas that were all areas of major change. I hope to issues how these changes in the provision of post-primary education came about, and how the understanding of schooling evolved and were articulated. Changes in public perception of education One of the biggest changes in Education during the ass’s and early ass’s, was the way people viewed and understood Education. Ireland in the 1 9305 and asses was in a very bad economic situation, with an ailing economy and mass emigration. Between 1 932 and 1948, Tomes Derek served as minister for education and effectively done nothing of major significance. Economic conditions were the basis for the decisions made during this time. It was felt there was no need to change the curriculum, peoples thinking was still very rigid, and the thought of free education wasn’t thought of as any way feasible or realistic, with ideas around this described as utopian. Developments were still being affected by post war economic conditions. So what paved the way for the change that was to come? The American economist and historian, Walt Roosts, in his book, “The Stages of Economic Development”, argues that there are 5 stages on the “Road to Development”. He speaks of a situation where there is a traditional society, where the ruling elite have all the say and prospects, and the lower income person has little or no prospect of improving their lot. Social customs and traditional values are strong. He argues that there is a second stage, and this is the one I feel Ireland went through in the latter half of the ass, early ass. He calls it “The Preconditions for Take-off’. In this stage people become more away of the possibilities that exist for them, and more aware of the benefits of education and developing new skills for careers away from the traditional farming. Prior to the Investment in Education bill, and the dawn of Free Education, Free uses, comprehensive schools, curriculum changes, there had to be a change in the Way people thought. So what brought about this change? Around this time there was a radical change in peoples thinking and also in their expectations for life, brought on by, amongst other things; ; The dawn of television, which brought more information into people’s lives, opening their minds to new possibilities and bigger expectations of life, ; The establishment of state television in the shape of Tilefish Reran in 1 962, which broadcast shows from Britain and America had a profound change on attitude. Women’s rights, the civil rights movement, the space race, were other events of the time that showed people that there were other possibilities now open to them. The asses generation were more vocal, liberal, and more politically aware. There was a growing awareness around this time of social exclusion, especially when it comes to people from poorer economic backgrounds, rural areas, and women. Together, these factors combined to change the way people were thinking about education, and ultimately, helped to change the way the state thought about education. People were now beginning to see that the longer a person could stay in education, and the more qualified they could become, the better chance they had in life of getting a more desirable job and salary. Changes in Investment in Education In terms of Investment in education, at the end of the asses, and beginning of the asses, Ireland was lagging far behind other countries in the world. To give an example of where we Ireland was at in 1959 in regards to investment in education, Ireland was investing app per child, whereas Russia was operating at a level fourteen times higher at EH, the USA at EH per child, and perhaps most significant for us, KGB/IN was investing EH. 25 per child in education. Ireland was coming from a very poor time in its economic history, post-World War II. However, around 1 960, there was an upturn in the economy. With this came the thinking that there was a need for more technical skills, leading to the building of 35 Vocational schools, where more technical subjects would be taught. The problem with these schools was that they were poorly resourced, and it was expensive to fund this. The public was becoming increasingly aware of the correlation between spending on education and the increase in the standard of living. There was a growing demand for access to education for all. The COED report which was commissioned in 1 962 was produced in 1965. The report by the COED was commissioned to analyses the education system in Ireland, identify areas of weakness, and recommend changes for the future. It was also supposed to identify the “manpower needs” of Ireland over the following 15-20 years. What the report did do was highlight the inequalities that existed in terms of opportunity when it came to access to post primary and 3rd level education and a host of other issues. This was to prove a catalyst for change throughout the following 25 years. The COED report was the most thorough investigation of the Irish education yester conducted in decades, if not ever. The 1 991 COED review of Irish National Policy has referred to the report of 1965 as “a landmark both in the national and international memory’, and “remarkable for its comprehensiveness, its studied detachment, its theoretical underpinning, its systematic accumulation of a mass of baseline data, its detailed estimates of quantitative trends and not least the originality of the methods that it used to penetrate unexplored territory”. It highlighted the high instances of school leavers at primary level, (around 17,000 per year (Rankles 1 975:216)), a low ate of pupils of vocational students going on to third level, (lack of Institute of technology at this time), and inequalities in education for children because of geographical location and/or social group, that is, they came from a disadvantaged background financially or from an a rural area with poor access to a school. The report recommended that there was a need for wider participation of students in schooling and for students to be in the education system for longer periods. The report also brought up the economic benefits to Ireland of having educated people. This was a change from the previous ay Of thinking whereby children were seen to be wasting their time continuing in education when they could be working and earning a wage. Its recommendations included the following; ; increased investment to get more children participating in education, and for longer, i. E. He use of scholarship schemes to increase participation ; a need for policy planning to improve education across the board in Ireland, at all levels ; A need for a programmer of building which included amalgamating smaller schools to form bigger more efficient schools ; Up shilling and training, (or in service) for teachers. The COED report wasn’t alone in highlighting these issues. The Labor Party policy document “Challenge and Change in Education” 1 963, highlighted a lot of the same issues as the report, and highlighted the need for a less discriminatory educational system not only t…. N social or moral grounds, but (as) a basic economic investment’; In the next few years, this country is going to face enormous economic problems, problems which may indeed put our survival as an independent nation in question. It is, therefore, essential that planning in education should be an inherent part of our economic planning. Already shortages of certain types of skill are becoming felt in our economy, and at the same time there is a surplus of other skills resulting in under employment and emigration (Rankles 1975). The Federation of Irish Secondary Schools (1962) report, ‘Investment in Education in the Republic of Ireland’ argued that “Selfishness is almost always short- sighted…… Maintenance of such restrictions (restricting educational expansion) on educational facilities cannot fail to ultimately adversely affect our Irish economy, and thus indirectly injure both themselves and their families”(Sullivan 2005:269). In 1 966, Dong Anomaly announced free education was to be introduced. This was a significant development in Irish society. O Mallets Bombshell”, so called due to his lack of consultation with people over his announcement, detailed free education to leaving certificate at the age of 18, and free buses providing transport for students. This was an attempt to keep children in Education for longer and to an older age. At the time, around 1 7,000 children left school after finishing primary education. (Rankles, 1975:216) He also announced that he was raising the age that children could leave school to 15 ears of age from 14 years of age. This was due to be in place by 1970, but this was later deferred until 1972. (The reason behind this deferral was due to the success of the voluntary participation in second level education after the free education announcement, and also to give time to train teachers to know how to deal with the extra reluctant school goers who have less ability and/or educational motivation. ) The effect on numbers attending post-primary school was almost immediate, with a rise in secondary school enrolment Of 1 5,000 between September 1 966 and September 1967. An example of the popularity of the free bus scheme an be seen in the figures where out of 79,000 pupils in day school, 92% of the day school pupils opted for the “free buses” scheme-(Rankles p. 276) The government estimated that the number of pupils in post-primary schools increased from 149,000 in 1966 to 1 84,500 in 1968, and that the raising of the school leaving age to 1 5 years of age would eventually lead to over 200,000 before the end of the third programmer for education. (Holland, Milne et al 1995). The success of the bill can be measured in the figures of how many pupils and schools opted into the scheme for free education. Maloney had opted for a figure of 75% of pupils opting for free education, but the figures showed that in September 1967, the figure was in fact sitting at 92%. (Rankles 1975276) An extract from the “Third Programmer for Economic and Social Development 1969-1972″ which was laid before the Houses of the Researches in March 1969, shows that the government acknowledging the link between education and economic and social development, “The vital role of education in economic and social development and the need for fundamental changes in this Sector has been repeatedly stressed in recent years. This increased emphasis has been reflected in the expansion in state expenditure. During the first programmer, Exchequer expenditure on education (excluding agricultural education) increased from less than E 16 million in 1 958/59 to over EYE million in 1963/64 at current prices. The rate of increase has been even greater during the second programmer; Exchequer expenditure in 1968/69 is estimated at EYE million”. (Holland Milne et al 1995:41) Changes in Government understanding of education By the end of the 1 ass’s, it was for the first time that economic need was shaping education policy rather than pedagogy of the past. This is reflected hen Brian Aeolian, who took over as minister for education when Dong O Manley passed away suddenly in 1968, ordered a review of the education system with a view to job requirements, further emphasizing the point that it was now an economy driven vision of education that we were adopting. However, this review was cancelled when Final Fail returned to power in 1969 and Padre Faulkner was minister for education. The third Programmer for Economic and Social Development also highlighted the need for more qualified teachers. The report states that “The number of teachers in secondary and vocational schools has been increasing by about 00 per year. The increase in 1 968/69 is about 800”. (Holland, Milne et al 1995143) TO facilitate the demand, there was a greater number Of places in the relevant faculties in University, courses leading to the Higher Diploma in education was introduced in Matzoth, and there was an increase in departmental courses for the training of vocational teachers. The growth in the economy and in the technical sector led to the need for more people qualified in the technical areas. This combined with the COED report highlighting the need for a building programmer in Ireland led to the opening of Art’s, Regional Technology Institutes. The building of the technical institutes regionally was to serve the dual purpose obtaining the problem of people being geographically disadvantaged, and the need for more technical courses. The relative success in this can be measured in rise of numbers attending, 5. 9% of people took up places in Arts in 1965, compared to 36. 7% in 1 981-1982. The shift in emphasis or the uptake of higher education courses was towards technical courses, going from a level of 80% of students being in higher education in Universities, to 50% of people taking higher education courses taking up places in technical courses in 1980. Changes in Government understanding of schooling and curriculum While the period from 1965 to the early 1 sass Was primarily noted for developments such as the introduction of free education and bus travel, the raising of the school leavers age, and the introduction of comprehensive and community schools, it is worth also focusing on the curricular and educational policies that took places in this period. The main changes in regards to the curriculum include introducing common courses and examinations in secondary schools, thus enabling students attending vocational schools, comprehensive and immunity schools to study for the same exams as they would have been doing had they gone down the traditional route and attended some of the traditional secondary schools. Other changes to the curriculum included the introduction of new subjects, the removal of others, and the changing of content in others. One of the reasons why the second level curriculum was subjected to continuous adaptation around this time(early sass’s) was to cater for the varied needs and abilities of the greater student population, which was a broader spectrum of student that there had been previously. In 1 969, Minister for Education Brian Aeolian produced a booklet called, “All our Children”. The idea behind this booklet was to explain the changes that were happening in education in Ireland, such as the new Primary School Curriculum, the opening of Comprehensive schools, the new subjects and revision of others, as well as the building of technical colleges. Education in the asses may not have strictly followed the guidelines set out in the booklet, but it is an example of the way the government was changing in the way they were thinking about education, and their efforts to keep the public informed. Its publication also highlights the growing demand for information about education from the general population that was occurring at the time. Contrast this to the attitude towards education in previous decades and it highlights how far Ireland had come in such a short period of time. A further example of the change in how the government were approaching education and policy was evident when in 1970, then minister for education Padre Faulkner, said that there was now a change in the emphasis in educational, and that it was now a case of “passing from that of quantity to quality’, i. . “From concentration on an expansion in the number of students attending at educational institutions to particular concern with the diversity of opportunity provided, the suitability of curricula, and long term planning for the future. (Mulch, Sullivan 1989:81) This change in thinking and understanding led to developments such as the social and environmental studies project (SEEPS) based at SST Patrick Comprehensive School in Shannon being set up, as well as projects aimed at developing the curriculum in other schools. The Higher Education Authority was set up by an act of the Researches to advise the government on developing higher educational facilities. In 1971 there Was the introduction of the New Curriculum for primal,’ schools. Throughout the asses Ireland saw changes at third level, with the setting up of the nine Regional Technical Colleges, two National Institutes of technologies, and the opening of Ottoman College. During this period, spending on education soared, from Million in 1 970 to IEEE in 1979. (Holland, Milne et al 1995:50) Faulkner also set up a committee in September 1 970 ‘to evaluate the present form and function of the Intermediate Certificate examination and to advise n new types of public examinations”. Rankles 1 975:315) The rationale behind this came from the drop in the pass rate for the Intermediate certificate, from in 1968, to 74. 6% in 1969 and then 73. 5% in 1970. This can be attributed to students with a larger span of abilities entering post primary and taking the examinations than had been the case before, and all of these students targeting the Intermediate exam regardless of its suitability to them. It was now being recognized that the Intermediate exam wasn’t suitable to all. The developments at third level are also important to note. Aside from the placement works/building works done in providing the new Art’s, aided by the setting up of the Higher Education Authority, teacher training was now looked at as being increasingly important. Teacher training courses was extended from two to three years; the National Institute for Higher Education was set up in Limerick, and Ottoman College acting as a facility where teachers Of specialist subjects could be educated. There is also a move to lower the pupil-student ratio, and to have greater accessibility to third level education for all. These changes at government level throughout the asses and early asses gaslight the changes in the thinking behind education. No longer was it a “quantity” issue, it was now about “quality’ of education. Greater facilities, better trained teachers, and increased availability of opportunities at third level are now real issues. If you contrast this to the early sass’s, where it was a case of getting as many people into education, and then keeping them there as long as possible. Conclusion The way schooling in Ireland was understood changed dramatically over the period between 1965 and the end of the 1 sass. It is a period of time where here is so much to discuss and it is hard to limit to speaking about just a few things. Felt that the most significant changes took place in the late ass’s, early, ass’s. I feel these were the most significant because these changes paved the way for changes that were to follow. The change in peoples understanding of the importance of education in turn led to an increased demand for education. Government understanding of the importance of education for the future economy combined with the growing demand for fairer access to education led to the hugely significant announcement of free education and free travel. At this point it was about getting the most amount of people into post-primary education as possible, but it wasn’t long before we began to realizes that the quality of education needed to be looked at. The quality of teaching and the quality of what was being taught was looked at. Curriculum and examinations were investigated and changed. Real issues were now being addressed, such as third level requirements. Technical Institutes and courses were built and provided regionally. What made all of the changes so significant for me was the fact that for so long very little had been done in this field.

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Image Credit: Denis Cheong (CC License) Lawnmower blenny is one of the first marine fish I kept as a beginner hobbyist. It was back in 2010 – I kept 4 lawnmower blennies in a 110-gallon tank. Oh boy, was it fun! These saltwater fish are cute, curious, and animated. As the fish observe you whimsically with their orbital eyes, they look exactly like miniature chameleons. The appearance isn’t the only similarity they have with color-changing reptiles. As a matter of fact, lawnmower blennies are so aware of their surroundings that they can change the color and its intensity based on their environment or mood. If you have a marine or reef setup, a lawnmower blenny can be an excellent addition to your tank. As the name suggests, they graze on algae all day long – keeping your tank clean and pristine at all times. This lawnmower blenny care guide will give you a rundown of everything you need to know about raising these fascinating creatures. So without any further ado, let’s begin! Lawnmower Blenny At A Glance - Name: Lawnmower Blenny - Other Names: Rock Blenny, Jeweled Rockskipper, Sailfin Algae Blenny - Scientific Names: Salarias fasciatus - Family: Blenniidae - Size: 4-5 inches (10-13 cms) - Lifespan: 4 years - Care Level: Easy or moderate - Temperament: Semi-aggressive - Diet: Detritivore - Tank Size: 40 gallons - Temperature: 72-78 degrees F - pH: 8.1-8.4 Lawnmower Blenny Introduction And Origin Lawnmower blenny comes from Blenniidae family. First discovered in 1786 by Bloch, it was named Salarias fasciatus. They’re one of the 13 species in the genus Salarias. They come from the Blenniidae family, including all combtooth blennies. The fish is native to the Indian Ocean off the East African Coast, Great Barrier Reef, Samoa, Red Sea, and the Islands of Micronesia. These fish inhabit shallow reef flats and lagoons with very heavy algae cover, sponges, stony corals, and coral rubbles. They are found at depths of 260 feet. Lawnmower Blenny Lifespan A Lawnmower blenny’s average lifespan is 4 years. However, in the tank, its lifespan depends upon several factors, such as diet and water conditions. Lawnmower Blenny Price Lawnmower blennies cost between $20 to $40 based on your location and the fish’s size. Since they are one of the most popular types of blennies out there, it’s not difficult to find a stock near you. Whenever you’re buying any livestock, make sure to carefully observe for signs of disease. If anything about the fish looks off to you, don’t buy the fish. Lawnmower Blenny Appearance Lawnmower blennies make a great addition to any marine setup. They have a distinctive appearance that will certainly turn a few heads and start conversations. The feature that stands out the most to me is the large orbital eyes on each side of the rather blunt head. Since the eyes face outwards, they can move independently – allowing these fish to have a large field of vision. The black pupils have white stripes extending from them. A series of teal dots surrounds each eye. These scattered dots are also present on the face. The body doesn’t feature many colors but has an interesting pattern. The body has a striped/banded pattern in green, tan, gray, and brown colors. They have a single dorsal fin with the same design that runs across the entire body length. The earthy colors and patterns allow them to blend in easily against rocks and corals. They’re hard to spot at first glance if you’re not paying attention. They also have highly flexible jaws and comb-like teeth, making it easy to scrape food from hard surfaces like corals. The lips are big, and they have cirri on their heads. The body is long and slender. Lawnmower Blenny Size | How Big Do Lawnmower Blennies Get? Lawnmower blenny doesn’t grow too big. They reach 4-5 inches (10-13 cm) in length. In captivity, the growth rate depends upon factors like diet and water conditions. Lawnmower Blenny Male VS Female The sexual dimorphism in lawnmower blennies is as subtle as it comes. Males and females look almost identical. The main differentiating factor is that females are often a bit rounder and larger. Also, males possess elongated anterior rays on their anal fin. Lawnmower Blenny Behavior Lawnmower blennies have a friendly, curious, and outgoing personality. These fish are pretty aware of their surroundings and will even ‘greet’ you if you get close to the tank. They are believed to recognize regular faces – and thus may reward you with a few theatrics every once in a while. Their large, protruding eyes will follow you if you’re nearby. They are solitary creatures that spend most of the time alone at the base sitting still or quietly exploring. Although lawnmower blennies are peaceful for the most part, they can lose their temper every once in a while. They can be quite aggressive towards lagoon species like seahorses and pipefish. They may occasionally pick up a fight with congeners, conspecifics, or other fish of the same species. They’re also known to nip at polyps and other tankmates if they get too close for comfort. If they harass other gentle creatures in the tank, be prepared to relocate them. They often try to eat algae films off of the scales of different creatures in the tank. Hobbyists report that these fish can be quite stubborn. It’s hard to remove them from a rock if you are trying to move the fish. A fish trap might be helpful in this case. They usually stay still but will hop between rocks every now and then to find food. That’s why they’re also monikered Rock Skipper. Aggression isn’t really that big of an issue if you’ve carefully selected the right tank mates. In the right environment, they make excellent community fish. That being said, in my experience, these fish do get a little mean and aggressive as they age. They especially become hostile towards their own kind or other closely related species. Lastly, even though algae is their preferred food choice, they’re known to nip at clams and SPS coral polyps. So, be careful! Lawnmower Blenny Tank Mates Lawnmower blennies aren’t downright mean, but they can hold their ground in a community tank against most fish. So, finding tankmates for these chameleon lookalikes isn’t terribly hard. Most peaceful reef species make excellent tank mates. However, lagoon species like pipefish might struggle. Blennies try to eat algae film off of their scales. Unfortunately, lawnmower blennies aren’t considered to be reef safe since they routinely nip at coral polyps and can possibly lead to a lot of damage. Invertebrates make great tank mates and are quite safe since they will be ignored by the lawnmower blenny. So, you can add crabs, snails, and shrimps to a lawnmower blenny tank. Bad Tankmates For Lawnmower Blenny As discussed above, lawnmower blennies are generally peaceful and tolerant when kept with other community fish. But here’s a catch – keeping more than one blenny or any other fish that eats algae or remotely looks like blenny is to be avoided. Here’s a list of fish to avoid keeping in a lawnmower blenny tank: - Large dottybacks - Sea horses Can You Keep Multiple Lawnmower Blennies Together? Lawnmower blennies do not prefer the company of their own kind. Keeping more than one blenny together in the same tank will most likely lead to serious squabbles and injuries. The fish resort to aggression to protect their territory and resources. If you want to keep more than one blenny, you’ll require a tank of at least 100 gallons or bigger. If you want to breed these fish, you can keep a mated pair in a tank with plenty of hiding spaces. Lawnmower Blenny Diet | What Does A Lawnmower Blenny Eat? There’s a common misconception about a lawnmower blenny’s diet. Due to their propensity to consume algae growing on any surface, they’re thought to be herbivores. However, they are principally detritivores, feeding on dead and decomposing organic matter. Studies have shown that plant material makes up only 15% of their diet in the wild. They will eat filamentous green microalgae, blue-green algae, hair algae, and detritus in the tank. The zest with which they will consume hair algae will differ from one fish to another. Some will graze on it continuously like a lawnmower, whereas others will try it, discard it, and instead eat prepared food. They will also eat small invertebrates, sponges, eggs, and small snails if available. In captivity, algae make up the main source of their diet. Therefore, lawnmower blennies should only be kept in established tanks that already have algae films. You can give store-bought algae wafers and pellets if you think the algae growing in your tank is insufficient. Occasionally, you can give fresh vegetables like lettuce, cucumber, zucchini, and spinach. Nori is another vital marine algae supplement that you can add to the fish’s diet. Also, always have some processed fish food in stock for emergencies. If you plan to regularly feed processed fish food, you must introduce them to the fish when it’s young. Adults take a very long time to acquire a taste for new food, and that is if they do at all. If the fish declines to eat new food, you’ll have to sustain them on just algae, which can be trickier if you’re a beginner in the hobby. Remember not to overfeed and remove the uneaten food before it decays. Pay special attention if there’s no cleaner fish in the tank. Uneaten food will pollute the water, and polluted water will make the fish susceptible to a number of health conditions like ich. If possible, add a couple of cleaner fish in the blenny tank so that they get rid of the uneaten food and gunk right away. While feeding, you need to be careful with the tank lid as these fish have a knack for jumping quite high. Also, the fish will claw at corals and nip clams if famished. Recommended Lawnmower Blenny Food (Frozen): - Emerald Entree - Reef Nutrition Formula Two - Hikari Mega Marine Recommended Lawnmower Blenny Food (Dry): - Seaweed Extreme Pellets - ZooMed Spirulina Flakes - Reef Nutrition Formula Two Pellets - Algae Wafers How To Acclimate Lawnmower Blenny To Prepared Foods? To acclimate lawnmower blenny to prepared food, you need to start experimenting when they’re young. They’re too stubborn to change their palate once they’re old enough. Start out by feeding small amounts when you believe they’re actually hungry. A possibility you need to consider is that a wild-caught specimen can never acquire a taste for prepared aquarium food. In that case, you must ensure they get all the required nutrients from naturally-occurring algae in the tank. Can Lawnmower Blenny Eat Mysis Shrimp And Brine Shrimp? Speaking from my experience, yes, lawnmower blenny will eat mysis shrimp and brine shrimp if they like their taste. However, remember that these meaty foods are meant for carnivores and omnivores. Therefore, they may not be nutritionally whole enough to meet the diet requirements of detritivores. Lawnmower Blenny And Starvation Unfortunately, lawnmower blenny has a long track record of starving in the home aquarium. So you need to keep an eye out to make sure that they are eating well. If they are, you can notice active rasping of algae from the surface and that they have filled and thus rounded bellies. If they are starving, they will lose muscle tissue starting behind the skull along their dorsal region. Lawnmower blennies need a large surface area to graze on and a constant supply of algae – especially when they haven’t learned to take prepared foods. If you keep lawnmower blennies in a tank that doesn’t have enough algae, they will starve and die before they figure out the food you’ve been offering is edible too. They’re notoriously fussy about what they put in their mouth and require algae/vegetable content in their every diet. One hobbyist reported that when his blennies were starving, he tried a dozen different foods in a quest to get them to feed. He had success with the following two products: - Algae wafers - Seaweed Extreme How Often To Feed A Lawnmower Blenny? Lawnmower blenny should be given supplemental food once daily, provided that there’s a food source already available in the tank. These fish are true to their name. In the tank, you’ll find them constantly grazing on the algae. If there’s ample algae available to begin with, you can channel moderation while offering supplemental food. Lawnmower Blenny Tank Setup It’s wise to consider a fish’s natural habitat when designing a habitat for it. As much as possible, we must try to emulate the natural conditions of their native habitat. In this section, I will walk you through everything you need to know about creating an ideal habitat for lawnmower blenny and ensuring its wellbeing. Recommended Tank Size For Lawnmower Blenny The minimum recommended tank size for a single lawnmower blenny is 40 gallons. The tank’s dimensions should be something like this: 48″ x12″ x16″. Of course, the bigger the tank, the better it is for the fish as there’s more surface area for algae growth, which by now you know is an essential dietary component. How Many Lawnmower Blennies Can Be Kept Per Gallon? Although these fish don’t grow too big, keeping them together is not recommended since they’re intolerant of each other’s company. Therefore, you’ll need a considerably bigger tank if you plan to house multiple lawnmowers together. The rule of thumb is to provide an extra 30 gallons for each new blenny addition. Water Parameters For Lawnmower Blennies - Water Temperature: 72-78 degrees F - pH: 8.1-8.4 - Salinity: 1.020=1.025 - Hardness: 8-12 dGH - Nitrite: 0 PPM - Ammonia: 0 PPM - Flow Rate: Moderate-high The water parameters should fall in the aforementioned range. As hardy as these fish are, they don’t react too well to sudden or drastic environmental changes. Therefore, you must be careful when finetuning the parameters and maintaining the water quality. Once a week, test the ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and phosphate levels with a reliable test to ensure nothing harmful is brewing in the tank. We use and recommend using API’s Saltwater Master Kit. I’ll leave the link below if you’re interested: Also, routinely test the alkalinity and calcium levels to ensure they’re in the proper range. My weekly fishkeeping duties also include cleaning the glass panes using an algae magnet and wiping the neck of my protein skimmer. Based on the tank’s size and stocking number, regularly conduct water changes – at least once every two weeks. Remember that small but frequent water changes are more favorable than large but infrequent ones. A tip: Don’t replace the disposable mechanical filtration media the same day you change the water. Do it a couple of days before or after the water change. This will help preserve the good bacteria colony necessary for a safe and healthy aquarium. Since these fish require moderate to high flow, I recommend getting a proper canister filter with carbon filtration media and an air pump. Substrate And Decoration For Lawnmower Blenny The substrate should be sandy for these bottom-dwellers. Since these fish are passionate about digging around to kill time, anything with rough or sharp edges will injure the fish. A tight-fitting lid is a must because lawnmower blennies love to jump high and might accidentally get out of the tank. To mimic their natural surroundings the best, add plenty of rock decorations. Position the rocks and decors so that there are plenty of hiding spots and open waters to swim around freely. Adding live plants is another easy and fun way to make them feel at home. For lighting, standard aquarium lighting will do fine – avoid bright lights. Breeding Lawnmower Blenny I raised lawnmower blennies for around 5 years and was never successful enough to get them to breed. There aren’t many reports of these fish mating and producing offspring in captivity. For starters, getting your hands on a mating pair for breeding is incredibly hard. Telling males and females apart is next to impossible. Some people claim that males are a tad bit bigger than females, whereas others claim the opposite is true. Also, males supposedly have elongated anterior rays on their anal fins, lacking in females. Even if you have a guaranteed male and female in the tank, there’s no guarantee they will pair off and produce young ones. Blennies are known to be super picky about their breeding partner. If you want to stay optimistic, maintain a healthy environment to encourage the fish to breed. Keep the water clean and monitor the environment closely. Feeding a well-rounded and healthy diet is essential too. In the wild, these fish breed between April and June. The rising temperature and warmer water are some triggers to signal them to mate. So, in the tank, maintain the temperature around 78 degrees F. This will hopefully mimic their natural environment and stimulate them to breed. If they happen to breed, the female will lay fertilized eggs covered in a sticky substance so they can adhere to the chosen surface. In the wild, the eggs are often laid in empty shells. Once the female lays the eggs, the male is tasked to guard them against intruders. Therefore, it’s best to move the mated pair to a breeding tank if you think they’re going to make some babies. That being said, this may not be worth the effort since getting them to breed is quite rare. Lawnmower Blenny Diseases Lawnmower blennies are pretty hardy. However, if exposed to the wrong environment and fed the wrong diet for a prolonged period, they are susceptible to a slew of saltwater aquarium diseases like a parasitic infestation, ich, hole-in-the-head disease, and gas bubble disease. Parasitic infestation happens most commonly when new fish are added to the main tank without proper quarantine. The stress of being transported and adjusting to a new environment causes the fish’s immunity to be compromised. And when the immune function is decreased, it allows any parasite riding along to quickly multiply and spread. Some common parasitic diseases blennies or any saltwater fish are susceptible to are: - Marine ich - Marine velvet Some common clinical signs of parasites in saltwater fish are increased lethargy, labored breathing, bruises, loss of scale, and dark spots. The treatment differs depending on what’s troubling the fish. Don’t forget to seek professional advice and treat the fish accordingly. There are several bacteria species present in the tank at all times. A healthy fish’s immune system can keep them at bay most of the time. However, when the fish’s immunity is compromised, let’s say because of stress induced by poor water quality, aggression, or lack of food, they’re likely to develop a secondary bacterial infection. Some common signs of bacterial infection in marine fish like blennies are increased lethargy, suppressed appetite, and ulcers. Minor infections go away on their own once the primary stressor is identified and tackled. However, severe infections will require antibiotic treatment prescribed by the vet. Gas Bubble Disease Gas bubble disease occurs when the water is supersaturated with pressurized gas, causing tiny bubbles to form in the fish’s skin and eyes. This condition most commonly arises when there is misaligned plumbing sucking air into the filter tubing. As a result, you can see one big bubble or multiple bubbles forming in the fish’s skin and eyes. In any way, don’t try to pop the bubbles on your own. The vet will handle the ailment safely after anesthetizing the fish. Hole-in-the-head disease, also known as lateral line erosion, cannot be traced to one specific cause. It could be due to the tank’s high nitrite and nitrate levels, poor water quality, malnourishment, and protozoan parasites. The case’s severity may range from a small spot on the head to the entirety of the face and side of the body experiencing skin erosion. Unfortunately, fish with severe cases may never return to their original appearance ever again. Frequently Asked Questions Are Lawnmower Blennies Hard To Keep? If you’re a beginner, lawnmower blennies can be hard to keep due to their angry disposition, finicky eating behavior, and need for ample space. Growing algae in the tank without letting it overrun can also require some skill, experience, and elbow grease. Do Lawnmower Blennies Jump? Yes, lawnmower blennies jump – they often jump to death. Thus, it’s critical to have a tight-fitting lid always covering the tank. Final Words: Are Lawnmower Blennies The Right Fish For You? As I just answered above, raising lawnmower blennies may not be a good idea if you’re testing waters in the saltwater arena for the first time. These fish require plenty of space and an endless supply of algae at all times. Thus, these factors can pose a challenge. Also, since they nibble on corals, they’re not reef-safe either. That being said, if you can house them with compatible tank mates in a big tank and meet their complex dietary requirements, raising lawnmower minnows can be quite a rewarding experience.

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We will write a custom Essay on Hyundai Motor Company: Globalization and Environmental Impacts specifically for you 807 certified writers online Globalization can be described as a system of interaction among different countries, economies and societies (Steger 2003, p. 15). This interaction is mostly aimed at coming up with a global economy that will accommodate everybody’s interests. As a matter of fact, it is characterized by the integration of societies and economics around the world (Sachs 2005, p. 43). According to Barbara Parker (2005, p. 153), a business economist globalization affects various facets of individual’s lives. Some of these relate to economic, social, political, technology and culture. Most of these interactions have been brought about by advancements in transport, communication and infrastructure (Capra 2002, p. 19). On the other hand, globalization has been defined as the tendency of different businesses to advance their operations across the world (Tausch 2008, p. 23). The spread of technologies and philosophies to other parts of the world can also be considered as globalization. In this case, our daily experiences can be diffused to other parts of the world through commodities and ideas. There are various avenues through which various societies have been affected by globalization. According to Paul Dickson, a business analyst (2006, p.49), some of the factors which have stimulated globalization relate to increased international trade and the high rate of technological innovation especially information technology. In addition, there have been numerous reductions in trade barriers between countries thus enhancing flow of products and capital. However, it is worth noting that the course of globalization has not been continuous but has been characterized by a back and forth trend (Paul 2006, p. 49). According to Glyn (2006, p. 18), globalization has been brought about by the opening up of different national markets. This has allowed different companies and people to do business in new markets. In this case, different barriers have been done away with as time goes by thereby enhancing such markets (Glyn 2006, p. 18). Another driving force behind globalization has been the cut- back of trade restrictions. In extreme cases, organizations have been formed to remove trade restrictions and enhance the functioning of different markets. Such organizations include General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that has removed many trade restrictions (Osle 2010, p. 9). In addition, globalization has been increased by speedy and cheaper overcoming of distance. This distance has been reduced by advancements in technology and good progress in the transport sector. As a matter of fact, the internet has been instrumental in enhancing globalization as time goes by (Hobson 2004, p. 32). Wholesomely, the privatization of many state owned businesses and enterprises has encouraged competition. Competition has allowed other companies to venture in such markets thereby increasing globalization (Stiglitz 2006, p. 19). Another driving force behind globalization has been the liberalization of international flow of capital in different countries and markets. In a broad perspective, there have been some arguments in relation to economic and technological forces behind globalization (Smith 2007, p. 16). The expansion of communication systems has also enhanced the pace of globalization as people can communicate well. In this case, one document can be distributed to other people around the world within a very short period of time. Globalization has had different impacts on the automobile sectors and other sectors (Sen 1999, p. 18). As much as the automobiles sector is technologically advanced, the continued integration of low income nations has put a lot of competitive pressure on established countries. As a matter of fact, automobile countries like Germany and USA have been forced to outsource various segments. Such segments include labor intensive activities like value chain (Capra 2002, p. 29). Low skilled workers have suffered as a result of globalization. This has been seen in the deterioration of wages and employment prospects. Such problems have mostly occurred in traditional automotive industry locations (Gowan 1999, p. 37). Fierce competition has been coming from new end producers form Asia, Latin America and Southern Europe. In this case, traditional; producers have been forced to adjust their operations. For instance, the USA automobile industry has turned out to be poor when compared with other producers like Japan and Germany. The most renowned traditional automotive producing countries include Japan, USA and Germany. Globalization in the automobile sector has increased the intricate network of alliances (Hobson 2004, p. 37). This has increased cross- shareholding as companies strive to enhance their operations in different countries and regions. As a matter of fact, there have been a lot of mergers and acquisitions. This mergers and acquisitions have involved end producers and input suppliers (Lewis 2009, p. 15). There is a relationship between globalization and foreign direct investment in the automotive sector. Globalization has made it easy for people to invest in different countries (Murray 2006, p. 35). This means that an individual can invest in different countries without any problem. Globalization enables foreign individuals to invest in their countries of choice. This means that as long as globalization is there, foreign direct investments will be on the upward trend (Friedman 2005, p. 28). This paper will try to talk about Hyundai Motor Company and its globalization activities. Hyundai Motor Company is the world’s fifth largest automaker (Hyundai 2007, para. 1). As a matter of fact, it is the world’s fastest growing automaker (Sachs 2005, p. 47). The company operates a very large and integrated manufacturing unit that has the capacity to produce more than 1.6 million units annually. To show how global the company is, their vehicles are sold in more than 193 countries all over the world. In addition, it has more than 6000 dealerships around the world to advance its operations and activities (Hyundai 2010, p. 12). Globalization Impacts on Hyundai Motor Company Globalization has had various impacts on Hyundai Motor Company. These impacts can be either actual or potential aspects that affect the company in one way or the other. There have been concerns about the company’s response to heath issues in different perspectives (Sang-hun 2006, p. 17). As a mater of act, many countries and markets have been complaining that the company through its vehicles emits a lot of hydrocarbons in the air. In a broad perspective, vehicles lead to air pollution that has a lot of health implications on different people and customers. As a result of globalization, most of the world’s chlorofluorocarbons in the air are accounted for by the automotive sector. Because the company has been expanding its activities in the global market as time goes by, there has been a lot of exposure to pollutants. In addition, long term exposure to air pollutants has caused cardiovascular and respiratory diseases (Doron 1999, p. 32). Hydrocarbon emissions have had a lot of health effects on different people around the world. Because the company has a large number of vehicles in the market, it has received a lot of complaints in relation to hydrocarbon emissions in different countries, like Sweden and the Republic of Ireland. Hydrocarbon emissions can be said to be off- road vehicle emissions that have a lot of health impacts and effects on people. The world has a large number of vehicles that turn out to be a significant source of pollution (Hyundai 2010, p. 22). Get your first paper with 15% OFF Motor vehicles are a major source of air pollution. This arises from the fact that they emit dangerous gases. The carbon dioxide emitted from the vehicles contributes to climate change by increasing the rate of global warming (European Conference of Ministers of Transport 2001, p. 15). Some countries in which major vehicle manufacturing companies are located have not implemented laws to minimize air pollution arising from gases emitted by motor vehicles. Failure to manufacture environmental friendly vehicles will result into these firms such as Hyundai Motor Company being blamed for the rise in climate change as a result of carbon dioxide emitted into the environment. Particulate matter is brought about by hydrocarbon emissions. It accumulates in respiratory system and causes a loft of respiratory diseases and even death. Criticism related to air pollution can damage a firm’s publicity. In order to avert this, firm should develop strategies to ensure that their operations are environmental friendly. One of the ways through which this can be attained is by incorporating green technology. Therefore, the company has come up with different responses to correct this problem. This has seen the company receive a number of environmental accolades. Hyundai Motor Company has developed the new Hyundai ix35 to respond to various health concerns (Hyundai 2010, p. 17). The company’s Kia Sportage has also received a lot of environmental recognition from various organizations and governments around the world. These two models have been examined in relation to their economic impact on the society. This has been done by considering the materials that were used in the production of these cars and various engine emissions. In a broad perspective, the company has come up with good methods to cut on fuel consumption as time goes by. In this case, the company uses water soluble painting processes to cut down on hydrocarbon emissions from its vehicle in the market (Hyundai 2010, p. 25). It should be known that the company will always strive to be the best in environmental issues and matters. Because various critics have argued that diesel is a large air pollutant, the company has developed vehicles that use bio-fuels like bio-ethanol to answer various health issues and concerns (Vladimir 2008, p. 25). This is because bio-fuels do not emit a lot of dangerous gases like diesel. In a broad perspective, the company has always strived to deliver safe and environmental friendly cars to the market. In this case, the company has invested a lot in research and development to come up with vehicles that will reduce exhaust emissions. As a matter of fact, the company has concentrated a lot on zero emission technologies and low emission vehicles. This has been seen in hybrid electric trains and the fuel cell (Taylor 2010, p. 29). There has also been an effort in the use of eco- friendly materials in the manufacture of cars. Such efforts have reduced the release of hazardous substances to the environment. These green vehicles have contributed a lot in the reduction of green house emissions. In a broad perspective, the company has made a commitment to the European unions CO2 reduction strategy by producing environmental friendly engines (Hyundai 2010, p. 29). These engines have reduced the number of hydrocarbon emissions in a great way (Alphen 2009, p. 15). As much as these engines have reduced the rate of emissions, they have also offered high fuel efficiency. By 2009, the company had targeted to reduce emissions from its vehicles by 29 %( Alphen 2009, p. 15). In its operation, Hyundai Company is committed at attaining environmental sustainability. This has been attained through incorporation of the concept of innovation. For example, by developing the new Hyundai i30 and Tucson FCEV, the company’s commitment towards attaining environmental sustainability has been recognized. This arises from the fact that the new model has got minimal emission. In addition, the company’s Tucson FCEV is economical in that its fuel consumption is minimal. This has contributed towards the company’s competitive advantage. The company has improved fuel efficiency when compared with other company’s vehicles that use gasoline powered engines. In 2010, the company recorded a 120% soar in sales of its new Tucson FCEV (Taylor 2010, p. 21). As a matter of fact, the model which was launched in January 2010 has received overwhelming consumer response and an increase in sales. It can be said that the company has increased its profitability from this new models. Wholesomely, it should be known that the model recorded a 128% increase in sales in the first month (Hyundai 2010, p. 28). As a result of introducing the new models, the firm’s performance has been improved. This arises from the fact that consumers are increasingly considering the models to be appealing. This has greatly enhanced the firm’s sales (Dowling 2010, para. 7). For example, Hyundai i30 sales were enhanced by the models curtain airbags and side fitments. In addition, the new models have made the firm to be effective positioned in the market compared to other firms’ such as Mazda (Dowling 2010, para. 8). Environmental Impacts on Hyundai Motor Company Environmental issues have also come up as one of the potential impacts of globalization on Hyundai Motor Company. This is because the company is the world’s fifth largest automaker and as a matter of fact, it is the world’s fastest growing automaker (Hyundai 2010, p. 27). In a broad perspective, Hyundai Motor Company has also received complaints as far as environmental issues are concerned. The company has continued to engage in a number of environmental management activities as time goes by. This has been mostly seen in technologies and green production to ensure that it is in a capacity to address a number of environmental issues (Kitamura &. Ohnsman 2010, p. 24). Apart from moving towards green vehicles, the company has also come up with various environmental projects to improve its image as far as environmental issues are concerned. An example of these projects is the Hyundai green zone that is located in Beijing (Hyundai 2010, p. 47). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which deals with environmental protection from various forms of pollution has appreciated the company’s efforts and approach to environmental issues (EPA 2004, 1). In this case, the agency has been reviewing the company’s efforts to meet various environmental concerns. In 2009, the company was named as the second most fuel efficient automaker by the agency. This was after Hondas combined fleets that are more fuel efficient than the company’s models (Hyundai 2010, p. 57). In addition, the company has also been using good materials to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from its cars. In a broad perspective, the company is determined to ensure that it complies with all environmental expectations that are needed for sustainability. This is the trend that has been set by other companies and the company’s is not ready to be left behind. It should be known that the company has invested a lot in research and development to come up with fuel efficient cars. Hyundai Motor Company has always reduced water and energy consumption in its cars. For example, in 2008 the company’s water usage was 39.5 million metric tones. This was further reduced to 25 million metric tones in 2009(Alphen 2009, p. 15). Most of its new models have been known to reduce water consumption in a broad way. In addition, since its establishment in 1967, the company has been developing vehicles that minimize the consumption of water. These vehicles have also reduced C02 emissions offering double efficiency than other vehicles (Murray 2006, p. 55). Good research has ensured that the company is guaranteed to have effective vehicles. This is because consumers are nowadays concerned about their health and will continue demanding fuel efficient vehicles. For instance, the company’s models are made in an effective way to reduce fuel consumption. As a matter of act, reducing speed reduces fuel and water consumption by more than 10% (Hyundai 2010, p. 15). Most of the company’s new models use multi point fuel injection technology that reduces the consumption of water in its engines. Hyundai Motor Company has continued being environmental conscious in its operations. In this case, the company has come up with a socially responsible approach to environmental issues. This can be explained from the fact that the company has received a lot of certificates for producing environmental friendly cars. The company is engaged in a number of environmental friendly practices like the production of fuel efficient vehicles that emit less carbon emissions (Hyundai 2010, p. 7). For instance, Hyundai ix35 runs a supper efficient diesel engine that reduces CO2 emissions. This therefore explains the company’s commitment towards good environmental friendly technologies. Hyundai Motor Company has also continued to develop flexible- fuel vehicles that reduce carbon dioxide emissions. In this case, the company has developed Tucson FCEV that has scored well in reduced emissions, fuel efficiency, exhausts and noise. This model has increased its sales volume in many countries thereby enhancing profitability (Vladimir 2008, p. 27). Other models like the new Hyundai i30 have been developed to reduce the number of hydrocarbon emissions and ensure that the company is environmental friendly. The company has also developed bio-ethanol cars to reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. This has been integrated into the vehicles design and development. Hyundai Verna is one of the new bio-ethanol car models that the company has continued to develop (Hyundai 2010, p. 9). This vehicle has immensely reduced carbon dioxide emissions. In the process, the company has built its image as an environmental friendly company. This has enabled it to get a large number of customers in the competitive automotive industry. Bio-ethanol vehicles are cheap to produce and develop because there is low taxation (Hyundai 2010, p. 14). This is because governments are encouraging companies to produce bio-ethanol vehicles. Hyundai i10 has also been developed to reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. This model has enhanced the company’s research and development activities to build on its existing image. Such models have ensured that the company is on the right path of research and development (Vladimir 2008, p. 17). In addition, the company has continued to produce environmental friendly cars by developing a sustainable recycling society. As a global leader in the motor vehicle industry, the company has continued being passionate about environmental friendly cars. The development of alternative fuels is being seen as the right step to reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. Alternative fuel vehicles will respond to the depletion of oil and emissions (Hyundai 2010, p. 17). In the 21st century, there has been a rise in the rate of globalization. Considering the fact that businesses do not operate in a vacuum, firms operations have been affected either positively or negatively by globalization. This arises from the fact that there are various facets through which globalization can affect a firm. These relate to various business environments which include economic, social, political, legal and cultural environments. There are various factors which are enhancing the rate of globalization. For example, technological innovation such as growth of information technology has enhanced the rate of interaction between firms located in different countries. In addition, globalization has been enhanced by elimination of trade barriers. This has further improved international trade. Due to the high rate of globalization, the size of market has been increased. In an effort to tap the market opportunity presented, firms in different economic sectors are increasing their production. However, this has come at a cost with regard to the environment. For example, the motor vehicle industry has been a major contributor of environmental pollution especially air pollution. This arises from the fact that motor vehicles emit carbon dioxide and other gases which are a major cause of climate change. The high rate of environmental pollution by motor vehicle manufacturing companies such as Hyundai Motor Company is enhanced by their high rate of production and lack of laws to control the emissions. By polluting the environment, a firm’s public image can be damaged. The resultant effect is decline in its performance. In addition, the firm can incur huge financial cost as a result of taxation. In order to avert damage of their publicity, firms should operate in a social responsible manner. One of the ways through which this can be attained is by incorporating the concept of new product development. In an effort to attain this, Hyundai Motor Company has developed new vehicles which include Tucson FCEV and Hyundai i30. Decision to incorporate the new technology is inline with the firm’s environmental sustainability objective. The new models are considered by a large number of consumers to be economical in terms of oil consumption and environmental friendly due to their minimal emission. The new models have resulted into an improvement in the firm’s financial performance. In addition, the firm’s competitive advantage and market position has been improved relative to its competitors. In order to improve its performance and publicity, Hyundai Motor Company should consider the following. - Improve its social responsibility by going green. One of the ways through which the firm can attain this is by incorporating new technology. The firm should continuously improve its car models to ensure that they are environmental friendly. - The firm should determine the amount of carbon emitted from its operation by incorporating the concept of carbon foot printing which entails determining the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. Alphen, V, T., 2009. Hyundai CEO wants Canadian car plant. New York: New York Times. Capra, F., 2002. The Hidden Connections. New York: Random House. Doron P. L., 1999. Chrysler and Hyundai Venture Off. New York: Oxford university press. Dowling, J., 2010. New car sales still strong. Web. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. Annual summary of emission related recalls and voluntary services campaigns performed on light duty vehicles and trucks. Web. European Conference of Ministers of Transport, 2001. Vehicle emission reduction. London: OECD. Friedman, T, L., 2005. The World Is Flat. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Glyn, A., 2006. Capitalism Unleashed: Finance, Globalization, and Welfare. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gowan, P., 1999. The Global Gamble: Washington’s Faustian Bid for World Dominance. London: Verso. Hyundai., 2010. Hyundai responsibility. Web. Hyundai. 2008. Rapid climb from 11th in 1999 to 5th place in 2007. Web. Hobson, M, J., 2004. The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kitamura, M. & Ohnsman, A., 2010. Honda’s Ito Defends Fuel Efficiency Lead as Hyundai Gains. New York: Random House. Lewis, D., 2009. Origins of Globalization. New York: Routledge. Murray, W. E., 2006. Geographies of Globalization. New York: Routledge. Osle, D, R., 2010. The New Global Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Parker, B., 2005. Introduction to globalization and business: relationships and responsibilities. New York: Sage. Paul, D., 2006. Business environment. Noida, UP: Tata McGraw-Hill. Sachs, J., 2005. The End of Poverty. New York: The Penguin Press. Sang-hun, C., 2006. South Korea Arrests Head of Hyundai Motor. New York: New York Times. Sen, A., 1999. Development as Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. Smith, C, 2007. International Trade and Globalization. Stocksfield: Anforme. Stiglitz, J, E. 2006. Making Globalization Work. New York: W.W. Norton. Steger, M., 2003. Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Taylor, A., 2010. Hyundai smokes the competition. New York: Routledge. Tausch, A., 2008. Multicultural Europe: Effects of the Global Lisbon Process. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Vladimir, K., 2008. First Czech-made Hyundai Cars Leaving Nošovice Plan. Oxford: Oxford university press. Wolf, M., 2004. Why Globalization Works. New Haven: Yale University Press.

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August 15, 2015 | By Pieter Friedrich, OFMI Advisor Today, in recognition of India’s 68th Independence Day, I want to talk about democracy, about equality, about liberty, about prosperity, and about peace. The independence of any people from colonial shackles is an event deserving fervent celebration, but achieving independence is, unfortunately, not necessarily synonymous with achieving liberty, as historian Clarence Carson explains: “It sometimes happens that a colonial revolt will result in both national independence and increased protections of individual liberty. It happened in America in the 1770s and 1780s. But it hardly follows that one will lead to the other. In the 20th century, there have been colonial revolutions in many lands. Often, they have been promoted and defended under the banner of freedom. In fact, 20th century revolutions have usually resulted in one party rule, dictatorship, and tyranny, even those that did achieve national independence. However desirable national independence may be, it is something quite different and separable from freedom.” The foundation of any true democracy is the free practice and propagation of religion without interference by the State. This is why, for instance, the very first amendment of the United States Constitution protects religious liberty. James Madison, called the “Father of the Constitution” and considered chief architect of the Bill of Rights (among which rights are the First Amendment), wrote: “We are teaching the world the great truth that governments do better without kings and nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that religion flourishes in greater purity without, than with, the aid of Government.” That is, it was the considered opinion of the author of the world’s oldest written constitution that religion is more likely to be practiced free of force or fraud when the State has nothing to do with it. He did not stand alone in holding to this principle. John Adams, second president of the United States, put it thus: “Nothing is more dreaded than the national government meddling with religion.” When they do meddle with religion, national governments often justify it in terms of a perceived necessity to prevent “antinational sentiment,” to protect people from “force or fraud,” or to somehow test the sincerity of a person’s beliefs. Yet, as Thomas Jefferson, author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, stated: “The opinions of men are not the object of civil government, nor under its jurisdiction; that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency is a dangerous fallacy, which at once destroys all religious liberty.” So we come to considering how India fares as it celebrates achieving national independence. In February 2015, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi declared: “My government will ensure that there is complete freedom of faith and that everyone has the undeniable right to retain or adopt the religion of his or her choice without coercion or undue influence.” That sounds pretty good. If all you heard was that soundbite, you might be convinced. But we need to seek a little more information. What does Modi mean when he talks about “freedom of faith”? Let’s look deeper. One of his earliest acts after being elected Chief Minister of the State of Gujarat was to pass the so-called “Religious Freedom Act of 2003.” This act says that if you want to switch your religion, you first have to ask permission from the government. The act says this is to prevent “forcible” conversions, but it says force includes talking about divine displeasure. That means that if I told a Gujarati that I believe “the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom,” a saying of Solomon taught by both Christians and Muslims worldwide, then I can face up to four years in prison and a 100,000 rupee fine. Modi’s cabinet ministers and senior members of party, the BJP, have repeatedly demanded this be made a national law. In December 2014, arguing the necessity of the national government meddling in religion, Home Minister Rajnath Singh said: “To check conversion, I think an anti-conversion law needs to be framed. All political parties should think about this.” Yet, in February of this year, Modi also said: “We cannot accept violence against any religion on any pretext, and I strongly condemn such violence.” That sounds pretty good, too. Another soundbite. Let’s look deeper. In 2002, six months after becoming Chief Minister, Modi’s government in Gujarat sponsored a genocide against minorities, about which the U.S. State Department reported: “Hindu mobs killed 1,200-2,500 Muslims, forced 100,000 people to flee, and destroyed homes. Christians were also killed and injured, and many churches were destroyed. India’s National Human Rights Commission found evidence of premeditated killing by members of Hindu nationalist groups, complicity by state government officials, and police inaction.” The State Department also said: “Police reportedly told Muslim victims, ‘we don’t have orders to help you.’ It was reported that assailants frequently chanted ‘the police are with us.’” Additionally, Human Rights Watch reported the attacks were “planned in advance and organized with extensive participation of the police and state government officials.” Many members of Modi’s own administration have also spilled the beans. In 2007, Gujarati MLA Haresh Bhatt, one of those who led murderous mobs to massacre Muslims, was caught on hidden camera saying: “Modi told me I’ll give you three days. Do whatever you want, you will not be touched.” For ten years, Modi was banned from entering the United States because of his involvement in the 2002 Gujarat Genocide. Twelve years after the genocide, however, he became Prime Minister of India. If Modi speaks of religious liberty, but defines it as State regulation of religion, is there democracy? If Modi speaks of rejecting violence against religion, but sponsors a genocide against religious minorities, is there democracy? Where is the democracy? Meanwhile, peaceful protesters like 83-year-old hunger-striker Bapu Surat Singh Khalsa face repeated arrest for peacefully practicing democratic dissent. In 1986, Surat Singh Khalsa was working for the freedom of the Sikh people by helping organize protest rallies. He was at a rally outside the Punjab Legislative Assembly when police, without provocation, opened fire on peaceful and unarmed protesters. Khalsa was wounded in the leg. Khalsa was protesting the Indian State’s systemic discrimination against Sikhs. Maybe you have seen a Sikh before? They are very recognizable. Initiated Sikhs wear turbans and so stand out in a crowd which, unfortunately, can also make them easy targets for persecution. Human rights organization Ensaaf reports: “From 1984 to 1995, Indian security forces engaged in systematic human rights violations in the state of Punjab, India…. leading to a dramatic increase in disappearances and extrajudicial executions…. Although all Punjabi Sikhs were vulnerable to disappearance and killing, police especially targeted Amritdharis (initiated Sikhs), those who were politically active with the Akali Dal parties, and families and friends of alleged militants.” This period of genocide began in June 1984 when the Indian Army invaded the Sikh Golden Temple to kill politically outspoken Sikh community leaders. They also killed thousands of pilgrims who were caught in the crossfire of the attack that was launched at the height of a major Sikh festival. Then, in November 1984, the Indian State sponsored further genocide against Sikhs in the country’s capital city, New Delhi. Members of Parliament, city officials, and political party leaders took to the streets to slaughter Sikhs in the most ghastly and brutal ways possible — gang-raping the women, burning people alive, dismembering them. This genocide is a major cause of Sikh immigration to the United States, where they found refuge and true freedom. But were these Members of Parliament who led genocidal gangs ever punished? They were promoted to cabinet positions. The sick irony is the positions in which they were placed. Kamal Nath was made Minister for Urban Development. Jagdish Tytler was made Minister of Overseas Indian Affairs. Meanwhile, dozens of Sikh leaders who were arrested decades ago for protesting the Indian State’s genocide have finished their court-appointed sentences, are eligible for release, but remain imprisoned. Yet early release is readily given to murderous police officers convicted of disappearances, torture, and murder. People convicted to life in prison for orchestrating the Gujarat Genocide — those like Minister Maya Kodnani and activist Babu Bajrangi — get bail after just a few years behind bars. And, in Punjab, adding injury to the insult is that the current Director General of Police is Sumedh Saini, a man who, when he was appointed to that position, was still facing a criminal trial for abducting and killing three people in 1994. Saini built his career by leading death squads in the 1990s, a dark history expounded on the Floor of Representatives in 1995 by Congressman Dan Burton: “Over 41,000 cash bounties were paid to police in Punjab for extrajudicial killings of Sikhs between 1991 and 1993. That was 41,000 people. Murdered…. This is not me talking. Read Amnesty International. Read the International Red Cross.” Sikhs suffer genocide, are victimized by death squads, and are arrested for peacefully protesting these atrocities. Modi sponsors a genocide, passes laws criminalizing religious liberty, and he is made Prime Minister. Where is the equality? In January 2015, human rights activist Sukhman Dhami wrote: “Whether it’s mass graves in Kashmir, mass cremations in Punjab, razing villages in Chhattisgarh, or rampant torture, India has refused to confront and redress atrocities perpetrated by its security forces. Just four years ago, the Jammu and Kashmir State Human Rights Commission uncovered nearly 3,000 bodies in numerous unmarked mass graves…. “These mass graves mirror the pattern of mass cremations uncovered in Punjab, where security forces secretly cremated thousands of bodies to hide evidence of their crimes committed during the counter-insurgency operations in the 1980s and 90s.” These victims are the produce of the Indian State’s death squads, but the State punishes the human rights activists who expose evil. Jaswant Singh Khalra was murdered by Indian police in 1995 for uncovering and reporting that police death squads were secretly rounding up Sikh men in the Punjab, imprisoning them off the books, torturing them, killing them, and then quietly cremating their bodies at local cremation grounds. In Amritsar alone, Jaswant identified the names of 2,097 Sikhs who were secretly cremated after being murdered by a police death squad. Amritsar is just one of thirteen districts in the Punjab. The Indian State admits it killed Jaswant Singh Khalra in the exact same manner as the sufferers of the secret genocide he exposed, but it took sixteen years before it upheld the convictions of six low-level officers involved in his abduction, torture and murder. In 1996, Jalil Andrabi was murdered by Indian soldiers for documenting mass disappearances in Kashmir. Before his murder, while visiting Geneva, Switzerland, he warned the United Nations: “More than 40,000 people have been killed, which includes all — old men and children, women, sick and infirm.” Twenty days after his disappearance, Jalil’s body was discovered in a river — he was stuffed inside a sack, his hands were tied behind his back, his eyes were gouged out, his body was covered in wounds indicating torture, and he had been shot in the head. Again, it was an agent of the Indian State who was to blame for murdering this peaceful human rights activist. An investigation identified Major Avtar Singh. But he could not be found, because he inexplicably managed to flee the country, taking refuge in North America, where he ultimately committed suicide. Meanwhile, India refuses to sign the UN Convention Against Torture. The use of torture is employed as a daily tool by police. A study of 9 out of India’s 30 states conducted by watchdog group “People’s Watch” calculated that India’s security forces torture 1.8 million people every year. Laws like the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act — the AFSPA — allow Indian security forces to shoot to kill upon mere suspicion, arrest without probable cause other than suspicion, and search and seize without warrant. The law grants total immunity from prosecution. Human Rights Watch calls it “a tool of state abuse, oppression, and discrimination.” Surat Singh Khalsa is on hunger-strike since January 2015 to demand freedom for political prisoners. Irom Sharmila, called the “Iron Lady of Manipur,” has been on hunger-strike since the year 2000 to protest the AFSPA after Indian security forces used the law to get away with massacring 10 civilians waiting at a bus stop. And yet, with so much blood on its hands, the Indian State wants a national law requiring people to receive government permission before changing their religion. So, we must ask, where is the liberty? When Modi became Prime Minister, 21 of his 66 cabinet members faced criminal charges, including five people charged with rape and kidnapping and others charged with attempted murder. When his party took power last year, 186 of 543 candidates who won election parliament — 34 percent — faced criminal charges, including 112 facing “serious” charges “such as murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, and crimes against women including rape and molestation.” But while the perpetrators of injustice rule the land, the common Indian has no recourse in India’s injustice system. India has the largest backlog of cases in the world. As many as 30 million cases are pending. A report estimated it would take 466 years for India to clear its backlog. Countless innocent people languish in Indian prisons for decades just waiting for a trial. Shall we touch on the issue of mass poverty? India has more poor people than any other country — one-third of the world’s poorest people live in India. Up to two million Indian children die every year before their fifth birthday. An Indian’s life expectancy is one of the lowest in the world, ranking 139th out of 194 countries. The most slaves in the world are to be found in India, according to the Global Slavery Report. Over 14 million Indians, especially those treated as low-caste, are chained by forced labor, debt bondage, human trafficking, forced sexual exploitation, and forced marriage. Meanwhile, one of the biggest slave-masters is the Indian State. Under the Rural Employment Guarantee Act, it hires 50 million households a year to dig proverbial ditches for $1 to $2 per day. This is India’s solution to the problem of poverty. Journalist Edward Luce puts it best: “It is difficult to see how a scheme that requires the poor to provide twelve hours or more of backbreaking physical labor for just $1 or $2 will transform their conditions.” We have heard much about the “Make in India” public relations campaign. Yet the Indian government’s solution to poverty is not to allow businesses to form and investments to be made, but to sign backroom deals with multinationals and then use the country’s security forces to implement land-grabs for the benefit of foreign corporations. As Arundhati Roy explained in 2009: “There is a whole spectrum of struggles all over the country that people are engaged in — the landless, the Dalits, the homeless, workers, peasants, weavers. They’re pitted against a juggernaut of injustices, including policies that allow a wholesale corporate takeover of people’s land and resources.” In India, the 99 percent are ruled by the one percent. The wealthy are the rulers who tax, enslave, and kill while they grow fat on bribes, kickbacks, and the blood of the innocent. So, we cannot help but ask, where is the prosperity? As Sukhman Dhami notes: “Perhaps unsurprisingly, nearly half of India’s states, including states such as Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Kashmir, and Chhattisgarh, regularly experience anything from ‘civil unrest’ to outright insurgency. The common denominator in these regions is human rights atrocities committed by the military, paramilitary, or police against minority communities.” Yet India continues to thrust Gandhi, the so-called Mahatma, upon the rest of the world. They say he is the face of peace. Yet the Indian State pays to install his statues everywhere, including throughout North America. How did all this happen? Was it a surprise? Were there no warnings? At India’s constitutional convention, several framers of the Constitution warned that the document was deeply flawed. For instance, Professor Ranga from Tamil Nadu said: “Centralisation, I wish to warn this house, would only lead to Sovietisation and totalitarianism and not democracy.” Expressing similar concerns, Hukam Singh of Punjab said: “There is enough provision in our Constitution… to facilitate the development of administration into a fascist state.” In fact, the Sikh representatives from Punjab refused to sign the constitution at all. Hukam Singh said: “Let it not be misunderstood that the Sikh community has agreed to this constitution.” Dr. Ambedkar, the champion of the downtrodden people of India, is commonly credited as the author of the Constitution. The Indian State trumpets his involvement, but ignores his comments made just three years after the document was adopted. Speaking on the floor of Rajya Sabha, Ambedkar declared: “My friends tell me that I made the Constitution. But I am quite prepared to say that I shall be the first person to burn it out. I do not want it. It does not suit anybody. But whatever that may be, if our people want to carry on, they must not forget that there are majorities and there are minorities, and they simply cannot ignore the minorities by saying, “Oh, no. To recognise you is to harm democracy.” I should say that the greatest harm will come by injuring the minorities.” So where does this leave us? The first Asian ever elected to United States Congress was Dalip Singh Saund, a Californian Sikh who, speaking on the floor of the House of Representatives in 1961, warned: “We have been identified with the ruling classes. We have been coddling kings and dictators and protecting the status quo. The status quo for the masses of people in many lands means hunger, pestilence, and ignorance.” Today, will the governments of the world continue to coddle kings and dictators or will they speak out boldly against the status quo that has left so many suffering? The people of India want peace. Yet, are compelled to ask, where is the peace? Indeed, in modern India, where is the democracy, where is the equality, where is the liberty, where is the prosperity, and where is the peace? 1. Carson, Clarence. The Beginning of the Republic: 1775-1825 (A Basic History of the United States, Vol. 2). American Textbook Committee; 1st edition (1984). p. 2. 2. Madison, James. Letter to Edward Livingston. July 10, 1822. 3. Adams, John. Letter to Benjamin Rush. June 12, 1812. 4. Jefferson, Thomas. Bill No. 82, “A Bill For establishing religious freedom.” Virginia General Assembly. 1779. 5. Gowen, Annie. “Comment on religious tolerance by Indian leader sparks national debate.” The Washington Post. February 19, 2015. 6. “Anti-conversion law needed, Rajnath Singh says.” The Times of India. December 28, 2014. 7. “Won’t tolerate violence against any religion, promises Modi.” The Hindu. February 17, 2015. 8. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. “Annual Report 2013.” pp. 3-4. 9. U.S. Department of State. “India: International Religious Freedom Report 2005.” Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 10. Human Rights Watch. “India: Gujarat Officials Took Part in Anti-Muslim Violence.” May 1, 2002. 11. “Sting on BJP, VHP men links Modi to 2002 riots.” CNN-IBN. October 25, 2007. 12. Ensaaf. “Frequently Asked Questions.” 13. Bhan, Rohit. “2002 Gujarat Riots Convict Babu Bajrangi Granted Bail for Sixth Time.” NDTV. July 23, 2015. 14. Kaur, Jaskaran. “Mother testifies against police officer Sumedh Saini.” Harvard Blogs. August 19, 2008. 15. Representative Burton (IN). Congressional Record 141: 107 (June 28, 1995) p. H6451-H6452. 16. Dhami, Sukhman. “Confront India on poor human rights record.” The Hill. January 26, 2015. 17. Human Rights Watch. “Protecting the Killers: A Policy of Impunity in Punjab, India.” October 2007. 18. Mathur, Shubh. “Impunity in India.” Guernica. February 1, 2013. 19. People’s Watch. “Torture and Impunity in India.” National Project on Preventing Torture in India. November 2008. 20. Human Rights Watch. “India: Repeal Armed Forces Special.” August 18, 2008. 21. Organization for Minorities of India. “Irom Sharmila’s Fiancé on Torture, AFSPA, and Surat Singh Khalsa.” June 12, 2015. 22. Macaskill, Andrew. “Nearly third of Indian cabinet charged with crimes, despite Modi pledge.” Reuters. November 11, 2014. 23. Bedi, Rahul. “A third of India’s newly elected MPs face criminal charges.” The Irish Times. May 20, 2014. 24. “Indian PM plea on justice backlog.” BBC News. August 17, 2009. 25. Bhowmick, Nilanjana. “India Is Home to More Poor People Than Anywhere Else on Earth.” TIME. July 17, 2014. 26. Stancati, Margherita. “Almost 5,000 Indian Children Die Daily.” The Wall Street Journal. September 13, 2012. 27. “Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Life expectancy – Data by country.” Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Statistics 2015, World Health Organization, WHO. 2015. 28. Sinha, Kounteya. “India is now the world’s slave capital: Global Slavery Index 2014.” The Times of India. November 17, 2014. 29. Luce, Edward. In Spite of the Gods: The Rise of Modern India. First Anchor Books Edition, March 2008. p. 203. 30. Roy, Arundhati. “The heart of India is under attack.” The Guardian. October 30, 2009. 31. Dhami, Sukhman. 32. Organization for Minorities of India. “Texas Town Plans to Install Statue of Religious Figure Some Call a ‘Symbol of Segregation’.” May 8, 2014. 33. Constituent Assembly of India Debates (Proceedings). Vol. VII. November 9, 1948. 34. Constituent Assembly of India Debates (Proceedings). Vol. XI. November 21, 1949. 35. Parliamentary Debates. Vol. IV, No. 7. September 2, 1953. 36. Speech of Hon. D. S. (Judge) Saund. Congressional Record. Proceedings and Debates of the 87th Congress, First Session. August 16, 1961. (1) Save Our WhatsApp Number 0091-855-606-7689 to your phone contacts; and (2) Send us Your Name via WhatsApp. Click Here to Send WhatsApp Message Now.

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THE FOOT OF THE CROSS By Fr. Faber Foot Of The Cross. Describes Our Lady's Seven Sorrows, relating them to our own spiritual life. Tells why God permitted her sorrows, and describes the immensity of them, including their characteristics. Explains how Our Lady rejoiced in her sorrows, and demonstrates how the Church puts the sorrows before us. Gives a detailed examination of each sorrow culminating in the crucifixion and burial of Our Lord. Helps to build devotion to Our Lord by understanding the sorrows of His Mother -- and experience shows that we never advance more rapidly in love of the Son than when we travel by the Mother. Whoever is growing in devotion to the Mother of God is growing in all good things. Perfect for Lent. Similar to the booklet Devotion to the Sorrowful Mother. Imprimatur. Frederick William Faber lived from 1814-1863 and grew up in Westmorland, England. Though he held to Calvinism in his youth, Frederick had given it up 1837, when he became a fellow of the National Scholars Foundation. He wrote many hymns, poems and other works, including Faith of Our Fathers, The Pilgrims of the Night, The Eternal Father, All for Jesus, Spiritual Conferences, and The Foot of the Cross. Frederick Faber also founded the Wilfridian religious community at St. Wilfrid's, with John Henry Newman as the eventual superior when the order merged with the Oratory of St. Philip Neri. He died on September 26, 1863. Our Lady’s Wardrobe by Anthony DeStefano Prophecy of Marie Julie Jahenny of La Fraudais (19th century, France) 1 She had five wounds of Our Lord. As a result she was called "The Breton Stigmatist". She had the marvellous gift recognizing Eucharistic bread from ordinary bread, objects that were blessed and those that were not ; relics and to say where they came from, and finally to understand in several language hymns and liturgical prayers. During a five year period from December 28, 1875 she survived only on Holy Communion. As Dr. Imbert-Gourbeyre recorded, during this whole period, there were no liquid or solid excretions. She was completely insensitive to pain or intense light during her ecstasies. Some of these ecstasies were accompanied by levitation; at that moment she was ecstatically light. 2 She had a vision of a dialogue between Our Lord and Lucifer and the latter said : ? "I will attack the Church. I will overthrow the Cross, I will decimate the people, I will deposit a great weakness of Faith in hearts. There will also be A GREAT DENIAL OF RELIGION. For a time I will be MASTER of all things, everything will be under MY CONTROL, even Your temple and all Your people." 3 "Saint Michael says that Satan will have possession of everything for some time and that he will reign completely over everything ; that all goodness, Faith, Religion will be buried in the tomb. . . Satan and his own will triumph with joy, but after this triumph, the Lord will in His turn gather His own people and will REIGN and TRIUMPH OVER EVIL and WILL RAISE UP from the tomb the buried Church, the prostrated Cross. . . " 4 Marie-Julie saw that "there will not remain any vestige of the Holy Sacrifice, no apparent trace of faith. CONFUSION will be everywhere..." 5 "All the works approved by the infallible Church will cease to exist as they are today for a time. In this sorrowful annihilation, brilliant signs will be manifested on earth. If because of the wickedness of men Holy Church will be in darkness, the Lord will also send darkness that will stop the wicked in their search of wickedness. . . " 6 On November 27, 1902 and May 10, 1904, Our Lord and Our Lady announced the conspiracy to invent the "New Mass": ? ‰I give you a WARNING. The disciples who are not of My Gospel are now working hard to remake according to their ideas and under the influence of the enemy of souls a MASS that contains words that are ODIOUS in My sight. ? ‰When the fatal hour arrives when the faith of my priests is put to the test, it will be (these texts) that will be celebrated in this SECOND period... The FIRST period is (the one) of my priesthood which exists since Me. The SECOND is (the one) of the persecution when the ENEMIES of the Faith and of Holy Religion (will impose their formulas) in the book of the second celebration.. These infamous spirits are those who crucified me and are awaiting Tthe kingdom of THE NEW MESSIAH. 7 Marie-Julie announced the three days of darkness during which the infernal powers will be loosed and will execute all the enemies of God. "The crisis will explode suddenly; the punishments will be shared by all and will succeed one another without interruption... "( January 4, 1884). 1 "The three days of darkness ‰ will be on a THURSDAY, FRIDAY AND SATURDAY. Days of the Most Holy Sacrament, of the Cross and Our Lady. . . . three days less one night." 2 "‰The earth will be covered in darkness, says Our Lady on 20th of September 1882, AND HELL WILL BE LOOSED ON EARTH. Thunder and lightning will cause those who have no faith or trust in My Power, to die of fear." 3 "During these three days of terrifying darkness, no windows must be opened, because no one will be able to see the earth and the terrible colour it will have in those days of punishment without dying at once... " 4 "The sky will be on fire, the earth will split... During these three days of darkness let the blessed candle be lighted everywhere, no other light will shine.... " 5 "NO ONE OUTSIDE A SHELTER.. will survive. The earth will shake as at the judgement and fear will be great. Yes, We will listen to the prayers of your friends ; NOT ONE WILL PERISH. We will need them to publish the glory of the Cross.... "(8th of December 1882). 6 " THE CANDLES OF BLESSED WAX ALONE WILL GIVE LIGHT during this horrible darkness. ONE CANDLE alone will be enough for the duration of this night of hell... In the homes of the wicked and blasphemers these candles will give NO LIGHT." 7 "And Our Lady states : ‰ Everything will shake except the piece of furniture on which the blessed candle is burning. This will not shake. You will all gather around with the crucifix and my blessed picture. This is what will keep away this terror " 8 "During this darkness the devils and the wicked will take on THE MOST HIDEOUS SHAPES... red clouds like blood will move across the sky. The crash of the thunder will shake the earth and sinister lightning will streak the heavens out of season. The earth will be shaken to its foundations. The sea will rise, its roaring waves will spread over the continent..." 9 "THE EARTH WILL BECOME LIKE A VAST CEMETERY. The bodies of the wicked and the just will cover the ground." 10 "Three-quarters of the population of the globe will disappear. Half the population of France will be destroyed." (Marquis de la Franquerie, Marie-Julie Jahenny) MARIAN BOOKS - THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY (Catholic Books) THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY By St. Alphonsus Liguori CONSECRATION TO THE IMMACULATE HEART OF MARY By Fr. Nicholas A. Norman HAIL HOLY QUEEN! By St. Alphonsus Liguori THE FOOT OF THE CROSS By Fr. Faber THE GLORIES OF MARY Large edition By St. Alphonsus Liguori HAIL HOLY QUEEN! By St. Alphonsus Liguori THE LIFE OF MARY AS SEEN BY THE MYSTICS By Raphael Brown (compiler) THE LIFE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY from the Vision of Anne Catherine Emmerich THE LOVE OF MARY By D. Roberto MARY, MOTHER OF THE CHURCH By Fr. Francis J. Ripley MARY-THE SECOND EVE By John Henry Cardinal Newman MEDITATION PRAYER ON MARY IMMACULATE By Padre Pio MIRACULOUS IMAGES OF OUR LADY 100 FAMOUS CATHOLIC PORTRAITS AND STATUES By Joan Carroll Cruz THE MOTHER OF GOD AND HER GLORIOUS FEASTS By Fr. H. O'Laverty, B.A. THE MOTHER OF THE SAVIOUR By Fr. R. Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P. MY IDEAL JESUS, SON OF MARY By Fr. Emil Neubert, S.M. REVELATIONS OF ST. BRIDGET on the Life and Passion of Our Lord and the Life of His Blessed Mother ST. LOUIS DE MONTFORT The Story of Our Lady's Slave By Mary Fabyan Windeatt SAINTS WHO SAW MARY By Raphael Brown THE SECRET OF MARY By St. Louis De Montfort THE SECRET OF THE ROSARY By St. Louis De Montfort TRUE DEVOTION TO MARY By St. Louis De Montfort SERMONS OF ST. FRANCIS DE SALES ON OUR LADY Full Text of the Third Secret of Fatima not revealed? In a 1980 interview for the German magazine Stimme des Glaubens published in October 1981, John Paul II was asked explicitly to speak about the third secret. He said: "Because of the seriousness of its contents, in order not to encourage the world wide power of Communism to carry out certain coups, my predecessors in the chair of Peter have diplomatically preferred to withhold its publication. On the other hand, it should be sufficient for all Christians to know this much: if there is a message in which it is said that the oceans will flood entire sections of the earth; that, from one moment to the other, millions of people will perish... there is no longer any point in really wanting to publish this secret message. Many want to know merely out of curiosity, or because of their taste for sensationalism, but they forget that 'to know' implies for them a responsibility. It is dangerous to want to satisfy one's curiosity only, if one is convinced that we can do nothing against a catastrophe that has been predicted." He held up his rosary and stated "Here is the remedy against this evil. Pray, pray and ask for nothing else. Put everything in the hands of the Mother of God." Asked what would happen in the Church, he said: "We must be prepared to undergo great trials in the not-too-distant future; trials that will require us to be ready to give up even our lives, and a total gift of self to Christ and for Christ. Through your prayers and mine, it is possible to alleviate this tribulation, but it is no longer possible to avert it, because it is only in this way that the Church can be effectively renewed. How many times, indeed, has the renewal of the Church been effected in blood? This time, again, it will not be otherwise. We must be strong, we must prepare ourselves, we must entrust ourselves to Christ and to His holy Mother, and we must be attentive, very attentive, to the prayer of the Rosary. Lúcia herself is reported to have explicitly stated that the Third Secret contains Apocalyptic content. According to one source, when Lúcia was asked about the Third Secret, she said it was "in the Gospels and in the Apocalypse", and at one point she had even specified Apocalypse chapters 8 to 13, a range that includes Apocalypse 12:4, the chapter and verse cited by Pope John Paul II in his homily in Fatima on 13 May 2000. A news article quoted former Philippine ambassador to the Vatican, Howard Dee, as saying that Cardinal Ratzinger had personally confirmed to him that the messages of Akita and Fatima are "essentially the same." A TERRIBLE WARNING - THE MESSAGE OF OUR LADY OF AKITA, JAPAN: The third message on October 13, 1973, the actual anniversary of the final visions and miracle of Fatima is as follows: "As I told you, if men do not repent and better themselves, the Father will inflict a terrible punishment on all humanity. It will be a punishment greater than the deluge, such as one will never have seen before. Fire will fall from the sky and will wipe out a great part of humanity, the good as well as the bad, sparing neither priests nor faithful. The survivors will find themselves so desolate that they will envy the dead. The only arms which will remain for you will be the Rosary and the Sign left by my Son. Each day, recite the prayers of the Rosary. With the Rosary, pray for the Pope, the bishops and the priests. The work of the devil will infiltrate even into the Church in such a way that one will see cardinals opposing cardinals, and bishops against other bishops. The priests who venerate me will be scorned and opposed by their Confreres. The Church and altars will be vandalized. The Church will be full of those who accept compromises and the demon will press many priests and consecrated souls to leave the service of the Lord. From Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in Vatican Text of The Third Secret of Fatima: COMPLETE TRANSLATION OF ORIGINAL TEXT VATICAN CITY, JUN 26, 2000 (VIS) - Given below is the complete translation of the original Portuguese text of the third part of the secret of Fatima, revealed to the three shepherd children at Cova da Iria-Fatima on July 13, 1917, and committed to paper by Sr. Lucia on January 3, 1944: "I write in obedience to you, my God, who command me to do so through his Excellency the Bishop of Leiria and through your Most Holy Mother and mine. "After the two parts which I have already explained, at the left of Our Lady and a little above, we saw an Angel with a flaming sword in his left hand; flashing, it gave out flames that looked as though they would set the world on fire; but they died out in contact with the splendor that Our Lady radiated towards him from her right hand: pointing to the earth with his right hand, the Angel cried out in a loud voice: 'Penance, Penance, Penance!'. And we saw in an immense light that is God: 'something similar to how people appear in a mirror when they pass in front of it' a Bishop dressed in White 'we had the impression that it was the Holy Father'. Other Bishops, Priests, men and women Religious going up a steep mountain, at the top of which there was a big Cross of rough-hewn trunks as of a cork-tree with the bark; before reaching there the Holy Father passed through a big city half in ruins and half trembling with halting step, afflicted with pain and sorrow, he prayed for the souls of the corpses he met on his way; having reached the top of the mountain, on his knees at the foot of the big Cross he was killed by a group of soldiers who fired bullets and arrows at him, and in the same way there died one after another the other Bishops, Priests, men and women Religious, and various lay people of different ranks and positions. Beneath the two arms of the Cross there were two Angels each with a crystal aspersorium in his hand, in which they gathered up the blood of the Martyrs and with it sprinkled the souls that were making their way to God." Apparitions of the 20th Century a message of urgency Narrated by Ricardo Montalbán reports of apparitions of Jesus and Mary are surfacing. Discover in this award-winning documentary some of the most fascinating apparitions of the 20th century and the urgency of the message Heaven is giving to the world. If men only knew what eternity is, they would do everything in their power to change their lives." Fatima, Portugal Deeply rooted in humanity's history, the Blessed Virgin Mary has been making repeated visitations throughout the world, particularly in the latter part of the 20th century, to warn us that we are on the brink of destruction unless we heed her messages for repentance, prayer, conversion, fasting and reconciliation. Is humanity on the verge of self-destruction? Can the world be delivered from the fear engulfing it today? Meet Father Rene Laurentin, Father Stefano Gobbi, Father Michael McDonagh and Father George Kosicki as they inspire us with their insight on the times we are facing. DVD Price $14.75 ORDER HERE - ORDER INFORMATION BOOK OF DESTINY By Fr. H.B. Kramer CATHOLIC PROPHECY THE COMING CHASTISEMENT By Yves Dupont FORTY DREAMS OF ST. JOHN BOSCO By St. John Bosco HISTORY OF ANTICHRIST By Fr. P. Huchede LIFE OF ANNE CATHERINE EMMERICH By V. Rev. C. E. Schmoeger, C.SS.R. THE PROPHECIES OF ST. MALACHY PROPHECY FOR TODAY By Edward Connor (compiler) THE PROPHETS AND OUR TIMES By Fr. R. Gerald Culleton THE REIGN OF ANTICHRIST By Fr. R. Gerald Culleton Divine Mercy and Sr. Faustina (Videos and Books) Padre Pio (Videos) Medjugorje - The Queen of Peace (Videos, DVDs, Books and Audio Tapes) Prophecy of The Third Secret of Fatima The Kingdom of the Bride Will Prophecy of Garabandal fulfill this year? 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On average, black hustlas typically score one standard deviation below white hustlas on standardized tests–roughly tha difference up in performizzle between tha average 4th grader n' tha average 8th grader n' shiznit yo. Historically, what tha fuck has come ta be known as tha black-white test-score gap has emerged before lil pimps enta kindergarten n' has tended ta widen over time. What is tha causez of dis persistent gap up in achievement, biatch? In study afta study, scholars have investigated tha effectz of differences among white n' black hustlas up in they socioeconomic status, crew structure, n' hood characteristics n' up in tha qualitizzle of they schools. To be sure, socioeconomic status n' tha trappingz of poverty is blingin factors up in explainin racial differences up in ejaculationizzle achievement. Yet a substantial gap remains even afta these crucial influences is accounted for. Gainin a funky-ass betta understandin of what tha fuck causes tha test-score gap iz of pimped out importizzle cuz eliminatin tha gap could yield pimped out advances up in tha well-bein of African-Americans. In separate studies, Derek Neal n' Lil' Willy Johnston up in 1996 n' June O’Neill up in 1990 found dat most of tha wage gap between black n' white adults disappears once tha data is adjusted ta reflect they scores on tha Armed Forces Qualifyin Test; up in other lyrics, dem adults wit similar scores gots similar wages. Thus closin tha test-score gaps dat emerge up in high school may be a cold-ass lil critical prerequisite ta reducin wage inequalitizzle between tha races fo' realz. As scholars Christopher Jencks n' Meredith Phillips write, “Reducin tha black-white test score gap would do mo' ta promote racial equalitizzle than any other game dat commandz broad ballistical support.” To take a gangbangin' fresh peep tha gap n' its sources, we examined a freshly smoked up data set, tha Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort, compiled by tha U.S. Department of Ejaculation. I aint talkin' bout chicken n' gravy biatch. Da thangs up in dis biatch is like surprising: afta adjustin tha data fo' tha effectz of only all dem observable characteristics, tha black-white test-score gap up in math n' readin fo' hustlas enterin kindergarten essentially disappeared. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! Put simply, white n' black lil pimps wit similar underground n' crew background characteristics bigged up similar test scores (see Figure 1). |Da Growin Gap (Figure 1) Black kindergartners n' white kindergartners wit similar socioeconomic backgroundz now big up at similar levels. But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat tha raw gap up in test scores remains big-ass n' both tha raw n' adjusted gaps grow as hustlas move all up in school. |NOTE: In tha figures above, tha Raw Gap represents tha actual difference up in test scores between black hustlas n' white hustlas. Da Adjusted Gap represents tha remainin inter-ethnic test-score gap afta adjustin tha data fo' tha influence of hustlas’ background characteristics fo' realz. Adjusted thangs up in dis biatch control fo' socioeconomic status, number of books up in tha home, gender, age, birth weight, WIC participation, n' mother’s age at birth of first child. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! All adjusted gaps is statistically dope all up in tha .05 level. Where tha thangs up in dis biatch indicate dat tha gap is negative, black lil pimps wit similar characteristics straight-up score higher than they white counterparts, n' you can put dat on yo' toast. SOURCE: Authors’ calculations based on data from tha Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (1998), U.S. Department of Ejaculation| But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat our thangs up in dis biatch show dat tha achievement gap, while negligible among black n' non-Hispanic white lil pimps wit similar characteristics when they enta kindergarten, expandz as they grow olda n' shit. From tha beginnin of kindergarten ta tha end of first grade, black hustlas lose 20 cement of a standard deviation (approximately 10 cement of a standard deviation each year) relatizzle ta white hustlas wit similar characteristics. If tha gap was ta continue ta grow at dis rate, by 5th grade tha average black hustla would be half a standard deviation behind his white counterpart–a residual gap similar up in magnitude ta dat found up in previous analyses yo. Hispanic lil pimps do not experience dis widenin test-score gap relatizzle ta otherwise similar white hustlas; indeed, they systematically close tha gap, like cuz they initial scores is artificially low cuz of tha relatizzle inexperience wit tha Gangsta language among some immigrants n' they lil pimps (see Figure 2). Here we present our findings n' explore possible reasons why they diverge from dem of previous studies. Put ya muthafuckin choppers up if ya feel dis! We also consider various explanations fo' tha expandin gap between black n' white hustlas as they move all up in school. |Hispanic Lil Pimps Close tha Gap (Figure 2 ) There remains a substantial gap between tha test scorez of Hispanic lil pimps n' white lil pimps yo, but it shrinks as Hispanic hustlas move all up in school. |NOTE: In tha figures above, tha Raw Gap represents tha actual difference up in test scores between Hispanic hustlas n' white hustlas. Da Adjusted Gap represents tha remainin inter-ethnic test-score gap afta adjustin tha data fo' tha influence of hustlas’ background characteristics fo' realz. Adjusted thangs up in dis biatch control fo' socioeconomic status, number of books up in tha home, gender, age, birth weight, WIC participation, n' mother’s age at birth of first child. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! Adjusted gap up in readin is statistically insignificant fo' Sprin kindergarten n' 1st Grade test thangs up in dis biatch. SOURCE: Authors’ calculations based on data from tha Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (1998), U.S. Department of Ejaculation| Da Early Childhood Longitudinal Study includes a nationally representatizzle survey of mo' than 20,000 lil pimps whoz ass entered kindergarten up in 1998. Da full sample was rap battleed up in tha fall n' sprang of kindergarten n' up in tha sprang of 1st grade. Mo'over, a random sample of a quarta of tha respondents was also rap battleed up in tha fall of 1st grade. Da full sample included a average of mo' than 20 lil pimps per school up in each of tha roughly 1,000 schools participatin up in tha study, makin it possible ta conduct within-school analyses. Yo, students took standardized tests up in tha fall of kindergarten n' up in tha sprang of 1st grade. They was initially given oral tests, since most of dem did not know how tha fuck ta read. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! Overall, non-Hispanic white hustlas banged up 0.27 standard deviations above tha average on tha math exam up in tha fall of kindergarten, while black hustlas fell tha fuck 0.36 standard deviations below tha average, yieldin a raw black-white gap of 0.63 standard deviations. By tha sprang of 1st grade, tha raw gap up in mathematics increased ta 0.73 standard deviations. Da initial black-white gap up in readin was smalla (0.4 standard deviations) fo' realz. As up in math, however, tha raw test-score gap up in readin widened substantially, ta 0.53 standard deviations, by tha end of 1st grade. Note dat these raw black-white gaps, while sizable, is substantially smalla than dem observed up in earlier data sets fo' lil pimpz of tha same age. For instance, up in a study published up in 1998, Meredith Phillips n' her colleagues reported a raw black-white test-score gap of mo' than one standard deviation up in vocabulary rockin data sets collected between 1980 n' 1987. Da initial test-score gaps fo' Hispanic hustlas up in tha Early Childhood Longitudinal Study data was even pimped outa than fo' blacks–0.72 standard deviations up in math n' 0.43 standard deviations up in reading. But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat these gaps narrowed somewhat by tha end of 1st grade, reachin 0.56 n' 0.31 standard deviations, respectively fo' realz. Afta two muthafuckin years up in school, then, Hispanic hustlas was struttin betta relatizzle ta whites than was they black counterparts. We also analyzed mackdaddys’ subjectizzle assessmentz of each child’s math n' readin achievement. Teachers was axed ta answer 20 thangs bout each child’s academic performance. Da patterns up in tha mackdaddy assessments mirror dem up in tha test-score data: black n' Hispanic hustlas start up substantially below whites, n' black hustlas lose ground over tha straight-up original gangsta two muthafuckin yearz of school, whereas Hispanics maintain they posizzle relatizzle ta whites. Most of tha available data on hustlas’ background characteristics was collected only once or chizzled lil over time fo' individual hustlas. Da most blingin of these characteristics be a cold-ass lil composite measure of socioeconomic status pimped by tha survey’s researchers. Da componentz of tha socioeconomic status measure is muthafathas’ level of ejaculation, muthafathas’ occupationizzle status, n' household income. On tha whole, black lil pimps was bein reared up in circumstances less likely ta be conducive ta academic achievement than dem experienced by white children; up in general they have lower socioeconomic status n' fewer children’s books up in tha home, ta name just two disadvantages yo. Hispanics was also worse off than whites on average. |Black lil pimps n' white lil pimps wit similar crew background characteristics start school at similar levelz of achievement. Adjustin tha test scores fo' these characteristics one at a time allows our asses ta isolate tha effectz of each one. First consider socioeconomic status fo' realz. As expected, tha summary measure of tha economic condizzle of hustlas’ householdz be a phat predictor of they incomin test scores: a improvement up in socioeconomic statuz of one standard deviation be associated wit a increase of 0.45 standard deviations up in both math n' readin test scores. Thus adjustin tha data fo' tha effectz of socioeconomic status reduces tha estimated racial gaps up in test scores by mo' than 40 cement up in math n' mo' than 66 cement up in reading. Da number of books up in tha household be a useful proxy fo' tha home environment’s contribution ta academic success fo' realz. Adjustin tha test-score data fo' dis factor reduces tha gap even mo' n' mo' n' mo'. On average, black hustlas up in tha sample had 39 children’s books up in they home, compared wit a average of 93 books among white hustlas. Takin dis difference tha fuck into account cuts tha black-white test-score gap ta less than a gangbangin' fourth of a standard deviation up in math n' straight-up eliminates tha gap up in reading. Da gap between white n' Hispanic hustlas also shrinks. We next adjust tha data fo' tha effectz of gender, age, birth weight, tha age at which tha mutha had her first child, n' participation up in tha WIC program (a supplemenstrual chicken program fo' dem hoes, infants n' lil pimps restricted ta low-income crews) fo' realz. As expected, tha thangs up in dis biatch indicate dat olda children, dem wit higher birth weights, n' dem wit mothers whoz ass was olda all up in tha time of they first birth all score mo' betta n' shit. Lil Pimps participatin up in tha WIC program big-ass up worse, suggestin dat dis variable aint capturin any benefits tha nutrizzle program might provide yo, but rather dat WIC eligibilitizzle be a indicator fo' growin up skanky fo' realz. All else bein equal, biatch hustlas seem ta big-ass up at higher levels than malez up in readin n' all up in tha same level up in math. Mo' blingin fo' dis analysis, addin these variablez ta tha equation further accounts fo' tha differences between tha test scorez of whites n' dem of blacks n' Hispanics. In fact, tha estimates suggest dat black lil pimps wit characteristics similar ta they white peers score slightly betta than whites up in readin n' only slightly worse up in math (see Figure 1). Only a lil' small-ass gap persists fo' Hispanics (see Figure 2). Of particular interest is tha fact dat only all dem hood background characteristics need ta be taken tha fuck into account up in order ta eliminizzle tha black-white gap. Once we adjusted tha data fo' tha effectz of socioeconomic status, birth weight, participation up in WIC, n' all dem other variables, we was able ta straight-up account fo' tha difference up in test scores fo' realz. Adjustin tha data fo' a range of other factors, like fuckin hood characteristics, crew size, whether tha mutha works, whether Gangsta is spoken at home, n' participation up in preschool, do not appreciably chizzle tha thangs up in dis biatch. This aint ta say dat such variablez as hood characteristics have no effect, only dat tha effect of such variablez be already captured by tha handful of hood background characteristics, like fuckin WIC participation, dat we incorporated tha fuck into our analysis. To dis point tha analysis has assumed dat lil pimpz of different races will respond similarly ta chizzlez up in they socioeconomic status, home environments, n' so on. I aint talkin' bout chicken n' gravy biatch. But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat black lil pimps tend ta live up in thangs dat is less conducive ta peepin'. If they do not derive as much benefit as white lil pimps from improvements up in they home environments, our thangs up in dis biatch may overstate tha degree ta which tha gap be attributable ta these factors. To address dis potential source of bias, we examined tha effectz of our key control variablez fo' hustlaz of each race separately. Da effectz of most factors on black, white, n' Hispanic hustlas was statistically indistinguishable. But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat it turns up dat tha black lil pimps up in our sample was less responsive ta chizzlez up in socioeconomic status than tha white children: a one-standard-deviation improvement up in socioeconomic status fo' a funky-ass black lil pimp was associated wit a 0.18 standard deviation increase up in math scores, compared wit 0.32 among white lil' thugs. All holla'd at, these race-specific estimates suggest dat a funky-ass black lil pimp whoz ass had tha same characteristics as tha average white lil pimp up in tha sample would score 0.21 standard deviations lower than tha white lil pimp up in math n' would be almost exactly even up in reading. Thus, ta tha extent dat hood policies is designed ta improve tha environments experienced by black children, our initial estimates may slightly overstate tha ground dat would be gained by blacks. This logic also holdz fo' Hispanics. Why So Different? Nevertheless, tha fact dat tha black-white test-score gap essentially disappears when sufficient controls is included is striking. In past research, a substantial gap has always persisted. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! This type'a shiznit happens all tha time. Da 1998 study by Meredith Phillips n' her colleagues, mentioned earlier, had tha top billin success up in explainin racial differences up in achievement, yet tha unexplained portion of tha achievement gap on tha vocabulary test used up in they study was still so big-ass dat it nearly exceeded tha raw gap up in readin n' mathematics we found up in tha Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey data. Why do our thangs up in dis biatch differ so sharply from dem of previous research, biatch? There is three leadin explanations: 1) tha sample of lil pimps included up in tha data set used by Phillips, tha Lil Pimpz of tha Nationizzle Longitudinal Survey of Youth (CNLSY), especially up in tha early years, may be nonrepresentative; 2) betta shiznit on hustlas’ background characteristics be available up in tha Early Childhood survey; n' 3) blacks born tha fuck into recent cohorts have made real gains relatizzle ta blacks born a thugged-out decade earlier. Although plausible, tha straight-up original gangsta two explanations step tha fuck up ta play only a lil' small-ass role empirically. But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat real gains by blacks up in recent cohorts do step tha fuck up ta be a blingin part of tha divergence between our thangs up in dis biatch n' past research. By limitin tha CNLSY data ta cohorts born up in tha same muthafuckin years as tha lil pimps up in our data set, we found raw test-score gaps only half as big-ass as dem found up in tha earlier cohortz of data used by Phillips n' remarkably close ta dem found up in our data set. Real gains among black lil pimps up in recent muthafuckin years could explain dis result. But fuck dat shiznit yo, tha word on tha street is dat even afta adjustin tha data ta account fo' similar factors, we was still not able ta eliminizzle tha achievement gaps among lata cohorts up in tha data set used by Phillips fo' realz. Afta introducin tha same set of controls we used up in tha analysis above, tha estimated black-white achievement gaps up in recent cohortz of tha CNLSY was bout 0.5 standard deviations up in math n' 0.4 up in vocabulary. Thus, although tha raw gaps is similar up in tha two data sets, larger residual gaps remain up in tha CNLSY fo' reasons we cannot explain. Da Growin Gap Our thangs up in dis biatch suggest dat black lil pimps n' white lil pimps wit similar characteristics now start school at similar levelz of achievement. But what tha fuck happens as they age? In raw test scores, black hustlas lose some ground relatizzle ta whites between tha fall of kindergarten n' tha sprang of 1st grade. But once tha data is adjusted fo' tha effectz of tha key background characteristics identified above, black hustlas step tha fuck up ta lose much mo' ground than they do up in tha raw averages, fallin 0.16 standard deviations up in math n' 0.19 standard deviations up in readin relatizzle ta white hustlas (see Figure 1). If black hustlas up in tha sample continue ta lose ground all up in 9th grade all up in tha rate experienced up in tha straight-up original gangsta two muthafuckin yearz of school, they will lag behind white hustlas on average by a gangbangin' full standard deviation up in raw math n' readin scores n' by mo' than two-thirdz of a standard deviation up in math even afta controllin fo' observable characteristics (the gap would be substantially smalla up in reading). Raw gapz of dat magnitude would be similar ta dem found up in previous studiez of high-school-age lil' thugs. By contrast, Hispanics show gains relatizzle ta whites between tha beginnin of kindergarten n' tha end of 1st grade (see Figure 2). Thus black hustlas is losin ground not only relatizzle ta whites yo, but even mo' relatizzle ta Hispanics. Why do tha black-white test-score gap grow as lil pimps age, biatch? Let’s consider all dem plausible explanations. • Is black hustlas losin ground cuz they git all up in worse schools? There is substantial racial segregation up in U.S. schools. In our data, which sample roughly 20 lil pimps up in each of approximately 1,000 schools, 35 cement of dem schools aint a single black child. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! Da average black hustla up in our sample attendz a school dat is 59 cement black n' 8 cement Hispanic. In contrast, tha typical white hustla attendz a school dat is only 6 cement black n' 5 cement Hispanic. Given dat blacks n' whites have relatively lil overlap up in tha schools they attend, differences up in school qualitizzle could well explain why black hustlas is losin ground. To rewind dis question, we compared tha progress of white n' black hustlas whoz ass attended tha same school. If tha gap between these hustlas remained tha same as up in tha overall sample, dis would suggest dat tha qualitizzle of tha schools aint playin a major role up in tha expandin achievement gap. In fact, black lil pimps whoz ass git all up in tha same schools as whites lose only a third as much ground as they do relatizzle ta whites up in tha overall sample. These findings is consistent with–but not definitizzle proof of–the argument dat systematic differences up in tha schools attended by white n' black lil pimps may explain tha divergence up in test scores. If on average blacks git all up in schools dat is worse than dem attended by whites, one might expect dat dis would be reflected up in tha schools’ characteristics. Relatizzle ta otherwise similar whites, blacks do git all up in schools wit mo' hustlas eligible fo' tha federal lunch program n' schools up in which subjectizzle reports from officials indicated higher levelz of gang activity, loiterin up in front of tha school, n' litta round tha school. Yo, still, there be dope weaknesses up in tha argument dat differences up in school qualitizzle explain tha divergent trajectoriez of whites n' blacks. For instance, there seems ta be lil difference between tha average class sizes, mackdaddys’ levelz of ejaculation, number of computas up in tha classroom, n' Internizzle connections up in schools attended by blacks versus dem attended by whites. Mo' blingin, tha gap between blacks n' whites continues ta widen even afta tha data is adjusted ta reflect differences up in all of tha school characteristics fo' which data is available. Git tha fuck outta mah grill wit dat bullshit, tha available measurez of schools’ characteristics as a crew explain only a lil' small-ass fraction of tha variation up in hustla outcomes. Furthermore, both Hispanic n' Asian lil pimps also experience worse schools than whites yo, but neither of dem crews is losin ground. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! All up in all, tha issue is murky–like cuz tha measurez of school qualitizzle up in tha data is inadequate. • Do tha importizzle of parental n' environmenstrual inputs grow as lil pimps age, biatch? Black lil pimps tend ta grow up in environments dat is less conducive ta high achievement. If tha importizzle of parental n' environmenstrual inputs grew as lil pimps age, black hustlas would be sposed ta fuckin lose ground relatizzle ta whites. But if dat was true, one would expect ta observe a widenin of tha raw gaps between blacks n' whites; ta tha extent dat our control variablez adequately captured a cold-ass lil child’s environment, tha residual gap would remain constant. In fact, however, tha residual gap increases mo' than tha raw gap. In other lyrics, tha data suggest dat tha relatizzle importizzle of factors outside of school decreases over time, presumably cuz schools become such a cold-ass lil central part of a cold-ass lil child’s game. • Do black lil pimps suffer worse “summer setbacks” when school aint up in session, biatch? Several scholars have broke off some disrespec dat black hustlas lose mo' ground over tha summer than white hustlas cuz of they relatively worse home n' hood environments, n' you can put dat on yo' toast. Our data provide a unique opportunitizzle ta test dis hypothesis cuz a subset of tha sample was tested both up in tha sprang of kindergarten n' early up in tha fall of 1st grade. On tha raw scores, there is lil difference before n' afta tha summer break; ta tha extent there be any gap, it favors black hustlas. With controls, black hustlas lose ground slightly ta whites over tha summer up in math yo, but tha result aint statistically significant. Black hustlas make slight gains up in reading. Thus there is lil evidence dat differential peepin' over tha summer can help ta explain tha growin achievement gap. • Can biased expectations among mackdaddys explain why black hustlas lose ground, biatch? If, as some have broke off some disrespec, white mackdaddys have lower expectations fo' black children, one would predict dat black hustlas wit white mackdaddys would lose mo' ground than black hustlas wit black mackdaddys. We found dat black lil pimps whoz ass have at least one black mackdaddy start up struttin somewhat worse than they white peers up in math n' slightly betta up in reading, relatizzle ta black hustlas whoz ass have no black mackdaddys. By tha end of 1st grade, however, tha black-white test-score gap is pimped outa fo' hustlas whoz ass have at least one black mackdaddy n' shit. This is exactly tha opposite of what tha fuck one would predict from a gangbangin' finger-lickin' discrimination story. Compared wit tha thangs up in dis biatch of previous studies, our findings provide reason fo' optimism. We find smalla achievement gaps, up in both tha raw n' tha adjusted scores, fo' lil pimps born up in tha early 1990s than others had found fo' earlier birth cohorts, n' you can put dat on yo' toast. Well shiiiit, it could well be that, as compared wit earlier generationz of hustlas, tha current cohort of blacks has made real gains relatizzle ta whites. Git tha fuck outta mah grill wit dat bullshit, recent cohorts show smalla raw black-white gaps across multiple data sets–a truly promisin sign. Once hustlas enta school, however, tha gap between white n' black lil pimps grows, even afta controllin fo' observable influences. We speculate dat blacks is losin ground relatizzle ta whites cuz they git all up in lower-qualitizzle schools dat is less well maintained n' managed as indicated by signz of hood discord. Y'all KNOW dat shit, muthafucka! Though we recognize dat we aint provided definitizzle proof, dis is tha only hypothesis dat receives any empirical support. Roland G. Fryer Jr. Shiiit, dis aint no joke. be a junior fellow all up in tha Harvard Posse of Fellows n' a gangbangin' faculty research fellow all up in tha Nationizzle Bureau of Economic Research. Right back up in yo muthafuckin ass. Steven D. Levitt be a pimp of economics all up in tha Universitizzle of Chicago.

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FACTORS AFFECTING UTILIZATION OF ANTENATAL CARE SERVICES IN SANA'A CITY, YEMEN Antenatal care is a vital part of primary healthcare that is known to improve maternal and newborn outcomes. The aim of this study was to identify the factors affecting utilization of antenatal care services for women in reproductive age in Yemen. This cross-sectional community-based study was conducted in six districts of Sana’a City, Yemen. Data were collected from 460 mothers who gave birth in the past six months via face-to-face interviews at home between September to December 2010. Only 54% of mothers were found to have made four or more antenatal care visits. Almost two third of participants made their first visit during their first trimester due to presence of health problems and did not follow up when they became healthy during pregnancy. Reasons for not receiving antenatal care services due to absence of health problems, high cost of antenatal care services, long waiting time, and poor staff attitude. Sixty percent of participants were unaware of the danger symptoms of common health problems in pregnancy. The significant factors affecting utilization of antenatal services were mother education, residence place, age at first pregnancy, gravida, parity, occurrence of pregnancy without planning, and number of live children (P<0.05). The factors affecting the number of visits were mother education, place of residence, and husband work were (P<0.05). Future healthcare activities should focus on improving women’s awareness of the importance of antenatal care even in the absence of noticeable health problems and lack of education about the common danger signs and symptoms of pregnancy. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/ WHO_RHR_09.06_eng.pdf - Accessed on December 2009. 2. Mahain R, Mahmoud H. Maternal health in the Eastern Mediterranean Region of the World Health Organization, EasternMediterranean Health Journal 2005; 11(4) 530-853. 3. WHO. Women and health: Today’s evidence tomorrow’s agenda. World Health Organization, Switzerland. 4. Target – Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality rate. Available at http://www. oxfam.org. uk/ education /resource/change_ the_ world_in_eight_steps/files/goal_5.pdf- Accessed on May-2010 5. MacDonald M, Starrs A, Skilled Care During Childbirth: Policy Brife. Available athttp://www. familycareintl. org/UserFiles/File /Skilled% 20Care% 20Info% 20Kit%20PDFs /English/ Policy%20 Brief_Eng.pdf – Accessed on May 2010. 6. Maharloue N, Zakeri Z, Mazloomi E, Lankarani K. Maternal Mortality Rate in Fars Prvince: Trends and Associated Factors in a Community Based Survey . Archives of Iranian Medicine 2012 :15 (1):14-17 7. Maternal mortality in 1990-2015 avail be at: http://www.who.int/gho/maternal_health 8. Maternal mortality. Availble at www. unicef. org/. /Progress _for_ Children- No._7_Lo-Res_082008.p. 9. Teshome A. Factors that influence recent mother’s use of health services for pregnancy and delivery in Tuban District, Lahj Governorate, Yemen. University of Heidelberg Department of Topical Hygiene and Public Health2005 MCS Thesis. 10. WHO. Country Cooperation Strategy for WHO and the Republic of Yemen2008-2013, World Health Organization2009. 11. Al-zyadi N. Maternal Mortality: Causes and Some Related Factors In Two Maternity Hospitals In Aden Governorate 2001- 2003.Faculty of Medicine and Health sciences, Aden University.2004MCS Thesis. 12. WHO & UNICEF. Antenatal care in developing countries: promises, achievements and missed opportunities: an analysis of trends, levels and differentials, 1990-2001. World Health Organization 2003 page 1-32 13. Gupta P&Ghai O. Textbook of Preventive and social medicine. Second edition, Nodia India, Diamond agencies, 2007, page 1-836. 14. Maternal Death. The Avoidable Crisis. Available at http: //www .msf.org.za/publication/maternal-death- avoidable-crisis-0 Accessed on March2012 15. Mrisho M, Obrist B, et al. The use of antenatal and postnatal care: perspectives and experiences of women and health care providers in rural southern Tanzania. Journal of BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2009:9(10): 1471-2393. 16. Antenatal Care. Available at http://www.2 womens health. com/ Pregnancy/Antenatal-Care.htm -Accessed on February 2012. 17. Nisar N, White F. Factors affecting utilization of antenatal care among reproductive age group women (15- 49 years) in an urban squatter settlement of Karachi. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association 2003: 53(2):1-15. 18. Park, K: Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine .9 th edition, surya offset, 2007 page1-769. 19. Antenatal care coverage. Definition. Available at http:// mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Metadata.aspx?Indi catorId=0&SeriesId=763 20. Mwaniki PK, Kabiru EW, Mbugua GG. 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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) Eurolinguistics is a neologistic term for the study of the languages of Europe. The term Eurolinguistics was first used by Norbert Reiter in 1991 (German equivalent: Eurolinguistik). Apart from a series of works dealing with only a part of the European languages, the work of Harald Haarmann pursues a "pan- or trans-European perspective". This goal is also pursued by Mario Wandruszka. Typological questions have mainly been dealt with by the Eurolinguistischer Arbeitskreis Mannheim (ELAMA; led by Per Sture Ureland) and the EUROTYP projects. Important sources of linguistic data for Eurolinguistic studies are the Atlas Linguarum Europae (for vocabulary studies) and the World Atlas of Linguistic Structures (Haspelmath et al. 2005, for grammar studies). The internet platform EuroLinguistiX (ELiX) (edited by Joachim Grzega) offers a bibliography of Eurolinguistic publications as well as a wiki, a discussion forum, an academic internet journal in order to address also aspects of "linguistic and cultural history", "sociology of languages", "language politics" and "intercultural communication". In 2006, Joachim Grzega published a basic reader on common features of European languages. Also joint with the ELAMA, the EuroLSJ project by Erhard Steller tries to collect essential results of Eurolinguistics and make them usable for everyday life in Europe by transforming them into a representative standard language (LSJ European / Europé LSJ) which wants to serve as an optimized "acquisition and memory helper" (Giuseppe G. Castorina) for a quicker and easier access to all languages of Europe. Common features of European languages (Sources and further information for this section: Haarmann 1991, Grzega 2006) Writing was introduced to Europe by the Greeks, and from there also brought to the Romans (6th century BC). There are four alphabets in regular use in the areas generally considered Europe. The Latin alphabet was developed into several scripts. In the early years of Europe, the Carolingian minuscules were the most important variety of the Latin script. From this two branches developed, the Gothic/Fracture/German tradition, which Germans used well into the 20th century, and the Italian/Italic/Antiqua/Latin tradition, still used. For some nations the integration into Europe meant giving up older scripts, e.g. the Germanic gave up the runes (Futhark) (3rd to 17th centuries), the Irish the Ogham script (4th to 7th centuries). The Cyrillic script is the second most widespread alphabet in Europe, and was developed in the 9th century under the influence of the Greek, Latin and Glagolitic alphabets. Both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets are used for multiple languages in multiple states, both inside and outside Europe. As well as these two, there are two alphabets used primarily for a single language, although they are occasionally applied to minority languages in the states from which they originate. The oldest of these alphabets is the Greek alphabet, which could be considered the progenitor of all the surviving alphabets of Europe, with the earliest recorded inscriptions appearing in the 9th century BC. The other is found in the Caucasus, originating in the 5th century. The Georgian alphabet is used primarily to write Georgian, though it is also used to write the other Kartvelian languages, Svan, Mingrelian and Laz, all of which are found largely within the borders of Georgia. (Sources and further information for this section: Haarmann 1973, Asher 1994, Price 1998, Grzega 2006) The sound systems of languages may differ considerably between languages. European languages can thus rather be characterized negatively, e.g. by the absence of click sounds. One could also think of specific prosodic features, such as tonal accents. But there are also tonal languages in Europe: Serbo-Croatian (e.g. lètī ‘he flies, is flying’ with long rising accent vs. lêta ‘years’ with long falling accent) and Slovene (e.g. sûda ‘of the vessel’ with long falling accent vs. súda ‘of the court’ with long rising accent). In Slovene, the use of the musical accent is declining though (cf. Rehder 1998: 234) --but there are hardly any contexts where intelligibility is endangered. In Sweden Swedish (but not in Finland Swedish) there also is a pitch accent in some words, which can be meaningful, e.g. ´anden ‘the duck’ vs. ˇanden ‘the ghost, spirit’. (Sources and further information for this section: Asher 1994, Price 1998, Haspelmath 2001, Heine/Kuteva 2006) As a general introductory remark we can distinguish between three structural types of languages: - isolating (i.e. grammatical/sentence functions are expressed through analytic means and relatively strict word-order rules, e.g. the strict S-V order rule in English), - agglutinating (i.e. grammatical/sentence functions are expressed through affixes, with one affix expressing exactly one function) and - inflecting (i.e. grammatical/sentence functions are expressed through affixes, with one affix expressing several functions). European languages are seldom pure representatives of one type. For (a) Modern English is a good example (and in many way the code oral of French verbs); for (c) Old English and Modern High German are good examples (and in many ways the code écrit of French verb forms); classical representatives of type (b) are Finnish and Hungarian. If a language is not isolating, this does not necessarily mean that it has no word-order rules. Latin, Basque, Finnish and the Slavic languages have a relatively free word order, whereas many languages show more restricted rules. German and Dutch, e.g., show verb-second word-order in main clauses and verb-final order in subordinate clauses. English has subject-verb word-order, which is also preferred by the Romanic languages. Irish and Scottish Gaelic have a basic verb-initial word order. We can also distinguish between analytic constructions (with free grammatical morphemes, i.e. grammatical elements as separate words) and synthetic constructions (with bound grammatical morphemes, i.e. grammatical elements attached to or included in a word), e.g. the house of the man vs. the man's house. Apart from the points already mentioned, the categories of aspect (not always easy to separate from the tense system) and gender are noteworthy. Under the category of aspect linguists basically understand the distinction between perfective actions (activity finished, has led to a result; single event) and imperfective actions (activity not yet finished, w/out information on termination; long duration, repetitive). The Slavic languages have a fine and rigid aspect system; in English there's the distinction between progressive and non-progressive (simple) and a distinction between present perfect and past; in the Romanic languages the imperfect serves to denote background actions. The most current gender systems in Europe are twofold (masculine vs. feminine, e.g. in the Romanic languages, or uter vs. neuter, e.g. in Swedish and Danish); but there are also languages that are threefold (e.g. Slavic, German) or lack grammatical gender at all (e.g. English, Hungarian, Finnish). The problem of gender also concerns the system of personal pronouns. We normally distinguish between three persons singular and three persons plural, but there are also some languages that have specific words for the dual (e.g. Slovene). In the 3rd person singular we often have a distinction according to grammatical gender; in English, though, the choice is determined by natural gender; in Hungarian and Finnish we have no differentiation at all, in the Scandinavian languages on the other hand we have a differentiation that incorporate both grammatical and natural gender. In some languages the grammatical gender is also relevant in the 3rd pl. (e.g. the Romance languages). Whereas traditionally we group languages according to historical language families (e.g. Indo-European languages, Uralic languages), a more modern way is to look at grammatical features from a synchronic point of view. A certain number of common structural features would then characterize a sprachbund. For Europe, the most prominent sprachbund that we can determine is referred to as SAE (= Standard Average European) or Charlemagne sprachbund. Haspelmath (2001) illustrates that German, Dutch, French, Occitan and Northern Italian are the most central members of this sprachbund. Important features are (cf., e.g., Haspelmath 2001, Heine/Kuteva 2006): - the distinction between an indefinite and a definite article - the formation of relative clauses, which are positioned after the (pro)noun concerned and are introduced by a variable relative pronoun - a past tense construction with "to have" - a passive voice construction that shows the object of the action in the syntactic position of the subject and that uses the past participle in connection with an auxiliary - a specific suffix for the comparative (Sources and further information for this section: Haarmann 1975, Haarmann 1993, Paczolay 1997, Panzer 2000, Görlach 2002) Latin, French and English not only served or still serve as linguae francae (cf. below), but also influenced the vernacular/national languages due to their high prestige. Due to this prestige, there are not only "necessity loans", but also "luxury loans" and pseudo-loans. Many loans from these three languages (esp. Neo-Latin with its Greek elements) can be considered internationalisms, although occasionally the meanings vary from one language to another, which might even lead to misunderstandings. Examples: - Lat. forma: e.g. Fr. forme, It. Sp. Cat. Cz. Slovak. Serbo-Croat. Slovene Maltese Hung. Pol. Latv. Lith. forma, Dan. Swed. E. Du. vorm (shape) and form (aerobic endurance), Romansh furma, G. Form, Ir. foirm - Fr. restaurant, e.g. E. Du. Norw. Cat. Romansh restaurant, G. Restaurant, Swed. restaurang, Pg. restaurante, Sp. restaurante, It. ristorante, Cz. restaurace, Slovak reštaurácia, Slovene restavracija, Latv. restorâns, Lith. restoranas, Estn. restoran, Pol. restauracja, Serbian restoran, Maltese ristorant/restorant - E. manager, e.g. Du. Norw. Swed. Icel. Fr. Sp. Cat. It. Romansh manager, G. Manager, Finn. manageri, Pol. menadżer, Serbo-Croat. menadžer, Lith. menedžeris, Hung. menedzser, Maltese maniġer Three minor source languages for European borrowings are Arabic (esp. in mathematics and science, foreign plants and fruits), Italian (esp. in arts, esp. from the 15th to the 17th centuries), German (esp. in arts, education, mining, trading from the 12th to the 20th centuries with varying importance). As far as the structuring or "wording" of the world is concerned changes occur relatively fast due to progress in knowledge, sociopolitical changes etc. Lexical items that seem more conservative are proverbs and metaphorical idioms. Many European proverbs and idioms go back to antiquity and the Bible; some originate in national stories and were spread over other languages via Latin. A typical European proverb to express that there is no profit without working can be paraphrased as "Roasted pigeons/larks/sparrows/geese/chickens/birds don't fly into one's mouth", e.g.: - Czech: Pečení holubi nelétají do huby (pigeons) - Danish: Stegte duer flyve ingen i munden (pigeon) - Dutch: De gebraden duiven vliegen je niet in de mond (pigeons) - English: He thinks that larks will fall into his mouth roasted - Finnish: Ei paistetut varpuset suuhun lennä (sparrows) - French: Les alouettes ne vous tombent pas toutes rôties dans le bec (larks) - German: Gebratene Tauben fliegen einem nicht ins Maul (pigeon) - Hungarian: Senkinek nem repül a szájába a sült galamb (pigeon) - Latvian: Cepts zvirbulis no jumta mutē nekrīt (sparrow) - Lithuanian: Keptas karvelis neatlėks pats i burną (pigeon) - Norwegian (Nynorsk): Det kjem ikkje steikte fuglar fljugande i munnen (birds) - Polish: Pieczone gołąbki nie przyjdą same do gąbki (pigeons) - Serbo-Croatian: Pečeni golubovi ne lete u usta (pigeons) - Slovak: Nech nik nečaká, že mu pečené holuby budú padať do úst (pigeons) - Slovene: Pečeni golobje ne lete nobenemu v usta (pigeons) - Swedish: Stekta sparvar flyger inte in i munnen (sparrows) (Sources and further information for this section: Axtell 1993, Collett 1993, Morrison et al. 1994, Hickey/Stewart 2005, Grzega 2006) In Geert Hofstede's terms Europe can, to a large extent, be considered an individualistic civilization (i.e. a rather direct and analytic style is preferred, important points are mentioned before an explanation or illustration in an argument, decisions are based on compromise or majority vote); in contrast, the Sinic (Chinese), Japanese, Arabic and Hindu (Indian) civilizations are collectivistic (i.e. a rather indirect and synthetic style is used, explanations and illustrations are mentioned before the essential point of an argument, decisions are reached through consent). We can further make Edward Hall's distinction between "low context" communication (i.e. direct style, person-oriented, self-projection, loquacity) and "high context" communication (i.e. indirect style, status-oriented, reservation, silence). Most European nations use "low context" communication. Some specific features of European communication strategies - The mostly reciprocal use of address terms (this is different in Slavic and Asian civilizations, for totally different reasons).[clarification needed] Status seems to play a less important role than in the Sinic, Korean, and Japanese civilizations. Communication between the sexes is absolutely normal in Europe, whereas it is traditionally very rare in the Arabic civilization. A dual system of pronouns is used in the vast majority of European languages: Romance, such as French, or Spanish (which also exists in Argentina, Uruguay, Guatemala [vos vs. usted], German, Slavic languages [e.g. Russ. ty vs. vy]; it has also been said that the American dialect form y'all is/was occasionally used as a formal address pronoun: see y'all). There are also tendencies in the nominal series of address terms, which distinguish Europe from other civilizations. In private, Europeans nowadays quickly agree to address each other by the first name; but in business communication, one should first use the correct title, even if a change toward less formal addressing may occur quite rapidly. Titles are definitely more important in the Hindu, Arabic, Sinic and Japanese civilizations; in the Slavic civilization nicknames are frequently used in all kinds of private and informal conversation — especially in Slavic Orthodox countries, such as Russia. Nicknames are sometimes also used in informal and social situations among close friends and associates in the Americas (North and South/Latin), but to a somewhat lesser extent. - Many salutation terms in Europe (cf. especially Spillner 2001) include wishes for a good time of the day, for health (or a question whether somebody is in good health), for success or for luck. The common Arabic and Asiatic wish for peace, though, is rare in European civilization; an exception is the formal ecclesiastical Latin Pax tecum/vobiscum. Note that many European salutation phrases are frequently (at least in informal situations) very much reduced on a phonetic level, which is not so much the case in Arabic, Hindu (Indian), Sinic (Chinese) and Japanese civilizations. - Frequent small talk topics are traveling, soccer (and other international sports disciplines), hobbies, the entertainment industry and the weather. In contrast, sexuality, death, religion, politics, money or class, personal issues and swearing are generally tabooed. Any racial, ethnic, sexist and cultural biased comments are shunned and morally opposed in Europe (and all developed countries) more than anywhere else. In Hindu, Arabic, Sinic and Japanese civilization people are frequently asked about their family (in Arabic civilization, however, this excludes the wife; even the word "wife" is compared to the "F" word in English-speaking countries). Due to their status-oriented nature, people from the Far East civilizations often ask for "administrative form"[clarification needed] information, especially in Japan. - Among Europeans (includes the Americas and Australia) and sometimes east Asians (esp. in Japan), a "thank you" is expected and welcomed in quite a number of situations (perhaps the most in Great Britain and North America), whereas South Asian and Middle Eastern people use the phrase in a more economical way and often content themselves with simple looks of thanks; on the other hand, other non-western civilizations (e.g. Polynesians of the South Pacific and Native American tribes) have rather extended formulae of thanks. - With requests (cf. especially Trosborg 1995 and Cenoz/Valencia 1996), the bare imperative is normally avoided in favor of devices such as questions, modal auxiliaries, subjunctive, conditional, special adverbs. The exchange of verbal stems, which is found in Japanese and Sinic languages, is not a part of (Indo-)European languages. - When somebody has to say no, this is normally accompanied by some form of apology or explanation. In the civilizations of the Far East and many Native American tribes in North America, the formal equivalents for "no" are unacceptable and/or tabooed in general. - Apologies are necessary with face-threatening acts or after somebody has intruded into somebody else's private sphere—which is bigger and thus more easily violated in North America and Asia than in Europe and bigger in Europe (esp. the British Isles) than in Latin America and the Arab nations, and the concept of privacy and apology is universal, but varies from northern/western, eastern/Slavic and southern/Mediterranean countries (cf. especially Trosborg 1995). - By comparing the national descriptions by Axtell (1998) and Morris et al. (1979), one can conclude that in Europe one can safely make compliments about somebody's clothes and appearance, meals and restaurants, voluntary offerings, a room's equipment. (Sources and further information for this section: Haarmann 1975, Haarmann 1993, Grzega 2006) Three linguae francae are prominent in European history: - (Medieval and Neo-) Latin with a gradual decline as lingua franca since the late Middle Ages, when the vernacular languages gained more and more importance (first language academy in Italy in 1582/83), in the 17th century even at universities) apart from the Vatican). - French (from the times of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV, c. 1648 (i.e. after the Thirty Years' War, which had hardly affected France, thus free to prosper), till the end of World War I, c. 1918) Linguae francae that were less widespread, but still played a comparatively important role in European history are: - Mediterranean Lingua Franca (11th to 19th centuries), which gave its name to the phenomenon; it was a commercial pidgin based on Italian with contributions from other languages around the Mediterranean Basin. - Provençal (Occitan) (12th to 14th centuries, due to the troubadour poetry) - Middle Low German (14th to 16th centuries, during the heyday of the Hanseatic League, particularly in Northern and Northeastern Europe.) - Russian (19th and 20th centuries, in eastern and central Europe as a result of domination by the Russian Empire and Soviet Union) The first type of dictionary was the glossary, a more or less structured list of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans was among the first of these. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest in standardizing languages). Language and identity, standardization processes (Sources and further information for this section: Haarmann 1975, Haarmann 1993, Grzega 2006) In the Middle Ages the two most important definitory elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas. Thus language—at least the supranational language—played an elementary role. This changed with the spread of the national languages in official contexts and the rise of a national feeling. Among other things, this led to projects of standardizing national language and gave birth to a number of language academies (e.g. 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, 1635 Académie française, 1713 Real Academia de la Lengua in Madrid). "Language" was then (and still is today) more connected with "nation" than with "civilization" (particularly in France). "Language" was also used to create a feeling of "religious/ethnic identity" (e.g. different Bible translations by Catholics and Protestants of the same language). Among the first standardization discussions and processes are the ones for Italian ("questione della lingua": Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian > Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (standard is based on Parisian), English (standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on: chancellery of Meißen/Saxony + Middle German + chancellery of Prague/Bohemia ["Common German"]). But also a number of other nations began to look for and develop a standard variety in the 16th century. (Sources and further information for this section: Stephens 1976, Price 1998, Ahrens 2003, Grzega 2006) Despite the importance of English as an international lingua franca in Europe, Europe is also linguistically diverse, and minority languages are protected, e.g. by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages founded in the 1990s. This underlines that the popular view of "one nation = one language" (cf. Wirrer 2003) is mostly false. A minority language can be defined as a language used by a group that defines itself as an ethnic minority group, whereby the language of this group is typologically different and not a dialect of the standard language. For several years now, Jan Wirrer has been working on the status of minority languages in Europe (cf., e.g., Wirrer 2000 and 2003). In Europe—e.g. thanks to the European Charter of Regional and Minority Language—some languages are in quite a strong position, in the sense that they are given special status, such as Basque, Irish, Welsh, Catalan, Rhaeto-Romance/Romansh and Romani, native language of the Roma/Gypsies in southern Europe), whereas others are in a rather weak position (e.g. Frisian, Scottish Gaelic, Turkish, Saami/Lappish, Sorbian/Wendish and Yiddish, the once common language of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe). Especially non-indigenous minority languages are not given official status in the EU. Some minor languages don't even have a standard yet, i.e. they have not even reached the level of an ausbausprache yet, which could be changed, e.g., if these languages were given official status. (cf. also next section). Issues in language politics (Sources and further information for this section: Siguan 2002, Ahrens 2003, Grzega 2006) France is the origin of two laws, or decrees, concerning language: the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1239), which says that every document in France should be written in French (i.e. not in Latin nor Occitan) and the French Loi Toubon, which aims at eliminating Anglicisms from official documents. But a characteristic feature of Europe is linguistic diversity and tolerance, which is not only shown by the European Charta of Regional and Minority Languages. An illustrative proof of the promotion of linguistic diversity in the Middle Ages is the translation school in Toledo, Spain, founded in the 12th century (in medieval Toledo the Christian, the Jewish and the Arab civilizations lived together remarkably peacefully). This tolerant linguistic attitude is also the reason why the EU's general rule is that every official national language is also an official EU language. However, Letzebuergish/Luxemburgish is not an official EU language, because there are also other (stronger) official languages with "EU status" in that country. Several concepts for an EU language policy are being debated: - one official language (e.g. English, Interlingua, or Esperanto). - several official languages (e.g. English, French, German, Spanish + another topic-dependent language). - all national languages as official languages, but with a number of relais languages for translations (e.g. English or Esperanto as relais languages). - New immigrants in European countries are expected to learn the host nation's language, but are still speaking and reading their native languages (i.e. Arabic, Hindi, Mandarin Chinese, Swahili and Tahitian) in Europe's increasingly multi-ethnic/multicultural profile. - Wolfgang Abbe et al.: Bibliographie Europäische Sprachwissenschaft, 50 vols. Hamburg: Loges 2011. - Rüdiger Ahrens (ed.): Europäische Sprachenpolitik / European Language Policy, Heidelberg: Winter 2003. - R. E. Asher et al. (eds.): The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Oxford: Pergamon 1994. - Roger Axtell: Do's and Taboos Around the World, White Plains: Benjamin 1993. - Andrea Brendler / Silvio Brendler: Europäische Personennamensysteme: Ein Handbuch von Abasisch bis Zentralladinisch, Hamburg: Baar 2007. - Jasone Cenoz / Jose F. Valencia: 'Cross-Cultural Communication and Interlanguage Pragmatics: American vs. European Requests', in: Journal of Pragmatics vol. 20 (1996): p. 41-54. - Peter Collett: Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms, London: Simon & Schuster 1991. - Gyula Décsy: Die linguistische Struktur Europas: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 1973. - Manfred Görlach (ed.), English in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002. - Joachim Grzega: EuroLinguistischer Parcours: Kernwissen zur europäischen Sprachkultur, Frankfurt: IKO 2006, ISBN 3-88939-796-4 (most of the information presented here is a summary of this book—the book was positively reviewed by Norbert Reiter here and by Uwe Hinrichs here) - Joachim Grzega: Europas Sprachen und Kulturen im Wandel der Zeit, Tübingen: Narr 2012. - Harald Haarmann: Soziologie und Politik der Sprachen Europas, München: dtv 1975. - Harald Haarmann: Universalgeschichte der Schrift, 2nd ed., Frankfurt (Main)/New York: Campus 1991. - Harald Haarmann: Die Sprachenwelt Europas: Geschichte und Zukunft der Sprachnationen zwischen Atlantik und Ural, Frankfurt (Main): Campus 1993. - Martin Haspelmath: "The European Linguistic Area: Standard Average European", in: Martin Haspelmath et al. (eds.), Language Typology and Language Universals, vol. 2, p. 1492–1510, Berlin: de Gruyter 2001. - Martin Haspelmath et al. (eds.): The World Atlas of Language Structures, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005. - Bernd Heine / Tania Kuteva: The Changing Languages of Europe, New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press 2006. - Leo Hickey / Miranda Stewart (eds.): Politeness in Europe, Clevedon etc.: Multilingual Matters 2005. - Samuel Huntington: The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Simon & Schuster 1996. - Peter A. Kraus: Europäische Öffentlichkeit und Sprachpolitik: Integration durch Anerkennung, Frankfurt (Main)/New York: Campus. - Ernst Lewy: Der Bau der europäischen Sprachen, Tübingen: Niemeyer 1964. - Desmond Morris et al. (1979): Gestures: Their Origins and Distributions, New York: Stein & Day. - Terri Morrison et al.: Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: How to Do Business in Sixty Countries, Holbrook: Adams Media 1994. - Gyula Paczolay: European Proverbs in 55 Languages with Equivalents in Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Chinese and Japanese, Veszprém: Veszprém Press 1997. - Baldur Panzer: "Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede im Wortschatz europäischer Sprachen", in: Werner Besch et al. (eds.), Sprachgeschichte, vol. 2, p. 1123–1136, Frankfurt (Main): Lang 2000. - Siegfried Piotrowski / Helmar Frank (eds.): Europas Sprachlosigkeit: Vom blinden Fleck der European Studies und seiner eurologischen Behebung, München: KoPäd 2002. - Glanville Price: Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, Oxford: Blackwell 1998. - Peter Rehder: 'Das Slovenische', in: Rehder, Peter (ed.), Einführung in die slavischen Sprachen, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 1998. - Helmut Schmidt: Die Selbstbehauptung Europas: Perspektiven für das 21. Jahrhundert, Stuttgart/München: Deutsche Verlangs-Anstalt 2000. - Miquel Siguan: Europe and the Languages, 2002, English internet version of the book L'Europa de les llengües, Barcelona: edicions 62. - Bernd Spillner: Die perfekte Anrede: Schriftlich und mündlich, formell und informell, national und international, Landsberg (Lech): Moderne Industrie. - M. Stephens: Linguistic Minorities in Western Europe, Llandysul 1976. - Anna Trosborg: Interlanguage Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints and Apologies, Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter 1995. - Jan Wirrer (ed.): Minderheitensprachen in Europa, Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag 2000. - Jan Wirrer: 'Staat—Nation—Sprache, eine Gleichung, die—fast—aufgeht: Minderheiten- und Regionalsprachen in Europa", in: Metzing, Dieter (ed.), Sprachen in Europa: Sprachpolitik, Sprachkontakt, Sprachkultur, Sprachentwicklung, Sprachtypologie, p. 21-52, Bielefeld: Aisthesis 2003.

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Trade books and circuit activities enhance science literacy and energy education. Electricity is an integral part of our daily life. We interact with and notice the effects of electrical connections and disconnections daily. Children, like adults, infer the effects of electrical conductivity. They see the illumination of a lightbulb or feel the emission of warmth from an electric stovetop but may not understand the role electrical circuits play. Focusing on the concrete aspects of electrical energy transfer helps improve student experiences with the abstract concept of electricity. In this article we provide experiences for elementary-age children to explore electrical circuits. Our purposes for these lessons are for students to develop questions and connect their exploration of electrical energy to concrete observations of electrical effects found in trade books. While portions of the described lesson is aligned to Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) performance expectation 4-PS3-2 Energy, emphasis occurs on the design expectation 4-PS3-4 Energy. As STEM content and practices become increasingly integrated in other subjects, children are likely to see examples of effects of electricity without understanding it. Children never see energy traveling through conducting material. They only hear, see, or feel the results of energy movement. For example, in Christina Geist’s (2016) Buddy’s Bedtime Battery, the main character, Buddy, mimics robots as rigidly moving and beeping apparatuses. Other books such as Pete the Cat: Robo-Pete by James Dean (2015), Boy and Bot by Ame Dyckman (2012), and Rusty the Squeaky Robot by Neil Clark (2019) portray robots as masses of metal that comply with human commands. Knowledge of simple circuits is not a prominent component of these stories; there is only a portrayal of complete circuits or the results of completing a circuit. Providing opportunity for children to experience and experiment with complete and incomplete simple circuits provides an introduction to the complex topic of electricity. In this lesson, we highlight connections between the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and grade 4 energy performance expectations from the NGSS. August et al. (2014) writes that both sets of standards rely on the development of academic language. The CCSS and the NGSS have been designed to enable students to meet the rigorous academic demands of all subjects (Lee 2017) and the language in the CCSS highlights links between subject-specific knowledge and literacy (Cervetti and Hiebert 2015). Additionally, many of the learning descriptions and active verbs in both the NGSS and the Common Core show commonalities, such as analyze, interpret, observe, notice, ask, answer, draw, dictate, write, and describe (Clark and Lott 2017). In elementary school classrooms, curricula that highlight these connections often utilize discipline-based literacy. Integrating children’s literature can help make science concepts more relatable by providing context to help children build connections between science and their lives (Barclay, Benelli, and Schoon 2012). This integration of the NGSS and the CCSS shows that “writing and reading can be used as tools to support inquiry-based science,” and that “reading and writing benefit when embedded in an inquiry-based science setting” (Pearson, Moje, and Greenleaf 2010, p. 459). The upcoming activities are thematically linked to form a 5E lesson suitable for concepts found in grade 4 NGSS. The first three activities—Engage, Explore, and Explain —are included but minimally described, as they are common electricity activities. The Elaborate and Evaluate activities are the foci of the lesson and provide opportunities for children to build their own circuits and write stories that connect their creations to a selected text. Before beginning the engage component of the lesson, provide each student with side shield safety glasses or goggles to protect their eyes from the potential of flying sharps. In lieu of wire cutters or nippers, school scissors should be used to cut any thin wires often found in small inexpensive flashlights. Provide each group with two pairs of scissors. Due to the size of CR2032 batteries, remind students to never place them in their mouth. To reduce overheating of wire and lighted LED bulb, do not keep the circuit active for long periods. Instruct students to let their teacher know immediately if an LED bulb breaks/shatters and do not touch the bulb (immediately clean up any broken bulbs by sweeping them up while wearing gloves and disposing of them as hazardous waste). For the Engage phase, students interact with and dismantle a flashlight. Begin the activity by creating groups of mixed- ability students with three to four kids per group. Post and mention the following question and statements, “What do you notice about the flashlight? Interact with it; take it apart. Write and draw what you observe.” Provide one flashlight per group. Encourage students to turn the flashlight on and off and dissect the flashlight by removing portions of its inner components. After being advised to draw, label, and record observations of the flashlight in their science journals, require students to display and present their drawings and observations about the components of a flashlight. Student presentations confirm the results of a complete flashlight circuit. They will typically draw light emitted from the flashlight and some may indicate a warm lightbulb. Teachers interpret these drawings as a student’s ability to indicate the results of the simple flashlight circuit instead of an explanation of how the light and warmth are created. These observations create the foundation for identifying how simple circuits work. Additionally, such observations are easily confirmed in fictional texts that can be integrated into the lesson during the explore phase. In the Explore activity, provide students with fictional texts that have a robot theme. Examples include Buddy’s Bedtime Battery (Geist 2016) or Pete the Cat: Robo-Pete (Dean 2015), Boy and Bot (Dyckman 2012), or Rusty the Squeaky Robot (Clark 2019). Encourage students to read their selected text and identify portrayals of circuits by considering the guiding questions, “Which parts of circuits are present? How are circuits illustrated?" and "What evidence of complete circuits are illustrated?” Ask students to list questions about circuits, robots, and flashlights. For example, after students read Pete the Cat: Robo-Pete, students identified illustrations of flashing lights, batteries, sounds, and motion as the author’s evidence of a complete circuit. Their questions were, “What is the source of Robo-Pete’s energy? How is the battery connected to the robot? How does the switch work? Where are Robo-Pete’s wires? How does Robo-Pete move?” Require students to contrast what they notice in textual drawings with what they experienced during the flashlight dissection—ask students to identify the components of the flashlight that are omitted from their selected texts. For instance, Dean illustrates a battery for Robo-Pete, along with a switch, a robot voice, and skateboard motion; however, wires and complete circuits are completely omitted from the illustrations. Students noticed these omissions when they compared their drawings with the text illustrations. Lead students to realize that authors claim complete circuits in fictional texts by presenting illustrated evidence (e.g., colorful lights, turning wheels, and robot dialogue). Coincidentally, such omissions can create misconceptions, as the reader never sees the required circuits or components. Use the explain phase to shift student attention toward the presence of components within and required configuration of a circuit. Student-generated questions, dissected flashlights, and labeled drawings are key components for the explain portion of the lesson. Facilitate a class discussion to foster connections between student experiences in the engage and explore sections (Owens 2015). Elicit student questions and observations to create conceptual connections by asking the following guiding questions: What questions do you have after reading the text? (Answers vary) What are your observations about the flashlight when it is on? and off? (Answers vary) What is the energy source of the flashlight? (Battery) How do we know energy is present? (The light is on, or I feel heat.) How do we know the energy has stopped moving? (The light is off, or the bulb is cool.) When can the battery provide energy to the lightbulb? (When the bulb is correctly connected to both ends of the battery) What connects the battery to the lightbulb? (Wires or metal) How does energy in the flashlight move? (Energy travels through or down the wires.) Connect student drawings to explanations about circuit requirements. Display simple circuit diagrams from a web simulation like the PhET Interactive Circuit Simulator website (see Internet Resources). Encourage students to build and review details about complete and incomplete circuits by using the diagrams as models to rebuild the flashlight circuit. Illustrate that circuits must contain pathways that are conductors, materials that energy moves through, and an energy source such as a battery. Mention that an indicator, like a lightbulb, motor, or alarm, displays energy transfer processes such as light and heat, motion, or sound (Duncan, Krajcik, and Rivet 2017). State that complete circuits allow the energy to move through the pathway and indicator. Additionally, when diagramed, complete circuits make a circle or continuous pathway. End with the statement that incomplete circuits do not allow energy to move through the pathway and indicator. After students confirm needed components and configurations for simple circuits, return to incorporating trade books with similar themes to provide additional context for the science lesson. For instance, Buddy’s Bedtime Battery provides an opportunity for teachers to invite students to build the main character, Buddy, a companion robot. In the story, Buddy, a toddler, acts like a robot while his family encourages him to fall asleep by guiding him through a bedtime ritual. The habits include beeping after complying with commands, rigidly walking like a robot, and “powering down” to eventually fall asleep. A practical compliment to the story is to create a “companion toy robot.” Students can recall and connect their explorations of circuitry to the text by researching and designing a prototype of Buddy’s toy—a wired household item —that displays an indication of electrical transmission. The story provides context for students to illustrate step-by-step instructions for building a prototype robot (see NSTA Connection for instructions for creating a Styrofoam cup robot). Overall, this elaborate activity requires approximately 100 minutes of experiential time for assembling the bot. Criteria for creating robot prototypes have general and specific components. Students (in groups of three or four) must include the following required materials within their bot: 1 CR2032 button battery, 40 cm conductive tape with adhesive backing, and one small binder clip. The bot must have a switch, one complete circuit, and an indicator of electrical transmission—at least one illuminated LED lightbulb or movement. The circuitry should be within the body of the bot. Students should be provided with and able to select robot bodies from such common household items as paper, plastic, or Styrofoam cups, tissue boxes, and paper or plastic bags. Select items for robot shells that can be cut with school scissors (e.g., Styrofoam and soft plastic). Also, include craft sticks in various sizes, toothpicks, wheels with axles (from dismantled toy cars), small motors (found in most hobby stores) and masking tape. We purchased Maker Tape from www.browndowngadgets.com for $5 (plus shipping and handling) and gathered all other items from school supply closets, home, and hobby stores for less than $20. Encourage children to decorate their “robot prototype” with an assortment of googly eyes, glue, clear pony beads, glitter, plastic or paper straws, feathers, stickers, chenille sticks and washi/paper decorative tape. The practice of facilitating opportunities for children to critically read fictional text for confirmation or identification of concepts enriches student science literacy (Bradbury 2014). The robot-themed fictional books mentioned in this article have main ideas that are unrelated to robots. Pete the Cat: Robo-Pete is about learning to compromise and valuing experiences with friends. Buddy’s Bedtime Battery is about an active toddler’s bedtime routine to quiet down and go to sleep. While these robot-themed texts were not written to specifically inform the reader about circuits and electricity, they influence the reader to infer certain conclusions about electricity. Such student inferences are common practices in elementary settings, where trade texts are common. Leveraging trade texts as contextual focal points allow students to critically analyze concepts through teacher-guided discussions and writing prompts (Bradbury 2014; Pearson, Moje, and Greenleaf 2010). In the evaluate portion of this lesson, students uncover their inferences and correctly integrate science content within the text. Students read then extend the story to include correct conceptions of electricity and circuitry principles. The extensions incorporate illustrations of the prototype robots built during the elaborate section. While the elaborate section required students to build prototypes of a robot, the evaluate section focuses on writing and illustrating an extension of a selected robot-themed story. Student stories can vary, so they must be evaluated using specific criteria. A rubric is listed online (see NSTA Connection). While working in mixed-ability groups of three or four students, students read a robot-themed fictional text and extend the story. The expanded composition should include error-free conceptual information about circuits. The stories should creatively incorporate (a) an explanation of how energy is transferred in complete circuits, (b) a list of the components of circuits, and (c) a depiction of indicators of complete and incomplete circuits. Students use teacher-approved websites and expository texts to research simple circuits and circuitry configurations. The added resources allow students to review and provide more details about complete and incomplete circuits. An example is the Electro-Bot interactive website (see Internet Resources). The following guiding questions may be posted to facilitate student ideas: Which parts of a circuit are present in the story? Which parts of a circuit are absent in the story? How would the story change if a complete circuit were included in the story? How would the story change if an incomplete circuit were included in the story? What should the reader know about complete circuits? When should the reader be informed about complete circuits in the story? With such questions, students are lead to create connections across what they read in the fictional texts, websites, and their previous experiences. The questions act as scaffolds for writing and analysis of primary resources. Integrating the practices of scaffolding questions, hands-on instruction, and writing with science instruction help to increase science literacy within English Language Arts contexts (Barclay, Benelli, and Schoon 2012; Mahzoon-Hagheghi et al. 2018). Electricity and circuits occupy many aspects of our daily life, as does literacy and writing to learn. Fiction books can integrate examples of energy literacy without providing adequate explanation to the reader. Using these lessons, students will be able to critically analyze such texts to develop an understanding of open and closed circuits. They display their understanding of circuitry by illuminating an everyday object as a prototype toy robot and extending a selected story with an energy theme. With this lesson, we also illustrate an author’s inferences within texts and connect them to hands-on activities to demystify electrical energy transfer. This practice provides a conceptual foundation for students so they may increase their science literacy about energy. Students question how circuits work, the components of circuits, and how to create a circuit. Students deconstruct flashlights to develop a conceptual model of a circuit and use this knowledge to develop their own circuit model in the form of a robot prototype. PS3B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer Energy can also be transferred from place to place by electric currents, which can then be used locally to produce motion, sound, heat, or light. The currents may have been produced to begin with by transforming the energy of motion into electrical energy. Students construct circuits; they observe and label their components to identify energy transference from place to place by electric currents, which are then used to produce light energy. PS3D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life The expression “produce energy” typically refers to the conversion of stored energy into a desired form for practical use. Students construct circuits; they observe stored energy from batteries that is converted into light energy to illuminate everyday items Students construct and deconstruct circuits to create models that support conceptual understandings and engineering designs, as well as opportunities to explore interactions between the parts of the model. 4-PS3-4. Apply scientific ideas to design, test, and refine a device that converts energy from one form to another. CCCS.ELA.W.4.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and information clearly Students integrate academic vocabulary about energy transfer and circuit components into an existing story, entitled Buddy’s Bedtime Battery CCCS.ELA.W.4.7 Conduct short research projects that build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic. (4-PS3-4) Students conduct experiments to build knowledge about energy transfer and circuits. August D., Branum-Martin L., Ca´rdenas-Hagan E., Francis D., Powell J., Moore S., and Haynes E. 2014. Helping ELLs meet the Common Core State Standards for literacy in science: The impact of an instructional intervention focused on academic language. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 7 (1): 54–82. Barclay K., Benelli C., and Schoon S. 2012. Making the connection!: Science & literacy. Childhood Education 75 (3): 146–152. Bradbury L.U. 2014. Linking science and language arts: A review of the literature which compares integrated versus non-integrated approaches. Journal of Science Teacher Education 25: 465–488. Cervetti G.N., and Hiebert E.H. 2015. Knowledge, literacy, and the Common Core. Language Arts 92 (4): 256–269. Clark S.K., and Lott K. 2017. Integrating science inquiry and literacy instruction for young children. The Reading Teacher 70 (6): 701–710. Duncan R.G., Krajcik J.S., and Rivet A.E.. 2017. Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Lee O. 2017. Common Core State Standard for ELA/literacy and Next Generation Science Standards: Convergences and discrepancies using argument as an example. Educational Researcher 46 (2): 90–102. Mahzoon-Hagheghi M., Yerba R., Johnson R.D., and Sohn L.N. 2018. Fostering a greater understanding of science in the classroom through children’s literature. Texas Journal of Literacy Education 6 (1): 41–50. Owens A.D. 2015. The BSCS 5E instructional model. Science Scope 39 (1): 77. Pearson P.D., Moje E., and Greenleaf C.. 2010. Literacy and science: Each in the service of the other. Science 328 (5977): 459–463. doi:10.1126/science.1182595 Clark N. 2019. Rusty the squeaky robot. London, UK: Aurum. Dean J. 2015. Pete the cat: Robo-Pete. New York: HarperCollins. Dyckman A. 2012. Boy and bot. New York: Penguin Random House. Geist C. 2016. Buddy’s bedtime battery. New York: Penguin Random House. Reports ArticleFrom the Field: Freebies and Opportunities for Science and STEM Teachers, August 23, 2022 Reports ArticleFrom the Field: Freebies and Opportunities for Science and STEM Teachers, August 16, 2022

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This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2015) A postal code (also known locally in various English-speaking countries throughout the world as a postcode, post code, PIN or ZIP Code) is a series of letters or digits or both, sometimes including spaces or punctuation, included in a postal address for the purpose of sorting mail. Although postal codes are usually assigned to geographical areas, special codes are sometimes assigned to individual addresses or to institutions that receive large volumes of mail, such as government agencies and large commercial companies. One example is the French CEDEX system. There are a number of synonyms for postal code; some are country-specific. - CAP: The standard term in Italy; CAP is an acronym for codice di avviamento postale (postal expedition code). - CEP: The standard term in Brazil; CEP is an acronym for código de endereçamento postal (postal addressing code). - Eircode: The standard term in Ireland. - NPA in French-speaking Switzerland (numéro postal d'acheminement) and Italian-speaking Switzerland (numero postale di avviamento). - PIN: The standard term in India; PIN is an acronym for Postal Index Number. Sometimes called a PIN code. - PLZ: The standard term in Germany, Austria, German-speaking Switzerland and Liechtenstein; PLZ is an abbreviation of Postleitzahl (postal routing number). - Postal code: The general term is used in Canada. - Postcode: This solid compound is popular in many English-speaking countries and is also the standard term in the Netherlands. - Postal index: This term is used in Eastern European countries such as Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus etc. - PSČ: The standard term in Slovakia and Czech Republic; PSČ is an acronym for Poštové smerovacie číslo (in Slovak) or Poštovní směrovací číslo (in Czech), both meaning postal routing number. - ZIP Code: The standard term in the United States and the Philippines; ZIP is an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan. The development of postal codes reflects the increasing complexity of postal delivery as populations grew and the built environment became more complex. This happened first in large cities. Postal codes began with postal district numbers (or postal zone numbers) within large cities. London was first subdivided into 10 districts in 1857 (EC (East Central), WC (West Central), N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW), four were created to cover Liverpool in 1864 and Manchester/Salford was split into eight numbered districts in 1867/68. By World War I, such postal district or zone numbers also existed in various large European cities. They existed in the United States at least as late as the 1920s, possibly implemented at the local post office level only (for example, instances of "Boston 9, Mass" in 1920 are attested) although they were evidently not used throughout all major US cities (implemented USPOD-wide) until World War II. By 1930 or earlier the idea of extending postal district or zone numbering plans beyond large cities to cover even small towns and rural locales was in the air. These developed into postal codes as they are defined today. The name of US postal codes, "ZIP codes", reflects this evolutionary growth from a zone plan to a zone improvement plan, "ZIP". Modern postal codes were first introduced in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in December 1932, but the system was abandoned in 1939. The next country to introduce postal codes was Germany in 1941, followed by Singapore in 1950, Argentina in 1958, the United States in 1963 and Switzerland in 1964. The United Kingdom began introducing its current system in Norwich in 1959, but they were not used nationwide until 1974. The characters used in postal codes are Postal codes in the Netherlands originally did not use the letters 'F', 'I', 'O', 'Q', 'U' and 'Y' for technical reasons. But as almost all existing combinations are now used, these letters were allowed for new locations starting 2005. The letter combinations "SS" (Schutzstaffel), "SD" (Sicherheitsdienst), and "SA" (Sturmabteilung) are not used, due to links with the Nazi occupation in World War II. Postal codes in Canada do not include the letters D, F, I, O, Q, or U, as the optical character recognition (OCR) equipment used in automated sorting could easily confuse them with other letters and digits. The letters W and Z are used, but are not currently used as the first letter. The Canadian Postal Codes use alternate letters and numbers (with a space after the third character) in this format: A9A 9A9 In Ireland the eircode system uses the following letters only: A, C, D, E, F, H, K, N, P, R, T, V, W, X, Y. This serves two purposes: - to avoid confusion in OCR, and - it also helps to avoid accidental double-entendres by avoiding the creation of word look-alikes, as Eircode's last four characters are random. Alphanumeric postal codesEdit Most of the postal code systems are numeric; only a few are alphanumeric (i.e., use both letters and digits). Alphanumeric systems can, given the same number of characters, encode many more locations. For example, while a two digit numeric code can represent 100 locations, a two character alphanumeric code using ten numbers and twenty letters can represent 900 locations. The independent nations using alphanumeric postal code systems are: - Argentina (see table) - Brunei (see table) - Canada (see table) - Ireland (see table) - Jamaica (see table) (suspended in 2007) - Kazakhstan (since 2015) - Malta (see table) - Netherlands (see table) - Peru (see table) The postal code format in Peru was updated in February 2011 to be of the format of five digits. - United Kingdom (see table) Country code prefixesEdit ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes were recommended by the European Committee for Standardization as well as the Universal Postal Union to be used in conjunction with postal codes starting in 1994, but they have not become widely used. In some countries (such as in continental Europe, where a numeric postcode format of four or five digits is commonly used) the numeric postal code is sometimes prefixed with a country code when sending international mail to that country. Placement of the codeEdit Postal services have their own formats and placement rules for postal codes. In most English-speaking countries, the postal code forms the last item of the address, following the city or town name, whereas in most continental European countries it precedes the name of the city or town. When it follows the city it may be on the same line or on a new line. In Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan it is written at the beginning of an address. In Japan it is written at the start of the address when written in Japanese, but at the end when the address is written in the Latin alphabet. Postal codes are usually assigned to geographical areas. Sometimes codes are assigned to individual addresses or to institutions that receive large volumes of mail, e.g. government agencies or large commercial companies. One example is the French Cedex system. Postal zone numbersEdit Before postal codes as described here were used, large cities were often divided into postal zones or postal districts, usually numbered from 1 upwards within each city. The newer postal code systems often incorporate the old zone numbers, as with London postal district numbers, for example. Ireland still uses postal district numbers in Dublin. In New Zealand, Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch were divided into postal zones, but these fell into disuse, and have now become redundant as a result of a new postcode system being introduced. Codes defined along administrative bordersEdit Format of six digit numeric (eight digit alphanumeric) postal codes in Ecuador, introduced in December 2007: ECAABBCC - EC - ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code - AA - one of the 24 provinces of Ecuador (24 of 100 possible codes used = 24%) - BB - one of the 226 cantons of Ecuador (for AABB 226 of 10000 codes used, i.e. 2.26%. Three cantons are not in any province) - CC - one of the parishes of Ecuador. Format of five digit numeric Postal codes in Costa Rica, introduced in 2007: ABBCC - A - one of the seven provinces of Costa Rica (7 of 10 used, i.e. 70%) - BB - one of the 81 cantons of Costa Rica (81 of 100 used, i.e. 81%) - CC - one of the districts of Costa Rica. In Costa Rica these codes were originally used as district identifiers by the National Institute of Statistics and Census of Costa Rica and the Administrative Territorial Division, and continue to be equivalent. The first two digits of the postal codes in Vietnam indicate a province. Some provinces have one, other have several two digit numbers assigned. The numbers differ from the number used in ISO 3166-2:VN. Codes defined close to administrative boundariesEdit In France the numeric code for the departments is used as the first two digits of the postal code, except for the two departments in Corsica that have codes 2A and 2B and use 20 as postal code. Furthermore, the codes are only the codes for the department in charge of delivery of the post, so it can be that a location in one department has a postal code starting with the number of a neighbouring department. Codes defined indirectly to administrative bordersEdit The first digit of the postal codes in the United States comprises discrete states. From the first three digits one can infer the state, with a few exceptions where an area is served by a central office in an adjacent state. Similarly, in Canada, the first letter indicates the province or territory, although the provinces of Quebec and Ontario are divided into several lettered sub-regions (e.g. H for Montreal and Laval), and the Northwest Territories and Nunavut share the letter X. Codes defined independently from administrative areasEdit The first two digits of the postal codes in Germany define areas independently of administrative regions. The coding space of the first digit is fully used (0-9); that of the first two combined is utilized to 89%, i.e. there are 89 postal zones defined. Zone 11 is non-geographic. Royal Mail designed the postal codes in the United Kingdom mostly for efficient distribution. Nevertheless, people associated codes with certain areas, leading to some people wanting or not wanting to have a certain code. See also postcode lottery. In Brazil the 8-digit postcodes are an evolution of the five-digit area postal codes. In the 1990s the Brazilian five-digit postal code (illustrated), DDDDD, received a three-digit suffix DDDDD-SSS, but this suffix is not directly related to the administrative district hierarchy. The suffix was created only for logistic reasons. City blocks surrounded by streets, some streets with a different eight-digit postal code (suffixes 001 to 899). Faces of a city block and their extension into its interior. Each color is an eight-digit postal code, usually assigned to a side (odd or even numbered) of a street. The postal code assignment can be assigned to individual land lots in some special cases — in Brazil they are named "large receivers" and receive suffixes 900–959. In any other case it is an error to associate the postal code with the whole land lot area (illustrated). A postal code is often related to a land lot, but this is not always the case. Postal codes are usually related to access points on streets. Small or middle-sized houses, in general, only have a single main gate which is the delivery point. Parks, large businesses such as shopping centers, and big houses, may have more than one entrance and more than one delivery point. So the semantic of an address and its postal code can vary, and one land lot may have more than one postal code. Czechoslovakia introduced Postal Routing Numbers (PSČ - poštovní směrovací čísla) in 1973. The code consists of 5 digits formatted into two groups: NNN NN. Originally, the first group marked a district transport centre, the second group represented the order of post offices on the collection route. In the first group, the first digit corresponds partly with the region, the second digit meant a collection transport node (sběrný přepravní uzel, SPU) and the third digit a "district transport node" (okresní přepravní uzel). However, processing was later centralized and mechanized while codes remained the same. After separation Slovakia and the Czech Republic kept the system. Codes with an initial digit of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 are used in the Czech Republic, while codes with an initial digit of 8, 9, or 0 are used in Slovakia A code corresponds to a local postal office. However, some larger companies or organizations have their own post codes. In 2004–2006 there were some efforts in Slovakia to reform the system, to get separate post codes for every district of single postmen, but the change was not realized. Postal codes are known as Postal Index Numbers (PINs; sometimes as PIN codes) in India. The PIN system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by India Post. India uses a unique six-digit code as a geographical number to identify locations in India. The format of the PIN is ZSDPPP defined as follows: - Z — Zone - S — Sub-zone - D — Sorting District - PPP — Post Office There are nine total zones consisting of eight regional zones and a functional zone which are represented by the first digit. In Ireland, the new postal code system launched in 2015, known as Eircode provides a unique 7-character alphanumerical code for each individual address. The first three digits are the routing key, which is a postal district and the last four characters are a unique identifier that relates to an individual address (business, house or apartment). A fully developed API is also available for integrating the Eircode database into business databases and logistics systems. With a single exception, these codes are in the format: The single exception is the Dublin D6W postal district. It is the only routing key area in the country that takes the format ANA instead of ANN: While it is not intended to replace addresses, in theory simply providing a seven-character Eircode would locate any Irish delivery address. For example, the Irish Parliament Dáil Éireann is: D02 A272 Postal codes in the Netherlands, known as postcodes, are alphanumeric, consisting of four digits followed by a space and two letters (NNNN AA). Adding the house number to the postcode will identify the address, making the street name and town name redundant. For example: 2597 GV 75 will direct a postal delivery to Theo Mann-Bouwmeesterlaan 75, 's-Gravenhage (the International School of The Hague). For domestic properties, an individual postcode may cover up to 100 properties in contiguous proximity (e.g. a short section of a populous road, or a group of less populous neighbouring roads). The postcode together with the number or name of a property is not always unique, particularly in rural areas. For example, GL20 8NX/1 might refer to either 1 Frampton Cottages or 1 Frampton Farm Cottages, roughly a quarter of a mile (400 metres) apart. A9 9AA A9A 9AA A99 9AA AA9 9AA AA9A 9AA AA99 9AA There are always two halves: the separation between outward and inward postcodes is indicated by one space. The outward postcode covers a unique area and has two parts which may in total be two, three or four characters in length. A postcode area of one or two letters, followed by one or two numbers, followed in some parts of London by a letter. The outward postcode and the leading numeric of the inward postcode in combination forms a postal sector, and this usually corresponds to a couple of thousand properties. Larger businesses and isolated properties such as farms may have a unique postcode. Extremely large organisations such as larger government offices or bank headquarters may have multiple postcodes for different departments. There are about 100 postcode areas, ranging widely in size from BT which covers the whole of Northern Ireland to WC for a small part of Central London. Postcode areas occasionally cross national boundaries, such as SY which covers a large, predominantly rural area from Shrewsbury and Ludlow in Shropshire, England, through to the seaside town of Aberystwyth, Ceredigion on Wales' west coast. In the United States, the basic ZIP Code is composed of five numbers. The first three numbers identify a specific sectional center facility—or central sorting facility—that serves a geographic region (typically a large part of a state). The next two numbers identify a specific post office either serving an area of a city (if in an urban area or large suburban area) or an entire village, town, or small city and its surrounding area (if in a small suburban or rural area). There is an extended format of the ZIP Code known as the ZIP+4, which contains the basic five-digit ZIP Code, followed by a hyphen and four additional digits. These digits identify a specific delivery route, such as one side of a building, a group of apartments, or several floors of a large office building. Although using the ZIP+4 offers higher accuracy, addressing redundancy, and sorting efficiency within the USPS, it is optional and not widely used by the general public. It is primarily only used by business mailers. For high volume business mailers using automated mailing machines, the USPS has promulgated the Intelligent Mail barcode standard, which is a barcode containing the ZIP+4 code plus a two digit delivery point. This 11-digit number is theoretically a unique identifier for every address in the country. States and overseas territories sharing a postal code systemEdit French overseas departments and territories use the five-digit French postal code system, each code starting with the three-digit department identifier. Monaco is also integrated in the French system and has no system of its own. The British Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man are part of the UK postcode system. They use the schemes AAN NAA and AANN NAA, in which the first two letters are a unique code (GY, JE and IM respectively). Most of the Overseas Territories have UK-style postcodes, with a single postcode for each territory or dependency, although they are still treated as international destinations by Royal Mail in the UK, and charged at international rather than UK inland rates. The four other Overseas Territories Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands and Cayman Islands have their own separate systems and formats. San Marino and the Vatican City are part of the Italian postcode system, while Liechtenstein similarly uses the Swiss system, as do the Italian exclave of Campione d'Italia and the German exclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein, although they also form part of their respective countries' postal code systems. The Czech Republic and Slovakia still use the codes of the former Czechoslovakia, their ranges not overlapping. In 2004–2006, Slovakia prepared a reform of the system but the plan was postponed and maybe abandoned. In Czechia, there was no significant effort to modify the system. In the United Kingdom, the non-conforming postal code GIR 0AA was used for the National Girobank until its closure in 2003. A non-geographic series of postcodes, starting with BX, is used by some banks and government departments. - HM Revenue and Customs - VAT Controller - VAT Central Unit - BX5 5AT A fictional address is also used by Royal Mail for letters to Santa Claus, more commonly known as Santa or Father Christmas: - Santa's Grotto - Reindeerland XM4 5HQ Previously, the postcode SAN TA1 was used. In Finland, the special postal code 99999 is for Korvatunturi, the place where Santa Claus (Joulupukki in Finnish) is said to live, although mail is delivered to the Santa Claus Village in Rovaniemi. In Canada, the amount of mail sent to Santa Claus increased every Christmas, up to the point that Canada Post decided to start an official Santa Claus letter-response program in 1983. Approximately one million letters come in to Santa Claus each Christmas, including from outside of Canada, and all of them are answered in the same languages in which they are written. Canada Post introduced a special address for mail to Santa Claus, complete with its own postal code: - SANTA CLAUS - NORTH POLE H0H 0H0 In Belgium bpost sends a small present to children who have written a letter to Sinterklaas. They can use the non-geographic postal code 0612, which refers to the date Sinterklaas is celebrated (6 December), although a fictional town, street and house number are also used. In Dutch, the address is - Spanjestraat 1 - 0612 Hemel This translates as "1 Spain Street, 0612 Heaven". In French, the street is called "Paradise Street": - Rue du Paradis 1 - 0612 Ciel Non-postal uses and economic aspectsEdit This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2009) While postal codes were introduced to expedite the delivery of mail, they are very useful tools for several other purposes, particularly in countries where codes are very fine-grained and identify just a few addresses. Among uses are: - Finding the nearest branch of an organisation to a given address. A computer program uses the postal codes of the target address and the branches to list the closest branches in order of distance as the crow flies (or, if used in conjunction with street map software, road distance). This can be used by companies to inform potential customers where to go, by job centres to find jobs for job-seekers, to alert people of town planning applications in their area, and a great many other applications. - Fine-grained postal codes can be used with satellite navigation systems to navigate to an address by street number and postcode. - Geographical sales territories for representatives in the pharmaceutical industry are allocated based on a workload index that is based upon postcode. - Population data can be isolated, grouped and/or organized by postal code for statistical analysis This section needs to be updated.(April 2020) The availability of postal code information has significant economic advantages. In some countries, the postal authorities charge for access to the code database. As of January 2010[update], the United Kingdom Government is consulting on whether to waive licensing fees for some geographical data sets (to be determined) related to UK postcodes. - "Addressing knowledge centre", General Addressing Issues (PDF), Universal Postal Union, 3 Aug 2021, retrieved 1 Jun 2022 - Lynd-Farquhar Co (1920). "Advertisement for machine tools, 1920". American Machinist: 388. - Hill, Clarke & Co, Inc (1920). "Advertisement for a drill press, 1920". American Machinist: 389. - "The First Postal (ZIP) Code in the World". Ukrainian Philatelic and Numismatic Society. 2009-04-20. Archived from the original on 2010-04-23. Retrieved 2010-03-04. - "The history of the postcode". Deutsche Post. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2010-10-10. - Chia, Joshua (13 July 2016). "Six-digit postal code system". Singapore Infopedia. National Library Board. Retrieved 3 October 2018. - "ZIP (Zone Improvement Plan) Code". International Paper Company. Archived from the original on 2009-11-19. Retrieved 2010-10-10. - "Company History: Schweizerische Post-Telefon-und-Telegrafen-Betriebe". Funding Universe. Archived from the original on 2011-09-09. Retrieved 2010-10-10. - "A short history of the postcode". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2011-02-25. Retrieved 2014-06-25. - "GreatData.com (a licensee of Canada Post data)". Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013. - "Post Code Project Suspended Indefinitely". Press Release 07 published in Daily Gleaner. Jamaica Post. 2007-02-12. Archived from the original on 2010-02-26. Retrieved 2010-03-04. - da Cruz, Frank (2008-05-17). "Frank's Compulsive Guide to Postal Addresses". Columbia University. Archived from the original on 2008-07-25. Retrieved 2008-06-04. - Formatting an international address (PDF), Universal Postal Union, January 2010, p. 13, retrieved 2010-09-26 - "Declara oficial para efectos administrativos, la aprobación de la División Territorial Administrativa de la República N°41548-MGP". Sistema Costarricense de Información Jurídica (in Spanish). 19 March 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2020. - División Territorial Administrativa de la República de Costa Rica (PDF) (in Spanish). Editorial Digital de la Imprenta Nacional. 8 March 2017. ISBN 978-9977-58-477-5. - "Posta Kodum Ne" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2011-04-04. Retrieved 25 August 2021. - "BS7666 Address". Data Standards Catalogue. UK National Archives. 2 October 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2015. - 40 facts about the postcode to mark 40th anniversary as vital part of daily life Archived 2018-03-16 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Mirror, 26 August 2014 - "VAT: insolvency". www.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018. - Who answers all the letters sent to Father Christmas? Archived 2016-12-25 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Telegraph, 5 December 2013 - Santa: 'I'm not a Superman, but I do exist' Archived 2008-01-12 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News Online, 11 December 2002 - Not For Parents Travel Book, Lonely Planet, 2012, page 84 - Canada Post (27 January 2007). "Over one million children write letters to Santa". Archived from the original on 9 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2009. - "Ook dit jaar, helpt bpost de Sint". bpost.be. bpost. Retrieved 2 May 2018. - "Cette année également, bpost apporte son aide à Saint-Nicolas". bpost.be. bpost. Retrieved 2 May 2018. - Charles Arthur. "Guardian newspaper article on postcodes". Theguardian.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-01. Retrieved 2018-02-26.

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Do you know which birds are the most common in Utah? If not, don’t worry – we’re here to help! In this blog post, we will discuss the 10 most common birds in Utah. These birds can be found in a variety of habitats, from forests and wetlands to deserts and urban areas. So, if you’re looking for a birding challenge, or just want to learn more about the birds that live near you, read on! Backyard Birds of Utah: The house finch is a common bird of South Dakota. The males are brightly colored with red heads and shoulders, while the females are duller in coloration. These birds can be found in a variety of habitats, including urban areas, forests, and grasslands. They mainly eat seeds and insects. House finches are small birds, measuring only about five to six inches in length. They are active during the day and typically nesting in trees or shrubs. House finches are not shy around humans and will often approach people in search of food. These birds are known to be quite vocal, with a variety of different calls and songs. House Sparrows are one of the most common birds in South Dakota, and they’re also one of the easiest to identify. They’re a small bird, with a short beak and a plump body. The males have dark brown feathers on their back and wings, with lighter brown on their chest and belly. The females are similar, but they tend to have more gray in their feathers. House Sparrows eat mostly black oil sunflower seeds, but they will also eat insects. They’re found in a variety of habitats, including urban areas, farmland, and forests. They often build their nests in trees or shrubs, but they’ll also use man-made structures like buildings or birdhouses. House Sparrows are social birds, and they often travel in flocks. They can be aggressive towards other birds, and they’re known for chasing away bluebirds from nesting sites. When it comes to human interaction, House Sparrows are not shy about begging for food or entering homes in search of crumbs. However, they’re also known to eat insects that harm crops, so they can be beneficial to farmers. Western Kingbird is a member of the Tyrant Flycatcher family. The kingbird is mainly found in open habitats west of the Great Plains. They are migratory birds, spending their winters in Central and South America. Western Kingbirds are monogamous and will mate for life. Both parents help care for the young. The Western Kingbird is a medium sized bird, measuring about 18 cm in length. They have a grey back and wings, with a white belly and breast. The kingbird has a black head with a yellow crown. The Western Kingbird feeds mainly on insects. They will eat bees, wasps, flies, beetles, grasshoppers, and caterpillars. The kingbird will also eat fruits and berries. The Western Kingbird nests in trees, usually near the edge of a forest. The female builds the nest out of twigs, leaves, and grasses. She will lay her eggs in the springtime, usually between April and June. There are usually three to five eggs in a clutch. The Dark eyed Juncos are small sparrows with a dark gray back and white belly. The wings and tail feathers are edged with white. It has a pink bill and dark eyes. Diet: The Dark-eyed Junco eats insects, spiders, and black oil sunflower seeds. Size: This bird is about six inches long. Habitat: The Dark-eyed Junco is found in forests, woodlands, and mountain meadows. Behavior: The Dark-eyed Junco is a shy bird that is often seen alone or in small flocks. It perches on low branches and hops along the ground in search of food. This bird breeds in the summer and nests in trees or on the ground. In the winter, the Dark-eyed Junco is found in the southern United States. White-crowned Sparrows are small sparrows with brown back and wings, and a gray breast. They have a white stripe on their crown, which is how they got their name. White-crowned Sparrows eat mostly seeds, but will also eat insects. They are about five to six inches in length. White-crowned Sparrows live in open areas with some trees, like forests and parks. They build their nests in trees or bushes. White-crowned Sparrows are social birds and often travel in flocks. They are also known for their singing voices. The White-crowned Sparrow is a common bird found in South Dakota. These sparrows are small, with brown back and wings, and a gray breast. They have a white stripe on their crown, which is how they got their name. White-crowned Sparrows eat mostly black oil sunflower seeds, but will also eat insects. They are about five to six inches in length. White-crowned Sparrows live in open areas with some trees, like forests and parks. They build their bird nests in trees or bushes. White-crowned Sparrows are social birds and often travel in flocks. They are also known for their singing voices. Song Sparrows are small sparrows with brown upperparts and gray underparts. They have a streaked breast and a long, notched tail. Their face is gray with a brown streak through the eye. They are found in open habitats such as fields, meadows, and forests. Song Sparrows eat insects, black oil sunflower seeds, and berries. They build cup-shaped nests on the ground. These sparrows are often heard before they are seen. Their song is a series of trills and chirps. Song Sparrows are about five to six inches in length with a wingspan of eight to ten inches. They can live up to seven years in the wild. The Song Sparrow is a small bird, measuring only five to six inches in length with a wingspan of eight to ten inches. They are brown on top with gray underparts and have a streaked breast. Their most notable feature is their long, notched tail. Song Sparrows are found in open habitats such as fields, meadows, and forests across North America. Black-capped Chickadee is small songbirds with black caps and white cheeks. They are found in woods and forests across North America. Chickadees are curious birds that often approach humans. They eat insects, spiders, and seeds. Black-capped Chickadees are about five inches long with a wingspan of seven to eight inches. The Black-capped Chickadee is a small bird with black and white markings. The top of its head is black, and it has a white stripe above its eyes. Its back and wings are gray, and its belly is white. Chickadees are found in woods and forests across North America. They are curious birds that often approach humans. Chickadees eat insects, spiders, and seeds. Black-capped Chickadees mate for life and build their nests in tree cavities. (Turdus migratorius) is a medium-sized songbird with a body length of about 25 cm. The American Robin is mostly dark brown above and paler below, with an orange throat and breast. Its face is grayish white with black streaks. The bill is black, the legs are reddish brown, and the eyes are dark brown. The American Robin is found in open woodlands, forest edges, and gardens throughout North America. It is a very adaptable bird and can live in almost any type of habitat as long as there are trees nearby. The diet of the American Robin consists mostly of insects, earthworms, and berries. In the winter, when these food sources are scarce, the bird will also eat fruits and nuts. The American Robin is a very social bird and can often be seen in large flocks feeding or roosting together. During the breeding season, however, the birds are more territorial and pairs will defend their nesting area from other robins. – The Northern Flicker is a medium-sized bird with a long tail. It has a dark brown back and wings, and a light brown belly. Its head is black, with a red patch on its neck. It has a black bill, and yellow eyes. The male Northern Flicker has a black mustache, while the female does not. – The Northern Flicker eats insects, seeds, and fruits. It pecks at the ground to find food. – The Northern Flicker is about 11 inches long. – The Northern Flicker lives in forests and woodlands. It nests in tree cavities. – The Northern Flicker is a shy bird. It is active during the day. Black-chinned Hummingbird is a small bird. The adult has black upperparts and a thin black band on its throat. The underparts are grayish white. The bill is long and slightly curved. Adult males have a purple forget (throat patch). Females usually have green upperparts and a white throat with some dark spotting. Juveniles resemble adults but are duller in color. This bird averages about three inches in length and weighs less than one ounce. The Black-chinned Hummingbird is found in the southwestern United States and Mexico. It breeds in open woodlands, mountain meadows, and deserts. The nest is a small cup made of plant down and spider webs. It is often built near the end of a branch. The female lays two eggs. The diet of the Black-chinned Hummingbird consists of insects and nectar from flowers. It hovers in front of a flower to sip nectar with its long tongue. The Black-chinned Hummingbird is active during the day. It is a territorial bird and will chase away other birds that come too close to its feeding areas. This bird is often seen at hummingbird feeders. It migrates south in the fall and returns north in the spring. Mourning Doves are the most common bird in South Dakota. They are small and slim with long, pointed tails. The males have gray-brown plumage with black spots on their wings. The females look similar but are usually a little paler. Mourning Doves eat mainly seeds and live in open areas like fields, parks, and gardens. They build flimsy nests out of twigs and lay two white eggs in them. Both parents take turns incubating the eggs and feeding the young birds. Mourning Doves are very shy and will fly away if you get too close. Mourning doves are gentle creatures that have a soft cooing sound which is one of their main identifying characteristics. They are the most common bird in South Dakota and can be found in fields, parks, and gardens. Their diet mainly consists of seeds however they will also eat insects. The mourning dove is a small to medium sized bird with a long pointed tail. The male has gray-brown plumage with black spots on their wings while the female is usually paler. They make flimsy nests out of twigs and lay two white eggs in them. Both parents take turns incubating the eggs and feeding the young birds. Mourning doves are very shy by nature and will fly away if you get too close. The Yellow Warbler is a small New World warbler. Adults have yellow upperparts and streaked olive-yellow underparts. They have a black cap and bright yellow face. The bill is short and slightly decurved. Wings are dark with two white bars. The tail is long, sometimes cocked, and has faint streaks. This warbler is usually found in open woodlands, brushy second growth, and swampy thickets. It often nests near water. It forages actively, sometimes hanging upside down, in trees and shrubs for insects. It also eats some fruit. The Yellow Warbler migrates to Central America and the Caribbean islands for the winter. The song of the Yellow Warbler is a clear sweet whistle, followed by trills and cheeps. The male sings from a high perch to attract a mate and proclaim his territory. This warbler can also be seen in South Dakota during the summer months. European Starlings are small to medium-sized birds with short necks and triangular bodies. They have black feathers with iridescent blue, green, or purple plumage. Their diet consists of insects, fruits, and seeds. They are found in open woodlands, meadows, and fields. Starlings are social birds that often form large flocks. They are known for their loud vocalizations and aggressive behavior towards other birds. Starlings are found throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. In North America, they are most commonly found in the eastern United States. They were introduced to the United States in the 1800s and have since spread across the country. Starlings are considered to be pests by many people due to their aggressive behavior and loud vocalizations. They are also known for causing damage to crops and buildings. If you see a European starling in South Dakota, it is most likely that it is part of a flock that is migrating through the area. These birds typically migrate in the fall and winter months. The black-billed magpie is a large songbird with a long tail and black wings. It has a black head with white cheeks and a white belly. This bird is found in open woodlands and prairies in the western United States and Canada. Magpies are known for their loud calls, scavenging habits, and striking black-and-white plumage. These birds are also known to be intelligent and curious. Black-billed magpies eat a variety of foods, including insects, small mammals, carrion, and garbage. These birds are about the same size as a crow. Magpies build nests in trees or on cliffs. They lay four to eight eggs per clutch. Both parents help care for the young. Black-billed magpies are social birds and often form flocks. These birds are not currently considered endangered. However, their numbers have declined in some areas due to habitat loss and pesticide use. Magpies are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. (Agelaius phoeniceus) is a bird species of true blackbird in the family Icteridae. The red-winged blackbird is sexually dimorphic, meaning that the male and female look different. Males are all black with distinctive red shoulder patches, while females are dark brown with streaks on their lower belly and throat. Both sexes have yellow eyes. Red-winged blackbirds are found in North and South America. Their breeding habitat is marshes, bogs, and wet meadows in Canada and the northern United States. They build their nests near water in trees or shrubs. These backyard birds forage on the ground or in shallow water for insects, larvae, and snails. Red-winged blackbirds are gregarious birds that often form large flocks during migration and winter. They can be very aggressive in defending their territories from other birds, even ones much larger than themselves. These birds are also known to mob predators such as hawks and owls. Eurasian Collared-Doves are medium-sized doves. They have pale gray plumage with darker wings. The tail is long and pointed. The bill is black and the legs are pink. Males and females look alike. Juveniles have browner plumage and a shorter tail. Eurasian Collared-Doves eat mostly seeds, grains, and fruits. They will also eat insects. These common backyard birds in Utah are about 13 inches long. They have a wingspan of 21 inches. Eurasian Collared-Doves are found in open habitats including farmland, parks, and suburbs. In North America, they are most common in the southwestern United States. These birds are social and often form large flocks. They are also known to mate for life. Eurasian Collared-Doves are active during the day. You can hear them cooing year-round. Barn Swallows are one of the most widespread birds in the world. They can be found on every continent except Antarctica. In North America, they are common breeding birds in South Dakota. Barn Swallows are easily identified by their distinctive appearance. They have long, deeply forked tails and reddish-brown upperparts. Their undersides are pale with a dark throat and breast. Juvenile birds are similar to adults but have paler upperparts and a more streaked throat. Barn Swallows eat mostly insects, which they catch in flight. They will also eat berries and other small fruits. They often build their nests on man-made structures, such as barns, bridges, and houses. What’s the most common bird in Utah? The most common bird in Utah is the American Robin. What kind of sparrows live in Utah? There are two types of sparrows that live in Utah: the house sparrow and the chipping sparrow. The house sparrow is the most common type of sparrow in Utah. What big birds are in Utah? Some of the big birds that you might see in Utah are eagles, hawks, and owls. These are all predators that help to keep the rodent population under control. You might also see some vultures or other scavengers from time to time. What bird has a yellow belly in Utah? There are a few different types of backyard birds that have yellow bellies in Utah. Some of these include the American Goldfinch, the Yellow-rumped Warbler, and the Pine Siskin. Each of these birds is unique and has its own set of behaviors and characteristics. Bird feeders are a great way to add some beauty to your backyard while also attracting some feathered friends. But what happens when the birds don’t come? There are a few things you can do to try and attract birds to your feeder. First, make sure you are using the right type of bird seed. Some birds prefer different types of seed than others. Second, keep your feeder clean. A dirty feeder is not only unappealing to birds, but can also spread disease. Lastly, try moving your feeder around a bit. Birds are creatures of habit, so a change in location might be just what they need to find your feeder. Bird watching is a great way to get outside and appreciate the natural world. It can be done anywhere, at any time of year. All you need is a pair of binoculars and a little bit of patience. Some of the best places to go bird watching in Utah are the Great Salt Lake, Antelope Island, Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, and Zion National Park. Each of these places has a different variety of birds to see. Winter Birds in Utah During the winter months, many of the birds that are common in Utah migrate south. This includes species like the American Robin, the Yellow-rumped Warbler, and the Pine Siskin. However, there are still some birds that stick around during the winter.

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If you have lupus, your mind is probably flooding with many questions. Lupus is a complex disease with no easy answers. It will alter your life and your reality in significant ways. You will encounter several physical and mental challenges. The people you live and work with may not understand the impact of the illness on your overall functioning. They may label you as a hypochondriac, lazy and unreliable. Lupus can mimic other diseases and presents itself differently for every patient. The symptoms can be vague and vary between people and therefore diagnosis can be difficult. The comforting news is that you can get help and manage lupus with a combination of prescribed treatment and lifestyle adjustments. Learn about the disease, ask questions, communicate with your doctor and other health care workers, and gather support from your family, friends and community. What is Lupus? Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (otherwise known as lupus) is an autoimmune disease, where the body’s immune system attacks the body’s own cells as if they were invaders. The antibodies produced by the immune system in lupus lead to inflammation and damage to body tissues, such as those in the joints, skin, kidneys, heart, lungs, blood vessels and the brain. Although the definite cause of lupus is unknown, it is believed that the disease is triggered by a combination of genetics and environmental factors including: - Certain medications and chemicals - Viral and bacterial infections - Exposure to UV light - Dietary factors - Stress and trauma It is estimated that lupus affects over five million people worldwide. Over 90% of people with lupus are women, although men and children also present with the disease. Patients typically develop the disease between the ages of 14 and 45 years. Lupus is characterised by periods of flare-ups (when the disease is active) and periods of remission. Lupus is not an infection and it is not contagious. There is currently no cure for the disease although there are ways to manage its impact. How Is Lupus Diagnosed? Lupus is a difficult disease to diagnose as it mimics other diseases. Ideally, early diagnosis is important. However, according to recent research, it can take 4-6 years in some cases for doctors to make a definite diagnosis. Lupus symptoms can be vague, unpredictable and variable, and may come and go. Symptoms do not have to occur at the same time. Contact your doctor for confirmation. - Malar rash – a butterfly-shaped rash across your cheeks and nose - Skin rash – raised red patches - Joint and muscle pain, stiffness and swelling - Photosensitivity – unusually strong reaction to sunlight, causing a rash or flare-up. - Fingers and toes that turn white/blue when exposed to cold or stressful periods (Raynaud’s phenomenon) - Hair loss - Loss of appetite and weight loss - Fatigue, weakness and lethargy - Chest pain and shortness of breath - Dry eyes - Headaches, confusion, memory loss - Mouth or nose ulcers – usually painless - Neurological disorder – strokes, seizures and/or psychosis - Kidney disorder – increased protein or clumps of red cells in urine - Anaemia – caused by damaged red cells, low white cells or low platelet count Most people with lupus will not experience all these symptoms and no two individuals seem to experience identical symptoms. A combination of blood and urine tests, signs and symptoms and physical examination results leads to the diagnosis. Blood and urine tests may include: - Full blood count - Erythrocytes sedimentation rate - Kidney and liver assessment to assess how well your kidneys and liver are functioning - Most patients with lupus have a positive antinuclear antibody (ANA) test. However, not everyone with a positive ANA has lupus because there are many reasons that the ANA may be positive (including chronic infections or inflammation, and age). The double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) test together with other antibody tests are also used to help diagnose lupus. Remember that the antibody tests must be considered together with a person’s medical history, signs and symptoms. The following tests may be suggested by your doctor if he or she suspects that lupus is affecting your lungs, heart or kidneys: - Chest X-ray - Echocardiogram of the heart - Biopsy of the skin or kidney Types of Lupus Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) SLE – otherwise referred to as ‘lupus’ – is the most common form of lupus. It is also the most serious kind as it can affect almost any organ or system of the body including the skin and joints, kidneys, lungs, heart, blood vessels and/or brain. SLE can be mild or severe and is characterised by periods of flare-ups (when the lupus is active) and periods of remission. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus This form of lupus is limited to the skin. A discoid rash is the most common which presents itself in the form of raised scaly, non-itchy, red rash, appearing like disks or circles. This is the same rash as SLE patients may experience. Cutaneous lupus can also cause many other types of rashes and lesions (sores) on the face, neck, or scalp, or in the mouth, nose or vagina. Additional symptoms may include hair loss and changes in the pigment (colour) of the skin. Drug-induced lupus erythematosus Drug-induced lupus is caused by certain prescription drugs. The symptoms of drug-induced lupus are similar to those of SLE, however, it is usually a mild illness and rarely affects major organs. The drugs most commonly connected with drug-induced lupus include: Hydralazine—Treatment for high blood pressure or hypertension Procainamide—Treatment for irregular heart rhythms Isoniazid—Treatment for tuberculosis Not everyone who takes these drugs will develop drug-induced lupus. Lupus-like symptoms usually disappear within six months after these medications are stopped. Neonatal lupus is a rare, mild form of lupus. It affects babies of women who have lupus and is caused by antibodies from the mother acting upon the baby in the womb. The baby may have a skin rash, liver problems, or low blood cell counts at birth. However, these symptoms completely disappear after several months with no permanent effects. Some babies with neonatal lupus can also have a serious heart defect. Childhood Lupus (cSLE) - Childhood Lupus (cSLE) is a rare but serious condition. - The average age in South Africa for cSLE is 12 years and the female to male ratio is 5:1. - Adolescence is a dangerous time for all patients with lupus. There are many risks at this time, including non-compliance, recreational drug use, psychological issues and pregnancy. - According to a recent study from Cape Town, the common presenting features in cSLE are arthritis, malar rash and renal involvement. - In the South African setting, almost all children presented with fever, lymphadenopathy and weight loss, mimicking TB and HIV. - Other presenting features in South African children included serositis and Raynaud’s phenomenon. - All children with SLE should be referred to a paediatric rheumatologist, nephrologist or paediatric specialist with knowledge of cSLE, and a multidisciplinary approach to management is essential. - Treatment options involve the use of high-dose immunosuppressive therapy to achieve disease stabilisation for the first 6-12 months. Long term medication may include intravenous cyclophosphamide or Mycophenolate (MMF). Azathioprine and methotrexate are other treatment options available. Lupus in Men Although lupus affects mostly women, men can also develop lupus. Lupus does not decrease a man’s levels of testosterone, ability to perform sexually, or the potential to become a father. However, certain medications, such as cyclophosphamide, can affect sperm counts. Discuss with your doctor before you begin to take any medication on how it may affect you. Treatment in South Africa Lupus is typically treated by rheumatologists who specialise in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases. Lupus can affect nearly any organ or organ system of the body. Along with the rheumatologist, most people with lupus will see a number of different specialists depending on what particular area of the body it affects. The team of doctors and specialists may include: - Nephrologist (kidney specialist) - Pulmonologist (lung specialist) - Dermatologist (skin specialist) - Neurologist (brain and nerve specialist) - Occupational therapist - Psychologist (emotional specialist) - Psychiatrist (brain and mood specialist) Lupus is treated with medication that suppresses the immune system, in addition to lifestyle changes. Available treatment in South Africa include: - Antimalarial drugs (such as hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine) are often used to treat joint pains, skin rashes, kidney disease, clotting problems and fatigue, and reduce lupus flares. The evidence for chloroquine’s good effects in lupus are so strong that it is recommended that all patients, including pregnant patients, use chloroquine unless there is a particularly good reason (such as a serious side effect) that it cannot be used. - Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) which reduce pain and stiffness. They, however, do not alter the course of the disease or the underlying immune process and have many side effects (such as stomach ulcers and stomach bleeding, high blood pressure and water retention causing swelling, increased risk of heart attacks and stroke, kidney injury, liver problems and meningitis. NSAIDs should be used in the lowest dose for the shortest time possible. Talk to your doctor if you need to use high doses every day. - Corticosteroids (such as Prednisone) are very effective anti-inflammatory medications and are used for treating serious complications of lupus, such as those affecting the heart, lungs and nervous system. They have many severe side effects (weight gain, skin changes, increased risk of infections, thin bones, heart attack and stroke, diabetes, high blood pressure) and doctors try and use the lowest dose of steroids for the shortest time possible to avoid these problems. - Immune suppressing drugs (such as methotrexate, azathioprine, mycophenolate, cyclophosphamide) suppress the immune system and are used when serious disease is present and steroids alone are not enough to control the disease. Living and Managing Lupus There are a number of ways you can help effectively manage your lupus and live your best life with the disease. Be prepared to make drastic changes to the lupus lifestyle. - Learn as much as you can about lupus and what it does to your body from credible sources. Being well informed about the disease will enable you to gain control and remove fear. - Commit to a healthy diet. This includes a variety of whole grains, fresh fruit and vegetables, fish, chicken, limited red meat and nuts. Saturated fats should be avoided as it can raise cholesterol levels and may contribute to inflammation. Saturated fats are found in fried foods, commercial baked goods, creamed soups and sauces, animal fat, processed meat products, and high-fat dairy foods. Avoid refined and processed foods such as white bread, pasta and sugar. Avoid greasy, spicy and acidic foods. Drink eight glasses of water daily and refrain from fizzy drinks. Avoid garlic, Echinacea and alfalfa sprouts as it is associated with flare-ups. Aim for a healthy weight. Ideally, stick with a strict, plant-based diet. Seek the help of resources and/or a dietician to create tasty and nutritious menus. - Many patients take supplements such as omega-3 fatty acids, folic acid, vitamin D and calcium. Check with your doctor before using any supplements. - Exercise regularly. Do this moderately without becoming fatigued. Walking, Pilates and swimming are recommended. Exercise improves wellbeing and prevents muscle waste. - Avoid excessive exposure to the sun as it causes flare-ups. Protect yourself against UVA and UVB rays by avoiding the midday sun and using maximum strength sunblock (SPF 30 or more) and broad-trimmed hats. - Keep a medical journal. Andrea’s Gift Foundation recently launched the first lupus medical journal in sub-Saharan Africa. This highly specialized 12-month journal is a hard-covered 370-page A5 booklet with dedicated pages for record-keeping of all medical information; practical lifestyle information including diet, rest and meditation; inspirational quotes and images; daily gratitude and reflection exercises; and daily pain, fatigue, mood and medication trackers. Take this to every doctor’s appointment as it will provide critical information and save on your consultation time. Order an AGF medical journal here. - Always take your medication exactly as prescribed by your doctor. Make sure to ask your doctor about any potential side effects of your medication or treatment. If you have any negative or uncomfortable reactions to your medication contact your doctor. First, record it in your journal so that it is easy to follow up its real cause. - Make every effort to avoid stressful situations as stress triggers flare-ups. This may mean restructuring your schedule or reconsidering your career choice. - Sleep at least eight hours daily. - Do not smoke or quit smoking now. - Avoid alcohol or drink it in moderation. Other points to consider: Do not allow your joy to be ruled by lupus. Transform your thinking to be such that no matter what, you will make the most of the situation. Journal what works for you as it could help you stay positive in stressful times. Do not allow your conversations with others to be only about the condition. Read inspirational books, stories, movies, documentaries and create memorable experiences for yourself. - Force yourself to have a routine. It is not always fun adjusting, but if you persevere you will get it right. Examples include: 15 minute daily walks, eat green veggies daily, smile as often as possible, shower every morning, indulge for 20 mins in a passion which could be reading, sewing or some form of craft. - Avoid negative news as much as you can. - Don’t allow the side effects of the medication to overwhelm you. Always find ways to win. If, for example, you are on medication that makes you eat a lot, rather snack on bits of fruit and vegetables instead of sweets and chips. - As you practice these disciplines, your health will improve and so will your outlook on life. Lupus & Mental Health Lupus will most likely affect your mental health as a direct result of: - The disease process. - Your psychological reaction to having lupus. - The side effects of treatment. Mental effects of lupus include: - Cognitive Dysfunction. You may experience forgetfulness or difficulty thinking, otherwise referred to as ‘fuzzy head’ or ‘lupus fog’. - Anxiety and Depression Speak to your doctor if you are experiencing any of these symptoms so they can refer you to a mental health professional who will help you identify ways to cope with lupus. Other psychosocial factors relating to lupus include: - Lack of societal support - Socio-economic challenges Joining a local or online support group will also help in tackling the mental challenges of the disease. Invest time in doing leisurely activities (hobbies) that relieve stress and can act as effective coping mechanisms. Lupus & Pregnancy Women with lupus can become pregnant. Lupus does not affect a woman’s ability to get pregnant, but it does increase the risk of pregnancy complications. Lupus pregnancies are often considered high-risk, and you will need to work very closely with your doctor. Discuss with your doctor before you consider becoming pregnant. Your lupus should be under control or in remission for at least six months before you get pregnant, and you need to ensure that all the medications you are taking are safe for the baby before you fall pregnant. Getting pregnant during a flare-up (when lupus is active) may result in complications such as miscarriage, stillbirth or premature birth. If you are not planning a pregnancy, use family planning until you want a baby. Oral contraceptives containing lower doses of estrogen are probably safe in women with mild lupus but should be avoided in women at increased risk of clotting, or in women with moderate to severe lupus. Other non-pill options for contraception include injectables, implants, and the IUD. Lupus in Africa In a 2013 research paper entitled: ‘Lupus in Africa: can we dispel the myths and face the challenges?’, researchers Dr N.Tiffin, Prof B. Hodkinson and Dr I. Okpechi highlight the dire need for lupus education in Africa. There is a perception that lupus is largely uncommon in the continent. Recent studies, however, suggest that this is not the case. The apparent low incidence rate may be the result of underdiagnosis due to poor access to health care; low disease recognition within primary health care settings; limited access to diagnostic tools; and inadequate numbers of specialist physicians. The findings of the research paper showed that the patient outcome is poorer in African countries than in the developed world. There is a lack of diagnostic power, poverty and no capacity in African settings. Even when the SLE is diagnosed, the illness is well advanced and the ability to access treatment is not available. There is also a desperate need to explore inexpensive therapies for SLE. Adherence to treatment is a concern amongst SLE patients, worldwide, and may be particularly important in poor socio-economic conditions where low levels of formal education, large distances to travel for specialist care, and expensive therapy all contribute to low follow-up rates. In addition to this, there are social and cultural factors at play. Women, who are most affected by the illness, find SLE particularly difficult to deal with as they are usually the ones who run large households. They may be viewed as incompetent and stigmatized as ‘weak’ and ‘infertile’. The condition is also often directly associated with spiritual forces (especially when it presents itself in psychosis), and patients have been said to endure humiliating ‘cleansing’ rituals to ‘heal’ them. There is a need to create awareness and to educate healthcare professionals on how it manifests. Healthcare services also need to improve. According to Ghanaian rheumatologist Dr Dzifa Dey, research has shown that the prevalence of lupus is higher in people with West African descent than Caucasians for reasons yet unknown. Dr Dey conducted research in Ghana in 2015 on newly diagnosed patients and found that a year later 48% of them had deceased due to the disease. Other recent studies raise a warning flag regarding the number of SLE cases that might be going undiagnosed in Africa. It highlights a need for concerted research into the incidence, prevalence, diagnosis and management of SLE across the continent. Outlook on Lupus People experience different symptoms, effects and complications of lupus, and therefore life expectancy is difficult to calculate with this disease. With appropriate treatment, consistent lifestyle measures and frequent clinical follow-ups, it is possible for most people with lupus to live a normal or nearly normal life span. Researchers hope to identify the molecular pathways that cause lupus so that they can target them for new therapies. Scientists also hope to find people who have a risk of lupus through genetics so that doctors can implement earlier measures to improve life expectancy. Once there is better awareness by the lupus community, general public and health care workers, it will in effect influence a speedier diagnosis and proper management of this life-threatening disease. References & Resources

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The Significance of Sunna or Hadith of the Prophet Journal of THE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY of MADINAH MUNAWWARAH – 1403 A.H Sunna or Hadith is the second source from which the teachings of Islam are drawn. In effect, it covers the sayings, the practices and actions of the Prophet, and also his silent approval of the action or practice of another. Allah has ordained the obedience of His messenger. Several verses of the Quran may be quoted in this effect which go to prove that Sunna or Hadith provided the second source of the principles of the religion. It is incumbent in Muslims to act upon it in demonstration of their obedience to Allah and His messenger. It is abandonment, on the other hand, would be a repudiation of Allah’s Book and a rejection of Hid ordinance as set out in the following verses of the Holy Quran: هَـٰذَا بَلَـٰغٌ۬ لِّلنَّاسِ وَلِيُنذَرُواْ بِهِۦ وَلِيَعۡلَمُوٓاْ أَنَّمَا هُوَ إِلَـٰهٌ۬ وَٲحِدٌ۬ وَلِيَذَّكَّرَ أُوْلُواْ ٱلۡأَلۡبَـٰبِ (This is a clear message for mankind in order that they may be warned thereby, and that they may know that He is only One God, and that men of understanding may take heed.) (14: 52) وَأَقِيمُواْ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ وَءَاتُواْ ٱلزَّكَوٰةَ وَأَطِيعُواْ ٱلرَّسُولَ لَعَلَّڪُمۡ تُرۡحَمُونَ (Establish worship and pay the poor-due and obey the messenger, that haply ye may find mercy.) (24 : 56) مَّآ أَفَآءَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَىٰ رَسُولِهِۦ مِنۡ أَهۡلِ ٱلۡقُرَىٰ فَلِلَّهِ وَلِلرَّسُولِ وَلِذِى ٱلۡقُرۡبَىٰ وَٱلۡيَتَـٰمَىٰ وَٱلۡمَسَـٰكِينِ وَٱبۡنِ ٱلسَّبِيلِ كَىۡ لَا يَكُونَ دُولَةَۢ بَيۡنَ ٱلۡأَغۡنِيَآءِ مِنكُمۡۚ وَمَآ ءَاتَٮٰكُمُ ٱلرَّسُولُ فَخُذُوهُ وَمَا نَہَٮٰكُمۡ عَنۡهُ فَٱنتَهُواْۚ وَٱتَّقُواْ ٱللَّهَۖ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ شَدِيدُ ٱلۡعِقَابِ (That which Allah giveth as spoil unto His messenger from the people of the townships, it is for Allah and His messenger and for the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer, that it become not a commodity between the rich among you. And whatsoever the messenger giveth you, take it. And whatsoever he forbiddeth, abstain (from it). And keep your duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is stern in reprisal)(59 : 7) وَمَن يُطِعِ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلرَّسُولَ فَأُوْلَـٰٓٮِٕكَ مَعَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَنۡعَمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَيۡہِم مِّنَ ٱلنَّبِيِّـۧنَ وَٱلصِّدِّيقِينَ وَٱلشُّہَدَآءِ وَٱلصَّـٰلِحِينَۚ وَحَسُنَ أُوْلَـٰٓٮِٕكَ رَفِيقً۬ا (Whoso obeyeth Allah and the messenger, they are with those unto whom Allah hath shown favour, of the prophets and the saints and the martyrs and the righteous. The best of company are they!) (4 : 69) مَّن يُطِعِ ٱلرَّسُولَ فَقَدۡ أَطَاعَ ٱللَّهَۖ وَمَن تَوَلَّىٰ فَمَآ أَرۡسَلۡنَـٰكَ عَلَيۡهِمۡ حَفِيظً۬ا (Whoso obeyeth the messenger hath obeyed Allah, and whoso turneth away: We have not sent thee as a warder over them) (4 : 80) إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ وَمَلَـٰٓٮِٕڪَتَهُ ۥ يُصَلُّونَ عَلَى ٱلنَّبِىِّۚ يَـٰٓأَيُّہَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ صَلُّواْ عَلَيۡهِ وَسَلِّمُواْ تَسۡلِيمًا (Lo! Allah and His angels shower blessings on the Prophet. O ye who believe! Ask blessings on him and salute him with a worthy salutation.) (33 : 56) ٱلَّذِينَ يَتَّبِعُونَ ٱلرَّسُولَ ٱلنَّبِىَّ ٱلۡأُمِّىَّ ٱلَّذِى يَجِدُونَهُ ۥ مَكۡتُوبًا عِندَهُمۡ فِى ٱلتَّوۡرَٮٰةِ وَٱلۡإِنجِيلِ يَأۡمُرُهُم بِٱلۡمَعۡرُوفِ وَيَنۡہَٮٰهُمۡ عَنِ ٱلۡمُنڪَرِ وَيُحِلُّ لَهُمُ ٱلطَّيِّبَـٰتِ وَيُحَرِّمُ عَلَيۡهِمُ ٱلۡخَبَـٰٓٮِٕثَ وَيَضَعُ عَنۡهُمۡ إِصۡرَهُمۡ وَٱلۡأَغۡلَـٰلَ ٱلَّتِى كَانَتۡ عَلَيۡهِمۡۚ فَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ بِهِۦ وَعَزَّرُوهُ وَنَصَرُوهُ وَٱتَّبَعُواْ ٱلنُّورَ ٱلَّذِىٓ أُنزِلَ مَعَهُ ۥۤۙ أُوْلَـٰٓٮِٕكَ هُمُ ٱلۡمُفۡلِحُونَ (Those who follow the messenger, the Prophet who can neither read nor write, whom they will find described in the Torah and the Gospel (which are) with them. He will enjoin on them that which is right and forbid them that which is wrong. He will make lawful for them all good things and prohibit for them only the foul; and he will relieve them of their burden and the fetters that they used to wear. Then those who believe in him, and honour him, and help him, and follow the light which is sent down with him: they are the successful.) (7 : 157) إِنَّمَا ٱلۡمُؤۡمِنُونَ ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ بِٱللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِۦ وَإِذَا ڪَانُواْ مَعَهُ ۥ عَلَىٰٓ أَمۡرٍ۬ جَامِعٍ۬ لَّمۡ يَذۡهَبُواْ حَتَّىٰ يَسۡتَـٔۡذِنُوهُۚ إِنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ يَسۡتَـٔۡذِنُونَكَ أُوْلَـٰٓٮِٕكَ ٱلَّذِينَ يُؤۡمِنُونَ بِٱللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِۦۚ فَإِذَا ٱسۡتَـٔۡذَنُوكَ لِبَعۡضِ شَأۡنِهِمۡ فَأۡذَن لِّمَن شِئۡتَ مِنۡهُمۡ وَٱسۡتَغۡفِرۡ لَهُمُ ٱللَّهَۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ غَفُورٌ۬ رَّحِيمٌ۬ (They only are the true believers who believe in Allah and His messenger and, when they are with him on some common errand, go not away until they have asked leave of him. Lo! thosewho ask leave of thee, those are they who believe in Allah and His messenger. So, if they ask thy leave for some affair of theirs, give leave to whom thou wilt of them, and ask for them forgiveness of Allah. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.) (24 : 62) Now the Quran had made it clear that obedience to the Prophet is a pre- requisite of true faith, and it has also given order in conjunction with caution for prospective offenders. The Holy Quran, however is the first source and the structure on which the Sunna is based. It therefore, provides the origin of all proofs as the Almighty God said : إِنَّآ أَنزَلۡنَآ إِلَيۡكَ ٱلۡكِتَـٰبَ بِٱلۡحَقِّ لِتَحۡكُمَ بَيۡنَ ٱلنَّاسِ بِمَآ أَرَٮٰكَ ٱللَّهُۚ وَلَا تَكُن لِّلۡخَآٮِٕنِينَ خَصِيمً۬ا (Lo! We reveal unto thee the Scripture with the truth, that thou mayst judge between mankind by that which Allah showeth thee. And be not thou a pleader for the treacherous;)(4 : 105) وَيَوۡمَ نَبۡعَثُ فِى كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ۬ شَهِيدًا عَلَيۡهِم مِّنۡ أَنفُسِہِمۡۖ وَجِئۡنَا بِكَ شَہِيدًا عَلَىٰ هَـٰٓؤُلَآءِۚ وَنَزَّلۡنَا عَلَيۡكَ ٱلۡكِتَـٰبَ تِبۡيَـٰنً۬ا لِّكُلِّ شَىۡءٍ۬ وَهُدً۬ى وَرَحۡمَةً۬ (And (bethink you of) the day when We raise in every nation a witness against them of their own folk, and We bring thee (Muhammad) as a witness against these. And We reveal the Scripture unto thee as an exposition of all things, and a guidance and a mercy and good tidings for those who have surrendered (to Allah).) (16 : 89) وَمَآ أَنزَلۡنَا عَلَيۡكَ ٱلۡكِتَـٰبَ إِلَّا لِتُبَيِّنَ لَهُمُ ٱلَّذِى ٱخۡتَلَفُواْ فِيهِۙ وَهُدً۬ى وَرَحۡمَةً۬ لِّقَوۡمٍ۬ يُؤۡمِنُونَ (And We have revealed the Scripture unto thee only that thou mayst explain unto them that wherein they differ, and (as) a guidance and a mercy for a people who believe) (16 : 64) بِٱلۡبَيِّنَـٰتِ وَٱلزُّبُرِۗ وَأَنزَلۡنَآ إِلَيۡكَ ٱلذِّڪۡرَ لِتُبَيِّنَ لِلنَّاسِ مَا نُزِّلَ إِلَيۡہِمۡ وَلَعَلَّهُمۡ يَتَفَكَّرُونَ (With clear proofs and writings; and We have revealed unto thee the Remembrance that thou mayst explain to mankind that which hath been revealed for them, and that haply they may reflect. ) (16:44) Thus the Holy Quran is given precedence over the Sunna as a basis of the religion and a source of its basic principles. The Sunna or the Hadith becomes subservient to it and interpreter of its rulings. This is due to the certainty of the contents of the Holy Quran both as a whole and in detail, which is not the case with the Hadith. The latter could be deemed certain only if viewed as a whole and not in detail, for while the Prophet’s sayings, acts and rulings are sure to have imanated from him and constituted what is known as Sunnah, no particular one of them could be taken for granted unless it has been commonly reported, which is a rare case, or otherwise presumed through study and the consideration of available evidence by news reporting and verification rules. The Quran therefore, should have a precedence over the Hadith, being definitely certain and not supposed. The Companions of the Prophet after his death, are reported to have been used whenever a case was referred to them or advice, to consult the Holy Quran the first place then the Sunna in the absence of a relevant Quranic ruling, otherwise they contrived an opinion of their own if they failed to find the answer in the Sunna. This procedure had received the Prophet’s approbiation. If we consider to what extent can teachings of Islam, its principles and its laws, be drawn from the Sunna of the Prophet, we can see that the Holy Quran generally deals with the broad principles or essentials of religion, and going into details in very rare cases. The details were generally supplied by the Prophet himself, either showing in his practice how an injunction shall be carried out or by giving an explanation in words. Since Islam covered the whole sphere of human activities, many points had to be explained by the Prophet by his example in action and word. On the moral side his was the pattern which every Muslim was required to follow. The Holy Quran has made clear this point in the following verse: لَّقَدۡ كَانَ لَكُمۡ فِى رَسُولِ ٱللَّهِ أُسۡوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌ۬ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرۡجُواْ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلۡيَوۡمَ ٱلۡأَخِرَ وَذَكَرَ ٱللَّهَ كَثِيرً۬ا (Verily in the messenger of Allah ye have a good example for him who looketh unto Allah and the Last Day, and remembereth Allah much.) (33: 21) Every Muslim, therefore, stood in need of both the Holy Quran and Hadith. To clear this point we can take as examples two most important religious institutions of Islam; Prayer and Zakat. When the injunctions related to prayer and zakat were delivered no details were supplied, and it was the Prophet himself who by his own actions gave the details of the performances of the Prayer. And yet it was the Prophet who gave the detail rules and regulations for the payment and collection of Zakat. These are but two examples. The companions of the Prophet knew well that his actions and practices were to be followed, should no express direction be met with in the Holy Quran. It is related that MuadIbnJabal, on being appointed governor of Yemen by the Prophet, was asked how he would judge cases, his reply was, ‘by the book of Allah’. Asked what he would do if he did not find a direction in the Book of Allah, he replied: ‘by the Sunna of the Apostle of Allah’. And what he would do if he did not again find a direction in the Sunna, he replied : ‘I will then contrive an opinion’. Where upon the Prophet approvingly said: ‘Thanks be to God for having guided the emissary of God’s messenger to God’s path’. The Sunna was therefore recognized in the lifetime of the Prophet as affording in religious matters. The need of the Sunna, its force as law, and its preservation are all traceable to the lifetime of the Prophet. A special importance was, from their first, attached to his sayings amd deeds which were looked upon as a source of guidance by his followers. They were conscious of the fact that these things must be preserved for future generations. Hence they not only kept them in their memory but even restored to write them down for their preservation. The companions of the Prophet while translating into practice his sayings endeavoured also to preserve them in memory as well as in writing. It is, however, a fact that whatever the companions heard from the lips of the Prophet they tried to keep in their memory as it was chief means of their preservation. It is reported that the Prophet sometimes objected to the writing don of the Hadith, lest it be mixed up with Holy Quran, as it clear from the following report: The transmission of the Hadith or practices and sayings of the Prophet from one person to another, thus become necessary during the Prophet’s lifetime. In fact, the Prophet himself used to give instructions with regard to the transmission of what he taught. There are ample historical evidences that whenever a people embraced Islam, the Prophet used to send to them one or more of His Companions who not only taught them the Holy Quran but also explained to them how the injunctions of the Holy book were to be carried out in practice. It is also on record that people came to the Prophet and demanded teachers who could teach them the Quran and the Sunna. “ AbuHuraira is reported to have said : The Prophet of God came to us while we were writing Hadith and said: What it is this that you are writing? We said : Hadith which we hear from you. He said : What ! a book other than the Book of Allah ? You should well know that people before you have missed the path of righteousness because of what they had written besides God’s Book” Now the objection of the Prophet to the writing down of the Hadith clearly shows fear lest Hadith be mixed up with the Holy Quran, though there was nothing wrong in writing down the Hadith, nor did the Prophet ever forbid it being done, on the other hand, as late as conquest of Makkah we find him giving orders himself for the writing down of a certain Hadith at the request of a hearer. What he feared as the report clearly shows, was that if his sayings were written down generally like the Quran, the two might get confused together, and the purity of the text of the Quran be effected. On the other hand, memory was a reliable means for the preservation of Hadith for the Holy Quran itself was safely preserved in the memory of the Companions of the Prophet in addition to being committed to writing. The arab had a wonderfully retentive memory, and he had to store up his knowledge of countless things in his memory. In fact, had the Holy Quran been simply preserved in writing, it could not have been handed down intact to future generations. The aid of memory was invoked to make the purity of the text of the Quran doubly sure. Some scholars held the view that the objection to writing down Hadith was only in the early years of Islam when a confusion of the Hadith with the Quran was feared. For the only writing material then that time was leaves and stones which provided only a limited writing space, were the Quran and the Hadith if written together, could be so confused. However, when the Quran later spread among the People, and it was memorized and could be identified, there was no longer any possibility of confusion and the restriction on recording was lifted. The Companions of the Prophet, their followers and disciples exercised great caution and prudence ion accepting and transmitting reports. Pious and God fearing, they were careful in quoting the Prophet for what he sought to inculcate in them in the way of interpretations of God’s religion, verdicts in reply to questions put to him, or judgements in the disputes he considered. Such was their wonted habit whenever such reports or questions were needed in connection with some incident referred to them. Many of them were also careful to report Hadith in the same words as they had heard from the Prophet except where the wording was forgotten. In the latter case some of the Prophet’s companions took the liberty of transmission according to meaning due to acknowledgement that the text was not the same pronounced by the Prophet. Most of the collectors of Hadith paid more attention to the investigation of the narrators than the other critical test, and they were justified in this, for their object was to produce reliable collection of Hadith and, therefore, their first concern was to see that the Hadith could be authentically traced back to the Prophet through a trustworthy chain of narrators, the more difficult it would have been to test their reliability, other tests could be applied to any Hadith at any time, and the laps of a thousand years could in no way affect the value of the tests, but the passing away of another century would have rendered the task of examination of the chain of narrators so difficult as to be for all practical purposes impossible. Hence the collectors of Hadith rightly focused their attention on the test. Nor did the work of collecting the Hadith close the door to further critisicm. The above explanation would determine the role of Sunna or Hadith of the Prophet in expounding Islamic rulings, as a principle of the Religion and the second source of Islamic legislation. And its abandonment would be rejection of the ordinance of the Holy Quran itself as set out in the above Quoted verses. This represents the unanimous attitude and practice of true Muslims at the time of the Prophet and in subsequent.

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Agricultural Population© – The agricultural population includes producers of food and fiber, including farmers, ranchers, farm workers, fishers, persons involved in lumber production, any other persons whose economic livelihood depends substantially on agriculture and the families of all these persons. Agrology – The scientific study of soils, as they contribute to the production of crops. Agricology – The science of agriculture; this term is used mainly in Canada, Australia and Britain. Agronomy – The scientific study of crop production and usage for food, fuel, feed and fiber. AI - Artificial Insemination involves the fertilization of ova in an animal such as a cow by introducing sperm which has been collected from the male of the species and which is deposited through a tube into the uterus by a trained technician or farmer. Barrow - A male pig that has been castrated. Basis - The difference between the current cash price and the future price of the same commodity. Unless otherwise specified, the price of the nearby futures contract month is generally used to calculate the basis. Beef Cattle – Cows raised mainly for their edible meat. Broker - A company or individual that executes futures and options orders on behalf of financial and commercial institutions and/or the general public. Buck - Although buck has many other meanings, in agriculture buck refers to a male deer, goat, sheep or rabbit. Buffer Strip - Also known as a filter strip, a buffer strip is vegetation, usually grasses, which is planted alongside streams and varying in width from 30 to 100' or more, to help curtail fertilizer, pesticides, manure and other undesirable substances from readily flowing into waterways. Buying Hedge - Buying futures contracts to protect against a possible price increase of cash commodities that will be purchased in the future. At the time the cash commodities are bought, the open futures position is closed by selling an equal number and type of futures contracts as those that were initially purchased. CAFO - Confined Animal Feeding Operation, also known as concentrated or consolidated animal feeding operation; CAFOs produce livestock in confinement buildings or feedlots. Call Option - An option that gives the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to purchase the underlying futures contract at the strike price on or before the expiration date. Carryover - Grain (e.g., wheat) and oilseed commodities (e.g., soybeans) not consumed during the market year and remaining in storage at year's end. These stocks are "carried over" into the next marketing year and added to the stocks produced during that crop year. Cash Contract - Contract for the purchase of grain, usually from producers, by brokers or elevators guaranteeing a specific number of bushels. Commodity - An article of commerce or a product that can be used for commerce. In a narrow sense, products traded on an authorized commodity exchange. The types of commodities include agricultural products, metals, petroleum, foreign currencies, and financial instruments, to name a few. Commodity Credit Corp. (CCC) - A branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, established in 1933, that supervises the government's farm loan and subsidy programs. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) - A method of growing and sharing food, chiefly vegetables, in which a grower produces the foods for a predetermined number of local customers who pay for periodic deliveries in cash or in exchange for labor to produce the food. Condition Score - A number on a scale from 1 to 10 indicating the amount of fat cover on an animal such as a cow; a score of 1 indicates the animal is very emaciated and near death; a score of 10 indicates that the animal is grossly obese. Scores near the middle, from 4 – 6, usually indicate well-nourished animals. Cow - A bovine that has given birth to at least one calf. Cow-calf Operation - The production of cattle or beef with a herd of cows which are bred and produce calves. Usually the calves are sold to a feedlot operator for fattening. CRP - Conservation Reserve Program offered by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which involves planting land that is subject to erosion or along waterways such as creeks and rivers in prairie grasses and other approved crops which are not harvested; the CRP program is a minimal 10-year program which pays the farmer incentives to keep the land out of production and in compliance with approved conservation practices. Dairy Cattle – Cows raised mainly for their milk production. Dam – Although dam has many other meanings, in livestock production the dam refers to the mother of an animal. Doe - Although doe has many other meanings, in agriculture doe refers to a female deer, goat or rabbit. Dryland Farming – A mode of farming that relies on rainfall for moisture to produce crops and tillage methods that minimize cultivation and possible exposure of the dirt to air. EPDs - Expected Progeny Differences are statistical calculations of improvements or deductions contributed by a sire to his offspring in comparison to the breed average. For example, a bull with a yearling weight of +5 produces calves which weigh five pound heavier on average than all other known calves sired by other bulls of the same breed at precisely one year (365 days) of age. Ewe - A female sheep that has given birth at least once. Ewe Lamb - A young female sheep that has not yet given birth. Farrow - A term which refers to the birthing process of pigs. Farrow-to-Finish Operation - The production of swine which involves maintaining a herd of sows to produce pigs, which are then raised to market size and sold by the same farm. Filly - A female horse that has not given birth to a colt. Forward (Cash) Contract - A cash contract in which a seller agrees to deliver a specific cash commodity to a buyer sometimes in the future. Forward contracts, in contrast to futures contracts, are privately negotiated and re not standardized. Freemartin - A female or hermaphroditic twin calf to a male calf that is usually--but not always--sterile, and usually otherwise is normal in its development. Freshen – In dairying, this refers to an animal commencing to lactate after giving birth. FSA - Farm Service Agency offices operated by the USDA to assist farmers with federal government programs such as crop insurance, incentives to install conservation practices such as terraces and filter strips along waterways, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and other federal programs. Futures Contract - A legally binding agreement, made on the trading floor of a futures exchange, to buy or sell a commodity or financial instrument sometime in the future. Futures contracts are standardized according to the quality, quantity and delivery time and location for each commodity. The only variable is price, which is discovered on an exchange trading floor. Gelding – A male horse that has been castrated. Gilt - A female pig that has not yet given birth to piglets. GMO - Genetically Modified Organisms. A genetically modified organism is an organism such as plant or animal, with an artificially modified genetic make-up. Greensnap - A condition in which corn stalks break, due to high wind, when the corn plant is growing very quickly and is immature and vulnerable, usually around the time of pollination. Hedging - The practice of offsetting the price risk inherent in any cash market position by taking an equal but opposite position in the futures market. Hedgers use the futures markets to protect their business from adverse price changes. Selling (Short) Hedge - Selling futures contracts to protect against possible declining prices of commodities that will be sold in the future. At the time the cash commodities are sold, the open futures position is closed by purchasing an equal number and type of futures contracts as those are initially sold. Purchasing (Long) Hedge - Buyer futures contracts to protect against a possible price increase of cash commodities that will be purchased in the future. At the time the cash commodities are bought, the open futures position is closed by selling an equal number and type of futures contracts as those that were initially purchased. Also referred to as a buying hedge. Heifer - A female bovine that has not yet given birth to a calf. LDP - Loan Deficiency Payment, which is the difference between the county loan rate set by the USDA and the posted county price of the crop. These may change on a daily basis. The Commodity Credit Corporation may pay this to the farmer for the bushels of grain that have been produced and before they are sold in order to guaranteed a minimal price for the commodity, such as corn. Loan Rate - The amount lent per unit of a commodity, such as bushels of corn, to farmers, usually by the Commodity Credit Corporation. Long Hedge - Buyer futures contracts to protect against a possible price increase of cash commodities that will be purchased in the future. At the same time the cash commodities are bought, the open futures contracts as those that were initially purchased. Also referred to as a buying hedge. Mare - A female horse that has given birth to at least one colt. Margin - Financial safeguards to ensure that clearing members (usually companies or corporations) perform on their customers' open futures and options contracts. Clearing margins are distinct from customer margins that individual buyers and sellers of futures and options contracts are required to deposit with brokers. Within the futures industry, financial guarantees are required of both buyers and sellers of futures contracts and sellers of options contracts to ensure fulfilling of contract obligations. Margins are determined on the basis of market risk and contract value. Also referred to as performance-bond margin. Margin Call - A call from a clearinghouse to a clearing member, or from a brokerage firm to a customer, to bring margin deposits up to a required minimum level. Monopoly - Exclusive control of a commodity or service by sellers which makes possible the fixing of prices and the virtual elimination of free competition. Usually monopoly results in unfairly high prices demanded by the seller(s). Monopsony - Exclusive control of a commodity or service by buyers which lead to control of the market and the fixing of prices by virtual elimination of free competition from other buyers. Usually monopsony results in unfairly low prices paid by the buyer(s). Option - A contract that conveys the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a particular item at a certain price for a limited time. Only the seller of the option is obligated to perform. PRRS – Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus, a swine illness that causes respiratory distress in small pigs and affects reproductive success in sows. Put Option - An option that gives the option buyer the right but not the obligation to sell (go "short) the underlying futures contract at the strike price on or before the expiration date. Scours - Diarrhea in livestock caused by an intestinal infection. Shipping Fever - A respiratory disease of cattle involving coughing, nasal discharge and general malaise which is usually spread during the shipment of livestock. Short Hedge - Selling futures contracts to protect against possible declining prices of commodities that will be sold in the future. At the same time the cash commodities are sold, the open futures position is closed by purchasing an equal number and type of futures contracts as those that were initially sold. Sire – In livestock production a sire is the father of an animal. Somatic Cell Count – Refers to the number of white blood cells per milliliter of milk as an indicator of possible bacterial infections such as mastitis; the lower the somatic cell count, the better the dairy animal health of the herd, with 100,000 somatic cells per milliliter of milk as the usual standard of acceptability. Spread - The price difference between two related markets or commodities. Stallion or Stud - A male horse, usually of sufficient maturity to successfully breed a female horse. Steer - A male bovine that has been castrated. Strike Price - The price at which the futures contract underlying a call or put option can be purchased (if a call) or sold (if a put). Also referred to as exercise price. Wether - A castrated male sheep. Yearling - An animal such as a bovine or horse that is approximately one year old and not yet mature. BEHAVIORAL HEALTH TERMS Addictions Counselor - May be trained at the bachelors, masters or doctoral levels, usually in counseling, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of addictions, such as substance abuse (drug abuse, alcohol abuse, abuse of prescribed medications) and gambling. Certified addictions counselors may diagnose and treat addictions. Advanced Registered Nurse Practitioner – Nurses who have completed a master’s degree in an area of specialization such as midwifery, family medicine, psychiatric nursing, and who in some states, and with proper training, may be licensed to prescribe psychotropic medications. Agrarian Imperative© - The agrarian imperative is a purposeful drive to acquire the territory and resources necessary to undertake agricultural activities that lead to the production of essentials for life: food, fiber and renewable energy. The agrarian imperative is a basic human instinct. Agricultural Behavioral Health© – The field of health involving the behavioral healthcare of the agricultural population. Agricultural behavioral health entails understanding the cultures of farmers, ranchers and others involved in the production of food and fiber. Agricultural behavioral health requires understanding the unique behavioral health issues of agricultural people and methods of restoring maladjusted behaviors to wellness. Anxiety – Worry, fear, nervousness or unease about something with an uncertain outcome. Authorization - Written permission to authorized the release of information that is otherwise usually confidential to specific individuals and/or agencies, for a specific purpose and timeframe (i.e., usually one year from the date of approval). Behavioral Healthcare© - Includes treatment for mental health conditions, substance misuse and other addictions; treatments such as psychotherapy, psychiatric medications, support groups, etc., for these behavioral disorders are referred to as behavioral healthcare services. Behavior© – Observable activity of an organism, such as a human. Chronic Mental Illness (CMI) – Diagnosed behavioral health disorders in adults that severely disrupt daily functioning at home, in occupational settings and in the community. CMIs usually require long-term treatments. Consent for Treatment - The approval or consent of an individual, or in the case of a minor-aged child or incapacitated adult, by an approved representative to undertake treatment procedures. CPC Administrator - Central Point of Coordination Administrator in each Iowa county; this person is usually appointed by the county board of supervisors to manage the mental health/developmental disability budget for the county and to ensure that all county citizens have access to necessary services for their mental health, substance abuse, mental retardation or developmental disability. Culturally Appropriate Services – Services that respect the beliefs, language, ethnic and racial background, occupational characteristics and behaviors of the individuals and families receiving services. Culturally appropriate services for the agricultural population take these characteristics into account, along with the occupational activities of farmers, ranchers and agricultural workers who are being served. The terms, cultural sensitivity and cultural competence, have slightly different meanings; all three terms do not mean knowing everything about the culture but imply respect for differences and willingness to accommodate the unique characteristics of the persons being served. Depression – For behavioral health purposes, depression is intense sadness, gloom, dejection, feelings of worthlessness, inability to experience pleasure and loss of energy that are characteristic of the mood disorder called major depression. DSM-IV - The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (4th Ed.), published by the American Psychiatric Association which lists diagnostic criteria for behavioral disorders, including symptoms and commonly used code numbers. Evidence-Based Treatment – Therapeutic interventions or treatments that have undergone scientific evaluation and have proven effectiveness. Health – Overcoming or managing one’s disease(s) as well as living in a physically and emotionally healthy way (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration working definition). Health Care Professional Shortage Area - Regions of the country, usually rural areas, in which the number of available health care professionals such as family doctors, dentists and mental health professionals per 100,000 persons are well below the national average. The determination of health care professional shortage area is made by state and federal officials. These areas are deemed "underserved" in the field, such as mental health, where there is an undersupply of available health care professionals to deliver service. Through the National Health Service Corps, licensed mental health care professional may receive inducements, such as repayment of education loans, to practice in a designated mental health care professional shortage area. Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist - Individuals who have completed a minimum of a masters degree in individual, marriage and family counseling techniques and have passed a licensing examination to practice in the field. Licensed Mental Health Counselor - Individuals who have completed a minimum of a masters training program in counseling and human service and have passed a licensing exam in mental health counseling. Licensed Professional Counselor – Individuals who have completed a minimum of a master’s training program in counseling and human service and have passed a licensing exam in professional counseling. Outreach Program – A method of service delivery that involves sending staff to patients’ homes or other place where they reside; outreach programs are implemented to increase access to services. Pastoral Counselor – Counselors who incorporate faith principles and spirituality within their counseling and who are affiliated with a particular faith. Pastoral counselors often are members of the clergy (i.e., minister, priest, rabbi, elder) of the faith in which they are certified or otherwise affiliate. Psychiatric Nurse Practitioner - Nurses who have completed a master’s degree in psychiatric nursing and, in some states, may be licensed to prescribe psychotropic medications. Psychiatry - Treatment for mental health disorders by a psychiatrist. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor or doctor of osteopathy who has completed a residency in psychiatry. Psychiatry usually involves the use of psychotropic medications to treat symptoms of behavioral disorder. Licensed psychiatrists may diagnose and treat behavioral health disorders. Psychology - The science and study of behavior. Psychologists usually complete 4-6 years of graduate study, leading to the Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree. There are many areas of psychology, such as child, clinical, counseling, experimental, organizational and social psychology. Psychologists who become licensed practitioners must complete an internship and obtain a license in their area of expertise. These psychologists usually treat behavioral health disorders through psychotherapeutic techniques. Some psychologists are licensed to prescribe psychotropic medications in states where this practice is approved. Licensed psychologists may diagnose and treat behavioral health disorders. Psychotropic Medication - Drugs and medications prescribed for the purpose of altering behavior. For example, antidepressant medications are psychotropic drugs designed to alleviate depression. Primary Symptom Bearer - The member of a family or system whose symptoms are most noticeable and serious. Usually the primary symptom bearer is the family member whose diagnosis is indicated on the insurance claim form. Recovery – A process of change through which individuals improve their health and wellness, live a self-directed life, and strive to reach their full potential (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration working definition). Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) © – Depressive illness which may be related to the amount of sunlight and which often recurs each year. As the days shorten in autumn and during the winter, some people develop lethargy, need for much sleep, negative mood, desire to avoid people and other depressive symptoms. A smaller portion of people become overly energized during the spring and early summer. The precise causes of SAD are not fully understood, but the illness does seem linked with decreased exposure to sunlight, decreases in Vitamin D and increased production of melatonin by the pineal gland in those who develop the depressed phase and the opposite conditions in those who develop heightened energy during the spring and summer. Successful treatments have included use of lights that emit wavelengths similar to sunlight (several types are commercially available), antidepressant medications and behavior management (e.g., controlling thought patterns, outdoor exercise, stimulation) for those who develop the depressed phase and shielding the photoreceptors in the eyes from the sun, as well as psychotropic medications and behavior coaching for those who develop the overly energetic phase. Serious Emotional Disturbance (SED) – Diagnosed behavioral health disorders in children and adolescents that severely disrupt daily functioning in the home, school or community. Social Work - A human service field which may involve specialized training in social welfare, individual, family, group and community mental health services. Social Workers may be licensed at the bachelor or master degree level. Licensed social workers may diagnose and treat behavioral health disorders in states where permitted. Stigma – A sign or label usually associated with disgrace. The term, mental health stigma, refers to a negative bias about receiving behavioral healthcare services. Stress – Although stress has many meanings, as a behavioral health concept, stress is the mental and/or physical response of a human or animal to uncomfortable events that affect the individual. Wellness© – Wellness is the condition of being in maximum physical and behavioral health.

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The impact of production rate on production The vehicle speed is too high: 1. The internal frictional shear force and thus a large amount of "heat accumulation" may occur between the nip, resulting in the entire molecular chain orientation (the molecular orientation and the degree of relaxation are different), resulting in poor flattening (the molecular chain orientation is not the same) , Resulting in different retraction, even if the circumference is good) and rewinding air (the degree of orientation is different, the circumference is controlled very well in real time, but due to the tightness of some points, the air cannot be discharged) 2. The elastic potential energy increases (the elastic deformation becomes larger), the internal stress release of the material decreases when in the equipment, and the melt strength decreases (the melt strength decreases with the increase of the melt flow rate. The higher the speed, the material is easy to sag , The melt strength is also low) The melt landscape pattern is aggravated, and the surface is more prone to unevenness, which affects the subsequent printing. (Increasing the stress or strain rate within a certain range will increase the reversible elastic deformation in the runner and increase the release expansion; reducing the polymer melt temperature will increase the elastic strain entering the die area, and the extension of the relaxation time will also cause the release Increased expansion) (elastic deformation, relaxation degree, melt strength) 3. The separation force becomes larger, resulting in a change in the roller's latitude, resulting in a medium-high. 4. Affect the metal peelability, the speed is too fast, the horizontal material temperature due to the "heat accumulation" point and the heat dissipation effect, the material is unstable in the lower wheel, the lifting material fluctuates, affecting the circumference, the bait is easy to run, and the circumference problem is caused. (It is related to the size of PVC's metal peeling property) (The first buildup becomes unstable even at high production rate, and the edges are easy to grow) 5. High speed, although the shearing force is increased, the heating time of the material is shortened, which is more likely to cause the accumulation of material and the uneven temperature of the material attached to the wheel surface, which makes the mixed system contain raw material and produces deep air spots; At the same time, there are inconsistencies in the degree of molecular orientation. The bait runs, the circle changes Reasons for bait running: 1. Material: (formulation) produced different adhesion properties (calcium carbonate content, hardness, lubrication and precipitation, the effect of R4 temperature on material temperature, etc.) 2. Melt strength: low melt strength, causing the product to be intolerant of pulling; where there is a defect, a slight pull will result in greater defects (calcium carbonate, lubrication, hardness) The higher the normal calcium carbonate content, the more serious the bait will run (1. The melt strength becomes worse and cannot withstand pulling; 2. The adhesion between the material and the metal becomes worse and unstable.) 3. Whether the adhered surface is clean and the surface temperature: (Let the material pass through normally) (the surface of the lower wheel and the surface of the take-up wheel) Uncleanness leads to unstable and large fluctuations in the hoisting material at R4; the dirty first take-in wheel can be equivalent to fluctuations in the speed of the take-in wheel, resulting in the phenomenon of one meal and one meal, which affects the stability of the hoist. Appropriately increase or decrease the temperature of R4 to balance the adhesion between the material and the next wheel. Whether the surface of the No. 1 take-up wheel is clean or not, the film will not pass through the wheel smoothly, which indirectly affects the normal lifting of the material on the lower wheel. 4. Material accumulation and shearing problems: Adjustment: make the edge of the accumulation material rounded, so that it can be stretched 1. The first accumulation material is a little bit smaller and rotten, and there is no raw material on the side; 2. The second and third accumulation materials come out a little, and make them larger properly (first The raw meal coming down from the side of the accumulation material is replenished and plasticized (fluidity) uniform in the second accumulation material; 3. The speed ratio of the main machine is smaller, the gap is reduced, and the shearing is enhanced; The accumulation of material is too small, resulting in more severe rotation, larger shear heat, and it is easy to become unbalanced, which affects the stability of the R4 hoisting material, and the size of the third material accumulation can be appropriately increased; When the material accumulation is large, the area of the roller contacting the accumulation material becomes larger, the temperature of the roller is forced to rise, and the lower wheel hoisting material rises, and the hoisting material may be unstable and easy to shake. 5. Improper hoisting position: easy to shake up and down (especially at the edge position): increase or decrease the ratio appropriately, and less fluctuation 6. Speed: During high-speed production, the problem of bait running is prone to occur, and the hoisting material is unstable. Additional solution: use the guide wheel to hold down the take-up wheel to reduce running For thin products: over-mixing, the material is more likely to adhere to the metal, easy to shake in the next wheel, causing the bait to run; insufficient mixing, the melt strength of the material is insufficient, and it is not resistant to pulling, causing the bait to run away. Cold spots, half pinholes 1. R1, R2, R3, R4 speed, speed difference (control the first material accumulation, moderate rotation, strengthen the first exhaust, reduce the impact on the second and third material accumulation) and the rabbi of the main engine When the speed ratio is large, the material will cover the roller well. If the speed ratio is too large, the roller will be wrapped. The thickness of the product will be uneven, and excessive internal stress will be generated, which will increase the size shrinkage rate of the product. On the contrary, if the speed ratio is too small, the material will suck. The roll properties are poor, and bubbles are easy to be mixed to cause bubbles to appear in the product. If the main speed is too fast, the heating time of the material becomes shorter, and the temperature of the material is easy to be uneven, which causes the raw material to be contained in the material and causes air-conditioning spots. 12# In 2018, the motor of A rolling mill failed, the production speed of this line was reduced, and the air-conditioning spots were much reduced compared with before. 2. The size and degree of rawness and maturity of the first accumulation 3. The size and shape of the second and third deposits (mainly affected by the difference in the height and the degree of intersection of the rollers) Each machine has a suitable third accumulation size, and sometimes the third accumulation cannot be too small (1. Too small rotation speeds up, causing air to be encased in, resulting in a large number of air spots; at the same time due to control factors, leading to the first Changes in the size and raw material accumulation will affect the size of the third accumulation, resulting in half pinholes; the rising and falling speed causes the size of the third accumulation to change), the third accumulation cannot be too small, and the production of each section must be stable to ensure the first accumulation The material size and raw and cooked are basically unchanged. The uniformity of the third stock size will seriously affect whether the production is smooth. 9# 2017 will produce thick products and high degree of polymerization orders. By adjusting the oil pressure of the middle wheel gap, the third stock size becomes very uniform. Become normal. 4. Roller temperature, temperature difference The difference in roller temperature setting is too large, and the material accumulation temperature is lowered by the low temperature roller, which causes the accumulation of material flow to become worse, rotation problems occur, and raw materials are easily mixed in the middle, resulting in half pinholes. The greater the degree of polymerization, the harsher the processing conditions, the higher the roller temperature, the smaller the temperature difference. In order to balance the height of the lower wheel hoisting material, the temperature of the middle wheel can be increased and the temperature of the lower wheel can be lowered to ensure the fluidity of the material 5. The degree of plasticization of the material (the processing aid PA-40, if added, the force between the PVC chains will increase, and the air bag will not get out) 6. Slippery in the formula There are precipitates attached to the metal roller, and the material does not cover the roller well, and it is easy to trap air. At this time, the roller should be cleaned immediately to remove the precipitate. When each filler or additive in the formula is mixed and the compatibility is not good, there will be a tendency to precipitate Too much external lubrication: too much lubrication or poor material compatibility, the shearing force of the roller to the material is reduced, the shearing heat is reduced, the fluidity is deteriorated, and the exhaust is not smooth (Pearl powder products, directly added in 10,000 horsepower, the surface of the host is severely precipitated, and there are more air-conditioning spots; when added in a high mixer, the precipitation is reduced, and the air-conditioning spots become less;) Insufficient external lubrication: Too much adhesion to the wheel, poor peelability to metal, and air bag cannot be discharged inside The formula, fillers/pigments affect the viscosity of the material (fluidity), compatibility and force (melt strength: shear heat affects fluidity), as well as the effect on the peelability of the metal (rolling issues) Blue material is prone to air spots: the surface of the phthalocyanine pigment is non-polar and has poor compatibility with PVC. At the same time, the pigment precipitated on the surface of the roller is carbonized after a long time to produce sticky wheels. Colors are precipitated on the white silicone wheels, and the product is prone to cold air spots. . ) Fillers generally have a better inhibitory effect on precipitation. This is because they have a grinding effect on the roller, thereby adsorbing the precipitate. During production, it was found that when the stabilizer's external lubrication is poor, the material is easy to adhere to the host, and there are more problems with cold air spots and semi-pinholes. 7. Roller surface material Different materials have different adhesion to PVC 8. The surface roughness of the roller affects the smoothness of exhaust (reciprocating traction polishing, vapor honing) When producing thick products, some manufacturers will sandblast and grind the rollers to make the surface of the rollers rough. In injection molding, too high a degree of polishing will cause a vacuum in the mold, which will cause the product to be adsorbed on the inner wall of the mold. On the other hand, a too low degree of polishing will also cause difficulty in demolding (for calendering, the rollers are too shiny and sticky Enhanced performance, poor exhaust; the roller is too rough, easy to stick to the material) The main reasons for the formation of surface roughness are: 1. Tool marks during processing; 2. Plastic deformation during cutting separation; 3. Friction between the tool and the processed surface; 4. High-frequency vibration of the process system. No matter which processing method is used, the surface of the part is not absolutely flat and smooth. If you observe it under a microscope (or a magnifying glass), you can see the microscopic uneven peaks and valleys. Therefore, when the new equipment is produced, there will be problems with poor exhaust and molecular flow orientation, which will cause problems during winding or storage. 9. The condition of the materials entering the host Whether the material temperature (fluidity) meets the requirements, whether the temperature is uniform (whether there is cold material in the middle), and whether the cold material can meet the production requirements of the host temperature and shear heat. 10. Equipment problems Does the temperature of the equipment cause some oil pressure to appear to be no problem on the surface, but due to the dispersion of the force, the oil pressure changes indirectly, resulting in changes in wheel deformation, resulting in changes in the shape of the third accumulation, resulting in half pinholes To sum up: when the PVC formula precipitation and adhesion are normal, as long as the fluidity of the material (temperature or processing aids) is normal, the problems of cold air spots and semi-pinholes can basically be solved, and the production conditions and various stages of control are not required So strict. 1. Rewinding tension : causes changes in the adhesion of the material to the wheels, rewinding tightness, and exhaust performance 2. Winding temperature : When the material temperature is too low, the soft PVC will be harder, and the adhesion to the wheel will become poor. It is easy to appear because the air bubbles become larger, resulting in discounts, and the temperature will be better if the temperature is higher; but the temperature should not be too high. High, too high is easy to warp edges. 3. The flow direction of the accumulation material changes strangely because of the roller Causes: 1. The size and position of the blowing air are not correct; 2. The flow direction changes caused by the topography of the wheel surface; 3. The arrangement of the equipment causes the relative position between the wheel and the embossing wheel to be incorrect, resulting in embossing There are bubbles in the material, which affects the uniformity of the temperature, resulting in different winding stresses, and air-packed winding discounts. 4. Is the temperature uniform: Including: 1. The uniformity of the roller temperature; 2. Whether the material temperature is uniform (whether there is a heat accumulation point); 3. The influence of air blowing and other factors that cause the degree of molecular orientation to be different. The internal stress is different, and some points are tightened tightly. 5. Product specifications (thickness, width, softness and hardness). Thinner and harder products are more likely to be discounted. Reasons: 1. The production speed is fast and the static electricity is large. The static electricity of the material and the winding roller form repulsion, which is easy to bubbling and cause discounts. Although the production rate of thick products is about the same as that of thin products, because of the weight of thick products, the electrostatic charge repulsion is less than the weight of products, so the degree of influence is much smaller. 2. The material is thin, the production speed is fast, and the temperature of the cooling wheel cannot be increased, resulting in the material being colder. 3. The material is hard, a little bit of external force will be discounted, and there is no toughness. To sum up: the three effects of adhesion, molecular orientation, and electrostatic effect are jointly affected. For products of different specifications, the three factors have different influencing factors. The greater the crossover, the thicker the two sides will increase and the lower the middle height; the smaller the separation force (the principle of steel rolling) and the lower the middle height; and the smaller the 2nd and 4th points. The size of the oil pressure setting for clearance elimination will affect the deformation of the middle wheel (affecting the middle-high and middle-low), thereby affecting the shape of the second and third deposits, especially the third deposit is the most obvious. In normal production, the greater the amount of crossover, it means that the gap between the rollers has increased and the compensation has increased. However, the gap change between the rollers and the compensation change do not coincide, leading to more and more serious problems of three highs and two lows. 3. The shape (not the size, but the uniformity of the size) of the second accumulation has changed, resulting in abnormal production. The separation force (change), the middle height of the middle wheel (fixed value), and the deformation of the wheel's own weight (fixed value) produced by the production of each specification at a certain speed and speed ratio should be adjusted and compounded. The gap eliminates the oil pressure (variable value), and the shape of the material accumulation can be better controlled through the deformation of the middle wheel. Three high and two low Separating force: Forcing the rollers to bend and elastically deform along the axial length, so that the distance between the rollers is the largest in the center, and gradually decreases to the two sides, forming a waist drum shape. Heat dissipation: The difference in the axial heat dissipation speed of the calender roller affects the processing temperature on both sides of the blank. Shrinkage: During the cooling process of traction, the two ends (especially the 3-5cm range of the edge is more obvious) are more likely to cold shrink earlier, which is often called the "shrinkage" phenomenon. This explanation can explain reasonably: why there is no cross-axis, no roll bending, or even a calender that does not even have the height of the roll, and the film produced also has "three highs and two lows". ("Mid height" is produced by the extrusion deformation of the roller, and "side height" is caused by the shrinkage of the side and the heat dissipation from the edge of the roller) On the equipment, the roller grinding method of the calender can be used to make the roller slightly concave in the near-center area on both sides. The greater the crossing, the more serious the three highs and the two lows (the difference between the roller axis cross curve and the roller deflection difference curve, so the compensation of the roller axis cross to the roller deflection is not completely compensated, which makes the roller cross calendering In the cross-section of the product, the thickness of the product often produces "two highs and three lows", showing an uneven saddle shape. This phenomenon is usually called the U-shaped effect. At the same time, after the roller axes cross each other, it produces a torsion effect on the calendered product. U-shaped effect and calendering torsion will increase with the increase of the cross angle of the roller axis, so the cross angle of the roller axis is usually limited to within 2 degrees) 1. The product is taller 2. The accumulation of material (especially the second accumulation) is a bit larger, so that the accumulation of material rotates differently and causes the inflection point at this point to move outward. (The temperature accumulates at points 2,4. The temperature is high, the roller expands, and the thickness becomes thinner here) (Spindle shape: the smaller the accumulation, the more severe the rotation; the accumulation at both ends rotates the most, but due to heat dissipation, it causes The thickness is rather large) 3. Increase the temperature of the middle wheel , and make the second accumulation temperature higher, so that the temperature of the accumulation decreases with the size and rotation (spindle shape) of the accumulation, reducing temperature inconsistency; at the same time, the temperature of the middle wheel rises and contacts the edge of the PVC material. The temperature of the roller rises, the roller expands, and the thickness becomes thinner, which reduces the amount of cross-use. It can also move the inflection point caused by the edge effect, so that the 2, 4 points are not so low (the temperature of the middle wheel increases, and the second The middle temperature of the secondary material has little effect, and has a greater impact on the edge) (2017.3 6# production, the temperature of the middle wheel increased by 15℃ than normal, the circumference of the two ends became smaller, collapsed, basically unable to adjust, and the lower wheel hoisted the material at the same time Very high) 4. The speed ratio is close (especially the speed ratio of the upper wheel and the middle wheel) to reduce the speed of the accumulation of material and reduce the excessive temperature deviation of the accumulation caused by the rotation 5. Swing position to make the first accumulation of material evenly cooked and cooked. Why the wider the door, the more serious the three highs and two lows The wider the door width, the more serious the spindle of the second accumulation , the more likely it is to have an inflection point (definition of the inflection point: the spindle of the accumulation is serious, and the heat generated due to the difference in the rotation speed of the accumulation between the near middle area and the near side area is different. One, the edge is due to the heat dissipation of the equipment and the shrinkage of the stretched knife during production, which causes a smaller area).

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Principle of Operation Welding current, inert gas supply, water is turned on. Electric arc is struck between the non-consumable electrode and the work piece by touching the electrode with work piece or using a high frequency until. In 1st method arc is initially struck on a scrap metal piece and then broken by increasing arc length. In 2nd method a high frequency current is supper-imposed on the welding current. Welding torch is brought near to the job when electrode tip reaches within a distance of 3 to 2 mm from job. A spark jumps across the air gap between the electrode and job. Air path gets ionized and arc is established. TIG welding is also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Machine (GTAW) both the AC and DC power source can be used for GTAW electrode employed varies in dia from 0.5 to 6.5 mm carrying current from 5A to 650A; welding torch used for carrying current higher than 1000A is normally water cooled. GTAW is all position (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G.6G) welding and gives the highest quantity weld amongst commonly used arc welding process. Equipment used in TIG Welding Machine a) Welding torch, tungsten electrode and filler rod. b) Welding power source, high frequency unit, DC suppressor unit and cables. c) Inert gas cylinder for shielding purpose, pressure regulator, flow meter. d) Cooling water supply. e) Gas and water solenoid valve. Advantage of TIG Welding Machine a) TIG welding is very suitable for high quality welding of thin material. b) Deeper penetration can be achieved through this process. c) No flux is used so there is no danger of flux entrapment. d) As this process can be seen with the help of goggle therefore operator can exercise a better control on the welding process. e) TIG is very suitable for welding of non-ferrous metals and stainless steel. f) TIG welding is suitable for welding in all positions (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 6G). a) MIG welding is much faster process as compared to TIG welding under similar application. b) Tungsten if transfer to molten weld pool can contaminate the same. c) Tungsten inclusion is hard and brittle. d) TIG welding equipment is more costly as compared to other welding equipment. e) Skill or trained operator is required for welding. Application of TIG Welding Machines a) Basically welding of aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, carbon, alloys or stainless steel, high temperature and hard surfacing alloys such as zirconium, titanium etc. b) Welding sheet metal and thinner section. c) Precision welding in automatic energy aircraft chemical and instrument industries. The process involves fusing two pieces of sheet metal together by penetrating entirely through one piece into the other. No joint preparation is required except proper cleaning of the overlap areas. The main operation in arc spot welding is to strike and hold an arc without travel at a point where the two parts to be joined are held tightly together. A vented metal nozzle of a shape to suit the application is fitted to the MIG gun and is pressed against the workpiece at the desired area. The operation is carried out for a period of 1-5 seconds and a slug is melted between the parts to be joined. Timing is usually controlled automatically with the help of a timer. Thus, the process time can be varied to achieve welds of different sizes depending upon the thickness of the sheets. Arc initiation is a critical part of the process and therefore must be reliable and consistent. This is easy to achieve by a flat characteristics power source and clean surface of the work. GMAW spot welding is a highly adaptable process which requires very little manipulative skill; does not require the use of a welding helmet. It is an extremely fast process and can be fully automated. Due to addition of extra metal the weld slug is free from piping defects. A wire composition different from the base metal may be used to control cracking, porosity, or strength. Argon and CO2 are shielding gases commonly used for GMAW spot welding. GMAW arc spot process can be used more efficiently for downhand welding position. It can be successfully employed for horizontal position but fails for overhead welding position. This process does not require a hole to be made in either member, thus in differs from plug welding in that respect. As the upper member is required to be melted through and through, its thickness is normally restricted to 3 mm. The thickness of the second member is not important. Through lap joints are the most often used type of joint for arc spot welding but fillet joints can also be successfully made by this process. In this process the metal from the electrode wire scours deeply into the weld crater. This breaks up the oxide films at the faying surfaces so that the process can be used as successfully on aluminum as on mild, low alloys, and stainless steels. The arc which is struck by direct contact between the wire electrode and the workpiece, is maintained at a constant length by the interaction of electrical parameters. The power source used is invariably of the rectified dc type. Both, constant voltage and constant current type power sources are in use. Depending upon the work material, the shielding gas may be argon, helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and their mixtures. When inert shielding gas is used the process is more popularly known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding and when CO2 is used as the shielding gas it is referred to as CO2 welding or MAG (metal active gas) welding. GMAW is an all-position semi-automatic welding process through its automatic versions is also available. GMAW is a very versatile process and can be used for welding all metals for which compatible filler wires have been developed. However, its typical applications include medium-gauge fabrication such as structurals, earth moving equipment, plate and box girders, and automobile bodies. This process has great potentials for use with robotic welding systems. Plasma-MIG Welding Machine This process, as the name implies, has been developed by combining the features of plasma arc welding and MIG welding processes. It has two variants; one with separate non-consumable tungsten electrode and the other uses the torch nozzle as non-consumable electrode. Essentially plasma-MIG welding process differs from the existing GMAW process in that the electrode wire is enveloped in a plasma sheath which controls heat and droplet transfer in such a way that much higher speeds and deposition rates are attained that possible with GMAW process. This process can be used both for welding and surfacing. Most of the materials that can be welded by GMAW can as well be welded by this process and at much faster rates. AC Welding Power Sources Requirements of a Welding Transformer A welding transformer should satisfy the following requirements. - It should have a drooping static volt-ampere characteristic. - To avoid spatter, the surge of the welding current during a short circuit should be limited to the least possible above the normal arc current. - The open circuit voltage should not normally exceed 80 volts and in no case 100 volts. - The output current should be controllable continuously over the full available range. - The open circuit voltage should be just sufficiently high for ready initiation of arc and not too high to impair the economics of welding. Basic Types of Welding Transformer - The high reactance type - The external reactor type - The integral reactor type - The saturable reactor type The High Reactance Type Welding Transformer When a transformer supplies current, magnetic fluxes are produced around its windings. The lines of the resultant magnetic flux traverse the magnetic circuit and cut the primary and secondary windings. Some of magnetic flux due to primary current do not cut the secondary turns and vice-versa, since both have their paths in the air. In the other words, they are responsible for the reactance of the coils and the respective reactive voltage drops across them. As the current increases, the leakage fluxes also increase and so does the e.m.f. o self-induction. This is why an increase in the primary or secondary current results in increase in the reactive voltage drop across the respective windings. External Reactor Type Welding Transformer This type of welding transformer consists of a normal reactance, single phase, step down transformer and a separate reactor or choke. The inductive reactances and resistances of the windings in such a welding transformer are low, so that its secondary voltage varies but a little with the welding current. The required drooping or negative volt-ampere characteristic is ensured by the reactor placed in the secondary of the welding circuit. Integral Reactor Type Welding Transformer The welding transformer of the integral reactor type has a primary winding I, a secondary winding II, and a reactor winding III. Apart from the main limbs, the core has additional limbs carrying the reactor winding. The current is adjusted by means of moving core C placed between the additional limbs. Saturable Reactor Type Welding Transformer In this welding transformer an isolated low voltage, low amperage dc circuit is employed to change the effective magnetic characteristics of the magnetic core. Thus, a large amount of ac is controlled by using a relatively small amount of dc, hence making it possible to adjust the output volt-ampere characteristics curve from minimum to maximum. For example, when there is no dc flowing in the reactor coil, it has its minimum impedance and thus maximum output of the welding transformer . Parallel Operation of Welding Transformer In welding operation sometimes there is a need for current exceeding the maximum welding current obtainable from one transformer. In such a case the desired welding current can be obtained by parallel operation of two or more welding transformers. The precaution needed for such a parallel operation is that the no-load or open circuit voltages of the transformer should be the same. Multi-Operator Welding Transformers A multi-arc or multi-operator welding transformer system utilises a high current constant voltage power source for providing a number of welding circuits at the same time. Such a system is used when there is a large concentration of welding points in a relatively small operating area, for example, in ship-building, construction sites for power stations, refineries, and chemical plants. Use of the welding in today’s technology is extensive. Welding is used in every branch of science and technology. Such as computer industries, electronic industries, mechanical industries, petrochemical industries, etc. History of Arc Welding Arc welding machine 1st described by Davy in England in late 1809, but beginning of arc welding machine could become possible only the improvement in generator/dynamometer. Welding of metals by carbon arc was 1st suggested by a French person in 1881. In 1889, Zerner proposed an idea for twin carbon arc welding. In 1907 in America Strohmenger obtained another patent on flux coated electrode and 1st good welding joint was produced, he used asbestors coating with sodium silicate binder. Now a lot of changes and development have occurred for constituents of flux coating and core wire composition. In 1928 shielding of welding (CO2) possible by Alexender in USA. 1st TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding machine and MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding machine develop consequently in 1946 and 1948 respectively. Joining Process: On the basics of composition of the joint, joining process are three types: - Homogeneous Process: In the joining process filler rod (electrode) is used and two same metals are joining no pressure is applying during the welding process. - Heterogeneous Process: In this joining process filler metal is soluble in both the parent metal which themselves are soluble in each other. - Autogeneous Process: In this type of welding process no filler rod is used but pressure is extensively used. Resistance welding, forge welding, friction welding, diffusion welding are the examples of autogeneous welding. Metals that can be welded - Ferrous metals such as low carbon steel, high carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron, etc. (ferrous metals are those metals which are richer in carbon means having iron as a main constituents). - Non-ferrous metals are those materials which are richer other than carbon such as Al,Cu, brass, nickel magnesium, zinc and its alloys. Advantages of Welding - Welding joints are stronger as base metal. - Machining are possible on welding joints such as (grinding, shapering etc.). - Welding joints efficiency up to 100%. - Appearance of welding joint is very good. - Alteration and amendment is possible in existing structure use by welding. - A large numbers of similar and dissimilar metals can be welded easily. - Weld joints are light in weight. - Welding is a permanent joint. Limitations of Welding - Skill person is needed for welding purpose. - Ultra-violet rays and infrared rays generate during the welding process which harm full for operator’s skin as well as eyes. - Distortion due to high temperature is possible in workpiece. - Thermal stresses developed in workpiece heat treatment process are required to relieve the thermal stresses. - Weld heat produces metallurgical changes in workpiece. - Edge preparation is required before welding which is time and labor consuming process. - Special jigs and fixtures are required for welding purpose. Comparison of Welding with Other Joining Processes - Welding joints are lighter in weight as compared to riveting and casting (process). - Welding is more economical and much faster process as compared to casting and riveting. - Welding joint have more tensile strength and rigid as compared to riveting and casting. - Less cost involvement in welding as compared to riveting and casting. - Welding produces 100% efficient joint which is not possible by any other joining process. - Jig-fixture not so much required as compared in reverting and casting. - Welding is a permanent joint while riveting and bolting are not permanent joint (temporary joint). Applications of Welding - Automobile industries - Building construction - Railroad industries - Pressure vessels and tank (cylinders) - Aircraft industries - Storage tank - Pipeline industries - Petrochemical industries - Earth moving equipment and machinery - Shipbuilding industries Spot Welding Process All resistance welding operations are automatic and therefore all process variables are pre-set and maintained constant. Once a welding operation has been initiated there is no way in which its progress can be controlled and, thus, the weld cycle is completed as per the pre-set times. The welding cycle for spot welding machine, seam welding machine and projection welding machine consist basically of four elements viz., squeeze time, weld time, hold time, and off time. These timing are pre-set for a particular metal and a thickness range and the shop operator normally cannot change them on his own. Each one of these four time phases has its own role to play in achieving a sound weld of the required size. The time interval between the application of electrode pressure to the work and switching on the welding currents called the squeeze time. This time interval is provided to assure the contact between the electrode and the work and to initiate the application of force on it. It is the time for which the welding current actually flows to melt the metal at the interface. It is the time for which the electrodes are kept in position, after the welding current is switched off, to assure the application of pressure so as to consolidate the molten metal into a nugget which is then cooled by the dissipation of heat to the surrounding work material. If the applied force is excessive it may result in expulsion of molten metal from in-between the sheets. The time allowed to shift the work to the next location before the cycle is repeated is referred to as the off time. The electrodes are kept off the work during this time interval. Welding current, time of current flow and the electrode pressure are recognized as the fundamental variables of resistance spot welding machine. For achieving quality welds in most metals, these variables are required to be kept within very close limit. The size of the weld nugget and in fact whether it will form or not depends upon the heat being generated faster than it is dissipated by conduction. Welding current is, thus , the most critical variable. Both a.c. and d.c. are used to produce spot, seam, and projection welding machine. Most applications use single phase a.c. of mains frequency i.e. 50 hertz. However, d.c. is used for applications that need heavy current and the load for which can be balanced on a 3-phase power line. Also, with direct current machines the rate of current rise and fall can be programmed as per requirements. The current rise period or upslope and current decay period or down slope can be programmed with electronic control systems. Control of upslope helps to avoid overheating and expulsion of molten metal at the beginning of the weld time as the interface resistance at that time is high. Down slope helps to control weld nugget solidification to avoid cracks in weldments particularly in metals that are prone to quench-hardening and hot tearing. MIG Welding machine is defined as metal inert gas welding. It is also one of the types of arc welding machine. In this process no pressure is applied for welding. In this process of welding wherein coalescence is produced by heat the work piece with an electric arc establish between a continues feed of metal electrode (copper coated) and the work piece. No flux is used as used in submerged arc welding (SAW Welding) but a shielding gas (Ar, He, Co2) is used. It is also known as gas metal arc welding (GMAW). Principle of Operation Before welding set the current, wire feed speed and electrical connections. Now arc is struck by one of the two methods. 1st method current and shielding gas flow is switched on and electrode is scratched against the job as usual practice. For striking the arc by 2nd method-electrode is made to touch the job is restricted and moved forward to carry out welding but before striking the arc shielding gas, water and current is switched on during the welding. Torch should be 10 – 12 mm. Away from the work pieces and arc length is kept between 1.5 to 4.0 mm. Arc are basically two types. I. Self adjusted arc II. Self controlled arc In self adjusted arc, with decreases in arc length (from L2 to L1) voltage decreases and current increases from l2 to l1 melting the electrode at faster rate resulting into making the arc length normal for self adjusting arc, welding source with flat characteristics is required for self-controlled arc, when arc length decreases, arc voltage also decreases with reduces speed of electric motor and hence the feed rate of electrode this brings arc length to a set value for self-controlled arc, a welding source with dropping characteristics is preferred. Equipment Required for MIG Welding Machine I. Welding power source with cables; II. Welding gun filler wire on a coiled spool; III. Shielding gas cylinder, pressure regulator and flow meter; IV. Control switch. Different Types of Material can be welded by MIG Welding Machine I. Carbon and low alloy steel II. Heat resistant alloys III. Copper and its alloys IV. High strength low alloy steel (HSLA) V. Stainless Steel VI. Magnesium alloys VII. Aluminum and its alloys Advantage of MIG Welding Machine I. Less number of spatters as compared with MMA welding; II. MIG is very faster process as compared with TIG Welding Machine; III. Deep penetration can be achieved through this process; IV. No use of flux during welding process; V. Process can be easily mechanized; VI. MIG produces a high quality, weld bead with minimum defeats; VII. Large metal deposition rate are achieved by MIG welding process. Limitations of MIG Welding Machine I. Welding equipment is more costly and complex as compared to ARC Welding Machine; II. Trained operator is required to perform the operation; III. Process is not economically for job shop production; IV. All types of material cannot be welded. I. For welding of Al, Cu, Mg, Ni and their alloys; II. For welding of aircraft, pressure vessels and shipbuilding industry; III. For manufacturing of refrigerator parts etc; IV. Rail road industries; V. Transport Industries. Arc Welding is a welding process where in coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc. Mostly arc welding is done by without pressure and with or without use of filler metal depending upon the plate (object) thickness. In arc welding machine arc is formed when an electric current passes between two electrodes separated by a short distance from each other. In arc welding machine one electrode is the welding rod or wire while other is the metal to be welded (work piece), electrode and plate. Arc connected to the supply one of the positive pole and other to negative terminal. Arc is started by moment rally touching the electrode on the plate and the withdrawing it to about 3 to 4 mm from the plate. When the electrode touches the plates, a current flows and as it is withdrawn from the plate the current continues to flow in the form of a spark across the very small gap first formed, this cause the air gap to become ionized or made conducting and as a result the current is able to flow across the gap even when it is very wide, in the form of an electrode must always be touched on to the plate before the arc can be started. Arc is generated be electrons flowing from negative (-ve) to positive (+ve) terminal and electrical energy is changed in the arc into heat and light approximately 2/3 of the heat is generated near the positive (+ve) terminal which burns into the form of a creater. Temperature range from 2700oC-5500oC. While remaining 1/3 is generated near negative (-ve) terminal as electrode connected with positive (+ve) terminal they will burn away 50% faster than if connected to negative (-ve) terminal. Therefore medium coated electrodes and bare electrodes are used. Types of Arc Welding Machines 1. Consumable Electrode Process i. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Arc Welding Machine ii. SAW Welding Machine iii. MIG Welding Machine iv. FCAW Welding Machine v. Electrogas Welding (ECW) vi. Electroslag Welding (ESW) vii. Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) 2. Non-consumable Electrode Processes i. TIG Welding Machine ii. Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW) iii. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Different welding parameters and the forces acting on the molten droplet play characteristic roles with specific welding processes. The case of the coated electrodes, MIG Welding Machine-both with solid and flux cored wires and SAW Welding Machine are of special interest due to the important and extensive use of these processes in the welded fabrications. Metal Transfer in Arc Welding Machine (SMAW) The drop transfer is a good way of characterising the mode of the metal transfer for any particular process and as it is relatively easy to measure, experimental data are easily available. The possible explanation for this is that the transfer may be of the explosive type when insufficient amounts of silicon and manganese are added to the electrode coating and this generates small droplets with high rate of metal transfer. On the other hand with fully deoxidised electrode, the droplets are relatively large, of the order of 1 mm diameter, and the metal transfer rate is low at about 10 droplets per second. Due to low current densities employed is Arc welding machine, the metal transfer takes place mainly by three modes viz, short-circuit, globular, and projected spray. However, for any given current density transfer from coated electrodes is at a higher rate than that for MIG Welding Machine or SAW Welding Machine which is consistent with the fact that the general characteristics of transfer with coated electrode differs from that with bare wire processes. In welding machine with coated electrodes it has also been observed the weld penetration is equal to the cavity formed in the weld pool due to the arc forces. In this process the current density is too low to produce an electromagnetic jet, and the gas flow takes place mainly as a consequence of the decomposition of the electrode coatings and to a limited extent due to the chemical reactions of the core wire material at the high temperature of the arc. Also, if the electrodes are baked at a temperature high enough to drive off all volatile material, it renders them unusual which points to the fact that in normal operation the metal droplets are carried across the arc in the gas flow generated by the decomposition of the coating. The intensity of the gas stream in Arc Welding Machine (SMAW) increases with coating thickness such that it becomes quite strong with heavily coated electrodes making them to fit for use as cutting electrodes for metals. In Arc Welding Machine (SMAW) it is possible to make satisfactory welds with 3 mm diameter electrode at 50 to 120 A while in MIG Welding Machine the same sized wire needs 200 to 250A for its successful operation. The only possible explanation for this anomaly is that the gas flow and hence the arc flow is provided in Arc Welding Machine (SMAW) by the decomposition of the coating whereas in MIG Welding Machine , it is dependent on the electro-magnetically included jet which becomes effective only at relatively higher currents.

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- Research article - Open Access Effectiveness of mobile application on changing weight, healthy eating habits, and quality of life in children and adolescents with obesity: a randomized controlled trial BMC Pediatrics volume 21, Article number: 499 (2021) A technology-based intervention, such as a mobile application, was a growing interest and potentially effective modality for treating obesity. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the OBEST, a new mobile/tablet-based application in reducing weight and encouraging healthy eating behaviors and quality of life in children with obesity. The application could assist healthcare professionals to treat children and adolescents with obesity. A randomized controlled trial was conducted in the hospital and school settings in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Seventy-seven children and adolescents with obesity were randomized into two groups; one received standard care combined with the OBEST application, and the other received only standard care. The outcomes were changes in weight, healthy eating behaviors, and quality of life assessed by the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL) from baseline to six-month follow-up between the two groups. The results showed that the intervention group reduced more body mass index (BMI) and had a higher number of participants engaging in healthy eating behaviors than the standard care group but did not reach a statistically significant level, except for less frequent consumption of fast food. The participants in the intervention group had 4.5 times higher odds of decreased engaging in fast-food consumption than the standard care group at 6 months follow-up (odds ratio, 4.5 [95% CI, 1.41 to 14.35]). There were no statistically significant changes in PedsQL scores over 6 months in between groups. The current study was unable to detect a significant effect of the OBEST application as an adjunct tool to the standard treatment on reducing weight in obese children and adolescents. However, the mobile application might help to increase engaging in healthy eating behaviors. Further studies with a larger sample are needed to confirm our findings. The trial was retrospectively registered at the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (trial registration number: TCTR20200604008, on June 4, 2020). Childhood obesity is a major concern worldwide. The worldwide prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged 5-19 has noticeably increased in roughly 40 years. It was found that increased prevalence during 1975 to 2016 was from 0.9 to 7.8% among boys and from 0.7 to 5.6% in girls, respectively [1, 2]. The combination of poor nutrition, excess calorie intake, and lack of physical activity have contributed to weight gain . Apart from the biological and genetic factors, the socio-cultural, economic, and physical environmental factors strongly put people at risk of being obese . Many obese children grow into obese adolescents and obesity in adult life unless they are appropriately treated . Serious consequences such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and other non-communicable diseases have arisen at younger ages in children and adolescents with obesity . Obesity does not only affect physical health but many children and adolescents with obesity also suffer from psychological problems and have a poor quality of life. Many mental illnesses including depression, anxiety, substance use, and eating disorders, are also considered unfavorable outcomes of obesity . Wallander et al. reported that children with obesity had a lower health-related quality of life than non-overweight/non-obese children, particularly in psychosocial functioning . Therapeutic interventions for childhood obesity include nutritional therapy, increasing physical activity, reducing sedentary behaviors, psychological intervention, medication, and surgery . A multimodal approach involving lifestyle interventions such as dietary changes, physical activity, and behavioral interventions was recommended as a mainstay of treatment and essential for long-term maintenance of weight loss [9, 10]. However, it was difficult to successfully treat children and adolescents with obesity, as seen in a systematic review presenting the small effect of non-pharmacological weight-loss treatment . The evidence of not achieving behavior changes has also been reported in previous studies [12,13,14]. Failure of weight reduction and remaining unhealthy behaviors could be from a lack of motivation and poor adherence to treatment [15, 16]. Therefore, it is necessary to find new adjunctive tools to build motivation and improve adherence among those obese patients. Technology-based modalities are aimed to enhance the efficacy of obesity treatment, such as web-based, interactive, and smartphone application interventions. To date, a mobile application has been a growing interest and promising tool in treating obesity . Although several mobile application studies focused on weight reduction, most developed mobile applications did not show a significant decrease in weight and body mass index (BMI) . While some previous studies proved the mobile applications could enhance lifestyle changes, like eating behaviors in children and adolescents with obesity [19,20,21], the results reflecting the effectiveness of mobile applications in improving healthy eating habits were mixed and inconclusive. This study aimed to evaluate the OBEST application’s effectiveness in reducing weight (primary outcome) and improving eating habits and quality of life (secondary outcomes) in obese children and adolescents. We hypothesized that the children and adolescents with obesity would lose weight, change to healthier eating habits, and improve their quality of life after receiving the application added to the standard care at a six-month follow-up. This study was a two-arm parallel design randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of the OBEST application in reducing weight and improving healthy eating behaviors and quality of life in children and adolescents with obesity. The study was conducted between May 2018 and December 2019. The participants were randomized into the group receiving the intervention (OBEST application added to the standard care) and receiving standard care in a 1:1 ratio using a block size of four randomization from a web-based randomization system. The random allocation sequence was provided by a research assistant. The allocation concealment was managed by using opaque envelopes. The outcome assessors were blinded to the treatment allocation. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine at Chiang Mai University (180/2561). The study protocol was registered with the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (trial registration number: TCTR20200604008). Written informed consent/informed assent was obtained from all parents and participants in the study. The participants were recruited from the hospital and school-based settings. For the hospital-based setting, the walk-in patients with minor illness were invited from the Pediatric Outpatient Department in Chiang Mai University Hospital. The school-based samples were students enrolled from a private school located in the same district as the hospital. One hundred thirty-five participants who met the inclusion criteria: age 10-15 years and obese (having BMI at or above the 95th percentile for children and adolescents of the same age and sex) were informed about the study by the research assistant. If children and their parents were interested in participating in the study, the research assistant would assess for eligibility based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The exclusion criteria consisted of 1) non-android device users; 2) having a chronic medical illness; 3) not living in Chiang Mai; 4) having an intellectual disability or requiring special educational needs; 5) not being ethnically Thai; and 6) being morbidly obese as they might usually require, at some point in time, additional treatments, intensive care, and hospitalization due to their comorbidities and complications during the study period , which could affect the primary and secondary outcomes measured in the study. After the exclusion, a total of 77 participants were asked to sign the informed consent and randomly allocated to the intervention or standard care group, as shown in the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) flow diagram in Fig. 1. The participants in the intervention group were given the OBEST application, a newly developed mobile/tablet application as an additional tool for standard care, innovated by the research team. The strategic methodology of using this application was to improve adherence and promote motivation on reducing weight and changing eating behaviors to a healthier way. There were four features in this application: 1) Goal and Rewards, 2) Daily Dietary Record, 3) Tips and News, and 4) Messaging. Before using the application, the participants in this group were provided a two-hour workshop to learn the application’s instructions, the recommended diet, calories, portion sizes of food, and nutritional facts. Additional information shows the OBEST application in more detail (see Additional file 1). Standard care group The participants received the standard treatment of obesity, followed by the Thai clinical practice guideline for childhood obesity treatment and prevention . Participants from both the hospital and school-based settings were given the same standard of care by the healthcare providers. Bodyweight, height, BMI, BMI z-score, and waist circumference were measured three times in a row, and the mean of each measurement was calculated at the baseline and six-month follow-up. The bodyweight and height were measured using the NAGATA BW-110H digital weighing scale and the NAGATA BW-110H stadiometer. The non-stretch measuring tape measured the waist circumference. The participants would receive measurements at either hospital or school regarding the location of their first enrollment. The anthropometric parameters from the hospital and school settings were measured by the same nurse and the same standard measuring tools by each assessment time. Healthy eating behaviors The healthy eating behaviors were assessed using the healthy eating behavior questionnaire developed by the research team. This self-report questionnaire consisted of six eating habit items: 1) How many meals do you eat a day? 2) How often do you eat fruits and vegetables? 3) How often do you drink milk? 4) How often do you eat snacks? 5) How often do you drink sugar-sweetened beverages? and 6) How often do you eat fast food throughout a week? The three answers for each item were categorized into healthy and unhealthy habits. The answer ‘have three meals a day’ of item 1; ‘eat fruits and vegetables every day’ of item 2; ‘drink milk every day’ of item 3; ‘eat snacks less than three days a week’ of item 4; ‘drink sugar-sweetened beverages less than three days a week’ of item 5; and ‘eat fast food less than three days a week’ of item 6 were defined as having healthy eating habits. Apart from the above answers for each item referred to unhealthy eating habits. Quality of life The quality of life was assessed by the pediatric quality of life inventory™ version 4.0 generic core scales (PedsQL™). This is the universal tool for assessing the health-related quality of life in children . The Thai version self-report questionnaire consists of 23 items that measure four-function domains: physical, emotional, social, and school. The psychosocial health summary scores were derived from combined mean scores of emotional, social, and school functioning domains. The mean scores of all functioning domains contribute to the total summary score. The higher mean scores indicate a better quality of life. The previous Thai research evaluated the psychometric properties of PedsQL 4.0 Generic Core Scales - Thai. Most of the domains in this tool had an acceptable level of internal consistency with Cronbach’s α of ≥0.65 . Sample size and power calculation At least 24 children were needed in each group to detect a difference of 2.5 kg of bodyweight between intervention and control groups as presented in the previous study , with an alpha of 0.05 and power of 0.8. Due to the high attrition rate from weight management programs in the pediatric population, as seen in the previous study , we estimated to enroll the sample size of 77 participants (with anticipation for the drop-out rate of 50 - 60%). We used the SPSS program version 25.0 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY) for statistical analysis. The independent samples t-test was used to test the statistical significance of changes of anthropometric measurements and PedsQL scores in six-month between-group differences. Odds ratios with 95% confidence interval were estimated to compare the number of participants engaging with healthy eating behaviors between the two groups. Intention-to-treat analysis was performed to investigate the difference in treatment effects on anthropometric measurements, healthy eating behaviors, and quality of life scores at six-month follow-up. The p-values of < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The baseline characteristics of the sample in the intervention and standard care groups are shown in Table 1. Most of the participants in the research study were boys. The mean age of all participants was 12.96 years. The anthropometric measurements are shown in Table 2. The magnitude of BMI change in the intervention group was greater than that in the standard care group but did not reach a significant level (− 0.62 [95% CI, − 1.03 to − 0.19] vs. -0.28 [95% CI, − 0.75 to 0.19]). A similar trend of BMI z-score changes was also found in the intervention group compared to the standard care group (− 0.2 [95% CI, − 0.27 to − 0.12) vs. -0.15 [95% CI, − 0.24 to − 0.06]). The remaining findings did not show significant differences between groups. A secondary analysis was conducted to evaluate the post-treatment effect on growth parameters measured at 6-month follow-up between two groups using a generalized linear model approach. After adjusting for weight at baseline, the post-treatment weight of the intervention group was lower than the standard care group, but was not statistically significant (mean difference, − 0.53 [95% CI, − 2.43 to 1.37]), as shown in Supplementary Table 1 (See Additional file 2). At a six-month follow-up, the study showed a higher percentage of participants engaging in healthy behaviors such as having three meals per day, eating fruits and vegetables every day, drinking milk every day, and less frequent consumption of fast food in the intervention group compared to the standard care group. Specifically, the number of participants engaging with less frequent consumption of fast food was significantly higher in the intervention group than in the standard care group (odds ratio, 4.5 [95% CI, 1.41 to 14.35]), as seen in Table 3. In Table 4, the participants from both groups reported the increased PedsQL scores in all domains over the 6 months of follow-up. There were no significant differences in pre-post treatment score changes between the two groups. In this study, 10% of participants lost to a six-month follow-up due to loss of motivation, relocation, and drop out with no reason given. The average compliance rate in using the OBEST application among participants in the intervention group was approximately 50%. This rate was measured by the frequency recording of daily food ingestion during the study period. The participants given the OBEST application would record their daily food types and portion sizes via the application. Then, an individual summary of daily food consumption was automatically sent to the physician’s computer software each day. Thus, the physician could monitor the calories intake and assess the frequency they recorded. The present study could not find a significant difference in weight changing between the groups. However, it was found that the intervention group was significantly related to the increased trend of healthy eating behaviors – less frequent consumption of fast food as seen from the odds ratio. For the quality of life scores, both groups reported the increased PedsQL scores at six-month follow-up from baseline. There were no statistically significant changes in PedsQL scores over 6 months in between groups. Since the mean weight of participants in the intervention group was higher at pre-treatment than the standard care group, we conducted a secondary analysis to estimate the post-treatment effect on reducing weight between the two groups by adjusting baseline weight. It was found that the post-treatment weight of the intervention group was lower than the standard care group, however the confidence intervals were wide including the null value. The possibility of diminishing treatment effectiveness might be explained by a lack of parental involvement in this study. This resulted in inconsistent findings with the previous research reporting significant weight loss of overweight adolescents and their parents when using the internet-based weight management program . Another explanation might be treatment adherence. A prior study that assessed the short-term outcome (2 months) of this mobile application on anthropometric assessments showed the benefit of a decrease in BMI in the intervention group . In contrast, this study did not see those effects at the six-month follow-up due to the decrease in adherence to treatment over time, in our opinion. The compliance rate of using the mobile application in the intervention group of this study was not as good as we expected. Nonetheless, this compliance rate might be a good representation of the real-world population using a mobile application for treating obesity. Inadequate consumption of fruits and vegetables and excessive consumption of high-fat/high-sugar diets play a crucial role in childhood obesity . This study showed that less than half of the participants consumed fruits and vegetables every day in intervention and standard care groups. The majority of children and adolescents with obesity did not drink milk every day. This could be due to the parents’ perception that milk was unnecessary as a child grew older. The possible problematic eating habits in children with obesity were eating snacks as often observed in more than half of the participants in both groups. We expected that children and adolescents with obesity would have more than three meals per day. Interestingly, our study found the participants primarily had up to three meals per day. However, having three regular meals was not always a good indicator of healthy eating behavior. Each meal might have a large portion size and contain a high-carbohydrate and high-fat diet. Besides, a minority of participants frequently consumed sugar-sweetened beverages and fast food, which was in contrast to previous studies [31, 32]. A possible explanation was the parent might not provide frequent fast food to their children due to its unaffordable price in our settings. As expected, we found changing healthy eating behaviors, only in fast-food consumption, in the intervention group using the mobile application. The remaining healthy eating behaviors did not exhibit significant changes. The difficulty in changing behaviors and decreasing weight status could be explained by reducing treatment engagement over time . Some behavior programs seem to be effective and feasible in the short-term treatment and follow-up course, as seen in the study of Chen et al. . Therefore, healthy eating habit changes were usually not being observed in a longer period of time. There were no statistically significant differences between pre-post treatment PedsQL scores between the two groups. The participants in both groups had higher scores at six-month follow-up compared with the baseline scores indicating that they had a better quality of life after receiving obesity treatment, which supports the finding in a previous study . The increased physical functioning scores might be explained by participants perceived they were healthier, and the reduced BMI might, in turn, facilitate them engaging in more physical activities. Increased ratings in psychosocial health demonstrated in this study might indicate that participants would have a positive attitude towards their shape, which would promote their self-confidence, feeling of acceptance from peers, good relationships, and fewer problems of bullying . This study has several strengths. This application was developed for children as distinct from other weight management applications mostly designed for adults. Also, all data input in the application were from reliable sources, unlike many mobile applications for weight management that lacked professional content input . The application also focused on promoting self-awareness by providing a self-monitoring dietary record and building motivation by adding features in the application – the adjustable photo display feature, which showed how the participants looked when they were thin. The goals of using the application were to reduce weight and promote healthy eating behaviors. However, changing eating behaviors in children was challenging [38, 39]. This study showed a trend of enhancing some healthy eating behaviors when using application combined with standard treatment. Moreover, the dropout rate was relatively low in this study. Nonetheless, there were some limitations to this study. Firstly, the eating behaviors questionnaire was not validated since it was developed by our research team used only for this study. However, a nutritionist reviewed the questionnaire as a relatively good substitute for the healthy eating habits evaluation. The questionnaire construction was based on the recommendation that is commonly offered in the general practice clinic. Secondly, in spite of randomization, participants in the intervention group still tended to be more obese at baseline than the standard care group. Although the difference of weight at baseline between the two groups did not reach a significant level, randomization failure by chance could occur in this study. It might explain the absence of the treatment effect. Due to the randomization process was not successful in producing equal distributions of confounding factors, the socioeconomic status variable, which was not collected in this study, could be a potential confounder in the study. The imbalance of initial weight between the two groups could also indicate a presence of unmeasured confounding factors, such as genetic effects, which were not evenly distributed among the groups. Thirdly, the possibility of type II error due to a relatively small sample size could be the one reason that no significant changes were found between intervention and control groups. Fourthly, having a relatively low compliance rate in using the application in the intervention group while still receiving the suggestion from the physician every follow-up visit in the standard care group might also dilute, to some extent, the effect of the application. Fifthly, there was a heterogeneity of samples from the hospital and school-based settings. To mitigate the effect of inhomogeneous samples, we performed stratified random sampling by using stratifying variables such as age and sex. Lastly, the OBEST application is in the Thai-only language and compatible with Android devices due to software development limitations. Thus, we implicitly excluded the children who did not understand the Thai written and spoken language and were not Android users. The current study did not find a significant effect of the OBEST application, as an adjunct tool to the standard treatment, on reducing weight in obese children and adolescents. However, this application might help to increase engaging in healthy eating behaviors. Studies with larger sample sizes are needed to support our findings. Future randomized clinical trials on this topic should consider the possibility of confounding due to chance after randomization. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and analyzed in this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. 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Likhitweerawong N, Boonchooduang N, Kittisakmontri K, Chonchaiya W, Louthrenoo O. Short-term outcomes of tablet/smartphone-based (OBEST) application among obese Thai school-aged children and adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Obes Med. 2020;20:100287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obmed.2020.100287. Roblin L. Childhood obesity: food, nutrient, and eating-habit trends and influences. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007;32(4):635–45. https://doi.org/10.1139/h07-046. Gillis L, Bar-Or O. Food away from home, sugar-sweetened drink consumption and juvenile obesity. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004;22:539–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2003.10719333. Cantor J, Breck A, Elbel B. Correlates of sugar-sweetened beverages purchased for children at fast-food restaurants. Am J Public Health. 2016;106(11):2038–41. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2016.303427. Cueto V, Wang CJ, Sanders LM. Impact of a mobile app-based health coaching and behavior change program on participant engagement and weight status of overweight and obese children: retrospective cohort study. J Med Internet Res. 2019;7(11):e14458. https://doi.org/10.2196/14458. Chen JL, Weiss S, Heyman MB, Cooper B, Lustig RH. The efficacy of the web-based childhood obesity prevention program in Chinese American adolescents (Web ABC study). J Adolesc Health. 2011;49(2):148–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.11.243. Hoedjes M, Makkes S, Halberstadt J, Noordam H, Renders CM, Bosmans JE, et al. Health-related quality of life in children and adolescents with severe obesity after intensive lifestyle treatment and at 1-year follow-up. Obes Facts. 2018;11(2):116–28. https://doi.org/10.1159/000487328. Russell-Mayhew S, McVey G, Bardick A, Ireland A. Mental health, wellness, and childhood overweight/obesity. J Obes. 2012:281801. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/281801. Nikolaou CK, Lean ME. Mobile applications for obesity and weight management: current market characteristics. Int J Obes 2017;41(1):200-202. 10.1038/ijo.2016.186. Scaglioni S, De Cosmi V, Ciappolino V, Parazzini F, Brambilla P, Agostoni C. Factors influencing children's eating behaviours. Nutrients. 2018;10(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060706. Styne DM, Arslanian SA, Connor EL, Farooqi IS, Murad MH, Silverstein JH, et al. Pediatric obesity—assessment, treatment, and prevention: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(3):709–57. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-2573. We would like to thank all participants and parents who gave their child permission to participate in the study. This study was funded by the Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University (grant number 145/2561). Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine at Chiang Mai University (180/2561). Written informed consent/informed assent was obtained from all participants and their parents. Consent for publication The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. About this article Cite this article Likhitweerawong, N., Boonchooduang, N., Kittisakmontri, K. et al. Effectiveness of mobile application on changing weight, healthy eating habits, and quality of life in children and adolescents with obesity: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pediatr 21, 499 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-02980-x - Childhood obesity - Mobile application - Weight reduction - Eating behavior - Quality of life

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The two instruments aboard Cluster that measure the properties of the electrons are PEACE and RAPID. PEACE consists of two top-hat electrostatic analyzers (shown in gure 3.8) that measure 3-dimensional electron distribution functions at energies up to 30keV . RAPID uses pin-hole detectors to measure high energy electrons in the range from 39keV to 406keV . As illustrated in gure 3.9, the electrostatic analyzers used by PEACE operate by applying a speci c voltage between two plates that are shaped as part of a circle. Electrons that enter with energy corresponding to that voltage follow the path down to the detector, whereas electrons with di erent energies collide with the walls of the detector and are absorbed. Therefore using di erent values of the voltage, the distribution function is sampled. The PEACE instrument has two sensors, designated HEEA and LEEA. Both are top hat electrostatic analyzers but have di erent geometric factors. This means that they are optimized for di erent ranges of electron uxes and energies mak-ing them suitable for di erent environments. LEEA is the Low Energy Electron Analyzer and its geometric factor makes it appropriate for higher uxes and rela-tively low energies, such as those found in the magnetosheath and the solar wind. HEEA (High Energy Electron Analyzer) is more suitable for environments where the electrons have lower density and higher energy such as those found the outer magnetosphere and the magnetotail. The two PEACE sensors are placed on op-posite sides of the spacecraft. Each of the two top hat analyzers has 12 anodes covering 15o each in the polar direction, so that a combined eld of view of 180o is provided. As illustrated in gure 3.10. They are placed perpendicular to the spacecraft body allowing a cov-erage of all 180o elevation angles with respect to the spin axis of the spacecraft. For each measurement, a sweep through the appropriate energy channels is done simultaneously for all the anodes. Hence, as the spacecraft rotates, di erent az-imuthal directions are scanned. Each di erent measurement scans a part of the sky with a 180o eld of view in elevation and a slice of a few degrees in the azimuthal direction. Every 4s the spacecraft completes a full spin and both sensors are able to complete a scan of the whole sky. The resolution of this scan in terms of az-imuth angle and energy channels depends on the mode of the instrument. Higher angular resolution comes at the expense of reduced energy resolution, given that each anode has a de ned geometry and requires a su cient accumulation time to complete a meaningful measurement. There are three modes of operation of the instrument in terms of angular reso-lution, scanning over a di erent number of energy channels: LAR (250ms sweep time) , MAR (125ms sweep time) and HAR (62:5ms sweep time), which stand for Low, Medium and High angular resolution respectively. So, in MAR mode for example the energy sweep lasts 125ms, performing 32 sweeps per spin, with each spin covering 11:25o in azimuth and 180o in elevation. The sensors have a nominal energy range from 0:6eV to 26; 460eV , which is divided into 88 channels spaced linearly up to 9:5eV and logarithmically above that value. The sensor sweeps through these energy channels from high energies to low energies. The number of energy channels covered by each sweep depends on the instrument mode. The accumulation time for each energy channel is equal. For the three modes of opera-tion, LAR, MAR and HAR, the number of energy bins is 60, 30 and 15 respectively. That yields the di erent time it takes for a full sweep in each mode. The time it takes for the voltage to be reset for the next sweep ( » y-back time ») varies ac-cording to the mode. The data collected during the y-back time is discarded and the corresponding bins are empty in the nal data product. The nal measure-ment has 64 energy bins for the LAR mode (with 4 being empty corresponding to the y-back time), 32 for the MAR (with 2 for the y-back time) and 16 for the HAR mode (with 1 for the y-back). There are always 12 polar angle bins. The number of the azimuth angle slices varies also with respect to how many energy sweeps the sensor has the time to do in each spin. Hence, in LAR mode there are 16 azimuth bins, 32 in MAR and 64 in HAR mode. With this con guration the sensor returns always 11,520 values per spin. This is the basic data product with the best resolution available. However, it must be noted that both energy and angular resolution at the nal data products vary to conform with telemetry limitations. While the sensor operates most of the time in MAR mode, the resolution of the data transmitted to Earth depends on the available telemetry. The most com-monly available data product is the moments of the electron distribution function, namely the density, the velocity and the temperature at the spin resolution of 4s, calculated on board or on the ground. The other spin-resolution products are the P IT CH SP IN and P AD. They provide two measurements per spin at the two moments during the spin where the eld of view of the sensor is aligned with the direction of magnetic eld vector. That o ers full pitch angle coverage provided that the magnetic eld is relatively stable during the time interval of the spin. Figure 3.10: Schematic of Cluster spacecraft. Placement of the HEEA and LEEA sensors of the PEACE instrument. The eld of view of each sensor is a fan arranged looking radially out from the spacecraft body. Courtesy of MSSL. There are a number of sub-spin data products which provide some of the infor-mation of the individual measurements at di erent azimuth angles which make up the nal distribution from which the moments are calculated. The data prod-ucts P IT CH F U LL,P IT CH 3D and 3DR o er resolution that depends on the available telemetry. The data products 3DX and 3DXP have the best resolution the instrument can provide, and is usually always available when the spacecraft operates in Burst Mode. There are a number of known issues and caveats regarding PEACE measurements. They are issues that concern top-hat analysers and particle detectors in general and are always a cause of concern in space missions with in situ plasma instruments. The most important of them are outlined below. The rst issue is the e ect of the spacecraft potential on the measured electrons. A spacecraft orbiting in space, in the environments that Cluster operates in, has usually a small positive electric charge. It ranges from a few eV to tens of eV depending on the technique and the strategy of potential control. The charged particles that end up in the detectors travel through that potential and are in u-enced by it. In practice, that means that the electrons are accelerated by a few eV and that the measured velocity distribution is shifted accordingly in velocity space. While this is not a problem for high energies, it has a signi cant impact on lower energy electrons. In the case where the bulk of the thermal population is in the range of the spacecraft potential, such e ect must be taken into account. This issue requires careful calculation of the potential around the spacecraft. It must be noted that, while the spacecraft surface is conductive, there are still minor spatial and temporal anisotropies of the potential around the spacecraft. This means that electrons are not a ected equally and in the same way in all directions. In the case of fast rotating spacecraft like Cluster this is mostly due to the di erences between the sun-lit and the dark side of the spacecraft. However, usually this e ect is small and can be safely ignored or averaged out. The second issue is the e ect of the photo-electrons that are emitted by the sun-light that hits the spacecraft. Due to the positive charge of the spacecraft, the photo-electrons that have energies below the spacecraft potential will return to it, with some of them being captured by the detectors. Although the photo-electron ux can be signi cant, the bulk of this problem can be mitigated by discarding measurements below the energy of the spacecraft potential. It must be noted however that the actual energy cut-o of the photo-electron population is not al-ways clear and can partially contaminate higher energies. Additionally, given the complex and varying structure of the spacecraft potential, the photo-electron ux is slightly anisotropic. Those e ects are usually not very signi cant and rather complex. A cut-o value at the energy corresponding to the spacecraft poten-tial remains the most widely used approach. However, it must be noted that in some cases where the electron temperature is relatively low and the potential of the spacecraft relatively high (e.g. due to limited potential control), the presence of photo-electrons can dominate the entire thermal part of the electron popula-tion. In such cases the estimation of moments of the electron distribution function becomes less reliable. This is frequently the case in the solar wind. A nal issue that is present in most top hat analyzers, including PEACE, and should be mentioned here, is UV-photon produced electrons inside the sensors. Such electrons are produced when UV photons from the Sun (or to a lesser extent from other luminous objects), hit an anode. For that reason the interior of the analyzer plates is covered by appropriate absorbing coating and has a grating surface. However, such protection does not completely mitigate the e ect. When the Sun is directly in the eld of view of an anode, the e ect will be measurable. It results in a sharp spike at low energies at a speci c azimuthal direction once for every spin. It is limited to a single azimuth bin and usually does not have a dramatic impact on the data. In this chapter, I present the methods used in the thesis to analyze the in situ data as well as the relevant diagnostics that were performed to test the robustness of such methods. The rst set of methods concerns how to detect regions of strong electric current in turbulent space plasma, usually referred to as current sheets, since these are the regions where reconnection is expected to occur. As it follows from Ampere’s law, current sheets are associated with a sharp change of the magnetic eld in terms of its magnitude and direction. Three di erent methods have been used, namely the Partial Variance of Increments (PVI), the magnetic shear angle and the direct computation of current through four-point magnetic eld measurements by the curlometer technique. A second set of methods concerns how to determine the orientation and motion of current sheets in the hypothesis that they are planar structures, that is, their local reference frame and velocity. The frame was estimated using the Minimum Variance Analysis. The timing method was used to estimate the velocity of the current sheet in the normal direction to the current sheet plane. This method also provides the normal direction that has been compared with that from minimum variance for consistency checks. The last set of methods are related to the estimation of electron temperature from partial distribution functions measured at sub-spin time resolution. These estimates are necessary since the full distribution function are available on spinning spacecraft at spin resolution ( 4s for Cluster), while the typical duration of current sheet crossings in the turbulent plasma studied here is of the order of 1s or below. In this chapter I also discuss in detail the diagnostics performed to check the robustness of the sub-spin data analysis, as well as the limitations and caveats associaetd to this analysis. The derived estimates of the electron temperature have been used to study the electron heating associated to the current sheets, as discussed in section 5. The tests and the diagnostics presented here for the di erent methods were done by using the same dataset presented in Chapter 5, that consists of 1h300 of Burst Mode data in the Earth’s magnetosheath downstream of the quasi-parallel bow shock. The Cluster data was provided by the Cluster Science Archive. The data analy-sis tools used in this work were implemented in MATLAB.The IRFU-MATLAB toolbox (https://github.com/irfu/irfu-matlab) was used to construct the sub-spin distribution functions as well as for data visualization. Methods for the detection of current sheets Partial Variance of Increments The Partial Variance of Increments (PVI) method has been described in and and has been implemented for the detection and study of intermittent struc-tures such as current sheets in simulations and in solar wind observations . It consists of calculating the change of the magnetic eld vector over a time lag : This computation produces a time series of the PVI index for a given time lag. An example of a PVI analysis in simulation data by is shown in Figure 4.1. Current sheets are associated with sharp gradients of the magnetic eld and therefore are expected to appear as large values of the PVI index. The selection of current sheets of di erent intensity is then obtained by imposing a threshold N on the equation 4.1.1, P V I (t) > N, where N = 1; 2; 3; ::: typically indicates a multiple of standard deviations of magnetic eld increments. Previous work has established a link between high values of the PVI index and non-Gaussian tails associated with intermittent structures such as current sheets [47, 48, 104]. Speci cally, it has been proposed from empirical results, that a PVI index lower than 1 is associated with low intensity Gaussian uctuations, a PVI index between 1 and 3 is likely to be associated with intermediate structures such as magnetic islands, whereas highly intermittent structures such as reconnecting current sheets are signi cantly more likely to have a PVI index larger than 3. This aspect will be discussed in more detail in Section 5.1.1, where speci c thresholds and selection criteria will be applied to Cluster data. Figure 4.1 also shows the e ect of using averaging intervals of di erent lengths for the normalization of the PVI index. Speci cally, the signal becomes weaker as the averaging interval is reduced. It is important to notice here that, for a meaningful PVI analysis, the length of the normalization interval should be much larger than the typical correlation length of the turbulence, that roughly corresponds to the size of the biggest structure in the turbulence. This is expected to provide a stable value of the average as discussed by and also in Section 5.1.1. It must be noted that the PVI method has been used so far in single spacecraft observations. In those cases, however, there is no information regarding the size and the velocity of the observed current sheets. Using data from multiple space-craft allows us to observe directly structures of size comparable to the separation between the spacecraft. In this thesis, I have implemented the PVI technique for multi-spacecraft data and used this multi-spacecraft technique to detect the cur-rent sheets studied in Chapter 5. The results and the comparison with the single spacecraft approach used in previous studies is discussed in detail in Section 5.1.1. Figure 4.1: PVI index with di erent averaging intervals obtained from simu-lation results by . The signal becomes weaker as the averaging interval l decreases. C denotes the turbulence correlation length and d the dissipation length as de ned in . From . Magnetic Shear Angle A number of previous studies have focused on the rotation of the magnetic eld across current sheets in turbulent plasma [20, 97, 111, 161]. The value of the magnetic shear angle has been used both as an identi cation method and as an important element for the physical processes occurring within the current sheet, e.g. magnetic reconnection or other instabilities. In these studies, the magnetic shear angle is calculated from single spacecraft measurements of the magnetic eld by using the formula: Figure 4.2 shows an example of current sheet detection in the solar wind by using the magnetic shear angle performed by Miao et al. . Figure 4.2: Example of the calculation of the magnetic shear angle for a current sheet in the solar wind using data from the Ulysses spacecraft . The time lag in the gure corresponds to the lag discussed in the text . The gure shows that, for di erent values of , increases gradually to a maxi-mum value that corresponds to the rotation of the magnetic eld across the current sheet (shear angle). Once this maximum value is reached, further increase of the values of leads to the peak becoming wider, but the maximum value does not change. The time 0 it takes to reach the maximum value corresponds to the time it takes for the spacecraft to cross the current sheet. If the velocity of the current sheet is known, then this crossing time can be converted to the actual current sheet thickness. It should be noticed, however, that if the chosen for the analysis is smaller than 0, then does not reach its maximum value and the magnetic shear as well as the duration of current sheet is underestimated. This could lead to underestimate the thickness of the current sheet. However, as for the case of the PVI index, the magnetic shear angle can also be computed using simultaneous measurements from multiple spacecraft, as discussed in detail in Section 5.1.1. While this limits the analysis to a given scale set by the spacecraft separation, it allows us to avoid the issue discussed above related to undersampling the current sheet. The curlometer technique is a multi-spacecraft technique that allows us to directly compute the electric current at the barycenter of a tetrahedron of spacecraft such as Cluster , by using four-point magnetic eld measurements. The main as-sumption of the method is that the variations of the magnetic eld are linear inside the tetrahedron so that non-linear terms of B are neglected and the current is assumed uniform over the tetrahedron. Under this assumption, the current is computed through Ampere’s law 0J = r B in the following way. First, the reciprocal vectors of the tetrahedron k are computed: where < r > is the average separation between the spacecraft, < B > is the average magnetic eld respectively, r and B are the measurement errors of the separation and the magnetic eld respectively, and FS and FB are de ned empirically in . As mentioned above, the curlometer is based on the assumption that gradients are linear. This is not always the case for thin current sheets, that can have a thick-ness smaller than the spacecraft separation. The curlometer technique provides an average current over the space of the tetrahedron formed by the four space-craft. Therefore, sharp gradients at scales smaller than the scale of the separation between the spacecraft tend to be smoothed out, leading to an underestimation of the electric current. This is illustrated in gure 4.3 where one component of the current is estimated for one current sheet using both the curlometer and a single spacecraft estimation of the current through Ampere’s, law assuming a planar cur-rent sheet moving with constant velocity. The use of the curlometer for detecting thin current sheets and its relationship with other detection methods is discussed in detail in Section 5.1.1. Orientation and motion of current sheets In this section, I will discuss few standard methods to determine the orientation and motion of current sheets. The most important assumption below such methods is that the current sheet is a planar structure where variations occur only in the direction normal to the current sheet plane, as sketched in Figure 4.4. Other assumptions, namely time stationarity for the timing method, are discussed below. Table of contents : 2 Theoretical Background 2.1 Magnetic Reconnection 2.3 Magnetic Reconnection in Turbulence 3 Instruments and Data Products 3.1 Cluster Mission Overview 3.2 Magnetic Field Measurements 3.2.1 Flux-gate magnetometer 3.2.2 Search-coil magnetometer 3.3 Electric Field Measurements 3.4 Spacecraft Potential 3.5 Electron Measurements 3.5.1 Instrument Operation 3.5.2 Data Products 3.5.3 Main issues 4 Methods of data analysis 4.1 Methods for the detection of current sheets 4.1.1 Partial Variance of Increments 4.1.2 Magnetic Shear Angle 4.1.3 Curlometer technique 4.2 Orientation and motion of current sheets 4.2.1 Minimum Variance Analysis 4.2.2 Timing Analysis 4.3 Estimation of electron temperature at sub-spin time resolution 4.3.3 Instrumental Limitations 5.1 Statistics of thin current sheets 5.1.1 Detection of current sheets 5.1.2 Properties of current sheets 5.1.3 Electron heating 5.1.4 Energy partition 5.2 Electron heating within reconnecting current sheet 5.2.1 Electron heating and acceleration mechanisms 5.2.2 Evidence of reconnection 5.2.3 Electron distributions and heating 5.2.4 Wave measurements 6 Conclusion and future work 6.2 Future Work

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- Research article - Open Access Fuzzy species among recombinogenic bacteria BMC Biology volume 3, Article number: 6 (2005) It is a matter of ongoing debate whether a universal species concept is possible for bacteria. Indeed, it is not clear whether closely related isolates of bacteria typically form discrete genotypic clusters that can be assigned as species. The most challenging test of whether species can be clearly delineated is provided by analysis of large populations of closely-related, highly recombinogenic, bacteria that colonise the same body site. We have used concatenated sequences of seven house-keeping loci from 770 strains of 11 named Neisseria species, and phylogenetic trees, to investigate whether genotypic clusters can be resolved among these recombinogenic bacteria and, if so, the extent to which they correspond to named species. Alleles at individual loci were widely distributed among the named species but this distorting effect of recombination was largely buffered by using concatenated sequences, which resolved clusters corresponding to the three species most numerous in the sample, N. meningitidis, N. lactamica and N. gonorrhoeae. A few isolates arose from the branch that separated N. meningitidis from N. lactamica leading us to describe these species as 'fuzzy'. A multilocus approach using large samples of closely related isolates delineates species even in the highly recombinogenic human Neisseria where individual loci are inadequate for the task. This approach should be applied by taxonomists to large samples of other groups of closely-related bacteria, and especially to those where species delineation has historically been difficult, to determine whether genotypic clusters can be delineated, and to guide the definition of species. The definition of bacterial species, and a concept of species applicable to all bacteria, are problems that have long exercised systematists and microbiologists [1–4]. While species names have been assigned to groups of organisms sharing many common phenotypic traits, and a certain minimum level of genomic similarity, attempts to define species using DNA sequences have been relatively unsuccessful. The existence of very different levels of sequence diversity among named species, and the variable extent of gene flow within and between bacterial taxa , complicates species concepts and definitions. Indeed, for many, bacterial species are constructs of the human mind, arising from our desire to impose order on the bacterial kingdom [6, 7], rather than natural subdivisions imposed by underlying genetic processes, and a central question is not so much how species should best be assigned, but whether such entities exist and can be delineated. Molecular approaches to assigning bacteria to species began with the introduction of DNA-DNA hybridization, which allowed an objective assessment of the extent of sequence similarity among a set of genomes, and remains the systematicist's gold standard, defining bacterial species as those isolates whose genomes show at least 70% hybridization under standardized conditions . However, few laboratories now use this method and, in practice, novel isolates (and particularly those that presently are unculturable) are usually compared to each other, and to known taxa, by assessing the sequence similarities in their 16S rRNA genes. 16S rRNA sequences are highly conserved and do not provide sufficient resolution to explore the relatedness among closely related bacterial populations and less conserved genes need to be used to delineate similar species. Individual isolates of a named species differ in gene content and the distribution of these genes is key to understanding the variable properties of isolates of a species, particularly among bacterial pathogens. These auxiliary loci exist alongside the set of genes that are present in all isolates of the named species (the core genome) and which include those that encode enzymes with house-keeping functions . Besides being present in all isolates of a species, the genetic variation in core house-keeping genes is considered to be largely neutral, and thus provides a more reliable indication of genetic relatedness than variation in genes that are subject to strong selection . We would expect any reasonable definition of a species to delineate a cluster of isolates that have very closely-related house-keeping loci that are present in all isolates of a species (as has also been proposed for eukaryotes ). However, single house-keeping loci are unlikely to have sufficient variation to allow confident resolution of the different lineages. For recombinogenic bacteria, and arguably all bacteria, multi-locus approaches are required, as these provide increased resolution, and also reduce the impact of 'inter-species' recombination. Thus, a localized interspecies recombinational event at one locus, which distorts the true relatedness between species, is buffered by the more reliable indications of relatedness provided by the other loci. Furthermore, attempts to observe whether or not species exist, and how sharply they can be defined, requires the analysis of large populations of each candidate species and not just one or a few reference isolates. A multilocus approach has recently been applied to small numbers of isolates of several relatively distantly related named species of enterobacteria , and other bacteria , and to larger numbers of isolates of related bacteria that are believed to have relatively low rates of recombination [12–14]. However, it is unclear whether species can be resolved using a multilocus approach in the more challenging case of highly recombinogenic bacteria colonising the same body site. Ideally, we would like to know if, in a large collection of such isolates that are believed to include examples of a number of closely related named species, we can resolve well delineated clusters, and the extent to which any clusters relate to the species names assigned by standard microbiological procedures. Can such populations diverge into distinct populations, and stay distinct, in the face of frequent and promiscuous recombination? In this study we have evaluated the ability of seven individual house-keeping gene sequences, and of the concatenated sequences of these genes, to resolve a large sample of human pathogenic and commensal Neisseria into genotypic clusters. We chose this example because Neisseria are naturally transformable, are among the most recombinogenic bacteria, and there is good evidence for relatively frequent localised recombination between the named Neisseria species [15, 16] through transformation. We demonstrate that individual genes are incapable of identifying consistent clusters among the Neisseria isolates, but the tree based on the concatenated sequences effectively resolves the three major named species within the sample, although the boundaries are fuzzy due to the presence of a small number of intermediate genotypes. The widespread use of multilocus sequence typing (MLST) for epidemiological purposes provides the sequences of seven house-keeping gene fragments from thousands of isolates of several bacterial pathogens. However, few of the available MLST databases include any substantial numbers of isolates of multiple closely related named species. An exception is the public Neisseria MLST database, which includes several thousand sequence types (STs) of N. meningitidis and smaller numbers assigned to several other named human Neisseria species on the basis of standard phenotypic tests. The first 500 STs of N. meningitidis were compared with all STs assigned to the other human Neisseria species. The sequences of the seven gene fragments were concatenated in-frame and a tree was constructed (using third codon position sites) using Mr Bayes . Figure 1 is the majority rule consensus of 10 000 trees generated from the posterior probability at stationarity. All 67 STs of N. gonorrhoeae, and all but two of the 171 STs of N. lactamica, descend from single well-supported nodes (the remaining two N. lactamica clustered very anomalously and have probably been incorrectly identified). The great majority of N. meningitidis also formed a single well-resolved cluster, but a few arise from the branch leading to the N. lactamica isolates. Very similar clustering of these three species was observed using other sets of 500 N. meningitidis STs from the database, and in a neighbour-joining tree constructed using all STs in the Neisseria MLST database (data not shown). The high levels of recombination in the Neisseria make the fine structure of the tree meaningless (Figure 1), and here we use the tree-building software first and foremost as a clustering tool. Analysis of the individual gene trees shows that these fail to resolve the named species and highlights many examples where interspecies recombination has resulted in anomalous clustering (Figure 2). The clear inability of single locus trees to resolve the named species, which are well resolved using the concatenated sequences, establishes that multiple loci are required to buffer against the distorting effect of inter-species recombination at the individual loci. Although the concatenated sequences resolve three named species, N. gonorrhoeae, N. meningitidis and N. lactamica, their boundaries are not perfectly defined and a number of isolates are placed on the branch between N. lactamica and N. meningitidis, representing intermediate genotypes. The small numbers of STs assigned to other human Neisseria species do not cluster clearly. A significant separation is observed between two subtrees (A and B in Figure 1), although these both contain isolates assigned as N. sicca, N. mucosa and N. subflava. Multiple minimum-evolution trees constructed using all STs of these other Neisseria species and randomly selected samples of ten STs from each of N. meningitidis, N. lactamica and N. gonorrhoeae, showed the same deep split between these subtrees, which was also observed in trees constructed from all Neisseria STs (all species) in the MLST database, using Neighbour-Joining, minimum evolution and UPGMA tree-building approaches (data not shown). Current molecular definitions of species use rules or cut-off values (e.g. ≥ 70% DNA-DNA hybridization) and rarely take account of the genotypic diversity within and between populations . A more natural and pragmatic approach is to analyse large populations of related isolates, that are believed to cover multiple species, and to observe whether suitable molecular methods can resolve distinct clusters in sequence space that can be given appropriate names . This approach has not yet been rigorously applied to bacteria. Consequently we have no idea whether large populations of related bacteria can invariably be divided into discrete clusters using suitable molecular methods or, alternatively, whether many groups of related bacteria fall into a genetic continuum where clear divisions do not exist. Sequence-based approaches should help us answer this question. However, most studies have focused on single loci and small numbers of isolates, whereas multilocus approaches with large populations are essential as the history of individual genes (including rRNA operons ) may be obscured by interspecies recombination, and clusters observed using a small number of isolates may merge when larger numbers of isolates are considered. Comparison of the tree based on the concatenated sequences with the individual gene trees clearly illustrates the inadequacy of single loci for resolving N. meningitidis and N. lactamica (Figure 2). The concatenation of the seven housekeeping loci shows that multiple loci can buffer against the distorting effects of inter-species recombination and that the boundaries between the three dominant species in the Neisseria MLST database can be resolved. Network based methods (e.g. Neighbor-Net , Splitstree ) applied to both the concatenates and individual loci produce output with numerous reticulations, indicating the conflicting signals in the data, such that the implied relationships between STs within clusters have no phylogenetic meaning. Nevertheless, the use of multiple loci enables us to observe the species clusters even in the presence of conflicting signals. The three main clusters coincide well with the species names derived by standard microbiological procedures and the present definitions of N. meningitidis, N. lactamica and N. gonorrhoeae are reasonably secure; the two N. lactamica that clustered highly anomalously probably represent species mis-identification. The most critical test of the multilocus approach is the ability to resolve N. lactamica from N. meningitidis since these colonise the same body site, the nasopharynx. Resolution of these named species was remarkably good, although the boundaries between N. lactamica and N. meningitidis are somewhat fuzzy, due to the existence of intermediate forms. This is to be expected as recombinogenic bacteria have mosaic genomes, resulting from the occasional replacement of chromosomal segments with those from related populations. Thus, in any large dataset, there may be isolates in which one or more of the loci used in a multilocus approach to species definition will have been recently introduced from a related population. Single unusually divergent replacements, or replacements at more than one of the multiple loci, may place isolates away from the majority of isolates of the species. However, only seven STs in Figure 1 fell into this category (of 667 STs from isolates identified as either N. meningitidis or N. lactamica), and there was no overlap between these two named species (i.e. a region containing isolates identified as both species interspersed with one another). Sorting the human commensal Neisseria into species has been difficult, with frequent revisions of species names . We gain some insight into the extent and source of this difficulty in Figure 1, where isolates assigned as N. mucosa, N. sicca and N. subflava each fall in very different parts of the tree, and the subtree shown in Figure 1A contains several closely related isolates that have been assigned to these three different named species. Additional studies of the human commensal, Neisseria (and of other groups plagued with similar problems, such as viridans streptococci) using the multilocus approach with large datasets, should clarify whether they fall into distinct clusters, or whether the difficulties in defining species by phenotypic methods reflect an underlying genetic reality in which resolved clusters are not evident. If necessary, further resolution between apparent clusters may be attempted by increasing the numbers of loci sequenced. Provided that the alleles at these loci show a degree of specificity to a given species cluster, then the resolution of that cluster will be enhanced. If this cannot be demonstrated, then it is likely that the isolates under test do not genuinely form separate populations, and should not be considered to be distinct species. This approach lends itself to "electronic taxonomy", in which systematic classification may be evermore finely elucidated through the accumulation of online sequence databases. The work described here obviously begs the question of what forces or mechanisms could generate such separation among recombining bacteria. We offer a simple model for recombining organisms as follows: consider two populations freely recombining within themselves and with each other. New mutations arising in one population will readily spread to the other, and to an observer they appear to form one cluster of related strains. If a barrier to recombination should be erected between them, such that isolates are much more likely to undergo recombination with their own population, then the rate of generation of new genotypes within each population may increase beyond the rate at which such genetic innovation is shared and the two populations begin to diverge. As the populations diverge, decreasing sequence identity will further impede recombination, thus reinforcing the effect of the original genetic barrier and creating a permanent separation [24, 25]. It is not difficult to suggest candidate mechanisms. Niche separation is one example, and almost certainly underlies the tight well-defined cluster of N. gonorrhoeae. Unlike the other human Neisseria, which colonise the nasopharynx, the primary niche of the gonococcus is the genital tract, and it has been proposed that gonococci arose relatively recently due to the successful invasion of the genital tract by a nasopharyngeal Neisseria lineage . Similarly, what appears to be single body site (e.g. the human nasopharynx) may contain multiple niches that can be exploited, leading to opportunities for speciation. Restriction-modification systems , limitation of transformability by differences in pheromone-type and similar processes are feasible alternatives. The point at which such a group is described as a species is a matter more of human interest and attention than any intrinsic evolutionary process. The properties of the species clusters we observe will be determined by the diversification of those strains sharing the speciation loci (i.e those that determine gene flow). Because speciation is gradual, we should be able using estimates of recombination within and between groups derived from multilocus data, to define nascent species which if they continue to diversify in isolation, are expected to form distinct sequence clusters, ie species, in the future. The bacterial domain of life is not uniform. Instead we see clumps of similar strains that share many characteristics, and with an innate human urge to classify, we have defined these as species. This work shows that by applying a simple approach using sequence data from multiple core housekeeping loci, we can resolve those clusters, provided such clusters exist. However, these species clusters are not ideal entities with sharp and unambiguous boundaries; instead they come in multiple forms and their fringes, especially in recombinogenic bacteria, may be fuzzy and indistinct. A multilocus approach using large numbers of isolates will provide data that help us to develop theoretical models of how species emerge, and relate these to the observed population genetic structure of bacteria. This should be enormously helpful to taxonomists, whose foremost duty will remain to provide us with pragmatic species designations which attempt to reflect the underlying genetic reality. The contents of the publicly accessible Neisseria MLST database [17, 18] were used to explore the validity of the approach described here for other species. Alleles at the seven MLST loci of all isolates defined as Neisserial species other than N. meningitidis (67 isolates of N. gonorrhoeae, 171 of N. lactamica, 5 of N. sicca, 3 of N. mucosa, 5 of N. cinerea, 7 of N. polysacchareae, 3 of N. flava, 4 of N. perflava, 4 of N. subflava and 1 isolate of N. flavescens) were concatenated as described below, and analysed together with the concatenated sequences of N. meningitidis strains with ST numbers from 1 to 500. Species definitions were as recorded at [17, 18], and were according to standard clinical microbiological schema. The sequences of the individual alleles at the seven loci in the above Neisseria were also used to construct individual gene trees. Phylogenetics and population genetics MLST loci were concatenated in-frame to form a 3267 bp sequence, of which only third position sites were used in subsequent analyses. To illustrate clustering in this dataset, a tree was constructed using Mr Bayes 3.0b4 . A starting tree was determined in PAUP (version 4 beta 10) using the Neighbour-Joining method with distances corrected using the HKY85 model. The starting tree was input into Mr Bayes, and four Markov Chain Monte Carlo chains were run with default heating parameters until convergence and 10 000 trees were sampled from the posterior probability distribution. These were then used to produce a 50% majority rule consensus tree. Minimum evolution trees for individual loci were constructed in MEGA 2.1 . Third position sites were used with the Kimura 2-parameter distance correction. - rRNA : - MLST : Multi Locus Sequence Typing - ST : - UPGMA : Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean Ward DM: A natural species concept for prokaryotes. Curr Opin Microbiol. 1998, 1 (3): 271-277. 10.1016/S1369-5274(98)80029-5. Rossello-Mora R, Amann R: The species concept for prokaryotes. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2001, 25 (1): 39-67. 10.1016/S0168-6445(00)00040-1. 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Barrett SJ, Sneath PH: A numerical phenotypic taxonomic study of the genus Neisseria. Microbiology. 1994, 140 (Pt 10): 2867-2891. Vulic M, Dionisio F, Taddei F, Radman M: Molecular keys to speciation: DNA polymorphism and the control of genetic exchange in enterobacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997, 94 (18): 9763-9767. 10.1073/pnas.94.18.9763. Majewski J, Zawadzki P, Pickerill P, Cohan FM, Dowson CG: Barriers to genetic exchange between bacterial species: Streptococcus pneumoniae transformation. J Bacteriol. 2000, 182 (4): 1016-1023. 10.1128/JB.182.4.1016-1023.2000. Vazquez JA, De La Fuente L, Berron S, O'Rourke M, Smith NH, Zhou J, Spratt BG: Ecological separation and genetic isolation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Neisseria meningitidis. Curr Biol. 1993, 3 (9): 567-572. 10.1016/0960-9822(93)90001-5. Murray NE: 2001 Fred Griffith review lecture. Immigration control of DNA in bacteria: self versus non-self. Microbiology. 2002, 148 (Pt 1): 3-20. Havarstein LS, Hakenbeck R, Gaustad P: Natural competence in the genus Streptococcus: evidence that streptococci can change pherotype by interspecies recombinational exchanges. J Bacteriol. 1997, 179 (21): 6589-6594. Swofford DL: PAUP* v.4beta Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony (*and other methods). 2003, Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Kumar S, Tamura K, Jakobsen IB, Nei M: MEGA2: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis software. Bioinformatics. 2001, 17 (12): 1244-1245. 10.1093/bioinformatics/17.12.1244. This publication made use of the Neisseria Multi Locus Sequence Typing website developed by Keith Jolley and Man-Suen Chan. The development of this site has been funded by the Wellcome Trust and European Union. We acknowledge the support of the Wellcome Trust (W.P.H. and B.G.S.) and the Royal Society (C.F.). BGS conceived of the study and drafted the manuscript, CF participated in study design and analysis of results, WPH designed the study, carried out the analyses and interpreted the results, and drafted the manuscript. About this article Cite this article Hanage, W.P., Fraser, C. & Spratt, B.G. Fuzzy species among recombinogenic bacteria . BMC Biol 3, 6 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-3-6 - Species Cluster - Genotypic Cluster - MLST Database - Neisseria Species - Individual Gene Tree

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Fix your gaze on the black dot on the left side of this image. But wait! Finish reading this paragraph first. As you gaze at the left dot, try to answer this question: In what direction is the object on the right moving? Is it drifting diagonally, or is it moving up and down? Remember, focus on the dot on the left. It appears as though the object on the right is moving diagonally, up to the right and then back down to the left. Right? Right?! Actually, it’s not. It’s moving up and down in a straight, vertical line. See for yourself. Trace it with your finger. This is a visual illusion. That alternating black-white patch inside the object suggests diagonal motion and confuses our senses. Like all misperceptions, it teaches us that our experience of reality is not perfect. But this particular illusion has recently reinforced scientists’ understanding of deeper, almost philosophical truths about the nature of our consciousness. “It’s really important to understand we’re not seeing reality,” says neuroscientist Patrick Cavanagh, a research professor at Dartmouth College and a senior fellow at Glendon College in Canada. “We’re seeing a story that’s being created for us.” Most of the time, the story our brains generate matches the real, physical world — but not always. Our brains also unconsciously bend our perception of reality to meet our desires or expectations. And they fill in gaps using our past experiences. All of this can bias us. Visual illusions present clear and interesting challenges for how we live: How do we know what’s real? And once we know the extent of our brain’s limits, how do we live with more humility — and think with greater care about our perceptions? Rather than showing us how our brains are broken, illusions give us the chance to reveal how they work. And how do they work? Well, as the owner of a human brain, I have to say it’s making me a little uneasy. Where the conflict between perception and reality lies in the brain My colleague Sigal Samuel recently explored the neuroscience of meditation. During her reporting, she found good evidence that a regular meditation practice is associated with increased compassion. That evidence, she writes, “feel[s] like a challenge, even a dare. If it takes such a small amount of time and effort to get better at regulating my emotions ... am I not morally obligated to do it?” Perception science, for me, provokes a similar question. If the science tells us our brains are making up a “story” about reality, shouldn’t we be curious about, and even seek out the answers to, how that reality might be wrong? It’s not about doubting everything that comes through our senses. It’s about looking for our blind spots, with the goal of becoming better thinkers. It can also help with empathy. When other people misperceive reality, we may not agree with their interpretation, but we can understand where it comes from. To approach this challenge, I think it helps to know that the brain is telling us stories about the smallest things we perceive, like the motion of objects. But it also tells us stories about some of the most complex things we think about, creating assumptions about people based on race, among other social prejudices. Let’s start with the small. In 2019, Cavanagh and his colleagues Sirui Liu, Qing Yu, and Peter Tse used the above “double drift” illusion of the two dots to probe how our brains generate the illusory diagonal motion. To figure this out, Cavanagh and his colleagues ran a neuroimaging study that compared how a brain processes the illusory animation with how it processes a similar, non-illusory animation. In this second animation, the object on the right really is moving diagonally. Trace it with your finger again. With fMRI neuroimaging, which allows researchers to map brain activity, Cavanagh and his team could ask the question: If we perceive each animation similarly, what in our brains makes that happen? What’s the source of the illusion in the first animation? “We want to find where the conscious perception diverges from the physical sensation,” Cavanagh says. One possibility is that the illusion is generated in the visual cortex. Located at the back of your head, this is the part of your brain that directly processes the information coming from your eyes. Maybe the visual system “sees” it wrong. The alternative is that the visual system “sees” it just fine, but some other part of the brain overrides it, creating a new reality. The experiment included only nine participants but collected a lot of data on each of them. Each participant completed the experiment (and was run through the brain scan) 10 times. Here’s what the analysis found. That visual system in the back of the brain? It doesn’t seem fooled by the illusion. Each animation produces a different pattern of activation in the visual cortex. In other words, “the visual system thinks they are different,” Cavanagh says. Okay, the visual system correctly “sees” these two animations differently. Then why do we perceive them as being the same? The patterns of activation in the frontal lobes of the participants’ brains — the higher-level thinking area dedicated to anticipation and decision-making — were similar. That is: The front of the brain thinks both animations are traveling in a diagonal direction. “There’s a whole world of visual analysis and computation and prediction that is happening outside of the visual system, happening in the frontal lobes,” Cavanagh says. That’s where the “story” of reality is constructed — at least in this one example, as evidenced by this one small study. (To be sure: Vision is a vastly complex system involving around 30 areas of the brain. There are other illusions that do seem to “fool” the visual cortex, because no story about the brain can be simple.) But you don’t need an fMRI to conclude that some part of your brain is overriding the plain truth about the path of the object. You can see it for yourself. “The remarkable thing is that — even when you are told what is happening — you still see it in the illusory form,” Justin Gardner, a Stanford University neuroscientist who wasn’t involved in this study, said in an email. “You can’t seem to consciously override the ‘wrong’ interpretation.” The lesson: The stories our brains tell us about reality are extremely compelling, even when they are wrong. We’re not seeing reality. Our vision runs 100 milliseconds behind the real world. Why are we seeing a story about the world — a story — and not the real deal? It’s not because evolution made our minds flawed. It’s actually an adaptation. “We don’t have the necessary machinery, and we wouldn’t even want it, to process carefully all of the amount of information that we’re constantly bombarded with,” says Susana Martinez-Conde, a neuroscientist and illusion researcher at SUNY Downstate Medical Center. Think about what it takes to perceive something move, like the objects in the above animations. Once light hits the retinas at the back of our eyeballs, it’s converted into an electrical signal that then has to travel to the visual processing system at the back of our brains. From there, the signal travels forward through our brains, constructing what we see and creating our perception of it. This process just takes time. “The dirty little secret about sensory systems is that they’re slow, they’re lagged, they’re not about what’s happening right now but what’s happening 50 milliseconds ago, or, in the case for vision, hundreds of milliseconds ago,” says Adam Hantman, a neuroscientist at Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Janelia Research Campus. If we relied solely on this outdated information, though, we wouldn’t be able to hit baseballs with bats, or swat annoying flies away from our faces. We’d be less coordinated, and possibly get hurt more often. So the brain predicts the path of motion before it happens. It tells us a story about where the object is heading, and this story becomes our reality. That’s what’s likely happening with Cavanagh’s illusion. It happens all the time. Don’t believe it? See for yourself. Here’s a simple illusion that reveals our visual system is a bit lagged. It’s called the flash-lag illusion. The red dot is moving across the screen, and the green dot flashes exactly when the red dot and green dot are in perfect vertical alignment. Yet it’s incredibly hard to see the red dot and the green dot as being vertically aligned. The red dot always seems a little bit farther ahead. This is our brain predicting the path of its motion, telling us a story about where it ought to be and not where it is. “For moving things — we see them ahead on their path of motion,” Cavanagh explains, “by just enough.” The illusion, he says, “is actually functional. It helps us overcome these delays and see things ... where they will be when we get there.” In Hantman’s view, what we experience as consciousness is primarily the prediction, not the real-time feed. The actual sensory information, he explains, just serves as error correction. “If you were always using sensory information, errors would accumulate in ways that would lead to quite catastrophic effects on your motor control,” Hantman says. Our brains like to predict as much as possible, then use our senses to course-correct when the predictions go wrong. This is true not only for our perception of motion but also for so much of our conscious experience. The stories our brain tells are influenced by life experience The brain tells us a story about the motion of objects. But that’s not the only story it tells. It also tells us stories about more complicated aspects of our visual world, like color. For some meta-insight, look at the illusion below from Japanese psychologist and artist Akiyoshi Kitaoka. You can observe your own brain, in real time, change its guess about the color of the moving square. Keep in mind that the physical color of the square is not changing. You might look at this illusion and feel like your brain is broken (I did when I first saw it). It is not. It just reveals that our perception of color isn’t absolute. A moving square appears to change in color, though the color is constant. pic.twitter.com/phzLNgfIZy— Akiyoshi Kitaoka (@AkiyoshiKitaoka) August 14, 2018 Color is an inference we make, and it serves a purpose to make meaningful decisions about objects in the world. But if our eyes acted as scientific instruments describing precise wavelengths of light, they’d constantly be fooled. Red may not appear red when bathed in blue light. Our brains try to account for this. “We’re not trying to measure wavelengths, we’re trying to tell something about the color,” Sam Schwarzkopf, a vision scientist at the University of Auckland, says. “And the color is an illusion created by our brain.” When we think an object is being bathed in blue light, we can filter out that blue light intuitively. That’s how many of these color illusions work. We use surrounding color cues and assumptions about lighting to guess an object’s true color. Sometimes those guesses are wrong, and sometimes we make different assumptions from others. Neuroscientists have some intriguing new insights into why our perceptions can diverge from one another. You remember The Dress, yes? In 2015, a bad cellphone photo of a dress in a UK store divided people across the internet. Some see this dress as blue and black; others see it as white and gold. Pascal Wallisch, a neuroscientist at New York University, believes he’s figured out the difference between those two groups of people. Wallisch’s idea — which draws from earlier work by Rosa Lafer-Sousa, Katherine Hermann, and Bevil Conway — is that people make different assumptions about the quality of light that’s being cast on the dress. Is it in bright daylight? Or under an indoor light bulb? By unconsciously filtering out the color of light we think is falling on an object, we come to a judgment about its color. Wallisch believes people who see this image differently are using different filtering schemes. Most interestingly, he suggests that life experience leads you to see the dress one way or the other. His study of 13,000 people in an online survey found a correlation that at first seems odd. The time you naturally like to go to sleep and wake up — called a chronotype — was correlated with dress perception. Night owls, or people who like to go to bed really late and wake up later in the morning, are more likely to see the dress as black and blue. Larks, a.k.a. early risers, are more likely to see it as white and gold. What’s going on? Wallisch believes the correlation is rooted in the life experience of being either a lark or a night owl. Larks, he hypothesizes, spend more time in daylight than night owls. They’re more familiar with it. So when confronted with an ill-lit image like the dress, they are more likely to assume it is being bathed in bright sunlight, which has a lot of blue in it, Wallisch points out. As a result, their brains filter it out. “If you assume it’s daylight, you will see it as white and gold. Because if you subtract blue, yellow is left,” he says. Night owls, he thinks, are more likely to assume the dress is under artificial lighting, and filtering that out makes the dress appear black and blue. (The chronotype measure, he admits, is a little crude: Ideally, he’d want to estimate a person’s lifetime exposure to daylight.) Has Wallisch solved the mystery of The Dress? “The owls versus lark data seems quite compelling for explaining a large part of the individual differences,” Schwarzkopf says. But not all of it. “There are still lots of other factors that must have a strong influence here. It could be prior experience with the subject matter, or related to other aspects of people’s personality,” he says. “Yes, the dress continues to mystify.” The mystery isn’t totally solved, but the lesson remains: When confronted with ambiguity — like the odd lighting in the photo of The Dress — our brains fill in the ambiguity using whatever we’re most familiar with. “People assume what they see more of,” Wallisch says. If we’re more familiar with bright, sunny light, we assume that’s the default lighting. But we have no way of knowing how our experiences guide our perception. “Your brain makes a lot of unconscious inferences, and it doesn’t tell you that it’s an inference,” he explains. “You see whatever you see. Your brain doesn’t tell you, ‘I took into account how much daylight I’ve seen in my life.’” Wallisch says the disagreements around The Dress, as well as other viral illusions like Yanny and Laurel, arise because our brains are filling in the uncertainties of these stimuli with different prior experiences. We bring our life histories to these small perceptions. It’s believed another textbook illusion, the Kanizsa triangle, works a bit like this, too. In this illusion, the Pac-Man-like shapes give the impression of a triangle in our minds. It seems like a triangle is there because we’re used to seeing triangles. We only need the suggestion of one — implied via the corners — to fill in the rest of the picture with our minds. In 2003, the journal Nature Neuroscience published an article on the case of a man (called “Patient MM”) who lost his vision at age 3 and had it restored by surgical intervention in his 40s. In a study, he didn’t fall for an illusion like this one. He couldn’t see the illusory triangle (in the case of that experiment, it was a square). It may be that a lifetime of looking at triangles is what makes the rest of us see one so plainly in this image. Patient MM didn’t build up a lifetime’s worth of visual experiences to make predictions about what he saw. He had to build them from scratch. More than two years after his operation, Patient MM told researchers, “The difference between today and over two years ago is that I can better guess at what I am seeing. What is the same is that I am still guessing.” The horizontal lines are actually parallel, and not at all slanted.— Gavin Buckingham (@DrGBuckingham) May 29, 2020 Look at the distance between them at the start and end of each row if you don't believe it. Wonderful version of the cafe wall illusion, by Victoria Skye. pic.twitter.com/tYQYWEawU7 Illusions of consequence Some of these examples may seem frivolous. Why does it matter that one person sees a dress as black and blue and another sees it as white and gold? It matters because scientists believe the same basic processes underlie many of our more complicated perceptions and thoughts. Neuroscience, then, can help explain stubborn polarization in our culture and politics, and why we’re so prone to motivated reasoning. Sometimes, especially when the information we’re receiving is unclear, we see what we want to see. In the past, researchers have found that even slight rewards can change the way people perceive objects. Take this classic image used in psychological studies. What do you see? It’s either a horse or a seal, and in 2006, psychologists Emily Balcetis and David Dunning showed they could motivate study participants to see one or the other. In one experiment, the participants played a game wherein they had to keep track of animals they saw on screen. If they saw farm animals, they’d get points. If they saw sea creatures, they’d lose points. In the end, a high score meant getting a candy treat (desirable!), and a low score meant they’d eat canned beans (kind of weird). The very last thing the participants saw was the above image. If seeing the horse meant they’d win and get the candy, they’d see the horse. In a more complex example, Balcetis has found that when she tells study participants to pay attention to either an officer or a civilian in a video of a police altercation, it can change their perception of what happened (depending on their prior experience with law enforcement and the person in the video with whom they more closely identified). “That instruction changes what their eyes do,” Balcetis told me last summer. “And it leads them to a different understanding of the nature of the altercation.” You can’t completely remove bias from the brain. “You can’t change the fact that we’ve all grown up in different worlds,” Balcetis said. But you can encourage people to listen to other perspectives and be curious about the veracity of their own. The neuroscientists I spoke to said the big principles that underlie how our brains process what we see also underlie most of our thinking. Illusions are “the basis of superstition, the basis of magical thinking,” Martinez-Conde says. “It’s the basis for a lot of erroneous beliefs. We’re very uncomfortable with uncertainty. The ambiguity is going to be resolved one way or another, and sometimes in a way that does not match reality.” Just as we can look at an image and see things that aren’t really there, we can look out into the world with skewed perceptions of reality. Political scientists and psychologists have long documented how political partisans perceive the facts of current events differently depending on their political beliefs. The illusions and political thinking don’t involve the same brain processes, but they follow the similar overarching way the brain works. In a way, you can think of bias as a social illusion. Studies find that many people perceive black men to be bigger (and, therefore, potentially more threatening) than they actually are, or generally associate darker skin tones and certain facial features with criminality. Cops can confuse people removing wallets from their pockets with people reaching for guns, often with tragic consequences. This isn’t to say that all instances of prejudice are mindless — many are enacted with clear malignant intention, but they can also be built from years of experience in an unjust society or as the result of systemic racism. Our brains work hard to bend reality to meet our prior experiences, our emotions, and our discomfort with uncertainty. This happens with vision. But it also happens with more complicated processes, like thinking about politics, the pandemic, or the reality of climate change. Wallisch has come up with a name for phenomena like The Dress that generate divergent perceptions based on our personal characteristics. He calls it “SURFPAD.” Spelled out, it’s an absolute mouthful: Substantial Uncertainty combined with Ramified or Forked Priors and Assumptions yields Disagreement. (Let’s stick with SURFPAD.) Simply, SURFPAD is a consequence of bias, or motivated perception. When an image, event, or some other stimulus isn’t perfectly clear, we fill in the gaps with our priors, or presumptions. And because we have different priors, that leads to disagreement about the image or event in question. Wallisch sees it everywhere in society. I recently tweeted some frustration over how mass protests against police brutality might be perceived if it seems as though they led to increased Covid-19 cases. Prediction: In a few weeks, there will be endless argument among know-it-all types on Twitter and TV about what led to rising Covid cases. No one will have the right data. It will bring out the worst in everyone. And it will... just... completely... suck.— Brian Resnick (@B_resnick) June 7, 2020 “If there is a spike, it will be hard to discern whether it was reopening or protests, so people will go with their prior,” Wallisch replied. “As the priors are different, there will be massive disagreement. ... What’s truly terrifying is that given this framework, no matter what happens, [people] will feel vindicated, reinforcing the strength of the prior and increasing polarization.” Later, I emailed him and asked whether his inclination to see SURFPAD in these current events was just an instance of his own priors (that SURFPAD is a real and influential phenomenon) coloring his perception. “Of course,” he says. “It’s SURFPAD all the way down.” Neuroscience is deeply humbling I don’t want people to read this and think we can’t believe our eyes, or we can’t incorporate evidence into our thinking. We can seek out verified sources of information. We can turn to expertise and also earnestly question it. (Don’t let people gaslight you, either — another phenomenon that preys on the brain’s tendency to generate illusory thoughts.) Instead, the illusions and the science behind them raise a question: How do we go about our lives knowing our experiences might be a bit wrong? There’s no one answer. And it’s a problem we’re unlikely to solve individually. I’d suggest that it should nudge us to be more intellectually humble and to cultivate a habit of seeking out perspectives that are not our own. We should be curious about our imperfections, as that curiosity may lead us closer to the truth. We can build cultures and institutions that celebrate humility and reduce the social cost for saying, “I was wrong.” This isn’t easy. Our psychology makes it hard. “We have this naive realism that the way we see the world is the way that it really is,” Balcetis told me last year. Naive realism is the feeling that our perception of the world reflects the truth. But illusions remind us it does not. This is why illusions aren’t just science — they’re provocative art. They force us to reinterpret our senses, and our sense of being in the world. They tell us about the true nature of how our brains work: The same neurological machinery that leads us to discover the truth can lead us to perceive illusions, and our brains don’t always tell us the difference. Navigating this is the challenge of being a living, thinking person. But simply acknowledging it and trying to put it into practice is a good place to start. I know I will try to keep remembering that reality always seems real. Even when I mess it up.

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Ketosis is a common disease of adult cattle. It typically occurs in dairy cows in early lactation and is most consistently characterized by hyporexia and reduced milk production. Rarely, it occurs in cattle in late gestation, at which time it resembles pregnancy toxemia of ewes Pregnancy Toxemia in Sheep and Goats Pregnancy toxemia, the most common metabolic disorder of pregnant small ruminants, occurs during the final stage of gestation as the result of inappropriate metabolism of carbohydrates and fats... read more . In addition to inappetence, clinical signs of nervous dysfunction, including pica, abnormal licking, incoordination and abnormal gait, bellowing, and aggression, occasionally occur. Ketosis is worldwide in distribution; however, it is most common where dairy cows are bred and managed for high production. Etiology and Pathogenesis of Ketosis in Cattle The pathogenesis of bovine ketosis is incompletely understood; however, it requires the combination of intense adipose mobilization and a high glucose demand. Both of these conditions are present in early lactation, at which time negative energy balance leads to adipose mobilization, and milk synthesis creates a high glucose demand. Adipose mobilization is accompanied by high serum concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs). During periods of intense gluconeogenesis, a large portion of serum NEFAs is directed to ketone body synthesis in the liver. Thus, the clinicopathologic characterization of ketosis includes high serum concentrations of NEFAs and ketone bodies and low concentrations of glucose. In contrast to many other species, cattle with hyperketonemia do not have concurrent acidemia. The serum ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). Pathogenesis of ketosis cases occurring in the immediate postpartum period is thought to differ slightly from that of cases occurring closer to the time of peak milk production. Ketosis cases occurring close to the time of peak milk production (usually around 4–6 weeks after parturition) is sometimes described as type I ketosis. Ketosis at this time may be associated with underfed cattle experiencing a metabolic shortage of gluconeogenic precursors than with excessive fat mobilization. Ketosis in the immediate postpartum period is sometimes described as type II ketosis. Such cases of ketosis in very early lactation (1–2 weeks postpartum) are usually associated with fatty liver Fatty Liver Disease of Cattle Fatty liver disease is a disorder of highly productive dairy cows resulting from an excessive negative energy balance at the onset of lactation. Mobilization of large amounts of body fat reserves... read more . Both fatty liver and ketosis are probably part of a spectrum of conditions associated with intense fat mobilization in cattle. The exact pathogenesis of the clinical signs is not known. They do not appear to be associated directly with serum concentrations of either glucose or ketone bodies. They may be due to metabolites of the ketone bodies. Subclinical ketosis is defined as high serum ketone body concentrations without observed clinical signs. Subclinically affected cows are at increased risk of clinical (or more severe) ketosis Ketosis in Cattle Ketosis is an elevated concentration of ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate) in all body fluids. Key clinical signs of ketosis are vague but include anorexia, decreased... read more , metritis Metritis and Endometritis in Large Animals Several specific diseases are associated with metritis or endometritis. These include brucellosis ( see Brucellosis in Large Animals), leptospirosis ( see Leptospirosis), campylobacteriosis... read more , and displaced abomasum Left or Right Displaced Abomasum and Abomasal Volvulus in Cattle Abomasal displacement and volvulus are common disorders of high-producing dairy cattle. Clinical signs include anorexia and decreased milk production. With abomasal volvulus, clinical deterioration... read more and are also less fertile than those with normal serum ketone body concentrations. Furthermore, they appear to have reduced milk production and are at increased risk of culling in early lactation. Distinction between clinical and subclinical ketosis is unimportant in practical terms and may be difficult to determine without routine testing. Both are part of the same disease syndrome, with impacts increasing as ketone body concentrations increase. Determination of serum or whole blood BHB concentration is considered the best way to detect and monitor subclinical ketosis; however, urine or milk cowside tests Diagnosis Ketosis is an elevated concentration of ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate) in all body fluids. Key clinical signs of ketosis are vague but include anorexia, decreased... read more can also be used in on-farm monitoring programs. Concentrations >1.0 mmol/L (10.4 mg/dL) or 1.4 mmol/L (14.6 mg/dL) blood or serum BHB are considered diagnostic of subclinical ketosis. The standard threshold used for blood is 1.2 mmol/L (12.5 mg/dL), which corresponds to thresholds of 100 mcmol/L for milk, and 15 mg/dL (or "small" on a dipstick) for urine. Given that ketosis is a costly disease and that treatment is efficacious, on-farm monitoring programs are cost-effective for most farms with moderate to higher prevalence. Two outcomes of monitoring programs are treatment of individual ketotic cows and evaluation of prevalence to determine effectiveness of prevention strategies at the herd level. Sudden or prolonged elevation in herd prevalence of ketosis indicates a herd-level problem and should prompt a review of nutritional and cow management. Some farms use handheld BHB meters to test all cows in early lactation. Cows with subclinical ketosis are treated with oral drenching of propylene glycol. Such an approach is labor-intensive but has been demonstrated to reduce further disease occurrence in subclinically ketotic animals and to improve milk production in treated animals. Sound nutritional management procedures are also important. Routine milk ketone body tests are available in some countries from dairy herd improvement companies. These tests can be used to classify herd risk before considering on-farm testing programs, or as the sole source of monitoring in herds with very low prevalence (<10%) of the disease. Epidemiology of Ketosis in Cattle All dairy cows in early lactation (the first 6 weeks after parturition) are at risk of ketosis, with most cases occurring in the first 2 weeks of lactation. Ketosis occurs in cows of all parities, but the risk increases with increasing parity. Historically, ketosis was thought not to have a genetic predisposition other than being associated with dairy breeds; however, specific genetic markers have been associated with ketosis risk, suggesting moderate heritability. Cows with excessive adipose stores (body condition score ≥3.75 on 5-point scale) at calving are at a greater risk of ketosis than those with lower body condition scores. Lactating cows with subclinical ketosis are also at a greater risk of developing clinical ketosis and displaced abomasum Left or Right Displaced Abomasum and Abomasal Volvulus in Cattle Abomasal displacement and volvulus are common disorders of high-producing dairy cattle. Clinical signs include anorexia and decreased milk production. With abomasal volvulus, clinical deterioration... read more than cows with lower serum BHB concentrations. Most cases of displaced abomasums are associated with ketosis. Cows with ketosis have reduced conception at first insemination and are at increased risk of being culled in early lactation. As a result of these impacts, and because treatment and prevention substantially reduce them, ketosis is considered a gateway disease of early lactation (meaning that prevention of ketosis can prevent other diseases or problems). Clinical Findings of Ketosis in Cattle In cows maintained in confinement stalls, reduced feed intake is usually the first clinical sign of ketosis. If rations are offered in components, cows with ketosis often refuse grain before forage. In group-fed herds, reduced milk production, lethargy, and an empty-appearing abdomen are usually the first clinical signs of ketosis. On physical examination, cows are afebrile and may be slightly dehydrated. Rumen motility is variable, being hyperactive in some cases and hypoactive in others. In many cases, there are no other physical abnormalities. In some cases, CNS disturbances are evident (nervous ketosis). Neurologic signs include abnormal licking and chewing, and sometimes incessant chewing on pipes and other objects (pica). Incoordination and gait abnormalities occasionally occur, as do aggression and bellowing. These clinical signs occur in a minority of cases, but because the disease is so common, encountering patients with these clinical signs is not unusual. Diagnosis of Ketosis in Cattle Measurement of ketone body concentrations via cowside tests of blood, milk, or urine Blood BHB measurement via a cowside meter is the most accurate on-farm test Diagnosis of ketosis is based on the presence of risk factors (early lactation), clinical signs, and elevated ketone body concentrations in blood, urine, or milk. When ketosis is diagnosed, a thorough physical examination should be performed, given that ketosis frequently occurs concurrently with other peripartum diseases. Especially common concurrent diseases include displaced abomasum Left or Right Displaced Abomasum and Abomasal Volvulus in Cattle Abomasal displacement and volvulus are common disorders of high-producing dairy cattle. Clinical signs include anorexia and decreased milk production. With abomasal volvulus, clinical deterioration... read more , retained fetal membranes Retained Fetal Membranes in Cows Retention of fetal membranes, or retained placenta, usually is defined as failure to expel fetal membranes within 24 hr after parturition. Normally, expulsion occurs within 3–8 hr after calf... read more , and metritis Metritis and Endometritis in Large Animals Several specific diseases are associated with metritis or endometritis. These include brucellosis ( see Brucellosis in Large Animals), leptospirosis ( see Leptospirosis), campylobacteriosis... read more . Rabies Rabies Rabies is an acute, progressive encephalomyelitis caused by lyssaviruses. It occurs worldwide in mammals, with dogs, bats, and wild carnivores the principle reservoirs. Typical signs include... read more and other CNS diseases are important differential diagnoses in cases involving neurologic signs (nervous ketosis). The gold standard test for measuring ketone body concentrations in dairy cows is an enzymatic laboratory test based on spectrophotometry. However, these tests are inconvenient and costly, and tests that can be conducted on-farm are the preferred method of diagnosis. Cowside tests that measure ketone body concentrations in blood, milk, or urine are critical for diagnosis. Handheld instruments designed to monitor the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood of human diabetic patients are available. These and newer handheld instruments designed specifically for cows quantitatively and accurately measure blood BHB concentration. Dipstick tests that measure acetoacetate and acetone concentrations in urine are reasonably accurate when interpreted within 5–10 seconds, but delayed interpretation can cause a higher rate of false-positive reactions. Milk dipstick tests that measure BHB concentration are also reasonably accurate but typically take 1–2 minutes to react. These dipstick urine and milk tests are read by observation of a particular color change and are semiquantitative. Care should be taken to allow the appropriate time for color development as specified by the test manufacturer. In the absence of clinical signs (eg, hyporexia), elevated ketone body concentrations indicate subclinical ketosis. Increasing ketone body concentration above the positive threshold for the test indicates increased severity of the disease regardless of whether clinical signs have been observed. Treatment of Ketosis in Cattle Oral administration (drench) of propylene glycol (250–400 g, PO, every 24 hours for 3–5 days) is the standard and most efficacious treatment Additional therapy with bolus glucose treatment (500 mL of 50% dextrose solution, IV, as a single bolus) in neurologic cases and vitamin B12 (1.25 mg, IM, every 24 hours for 3 days) in cases that are also hypoglycemic is suggested Treatment of ketosis is aimed at reestablishing normoglycemia and reducing serum ketone body concentrations. Bolus glucose treatment (500 mL of 50% dextrose solution, IV, as a single bolus) is also common. This solution is very hyperosmotic and, if administered perivascularly, results in severe tissue swelling and irritation, so care should be taken to ensure that it is given IV. Bolus glucose treatment generally results in a rapid temporary recovery, especially in cases occurring near peak lactation (type I ketosis). However, the effect frequently is transient, and relapses are common. Dextrose administration is recommended for cases of nervous ketosis, but may not be necessary or even helpful for every ketosis case. Administration of glucocorticoids is not recommended as there is little evidence of benefit and some indication of harm. Propylene glycol acts as a glucose precursor, and oral drenching (250–400 g [8–14 oz], PO, every 24 hours for 3–5 days) is effective as a ketosis treatment. Overdosing propylene glycol leads to CNS depression. There is also support for the use of vitamin B12 (1.25 mg, IM, every 24 hours for 3 days) as an adjunct treatment with oral drenching of propylene glycol, particularly in ketotic cows that are also hypoglycemic. 1,2 Avian Mycobacteriosis Ketosis cases occurring within the first 1–2 weeks after calving (type II ketosis) frequently are more refractory to treatment than cases occurring nearer to peak lactation (type I ketosis). In many cases, a repeated 5-day course of oral drenching of propylene glycol often combined with vitamin B12 seems to resolve these refractory ketosis problems. However, some still remain clinically hyporectic. In these cases, some have suggested that a long-acting insulin preparation (150–200 U, IM, every 24 hours for 5 days) may be beneficial; however, there is little evidence to support this. Insulin suppresses both adipose mobilization and ketogenesis; it should be given in combination with glucose or a glucocorticoid to prevent hypoglycemia. Use of insulin in this manner is an extralabel, unapproved use. Other therapies that may be of benefit in refractory ketosis cases are continuous IV glucose infusion and tube feeding. (Also see Fatty Liver Disease of Cattle Fatty Liver Disease of Cattle Fatty liver disease is a disorder of highly productive dairy cows resulting from an excessive negative energy balance at the onset of lactation. Mobilization of large amounts of body fat reserves... read more .). In addition, limited research has demonstrated that reducing milking frequency from twice a day to once daily will reduce ketone body concentration and improve the chances of a cure, although at the expense of reduced milk production. 3 Avian Mycobacteriosis Gordon J, Duffield T, Herdt T, Kelton D, Neuder L, LeBlanc S. (2017). Effects of a combination butaphosphan and cyanocobalamin product and insulin on keotsis resolution and milk production. J Dairy Sci. 100, 2954-2966. Gordon J, LeBlanc S, Kelton D, Herdt T, Neuder L, Duffield TF. (2017). Randomized clinical field trial on the effects of butaphosphan-cyanocobalamin and propylene glycol on ketosis resolution and milk production. J Dairy Sci. 100, 3912-3921 Williamson M, Serrenho RC, McBride BW, LeBlanc SJ, DeVries TJ, and Duffield TF. Reducing milking frequency from twice to once daily as an adjunct treatment for ketosis in lactating dairy cows – a randomized controlled trial. J Dairy Sci. 2021. In press. Prevention and Control of Ketosis in Cattle Prevention of ketosis is via nutritional and cow management. Efficient reproductive programs are critical in minimizing body condition score gain. Ketosis risk increases with age at first calving and is elevated in cows that have a prolonged interval from calving to conception. Body condition of cows should be managed in late lactation, when cows frequently become too fat. Modifying the diets of late lactation cows to increase the energy supply from digestible fiber and reduce the energy supply from starch may aid in partitioning dietary energy toward milk and away from body fattening. The dry period is generally too late to reduce body condition score. Reducing body condition in the dry period, particularly in the late dry period, may even be counterproductive, resulting in excessive adipose mobilization prepartum. A critical area in ketosis prevention is maintaining and promoting feed intake. This includes attention to diet but also to the management of the cows and management of feeding. Cows tend to reduce feed consumption in the last 3 weeks of gestation. Stressors such as empty feedbunks, cow movement disrupting the social order, overcrowding, and isolation can all inhibit feed intake. Nutritional management should be aimed at minimizing this reduction in feed intake. Controversy exists regarding the optimal dietary characteristics during this period. It is likely that optimal energy and fiber concentrations in rations for cows in the last 3 weeks of gestation vary from farm to farm. Feed intake should be monitored and rations adjusted to meet but not greatly exceed energy requirements throughout the entire dry period. For Holstein cows of typical adult body size, the average daily energy requirement throughout the dry period is between 14 and 16 Mcal expressed as net energy for lactation (NEL). After calving, diets should promote rapid and sustained increases in feed and energy consumption. Early lactation rations should be relatively high in nonfiber carbohydrate concentration but contain enough fiber to maintain rumen health and feed intake. Neutral-detergent fiber concentrations should usually be in the range of 28%–30%, with nonfiber carbohydrate concentrations in the range of 38%–41%. Dietary particle size will influence the optimal proportions of carbohydrate fractions. Some feed additives, including niacin, yeast products, and rumen-protected choline, might be helpful aids in the management of ketosis. To be effective, these supplements should be fed in the last 2–3 weeks of gestation, as well as during the period of ketosis susceptibility. In some countries, monensin sodium is approved for use in preventing subclinical ketosis and its associated diseases. Where approved, it is recommended at the rate of around 300 mg/head/day throughout the transition period. Ketosis is a common and costly disease in dairy cattle, with both its clinical and subclinical forms associated with increased risk of other diseases and impaired production and reproduction. Ketosis can be diagnosed with cowside blood, milk or urine tests; the most accurate method is blood measurement of BHB concentration. Ketosis is treated with oral drenching of propylene glycol (300 g per cow, PO, every 24 hours for 3 days in mild cases and extended for 5 days in severe cases). For More Information Pasquini’s Guide to Bovine Clinics 4th ed., pg 32-3. Divers and Peek, Rebhun’s Diseases of Dairy Cattle, 2nd ed., pp. 590-6.

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During its days as the Ottoman capital, Edirne became populated with a large number of Turks and it was from here that Sultan Bayezid commanded the first Turkish siege against Constantinople. The city is also the birthplace of Mehmed the Conqueror, who took over the throne at the young age of 19 after the death of his father Murad II, and began to plan his attack on Constantinople The rise of nationalism in the Balkans was another and much more menacing threat to the community: when the Bulgarians temporarily occupied Edirne during the First Balkan War (March 1913), following a six-month siege, the Jews suffered and many of them found temporary shelter in Istanbul Edirne, historically known as Adrianople is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern province of Edirne and East Thrace, close to Turkey's borders with Greece and Bulgaria. Edirne was the capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1369 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empire's capital. The estimated population in 2019 was 185,408 U-Edirne wasebenza njengenhloko-dolobha ye- Umbuso wase-Ottoman ukusuka ngo-1369 kuya ku-1453, ngaphambi kuka Constantinople (namuhla Istanbul), kwaba inhlokodolobha yesine neyokugcina phakathi kuka-1453 no-1922. Inani labantu ababalelwa kuleli dolobha ngonyaka we-2014 lalingama-165,979 Mehmet II gave orders to prepare for a siege of Edirne, a northwestern province of present-day Turkey which shares a land border with Greece. In 1452, Zaganos Pasha, a formidable Ottoman commander. Edirne (Adrianople) Fortified city at the confluence of the Meric and Tundzha rivers. Rebuilt by the Roman emperor Hadrian (c.ad 125) as Adrianopolis, it was the scene of a Roman defeat by the Visigoths in 378. Edirne was capital of Ottoman Turkey from 1361-1453 Стара снимка от обсадата на Одрин 1912-1913. надписанаНадписана на два пъти, първос молив. The Battle of Adrianople or Siege of Adrianople (Bulgarian: Обсада на Одрин, Serbian: Опсада Једрена, Turkish: Edirne Kuşatması) was fought during the First Balkan War, beginning in mid-November 1912 and ending on 26 March 1913 with the capture of Edirne (Adrianople) by the Bulgarian 2nd Army. The loss of Edirne delivered the final decisive blow on the Ottoman army. Edirne functioned as a semi-capital of the empire, with some sultans even favoring the city over Istanbul and whispering about returning the throne back to the city. Between 1700 and 1750, Edirne was the fourth most populated city in Europe, with an estimated population of about 350,000 Edirne (pronounced eh-deer-neh) is the chief city of Eastern Thrace, in the Marmara Region of northwest Turkey.It lies on the gently rolling Thracian plains at the confluence of three rivers, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. Most visitors crossing those borders drive straight on east, or stay on the bus or train, to reach Istanbul Edirne (autrefois Andrinople, du grec Ἁδριανούπολις / Adrianoúpolis) est la préfecture de la province turque du même nom, limitrophe de la Bulgarie et de la Grèce.La ville compte environ 143 000 habitants. Elle est traversée par la Maritsa, l'Hèbre des Anciens (Meriç en turc).Ses habitants sont les « Adrianopolitains » .. Мехмед Шукри постъпва на служба през 1879 година като лейтенант от артилерията Guerres ottomano-albanaise Coordonnées 41° 31′ 04″ nord, 19° 47′ 52″ est modifier Le premier siège de Krujë a eu lieu en 1450 lorsqu'une armée ottomane d'environ 100 000 hommes a assiégé la ville albanaise de Krujë . La Ligue de Lezhë , dirigée par Skanderbeg , a connu un moral bas après avoir perdu Svetigrad et Berat entre 1448 et 1450. Néanmoins, les exhortations de. After Edirne was conquered, this place began to Turkishization.Edirne became the capital city of Ottoman Empire in 1365. It showed a new period was coming for Edirne. Bayezid I.(1389-1403) managed the siege movements of İstanbul from Edirne. After the death of Yıldırım Bayezid, his sons came into conflict because of the throne The Knights Hospitaller are an ancient Catholic military order. Arising from a group of nurses and doctors, to care for the sick, around the turn of the millennium this holy order turned to its Knights to throw back the Turkish and Muslim threat. Controlling only the island city of Rhodes the Knights must contend with both the Heathens and the aloof Venetians, as well as heretics in Rhodes itself Edirne was selected not only because of Selim II's fondness of the city, but also for its historical and geographic significance. Located in the Balkans, within the European lands of the Ottoman Empire, Edirne had been a capital of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century before Istanbul and was effectively the second city of the Empire through. The Dardanelles gun is a super cannon designed as a bombard for use in siege warfare. The gun weighs 16.8 tons and measures 17 feet in length with a diameter of just under 3.5 feet and it fired a massive marble shot at a range of one-and-a-half miles. The dismantled Dardanelles Gun at Fort Nelson in Hampshir Turkey is under siege From the south, north, east, from the Aegean From within This is more dangerous than any sort of foreign attack. Turkey's opposition has never been this blind In the Siege of Paris add-on, players will take part in the capture of the French capital and the occupation of its environs. Judging by the achievements, at some point Eyvor will join the rebels. Also, achievements tease the appearance of at least one new set and the battle with another unusual boss Siege down their capitol, impale the sultan and his heir, take Costantinople + Edirne if possible, that will 100% guarantee you future war wins cos you have naval dominance. Sacrifice everything for that, after that the Ottomans go into debt, and AI wont recover Weekend 3: Edirne. We traveled to Edirne for our 3 rd weekend trip. There is not too much to say about Edirne besides the fact that it is very hot and it was one of the first Ottoman capitals prior to the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453. There is a sense of sadness that falls over the little town Edirne, which is located in the. The Return of the Dragon is the second scenario of the Dracula campaign in Age of Empires II HD: The Forgotten, where the player is playing as Magyars.In this scenario, Vlad Dracula obtains support by Bogdan II, Voivode of Moldavia, for his claim over Wallachia.The player will need to send Dracula, Istvan, Jakub, and Danislav to the Bran Castle (a wonder) and take over the Wallachian town there After the conquest, Sultan Mehmed II transferred the capital of the Ottoman Empire from Edirne to Constantinople. The conquest of the city of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire was a key event in the Late Middle Ages, which also marks, for some historians, The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453,. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked The Greek War of Independence was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829. The Greek nationalist cause was weakened by internecine fighting and was nearly destroyed by the Ottomans and their Egyptian allies by 1826; however, in 1827, the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire intervened in the conflict on the side of the. WikiZero Özgür Ansiklopedi - Wikipedia Okumanın En Kolay Yolu . Bayezid Pasha or Beyazid Pasha (also known as Amasyalı Beyazid Pasha; died July 1421) was an Ottoman Albanian statesman who served as grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1413 to 1421. He was the first Albanian and first Muslim from Balkans to become Grand Vizier of the Ottoman state History Events on August 23 - Infinity Fact - Infinity Fun Facts On The Worl The 810s decade ran from January 1 810 to December 31 819..mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel- Isaac Reed - Biography. His major work was the Biographia dramatica (2 vols., 1782), a set of biographies of dramatists and a descriptive dictionary of their plays Bitva o Adrianople , nebo Siege of Adrianople >( bulharština : Обсада на Одрин, srbština : Опсада Једрена, >turečtina : Edirne Kuşatması), se bojovalo během První balkánská válka . Začalo to v polovině listopadu 1912 a skončilo 26. března 1913 zajmutím Edirne (Adrianople) bulharskou 2. armádou a srbskou 2. armádou Edirne,TURKEY - MAY 6, 2017: Fatih Sultan Mehmet memorial and Huge siege cannon used in the final assault and fall of Constantinople in 1453 (Sahi Gun) 1 credit Essentials collectio A Law Book of 1502, which regulates trading practices in the Rumelian capital, Edirne, lists bowmakers, arrow makers, and sword and dagger makers among the craftsmen of the city. It also, in specifying the minimum quality for categories of saddle, refers to a type called the `Raider's saddle'. The use of large siege cannons was, however. One of the most famous examples of words-in-freedom, Zang Tumb Tumb is Marinetti's dynamic expression of the siege of the Turkish city of Adrianople (now Edirne) during the Balkan War of 1912, which he reported on as a war correspondent. The title of the book elicits the sights and sounds of mechanized war—artillery shelling, bombs, and. Follow the same steps as in the previous wars (grouping armies, using merc for sieging, siege Edirne to get the warscore ticking, etc) and when you have enough war score take Izmat and Hudavendigar. 4th Major War The fourth and final war for Greece is very straight forward. Your war goal is Edirne . Ordusu tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. Şehrin içinde savunma için bulunan 52.597 asker dışında, 106.000 üzerinde. Orban, (also known as Urban) was a cannon caster of possible Hungarian origin (but this is disputed). A Byzantine Greek historian from Athens by the name of Laonikos Khalkokondyles (c.1430 - c. 1470) mentions something different: There was an artilleryman of the king [sultan] called Orbanos This section comprises maps and blueprints dating mainly from the 19th or 20th centuries and featuring Istanbul and its various districts (such as Galata, Pera, Tophane, Eminönü, Pangaltı, Kasımpaşa, Şişli, Nişantaşı, Kadıköy, the Bosphorus and its environs, the Prince's Islands etc.), as well as Izmir, Edirne, and other Anatolian provinces. It also includes thematic maps. Konstantinssäule. Die Konstantinssäule (türkisch Çemberlitaş, von çemberli ‚beringt/bereift' und taş ‚Stein') ist eine spätrömische Monumentalsäule in Istanbul. Sie stand ursprünglich auf dem Konstantinsforum und prägte in ihrer ursprünglichen Größe das Stadtbild Konstantinopels. Heute ist sie nur noch in Teilen erhalten. BostonBearJew is a former, avid Rainbow Six Siege player in the Xbox community who passed away March 21, 2017. After his passing Reddit user and close friend of BostonBearJew, KingSwank contacted the then R6S Community Manager Its_Epi over Twitter where Epi replied that he would try to honor his friend, but stated that he couldn't make any promises Kara Mustafa Paša (1634/1635, Merzifon - 25. prosinec 1683) byl osmanským generálem a velkovezírem.Byl ústřední postavou závěrečné fáze osmanského vojenského snažení ve střední Evropě. Jako mladík byl adoptovaný mocnou rodinou dědičných velkovezírů Köprülüovců.Svojí službou pro stát a oddaností k rodině Köprülüovců se vyznamenal a získal si náklonnost. World Bulletin / News Desk. Antioch was a city was a fortress with over 450 towers in the walls, which also had a citadel in the south of the city - without control of Antioch, the Crusaders could not have moved on to Jerusalem.. The first Muslims who had to deal with the Crusaders were the Turks in Anatolia. A Seljuk emir of the Sultanate of Rum, Kilij Arslan, was able to win some early. The siege started in August 5 th and Sultan Suleiman died in September 7 th a few days before the city fell. Tomb of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent Suleiman's Tomb Selim I - Next Ottoman Sultan. His death was kept secret until the army arrived in Belgrade and Selim took the throne Greece lost 5,851 and 23,847 wounded in action. The end of the conflict was sanctioned by the Treaty of Bucharest, in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its former war gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania and in the following Treaty of Constantinople, lost Edirne to the Ottomans. The Charron armored car, first Greek armored vehicle Trouvez les Edirne images et les photos d'actualités parfaites sur Getty Images. Choisissez parmi des contenus premium Edirne de la plus haute qualité Watch all new episodes of Pawn Stars starting May 11th, and stay up to date on all of your favorite History Channel shows at https://history.com/schedule.Ric.. 1280 Osman, founder of the Ottoman dynasty, born 1299 Osman declares the independence of his small principality from the Selcuk sultanate of Kony As he prepares to invade the island of Rhodes in 1522, Suleiman is still displeased with his concubine Hurrem; Hatice continues to brood over her betrothal to Piri Pasha's son, since she is in love with Ibrahim. Siege of Rhodes ends. S1, Ep11. 23 Mar. 2011 Moreover, the siege of Troy by Mycenaean warriors from Greece in the 13th century B.C., immortalized by Homer in The Iliad, has inspired great artists throughout the world ever since. Troy is located on the mound of Hisarlık, which overlooks the plain along the Turkish Aegean coast, 4.8 km from the southern entrance to the Dardanelles Accession of Mehmed II in Edirne, 1451. In 1453 the siege of Constantinople began, during which the Sultan surrounded the city with a large force of 50,000 to 80,000 soldiers and a Navy of more than 300 ships. The forces defending Constantinople were much smaller. The city was surrounded by Ottomans, both on land and on the sea Find link is a tool written by Edward Betts.. Longer titles found: Siege of Vienna (1485) () searching for Siege of Vienna 165 found (400 total) alternate case: siege of Vienna Jan Kazimierz Sapieha the Younger (258 words) exact match in snippet view article find links to article the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the campaign to lift the Siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Turks Exhaustive tests with a 5.3 cm gun took place from the 22nd to 24th June at Sofia. They were repeated on 8th and 9th December at Hademköi, near Istanbul, with a 5.7 cm gun. On 25th May 1892, the 5.7 cm was chosen and 30 Fahrpanzers were bought. They arrived in Bulgaria in 1892-93. The gun carriages were most likely used during the siege of. The Sultans of the Ottoman Empire: 1300 to 1924. Robert Wilde is a historian who writes about European history. He is the author of the History in an Afternoon textbook series. In the late 13th century a series of small principalities emerged in Anatolia, sandwiched between the Byzantine and Mongol Empires Seventeenth Siege and Fall of Constantinople. Dates: 6 APR - 29 MAY, 1453. Forces Engaged: Christian (Byzantine Empire and Allies - ) As always with pre-modern engagements we are confronted with the usual uncertainty of, well, pretty much everything but especially numbers. Phrantzes says that the official roster prepared for the Byzantine. A l'antiguitat preclàssica i clàssica, aquesta regió era la llar de grecs, il·liris, peonians, tracis, dacis i altres grups antics. L'imperi persa aquemènida va incorporar parts dels Balcans que comprenien Macedònia, Tràcia, Bulgària i la regió costanera del Mar Negre de Romania entre finals del VI i la primera meitat del segle V aC als seus territoris The prelude to the siege In 1444 the major komites and voivodas (warlords) of the western Macedonian duchies and principalities, which up to that point had been vassals of the Ottoman empire and/or Venetians and Ragusans, united and formed the League of Leshi (lat. Lissus, Alessio, Lezhe, etc.)7 The Siege of Constantinople, Byzantine retake their capital, Emperor of Nicea re-claims Constantinople, no more Latin Empire. • Origins trace back to young beys taken in the conquest of Edirne • The best boys are picked to form an army independent of Gazis. Savcı Bey Palestinians rally for Gaza rebuilding, ending Israeli siege Israel's bombardment in May left vast trial of destruction in Gaza News Service 09:06 July 12, 2021 A Nevertheless, the siege continued, with Ottoman reinforcements finally arriving in 1666-67, when operations against the defenders were renewed. When the city eventually surrendered in September 1669, the 28 months of campaigning had cost the lives of an estimated 70,000 Ottomans, over 29,000 of the city's defenders, and around 38,000 Cretans While just behind the mosque is the Edirne Archaeological Museum, which holds some interesting exhibits of Thracian steles. Other mosques here are worth a look, including the rather beautiful Sultan Beyazit II Mosque, the Üç Serefeli Mosque (with its four different minarets), and the aptly named Old Mosque (Edirne's oldest mosque building. The First Balkan War breaks out between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro; Marinetti departs for Sofia to report on the siege of Adrianople (modern-day Edirne); his Zang Tumb Tuuum (1914) is the result of this experience Rainbow Six: Siege haberleri, güncel son dakika gelişmeleri ve bugün yer alan son durum bilgileri için tıklayın! Rainbow Six: Siege ile ilgili tüm, video, fotoğraf, açıklamalar ve flaş. Wallachia is a nation in eastern Europe. It is bordered to the North by Hungary, to the North-East by Moldavia and to the West and the South by the Ottomans.Its holding are decent when it comes to development, and further development and advancement in Institutions are available due to the flat terrain in its provinces 1897 Oldsmobile first manufactured by Olds Motor Vehicle Co. in Lansing, Michigan; 1899 US National Championship Men's Tennis, Newport, RI: Malcolm Whitman wins second of 3 consecutive US singles titles; beats J. Parmly Paret 6-1, 6-2, 3-6, 7-5; 1900 US National Championship Men's Tennis, Newport, RI: Malcolm Whitman beats William Larned 6-4, 1-6, 6-2, 6-2 to win his third straight US singles. Slaget ved Wien (polsk: Bitwa pod Wiedniem eller Odsiecz Wiedeńska, tysk: Schlacht am Kahlenberg, tyrkisk: İkinci Viyana Kuşatması) fandt sted den 11. og 12. september 1683, efter at Wien havde været belejret af det Osmanniske Rige i to måneder.I slaget, der fandt sted på Kahlenberg i nærheden af Wien, stod en alliance bestående af Den polsk-litauiske realunion og Tysk-romerske rige. The siege of Belgrade by Ottoman Sultan Mehmet (Mohammed) II the Conqueror in the summer of 1456 aroused considerable contemporary attention and has remained an event of great interest to historians ever since. The fall of that fortress city, less than three years after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, could have opened the gates of the. The city fell on 29 May 1453, the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun on 6 April 1453. The attacking Ottoman army, which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (later called Mehmed the Conqueror), while the Byzantine army was led by Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos Search the world's information, including webpages, images, videos and more. Google has many special features to help you find exactly what you're looking for . 19 Jul 1703 - 22 Aug 1703 Janissary revol t in Edirne 1529 - The Siege of Vienna. 1533 - The Ottomans conquer Iraq. 1551 - The Ottomans conquer Libya. 1566 - Suleiman dies. 1569 - Much of Istanbul burns in a great fire. 1683 - The Ottomans are defeated at the Battle of Vienna. This signals the beginning of the decline of the empire. 1699 - The Ottomans give up control of Hungary to Austria If you need more war score for treaty kill isolated pockets of units. Good luck with all your runs! Use one of your diplomats to start building a spy network in Genoa or The Knights and when it's large enough, continuously support the Byzantine separatists there, each have roughly a 40% chance of firing if you help them, so that's 1-2 free islands you can get. Almost did it the first time but.

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Euler's totient function In number theory, Euler's totient function counts the positive integers up to a given integer n that are relatively prime to n. It is written using the Greek letter phi as φ(n) or ϕ(n), and may also be called Euler's phi function. It can be defined more formally as the number of integers k in the range 1 ≤ k ≤ n for which the greatest common divisor gcd(n, k) is equal to 1. The integers k of this form are sometimes referred to as totatives of n. For example, the totatives of n = 9 are the six numbers 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8. They are all relatively prime to 9, but the other three numbers in this range, 3, 6, and 9 are not, because gcd(9, 3) = gcd(9, 6) = 3 and gcd(9, 9) = 9. Therefore, φ(9) = 6. As another example, φ(1) = 1 since for n = 1 the only integer in the range from 1 to n is 1 itself, and gcd(1, 1) = 1. Euler's totient function is a multiplicative function, meaning that if two numbers m and n are relatively prime, then φ(mn) = φ(m) φ(n). This function gives the order of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n (the group of units of the ring Z/nZ). It also plays a key role in the definition of the RSA encryption system. History, terminology, and notation Leonhard Euler introduced the function in 1763. However, he did not at that time choose any specific symbol to denote it. In a 1784 publication, Euler studied the function further, choosing the Greek letter π to denote it: he wrote πD for "the multitude of numbers less than D, and which have no common divisor with it". This definition varies from the current definition for the totient function at D = 1 but is otherwise the same. The now-standard notation φ(A) comes from Gauss's 1801 treatise Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. (However, Gauss didn't use parentheses around the argument and wrote φA.) Thus, it is often called Euler's phi function or simply the phi function. In 1879, J. J. Sylvester coined the term totient for this function, so it is also referred to as Euler's totient function, the Euler totient, or Euler's totient. Jordan's totient is a generalization of Euler's. The cototient of n is defined as n − φ(n). It counts the number of positive integers less than or equal to n that have at least one prime factor in common with n. Computing Euler's totient function There are several formulas for computing φ(n). Euler's product formula The proof of Euler's product formula depends on two important facts. The function φ(n) is multiplicative This means that if gcd(m, n) = 1, then φ(mn) = φ(m) φ(n). (Sketch of proof: let A, B, C be the sets of residue classes modulo-and-coprime to m, n, mn respectively; then there is a bijection between A × B and C, by the Chinese remainder theorem.) φ(pk) = pk − pk−1 = pk−1(p − 1) That is, if p is prime and k ≥ 1 then Proof: since p is a prime number the only possible values of gcd(pk, m) are 1, p, p2, ..., pk, and the only way for gcd(pk, m) to not equal 1 is for m to be a multiple of p. The multiples of p that are less than or equal to pk are p, 2p, 3p, ..., pk − 1p = pk, and there are pk − 1 of them. Therefore, the other pk − pk − 1 numbers are all relatively prime to pk. Proof of Euler's product formula The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that if n > 1 there is a unique expression for n, where p1 < p2 < ... < pr are prime numbers and each ki ≥ 1. (The case n = 1 corresponds to the empty product.) Repeatedly using the multiplicative property of φ and the formula for φ(pk) gives This is Euler's product formula. In words, this says that the distinct prime factors of 36 are 2 and 3; half of the thirty-six integers from 1 to 36 are divisible by 2, leaving eighteen; a third of those are divisible by 3, leaving twelve numbers that are coprime to 36. And indeed there are twelve positive integers that are coprime with 36 and lower than 36: 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 31, and 35. where for Then The real part of this formula is Note that unlike the other two formulae (the Euler product and the divisor sum) this one does not require knowing the factors of n. However, it does involve the calculation of the greatest common divisor of n and every positive integer less than n, which suffices to provide the factorization anyway. where the sum is over all positive divisors d of n, can be proven in several ways. (see Arithmetical function for notational conventions.) One way is to note that φ(d) is also equal to the number of possible generators of the cyclic group Cd; specifically, if Cd = <g>, then gk is a generator for every k coprime to d. Since every element of Cn generates a cyclic subgroup, and all subgroups of Cd ≤ Cn are generated by some element of Cn, the formula follows. In the article Root of unity Euler's formula is derived by using this argument in the special case of the multiplicative group of the nth roots of unity. Put them into lowest terms: First note that all the divisors of 20 are denominators. And second, note that there are 20 fractions. Which fractions have 20 as denominator? The ones whose numerators are relatively prime to 20 By definition this is φ(20) fractions. Similarly, there are φ(10) = 4 fractions with denominator 10 φ(5) = 4 fractions with denominator 5 and so on. In detail, we're considering the fractions of the form k/n where k is an integer from 1 to n inclusive. Upon reducing these to lowest terms, each fraction will have as its denominator some divisor of n. We can group the fractions together by denominator, and we must show that for a given divisor d of n, the number of such fractions with denominator d is φ(d). Note that to reduce k/n to lowest terms, we divide the numerator and denominator by gcd(k, n). The reduced fractions with denominator d are therefore precisely the ones originally of the form k/n in which gcd(k, n)=n/d. The question therefore becomes: how many k are there less than or equal to n which verify gcd(k, n)=n/d? Any such k must clearly be a multiple of n/d, but it must also be coprime to d (if it had any common divisor s with d, then sn/d would be a larger common divisor of n and k). Conversely, any multiple k of n/d which is coprime to d will satisfy gcd(n, k)=n/d. We can generate φ(d) such numbers by taking the numbers less than d coprime to d and multiplying each one by n/d (these products will of course each be smaller than n, as required). This in fact generates all such numbers, as if k is a multiple of n/d coprime to d (and less than n), then k/(n/d) will still be coprime to d, and must also be smaller than d, else k would be larger than n. Thus there are precisely φ(d) values of k less than or equal to n such that gcd(k, n)=n/d, which was to be demonstrated. Möbius inversion gives where μ is the Möbius function. This formula may also be derived from the product formula by multiplying out to get Riemann zeta function limit For the Euler totient function can be calculated as a limit involving the Riemann zeta function: Some values of the function The top line in the graph, y = n − 1, is a true upper bound. It is attained whenever n is prime. There is no lower bound that is a straight line of positive slope; no matter how gentle the slope of a line is, there will eventually be points of the plot below the line. More precisely, the lower limit of the graph is proportional to n/log log n rather than being linear. This states that if a and n are relatively prime then The special case where n is prime is known as Fermat's little theorem. The RSA cryptosystem is based on this theorem: it implies that the inverse of the function , where is the (public) encryption exponent, is the function , where , the (private) decryption exponent, is the multiplicative inverse of modulo . The difficulty of computing without knowing the factorization of is thus the difficulty of computing : this is known as the RSA problem which can be solved by factoring . The owner of the private key knows the factorization, since an RSA private key is constructed by choosing as the product of two (randomly chosen) large primes and . Only is publicly disclosed, and given the difficulty to factor large numbers we have the guarantee that no-one else knows the factorization. - (a, n > 1) - where d = gcd(m, n). Note the special cases - Compare this to the formula (See lcm). - is even for Moreover, if n has r distinct odd prime factors, - For any a > 1 and n > 6 such that there exists an such that . - where is the radical of n. - ( cited in ) (here γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant). In 1965 P. Kesava Menon proved where d(n) = σ0(n) is the number of divisors of n. Formulae involving the golden ratio Subtracting them gives Applying the exponential function to both sides of the preceding identity yields an infinite product formula for Euler's number e The proof is based on the formulae - and valid for 0 < x < 1. The Lambert series generating function is which converges for |q| < 1. Both of these are proved by elementary series manipulations and the formulae for φ(n). These two formulae can be proved by using little more than the formulae for φ(n) and the divisor sum function σ(n). In fact, during the proof of the second formula, the inequality true for n > 1, is proved. Here γ is Euler's constant, γ = 0.577215665..., eγ = 1.7810724..., e−γ = 0.56145948... . Proving this doesn't quite require the prime number theorem. Since log log (n) goes to infinity, this formula shows that - for n > 2, and - for infinitely many n. The second inequality was shown by Jean-Louis Nicolas. Ribenboim says "The method of proof is interesting, in that the inequality is shown first under the assumption that the Riemann hypothesis is true, secondly under the contrary assumption." due to Arnold Walfisz, its proof exploiting estimates on exponential sums due to I. M. Vinogradov and N.M. Korobov (this is currently the best known estimate of this type). The "Big O" stands for a quantity that is bounded by a constant times the function of "n" inside the parentheses (which is small compared to n2). Ratio of consecutive values is dense in the positive real numbers. They also proved that the set is dense in the interval (0, 1). A totient number is a value of Euler's totient function: that is, an m for which there is at least one n for which φ(n) = m. The valency or multiplicity of a totient number m is the number of solutions to this equation. A nontotient is a natural number which is not a totient number. Every odd integer exceeding 1 is trivially a nontotient. There are also infinitely many even nontotients, and indeed every positive integer has a multiple which is an even nontotient. The number of totient numbers up to a given limit x is If counted accordingly to multiplicity, the number of totient numbers up to a given limit x is Ford (1999) proved that for every integer k ≥ 2 there is a totient number m of multiplicity k: that is, for which the equation φ(n) = m has exactly k solutions; this result had previously been conjectured by Wacław Sierpiński, and it had been obtained as a consequence of Schinzel's hypothesis H. Indeed, each multiplicity that occurs, does so infinitely often. However, no number m is known with multiplicity k = 1. Carmichael's totient function conjecture is the statement that there is no such m. In the last section of the Disquisitiones Gauss proves that a regular n-gon can be constructed with straightedge and compass if φ(n) is a power of 2. If n is a power of an odd prime number the formula for the totient says its totient can be a power of two only if a) n is a first power and b) n − 1 is a power of 2. The primes that are one more than a power of 2 are called Fermat primes, and only five are known: 3, 5, 17, 257, and 65537. Fermat and Gauss knew of these. Nobody has been able to prove whether there are any more. Thus, a regular n-gon has a straightedge-and-compass construction if n is a product of distinct Fermat primes and any power of 2. The first few such n are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 24, 30, 32, 34, 40, ... . (sequence A003401 in the OEIS) The RSA cryptosystem Setting up an RSA system involves choosing large prime numbers p and q, computing n = pq and k = φ(n), and finding two numbers e and d such that ed ≡ 1 (mod k). The numbers n and e (the "encryption key") are released to the public, and d (the "decryption key") is kept private. A message, represented by an integer m, where 0 < m < n, is encrypted by computing S = me (mod n). It is decrypted by computing t = Sd (mod n). Euler's Theorem can be used to show that if 0 < t < n, then t = m. The security of an RSA system would be compromised if the number n could be factored or if φ(n) could be computed without factoring n. If p is prime, then φ(p) = p − 1. In 1932 D. H. Lehmer asked if there are any composite numbers n such that φ(n) | n − 1. None are known. In 1933 he proved that if any such n exists, it must be odd, square-free, and divisible by at least seven primes (i.e. ω(n) ≥ 7). In 1980 Cohen and Hagis proved that n > 1020 and that ω(n) ≥ 14. Further, Hagis showed that if 3 divides n then n > 101937042 and ω(n) ≥ 298848. This states that there is no number n with the property that for all other numbers m, m ≠ n, φ(m) ≠ φ(n). See Ford's theorem above. - Carmichael function - Duffin–Schaeffer conjecture - Generalizations of Fermat's little theorem - Highly composite number - Multiplicative group of integers modulo n - Ramanujan sum - "Euler's totient function". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2016-02-26. - Long (1972, p. 85) - Pettofrezzo & Byrkit (1970, p. 72) - Long (1972, p. 162) - Pettofrezzo & Byrkit (1970, p. 80) - See Euler's theorem. - L. Euler "Theoremata arithmetica nova methodo demonstrata" (An arithmetic theorem proved by a new method), Novi commentarii academiae scientiarum imperialis Petropolitanae (New Memoirs of the Saint-Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences), 8 (1763), 74-104. (The work was presented at the Saint-Petersburg Academy on October 15, 1759. A work with the same title was presented at the Berlin Academy on June 8, 1758). Available on-line in: Ferdinand Rudio, ed., Leonhardi Euleri Commentationes Arithmeticae, volume 1, in: Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia, series 1, volume 2 (Leipzig, Germany, B. G. Teubner, 1915), pages 531-555. On page 531, Euler defines n as the number of integers that are smaller than N and relatively prime to N (… aequalis sit multitudini numerorum ipso N minorum, qui simul ad eum sint primi, …), which is the phi function, φ(N). - Sandifer, p. 203 - Graham et al. p. 133 note 111 - L. Euler, Speculationes circa quasdam insignes proprietates numerorum, Acta Academiae Scientarum Imperialis Petropolitinae, vol. 4, (1784), pp. 18-30, or Opera Omnia, Series 1, volume 4, pp. 105-115. (The work was presented at the Saint-Petersburg Academy on October 9, 1775). - Both and are seen in the literature. These are two forms of the lower-case Greek letter phi. - Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae article 38 - J. J. Sylvester (1879) "On certain ternary cubic-form equations", American Journal of Mathematics, 2 : 357-393; Sylvester coins the term "totient" on page 361. - "totient". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989. - Schramm (2008) - Gauss, DA, art 39 - Gauss, DA art. 39, arts. 52-54 - Graham et al. pp. 134-135 - The cell for n = 0 in the upper-left corner of the table is empty, as the function φ(n) is commonly defined only for positive integers, so it is not defined for n = 0. - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 328 - Dineva (in external refs), prop. 1 - Walfisz, Arnold (1963). Weylsche Exponentialsummen in der neueren Zahlentheorie. Mathematische Forschungsberichte (in German). 16. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. Zbl 0146.06003. - Lomadse, G., "The scientific work of Arnold Walfisz" (PDF), Acta Arithmetica, 10 (3): 227–237 - R. Sitaramachandrarao. On an error term of Landau II, Rocky Mountain J. Math. 15 (1985), 579-588 - Also R. Sitaramachandrarao (loc. cit.) - Bordellès in the external links - All formulae in the section are from Schneider (in the external links) - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 288 - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 309 - Hardy & Wright 1979, intro to § 18.4 - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 326 - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 327 - In fact Chebychev's theorem (Hardy & Wright 1979, thm.7) and Mertens' third theorem is all that's needed - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 436 - Theorem 15 of Rosser, J. Barkley; Schoenfeld, Lowell. Approximate formulas for some functions of prime numbers. Illinois J. Math. 6 (1962), no. 1, 64–94. http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.ijm/1255631807. - Bach & Shallit, thm. 8.8.7 - Ribenboim, The Book of Prime Number Records, Section 4.I.C - Sándor, Mitrinović & Crstici (2006) pp.24-25 - Hardy & Wright 1979, thm. 332 - Ribenboim, p.38 - Sándor, Mitrinović & Crstici (2006) p.16 - Guy (2004) p.144 - Sándor & Crstici (2004) p.230 - Zhang, Mingzhi (1993). "On nontotients". Journal of Number Theory. 43 (2): 168–172. doi:10.1006/jnth.1993.1014. ISSN 0022-314X. Zbl 0772.11001. - Ford, Kevin (1998). "The distribution of totients". Ramanujan J. 2 (1-2): 67–151. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4507-8_8. ISSN 1382-4090. Zbl 0914.11053. - Sándor et al (2006) p.22 - Sándor et al (2006) p.21 - Guy (2004) p.145 - Sándor & Crstici (2004) p.229 - Sándor & Crstici (2004) p.228 - Gauss, DA. The 7th § is arts. 336-366 - Gauss proved if n satisfies certain conditions then the n-gon can be constructed. In 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved the converse, if the n-gon is constructible, then n must satisfy Gauss's conditions - Gauss, DA, art 366 - Gauss, DA, art. 366. This list is the last sentence in the Disquisitiones - Ribenboim, pp. 36-37. - Cohen, Graeme L.; Hagis, Peter, jun. (1980). "On the number of prime factors of n if φ(n) divides n−1". Nieuw Arch. Wiskd., III. Ser. 28: 177–185. ISSN 0028-9825. Zbl 0436.10002. - Hagis, Peter, jun. (1988). "On the equation M⋅φ(n)=n−1". Nieuw Arch. Wiskd., IV. Ser. 6 (3): 255–261. ISSN 0028-9825. Zbl 0668.10006. - Guy (2004) p.142 The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae has been translated from Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of Gauss' papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes. References to the Disquisitiones are of the form Gauss, DA, art. nnn. - Abramowitz, M.; Stegun, I. A. (1964), Handbook of Mathematical Functions, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-61272-4. See paragraph 24.3.2. - Bach, Eric; Shallit, Jeffrey (1996), Algorithmic Number Theory (Vol I: Efficient Algorithms), MIT Press Series in the Foundations of Computing, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-02405-5, Zbl 0873.11070 - Ford, Kevin (1999), "The number of solutions of φ(x) = m", Annals of Mathematics, 150 (1): 283–311, doi:10.2307/121103, ISSN 0003-486X, JSTOR 121103, MR 1715326, Zbl 0978.11053. - Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Clarke, Arthur A. (translator into English) (1986), Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (Second, corrected edition), New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-96254-9 - Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Maser, H. (translator into German) (1965), Untersuchungen uber hohere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition), New York: Chelsea, ISBN 0-8284-0191-8 - Graham, Ronald; Knuth, Donald; Patashnik, Oren (1994), Concrete Mathematics: a foundation for computer science (2nd ed.), Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-55802-5, Zbl 0836.00001 - Guy, Richard K. (2004), Unsolved Problems in Number Theory, Problem Books in Mathematics (3rd ed.), New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-20860-7, Zbl 1058.11001 - Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (1979), An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (Fifth ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853171-5 - Long, Calvin T. (1972), Elementary Introduction to Number Theory (2nd ed.), Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company, LCCN 77-171950 - Pettofrezzo, Anthony J.; Byrkit, Donald R. (1970), Elements of Number Theory, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, LCCN 77-81766 - Ribenboim, Paulo (1996), The New Book of Prime Number Records (3rd ed.), New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-94457-5, Zbl 0856.11001 - Sandifer, Charles (2007), The early mathematics of Leonhard Euler, MAA, ISBN 0-88385-559-3 - Sándor, József; Mitrinović, Dragoslav S.; Crstici, Borislav, eds. (2006), Handbook of number theory I, Dordrecht: Springer-Verlag, pp. 9–36, ISBN 1-4020-4215-9, Zbl 1151.11300 - Sándor, Jozsef; Crstici, Borislav (2004). Handbook of number theory II. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. pp. 179–327. ISBN 1-4020-2546-7. Zbl 1079.11001. - Schramm, Wolfgang (2008), "The Fourier transform of functions of the greatest common divisor", Electronic Journal of Combinatorial Number Theory, A50 (8(1)). - Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Totient function", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4 - Kirby Urner, Computing totient function in Python and scheme, (2003) - Euler's Phi Function and the Chinese Remainder Theorem — proof that Φ(n) is multiplicative - Bordellès, Olivier, Numbers prime to q in - Dineva, Rosica, The Euler Totient, the Möbius, and the Divisor Functions - Miyata, Daisuke & Yamashita, Michinori, Derived logarithmic function of Euler's function - Plytage, Loomis, Polhill Summing Up The Euler Phi Function - Schneider, Robert P. A Golden Product Identity for e.

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|Part of a series on| The term "Radical" (from the Latin radix meaning root) during the late 18th-century and early 19th-century identified proponents of democratic reform, in what subsequently became the parliamentary Radical Movement. Historically, Radicalism began in the United Kingdom with political support for a "radical reform" of the electoral system to widen the franchise. Some radicals sought republicanism, abolition of titles, redistribution of property and freedom of the press. In France in the nineteenth century, the Republican, Radical and Radical‐Socialist Party, initially identifying itself as a far-left party opposed to more right-wing parties (such as the Orléanists, the Legitimists and the Bonapartists), eventually became the most important party of the Third Republic (1871–1940). As historical Radicalism became absorbed in the development of political liberalism, in the later 19th century in both the United Kingdom and in continental Europe the term "Radical" came to denote a progressive liberal ideology. Many European parties that are nowadays categorised in the group of social-liberal parties have a historical affinity with radicalism and may therefore be called "liberal-radical". According to Encyclopædia Britannica the first use of the word "Radical" in a political sense is generally ascribed to the English Whig parliamentarian Charles James Fox. In 1797, Fox declared for a "radical reform" of the electoral system. This led to a general use of the term to identify all supporting the movement for parliamentary reform. Initially confined to the upper and middle classes, in the early 19th century "popular radicals" brought artisans and the "labouring classes" into widespread agitation in the face of harsh government repression. More respectable "philosophical radicals" followed the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham and strongly supported parliamentary reform, but were generally hostile to the arguments and tactics of the "popular radicals". By the middle of the century parliamentary Radicals joined with others in the Parliament of the United Kingdom to form the Liberal Party, eventually achieving reform of the electoral system. The Radical movement had its beginnings at a time of tension between the American colonies and Great Britain, with the first Radicals, angry at the state of the House of Commons, drawing on the Leveller tradition and similarly demanding improved parliamentary representation. These earlier concepts of democratic and even egalitarian reform had emerged in the turmoil of the English Civil War and the brief establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England amongst the vague political grouping known as the Levellers, but with the English Restoration of the monarchy such ideas had been discredited. Although the Glorious Revolution of 1688 had increased parliamentary power with a constitutional monarchy and the union of the parliaments brought England and Scotland together, towards the end of the 18th century the monarch still had considerable influence over the Parliament of Great Britain which itself was dominated by the English aristocracy and by patronage. Candidates for the House of Commons stood as Whigs or Tories, but once elected formed shifting coalitions of interests rather than splitting along party lines. At general elections the vote was restricted to property owners, in constituencies which were out of date and did not reflect the growing importance of manufacturing towns or shifts of population, so that in many rotten borough seats could be bought or were controlled by rich landowners, while major cities remained unrepresented. Discontent with these inequities inspired those individuals who later became known as the "Radical Whigs". William Beckford fostered early interest in reform in the London area. The "Middlesex radicals" were led by the politician John Wilkes, an opponent of war with the colonies who started his weekly publication The North Briton in 1764 and within two years had been charged with seditious libel and expelled from the House of Commons. The Society for the Defence of the Bill of Rights which he started in 1769 to support his re‐election, developed the belief that every man had the right to vote and "natural reason" enabling him to properly judge political issues. Liberty consisted in frequent elections. For the first time middle‐class radicals obtained the backing of the London "mob". Middlesex and Westminster were among the few parliamentary constituencies with a large and socially diverse electorate including many artisans as well as the middle class and aristocracy, and along with the county association of Yorkshire led by the Reverend Christopher Wyvill were at the forefront of reform activity. The writings of what became known as the "Radical Whigs" had an influence on the American Revolution. Major John Cartwright also supported the colonists, even as the American Revolutionary War began, and in 1776 earned the title of the "Father of Reform" when he published his pamphlet Take Your Choice! advocating annual parliaments, the secret ballot and manhood suffrage. In 1780 a draft programme of reform was drawn up by Charles James Fox and Thomas Brand Hollis, and put forward by a sub‐committee of the electors of Westminster. This included calls for the six points later adopted in the People's Charter (see Chartists below). The American Revolutionary War ended in humiliating defeat of a policy which King George III had fervently advocated, and in March 1782 the King was forced to appoint an administration led by his opponents which sought to curb Royal patronage. In November 1783 he took his opportunity and used his influence in the House of Lords to defeat a Bill to reform the British East India Company, dismissed the government and appointed William Pitt the Younger as his Prime Minister. Pitt had previously called for Parliament to begin to reform itself, but he did not press for long for reforms the King did not like. Proposals Pitt made in April 1785 to redistribute seats from the "rotten boroughs" to London and the counties were defeated in the House of Commons by 248 votes to 174. In the wake of the European Revolution, Thomas Paine wrote The Rights of Man (1791) as a response to Burke's counterrevolutionary essay Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), itself an attack on Richard Price's sermon that kicked off the so-called "pamphlet war" known as the Revolution Controversy. Mary Wollstonecraft, another supporter of Price, soon followed with A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. They encouraged mass support for democratic reform along with rejection of the monarchy, aristocracy, and all forms of privilege. Different strands of the movement developed, with middle class "reformers" aiming to widen the franchise to represent commercial and industrial interests and towns without parliamentary representation, while "Popular radicals" drawn from the middle class and from artisans agitated to assert wider rights including relieving distress. The theoretical basis for electoral reform was provided by "Philosophical radicals" who followed the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham and strongly supported parliamentary reform, but were generally hostile to the arguments and tactics of the "popular radicals". Popular Radicals were quick to go further than Paine, with Newcastle schoolmaster Thomas Spence demanding land nationalisation to redistribute wealth in a penny periodical he called Pig's Meat in a reference to Edmund Burke's phrase "swinish multitude". Radical organisations sprang up, such as the London Corresponding Society of artisans formed in January 1792 under the leadership of the shoemaker Thomas Hardy to call for the vote. One such was the Scottish Friends of the People society which in October 1793 held a British Convention in Edinburgh with delegates from some of the English corresponding societies. They issued a manifesto demanding universal male suffrage with annual elections and expressing their support for the principles of the French Revolution. The numbers involved in these movements were small, and most wanted reform rather than revolution, but for the first time working men were organising for political change. The government reacted harshly, imprisoning leading Scottish radicals, temporarily suspending habeas corpus in England and passing the Seditious Meetings Act 1795 which meant that a license was needed for any meeting in a public place consisting of fifty or more people. Throughout the Napoleonic Wars the government took extensive stern measures against feared domestic unrest. The corresponding societies ended, but some radicals continued in secret, with Irish sympathisers in particular forming secret societies to overturn the government and encourage mutinies. In 1812 Major John Cartwright formed the first Hampden Club, named after the English Civil War Parliamentary leader John Hampden, aiming to bring together middle class moderates and lower class radicals. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Corn laws (in force between 1815 and 1846) and bad harvests fostered discontent. The publications of William Cobbett were influential, and at political meetings speakers like Henry Hunt complained that only three men in a hundred had the vote. Writers like the radicals William Hone and Thomas Jonathan Wooler spread dissent with publications such as The Black Dwarf in defiance of a series of government acts to curb circulation of political literature. Radical riots in 1816 and 1817 were followed by the Peterloo massacre of 1819 publicised by Richard Carlile who then continued to fight for press freedom from prison. The Six Acts of 1819 limited the right to demonstrate or hold public meetings. In Scotland agitation over three years culminated in an attempted general strike and abortive workers' uprising crushed by government troops in the "Radical War" of 1820. Magistrates powers were increased to crush demonstrations by manufacturers and action by radical Luddites. To counter the established Church of England doctrine that the aristocratic social order was divinely ordained, radicals supported Lamarckian Evolutionism, a theme proclaimed by street corner agitators as well as some established scientists such as Robert Edmund Grant. Economic conditions improved after 1821 and the United Kingdom government made economic and criminal law improvements, abandoning policies of repression. In 1823 Jeremy Bentham co‐founded the Westminster Review with James Mill as a journal for "philosophical radicals", setting out the utilitarian philosophy that right actions were to be measured in proportion to the greatest good they achieved for the greatest number. Westminster elected two radicals to Parliament during the 1820s. The Whigs gained power and despite defeats in the House of Commons and the House of Lords the Reform Act 1832 was put through with the support of public outcry, mass meetings of "political unions" and riots in some cities. This now enfranchised the middle classes, but failed to meet radical demands. The Whigs introduced reforming measures owing much to the ideas of the philosophic radicals, abolishing slavery and in 1834 introducing Malthusian Poor Law reforms which were bitterly opposed by "popular radicals" and writers like Thomas Carlyle. Following the 1832 Reform Act the mainly aristocratic Whigs in the House of Commons were joined by a small number of parliamentary Radicals, as well as an increased number of middle class Whigs. By 1839 they were informally being called "the Liberal party." From 1836 working class Radicals unified around the Chartist cause of electoral reform expressed in the People's Charter drawn up by six members of Parliament and six from the London Working Men's Association (associated with Owenite Utopian socialism), which called for six points: Universal suffrage, equal‐sized electoral districts, secret ballot, an end to property qualification for Parliament, pay for Members of Parliament and Annual Parliaments. Chartists also expressed economic grievances, but their mass demonstrations and petitions to parliament were unsuccessful. Despite initial disagreements, after their failure their cause was taken up by the middle class Anti-Corn Law League founded by Richard Cobden and John Bright in 1839 to oppose duties on imported grain which raised the price of food and so helped landowners at the expense of ordinary people. The parliamentary Radicals joined with the Whigs and anti-protectionist Tory Peelites to form the Liberal Party by 1859. Demand for parliamentary reform increased by 1864 with agitation from John Bright and the Reform League. When the Liberal government led by Lord Russell and William Ewart Gladstone introduced a modest bill for parliamentary reform, it was defeated by both Tories and reform Liberals, forcing the government to resign. The Tories under Lord Derby and Benjamin Disraeli took office, and the new government decided to "dish the Whigs" and "take a leap in the dark" to take the credit for the reform. As a minority government they had to accept radical amendments, and Disraeli's Reform Act 1867 almost doubled the electorate, giving the vote even to working men. The Radicals, having been strenuous in their efforts on behalf of the working classes, earned a deeply loyal following; British trade unionists from 1874 until 1892, upon being elected to Parliament, never considered themselves to be anything other than Radicals, and were labeled Lib-Lab candidates. Radical trade unionists formed the basis for what later became the Labour Party. Following the Napoleonic Wars and until 1848, it was illegal, technically, to advocate republicanism openly. Republicans therefore tended to call themselves "radicals" and the term came to mean a republican (who, by definition, supported universal manhood suffrage). From 1869, a faction, led by Georges Clemenceau, calling themselves Radicals claimed to be the true heirs of the French revolutionary tradition and drifted away from the moderate republicanism of Léon Gambetta. At Montmartre in 1881 they put forward a programme of broad social reforms. At that time, Radicals located themselves on the far left of the political board, opposed to the "Republican opportunists" (Gambetta), the liberal Orléanists, the Legitimists (both monarchist factions) and the Bonapartists. These radicals then formed the Radical-Socialist Party (or Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, to give it its full name) in 1901, which was the first French left-wing modern political party. Four years later, the socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party was formed by the fusion of Jean Jaurès's and Jules Guesde's rival tendencies; and the French Communist Party (PCF) was created in 1920. The Radical -Socialist Party continued to be the main party of the Third Republic (1871–1940), but was discredited after the war due to the role of Radical members of the National Assembly in voting for the establishment of the Vichy regime. The Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance was established after World War II to combine the politics of French radicalism with credibility derived from members' activism in the French resistance. Opposing Gaullism and the Christian democratic People's Republican Movement (MNR), Pierre Mendès-France tried to anchor the Radicals to the political left. Although he managed to put an end to the First Indochina War through the Geneva Accords signed in 1954 with North Vietnam's Premier Pham Van Dong, he finally left the party in 1961 to join the Unified Socialist Party (PSU) which advocated workers' self-management, while the Radical Party split into the more conservative Radical Party "valoisien", the legal successor of the Radical Party, and a faction advocating alliance with the centre-left, named the Radical Party of the Left. The Parti radical valoisien moved to the centre-right and affiliated itself first with the pro-Giscard d'Estaing Union for French Democracy, then with the conservative Union for a Popular Movement (UMP), while the Radical Party of the Left, which claims to be the political heir of the Republican Radicals, has close ties to the Socialist Party. Continental Europe and Latin America In continental Europe and Latin America, as, for instance, in Italy, Spain, Chile and Argentina (Radical Civic Union), Radicalism developed as an ideology in the 19th century to indicate those who supported, at least in theory, a republican form of government, universal male suffrage, and, particularly, supported anti-clerical policies. In German-speaking countries this current is known as Freisinn (literally "free mind", as in German Freeminded Party from 1884 to 1893, then Eugen Richter's Freeminded People's Party; and the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland). In Denmark the left wing of the Liberal party Venstre was known as the radicals and founded their own party Radikale Venstre in 1905. However, by the twentieth century at the latest, radicalism, which did not advocate particularly radical economic policies, had been overtaken as the principal ideology of the left by the growing popularity of socialism, and had become an essentially centrist political movement (as far as "radicalism" survived as a distinct political ideology at all). Serbia and Montenegro Radicalism had played a pivotal role in the birth and development of parliamentarism and the construction of the modern Serbian state leading to the Yugoslavian unification. The People's Radical Party formed in 1881 was the strongest political party and was in power in the Kingdom of Serbia more than all others together. The 1888 Constitution of the Kingdom of Serbia that defined it as an independent nation and formalised parliamentary democracy was among the most advanced in the entire world, due to Radical contribution, it's known as The Radical Constitution. In 1902 a crack had occurred in which the Independent Radical Party left and "the Olde" remained in the party, leading it to its considerable downfall and veering into conservatism. In the Yugoslavian kingdom, the Independent Radicals united with the rest of the Serbian opposition and the liberal and civic groups in the rest of the new country and formed the Yugoslav Democratic Party as the central, while several Republican dissidents formed a Republican Party. The NRS had promoted Serb nationalism and put itself as the defender of Serb national interests. Democrats and Radicals were the dominant political parties, especially since the exclusion of the Communists. In Montenegro, a People's Party was formed in 1907 as the country's first political party and remained the largest in the period of country's parliamentary history until the Yugoslavian unification. Later a True People's Party was formed, which never got widespread popular support and whose bigger part had joined the original NS, but the difference was not ideological, but opposition and support of the Crown and, sometimes, in foreign relations to Serbia (the clubbists were the crown's dissidents and supporters of the people as well as Serbia as a regional power and brotherly ally; the rightists were generally anti-democratic and autocratic monarchist, and also distrustful to the Serbian government's acts on the national plan). Radicalism and liberalism In some countries the radical tendency is a variant of liberalism. Sometimes it is less doctrinaire and more moderate; other times it is more extreme. In Victorian era Britain the Radicals were part of the Liberal coalition, but often rebelled when the more traditional Whigs in that coalition resisted democratic reforms. In other countries, these left-wing liberals have formed their own radical parties with various names, e.g. in Switzerland and Germany (Freisinn), Bulgaria, Denmark, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands but also Argentina (Radical Civic Union), Chile and Paraguay. This does not mean that all radical parties were formed by left-wing liberals. In the French political literature it is normal to make a clear separation between liberalism and radicalism in France. In Serbia both radicalism and liberalism have had their distinctiveness during the 19th century, with the Radical Party being the dominant political party throughout the entire multi-parliamentary period before the unification of Yugoslavia. It had cracked in 1903 when the Independent Radical Party had left, leaving the old People's Radical Party straying far from liberalism and into right-wing nationalism and conservatism. The Independents had created the Democratic Party, whereas the Radicals of today are a far-right political group. But even the French radicals were aligned to the international liberal movement in the first half of the twentieth century (founded on August 29, 1924 and dissolved in 1934), in the Entente Internationale des Partis Radicaux et des Partis Démocratiques similaires. Many European parties that are nowadays categorised in the group of social-liberal parties have a historical affinity with radicalism and may therefore be called "liberal-radical". - Cultural radicalism - Radical democracy - Transnational Radical Party - Industrial Radical Party, a fictional party in the British Empire in the novel The Difference Engine, - Italian Radicals - Radicals (UK) - Radical Party (France) - Radical Party of the Left (France) - Danish Social Liberal Party (lit. The Radical Left) - compare Progressivism - anonymous (c. 1870). Radicalism : a letter to a West Kent elector. Tonbridge. - Davidson, John Morrison (1880). Eminent English liberals in and out of Parliament. Boston: James R. Osgood. - Hloušek, Vít; Kopeček, Lubomír (2010), Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared, Ashgate, p. 108 - See for more information the section on Liberale und radikale Parteien in Klaus von Beyme: Parteien in westlichen Demokratien, München, 1982 - Compare page 255 and further in the Guide to the Political Parties of South America (Pelican Books, 1973) - Internacional Liberal|Movimento Liberal Social – Liberalismo em Portugal, Social Liberal Movement official website - Internationale Libérale, Europe Politique | europe-politique.eu - See page 1 and further of A sense of liberty, by Julie Smith, published by the Liberal International in 1997. - British History Online — London Radicalism - Kramnick, "English middle-class radicalism in the eighteenth century" - London Chartism - Public & Republic — The New English Radicals - Radical Reformers - Reformers – William Cobbett - Scotland Guide – Thomas Muir (and the 1820 Radical War: extracts from Steel's Scotland's Story). - The Transatlantic 1790s: Project: Loyalists — Radical Activities - USA: Readers Companion to American History – Radicalism - WWW-VL: History: US Radicalism

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From Caregiver Connections Receiving an Alzheimer's diagnosis can be devastating and leaves you with more questions than answers. You are probably wondering about Alzheimer's care, treatments, and what the future holds. There are so many things you need to know, it is difficult to figure out where to start. As they say, knowledge is power. Although you can't change the diagnosis, understanding the disease prepares you for Alzheimer's care. As mentioned above, Alzheimer's doesn't just affect memory. In addition to memory loss, this disease has an impact on thinking and behavior. It is also the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. The symptoms usually begin and develop slowly, getting worse as time goes on. Eventually, the disease progresses to the point that the symptoms start to have a detrimental effect on the person's ability to function in day to day life. At this point, Alzheimer's care becomes essential to the person's well-being. It is important to realize that Alzheimer's is not just a normal part of growing older, it is a progressive neurological disease. In 1906, Dr. Alois Alzheimer realized something was strange about the brain matter of a woman who had died of a mysterious unknown mental illness. In the later stages of her life, the woman had experienced memory loss, developed language problems, and was prone to unpredictable behavior. After her death, Dr. Alzheimer examined her brain and what he found had never been recorded before. The woman's brain was filled with the trademark clumps and tangles of fibers that are the hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease affects mostly older people. In fact, getting older is the number one risk factor for this disease. Most of the people who have been diagnosed with this disease and find themselves needing Alzheimer's care are over the age of 65. However, senior status is not a requirement for Alzheimer's. Early-onset Alzheimer's is the term for when this disease occurs in someone under the age of 65. Both men and women can develop Alzheimer's. It is also found in all races, although it seems that some minorities are particularly susceptible to this disease. Researchers believe Alzheimer's is more common in some minorities, particularly Latinos and African-Americans than it is in Caucasians. This is because these demographics also have higher rates of other diseases that are risk factors, such as heart disease. The difference between Alzheimer's and Dementia is simple: Alzheimer's is a type of dementia. Dementia is a general term that refers to memory loss in addition to deficits in thinking, reasoning and overall cognitive functioning. Dementia is simply a group of symptoms. Many different disease processes cause dementia, and Alzheimer's is just one of them. However, Alzheimer's is the most common form of dementia, as this disease accounts for a whopping 60 to 80 percent of all dementia cases. Unfortunately, there is no one test that can determine whether or not a patient has Alzheimer's. Instead, it is what we call a diagnosis of exclusion. The doctor will start by taking a complete medical history and performing a thorough physical examination. Blood tests will likely be ordered to rule out other causes of dementia, such as infections, diabetes, kidney disease, heart disease, or liver disease. The doctor will also perform a neurological exam and may administer a mental assessment. The standard protocol for an Alzheimer's workup will also include either an MRI or CT scan of the brain. This will help doctors to rule out other causes of dementia such as a tumor or stroke. This is a disease that progresses gradually. For this reason, patients and those around them may not notice the symptoms when they first begin. However, if it is truly Alzheimer's, these symptoms will eventually interfere with the patient's daily life. Among the symptoms of this disease are the following: Difficulties with planning and problem-solving Trouble completing familiar tasks Confusion about time and/or place Difficulty comprehending visual imagery and spatial relationships Problems with speaking or writing Losing or misplacing things Withdrawing from activities Changes in personality and mood Alzheimer's patients can experience changes in their brains many years before the first symptoms of the disease become apparent. Researchers think that two proteins are at the center of the Alzheimer's mystery. Somehow, the proteins beta-amyloid and tau become toxic to the brain. The abnormal beta-amyloid forms plaques in the brain and the abnormal tau create tangles. As a result, the neurons (cells of the brain) lose the ability to communicate with one another. Neurons die, and the brain begins to atrophy (shrink). As the disease progresses, mental function declines. The tangles and plaques that form in the brains of these dementia patients are the hallmarks of this progressive disease and suggest that they will one day require Alzheimer's care. Tau is a protein that forms part of the microtubules, which are the structures responsible for transporting nutrients between nerve cells. However, in Alzheimer's disease, these microtubules break down and collapse. The abnormal proteins form neurofibrillary tangles. These twisted fibers that form inside the cells of the brain are insoluble. Beta-amyloid is a small protein fragment that has been broken or snipped off of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Usually, the body breaks these proteins down and eliminates them. But in Alzheimer's, this process goes awry. Instead of breaking down, the protein fragments form hard, insoluble plaques that accumulate between the cells of the brain. Long ago, Alzheimer's could only be discovered through an autopsy after the patient had passed away. Modern imaging methods, such as MRIs, are allowing doctors and researchers to track changes in the brains of Alzheimer's patients earlier than ever before. New research has discovered that changes can be seen in the entorhinal cortex very early in the course of the disease. The entorhinal cortex is located in the temporal lobe and is one of the brain's memory centers. Researchers also study brain atrophy as an indicator of probable cognitive decline and the onset of Alzheimer's disease. At this point, the tangles and plaques are not visible on imaging. This is the stage when most people are diagnosed with Alzheimer's. Although patients do not yet require full-time Alzheimer's care, this is when symptoms become apparent. The tangles and plaques begin to form and spread throughout the brain, affecting memory, planning, thinking, and speech. This stage of Alzheimer's can last for only two years or as long as ten years. Patients may have trouble recognizing their friends and family, and communication grows increasingly difficult. These cognitive changes lead to difficulties in both work and personal life, which is what usually prompts a visit to the doctor. Late stage Alzheimer's is marked by permanent damage to the outer layer of the brain which is responsible for memory, movement, and thinking among other functions. In severe Alzheimer's, the brain actually begins to shrink due to the widespread death of brain cells. This stage can last anywhere from one to five years, and because of the drastic deficits in functioning, Alzheimer's care is required. Scientists aren't yet 100 percent sure just what it is that causes Alzheimer's. The reigning theory is that this progressive neurological disease is caused by a combination of factors, including genetic predisposition, lifestyle choices, and environmental triggers. However, much more research is needed.Enter your text here... Age is the number one risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. The majority of people who are diagnosed with this disease are over the age of 65. In fact, the risk of Alzheimer's doubles every five years after the age of 65. However, advanced age doesn't mean that this disease is a guarantee. Likewise, it is possible to be diagnosed with this disease before reaching the age of 65, which is termed early-onset Alzheimer's. In the U.S., there are approximately 200,000 people in the United States alone living with early-onset Alzheimer's. Genetics, family history, lifestyle choices and other medical issues are all risk factors for developing Alzheimer's disease. The head-heart connection that has been found between vascular diseases and Alzheimer's is too obvious to ignore. Research has revealed that tangles and plaques are more likely to progress to symptoms of Alzheimer's if the patient has already suffered a stroke or any other type of damage to the blood vessels in the brain. Alzheimer's is believed to have a hereditary component as well. A family history of this disease is a significant risk factor. Alzheimer's genes include both risk genes and deterministic genes. Both early-onset and late-onset Alzheimer's are linked to genetics. Late-onset and Alzheimer's is connected to the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene on chromosome 19. However, the presence of the APOE protein does not guarantee that a person will one day develop the disease. It is only a risk factor. Many people who have this marker never get the disease while some people without the APOE gene do. Early-onset Alzheimer's has related to chromosome 21, chromosome 14, and chromosome one. Researchers know that the mutations of these chromosomes can influence the formation of amyloid plaques, but they do not yet fully understand the process. Other risk factors include head injuries and medical problems, such as heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, and diabetes. On the flip side, maintaining a good diet, avoiding cigarettes and alcohol, staying mentally active, and continual social engagement all help decrease the chances of developing Alzheimer's. There is no doubt about it, living with this disease is not easy. Not by any stretch of the imagination. But it is possible. People all over the world wake up and battle Alzheimer's every day. So can you. Now that you understand what Alzheimer's is, you next need to learn what Alzheimer's care involves in the real world. Patients with Alzheimer's require daily care. How much care they need depends on what stage of the disease they are in. As the disease progresses, the amount of care that is necessary will increase. Patients who are severely affected have to have round-the-clock care and need assistance with even the most basic of their day to day activities. Alzheimer's patients often need help completing their Activities of Daily Living (ADLs), which include the following: Personal hygiene such as grooming, bathing, and brushing teeth Cooking for oneself and Eating for themselves (feeding oneself) Maintaining continence (the ability to use the toilet and clean oneself) In addition to these basic needs, day to day Alzheimer's care will also include helping the patient with their Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). Most people with this disease find themselves needing assistance with their IADLs before their ADLs. IADLs are activities which are not vital to complete every day like ADLs. However, they make all the difference in independence. IADLs include the following: There are many coping strategies that make Alzheimer's care easier for both the caregiver and the patient. Because the nature of this disease is progressive, the needs of people with Alzheimer's evolve. However, here are eight tips for coping with dementia that apply to all levels of disease activity: Set goals that are realistic Expect that misinterpretations will occur Remember that all behavior has a purpose behind it Enjoy the good times as they come Take time to remember the past Maintain your flexibility Modify the environment as necessary During these early days after diagnosis, both the patient and the caregiver must begin adjusting to their new roles. While the person with mild Alzheimer's may be able to bathe, dress, and perform other ADL's, they may start to need help with IADLs, such as managing their finances. As the disease changes from mild to moderate, it can be helpful to establish a daily routine. Over time, Alzheimer's care may have to include more hands-on care. Tasks such as helping the person to keep appointments and remember to take medications become important. They may also need help with remembering people, places and even just words in general. As moderate Alzheimer's progresses, patients will need more and more help with their ADLs. Safety should be a priority at this stage. For example, they may require help preparing meals to prevent risk of a fire or other injury. Focusing on the person's strengths rather than their weaknesses can help promote a sense of independence even in the face of cognitive decline. Patients with late-stage Alzheimer's suffer from more severe symptoms as a result of how far their disease has progressed. Advanced states of dementia require 24-hour care. This sometimes means that outside help will have to become part of the Alzheimer's care plan. Not only do these people need help with the basic necessities of day to day life, but they also require near-constant supervision to keep them safe. This can be a strain on caregivers. It is important that when providing care for others, you also make time for self-care. Keeping a journal, taking time away to recharge, and even seeking the counsel of a professional therapist can all help caregivers manage the stress they face daily. As you can see, a huge part of Alzheimer's care revolves around making sure the person's basic needs are met. These basic needs include things like making sure the person eats nutritious meals and maintains their personal hygiene. Another huge part of this is keeping track of medical needs, such as appointments and medications. However, Alzheimer's care should also include making time for activities that bring joy to the person's life. Social interaction is also an important aspect of living well with this progressive neurological disease. Staying mentally active and socially engaged helps stave off cognitive decline for as long as possible. The behavioral changes that come along with the brain damage experienced in Alzheimer's are an important aspect of this disease to address. Understanding what kind of troubling behaviors are common in dementia patients will help you prepare to deal with these behaviors when you are faced with them. Patients with Alzheimer's sometimes get angry and can even become verbally or physically aggressive. There are a variety of reasons for this. Communication difficulties and misinterpreting cues can trigger an angry outburst. Anticipating these misunderstandings and learning to diffuse them can go a long way. Environmental triggers can prompt angry outbursts as well. Places that are crowded, unfamiliar, or particularly loud can all overstimulate dementia patients. Physical discomfort can also be part of the equation. Is the person in pain? could they be hungry or thirsty? Are they too hot or too cold? Have they had enough rest? Is there any chance this could be a side-effect of one of their medications? Anger and aggressive behavior can be a clue that something more is going on. Caregivers can diffuse the situation if they respond to anger appropriately. Identify the cause, if possible Rule out pain or discomfort Focus on feelings rather than facts Stay calm and speak softly Shift focus to something else Take a break if you need to It is very common for Alzheimer's patients to suffer from depression. As many as 40 percent of people with Alzheimer's disease are clinically depressed. Because many of the symptoms of depression are similar to those of Alzheimer's, it can be difficult to identify in patients with dementia. These overlapping symptoms can include apathy, loss of interest in activities, social withdrawal, isolation, difficulty concentrating and trouble with thinking. However, in patients with Alzheimer's, symptoms of depression are often less severe than in the normal population. These symptoms also tend to come and go. Because dementia causes difficulty with communication, these people may have a harder time expressing their feelings than most. The good news is that medication can be extremely effective in treating depression, even in patients with Alzheimer's disease. People with this disease often experience anxiety and agitation which leads to restlessness. Often, changes in routine can trigger anxiety. Examples of changes that can cause agitation in Alzheimer's patients include a change in setting, such as moving into a care facility, or a change in caregivers. Even mundane changes, like the presence of house guests, can make a person with Alzheimer's disease anxious. Try the following tips to manage anxiety and agitation. Maintain a calm and soothing environment Avoid known triggers Make sure the person is comfortable physically Keep tasks and routines simple Give plenty of opportunities for physical and mental exercise The memory loss and confusion that accompany Alzheimer's are likely the most well-known symptoms of this disease. Sticking to a routine can help minimize these symptoms, but memory loss and the confusion that it causes are frustrating for both the person with dementia and those providing Alzheimer's care. The confusion that comes from memory loss can trigger anxiety and anger. To manage these symptoms, try the following techniques. Keep calm and remain grounded Give explanations that are short and sweet Provide the person with pictures and other reminders If the person is "stuck" in a different time, go there with them Offer gentle suggestions rather than harsh corrections Don't take things personally It is common for people with Alzheimer's to become suspicious and have delusions. Examples include believing that their food is being poisoned or their belongings are being stolen. It is important to note that hallucinations and delusions are not the same things. Delusions refer to beliefs, thoughts, they are merely false perceptions. However, hallucinations are more sensory in nature than delusions. A person who is hallucinating will see or hear things that aren't there. Hallucinations may also involve tasting, smelling, or even feeling things that aren't real. Whether the person receiving Alzheimer's care is suffering from suspicions, delusions, or full-on hallucinations, the following advice on how to respond is useful. Don't be personally offended Realize that arguing won't be effective Give simple answers Shift focus to another activity Keep multiples of frequently lost items Cognitive function isn't the only thing that changes as Alzheimer's disease progresses. People with this disease may experience changes in their sleep patterns as well. Some people begin to have difficulty falling or staying asleep. Others find that their sleep schedule changes as disease advances and daytime naps may become more regular. However, don't assume that changes in sleep are necessarily just another symptom of Alzheimer's. Other causes of sleep disturbances can include depression, restless leg syndrome, and sleep apnea. If Alzheimer's is the cause, there are both medications and non-drug treatments that are helpful. Unfortunately, medications don't tend to be as effective in older people and come with risks, so make sure you discuss all your options with your doctor before beginning treatment. A specific feature of Alzheimer's is "sundowning." People with this disease tend to have more behavioral changes in the evening and through the night, which is referred to as sundowning. Researchers aren't exactly sure why this phenomenon occurs. It may be the fatigue of the day that causes Alzheimer's patients to have more problems in the later hours. Some scientists theorize that the lack of light and increasing shadows cause confusion to worsen at night. Others believe that patients are reacting to the exhaustion experienced by caregivers at the end of the day. Still, others think the disorientation dementia patients experience at night is due to an inability to separate dreams from reality while sleeping. To minimize the symptoms of sundowning, keep the home well lit at night and make sure the environment is as comfortable as possible. Avoiding stimulants like caffeine and maintaining a routine is also helpful. Some medications used to treat Alzheimer's focus on slowing down the progression of the disease. Cholinesterase inhibitors are used to delay cognitive decline in people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's. This class of drugs includes Razadyne (galantamine), Exelon (rivastigmine), and Aricept (donepezil). These medications stop a brain chemical called acetylcholine from breaking down. The body produces this chemical in smaller quantities as the disease progresses, which means these drug eventually become ineffective. A drug called Namenda (memantine), an N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist, is used in the treatment of severe Alzheimer's disease. This medicine is thought to reduce symptoms by regulating glutamate, another important brain chemical. This drug can also be used in combination with other drugs used to treat less severe forms of the disease, such as Aricept or Exelon. Other medications can be used to treat symptoms of Alzheimer's even though they don't have a direct impact on the course of the disease. Anti-depressants, anti-convulsants, anti-psychotics and sleep aids can all help make the symptoms of this disease more manageable. The late stages of Alzheimer's can last from a few months to a few years. There is no way to know how long this stage will last with any certainty. Without a doubt, this is the most taxing stage of Alzheimer's care for the caregiver. People in the end stages of this disease need constant round the clock care. These patients will need assistance with just about everything, including feeding themselves and using the bathroom. Expect that in the late-stages of Alzheimer's, patients will require help with all of their IADLs and ADLs. In many cases, there is more to Alzheimer's care in the late stages of the disease than most people are able to handle on their own. It may become necessary to move the patient to a facility that can provide 24-hour inpatient care, such as a nursing home. Another option is to hire aides to help with caregiving in the home. If you do try to tackle late-stage Alzheimer's care on your own, you should at least set up respite care so that you can get a break from time to time so that you can focus on self-care. Although Alzheimer's is a devastating disease and being a caregiver is overwhelming at first, rest assured that you can do this. There are many resources that can help you succeed and make sure that the needs of your loved one are met. Don't be afraid to reach out and ask for help when you need it. Your doctor is a valuable source of information. There are also community-based organizations that can connect you with services. Another option to consider is a support group for caregivers that allows you to interact with other people who are going through the same experiences as you. No comments on this item Please log in to comment by clicking here

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Skin cancer, though easy to fully treat early on, is one of the most complex and serious conditions treated by dermatologists. Skin cancer affects 20% of Americans and is an extremely common form of cancer, so knowing the proper protocol and prevention could save your life! This article will be spread out across three main sections, risk factors and preventative measures, prevention and detection, and treatment options. Understanding our skin The skin is the body’s largest organ, protecting against natural exposures and injury, controlling body temperature, storing important molecules, and more. The skin has two main layers, the epidermis (upper or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer.) Mutations of DNA skin cells cause them to grow and form a mass of cancer cells beginning in the epidermis, which is the thin, protective top layer of the skin. These cells can start as pre-cancerous but evolve into cancerous ones over time. Risk factors and preventative measures What is the biggest and most common risk factor for skin cancer? Can you manage your risk of skin cancer? Manageable and controllable factors come down to exposure to sunlight and UV rays. The biggest hammering UV agents are tanning beds, sunlamps, and natural sun exposure. UV damage accumulates over your lifetime and doesn’t just occur under direct and intense sunlight. UVA and UVB rays can both damage your skin and possibly lead to and expedite skin cancer, so it’s important to apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen frequently. Can skin cancer develop without skin exposure? Can you get skin cancer without sun exposure? There are risk factors that put certain individuals at higher risk of skin cancer, independent of their sun exposure. Some people have a genetic predisposition to certain types of skin cancers as well. One set of risk factors would be lighter hair, eyes, and skin. This is because less melanin is present to protect them from the sun. There are broad genetic risk factors that can’t be controlled, such as age, family history of skin cancer, or the aforementioned pigmentation. Exposure to certain toxic substances can increase your risk of developing skin cancer, such as arsenic, tar, paraffin, solvents, and vinyl chloride. Exposure to toxic substances or immune-weakening conditions can also contribute to the risk of skin cancer. Lastly, smoking can also increase the risk of cancers by damaging the skin. Can you get skin cancer from radiation treatments? Prevalence of moles, some skin conditions (eczema, psoriasis, and others), and immunocompromising diseases like HPV/AIDS, leukemia, and radiation exposure increase the likelihood of developing skin cancer. Do chemical peels prevent or cause skin cancer? Chemical peels are used to treat aesthetic and medical skin conditions. However, these treatments can also cause UV sensitivity, which is why clinicians will recommend being extra cautious and avoid the sun before and after treatments. Although it’s said that getting chemical peels regularly can actually prevent skin cancer, it’s also important to be safe about how it’s being done, as well as how you prepare before and after the treatment. Professional chemical peels have been shown to effectively treat precancerous conditions like actinic keratosis, by removing dangerous or damaged cells which lowers the risk of them turning malignant. These clinical usages of chemical peeling to prevent skin cancer make the conclusion complicated. Certain chemicals in peels, like TCA (trichloracetic acid), were found by studies to be linked to cancers in animals. There is a possible link between chemical peeling and skin cancer but has not been proven in any human studies. Do laser treatments or IPL treatments cause skin cancer? Other types of cosmetic treatments involving artificial lights like laser treatments (IPL) also are not shown to cause cancer. There has been no medical evidence for this linkage. The important caveat is that these types of focused treatments can make your skin more vulnerable to UV exposure, and will normally require avoiding sunlight before and after treatments. Receiving incorrect treatment using lasers by inexperienced or non-qualified operators can remove or hide undiagnosed symptoms of melanoma or other skin cancers. This leads to these cancers remaining undetected until treatment is too late. Make sure to go to a verified clinic with trained professionals for these types of treatments, and be cautious of buying these machines on your own. Do other types of lights cause skin cancer? Fluorescent or normal household lights that don’t create UV rays will not cause skin cancer. Tanning beds, tanning lights, and indoor sun lamps are the only types of artificial light that create a direct risk for skin cancer. Can you eat certain foods to prevent skin cancer? Food is an important energy source for your body. The naturally occurring nutrients in food can have a synergistic effect, which is why consuming an array of healthy, diverse foods creates more internal benefits, heals inflammation, and boosts your immunity. Nutritional factors can actually reduce your risk for skin cancer. Eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables that boost your general health can over the long term reduce the risk. These types of foods have plant-based chemicals called phytochemicals, and these antioxidants can reduce the risk of developing skin cancer. This article on how certain whole foods can prevent skin cancer covers the different types of antioxidants found in common foods and supplements that can help bolster your defenses. Are there certain vitamins that prevent skin cancer? High doses of individual vitamin supplements might not work the same way and could potentially be toxic. However, certain vitamins are important when relating to the skin. Having an antioxidant-rich diet can help prevent skin cancer and is recommended by many dermatologists. Vitamin C, E, and A, zinc, selenium, beta carotene (carotenoids), omega-3 fatty acids, lycopene, and polyphenols. Vitamin A is essential for healthy skin cells, so eating a vitamin A diet can bolster your skin against natural risks. Instead of getting vitamin D from direct sunlight exposure, you can intake vitamin D from your diet. You can eat vitamin-fortified foods like milk and certain products, or vitamin D supplements. Nicotinamide is a form of over-the-counter vitamin B3 that could potentially prevent skin cancers. Nicotinamide, NSAIDs, polypodium leukotomos, and alcohol reduction are shown to potentially prevent skin cancers. Is cannabis a viable treatment for skin cancer? Cannabidiol (CBD) has had a recent buzz in the lifestyle and general wellness sphere. It’s shown to be effective in easing numerous medical conditions, and even cancers. A good amount of research has been done on this topic and has shown that CBD oil used in conjunction with other treatment methods can help reduce tumor growth at a high speed. You can read more highlights on recent research highlights on CBD oil and skin cancer in this article. Prevention and Detection How sun protection and sunscreen application prevents skin cancer Skin cancer develops on skin that is exposed to sunlight. Most skin cancer is avoidable, and thus it is important to emphasize protection by proper use of sunscreen application and coverage. You can reduce your risk of skin cancer by limiting exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV exposure comes from being in the sun without sunscreen, or tanning beds. Peeling sunburns puts you at a big risk for skin cancer. Swimsuits actually used to cover the torso, and melanoma increased significantly once the popular bikini style was adopted. To protect your skin from absorbing natural UV radiation, wearing protective clothing, reapplying sunscreen, and avoiding the sun during the strongest peak hours can all help. How do you check for early signs of skin cancer? Let’s go over skin self-examination- one of the best ways you can monitor your skincare and get the proper assessment if noticing any unusual or concerning symptoms. Checking your skin often is the best way to detect potentially threatening signs. Look for alterations in the appearance of the surface of your skin. It’s a good idea to examine your skin often for new changes in any existing moles, freckles, bumps, and birthmarks. Getting into the habit of regularly looking at your skin will help inform you of what is normal on your skin. Moles, birthmarks, or freckles on your body that don’t change or shift over the years are not a cause for concern, but if they do begin to change in size, texture, or color- it is a good indicator to get a professional to check it out. How often should you check for skin cancer? Performing regular self-examinations of the skin are recommended. For those who have a family history of melanoma, or personal skin cancer history, the skin should be checked regularly. It’s a good idea to check once a month for any potential skin cancers. There is no formal or official guideline, but monthly is the frequency that most doctors will recommend. You can speak to your dermatologist for a personalized evaluation of how often you should be checking your skin, which can depend on your own general health, risk factors, and family history. Early detection gives you the greatest chance for successful skin cancer treatment. The treatment will work better earlier own, as it reduces the risk of cancerous cells spreading to other tissues and organs. How do you perform a self-check for skin cancer? Look at all areas of your body as you stand in front of the mirror. Areas to look for when self-checking are the face, neck, chest, arms and hands, and legs. Skin cancer can form on any area of the body, but these are common areas. Use a hand mirror to see spots that are harder to see, like your lower back or behind your neck. You can use a full-length mirror as well as side mirrors for difficult-to-reach parts. You can also have a spouse, partner, or close one help you with these screening exams, especially for parts like your back or behind your neck. Become familiar with any existing skin patterns, blemishes, and birthmarks so that you can look out for changes or mutations in the future, as well as to help you recognize any new occurrences. If you are unsure of changes, taking photos of the spot can help you see if there are any unusual changes over time. Note any uncomfortable sensations as well, such as pain, itching, or bleeding. If there are scars that don’t heal in a few months or flat patches of scaly skin that doesn’t go away, you should make an appointment with your doctor. If you detect any uncommon changes, it’s a good idea to have it checked out by your doctor or at urgent care. What is the ABCDE rule? The ABCDE rule is also a handy mnemonic to look for signs of melanoma or skin cancer. ABCDE stands for asymmetry, border, color, diameter, and evolving features. Asymmetry issues to look out for are when there is a lack of symmetry, where one side of a mole looks different from the other and isn’t round. Signs for border issues are when the border is irregular, ragged, or blurred instead of smooth. Look out for unusual or irregular colors in your moles, spots, or lesions. Diameter is when the size of the spot begins to change. If moles become larger than one-quarter inch in diameter, they might be cancerous. Lastly, signs of evolution to look out for are changes in the appearance of spots on your body over weeks or months. Generally, spots on your body that stand out from others are most suspicious. Regular checks and any relevant treatment for detected skin cancers is extremely critical. If areas of your skin look irregular or suspicious, you should seek an urgent skin check. Contact CityHealth to book your appointment for your next targeted skin check, and additional treatments can be suggested from there. Should I schedule professional skin examinations? If you’ve never had a full-body skin check before by a professional, it’s a good idea to do one as soon as possible. There is no set age for when this should happen, but your dermatologist will be able to do a full baseline check, and then recommend how often you should be self-examining, as well as when you should return. It’s a good idea to do professional, full-body skin examinations every year following your first initial screening. If you have a history of skin cancer, or any concerning blemishes that need to be monitored, the frequency of in-office meetings might increase. These examinations are usually brief. You can come to these prepared with notes. Early detection is key to a lower cost and high effectiveness treatment, with the highest chances of a cure and full recovery. Make sure to schedule an appointment for a full check-up if there are any concerns! Does skin cancer ever look like ingrown hair? Skin cancer might look like ingrown hair. However, skin cancer won’t grow from ingrown hair, even if they look similar. There are some differentiators between the occurrence of ingrown hair and skin cancer lesions. If the area begins to grow, change color or look more infected, or have a sensation of pressure under the skin, that could be a sign of cancer. If you are concerned and unsure how to identify it, scheduling a check-up is always a good idea. Skin Cancer Awareness and Treatment What happens if you get skin cancer? If you’ve detected or been diagnosed with skin cancer, there are plenty of treatment options. The most important is to follow up with your doctor and dermatologist and follow their treatment schedule and recommendations. Treated early, your doctor or dermatologist can treat it with high odds of eliminating it completely, alongside minimal scaring. Sometimes, skin cancers can be detected and treated at the precancerous stage before it’s penetrated the underlying levels of the skin. Timely check-ups and screenings could be life-saving! Is skin cancer a critical illness? How is it treated? Staging is used to find out if cancer has spread within the skin or to other body parts, and it will determine the stage of the disease. Knowing the stage helps to plan treatment. Depending on the progress identified during the staging period, tests and procedures will be employed. The prognosis of skin cancer will depend on the stage of cancer, the patient’s general health, and whether the patient is immunosuppressed. The concurrent treatments will depend on the type of cancer, the stage of cancer, the tumor size and body part presence, and the general health of the patient. Common treatment methods and tools are a CT scan, a chest x-ray, a PET scan, an ultrasound exam, an eye exam with dilated pupil, or a lymph node biopsy. How does skin cancer spread? Cancer can spread by beginning through tissue and growing into nearby areas, entering the lymph system, traveling through lymph vessels to other parts of the body, and then traveling through blood vessels to other parts of the body. Metastasis happens when cancer spreads to another part of the body. The cancerous cells leave the primary origin point and begin to travel through lymph or blood vessels. If skin cancer cells spread to other parts of the body, they continue to be the original form of cancer and don’t mutate into other forms of cancer (e.g., breast, lung, or other forms of cancer.) What happens if you ignore skin cancer? The progress of skin cancer depends on the type of cancer it is. Some forms of skin cancer can grow rapidly if metastasized and not treated early. As skin cancer progresses and metastasizes into other stages, it can begin to cause bone or tissue damage. It can spread to distant organs such as the brain, lungs, or liver. What happens if skin cancer goes untreated? The more advanced a cancer is, the more intensive the treatment required, and the worse the outlook for treatment. Some forms of skin cancer typically are not life-threatening, but there can be serious health risks associated with all forms. What are the main types of skin cancer? Basal Cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma are the main types of skin cancer. Basal Cell Carcinoma Basal cell carcinoma rarely spreads to other parts of the body. It progresses slowly and can be locally destructive. This is where skin cancer is often formed and is a common type of skin cancer. Look out for flat, flesh-colored, or brown lesions that look like a scar. Another indication of basal cell carcinoma is bleeding sores that heal as scabs but re-occur. Squamous Cell Carcinoma Though also slow-growing and at low risk to metastasize, squamous cell carcinoma can eventually spread to other parts of the skin. These also have the potential to arise suddenly and grow rapidly. They will frequently show up as a hard, red spot or a flat lesion with a scaly surface. Melanoma is less common than basal and squamous cell cancers but makes up the majority of skin cancer deaths. Melanoma advances quickly and can form and spread to any area of the body. Melanoma occurs in people with dark skin tones, and it’s more likely to appear in areas that aren’t necessarily exposed to the sun. When looking for melanoma, check for large brown speckled spots, a mole that changes in texture and/or bleeds, lesions with irregular borders that appear red, pink, white, blue, or blue-black, a painful lesion that burns or is itchy, or dark lesions on your palms, soles, fingertips or toes. In general, when looking for early signs of skin cancer, follow the ABCDE rule of screening and keep an eye out for changing spots, itching and/or bleeding from spots, and new spots appearing on your skin. You can learn more about each type of skin cancer and specific signs to look out for in this article by the American Academy of Dermatology Association. What happens if you ignore melanoma? Melanoma is not the most common type of skin cancer, but it spreads so can often be more serious and difficult to treat. The ACS calculated that the likelihood of a 5-year relative survival rate for people with melanoma compared to a person without cancer. The 5-year relative survival rate is 98% for melanoma patients who seek treatment before it spreads. If it spreads to deeper tissues or nearby lymph nodes, the rate drops to 64%. If it reaches distant organs or tissues, the 5-year relative survival rate reduces to 23%. Melanoma can become deadly if untreated for too long or spreading to deeper areas of the skin or body. The rates of deaths from deadly skin cancers have declined in recent years, because of increased detection and more rapid treatment. What’s the recommended clinical procedure for skin cancer? If you are concerned about an early sign of skin cancer, schedule a visit with your dermatologist. It’s often most preferable to see a dermatologist directly, and most skin cancer issues will eventually be referred to a dermatologist. If you don’t currently have a dermatologist, schedule a visit with your primary doctor or urgent care center. While most early phases of skin cancer are relatively benign and can be handled by a visit to your primary doctor or dermatologist, some symptoms can be red flags that an appointment should be scheduled right away. An expedited appointment can be requested for these cases. Can I go to the Emergency Room (ER) for skin cancer? Skin cancer is typically not a condition that requires ER treatment. It can be checked out by your primary doctor, or urgent care but does not require ER visitation. Emergency room visits are commonly triggered over serious skin infections, but typically an urgent care center can also diagnose and properly treat these immediate issues. Although some emergency room clinicians may point out previously undetected skin issues that could be a cause of concern, it’s not something that’s commonly treated. It can be more costly and delayed to get the proper definitive care for skin cancer. A low percentage of skin-related emergency treatments cases are actually classified as an emergency. If you are undergoing a process of skin cancer treatment, your physician might inform you of when it would be appropriate to seek emergency care. You can also ask them for this recommendation. What are the treatments for the late stages of skin cancer? Detection and treatment are extremely important when it comes to skin cancer and cannot be emphasized enough. If cancer spreads to the lymph nodes, a doctor may request a lymph node biopsy. Radiation therapy treatments may be recommended in later stages. Other treatments for extremely progressed stages of skin cancer would be chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. Hopefully, you’ve come to a comprehensive understanding of skin cancer, early prevention, detection, and treatment. Remember, all skin cancers are highly treatable if caught early. If you’re concerned about your skin, contact CityHealth to speak with a specialist today!

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Osteoporosis has emerged as a major public health concern during the past few decades as the population of older Americans has rapidly expanded. Each year, Americans experience more than 1.5 million fractures due to osteoporosis, resulting in more than 500,000 hospitalizations with a direct cost of more than 20 billion dollars.1 Enormous strides have been made in treating osteoporosis with medication classes such as the bisphosphonates, synthetic estrogens, calcitonin, and, most recently, parathyroid hormone derivatives.2 Although these are excellent medications for treatment of osteoporosis, no current medications are approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the prevention of osteoporosis. For years, calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and exercise have been the mainstays of preventive therapy, but studies have indicated only marginal improvement in slowing of bone loss.3<8 Recent laboratory experiments have examined the possible role of plant-derived compounds known as phytochemicals in bone remodeling. Conceptually, the idea is that certain phytochemicals increase the rate of bone deposition by osteoblasts and decrease the rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts. Perhaps the most impressive of these experiments demonstrated that rats fed a diet high in onions experienced a 17.4% increase in bone mineralization for 4 weeks relative to a control group.9,10 At least three compounds that may be responsible for increasing bone density have been isolated from onions. The first compound is known as F-L-glutamyl-trans-S-1-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide.11 It is believed to work by inhibiting the osteoclasts that normally break down bone.12 Specifically, F-L-glutamyltrans-S-1-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide seems to inhibit osteoclastogensis via attenuation of osteoclast-differentiating factor. The other two compounds that may be responsible for increasing bone density are the flavonoids quercetin and kaempferol. Several experiments performed using human cell cultures have demonstrated that these compounds cause premature apoptosis, or programmed cell death in mature osteoclasts.13 Other experiments using similar methods have demonstrated that these compounds stimulate osteoblasts to increase bone deposition.14,15 Given the results of the aforementioned studies, our study question was whether any evidence existed to suggest that onion consumption may increase bone density in vivo in humans. Ecological evidence from the nation of Turkey provides support for this hypothesis. Turkey, which has the lowest osteoporotic fracture rate in Europe, has the highest per capita consumption of onions in the world.16 To put this statement in perspective, from 1994 to 1996, the average American consumed approximately 13.5 lb of onions annually versus 59 lb for the average Turk.17 At the age of 50 years, women in Turkey have a lifetime risk of 1% of developing a hip fracture, whereas in the United States, women have a lifetime risk of 15.8% of developing a hip fracture.18 Although the low fracture risk in Turkey is certainly interesting, it is important to note that many factors, such as exercise, genetics, and overall dietary habits, probably play a role in the low fracture rate, and to attribute too much to any one dietary variable (even onions) could be misleading. Furthermore, one must be careful to avoid inferences about the effect of onion consumption on any given individual based on statistics gathered at the population level. Based on both the animal model and ecological observation, our hypothesis is that frequent onion consumption is associated with increased bone density. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is an association between frequent onion consumption in perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white women and increased bone density. We performed an analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2004, which was conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics, a division of the Center for Disease Control and Prevention.19 We limited our analysis to perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white female participants who were 50 years or older because bone mineral density declines precipitously after age 50 years.20 We specifically chose white women because they have a higher hip fracture risk than African Americans, Hispanics, or Asian/Pacific Islanders.21 We decided to use Bnon-Hispanic[ white rather than white because race and Hispanic ethnicity are two different concepts measured by two different questions in the NHANES. Because race and ethnicity are two different concepts, Hispanics can be any race, and thus, we felt that it was important to distinguish non-Hispanic whites from Hispanic whites for this study. The NHANES 2003-2004 contains data for 507 perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white women 50 years and older, which corresponds to a population sample of 35.7 million. Data were collected between January 2003 and December 2004. The NHANES survey was designed to assess the health and nutritional status of the noninstitutionalized civilian population of the United States with direct physical examinations and interviews, using a complex multistage, stratified, clustered sampling design. Interviewers obtained information on personal and demographic characteristics by self-reporting or as reported by an informant. A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was added to the NHANES 2003-2004 study which differed from previous NHANES studies. The FFQ was used to collect information on the frequency of food consumption in the previous 12 months. One of the questions on the FFQ involved the frequency of onion consumption. Specifically, the study participants were asked, "How often did you eat onions?" The participants were then given a choice of several answers which included "never, 1-6 times per year, 7-11 times per year, 1 time per month, 2-3 times per month, 1 time per week, 2 times per week, 3-4 times per week, 5-6 times per week, 1 time per day and 2 or more times per day. For the purposes of our analysis, we divided the cohort into four groups. The groups were divided depending on how frequently they consumed onions as follows: less than or equal to once a month, twice a month to twice a week, three to six times a week, and once a day or more. Whole-body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans were administered in the NHANES mobile examination center. Reasons for exclusion from the DXA examination were as follows: (1) pregnancy (positive urine pregnancy test and/or self-report at the time of the DXA examination) (pregnant women were excluded from the NHANES due to concern about the effect of ionizing radiation on the fetus); (2) self-reported history of radiographic contrast material (barium) use in the past 7 days; (3) self-reported nuclear medicine studies in the past 3 days; and (4) self-reported weight more than 300 lb or height more than 6 ft 5 inches. The DXA scans provided the bone density of a number of bones as well as a summary measure of total bone density. Each bone density measurement was repeated five times, and an average was taken. For the purposes of the current analysis, we used measurements of bone mineral density reported in grams per centimeter squared rather than t- or z-scores. Several control variables have been identified as risk factors for osteoporosis and thus may be potential cofounders of any relationship between onion consumption and bone density. These variables include age, smoking status, calcium intake, vitamin D level, parathyroid hormone level, exercise intensity, estrogen use, and body mass index.22,23 Smoking status was defined as current smoker or current nonsmoker. Calcium intake was determined using a food diary in milligrams of calcium consumption per day. Vitamin D and parathyroid hormone levels were assessed by measuring serum levels. Exercise intensity was determined by self-report as none, moderate, or vigorous. Estrogen use was determined by self-report; participants were classified as either current users or nonusers. Body mass index was assessed in a physical examination and was classified as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Because of the complex survey design of the NHANES, the statistical program SUDAAN (Statistical Software Center, Research Triangle Park, NC) was used to perform all analyses. The complex survey design and weighting allowed us to make nationally representative estimates of the noninstitutionalized population of the United States. To determine whether there was an association between onion consumption and bone density, an adjusted and unadjusted mean bone density was determined for the total body, lumbar spine, and total leg for each of the onion consumption groups. An analysis of variance was performed for the unadjusted means that compared each of the four onion consumption groups with the group that consumed onions once a month or less. A linear regression was used to find an adjusted mean bone density (in g/cm2) between the onion consumption groups, controlling for age, smoking status, vitamin D level, parathyroid hormone level, calcium intake, exercise level, estrogen use, and body mass index. Our cohort consisted of an unweighted sample of 507 perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white women 50 years and older (35.7 million weighted). The adjusted total body bone density measured in grams per centimeter squared of perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white women 50 years and older increased from 1.02 g/cm2 in the group that consumed onions once a month or less to 1.07 g/cm2 (P G 0.03) in the group that consumed onions once a day or more. The adjusted bone density of the lumbar spine increased from 0.94 g/cm2 in the group that consumed onions once a month or less to 0.99 g/cm2 (P G 0.01) in the group that consumed onions once a day or more. The adjusted bone density of the total leg increased from 1.05 g/cm2 in the group that consumed onions once a month or less to 1.10 (P G 0.01) in the group that consumed onions once a day or more. As suggested by previous studies, frequent onion consumption seems to be associated with an increased bone density. Although the increase in bone density was only 5%, we believe that the finding is clinically important. To provide some perspective about the potential clinical importance of these findings, it is instructive to examine two studies from the literature. The first is a large meta-analysis of postmenopausal women that compared hip fracture risk and bone density in smokers and nonsmokers.24 Although the data were based on a comparison of smokers and nonsmokers, the results have direct relevance to the interpretation of the present findings about onion consumption. At 60 years, a smoker’s bone density was, on average, 2% less than that of nonsmokers, and her risk of hip fracture was 17% greater than that of nonsmokers. At the age of 70 years, a smoker’s bone density was 4% less than that of nonsmokers, and her risk of hip fracture was 41% greater than that of nonsmokers. Such findings suggest that even a small difference in bone density has a tremendous effect on fracture risk. The second study that illustrates the significance of a 5% change in bone density comes from the Women’s Health Study. As part of the Women’s Health Initiative, more than 36,000 women between the ages of 50 and 79 years were given either calcium plus vitamin D or placebo for 7 years. At the end of the trial, the calcium plus vitamin D group had an overall bone mineral density that was 1% greater than that of the placebo group.7 After reflecting on these studies, we believe that the consumption of raw onion or onion extract may be a useful addition to other treatment modalities for the prevention of osteoporosis. Before recommending frequent onion consumption, however, one must consider potential toxicity that may be associated with such consumption. In vitro studies have found genotoxicity resulting from the compound quercetin, which is found in high concentration in onions.25 Although it is possible that onions have genotoxic effects, in vivo experiments using rodents have found no evidence of genotoxicity in doses of up to 2,000 mg/kg of quercetin.26 (Onions contain 2,600 mg/kg of quercetin).27 This study has several noteworthy limitations. Perhaps the most important is our inability to control for all the dietary variables that can contribute to osteoporosis. For example, it is possible that individuals that are frequent onion consumers are frequent consumers of other foods that may improve bone density. We believe, however, that our understanding of the mechanism through which onions increase bone density compensates for this shortfall. Another weakness of the study design is its reliance on dietary recall; however, the participants of the study did not know that we would be examining the relationship between onion consumption and bone density when they filled out the survey, which should limit recall bias. Finally, although a standard protocol was used to determine bone density in the NHANES, no specific information was available about the precision of the measurements or their validity. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine whether frequent onion consumption is associated with increased bone density in perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white women 50 years and older. Methods: An analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2004 was performed. Perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white female participants (unweighted N = 507; weighted N =35.7 million) were divided into those who consumed onions less than once a month, twice a month to twice a week, three to six times a week, and once a day or more based on self-reported dietary history. All study participants underwent total body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Results: After controlling for age, body mass index, daily calcium intake, serum vitamin D, serum parathyroid hormone, estrogen use, smoking status, and exercise status, bone density increased as the frequency of onion consumption increased. Individuals who consumed onions once a day or more had an overall bone density that was 5% greater than individuals who consumed onions once a month or less (P G 0.03). Conclusions: Onion consumption seems to have a beneficial effect on bone density in perimenopausal and postmenopausal non-Hispanic white women 50 years and older. Furthermore, older women who consume onions most frequently may decrease their risk of hip fracture by more than 20% versus those who never consume onions. In conclusion, frequent onion consumption seems to be associated with increased bone density and may be an area for future research. We believe that future research should focus special attention on the association between onion consumption and fracture risk in the hip and lumbar spine. 1. Burge R, Dawson-Hughes B, Solomon DH, Wong JB, King A, Tosteson A. Incidence and economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in the United States, 2005-2025. J Bone Miner Res 2007;22:465-475. 2. Poole KE, Compston JE. Osteoporosis and its management. BMJ 3. Lohman T, Going S, Pamenter R, et al. Effects of resistance training on regional and total bone mineral density in premenopausal women: a randomized prospective study. J Bone Miner Res 1995;10:1015-1024. 4. Kelly PJ, Pocock NA, Sambrook PN, Eisman JA. Dietary calcium, sex hormones, and bone mineral density in men. BMJ 1990;300:1361-1364. 5. Wickham CA, Walsh K, Cooper C, et al. Dietary calcium, physical activity, and risk of hip fracture: a prospective study. BMJ 1989;299: 6. Orwoll ES, Oviatt SK, McClung MR, Deftos LJ, Sexton G. The rate of bone mineral loss in normal men and the effects of calcium and cholecalciferol supplementation. Ann Intern Med 1990;112:29-34. 7. Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 2006;354: 8. Martyn-St James M, Carroll S. High-intensity resistance training and postmenopausal bone loss: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2006;17: 9. Muhlbauer RC, Li F. Effect of vegetables on bone metabolism. Nature 10. Muhlbauer RC, Lozano A, Reinli A. Onion and a mixture of vegetables, salads, and herbs affect bone resorption in the rat by a mechanism independent of their base excess. J Bone Miner Res 2002;17:1230-1236. 11. Wetli HA, Brenneisen R, Tschudi I, et al. A F-glutamyl peptide isolated from onion (Allium cepa L.) by bioassay-guided fractionation inhibits resorption activity of osteoclasts. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53: 12. Tang CH, Huang TH, Chang CS, Fu WM, Yang RS. Water solution of onion crude powder inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis through ERK, p38 and NF-JB pathways. Osteoporos Int 2009;20:93-103. 13. Wattel A, Kamel S, Prouillet C, et al. Flavonoid quercetin decreases osteoclastic differentiation induced by RANKL via a mechanism involving NF-JB and AP-1. J Cell Biochem 2004;92:285-295. 14. Miean KH, Mohamed S. Flavonoid (myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, and apigenin) content of edible tropical plants. J Agric Food 15. Prouillet C, Maziere JC, Maziere C, Wattel A, Brazier M, Kamel S. Stimulatory effect of naturally occurring flavonols quercetin and kaempferol on alkaline phosphatase activity in MG-63 human osteoblasts through ERK and estrogen receptor pathway. Biochem Pharmacol 16. Tuzun S, Akarirmak U, Uludag M, Tuzun F, Kullenberg R. Is BMD sufficient to explain different fracture rates in Sweden and Turkey? J Clin Densitom 2007;10:285-288. 17. Lucier G. Onions: the sweet smell of success. J Agric Outlook Econ Res 18. Kanis JA, Johnell O, De Laet C, Jonsson B, Oden A, Ogelsby AK. International variations in hip fracture probabilities: implications for risk assessment. J Bone Miner Res 2002;17:1237-1244. 19. Design and estimation for the National Health Interview Survey, 1995- 2004. Vital Health Stat 2 2000:1-31. 20. Riggs BL, Wahner HW, Dunn WL, Mazess RB, Offord KP, Melton LJ 3rd. Differential changes in bone mineral density of the appendicular and axial skeleton with aging: relationship to spinal osteoporosis. J Clin 21. Robbins J, Aragaki AK, Kooperberg C, et al. Factors associated with 5-year risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. JAMA 2007;298: 22. Kanis JA. Diagnosis of osteoporosis and assessment of fracture risk. 23. Orwoll ES, Weigel RM, Oviatt SK, McClung MR, Deftos LJ. Calcium and cholecalciferol: effects of small supplements in normal men. Am J Clin Nutr 1988;48:127-130. 24. Law MR, Hackshaw AK. A meta-analysis of cigarette smoking, bone mineral density and risk of hip fracture: recognition of a major effect. 25. Caria H, Chaveca A, Laires J, et al. Genotoxicity of quercetin in the micronucleus assay in mouse bone marrow erythrocytes, human lymphocytes, V79 cell line and identification of kinetochaorecontaining (crest staining) micronuclei in human lymphocytes. Mutat 26. Utesch D, Feige K, Dasenbrock J, et al. Evaluation of the potential in vivo toxicity of quercetin. Mutat Res 2008;654:38-44. 27. Wach A, Pyrzycska K, Biesaga M. Quercetin content in some food and herbal samples. Food Chem 2005;100:699-704. Menopause, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2009 759 Authors: By Eric M. Matheson, MD, Arch G. Mainous III, PhD, and Mark A. Carnemolla, BS ONION CONSUMPTION AND BONE DENSITY IN OLDER WOMEN received October 10, 2008; revised and accepted November 17, 2008. From the Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC. Funding/support: This work was supported by grant 5 D55HP05150 from the Health Resources and Services Administration. Financial disclosure/conflicts of interest: None reported. Address correspondence to: Eric M. Matheson, MD, Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, 295 Calhoun St., Charleston, SC 29425. E-mail: [email protected] 756 Menopause, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2009

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Sessions / Unvetted SIG Forum 85 Minutes For more information about SIGs, please visit this page: https://jalt.org/main/groups The goal of content-based instruction (CBI) is to teach the subject—not the language—with the goal of providing genuine topics that interest and motivate the student beyond what many sterile language textbooks achieve. Literature is a creative product aimed at stimulating interest, so as a CBI subject it perhaps has the greatest potential to engage EFL students. Literature ranges from six-word memoirs, to comic books, to lengthy novels: it's creativity knows no bounds. As literature is a creative product, so too are the methods for using literature in language education. This forum mimics the theme of the conference : (Re) Imagining Language Education. How do you use literature to engage your students? In this LiLT forum, we would like to address this topic. Presenters will share their experiences in how they use literature in their classroom. Integral to the forum's success is audience participation; questions and insights will be solicited and greatly appreciated. Non-members and LiLT members alike are encouraged to attend and enrich our friendly and inclusive forum. The pandemic introduced numerous challenges to our personal and professional lives as teachers. We may have felt an adrenaline rush in the early days as we had to rally all our personal and collective resources in transitioning to online teaching. But, as the pandemic dragged on, many of us felt the fatigue of having to pivot from F2F to hybrid to fully online teaching at the drop of a dime. The extra energy needed to help students cope with learning through different modes also drained our internal resources. This forum will focus on the strategies that teachers at various levels of education—from K12 to university and language schools and beyond—have replenished their stores of energy and enthusiasm. Though there are countless online resources such as Google Forms, Quizlet and Flipgrid, none of these are a viable commercial means for creating online textbooks or workbooks. Moreover, though materials writers may be adept at writing books, very few of them have the coding skills to turn their vision into an online reality. The Materials Writers SIG is delighted to have Paul Raine from the digital platform ZenGengo, Elton LaClare from Sojo University, and John Carle from The English Gym series, speak about creating digital materials. In this presentation, Paul Raine will talk about how individual writers and publishing companies can use a publisher’s version of the ZenGengo platform to create marketable online materials. Elton LaClare will relate the process of creating an online textbook for the Sojo International Learning Center at Sojo University. John Carle will outline how he created digital workbooks to supplement his textbooks. The speakers will also address in detail, how to bring these online resources to market. They will explain how students can purchase materials directly online or through university bookstores using scratch cards. This forum is meant for any educator, writer, or publisher who is interested in creating their own online textbooks or workbooks. There will be an open Q&A session at the end, so please be sure to attend if you are interested in this aspect of materials creation. Bilingualism SIG Forum #2691 The PanSIG conference has always been a chance for special interest groups to come together to focus more intently on their individual needs and goals. Throughout the past two years, participants at our PanSIG forum have shared their experiences about coping with the pandemic, as well as changes and shifts in their bi/multilingual and bi/multicultural stories. This year, as we are finally back together face-to-face, we’d like to invite as many families and interested people as possible, of all ages and backgrounds, to participate in a casual round-table discussion. We’ll provide a brief explanation of the round-table process, topics cards to prompt discussion, and a “talking stone” to facilitate turn-taking. We look forward to sharing stories about how our language learning journeys have been reimagined, as well as any new directions we have been heading. Please join us! This year's PanSIG CT SIG Forum will focus on critical thinking and concrete ideas you can take back to your classroom to integrate critical thinking into your curriculum. We will be hosting multiple presentations on this subject and hope that you can join us for an information-filled forum with critical thinking ideas for you and some lively discussion. Presenters will give examples of international online exchange using on-time and off-time methods. College or university students who study or learn a foreign language other than English, mainly on level A1-A2. The presentations will show what methods are used to keep students interested, curious and eager to interact and learn the language with their online partners in other countries. The presentations will be given in the original language while information in English or Japanese will be given either on the slides or in a verbal summary. Performance in Education refers to the use of activities such as roleplays, skits, process drama, readers theatre, speech, debate, oral presentations, dance, music, spoken word, rap, kamishibai, film, and podcasting in education. The Performance in Education SIG focuses on the use of these activities by teachers and students inside and outside of the classroom. The SIG Forum will feature lightning presentations (10-minute presentations) by a diverse lineup of presenters who will share their ideas and experience on the various facets of Performance in Education. In this Forum, three Pragmatics SIG members will take turns sharing how and why they became interested in the field and what specific areas they have worked on. They will then use their creative imagination to brainstorm where they hope the field of pragmatics—and in particular, our SIG--will go in the future. The panelists include Jim Ronald, who will speak about his constant efforts to develop and promote pragmatic activities for the second language classroom. Next, Yosuke Ogawa will talk about using an interdisciplinary approach and the synthesis of approaches, i.e., an examination of conversation analysis, discourse analysis and sociolinguistic research. Then, Benio Suzuki will share his practical work on requests and refusals, and his research on interactional competence. Noriko Ishihara, another expert and a well-known professor of pragmatics, will guide the overall discussion. The main goal is to share with the audience the wide range of topics where pragmatics is relevant and engage everyone in a discussion about future pragmatic directions. GALE SIG Forum #2648 This is the Forum of the gender awareness in language education (GALE) SIG. GALE’s mission is to research gender and its implications for language learning, teaching, and training; to improve pedagogical practices, develop language teaching material; to raise awareness of workplace and human rights issues related to gender for language professionals; and to increase networking opportunities among language professionals interested in teaching, researching, and/or discussing issues related to gender and language education. Forum speakers represent a wide range of research and perspectives on gender awareness in language education within the SIG and the organization of JALT as a whole. Presenters will engage in discussion of the importance of gender issues within the language teaching profession. EFL Games with CALL #2654 The CALL SIG Forum this year will be discussing the topics of games, play, and language learning with technology. Speakers in the forum will include: Brian Teaman, Hanaa Khamis, and Brian Gallagher All conference participants are welcome to join the forum and engage with the speakers. This forum will be closely linked to the JALTCALL 2022 Conference theme of Gameplay and Technology in Langauge Learning. JALTCALL 2022: PLAYFUL CALL Exploring the Intersection of Games and Technology in Language Education Taking inspiration from Zimmerman’s manifesto which proposed the 21st century is the “ludic century,” the focus of the 2022 conference is “Playful CALL” which we interpret as the exploration of play, games, and other ludic approaches to CALL research and practice. https://jaltcall2022.edzil.la/ The JALT CEFR & LP SIG is supporting teacher-researchers through a collaborative Kaken research project entitled “Language Education reform using action research: Putting CEFR’s educational principles into practice” since 2020. During the Forum, project participants will reflect on their research projects they conducted so far using the CEFR-focused Action Research Model (CARM) developed by the SIG. The SIG Forum will be an opportunity to discuss examples from researchers’ intermediate outcomes in relation to the CARM model (= AR / CEFR aspects) as good model case studies. Forum participants are encouraged to engage and reflect on their current practice and consider how the CEFR and CARM might be utilized in their own contexts. The Forum will conclude with a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the CARM model and the goals for the final year of the KAKEN project. The Forum is open to everyone interested in intending to conduct research in the field of foreign language teaching and learning especially using Action Research and/or the CEFR – CEFR CV as a tool. The Forum intends to foster sharing and peer-learning. The Listening SIG showcase will be divided into two parts. The first part will include a lively discussion on listening: Extensive Listening (EL) “vs” Extensive Reading (ER). Brett Milliner and Paul Goldberg will lead the discussion to share their own experiences, stories, and accounts of recent developments in the field of second language listening. The discussion will then open as a forum to invite contributions from attendees to discuss their own experiences and seek ideas to address listening difficulties when teaching. The second part will consist of a listening workshop. Todd Beuckens will present an interactive workshop to show how some free online tools can be used to make listening tasks. There will also be an opportunity to ask about resources and task ideas in the Q&A session. We will end with a brief presentation to outline our recent communication, events, and publication initiatives. There will also be an opportunity for members and potential members to give feedback and share ideas on what they would like to see from the Listening SIG. This forum will examine how new learning spaces can help learners grow beyond conventional education environments. Presenters will explore holistic and ecological perspectives on learners’ growth, taking into account multiple aspects of their experiences, their interactions with others, and different affordances in diverse learning environments and spaces. The forum will include both studies that shed new light on the impact of sociocultural and psychological factors on the development of learner autonomy, as well as practice-related accounts that explore learners’ practices in a range of learning spaces outside of conventional classroom settings. In the forum participants will have opportunities in pairs and small groups to discuss and reflect on different non-conventional environments, spaces, and processes that learners can access and/or use. The combination of these theoretical and practice-based perspectives will encourage us to think about learner development from fresh angles, not only under the current and post-pandemic situation, but also beyond, so that we can come away from the forum with fresh ideas for challenging conventions and opening up new spaces in learner development in our own learning, teaching, and research. Round One 11:50 to 12:20 Dominique Vola Ambinintsoa Razafindratsimba, Fanaperana Haingo Rajaonaritiana, Volatiana Olivia Rasoanindrina and Jenny Morgan Round Two 12:20 to 12:50 James Underwood, Gretchen Clark and Greg Rouault GILE SIG Forum #2894 This forum for the Global Issues in Language Education (SIG) will present the experiences of three global educators on how how they pursued cross-border classroom connections with university's overseas during the pandemic. Mahboubeh Rakhshandehroo, Olaf Fors, and Paul Horness will describe the collaborative online learning projects they engaged in with the aim of inspiring other educators. Participants looking to build cross-border connections and utilize technology more effectively for communication will want to join this session, which will be live streamed. This forum is a collaboration between the Teaching Young Learners (TYL) SIG and the Intercultural Communication in Language Education (ICLE) SIG. Its aim is to showcase how intercultural communication is approached in primary and secondary schools from a variety of perspectives. Some of our invited presenters will share their research based on descriptors from the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures (FREPA) as to what degree intercultural communicative competence is promoted in the new elementary school English textbooks. Presenters will also discuss the difficulties of teaching aspects of an L2 that are not a common feature in the L1 sociocultural environment, engaging ways in which a teacher can introduce their own country and culture to a class, how the School Lunches Project promoted the development of an investigative stance towards plurality, and how intercultural understanding is incorporated in pre-service teacher education. The TD and CUE SIG will hold their annual joint forum on the topic of Communities of Practice (CoPs). Such communities can be teachers, students, company workers, or otherwise, who form in organic or natural ways. The CoP members hold a common aim or concern for the activities they do and learn how to improve as they interact regularly within the group. Some participants may be more senior in age or experience than others, thus giving way to a learning experience and successful conclusion of their efforts for everyone. The forum speakers are university and professional educators with a specific background as a member or researcher ofCoPs. James Bury will inform us about the positive outcomes achieved as a result of encouraging colleagues at two separate workplaces to interact with research, question their own teaching practices, engage in their own practice-based investigations, and then share their findings with each other. Yoshifumi Fukada will explain how Japanese EFL/ESL learners actively engaged themselves in English-mediated socialization and grew as English users and as persons in a project-based English education program held in Japan and during studying abroad. Daniel Hooper will describe the shared goals, interpersonal relationships, and local repertoire of tools that emerged from a small reflective practice group for university teachers that met regularly to discuss critical incidents they experienced in their working lives and to explore their own professional identity. Barbara Hoskins Sakamoto will talk about the potential of informal online communities to improve teachers' professional and personal lives, sharing specific examples of the meaningful impact observed with teachers in a unique English for Teachers program, and the factors that made positive changes possible. This forum will examine how new learning spaces can help learners grow beyond conventional education environments. Presenters will explore holistic and ecological perspectives on learners’ growth, taking into account multiple aspects of their experiences, their interactions with others, and different affordances in diverse learning environments and spaces. The forum will include both studies that shed new light on the impact of sociocultural and psychological factors on the development of learner autonomy, as well as practice-related accounts that explore learners’ practices in a range of learning spaces outside of conventional classroom settings. In the forum participants will have opportunities in pairs and small groups to discuss and reflect on different non-conventional environments, spaces, and processes that learners can access and/or use. The combination of these theoretical and practice-based perspectives will encourage us to think about learner development from fresh angles, not only under the current and post-pandemic situation, but also beyond, so that we can come away from the forum with fresh ideas for challenging conventions and opening up new spaces in learner development in our own learning, teaching, and research. Round One 11:50 to 12:20 Phillip A. Bennett and Isra Wongsarnpigoon and Andrew Barfield Round Two 12:20-12:50 Yuri Imamura and Michael Kuziw As the pandemic forced us to move online, learner needs became more diverse and complicated in language education. Teachers’ resources and strategies increasingly face a growing need to reflect these changes. The Act for Eliminating Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities (2016) mandated the provision of equal educational opportunities for all learners, including those with special needs. However, according to JASSO (2020), the percentage of students with special needs in higher education slightly decreased last year. This raises the following questions: Does online teaching better accommodate learners with special needs? Did the online context level the playing field and make traditional differences and difficulties invisible for teachers in? Further research is needed to fully understand these changes. In light of this, the ALL SIG forum will focus on sharing ideas and relating experiences of all participants. This forum will showcase individual stories and experiences creating needs analysis framework for the purpose of assessing contexts and sharing strategies and resources. By creating a support network, educators can work together to address the diversity of needs reflected in today’s classroom. The goal is to raise awareness of diverse learner needs and develop inclusive strategies for language teachers and school administrators. ER SIG Forum #2646 The first part of this panel discussion is dedicated to a review of theories of fluency development, including ACT theory, Instance Theory, and Verbal Efficiency Theory, how these theories apply to extensive reading, and the potential limitations of extensive reading where reading fluency development is concerned. The second part focuses on how reading fluency improvement can be encouraged and monitored in the EFL classroom via extensive reading as well as silent and oral fluency training activities. The results of a study comparing the effects of an intensive reading approach and an extensive reading (with added fluency training) approach on various measures of reading fluency will be presented and discussed. In addition, there will be a discussion about how reading fluency can be enhanced when extensive reading is combined with timed reading, repeated oral reading, and chunking activities among L2 English Japanese university learners. The changes in their cognitive processes used for reading, oral reading fluency scores, and L2 reading self-efficacy will also be examined. Qualitative data regarding these reading activities will also be shared. The Brain SIG’s monthly Think Tank publication has become the focus of our efforts to learn and teach others about the brain. By drawing on the expertise of SIG members in Japan and authors around the world, we are able to address a wide range of topics related to neuroscience, psychology, and language learning. In this forum editors and authors from the MindBrainEd Think Tanks will give short, concurrent presentations related to some of the topics we have covered over the last year, then lead small group discussions to explore these topics in more depth and relate them to your teaching practices. Join us and find out how our Think Tanks help us make brain research meaningful and engaging for educators. Cancelled School Owners Forum #2692 The SIG forum is where owners, or people interested in starting their own school, can share ideas, experiences, and solutions to the academic and commercial challenges they face which cannot be addressed through other SIGs. These include but are not limited to: Recruitment & Training Tax, Accounting, Banking and Bookkeeping Technology & software for language schools Curriculum development for language schools Marketing & advertising for language schools Partnerships & Trade between owners We also will talk about how most independent schools do not fit the stereotype of being a "sing and jump around" school. Many schools teach all four skills, have extensive reading libraries, do cultural exchange projects, and use cutting age techniques such as flipped classrooms. These schools have students who can demonstrate real progress. These schools are also schools that will attract more students and keep them for years. The panelists will talk about the lack of knowledge in creating barrier-free classes for learners with different abilities, current changes in policies in Japan, and how teachers are working with students to make their classes more inclusive. The session will begin with definitions of disabilities, issues faced by teachers who are not trained in recognizing them, and how teachers can create or modify classes to be effective for all students. Panel members will speak about helping students at all levels of education. We also hope to have enough time to answer participants' questions and help them make their own classes barrier-free.

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Qualitative research may be broadly said to be research in which data in the form of words are collected and examined thematically. In other words, what is of interest to the researcher is an exploration, in a natural setting, of the meanings people bring to the qualities, nature, or essence of a phenomenon. The aim of qualitative research is to understand the meaning of human action and to explore and tell the human story. Qualitative research is a broad term that encompasses genres such as ethnography, case study, narrative inquiry, phenomenology, grounded theory, life history, oral history, biography, and auto-ethnography. This article briefly describes the background of qualitative research; five of the most prominent methodologies (grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, narrative inquiry); how to collect data through the use of interviews, observations, and artifacts, data analysis; methods to enhance trustworthiness (a qualitative term for validity and reliability); and possible future directions of qualitative research. While qualitative research has been around for some time (since the late 1800s in the United States; e.g. Chicago school sociology, 1892), it has been held in varying levels of respect and acceptance throughout the history of research. Over the last quarter of a century, qualitative research has seen a new level of acceptance in academia. At the same time, ironically, government funded research has touted the so-called gold standard of experimental research, which has relegated government-funded qualitative research to mere window dressing for randomized experimental designs. The intersection of the tension between government research funding standards and current levels of interest in qualitative research as seen in the increase of qualitative journal articles, conferences, courses, textbooks, and dissertations is the point at which any qualitative researcher is situated today. Grounded theory (GT) is a type of qualitative research in which the primary purpose is to develop a theory based on data. GT is an approach that involves induction, deduction, and verification, although the primary focus is on induction. The term grounded theory refers to both the method of data investigation and the analysis as well as the final product of the research. Grounded theory consists of a set of analytic guidelines that allow researchers to inductively build theories. Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. The process begins with initial data collection typically through unstructured interviews in the field. Data analysis begins by sorting the data into categories that can comprise events, instances, or happenings. The researcher then goes back into the field to collect more data in an attempt to verify or discredit emerging findings. Analysis continues as comparisons between the data are made and the emerging categories are tested and revised. This is referred to as the constant comparative method. Data collection and analysis continue until saturation is reached. Saturation is the theoretical term for the moment when it seems no new data need to be collected due to repetition or redundancy in the data. The data analysis portion of grounded theory consists of three types of coding: open, axial, and selective. When coding data, the researcher breaks field notes or interview transcripts into meaningful chunks or clusters. Each cluster is assigned a code, which is a word or phrase that encapsulates the meaning of the cluster. The clusters could be words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs. This first phase of coding in a GT study is called open coding. It can be thought of as the first pass at creating categories. The researcher then identifies properties of the categories. Open coding is followed by a deeper level of coding called axial coding. When conducting axial coding, the researcher looks for new ways to categorize clusters of information. The researcher identifies a central phenomenon, explores occurrences, emotions, or beliefs that influence the phenomenon, and examines the results of the phenomenon. The final phase of coding in GT is selective coding. In selective coding, a “story line” is identified that integrates the codes found in axial coding. This story line becomes, in essence, the grounded theory. While grounded theory refers to the iterative methods of data collection and analysis, it also describes the result, a social theory. The theory, or set of hypotheses, developed about the central phenomenon being studied is based completely in the data, in that all attempts are made to avoid using other theoretical ideas or notions to inform the analysis. The theory is “grounded” in the data, hence, grounded theory. Grounded theory is typically presented with five components: a central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, and consequences. The focus of a phenomenological study is to explore the meaning of lived experiences. Lived experiences is a term that emphasizes the different and individual lives humans lead. The goal of a phenomenological study is to search for, understand, and explain the essential structure or essence of the phenomenon in question. The experiences are reduced to a description of what all the participants in the study experience. Phenomenologists tend to use unstructured interviews as their main source of data. The first step in data analysis is to bracket, or set aside, their preconceived experiences about the phenomenon of interest. Bracketing is also referred to as epoche. The phenomenological researcher wants to fully understand the phenomenon from each participant’s point of view. The second step in data analysis is horizonalization, in which all significant statements related to the topic are listed and given equal value. In the third step of analysis, the researcher clusters statements into themes and searches for meaning. Synthesis of themes results in a general description of the essence of the phenomenon. Ethnography has been said to be the gold standard or hallmark of qualitative research, and it is characterized by in-depth study of a culture’s naturally occurring behavior. While originally developed and employed by anthropologists to study human nature, the use of ethnography may increasingly be seen in the social sciences in general, with developed sub-fields such as educational ethnography and ethno-nursing. Features of ethnography are that the researcher is in the field for long durations of time, uses participant observation to collect data, and examines culture. A long duration of time may be defined as at least one cycle of the phenomenon (e.g., one season, one semester, one treatment cycle). It is important to note that one may use ethnographic methods but may not be conducting a full ethnography. In these instances one may refer to one’s study as ethnographically informed or influenced. While case study may be considered quantitative, mixed method, or qualitative research, this article addresses holistic, qualitative case studies only. Case study often seems similar to other types of qualitative research such as in-depth interviews or ethnography. However, case study is distinguished from other research in that it is the intense description of one bounded unit (e.g., one client, therapy group, couple, clinic, organization). The holistic case is naturally occurring and bound to its context. The particular nature of the case is what is of interest to the researcher. Case studies may be designed in multiple ways. The researcher might choose a case for what Robert Stake has called an intrinsic reason or an instrumental reason. Intrinsic means that something about the specific case is of interest. Instrumental cases, however, are chosen to illustrate a general topic of interest. Additionally, multiple or collective case studies may be designed in which each case is similar, dissimilar, typical, or different. A case within case is a design in which a larger case is explored by examining smaller cases that occur within it. For example, a counseling clinic of interest may be explored by studying three of the counselors within the clinic in depth along with an overall study of all of the features of the clinic such as the caseload, funding, philosophy, and director. Because it is a study of one bounded unit, generalizability of a case is an ongoing issue for case study research. A case study researcher typically believes, along with the field of qualitative researchers, that the detailed, holistic, rich, descriptive information of their research allows users of case studies to determine to what extent the case generalizes to their situations. A case study researcher makes a case through the presentation of details that convince the reader and make clear the issues of the case. The small number of cases allows for significant depth of data collection. In holistic case study, data are gathered through observation, interviews, and artifact, whenever possible. Then, information is triangulated and presented in a rich, descriptive case report. Jean Clandinin and Michael Connelly have succinctly defined narrative inquiry as “stories lived and told.” Narrative inquiry may also be said to be a study of the generation of stories of life experiences, a discourse form of research in which a story is examined as it changes over time, and an exploration of experience through stories that people tell. Narratives are the unit of analysis. Most narrative researchers define narrative as text obtained from in-depth interviews or documents such as journals, diaries, letters, and memoirs. However, some narrative researchers have expanded this methodology to include observational research in which the researcher specifically looks for stories that occur contextually in the field. Narrative analysis may include a variety of procedures for interpreting narrative data. The text tends to be analyzed using the perspective or techniques of a particular discipline. For example, a sociologist may be interested in the relationship of the narrative to meanings in society, while a counselor or psychologist may be more interested in memory, process of recall, and therapeutic understandings of story. In order to answer the question “what is going on here?” it is important for qualitative researchers to ask, observe, and even experience as much as possible in order to create rich descriptions of what is happening. In general, qualitative researchers first decide what they want to know about what is going on. If they wish to discover something, they may choose a grounded theory approach. If they are seeking to understand, they may choose ethnography. A case study would be used if they want to explore a process. Describing the experience would be accomplished with a phenomenology. If the researchers want to report the stories, then a narrative approach would be taken. In general, qualitative research questions begin with what or how. What is going on here? How does this person relate to the group? In seeking to answer these types of questions, the three common forms of collecting qualitative data are interviews, observations, and examining artifacts. Interviews can be conducted with individuals or with groups that are referred to as group interviews or focus groups. Interviews can be structured, semistructured, or unstructured. Technology has also impacted interviews, so an interview may be face-to-face, over the phone, or through the Internet. Researchers conducting interviews begin with an interview protocol, which is a list of questions that will be asked of the participant. In structured individual interviews, the protocol lists each question along with a limited set of response categories. Responses to structured interviews are coded into pre-established categories. Unstructured interviews are in-depth and open-ended and are similar to a conversation with equal give-and-take between the researcher and participant. Unstructured interviews in counseling research are recommended for sensitive topics such as rape or incest and when interviewing young children. Semistructured interviews are a mixture of structured and unstructured questions and are the interview design most qualitative researchers employ. Observation is a key form of data collection. Observations range from being nonparticipatory in nature, in which the researcher tries to remain unnoticed, to participatory in nature, in which the researcher joins in on the activities being observed. In both nonparticipatory and participatory observation, the researcher keeps field notes, or records of observations. Field notes may also be used to record feelings of the researcher. Field notes are considered data and can be synthesized with other types of data such as interviews to help create a complete understanding of the complexities of the cultural group being studied. In qualitative research, an artifact is anything made by humans that can be picked up and observed. A cultural artifact is something made by a person or a group of people that gives information about that group. Examining a clinic’s physical layout or procedure manual are methods counseling qualitative researchers may use to explore a question. The idea of examining cultural artifacts to understand people emerged from anthropology. In counseling research, an artifact might be a counselor’s case notes, videos of sessions, or a client’s journal or artwork. When exploring the historical aspects of a participant, the artifact might be an historical document such as a legal document, letter, or diary. It is important to note that from the first moment qualitative data are collected, analysis should be ongoing and recursive. If researchers wait to analyze the data until all the data are collected, they are missing a key opportunity to take advantage of the emergent, flexible, data-driven process of qualitative research. In other words, as each observation, interview, and artifact is examined, new questions emerge that may guide future data collection. With this in mind, data analysis has two major areas for discussion: data management or the organizing of data, and the process of breaking down, reassembling, and interpreting data through qualitative analysis. When organizing data, it is vital to make copies of all-important papers and put them in at least two locations. Stories abound of lost data never to be generated again. Researchers are advised to allocate time daily to put field notes and interviews in order, catalogue all documents and artifacts, label and store all data, create a table of contents of stored data, check for missing data, and begin reading through and reviewing data, or what is commonly referred to as read, read, and rereading the data. An organized set of data allows for analysis to begin in a meaningful fashion. Put simply, analysis consists of looking for themes, patterns, or categories of similarities. It is important to note that outliers, notes of dissonance, and unique cases are highlighted and not discarded, because the uniqueness of humans is one of the areas of interest in qualitative research. While there are a multitude of data analysis strategies, some of which were reviewed under the methodologies discussed previously, only one—an overview of Wolcott’s analysis—will be presented here. The reader is advised to examine the literature for specific analysis strategies when conducting phenomenology and grounded theory. Wolcott has said that all analysis may be said to be a process of description, analysis, and interpretation. During description, the data speak for themselves, and long pieces of the final product are drawn directly from notes, journals, or interviews. The researcher essentially treats descriptive data as facts. While all researchers use description at some level, it is especially useful for concepts that have never been examined in a scholarly manner. Analysis then expands and builds on description using some detailed plan or approach to identifying key relationships in the data. Finally, data interpretation follows analysis or arises directly from description. During interpretation the researcher does not claim to be as scientific as during analysis and is not as restricted as during the description. Here the goal is to make sense of the data by making interpretations of, inferences from, and implications about the data for the field. Trustworthiness is an overarching term for validity and reliability. Other terms that are used may include dependability, confirmability, and credibility. Validity and reliability of research together compose one of the most hotly debated issues in qualitative inquiry, and they are at the root of many postpositivist researchers’ lack of acceptance of qualitative research. Qualitative researchers are advised to have a full understanding of quantitative and qualitative notions of validity and reliability when defending their research. The most important idea to understand is that there are procedures common throughout the field of qualitative research that allow one to feel more confident that the research data presented show a fully fleshed out picture. However, this picture is not more “true” than the picture provided by quantitative data, just more fully explored. The use of most of these procedures depends on the type of research being conducted and the research question being examined. Some of the most common procedures include member and peer checks, triangulation, audit trail, duration in the field, and reflexivity. The use of reflexivity may be the most valuable yet least demonstrable way to enhance a study’s trustworthiness. Reflexivity is a critical self-reflection on one’s biases and predispositions. Researchers are encouraged to explore their bias in a researcher journal. Reflexivity may be a means for critically inspecting the entire research experience. In the first decade of the 21st century, there is a new emphasis among qualitative researchers on ethics, personal responsibility, and moral obligation. In general the field is taking on a new participatory, feminist, democratic, and reciprocal stance. Interviews are becoming more a negotiated accomplishment between the interviewer and the interviewee, and observations and artifacts are not seen as fact but as interpretable data. Researchers are also increasingly blending qualitative and quantitative methodologies in mixed methods studies. While researchers such as evaluators find this a pragmatic design, others contest the blending of two such seemingly polarized paradigms, feeling either that the quantitative data are being used to “prove” the qualitative data or that the qualitative data are unnecessary in a rigorous quantitative design. The tides are shifting in academia, as new faculty are less traditional than their predecessors in terms of their academic reporting of qualitative research. It is common to write research accounts of what went on behind the scenes in a study in an effort to make research practice transparent and informative to other researchers. This practice is a decided move away from an objective account that reports research results as though they are facts. Autoethnography, poems, performances, and photo methodologies are becoming acceptable forms of reporting qualitative research. Examples include ethnopoetics and photovoice, a method that uses photography to help give voice to those who otherwise would not have one (e.g., children, those with low language skills, non-English speakers). - Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Clandinin, J., & Connelly, M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. - Coffey, A., & Atkinson, P. (1996). Making sense of qualitative data: Complementary research strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research. London: Sage. - Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Ellis, C., & Bochner, A. P. (1996). Composing ethnography: Alternative forms of qualitative writing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira. - Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine. - Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. - Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). An expanded sourcebook: Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Richards, L. (2005). Handling qualitative data: A practical guide. London: Sage. - Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. - Stewart, D. W. (1990). Focus groups: Theory and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. - Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Marble Tiles Natural Stone Vs Porcelain | Duration 5 Minutes Shining Stones: Britain’S Native Marbles by buildingconservation.comThey began life as sediments, formed from the skeletal remains of calcareous fossils, shells and coral fragments, in ancient tropical seas. Though now hard and cemented, internally they remain today much as when they were deposited – tropical marine sediments packed with unaltered calcitic fossil fragments. Reds and yellows are a result of the presence of various iron compounds, blacks contain organic carbon, greens include copper compounds and whites are almost pure calcium or magnesium carbonate. These compact limestones show a wide range of colours from light grey to black with shades of red, cross-cut by veins of white, yellow and red. The obvious added value of a good polished stone meant that many such limestones formed the basis of small local industries and commonly appear in local churches and houses. Alabaster is a hard, compact, finely crystalline form of gypsum (calcium sulphate) which is usually white, translucent or mottled red in colour. As an added bonus, the museum also has a fine display of clearly labelled marble columns lining the corridors surrounding the main gallery. High status buildings like royal palaces or stately homes may have colourful marble-lined halls, grand marble staircases, or extravagantly carved fireplaces. In the 19th century marbles became decorative status symbols in the newly established banks and commercial headquarters of our major towns and cities. Mingled among them, however, particularly in our parish churches and lesser buildings, are many equally attractive native ‘marbles’. Britain’s geological succession also has many thick beds of limestone. The colour variations so characteristic of true marbles are part of this same alteration process (metamorphism) which redistributes the various chemical compounds present in the original limestone throughout the new crystalline fabric. Presumably the high cost of such a trade meant that alternative sources of decorative stone were soon sought out and the local hard sedimentary limestones were quickly exploited for decorative and ornamental work. Elsewhere, other limestones were often exploited for such decorative work. More colourful native ‘marbles’ were also widely worked for decorative purposes. Mesmerizing White Grey Granite Countertop | Duration 5 Minutes 44 Seconds This pale, buff-grey crinoidal limestone is still produced and has a long history of use for memorial and ornamental work. Though still not true marbles they commonly show fabrics and textures which suggest they have locally been subjected to the high pressures and temperatures associated with earth movements in this area. This reddish coloured rock originally formed as an accumulation of coarse, angular limestone and sandstone fragments subsequently cemented together by carbonate and known by geologists as a breccia. Both these collections can be viewed by appointment with the curators. Empire State Building by en.wikipedia.orgStripping the building down was an arduous process, as the hotel had been constructed using more rigid material than earlier buildings had been. Raskob refused to cancel the project because of the progress that had been made up to that point. From there, construction proceeded at a rapid pace; during one stretch of 10 working days, the builders erected fourteen floors. There were also cafes and concession stands on five of the incomplete floors so workers did not have to descend to the ground level to eat lunch. Concrete mixers, brick hoppers, and stone hoists inside the building ensured that materials would be able to ascend quickly and without endangering or inconveniencing the public. Marbles By Akro Agate Company by marblecollecting.comThese marbles have little value to today’s collectors for several reasons. Second, since they were the easiest marble to produce, every marble company produced them. Finally, because the marbles are only one color, they do not have much eye appeal. A series of opaques that were produced with opalescent glass is the exception to this. Later examples have tiny open ends at each pole, called “fisheyes”. However, those colors are almost always translucent to transparent and do not have black filaments. Because the different colors were layered as they came out of the furnace and because the colors were of different densities, they created separate strata in the glass stream as it entered the shearing mechanism. The glass stream entered the cup from the top and passed through the hole in the bottom into the shearing mechanism. Corkscrews are identifiable as being two or more spirals of color that rotate around the marble from one pole to the other, but do not intersect. The filaments can almost completely fill the transparent clear or they can be sparse. It is popularly believed that these marbles occurred when the colors were changed in one of the machine hoppers. They may have been intentionally made by using five nozzles, instead of four, to create the glass stream. These appear to have been produced for a short period of time during the mid-1920s. Both of these are readily identifiable because they have a crimp mark at either pole. Blue Pearl Granite | Marble.Com | Duration 2 Minutes 28 Seconds The other color is a translucent colored patch (generally brown, yellow, red, blue or green) which covers one-quarter to almost one-half the marble. They usually have a tiny crimp mark at one or both poles, and occasionally the marble surface has an orange peel texture to it. They produced both clearies, which are transparent clear or transparent colored glass marbles, and opaques, which are opaque colored glass marbles. It is virtually impossible to distinguish between each company ’s marbles of this type. These marbles are actually semi-opaque and have a distinctive orangish glow when held to a light. It is often confused with red colors of other manufacturers. Two or more streams of colored glass were allowed to enter through the marble-making machine’s shearing mechanism at the same time. The number of different colored spirals in the corkscrew, or the number of different color patches was determined by the number of nozzles that had glass flowing through them when the glass stream was created. You could easily amass a collection of several hundred corkscrews, of which no two would be the exact same color combination or pattern. This unique color is transparent clear with filaments of opaque white. The most common colors, in addition to the clear/white, are red and yellow or green and yellow. However, some of these examples are too perfectly formed to be an accident. It is a variegated stream of glass consisting of two or more colors. Both marbles are an opaque white base with a wispy brown patch brushed on about one-third of the marble. One color is a fluorescent translucent milky brownish/white base. The patch is either opaque or transparent and usually covers about one-quarter of the marble. It appears to be made using the same technique as some cat’s-eyes, in that various colors of glass are injected into a clear stream as it flows through the furnace. Sparklers were produced in the mid to late 1920s and do not appear to have been produced much past 1930. These are a transparent clear base with translucent strands of color running through the center. Names Of Black Precious Stones Names Of Black Precious Stones Suppliers and Manufacturers At Alibaba by alibaba.comIn cut stones and cabochon we can provide you shape like oval, octagon, pear, marquis and squares in calibrated and freeform sizes. The size will be the exact the same if customer need stone inlay into the ring, earring or pendant. Bianco Antico Granite | Marble.Com | Duration 2 Minutes 46 Seconds The annual production capacity of this plant is 500000 square meters of granite, marble and others products. Our team ensures complete customer satisfaction through the supreme quality products. We also supply other gemstone beads in different colors, shapes and sizes. Note: new battery only through two or three times complete charge and discharge cycle to achieve the best effect. Marbles By Peltier Glass Company by marblecollecting.comPeltier slags are readily identifiable by the very fine feathering pattern produced by the white swirls. Each character has a specific marble color combination that is most common to that marble. Some of the color combinations have inspired imaginative names among collectors. Rebel is an opaque white or yellow base with black and red ribbons. Superman is opaque light blue base with yellow and red ribbons. In some tri-color examples, the ribbons are a mixture of two colors. The most common colors for the vane are yellow, red, blue, green or white. They are a transparent colored base glass with opaque white swirled in. The company does not appear to have produced clear or orange slags. It is much rarer than the more common multi- colors where the colors are actually ribbons, not swirls. Rarer color combinations are dif ficult to find and are valued much higher. These marbles have an opaque base color with four to eight thin ribbons in the surface. How To Diy Countertops With Black And Silver Marble (Resin) | Duration 12 Minutes 28 Seconds The base color can be either opaque white or an opaque color. Rainbos do not seem to have quite the variety of corkscrews. The marble consists of a single-vaned opaque color in transparent clear glass. Stones Of India by en.wikipedia.orgDimension stones have also left deep imprints on the architectural heritage of the country. The success of commercial stone industry solely depends upon defects in rock/stone. Detection of natural defects in decorative and dimensional stone industry play vital role in the quality assessment. It is more often used as dolomite lumps for chemical and industrial uses. Other quartzitic bands, occurring with phyllites and schists, are also utilised for building purposes. India is pioneer in the exploration, mining of commercial rock deposits and in establishing a firm base for stone industry. Agaria is the best variety of this area, with numerous other varieties and patterns, primarily in white base. These are also known as forest green/brown or fancy green/brown. Another variety of the same range is red/maroon-coloured marble. Being to some extent fragile in nature, it is good for interior use only and can be used in even as washboards. Limestones are extensively utilised for manufacturing of cement and also building stones, particularly flooring and roofing. Black Marble In Jaipur by exportersindia.comMercury white marble is a good wavy pattern marble, the waves pattern is mix of colors like black, white, light grey which enhances the beauty of the stone to the highest level. We introduce ourselves as a reputed manufacturer & exporter of natural stones, black slate mosaic from rajasthan, india. Buyers can stay rest assured about the quality of our products as we check each and every product at diverse stages. In addition to this we are one of the largest natural marble suppliers in the marketplace. Nano White Marble Stone Moulding Civillane.Com | Duration 57 Seconds We export black marble slabs, tiles and cut to size. Variations in pattern of these impurities make it a very precious and attractive building stone used in form of tiles and slabs. We introduce ourselves as a reputed manufacturer & exporter of natural stones, kadpa black and ita gold mosaic from rajasthan, india. Our polished black marble slab & tile price are economic. We introduce ourselves as a reputed manufacturer & exporter of natural stones, kadapa black and white mosiac from rajasthan, india. 7 Surprising Facts About Marble and Marble Tile by marblematters.com.auThe result is large blocks of marble that are harder, denser and more colourful than the original stone. These patterns are created by small minerals that fill cracks and fissures in the original limestone. Therefore, in hot climates, it can help to naturally cool interior spaces. Carpet, for example, can collect dust and animal dander, and wood can mould and bow when wet. These are just a couple of interesting tidbits about marble. Over hundreds of years, immense pressure and high heat compacts and transforms the original limestone. Popular marble choices other than the classic creams and beige include reds, violet and black. Whereas concrete or wood absorb and hold heat, marble tile does not heat up as quickly or absorb the energy. Streetplay: Glossary Of Marbles Terms and Games by streetplay.comMost players put the knuckle of their index finger on the ground. Bear in mind that rules vary wildly from region to region and making up a game on the spot isn’t unusual. Instead of shooting at target marbles, you shoot for holes cut into a shoebox (the arches). If the two marbles are close enough, he can attempt to ‘span’ them. He then draws his hand up while bringing his fingers together. If he misses, the first player may shoot at either marble on the field. The process of picking the best possible position for starting is referred to as ‘taking rounders’. Any marbles which miss become the property of the board owner. Whoever’s marble comes closest without going in wins a marble from each player. Each player places a number of marbles around the hole so that there is about a dozen marbles surrounding the hole. If one player’s marble goes in and the other player’s marble doesn’t, the player whose marble went in scores ten points. If he hits it, he earns ten points and another chance to shoot his marble into the hole for ten points. Whenever a marble goes into the hole, both players start over from the starting line, otherwise all shots are made from wherever the marble stopped rolling. Players construct a miniature golf course from materials at hand and take turns shooting their marbles around, through, and over the obstacles they’ve built. The second version of the game is played with a bridgeboard. If he does, then he becomes poison and gets to collect all the marbles you’ve won. Thirteen mibs or target marbles are arranged in a cross inside a ten-foot circle (the ring). The aim is to knock a mib out of the circle while keeping your shooter inside. If you miss or your shooter goes outside the ring, you lose your turn. You position your shooter in the crook of the index finger and flick it out with your thumb. Players roll their marbles toward a line in the dirt (the lag line). When your marble goes into a hole, you score that number of points. He places his thumb on his own marble and his index finger on his opponent’s marble. If a player collects the last marble on the field, he must shoot a marble for the next player to shoot at. In informal games, if your taw is in the ring, it becomes a legitimate target and any player who hits it out collects a forfeit from you. Play alternates until one player has knocked a majority of the marbles out of the ring. Players try to shoot through the holes and win the number of marbles indicated by the number above the hole. Players attempt to get a marble as close as possible to the hole without going in. A one-foot wide hole is dug in the center of a ten-foot circle. If a taw goes into the hole, the owner must forfeit a number of marbles and place them around the hole to ‘buy back’ his shooter. If neither player’s marble goes in, the first player now tries to hit the second player’s marble. If he misses either his opponent’s marble or the hole, the second player tries to hit the first player’s marble for ten points and another try at shooting his marble into the hole for ten points. A successful shoot through the correct arch entitles the shooter to an additional turn. The aim is to be the first player to get your shooter into the hole. But if another player gets his into the hole, then he gets one chance to knock you out. The game ends when all players have taken a shot and none have knocked out the poison. As long as you knock out a mib and your shooter stays in the ring, you can keep shooting. Marble King ID by buymarbles.comThey did, however, create a number of styles which are unique to the company. On one pole there is a patch of one color, and encircling the equator are two different colored ribbons. Opposite this there will be a third color which also runs from seam to seam but on the other half of the marble. This marble possesses a white base, with very little or a lot of the white showing through between the patches and ribbons. This marble is basically identical to the other catseyes described above, save that the vanes are of two or more colors. One has four vanes in ” carnival ” glass, which is an iridized yellowish orange color that has been sprayed onto the marble. Finally, there is a peewee variety that measures between 5/16″ and 13/32″. However, these new versions seem to have lighter colors, especially the blue and green. Covering about one third of the surface, and encircling half the marble’s equator from seam to seam, is a patch with red and blue bands. The marbles inside the bags are typically the post-1975 patch marbles, though some contain catseyes. By this method, white-based glass was covered with colored glass, which was much less expensive than using colored glass for the base. Sometimes a bit of the underlying white glass will show through, however. First, the base is translucent, not white with a colored veneer. One of the ribbons runs from seam to seam, so that it encircles half of the marble. This marble can have as many as seven colors in addition to the white. Though sometimes regarded as “rejects” by a few collectors, many of these marbles are beautiful and extremely rare. It is unclear whether or not such marbles were accidentally made and then discarded, or were purposefully made as an experiment but for one reason or another rejected. Marys,” as it appears that this marble was only produced at their plant location in the city of that name, and thus would have had to be made between 1955 and 1958. The most common are those that have two opposing vanes of one color intersected by two opposing vanes of another color. The second type has a transparent ruby red base with a white banana-like blob of glass floating on the interior. Some of these tiny marbles are hybrids , containing two or three colors. Mary’s 4-color catseye and is going to fool some collectors. Also, the green vanes appear to have diffuse edges which do not reach the exterior. The base is almost completely filled with opaque white that has blue and green highlights. These marbles are almost always fractured and are very rare. Below the bar and crown, printed in red, was the name of the type of marble flanked on either side by the number of marbles inside. - Source – buildingconservation.com - Empire State Building Aerial View Jpg – en.wikipedia.org - Source – marblecollecting.com - Quartz Tile Names Of Black Precious Stones Quartz Crystal – alibaba.com - Source – marblecollecting.com - Source – en.wikipedia.org - Black Slate Mosaic Natural Stone Kashmir White Marble – exportersindia.com - Interesting Facts About Marble Tiles – marblematters.com.au - Getting Down At Grand Army Plaza – streetplay.com - Source – buymarbles.com - Videos – What Are Some Names Of White And Black Marble

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Accurate species identification is fundamental when recording ecological data. However, the ability to correctly identify organisms visually is rarely questioned. We investigated how experts and non-experts compared in the identification of bumblebees, a group of insects of considerable conservation concern. Experts and non-experts were asked whether two concurrent bumblebee images depicted the same or two different species. Overall accuracy was below 60% and comparable for experts and non-experts. However, experts were more consistent in their answers when the same images were repeated and more cautious in committing to a definitive answer. Our findings demonstrate the difficulty of correctly identifying bumblebees using images from field guides. Such error rates need to be accounted for when interpreting species data, whether or not they have been collected by experts. We suggest that investigation of how experts and non-experts make observations should be incorporated into study design and could be used to improve training in species identification. Accurate species identification is essential to ecological monitoring1,2. Species observations are used to inform and evaluate conservation actions3, such as the monitoring of population trends4,5, the implementation and evaluation of population management plans6, health assessments of ecosystems7 and extinction analysis8. Conversely, species misidentification can have serious negative impacts, such as the accidental culling of endangered species, exemplified by the threatened takahē Porphyrio hochstetteri (Meyer 1883) being mistaken for the destructive pukeko Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus (Temminck 1820)9, the incorrect monitoring of harmful algal blooms10, the unobserved decline in important fish stocks11 and wasted resources, such as the drafting of inappropriate management plans from false species sightings12. While species identification in these contexts is conducted routinely by experts, such as taxonomists in museums or academic institutions13, there is also a long-standing tradition of members of the public supporting scientific research by contributing identification data14. Previously known as amateur naturalists and more recently as citizen scientists, 70,000 of these lay recorders submit species observations on an annual basis in the UK alone15. These observers are recognised as a valuable asset in the monitoring of global environmental change16,17. However, little is known about the accuracy of species identifications by non-experts, or how these compare to those of experts18. Although some doubts have been raised over the ability of volunteers to conduct ‘real research’19, the assumption that recorded species have been correctly identified is rarely questioned1. Yet the failure to account for possible species misidentification could affect assessments of population status and distribution and result in erroneous conservation decisions1,18,20. Few studies have investigated species identification accuracy. In a study of the classification of dinoflagellates, identification accuracy among expert observers was 72%10. Thus, more than one in four identifications was, in fact, a misidentification. Accuracy also varied dramatically, from 38% to 95%, depending upon the species being identified. However, accuracy was higher and more consistent in expert observers with field expertise than those with expertise gleaned from books10. In addition, individual consistency of experts with field expertise averaged 97% accuracy, but for those whose expertise came from books averaged only 75% accuracy. This indicates that observers with field experience were highly consistent in their decision-making (but both for correct and incorrect identifications), whereas the decisions of trained observers without such experience were more variable10. A more recent study focused on the identification of individual mountain bongo antelopes Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci (Thomas 1902) using a matching task21. In this task, expert and non-expert observers were shown pairs of pictures of mountain bongos and had to decide whether these depicted the same or different individuals. Under these conditions, experts performed better than non-experts. However, accuracy was far from perfect in both groups of observers, with identification errors in at least one in five trials21. These results suggest that observers can be prone to identification errors in species monitoring. However, whereas one study compared different types of experts during the identification of different species10, the other compared experts and non-experts during the identification of individuals from the same species21. Consequently, it is still unresolved how experts and non-experts compare directly in species identification. In this study, we compare the identification accuracy of experts and non-experts with a matching task, in which observers have to decide whether pairs of images depict the same species. A key advantage of this task is that it allows for a direct comparison of observers with expertise in species identification with those without prior knowledge. This approach is used in other research areas, such as the study of forensic human face identification (see ref. 22), as an optimized scenario to establish best-possible performance23, but little used in conservation research (although see ref. 21). In order to investigate the accuracy of species identification in experts and non-experts, the model organisms should also be something that non-experts are familiar with. Bumblebees (Bombus sp.) are generally recognisable and attractive to members of the public24 and are of great importance to human survival and the economy25,26,27,28. Despite this importance, bee populations are in global decline from human activities26,29,30,31,32. Consequently, bumblebees provide a relevant and timely model for studying the accuracy of species identification in expert and non-expert observers. Experts and non-experts in bumblebee identification were asked to decide whether 20 pairs of bumblebee images depicted the same or two different species. To increase the relevance of this task to the monitoring of bumblebees by members of the public, the images used in this matching task were coloured illustrations of bumblebees taken from two easily accessible field guides. We sought to explore identification in detail by assessing the overall accuracy of observers in both groups, but also by exploring individual differences and the consistency of identification decisions. For this purpose, participants were asked to classify the same stimuli repeatedly, over three successive blocks. Experts had substantial knowledge of bumblebees, whereas the non-experts knowledge was minimal. On average, experts named 20.7 bumblebee species (SD = 4.8; min = 15; max = 25), non-expert conservationists (NECs) named on average only 0.4 species (SD = 0.8; min = 0; max = 3) and non-expert non-conservationists (NENCs) only 0.2 species (SD = 0.4; min = 0; max = 1). Similarly, experts correctly chose an average of 19.7/20 UK species from a list of 40 Bombus species (Supplementary Table S2) (SD = 0.5; min = 19; max = 20), whereas NECs could only select an average of 1.6 species (SD = 2.1; min = 0; max = 7) and NENCs only 0.1 species (SD = 0.3; min = 0; max = 1). Bee matching accuracy Overall accuracy in the matching task was low and similar across groups of expertise (Fig. 1), with the mean percentage of correct responses ranging from 54% to 57%. Correspondingly, incorrect responses were high and recorded on between 33% (for experts) and 42% (NEC) of trials across groups. Finally, experts made “don’t know” responses on 11% of trials, while this contributed to less than 5% of responses in both groups of non-experts. There was no difference between the three participant groups (E, NEC and NENC) in terms of correct responses (F(2,44) = 0.45, p = 0.638), incorrect responses (F(2,44) = 2.89, p = 0.066) and “don’t know” responses (F(2,44) = 0.35, p = 0.704). Thus, experts and non-experts overall accuracy did not differ on this task. Match performance was similar across expertise groups, at between 61% and 70% accuracy, while mismatch performance was generally lower, at between 43% and 49% accuracy, but similar across the groups (Fig. 1). In line with these observations, a 3 (group: E, NEC, NENC) x 2 (trial type: match, mismatch) mixed-factor ANOVA found an effect of trial type (F(1,44) = 13.50, p = 0.001), but not of expertise, (F(2,44) = 0.61, p = 0.545) and no interaction between factors (F(2,44) = 0.59, p = 0.557). Experience and matching accuracy Percentage accuracy of correct, incorrect and “don’t know” responses were correlated with the years of experience that all participants reported in the identification of UK bumblebees. Correct and incorrect responses declined with experience (r = −0.27, n = 47, p = 0.072 and r = −0.30, n = 47, p = 0.038, respectively), but “don’t know” responses increased with experience (r = 0.54, n = 47, p < 0.001). This suggests that the more experienced observers were less likely to commit to a correct or incorrect identification decision. This inference is drawn tentatively, considering the limited sample of experts and possible extreme scores in the data (see Participants section). Experience and accuracy for individual items Accuracy was also calculated for all individual stimulus pairs and the groups of observers. For this by-item analysis, accuracy was combined across the three presentations of each stimulus pair (Fig. 2). One factor ANOVAs for each match and mismatch stimulus show that effects of expertise were present for only three of the 20 images. Post-hoc Tukey tests reveal that experts outperformed non-experts with Match 2 (F(2,44) = 5.92, p = 0.005; E v NEC and E v NENC p = 0.007) and Match 6 (F(2,44) = 3.76, E v NEC p = 0.024). Conversely, non-experts outperformed experts with Mismatch 7 (F(2,44) = 7.00, NEC v E p = 0.005 and NENC v E p = 0.002). This pattern suggests that the reliance on purely visual information by non-experts generally leads to comparable and occasionally even better accuracy than experts. This indicates that the additional subject-specific experience of experts does not consistently improve and might even hinder, the matching of some bumblebee species. In some cases, however, expert knowledge also adds a performance advantage that must transcend the available visual information. We also sought to determine whether experts might be more consistent than non-experts in their identification of bumblebees, by assessing performance across the three repeated trials. Consistent decisions were defined as instances in which observers made the same responses to bumblebee pairs in all three trials. Two consistency measures were obtained. The first of these reflects overall consistency regardless of accuracy and was calculated by collapsing consistent correct (42% of all decisions), incorrect (27%) and don’t know (2%) responses for the different expertise groups (Fig. 3). A one-factor ANOVA showed that consistency varied between participant groups (F(2,44) = 5.42 p = 0.008). Tukey post-hoc test showed that experts were more consistent than the NEC (p = 0.020) and the NENC groups (p = 0.006). The consistency of NECs and NENCs did not differ (p = 0.830). A second consistency measure was calculated, which reflects the consistency of accurate responses only. This revealed a similar pattern, with experts outperforming the two non-expert groups. A one-factor ANOVA showed that these differences between groups were not reliable (F(2,44) = 0.55, p = 0.583). However, a correlation between consistent and consistently-accurate responses (Fig. 4) was found (r = 0.722, n = 47, p < 0.001). Taken together, these data indicate that experts are generally more consistent than non-experts in their responses, but not in their accurate responses. However, the individuals (experts or non-experts) whose responses are more consistent are also more likely to be consistently accurate. This study examined experts’ and non-experts’ accuracy in the identification of bumblebees. The naming tasks revealed clear effects of expertise, with experts naming an average of 20.7 UK bumblebee species and selecting 19.7/20 from a list of bumblebee species, while NECs and NENCs could name on average less than one species and selected less than two. A different picture emerged when the actual visual identification accuracy of these observers was assessed with the matching task. In this task, experts’ overall accuracy was low, at 56% and indistinguishable from NECs and NENCs. This finding was confirmed when performance was broken down into match and mismatch trials, for which expert and non-expert performance also did not differ. Participants’ self-reported years of experience in bumblebee identification was also correlated with responses on the matching task. This analysis shows that both correct and incorrect responses decline with experience, but ‘don’t know’ responses increase. Thus, observers appear to become more cautious with experience and less willing to commit to any identification decisions. These inferences are drawn tentatively, due to the limited availability of bumblebee experts for this study (n = 7). Crucially, however, these findings suggest once again that expertise does not improve the visual identification of bumblebees in the present task. Overall, these findings converge with studies that have shown that visual species identification can be surprisingly error-prone. In contrast to previous studies, which either examined different types of experts during the identification of different species10, or experts and non-experts during the identification of individuals from the same species21, the current experiment compared experts and non-experts during species identification. The error rates that are observed across these studies raise important questions concerning the accuracy of species identification using field guides. Such identifications are used for supporting a wide range of actions, such as the monitoring of endangered species33,34,35 and the drafting of appropriate management plans36,37,38. An understanding of error rates needs to be factored into such important conservation activities. We draw these conclusions with some caveats. It is conceivable, for example, that accuracy among experts and non-experts will vary depending on how images are presented or which guidebooks are at hand. A number of identification guides exist for UK bumblebees, providing a variety of pictures of bumblebees, e.g. line or colour drawings, photographs and stylised diagrams. The extent to which illustrations from different guides accurately capture the key visual features of different bumblebee species and also match each other remains open to exploration39, jbut is bound to affect bumblebee identification tasks. Variation in the specimens used by illustrators may also be due to phenotypic variation or even mislabelling in the collections used. Moreover, a difficult question for illustrators is which individual of a species should be drawn in order for a guidebook to represent a ‘typical’ specimen. There is the option to use the holotype (the single specimen on which the species is described), but this may not be readily available or representative of the current UK population. There is the added complication of physical differences caused by age, such as the loss of hair and fading of colour due to the sun24. There is a long history of members of the public contributing to species monitoring programmes3,40,41. An analysis of accuracy for individual items indicated that expert and non-expert accuracy was similar for most bumblebee species here. There were also instances in which experts outperformed non-experts or the reverse pattern was found. This indicates that for some species comparisons, the reliance on purely visual information (as available to both experts and non-experts) produces best accuracy. In other cases, the additional subject-specific expert knowledge can occasionally interfere with the visual identification process. However, expert knowledge can also transcend the available visual information in some cases and provide a benefit in performance. This mixture of results is an intriguing outcome that is perhaps counter to intuition, because it suggests that the identification accuracy of bumblebees might be optimized best by using expert and non-expert decisions in a complementary fashion. Experts were more consistent in their decisions when the tests were repeated. This effect was only reliable when correct, incorrect and don’t know decisions were combined. Overall, however, the more consistent observers were also more consistently accurate. Thus, experts’ decision criteria appear to be more stable and this might confer an advantage when identification of the same species is assessed repeatedly. Further, systematic investigations of these different effects (visual vs. expertise-driven identifications, consistency) might inform training that is designed to enhance the accuracy of observers. This could help to reduce error rates and improve species monitoring in the field. Additional identification cues might also be available that could specifically enhance expert performance in practical settings, such as context, behaviour, flight period, or even the presentation of a live or dead specimen. Experts will also have access to additional resources to support identification, such as taxonomic revisions with identification keys and diagrams or natural history collections. We included a short questionnaire in our study to assess field guide usage, which showed that all seven experts reported a combination of up to five field guides and three also utilised smartphone apps. However, our data suggests that this experience did not enhance performance in the current experiment. More generally, it remains unresolved whether sufficient numbers of experts can be found for research to provide the volumes of data required to understand such factors42. Results may also differ for other taxa, but the growth of citizen science and the increase in use of these volunteer data means that species observations, such as those used to inform conservation practitioners, are likely to be heavily reliant on images, either as submissions by non-experts or validation by experts. In conclusion, this study shows that experts and non-experts both make many errors when using standard field guide illustrations to identify species. This raises important questions surrounding the accuracy of species observations in ecological datasets and suggests that consideration should be given to possible inaccuracies when such information is used to inform decision makers. This research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology at the University of Kent (UKC) and conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the British Psychological Association. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before taking part in the survey. A total of 47 people participated in the survey, comprising expert and non-expert observers. Seven experts (3 female, 4 male, mean age = 40 years, range 25–64) were recruited via a national non-governmental organisation (NGO) specialising in the conservation of bumblebees. Forty non-experts were recruited via the School of Anthropology and Conservation at UKC (30 female, 10 male, mean age = 35 years, range = 18–65). Half of these participants (n = 20; 15 female, mean age = 33 years) had a general background in nature conservation and were classified as non-expert conservationists (NEC). The remaining participants (n = 20; 15 female, mean age = 37 years) had little or no experience with nature conservation and were therefore classified as non-expert non-conservationists (NENC). All 47 participants reported good vision or corrected-to-normal. The seven expert participants reported a total of 39 years experience (1–15 years) in the identification of bumblebee species, whereas only seven of the non-experts reported any experience in the identification of bumblebees, ranging from 1 to 8 years. To define this experience further, all participants were asked to evaluate their identification experience on a five-point scale. Self-evaluated bumblebee identification abilities of experts and non-experts did not overlap. Non-experts reported ‘no experience’ (n = 33), ‘little experience’ (6) and ‘some experience’ (1), while experts described themselves as ‘experienced’ (3) and ‘competent’ (4). The stimuli consisted of 20 pairs of images of bumblebees, comprising 10 match pairs (same species shown) and 10 mismatch pairs (different species shown), using images from two different field guides43,44. For match pairs, illustrations were from different artists (see Supplementary Table S1). Images in each pair consisted of colour illustrations of dorsal views of entire bumblebees, presented side-by-side on a white background. The paired images always displayed the same caste, e.g. both males, both queens etc. Stimuli were designed to be viewed on a computer monitor and measured approximately 24 × 15 cm onscreen. No zoom function was included in the survey. Species names were taken from a checklist of extant, native bumblebees recorded in Britain and Northern Ireland (genus Bombus Latreille), downloaded from the Natural History Museum (London) website (www.nhm.ac.uk). For each of the species on this list, the BirdGuide application (‘app’) “Bumblebees of Britain and Ireland” (www.birdguides.com) was used to identify phenotypes associated with each species. For species that exhibited a different phenotype according to caste, an individual entry was listed for every caste that differed in appearance from other castes for each species in that guide. Although listed in the guide, B. pomorum (Panzer, 1805) and B. cullumanus (Kirby, 1802) are believed extinct and so were removed. The randomised list also included two species in the lucorum complex, B. magnus (Vogt, 1911) and B. cryptarum (Fabricius, 1775), but as research shows that these are visually inseparable28, these were also removed. The final list comprised 45 entries representing different UK species and castes where applicable. Twenty entries were randomly sampled from the list for use in the tests. For the survey, the list of the 20 selected entries was randomised again and the first 10 entries were the species and caste used to create match pairs. The remaining 10 entries on the list formed the first half of a mismatch pair, with the second half of the pair being selected from the other 19 species named on the list. The second species was chosen as so to create a mix of visually similar and dissimilar species (Supplementary Table S1). This set of 10 match and 10 mismatch images was used to create an online survey. In the experiment, participants’ bumblebee knowledge was initially recorded using two simple tasks to assess their expertise. First, participants were asked to write down all bumblebee species found in the UK. Then participants were asked to select UK bumblebee species from a list of 40 bumblebees (20 UK and 20 non-UK species) (Supplementary Table S2). On completion of the initial assessments, participants were given the matching task. In this task, participants were asked to classify each pair of bumblebees as the same species, two different species, or provide a “don’t know” response using three different buttons on a standard computer keyboard. No time limit was applied to this task to encourage best-possible performance. Participants completed three blocks of this task. Each of these comprised the 10 match and 10 mismatch pairs and the order of presentation was randomised for the two repeats. In the experiment, each stimulus was therefore shown three times. Inferential statistics were performed using arcsine square-root transformed data. How to cite this article: Austen, G. E. et al. Species identification by experts and non-experts: comparing images from field guides. Sci. Rep. 6, 33634; doi: 10.1038/srep33634 (2016). Elphick, C. S. How you count counts: the importance of methods research in applied ecology. J. Appl. Ecol. 45, 1313–1320 (2008). Farnsworth, E. J. et al. Next-Generation Field Guides. 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Integrating citizen-science data with movement models to estimate the size of a migratory golden eagle population. Biol. Conserv. 184, 68–78 (2015). Lee, T. E. et al. Assessing uncertainty in sighting records: an example of the Barbary lion. PeerJ 3, e1224 (2015). Guisan, A. et al. Predicting species distributions for conservation decisions. Ecol. Lett. 16, 1424–1435 (2013). Tulloch, A. I. T., Possingham, H. P., Joseph, L. N., Szabo, J. & Martin, T. G. Realising the full potential of citizen science monitoring programs. Biological Conservation (2013). Lukyanenko, R., Parsons, J. & Wiersma, Y. Citizen science 2.0: data management principles to harness the power of the crowd in Service-Oriented Perspectives in Design Science Research (eds Hemant, J., Sinha, A. P. & Vitharana, P. ) 465–473 (Springer, 2011). Fitzsimmons, J. M. How consistent are trait data between sources? A quantative assessment. Oikos 122, 1350–1356 (2013). Bonney, R. et al. Citizen Science: A developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. BioScience 59, 977–984 (2009). Silvertown, J. A new dawn for citizen science. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 467–471 (2009). Kelling, S. et al. Taking a ‘big data’ approach to data quality in a citizen science project. Ambio 44, 601–611 (2015). Prŷs-Jones, O. E. & Corbet, S. A. Bumblebees (Richmond Publishing Company, 1991). BBC Wildlife Pocket Guides Number 11 Bumblebees other bees and wasps (BBC Wildlife Magazine, 2006). Many thanks to those that participated in this survey and to those who circulated the survey. Special thanks go to the Bumblebee Conservation Trust (BBCT) who promoted the survey to experts. We are grateful to Dr Nikki Gammans from BBCT, Stuart Roberts from the Bees Wasps and Ants Recording Society (BWARS) and Dr Paul Williams from the Natural History Museum (NHM) for their input and advice given before designing the survey. This project is part of a PhD funded by a University of Kent 50th Anniversary Research Scholarship. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Electronic supplementary material About this article Cite this article Austen, G., Bindemann, M., Griffiths, R. et al. Species identification by experts and non-experts: comparing images from field guides. Sci Rep 6, 33634 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep33634 Deep learning increases the availability of organism photographs taken by citizens in citizen science programs Scientific Reports (2022) Capacity of United States federal government and its partners to rapidly and accurately report the identity (taxonomy) of non-native organisms intercepted in early detection programs Biological Invasions (2020) Journal of Insect Conservation (2020) Citizen-Science and Participatory Research as a Means to Improve Stakeholder Engagement in Resource Management: A Case Study of Vietnamese American Fishers on the US Gulf Coast Environmental Management (2020) Citizen science data accurately predicts expert-derived species richness at a continental scale when sampling thresholds are met Biodiversity and Conservation (2020)

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The key question on the mind of policymakers now is whether Artificial Intelligence would be able to deliver on its promises instead of entering another season of scepticism and stagnation. By Corneliu Bjola* The quest for Artificial Intelligence (AI) has travelled through multiple “seasons of hope and despair” since the 1950s. The introduction of neural networks and deep learning in late 1990s has generated a new wave of interest in AI and growing optimism in the possibility of applying it to a wide range of activities, including diplomacy. The key question on the mind of policymakers now is whether AI would be able to deliver on its promises instead of entering another season of scepticism and stagnation. This paper evaluates the potential of IA to provide reliable assistance in areas of diplomatic interest such as in consular services, crisis management, public diplomacy and international negotiations, as well as the ratio between costs and contributions of AI applications to diplomatic work. The term “artificial intelligence” was first coined by an American computer scientist, John McCarthy in 1956, who defined AI as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.1In basic terms, AI refers to the activity by which computers process large volumes of data using highly sophisticated algorithms to simulate human reasoning and/or behaviour.2 Russell & Norvig use these two dimensions (reasoning and behaviour) to group AI definitions according to the emphasis they place on thinking vs acting humanly. 3 Another approach to defining AI is by zooming in on the two constitutive components of the concept. Nils J. Nilsson defines, for instance, artificial intelligence as the “activity devoted to making machines intelligent” while “intelligence is that quality that enables an entity to function appropriately and with foresight in its environment”. 4 Echoing Nilsson’s view, the European Commission’s High-Level Group on AI provides a more comprehensive understanding of the term: “Artificial intelligence (AI) systems are software (and possibly also hardware) systems designed by humans that, given a complex goal, act in the physical or digital dimension by perceiving their environment through data acquisition, interpreting the collected structured or unstructured data, reasoning on the knowledge, or processing the information, derived from this data and deciding the best action(s) to take to achieve the given goal.”5 While the concept of artificial intelligence continues to evolve, one could argue that the ambition to push forward the frontier of machine intelligence is the main anchor that holds the concept together. As the authors of the report on “Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030” point out, we should not expect AI to “deliver” a life-changing product, but rather to continue to generate incremental improvements in its quest to achieve and possibly surpass human standards of reasoning and behaviour. In so doing, AI also sets in motion the so-called “AI effect”: as AI brings a new technology into the common fold, people become accustomed to this technology, it stops being considered AI, and newer technology emerges.6 In the same way that cars differ in terms of their quality and performance, AI programs also significantly vary along a broad spectrum ranging from rudimentary to super-intelligent forms. In consular and diplomatic affairs, the left side of this spectrum is already visible. At the lower end of the complexity scale, chat-bots now assist with visa applications, legal aid for refugees, and consular registrations.7 More sophisticated algorithms are being developed by MFAs to either advance the spread of positive narratives or inhibit online disinformation and propaganda.8 However, all these applications, regardless of their degree of technical sophistication, fall in the category of ‘narrow’ or ‘weak’ AI, as they are programmed to perform a single task. They extract and process information from a specific dataset to provide guidance on legal matters and consular services. The ‘narrow’ designation for such AI applications comes from fact that they cannot perform tasks outside the information confines delineated by their dataset. By contrast, general AI refers to machines that exhibit human abilities ranging from problem-solving and creativity to taking decisions under conditions of uncertainty and thinking abstractly. They are thus able to perform intellectual activities like a human being, without any external help. Most importantly, strong AI would require some form of self-awareness or consciousness in order to be able to fully operate. If so, strong AI may reach a point in which it will be able not only to mimic the human brain but to surpass the cognitive performance of humans in all domains of interest. This is what Nick Bostrom calls superintelligence, an AI system that can do all that a human intellect can do, but faster (‘speed superintelligence’), or that it can aggregate a large number of smaller intelligences (‘collective superintelligence’) or that it is at least as fast as a human mind but vastly qualitatively smarter (‘quality superintelligence’).9 That being said, strong AI, let alone superintelligence, remain merely theoretical constructs at this time, as all applications developed thus far, including those that have attracted media attention such as Amazon’s Alexa or Tesla’s self-driving prototypes fall safely in the category of narrow AI. However, this may change soon, especially if quantum computing technology will make significant progress. Results from a large survey of machine learning researchers on their beliefs about progress in AI is relatively optimistic. Researchers predict AI will outperform humans in many activities in the next ten years, such as translating languages (by 2024), writing high-school essays (by 2026), driving a truck (by 2027), working in retail (by 2031), writing a bestselling book (by 2049), and even working as a surgeon (by 2053). Furthermore, they believe there is a 50% chance of AI outperforming humans in all tasks in 45 years and of automating all human jobs in 120 years.10 AI and Diplomacy Riding the waves of growing interest about AI in IR and security studies,11 the debate about the role of AI in diplomacy is also gaining momentum, although academic discussions are progressing rather slowly, without a clear analytical focus. As the authors of a recent report on AI opportunities for the conduct of diplomacy point out, discussions about AI in the context of foreign policy and diplomacy often lack clarity in terminology. They suggest that a better understanding of the relationship between AI and diplomacy could come from building on the distinction between AI as a diplomatic topic, AI as a diplomatic tool, and AI as a factor that shapes the environment in which diplomacy is practised. As a topic for diplomacy, AI is relevant for a broader policy agenda ranging from economy, business, and security, all the way to democracy, human rights, and ethics. As a tool for diplomacy, AI looks at how it can support the functions of diplomacy and the day-to-day tasks of diplomats. As a factor that impacts the environment in which diplomacy is practised, AI could well turn out to be the defining technology of our time and as such it has the potential to reshape the foundation of the international order.12 Taking note of the fact that developments in AI are so dynamic and the implications so wide-ranging, another report prepared by a German think tank calls on Ministries of Foreign Affairs (MFAs) to immediately begin planning strategies that can respond effectively to the influence of AI in international affairs. Economic disruption, security & autonomous weapons, and democracy & ethics are the three areas they identify as priorities at the intersection of AI and foreign policy. Although they believe that transformational changes to diplomatic institutions will eventually be needed to meet the challenges ahead, they favour, in the short term, an incremental approach to AI that builds on the successes (and learns from the failures) of “cyber-foreign policy”, which, in many countries, has been already internalised in the culture of the relevant institutions, including of the MFAs.13 In the same vein, the authors of a report prepared for the Centre for a New American Security see great potential for AI in national security-related areas, including diplomacy. For example, AI can help improve communication between governments and foreign publics by lowering language barriers between countries, enhance the security of diplomatic missions via image recognition and information sorting technologies, and support international humanitarian operations by monitoring elections, assisting in peacekeeping operations, and ensuring that financial aid disbursements are not misused through anomaly detection.14 From an AI perspective, consular services could be a low-hanging fruit for AI integration in diplomacy as decisions are amenable to digitisation, the analytical contribution is reasonable relevant and the technology favours collaboration between users and the machine. Consular services rely on highly structured decisions, as they largely involve recurring and routinised operations based on clear and stable procedures, which do not need to be treated as new each time a decision has to be made (except for crisis situations, which are discussed further below). From a knowledge perspective, AI-assisted consular services may embody declarative (know-what) and procedural knowledge (know-how) to automate routinised operations and scaffold human cognition by reducing cognitive effort. This can be done by using data mining and data discovery techniques to organize the data and make it possible to identify patterns and relationships that would be difficult to observe otherwise (e.g., variation of demand for services by location, time, and audience profile). Case study #1: AI as Digital Consul Assistant The consulate of country X has been facing uneven demand for emergency passports, visa requests and business certifications in the past five years. The situation has led to a growing backlog, significant loss of public reputation and a tense relationship between the consulate and the MFA. An AI system trained with data from the past five years uses descriptive analytics to identify patterns in the applications and concludes that August, May and December are the most likely months to witness an increase of the demand in the three categories next year. AI predictions are confirmed for August and May but not for December. AI recalibrates its advice using updated data and the new predictions help consular officers manage requests more effectively. As the MFA confidence in the AI system grows, the digital assistant is then introduced to other consulates experiencing similar problems. Digital platforms could also emerge as indispensable tools for managing diplomatic crises in the digital age and for good reasons. They can help embassies and MFAs make sense of the nature and gravity of the events in real-time, streamline the decision-making process, manage the public’s expectations, and facilitate crisis termination. At the same time, they need to be used with great care as factual inaccuracies, coordination gaps, mismatched disclosure level, and poor symbolic signalling could easily derail digital efforts of crisis management.15 AI systems could provide great assistance to diplomats in times of crisis by helping them make sense of what it is happening (descriptive analytics) and identify possible trends (predictive analytics). The main challenge for AI is the semi-structured nature of the decisions to be taken. While many MFAs have pre-designed plans to activate in case of a crisis, it is safe to assume that reality often defies the best crafted plans. Given the high level of uncertainty in which crisis decision-making operates and the inevitable scrutiny and demand of accountability to occur if something goes wrong, AI integration can work only if humans retain control over the process. As a recent SIPRI study pointed out, AI systems may fail spectacularly when confronted with tasks or environments that differ slightly to those they were trained for. Their algorithms are also opaque, which makes difficult for humans to explain how they work and whether they include bias that could lead to problematic –if not dangerous– behaviours.16 As data is turning into the “new oil”, one would expect that the influence of digital technologies on public diplomacy to maximise interest in learning how to make oneself better heard, listened and followed by the relevant audiences. As the volume of data-driven interactions continue to grow at an exponential rate, one can make oneself heard by professionally learning how to separate ‘signals’ from the background ‘noise’ and by pro-actively adjusting her message to ensure maximal visibility in the online space, in real time. Making oneself listened would require, by extension, a better understanding of the cognitive frames and emotional undertones that enable audiences to meaningfully connect with a particular message. Making oneself followed would involve micro-level connections with the audience based on individual interests and preferences.17 Case study #2: AI as Digital PD Assistant The embassy of country X in Madrid would like to conduct a public diplomacy campaign in support of one of the following policy priorities: increasing the level of educational exchanges of Spanish students in the home country, showcasing the strength of the military relationship between country X and the Spain and boosting Spanish investments in the home country. As it has only £25,000 in the budget for the campaign, it needs to know which version can demonstrate better return on investment. Using social media data, an AI system will first seek to listen and determine the level of interest and reception (positive, negative, neutral) of the public in the three topics. The next step will be to use diagnostic analytics to explain the possible drivers of interest in each topic (message, format, influencers) and the likelihood of the public reacting to the embassy’s campaign. The last step will be to run simulations to evaluate which campaign will be able to have the strongest impact given the way in which the public positions itself on each topic and the factors that may help increase or decrease public interest in them. At the operational level of the digital diplomat decisions are expected to take a structured form as the way to meaningfully communicate with the audience would rely on continuously tested principles of digital outreach with a likely focus on visual enhancement, emotional framing, and algorithmic-driven engagement. AI could assist these efforts by providing reliable diagnostics of the scope conditions for impact via network, cluster and semantic analyses. Prescriptive analytics could also offer insight into the comparative value-added of alternative approaches to digital engagement (e.g., which method proves more impactful in terms of making oneself heard, listened and followed). On the downside, the knowledge so generated would likely stimulate a competitive relationship between the AI system and digital diplomats as most of the work done by the later could be gradually automated. However, such a development might be welcome by budget-strapped MFAs and embassies seeking to maintain their influence and make the best of their limited resources by harnessing the power of technological innovation. Given the growing technical complexity and resource-intensive nature of international negotiations it is hardly surprisingly that AI has already started to disrupt this field. The Cognitive Trade Advisor (CTA) developed by IBM aims to assist trade negotiators dealing with rules of origin (criteria used to identify the origin /nationality of a product) by answering queries related to existing trade agreements, custom duties corresponding to different categories of rules of origin, and even to the negotiating profiles of the party of interest.18 CTA uses descriptive analytics to provide timely and reliable insight into technically complex issues that would otherwise require days or possibly weeks for an experienced team to sort out. It does not replace the negotiator in making decisions, nor does it conduct negotiations by itself, or at least not yet. It simply assists the negotiator in figuring out the best negotiating strategy by reducing critical information gaps, provided that the integrity of the AI system has not been compromised by hostile parties. The competitive advantage that such a system could offer negotiators cannot be ignored, although caveats remain for cases in which negotiations would involve semi-structured decisions such as climate negotiations or the Digital Geneva Convention to protect cyberspace. The problem for such cases lies with the lower degree of data veracity (confidence in the data) when dealing with matters that can easily become subject to interpretation and contestation, hence the need for stronger human expertise and judgement to assess the value of competing courses of action in line with the definition of national interests as agreed upon by foreign policy makers. As Bostrom has shown, the quest for Artificial intelligence has travelled through multiple “seasons of hope and despair”. The early attempts in the 1950s at the Dartmouth College sought to provide a proof of concept for AI by demonstrating that machines were able to perform complicated logical tests. Following a period of stagnation, another burst of innovative thinking took place in early 1970s, which showed that logical reasoning could be integrated with perception and used to control physical activity. However, difficulties in scaling up AI findings soon led to an “AI winter” of declining funding and increased scepticism. A new springtime arrived with the launch of the Fifth Generation Computer System Project by Japan in early 1980s, which led to the proliferation of expert systems as new tools of AI-supported decision-making. After another period of relative stagnation, the introduction of neural networks and deep learning in late 1990s has generated a new wave of interest in AI and growing optimism in the possibility of applying it to a wide range of activities, including diplomacy. The key question on the mind of policymakers now is whether AI would be able to deliver on its promises instead of entering another season of scepticism and stagnation. If AI would be able to demonstrate value in a consistent manner by providing reliable assistance in areas of diplomatic interest such as in consular services, crisis management, public diplomacy and international negotiations, as suggested above, then the future of AI in diplomacy should look bright. If, on the other hand, the ratio between costs and contributions of AI applications to diplomatic work would stay high, then the appetite for AI integration would likely decline. *About the author: Corneliu Bjola, Head of the Oxford Digital Diplomacy Research Group, University of Oxford (#DigDiploROx) | @CBjola Source: This article was published by Elcano Royal Institute 1 John McCarthy (2011): ‘What Is AI? / Basic Questions’, author’s website accessed 22 May 2019. 2 In simple terms, behaviour refers to the way in which people act to a situation in response to certain internal or external stimuli. The classical theory of human behaviour, the Belief-Desire-Intention (BDI) model argues that individual behaviour is best explained by the way in which agents develop intentions (desires that the agent has committed to pursue) out of a broader range of desires (states of affairs they would like to bring about), which in turn are derived from a set of beliefs (information the agent has about the world). The way in which intentions are formed remain a matter of dispute between different schools of thought, with a traditional view emphasizing the role of rational reasoning (the rational dimension) , while others stressing the importance of internal mental processes (the cognitive dimension), or the social context in which this occurs (the social dimension). See Michael E. Bratman (1999): Intention, Plans, and Practical Reason, Cambridge: Cambrigde University Press. 3 Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig (2010): Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach, Third Ed., Pearson, p. 2. 4 Nils J Nilsson (2010): The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 13. 5 High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence (2019): ‘A Definition of Artificial Intelligence: Main Capabilities and Scientific Disciplines’, European Commission, p. 6. 6 Peter Stone et al. (2016): ‘Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030’, Report of the 2015-2016 Study Panel, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. (September). 7 Elena Cresci (2017): ‘Chatbot That Overturned 160,000 Parking Fines Now Helping Refugees Claim Asylum’, The Guardian, 6/III/2017. 8 Simon Cocking (2016): ‘Using Algorithms to Achieve Digital Diplomacy’, Irish Tech News, 19/IX/2016. 9 Nick Bostrom (2014), Superintelligence : Paths, Dangers, Strategies, First Ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 63–69 and 6-11. 10 Katja Grace et al. (2018): ‘Viewpoint: When Will AI Exceed Human Performance? Evidence from AI Experts’, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research 62, July 31, pp. 729–54. 11 Daniel W Drezner (2019): ‘Technological Change and International Relations’, International Relations, 20/III/2019. ; Stoney Trent and Scott Lathrop (2019): ‘A Primer on Artificial Intelligence for Military Leaders’, Small Wars Journal, 2019; Edward Geist and Andrew Lohn (2018): How Might Artificial Intelligence Affect the Risk of Nuclear War? RAND Corporation; Greg Allen and Taniel Chan (2017): ‘Artificial Intelligence and National Security’, Belfer Center; Miles Brundage et al. (2018): ‘The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence: Forecasting, Prevention, and Mitigation’, 20/II/2018. 12 DiploFoundation (2019): ‘Mapping the Challenges and Opportunities of Artificial Intelligence for the Conduct of Diplomacy’, Geneva. 13 Ben Scott, Stefan Heumann, and Philippe Lorenz (2018): ‘Artificial Intelligence and Foreign Policy’, Stiftung Neue Veranwortung. 14 Michael C Horowitz et al. (2018): ‘Artificial Intelligence and International Security’, Center for New American Security (CNAS). 15 Corneliu Bjola (2017): ‘How Should Governments Respond to Disasters in the Digital Age?’, The Royal United Services Institute (RUSI). 16 Vincent Boulanin (2019): ‘The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Strategic Stability and Nuclear Risk’, SIPRI. 17 Bjola, Cassidy, and Manor (2019): ‘Public Diplomacy in the Digital Age’, The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 14, April, p. 87. 18 Maximiliano Ribeiro Aquino Santos (2018), ‘Cognitive Trading Using Watson’, IBM blog, 12/XII/2018.

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. By Jeremy Bowen BBC Middle East editor. Published. 4 June 2017. image copyright Alamy. Fifty years ago, war broke out between Israel and its. The Six Days Campaign (10-15 February 1814) was a final series of victories by the forces of Napoleon I of France as the Sixth Coalition closed in on Paris.. The Six Days Campaign was fought from 10 February to 15 February during which time Napoleon inflicted four defeats on Blücher's Army of Silesia in the Battle of Champaubert, the Battle of Montmirail, the Battle of Château-Thierry, and. Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East is a 2002 non-fiction book by American-born Israeli historian and Israeli ambassador to the United States, Michael Oren, chronicling the events of the Six-Day War fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors.Widely praised by critics, the book won the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for history and spent seven weeks on the New. The Six-Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbors ends with a United Nations-brokered cease-fire. The outnumbered Israel Defense Forces achieved a swift and decisive victory in the brief war. The Six-Day War began on the morning of June 5, 1967, when Israeli and Egyptian forces clashed along Israel's southern border in the region of the Sinai. The first strike was an aerial attack by Israel, in which jets, flying low to evade radar, attacked Arab warplanes as they sat on their runways The Six-Day War involved three distinct battlefronts, tied together by a shared desire on the part of the surrounding Arab states to eliminate Israel and erase the shame of their defeat 19 years earlier when they failed to destroy the nascent Jewish state The Six Day War. Building Israel's Military. The Birth of Israel. Jewish History from 1948 - 1980. Modern Jewish History. Jewish History and Community The origins of the Six-Day War, which was fought between June 5 and June 10, 1967, by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known then as the United Arab Republic, UAR), Jordan, and Syria, include both longstanding and immediate issues.At the time of the Six-Day War, the earlier foundation of Israel, the resulting Palestinian refugee issue, and Israel's participation in the invasion of. The Six-Day War took place in June 1967. The Six-Day War was fought between June 5th and June 10th. The Israelis defended the war as a preventative military effort to counter what the Israelis saw as an impending attack by Arab nations that surrounded Israel. The Six-Day War was initiated by General Moshe Dayan, the The Six-Day War was a war that started on 5 June 1967 and ended 10 June 1967. The fight was between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, but many other countries helped out the different sides. History. The war began when Egypt planned to capture Israel, which was. The 1967 Six-Day War marked a turning point in the relations between the Zionist Israel and the Arabs but as well as and the world at large. The fantastic military performance of the Zionist armed forces of Israel convinced Arabs that the Zionists will continue with the realization of their dreams of a Greater Israel from the time of Theodor Herzl at the expense of both Arab land and Arab lives Six Day War synonyms, Six Day War pronunciation, Six Day War translation, English dictionary definition of Six Day War. n a war fought in the Middle East in June 1967, lasting six days. In it Israel defeated Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, occupying the Gaza Strip,. Provided to YouTube by Universal Music Group Six Days (Remix) · DJ Shadow · Mos Def The Fast And The Furious: Tokyo Drift ℗ 2002 Universal-Island Records Ltd.. Six Day War Lyrics: At the starting of the week / At summit talks you'll hear them speak / It's only Monday / Negotiations breaking down / See those leaders start to frown / It's sword and gun day Two years after the Six Day War (1967), doctors at an Israeli hospital try to save the lives of an Arab terrorist and Israeli officer just brought in after a border clash. Director: Micha Shagrir 34 Six-Day War: see Arab-Israeli Wars Arab-Israeli Wars, conflicts in 1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973-74, and 1982 between Israel and the Arab states. Tensions between Israel and the Arabs have been complicated and heightened by the political, strategic, and economic interests in the area of the great powers Find the perfect Six Day War stock photos and editorial news pictures from Getty Images. Select from premium Six Day War of the highest quality Six-Day War begins. Israel responds to an ominous build-up of Arab forces along its borders by launching simultaneous attacks against Egypt and Syria. Jordan subsequently entered the fray,. The Six Day War. Arguably the most dramatic and emotional event in recent Jewish history is the Six Day War. The backdrop to the event is complicated, but its roots lay in the actions of Egyptian President Gamal Nasser After the Six-Day War ended, President Johnson announced his view of what was required next to end the conflict: Certainly, troops must be withdrawn; but there must also be recognized rights of national life, progress in solving the refugee problem, freedom of innocent maritime passage, limitation of the arms race and respect for political independence and territorial integrity. 2 For the Israelis, the six days of war in June 1967 were a series of stunning victories that doubled the amount of land under their control. Although it estab.. The Six-Day War — the third major Arab-Israeli conflict — was in a sense a continuation of the first two wars. Broadly speaking, the causes of the fighting in 1967 overlapped with the causes of fighting in 1948 (Arab rejection of Israel) and 1956 (continued rejectionism and an Egyptian blockade of shipping to Israel) The Six-Day war began on June 5, 1967 exactly fifty years ago, resulting in a massive reorganisation of territories in the middle-east. Here is a look at the events leading up to and of the Six. 50 Years Ago This Week: The Looming Crisis of the Six-Day War. The June 9, 1967, cover of TIME. TIME. By Lily Rothman June 5, 2017 9:30 AM EDT Milestone moments do. The Six Day War, which took place between June 5 and June 10, 1967, was the first Israeli-Arab conflict in which tanks played a major, decisive role. More than 2,500 tanks were involved. Israel had Super Sherman, Centurion, Patton and AMX-13 tanks. During the Six Day War, Israel used a newer, more effective tank strategy The Six-Day War was fought between June 5 and June 10, 1967, by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt [known then as the United Arab Republic (UAR)], Jo.. Six Days War synonyms, Six Days War pronunciation, Six Days War translation, English dictionary definition of Six Days War. Noun 1. Six-Day War - tension between Arabs and Israeli erupted into a brief war in June 1967; Israel emerged as a major power in the Middle East Six Day. NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER • The first comprehensive account of the epoch-making Six-Day War, from the author of Ally—now featuring a fiftieth-anniversary retrospective Though it lasted for only six tense days in June, the 1967 Arab-Israeli war never really ended. Every crisis that has ripped through this region in the ensuing decades, from the Yom Kippur War of 1973 to the ongoing intifada. Six-Day War synonyms, Six-Day War pronunciation, Six-Day War translation, English dictionary definition of Six-Day War. Noun 1. Six-Day War - tension between Arabs and Israeli erupted into a brief war in June 1967; Israel emerged as a major power in the Middle East Six Day. The Six Day War, 50 years later: Still little chance for harmony in a region of perpetual conflict. The six days of combat that followed, June 5-10, 1967, could scarcely be believed Six-days war synonyms, Six-days war pronunciation, Six-days war translation, English dictionary definition of Six-days war. Noun 1. Six-Day War - tension between Arabs and Israeli erupted into a brief war in June 1967; Israel emerged as a major power in the Middle East Six Day. 776 Israeli soldiers fell in the Six-Day War. Whilst all branches of the service had performed well, the Air Force had, for the first time, played a decisive role: clearing the skies at the outset made all that followed possible. This was the War of the Air Force A war in 1967 between Israel and its Arab neighbors re-shaped the modern Middle East. The Six Day War, or the June '67 War as Arabs prefer, means something different to both sides. To Israelis. The Six-Day War synonyms, The Six-Day War pronunciation, The Six-Day War translation, English dictionary definition of The Six-Day War. Noun 1. Six-Day War - tension between Arabs and Israeli erupted into a brief war in June 1967; Israel emerged as a major power in the Middle East Six Day.. The six day was a military conflict that took place for six days in june of 1967. The combatants involved were Israel against the arab nations of Jordan, Syria and Egypt. The war began when Egyptian forces placed an embargo on imports of crude to Israel. Israel retaliated by launching an unprecedented and decisive air strike on over a dozen airbases in Egypt The Six Day War of June 1967, a series of battles fought by the armed forces of the state of Israel against a combination of Arab armies, is one of manifold significance. From a military standpoint, it presented a model strategy of how to prosecute and win a war waged on several fronts The Six Day War. By Andre Oboler, for Zionism On The Web. The page provides a summary of facts about the Six Day War. Many are compiled from Myths and Facts 1980 - A Concise Record of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, edited by Alan M. Tigay and published by the Near East Report (Tigay, 1980) Was the Six Day War fought in part over Israel's nuclear program? I am trying to show what might be an alternative narrative to what led to that war, or to combine the two narratives together Directed by Ilan Ziv. With Levi Eshkol, Andre Nicolas Malouf, Gamal Abdel Nasser, Abdallah Schleifer. The shooting lasted on six tense days in June 1967, but the Six Day War has never really ended. Every crisis that has ripped through this region in the ensuing decades stems from those six fateful days. On its 40th anniversary, the region remains trapped in conflict and is every bit as. The Six-Day War is proof positive that the core issue is, and always has been, whether the Palestinians and larger Arab world accept the Jewish people's right to a state of their own Michael Scarlett and Eric Gorski Annotated Bibliography Military troops evacuating on the brink of the Six-Day War [Al-Jazeera] Two US-made Israeli Super-Sherman tanks patrolling in East Jerusalem, June,1967 [AFP] Annotated Bibliography Source 1: Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America This first source is a non-biased, Encyclopedia Americana Annual 1968 base Shortly after the Six Day War ended in 1967, Israel annexed East Jerusalem, a highly controversial move that is still not recognized internationally. Part of the fallout — the ownership of a. Eyewitnesses tell the stories of the miraculous battles and events of the Six-Day War. jump to content. Login . Top tags: Iran Binyamin Netanyahu IDF Donald Trump Coronavirus 2020 elections Advertise Following the Six-Day War of 1967, many evangelicals were ecstatic. For 50 years, they had interpreted the tragedies of the 20th century as markers of human decline and divine judgment Six-day war definition, a war fought in June, 1967, between Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, in which Israel captured large tracts of Arab territory. See more Day War A new lecture series in English and on Zoom, looking at four critical moments in Israeli history that have had dramatic impacts on Israel and its people: Michael Oren, former member of Knesset, Israeli Ambassador to the United States and author of the definitive book on the Six-Day War, discusses Israel's extraordinary victory in 1967 which set the political agenda for the next 40 years The Airstrike that Won the Six Day War for Israel. That Israel used her air force to strike the first blow was not a matter of chance; the Israelis had plotted and planned that strike for nearly. For six tense days between June 5 and 10, 1967, war raged between Israel and its neighbors, Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. There are many contexts in which this story makes sense, but only Michael Oren, a widely published American-born Israel scholar and historian, has so far knitted the diverse strands into a cohesive fabric that remains vital and relevant today Israel was forged in, and defined by, war. Each armed conflict, large and small, left its mark. But it is the shortest, the Six Day War of June 1967, that seems to resonate more than all the others The war ended after six days, with Israel in control of the Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank, the Golan Heights and Jerusalem. But despite Israeli jubilation, the war did not settle the issue between Israel and its neighbours and the Palestinians. It led to Security Council resolution 242, the basis of subsequent efforts to trade land for peace Day-by-Day Actions; Arabs' Responsibility for War, Reluctance to Make Peace (June 8, 1967) Build-Up to War; Census of Arabs in Areas Captured by Israel in 1967; Egypt's Statement on Troop Movements into Sinai (May 15 1967) Egypt Re-imposes a Blockade on the Straits of Tiran (May 23, 1967) Causes & Consequences (BICOM) Elie Wiesel on the Six-Day War Synonyms for Six-days war in Free Thesaurus. Antonyms for Six-days war. 2 synonyms for Six-Day War: Six Day War, Arab-Israeli War. What are synonyms for Six-days war There are a total of [ 12 ] Six Day War Aircraft (1967) entries in the Military Factory. Entries are listed below in alphanumeric order (1-to-Z). Flag images indicative of country of origin and not necessarily the primary operator Definition of six-day war in the Definitions.net dictionary. Meaning of six-day war. What does six-day war mean? Information and translations of six-day war in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web Six Day War Anniversary In 2017 Israel marks the 50th anniversary of the Six Day War in which Israel swiftly and surprisingly won, defeating three of the mightiest armies in the region and. The Golan Heights was a well-fortified Syrian front in the Six-Day War. Israeli commander Musa Klein, stationed in the Heights, had only 25 men left in his platoon after fierce fighting. Approaching a Syrian position, he ordered it to be charged upon by his few men, unaware that it was one of the strongest Syrian positions in the Heights, rigged with an impressive array of machine guns. With the fiftieth anniversary of the 1967 Six-Day War this month, we offer a quick review of work on the subject produced over the years by the Middle East Forum's staff and fellows, and by contributors to its flagship journal, Middle East Quarterly (MEQ). Causes. The basic facts of the Six-Day War aren't really in dispute The Six-Day War: Table of Contents|Background & Overview|War Maps June 5 - Never have so few pilots downed so many planes in such a short period of time. At 7:15, the call was sounded: The IAF Commander, Major General Motti Hod, announced the beginning of Operation Focus The Six-Day War of 1899 was fought between the British Empire and the major punti clans of the New Territories in Hong Kong on 14-19 April 1899. The British quickly and decisively ended armed resistance, but to prevent future resistance made concessions to placate the indigenous inhabitants.Despite losing to the better equipped British military, they achieved their ultimate goal which was to. Guy Laron provided a history of the Six-Day War between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, which took place from June 5-10, 1967 Israeli Novelist Highlights Lasting Consequences Of 6-Day War NPR's Robert Siegel interviews Israeli author A.B. Yehoshua, who is active in the Israeli peace movement, about the Six-Day War. This. With Liad Choczner, Abraham Cohen, Eli Cohen, Maurice Cohen. In anticipation of a war with its Arab neighbors Israel spent years planning and refining its war plans and techniques. This program describes in some detail the elements of the plans that were critical to Israel's victory in the 1967 six day war Even though the Jews regained a considerable amount of land when it declared statehood in 1948, gaining even more during the Six Day War, the ownership is endlessly argued. Judah is not truly sovereign yet. It does not yet possess the land in the fullest sense of the word. David C. Grabbe The Second Exodus (Part One Countdown to the Six Day War, also called the 1967 War or an-Naksah. A timeline of significant quotes and actions that led to the Second Arab-Israeli conflict Relive the Six Day War: Immediate aftermath Special 50-Year Anniversary Series: Along with land, Israel finds itself in control of a population it had no intention of governing before the war The Six Day War (1967) This page deals with the Six-Day War of 1967. Please use the following information, links and sources to learn more about the war in which Israel captured East Jerusalem, the West Bank, Gaza, the Sinai, and the Golan Heights. A brief. Trauma lingers from DR Congo's 'Six-Day War,' 20 years on Twenty years ago, two East African countries came to blows in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, fighting a Six-Day War that the. In Israel and the West it is called the Six Day War. In the Arab world, it is known as the June War, or simply as the Setback. Never has a conflict so short, unforeseen and largely unwanted by both sides so transformed the world <p>On one day in June, the balance of air power in the Middle East was turned upside down by perhaps the most ruthlessly effective air superiority campaign in history - Operation <i>Moked</i>, or <i>Focus. </i></p><p>In 1967, the Israeli Air Force was outnumbered more than two to one by the jets of hostile Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq. Operation <i>Focus</i> was Israel's ingenious strike. The Six-Day War was a decisive turning point in the Zionist enterprise. But the project of building Israeli communities on the West Bank and the messianic aspects of Zionism were not born in 1967. They are stages in processes that were initiated by the workers' parties and the Herut movement The Six-Day War began 50 years ago: Israel attacked three of its Arab neighbors, who had threatened to annihilate the Jewish state. Effects of Israel's victory are still felt in the region today This is a remix of a 1971 song by the short-lived UK group Colonel Bagshot called Six Day War. The song is about war and regret, with the refrain, Tomorrow never comes until it's too late. The video was directed by the Hong Kong filmmaker Wong Kar-wai, and stars Chang Chen from the movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Today, June 5, marks the 53rd anniversary of the 1967 war between Israel and its Arab neighbours Egypt, Jordan and Syria. In the six days of conflict, Israel captured the Sinai and Gaza Strip from. Six-Day War: Table of Contents|State Department Documents|Background The United States Government today officially declared itself neutral in the war that broke out this morning when the Arab states launched an all-out land and air war against Israel June 5 marks the 51 st anniversary of the Six-Day War, also known as the June War or the 1967 War or the third of the Arab-Israeli Wars, when Israel achieved a miraculous victory against the. The Six-Day War: The Breaking of the Middle East, by Guy Laron, Yale University Press, RRP£20/$28, 384 pages. Kingdom of Olives and Ash: Writers Confront the Occupation, by Michael Chabon and. SIX-DAY WAR. In June 1967, Panorama reported on the aftermath of the Six-Day War describing the scene in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv and following the Israeli army in Jordan. On June 5 1967 Israel launched a strike against Syria.

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BAYLY (Baily, Baley), CHARLES, first overseas governor of the HBC; fl. c. 1630–80. This remarkable man, whose life was strangely affected and strongly influenced by the religious struggles of his time, was born in London of French Roman-Catholic parents and, to use his own words, “tenderly brought up about the Court of England.” The nationality of his parents and his upbringing as a Roman Catholic at a Protestant court in an age when the older church was unpopular with the majority of Englishmen imply that Bayly senior was probably a member of Queen Henrietta Maria’s household. The quarrels of Charles I with Parliament and the impending Civil War brought changes to court life which, in turn, led Bayly’s parents to send their son to France. He was then about 12 or 13 years of age. Some time later he returned without permission and when at Gravesend en route to London he was enticed on board a ship about to sail for America. In “Maryland in Virginia,” as he usually described his American abode, he was forced to endure 14 years of misery and hardship as a bond-servant. Punishment meted out to him (according to his own account) and the length of his servitude may possibly indicate that Bayly tried unsuccessfully to escape from the situation into which he had been trapped. On gaining his freedom Bayly chose to remain in America and to labour with his hands rather than to return to Europe to find his relations. It was during this period of his life, in 1656 or 1657, that he came under the influence of Elizabeth Harris, the Quaker missionary, and it was on 14 Jan. 1657/58 (or the 14th day of the 11th month 1657, according to Quaker dating) that he was reported to her by a resident of Ann Arundel County, Maryland, as “abiding convinced.” Bayly left for England about the spring or summer of 1660. The journey was apparently inspired by religious zeal rather than a desire to find his relatives, and after brief stays in London and Dover, which must have occurred about the time of the Restoration, he joined forces with another Friend, Jane Stokes, to go to Rome for the purpose of helping the fanatical John Perrot, who was imprisoned there, it is said, for having tried to take the Quaker message to the pope. Their efforts led to their being examined and imprisoned by the Inquisition and Bayly, in “the Prison or Hospital of mad men,” endured a self-imposed fast of 20 days “as a witness against that bloody Generation.” By the end of May all three were released and began the journey back to England. In the summer of 1661 Bayly was imprisoned for two months near Dieppe for proselytizing. After his release he continued his missionary activities in northern France, but when he reached Dunkirk his efforts were frustrated by the English governor’s putting him aboard a royal frigate for England. Bayly was in Dover but 24 hours before he was arrested at a meeting of Friends and on refusing to take the oath of allegiance he was committed to prison on 13 Oct. 1661. It was during his seven months’ confinement with other Quakers in Dover Castle that notice was first taken of his “mad actions,” and that he began to fall out of repute with Friends. Influenced by John Perrot, whose sufferings in Rome had left him with a spiritual pride which brought him into conflict with Quaker leaders in England, Bayly shared with him the responsibility for the ensuing schism which resulted from their practice of carrying to extremes the Quaker revolt against traditional ways of worship. The heretics, who had a considerable following, made no distinction between “hat honour” to men and reverence due to God, and among other things committed the further extravagancy of growing long beards. It was about 1666 or 1667 before “this strange Fire,” as the Quaker historian Sewel called it, “was altogether extinguished,” and by then George Fox had accounted Bayly as having come to naught. On being released from Dover prison early in May 1662 Bayly went to London where he was soon caught up in the storm of persecution which resulted after the passing of the first act of Parliament against Quakers. Between 27 June 1662 and about March or April 1663 he was imprisoned four times for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and on one occasion was brought before and released by the lord mayor, Sir John Robinson, who was to be deputy governor of the future Hudson’s Bay Company. By 1 May 1663 Bayly was imprisoned in Newgate, Bristol, for speaking to two priests in the street, and it was from this gaol that he wrote to Charles II in the following September, threatening him with “a share in the whirlwind of the Lord,” advising him to “avoid rioting and excess, chambering and wantonness,” and referring to the time when they had last spoken together. This reference becomes a matter for speculation. If king and Quaker had indeed spoken together the occasion could have been as recent as within the preceding three years, or as long ago as their childhood. Bayly was next in the custody of the mayor of St. Albans, but in January 1664 he was transferred to that of Sir John Robinson, lieutenant of the Tower of London. The charge against Bayly was one of seditious practices, but he appears never to have been examined. As the Tower was reserved for prisoners of rank and importance Bayly’s transfer there is puzzling, but a possible explanation is that the king, who was himself tolerant of Nonconformists and Roman Catholics, was responsible. By their concerted activities and bold refusal to accept what they considered wrong in the existing order, Friends were understandably and rightly regarded as enemies by its guardians. The charge against Bayly of seditious practices was doubtless due to his constant refusal to take the oath of allegiance, and to his being at cross-purposes with Fox and other Quaker leaders. There seems to be no confirmation of the statement made by the Venetian ambassador in France to the doge and senate that Bayly either aspired to being, or was recognized as, “the principal and most famous in the sect of Quecquers,” or that he was concerned in a “conspiracy” of Friends at Colchester in the latter part of 1663. In 1667 Bayly addressed “a few words of good counsel and advice” to the king, and in the summer of 1669 he obtained a conditional release to go to France for some, as yet, unknown purpose. In late August he was seen in Paris by the disgraced courtier, Henry Savile, caring for the children of the recently deceased Lady Lexington, and was described by him as an “old quaker with a long beard.” Bayly, back in the Tower, petitioned the king in December 1669 for his liberty. This was granted on condition he betook himself “to the Navigation of Hudsons Bay, and the Places lately Discovered and to be Discovered in those parts,” and he was assured of “conditions and allowances . . . agreeable to reason and the nature of his employment.” By this time the founder members of the HBC (including Sir John Robinson) had the satisfaction of knowing that the first voyage to Hudson Bay – that of Chouart Des Groseilliers and Zachariah Gillam in 1668–69 – had been a success, and that a royal charter to protect their privileges was to be granted to them. This charter, dated 2 May 1670, gave the “Governor and Company of Adventurers of England tradeing into Hudsons Bay” the authority to appoint governors to serve overseas and Bayly was the first one to hold that rank. The true reason for such an apparently unsuitable choice has yet to be discovered. The king, interested but not financially involved in the Hudson Bay venture, may have seized the chance not only of ridding himself of an obstinate prisoner but also of helping an old acquaintance by making the conditions of release those of exile with dignity and remuneration. Sir John Robinson, knowing Bayly to be a travelled, fearless, and honest man, as well as a stubborn one, may have made the recommendation. The conditions of release were, no doubt, quite acceptable to Bayly who, after so many years of frustration, must have been spiritually discouraged and materially bankrupt. Before sailing to Hudson Bay Bayly became a stockholder in the HBC to the extent of £300. This holding must have been surety for good behaviour, and as he had been on the king’s allowance when in the Tower, it is probable that Sir John Robinson, or even the Lexington children’s grandfather, Sir Anthony St. Leger, was his guarantor. The stock remained in Bayly’s name until some time between 1673 and 1675. Early in June 1670 Bayly sailed from the Thames for Port Nelson in the Wivenhoe (Capt. Robert Newland). He had Pierre-Esprit Radisson* as a fellow-passenger and aboard the Prince Rupert (Capt. Zachariah Gillam), which sailed in company, was Des Groseilliers. The ships parted company on 18 August at the western end of Hudson Strait. The Prince Rupert arrived safely at Charles Fort on Rupert River, but it was only with difficulty that the Wivenhoe reached Port Nelson. Fogs and contrary winds made the river entrance hard to find, but in September Bayly went ashore and, nailing His Majesty’s arms “in Brasse” on a tree, formally laid claim to the territory. By this time the Indians had left for inland and Bayly’s men were so discouraged that it was decided to sail for Rupert River. By the middle of October, when the Wivenhoe was safely docked there, her captain and chief mate were both dead, presumably from scurvy, and the command had devolved upon Bayly. The governor “repeated and confirmed” the agreements with the Indians which Capt. Gillam had made at Rupert River in 1668 and his relations with them were friendly. In the spring of 1671 Bayly and Radisson went to Moose River where they traded all the beaver skins taken to London that year in the Wivenhoe. Whilst preparations were in hand for the homeward voyage Bayly, accompanied by Thomas Gorst and others, energetically explored the coast and islands of James Bay in shallops. They found signs of past human, but not of Indian, habitation, and assumed the place to be where Henry Hudson had ended his days. They also landed on Charlton Island, where they found traces of Capt. Thomas James’s expedition. As he was unable to get volunteers to stay in the country and was unwilling to make demands, Bayly had no option but to return to England, where he arrived in command of the Wivenhoe in October 1671. From that time until he returned in the summer of 1672 to Charles Fort, Bayly was busily engaged in London helping to dispose of the 1671 homeward cargo and preparing the new outfit. It is extremely probable that it was during the winter of 1671–72 that he married, for it was after he had left for the bay a second time that his wife’s name (Hannah) first appeared in his account in the Company’s grand ledger. On his return to Charles Fort in 1672 Bayly was ordered to settle a post at Moose River. A small house was accordingly built on Hayes Island in 1673, but it does not appear to have been occupied during the whole season. Also, in 1673, Bayly sent Des Groseilliers to trade at Port Nelson, but the trip was unsuccessful as the Indians were inland. The winter of 1673–74 was severe and the consequent shortage of fresh food inevitably resulted in scurvy. Difficulties were further increased by the enmity of the “Nodway” Indians who threatened to destroy Charles Fort, and at one time the back-sliding Quaker himself led a party in pursuit but “could not come near enough to do any Execution.” Bayly’s friendship with the “Cuscudidahs” may have been the cause of a small part of the “Nodways” enmity, but most of it was almost certainly due to their dissatisfaction at the rates of exchange for their furs. This dissatisfaction no doubt resulted. from Father Charles Albanel’s activities at Rupert River in 1672, just prior to Bayly’s return. Albanel had successfully demonstrated that James Bay could be reached overland from Canada and had laid claim to the territory in the French king’s name. By the summer of 1674 Bayly felt the effects on his business of the French traders strategically placed on the rivers flowing to James Bay and, as a result, he was the first Company governor to advocate sending men inland to meet the challenge. During the summer of 1674 Bayly went to Moose River where he made a successful trade by, it is suspected, manipulating the rigid standard of trade laid down by the Company in London. He then sailed on 16 July “to discover Shechittawam [Albany] River” where “no Englishman had been before.” He entered into a treaty with the Indians but as his visit was unexpected he did but little trade. He promised to return in the following year and on 21 July sailed northwards towards Cape Henrietta Maria. Passing the island now known as Akimiski, he named it after a Company committee-member, Sir Robert Vyner. Bayly saw many signs of starvation among the Indians at Ekwan River and at New Severn and, hearing that there was no beaver to be had and that the sea beyond Cape Henrietta Maria was full of ice, decided to return. A forced landing on Charlton Island delayed his arrival at Rupert River until 30 August. Soon after, Father Albanel arrived at Charles Fort overland from Quebec. On this second visit to James Bay he brought Bayly a friendly letter from Buade de Frontenac, but if the seduction of the English governor’s allegiance was any part of the French plan, it was unsuccessful even during the particularly difficult conditions which prevailed in James Bay during the winter of 1674–75. The delay in the arrival of the supply ships in 1674 made Bayly so uneasy that he formed tentative plans to evacuate the fort and return to England in the barque Imploy. But on 17 Sept. 1674, when he was on the point of sailing, two ships arrived and he learned that he had been recalled to London and that his successor, William Lydall, had arrived. However, it was now too late in the season for the ships to return, so Bayly had not only to surrender his command, but also to submit to the humiliation of serving under the newcomer during the 1674–75 season. With so many extra mouths to feed the James Bay veterans advised immediate rationing, but Lydall would not agree and so, later in the season, the men at Charles Fort were “forc’d to pinch harder than they needed have done.” The experienced Bayly managed better at Moose River. Lydall, disgruntled and disgusted, returned to England in 1675 and Bayly resumed the command which he was to hold until his second recall in 1679. He continued to explore James Bay so far as sea transport would allow and, before he left for London, he established and placed John Bridgar in charge of the first English post to be settled in Albany River. During his last summer in James Bay Bayly was visited by Louis Jolliet who had come overland from Quebec under instructions from Frontenac to report on the English posts and to persuade the Indians to trade with the French. Bayly received the French party in friendship but, at the same time, by a recital of English achievements in the bay since 1674, he indicated that he had nothing to fear from them. Bayly arrived in London towards the end of 1679 to face certain charges which had been brought against him. The Company’s surviving records of the period give but few clues as to the nature of the accusations, but there is no doubt that, besides being concerned with the forbidden practice of private trade, they were also connected with the mismanagement of company property due to lack of attention to detail and to slipshod, but not dishonest, methods. These charges were being prepared when Bayly died on 6 Jan. 1680/81 at the Strand home of William Walker of the HBC, the father of Capt. Nehemiah Walker. Two days later, by torchlight and attended by the officers of the ship John and Alexander in which he had returned to London, Bayly was buried at the Company’s expense in the church of St. Paul’s, Covent Garden. Later in the year his successor, John Nixon, received an “escutcheon” from the governor and committee with instructions to have it “set up for the observation of the Indians, that they may be made to understand he [Bayly] is dead, and that the Company used him kindly.” Bayly was survived by his wife, Hannah, who entered into a lengthy argument with the Company about his salary (£50 per annum, until 1678 and £200 per annum afterwards); final agreement was not reached until 1683. When Bayly first went to Rupert River he had already “come to naught” as far as Friends were concerned, and if he had not already shed all his Quaker beliefs the remaining ones could have suffered further in his close companionship with a limited number of highly individual characters under the harsh living conditions of James Bay. The attempt to punish the “Nodways” was one sign of changing views, and since George Fox considered music to be almost as dangerous as gunpowder the purchase of a “violl & shells & strings” was another. But it is not known if his failure to make public use of the prayer books, Bibles, and books of homilies sent to James Bay by the governor and committee was the result of a growing indifference to religion, or to a remaining objection to, and rejection of, an “established” order of worship. Although Bayly was recalled to face charges of mismanagement, his career in the HBC was still an honourable one. Clearly he was a man of action who could not be bothered with book-keeping detail, but his loyalty, enthusiasm, and energy in James Bay were of great value to the Company during the first decade of its existence. The most informative of Bayly’s own writings are: A true and faithful warning unto the people and inhabitants of Bristol . . . with a brief account of some tryalls and sufferings . . . (London, 1663); “The third of the Sixth Month, 1661 [i.e., 3 Aug. 1661] From the Common Goal [sic] in Burkdou in France, about thirty leagues from Dover, where I am a sufferer for speaking the word of the Lord to two Priests” in A narrative of some of the sufferings of J.P. in the city of Rome (London. 1661), 11–16; and A seasonable warning and word of advice to all Papists, but most especially to those in the Kingdome of France (London, 1663). For references to Bayly and guidance to published and ms source material see: Documents relating to Hudson Bay (Tyrrell), 383–97; HBRS, V, VIII (Rich); XI (Rich and Johnson); XXI (Rich); PRO, CSP, Venice, 1661–64; W. C. Braithwaite, The beginnings of Quakerism, ed. H. J. Cadbury (2d rev. ed., Cambridge, 1961); The second period of Quakerism (London, 1919); Nute, Caesars of the wilderness, 131ff.

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A baseball player fighting during a game isn’t that unusual. A player fighting twice in less than a year is probably a little rarer. Fighting twice in less than a year with your own teammates – during a game – may be unprecedented. But that’s exactly what happened to St. Louis Cardinals outfielder Ted Cather. The resulting fallout led to him becoming a Boston Brave and helping the Miracle Braves to the National League pennant in 1914. To the Cardinals and their future Hall of Fame manager Miller Huggins, one incident may have been an accident but twice was certainly a trend. So when Cather got into a fistfight with pitcher Dan Griner during a game in late June of 1914, Huggins had enough of his streak-hitting player and Cather was traded to the last-place Boston Braves. Little did Huggins know that the trade would help propel the Braves from last to first as Cather, as a right-handed-hitting platoon player, was one of several pieces that fell into place for the Miracle Braves. In the 50 games the 5-foot-10, 178-pound Cather played for the Braves after the trade, against almost exclusively left-handed pitching, he hit .297 with 27 RBIs. Sporting Life took notice after the season in a review of the Braves’ incredible run when it wrote that the team “was considerably strengthened by the acquisition.”1 It was quite a turn of events for Cather who, at the end of the 1913 season wasn’t even sure if he would be in the major leagues in 1914, let alone play in and win the World Series. Theodore Physick Cather, born on May 20, 1889 in Chester, Pennsylvania, was the youngest of three sons born to Samuel and Mary Cather.2 He was named after his maternal grandfather, Theodore Physick. His father, Samuel, who was a carpenter, was of Scottish descent and pronounced his last name “Car-ther.”3 Both parents had been born on Maryland’s Eastern Shore but had moved to Chester, 15 miles south of Philadelphia on the Delaware River, before Ted’s birth. By the time Ted had turned 11, his father was no longer living with the family in Chester but had moved to Rising Sun, Maryland. Ted lived with his mother, two older brothers, his grandmother, and an uncle. By 1902 he was getting noticed as a pitcher while playing for the Larkin School team.4 As he got older, he found himself pitching for local semipro teams.5 Before he got his break in Organized Baseball, Cather worked many jobs to help his family. He was a plumber, barber, druggist, roller-skating instructor, and an asbestos coverer in a locomotive works.6 By 1909 Cather was a pitcher of some note in the Philadelphia semipro community. His break came that year when the Johnstown Johnnies of the Class B Tri-State League came to Chester to play a game. Pitching for the Delaware County All-Stars, Cather shut out the Johnnies. Curtis Weigand, manager of the Johnnies, signed him to a contract soon after the game.7 He made a big splash right away, pitching a two-hitter against Lancaster on May 4.8 Weigand also noted Cather’s ability to hit the ball and played him in the outfield on occasion.9 Cather played with the team until July 3. It’s not clear whether he was let go or left the team on his own. But he must have made an impression because Lancaster manager Marty Hogan signed him in January for the 1910 season.10 Cather responded with a fine season in which he went 20-9, finishing second in the league in wins. It was a good year for Cather: Immediately after the season he was sold to Toronto of the Eastern League11 and then he was married on November 1 to Martha Worshaw. At the age of 21, Cather’s life seemed to be heading in the right direction. Cather started the season at Toronto in 1911. The Harrisburg Patriot reported early in the season that he was “doing good work on the mound”12 but by midseason his record was only 3-4 and Toronto, with a chance to add former major-leaguer Les Backman, demoted Cather to Troy of the Class B New York State League.13 Cather finished at Troy with a 6-7 record. What was once a promising career seemed to be headed in the wrong direction. But just as in 1910, another opposing team picked him up. This time it was the Scranton Miners of the Class B New York State League. Instead of just pitching for the Miners, Cather was called on to both pitch and play the outfield. In his first game as a pitcher, he took a no-hitter into the ninth inning and went 4-for-4 at the plate with a triple.14 He played in 80 games for the Miners, 49 as an outfielder. Cather ended the season batting .312, a figure that caught the notice of the sixth-place St. Louis Cardinals. Looking to find any kind of hitting, the Cardinals drafted Cather from Scranton at the annual meeting of the National Baseball Commission on September 16.15 A week later he made his major-league debut in Brooklyn in a 7-2 Cardinals’ loss to the Superbas. Playing in the outfield, Cather was red-hot in the five games he played in, batting .421. The buzz began to grow in the offseason that Cather would become a key player for the Cardinals in the 1913 season. By the time Cather arrived in Columbus, Georgia, for spring training in 1913, he was already penciled in by the press as an extra outfielder on the big-league roster.16 Cather played well enough to make the roster though he was still shaky in the field. But his hitting won him a spot going north with the big club. For years after, Huggins was credited with moving Cather permanently from pitcher to everyday player.17 And while Huggins didn’t pitch him (except for one-third of an inning in 1913 in mop-up relief), he hardly can be given credit for seeing Cather’s ability at bat. As far back as his first season in Johnstown, Cather had played some games in the field. His 1912 season proved that he was a better everyday player than a pitcher. Cather started the season on the bench but soon replaced Jimmy Sheckard in the outfield.18 But just as soon as Cather was getting accustomed to starting, on June 13 he broke his arm when he crashed into wall making a catch on a Gavvy Cravath fly ball. He held onto the ball but was out for about a month.19 He made it back onto the field by mid-July and started the second game of a doubleheader against the New York Giants on July 17. In the third inning the Giants’ Larry Doyle hit a short fly ball between Cather and Lee Magee. The papers at the time said that it fell in between the two.20 Magee remembered it three years later as the two colliding on a ball that Magee had called.21 As the two ran in at the end of the inning, they began jawing at each other. According to the papers, Cather swung and hit Magee with a punch.22 As with almost any baseball fight, chaos ensued. Umpire Malcolm Eason and several Cardinals players moved in to break up the melee. Cardinals first baseman Ed Konetchy was punched breaking up the fight.23 The New York Times wrote, “The fight stopped the game for a time and the spectators who tried to jump over the boxes into the field [to get a better view of the fight] were turned back by the police.”24 When peace was brought to the situation, Eason threw both players out of the game. So the fight wouldn’t continue in the locker room, 6-foot-5, 228-pound backup catcher Larry McLean was sent with the two to make sure there was no more bloodshed.25 National League President Thomas Lynch fined each player $25. He said that the incident “warranted suspension” but that because St. Louis had so many injuries, he wouldn’t punish them more than the fine.26 A little over two weeks later, Cather and Magee were pictured on the front page of The Sporting News. Both were in uniform with boxing gloves on. The picture was entitled “Battling Magee and Kayo Cather.” Both players were smiling as The Sporting News made light of their battle.27 Despite Cather’s problems with his fellow outfielder, the newspapers reported that he was making progress as an outfielder.28 A wire service story with the headline “Teddy Cathers [sic] Makes Good” was carried in many papers throughout the country. The story related how the Cardinals were turning many of their players into outfielders in the hopes of bettering the team.29 And Cather was one of their latest successful projects. While Cather’s fielding was getting better, his hitting was not. He was suffering through a long slump. Then on September 1, he broke his leg sliding into second base. His season was over. Having batted just .213 for the season, Cather was released, along with catcher Skipper Roberts, to Indianapolis on September 12. Cather was facing what could have been the end of his major-league career. His personal life was in a state of flux as well. After the season, he started divorce proceedings against his wife, Martha, on the grounds of unfaithfulness. At the time of the divorce filing, he didn’t even know where she was living.30 She had taken their 3-year-old son as well, which led to one of the more bizarre events in Cather’s life. While driving through Camden, New Jersey, on December 15, Cather saw his mother-in-law walking his son down the street. He stopped the car, jumped out, and grabbed the boy from the woman. His mother-in-law screamed, then ran to the car and interlocked her arms around the steering wheel.31 But in 1914, luck changed for Cather. The Indianapolis team had a change of heart, decided it didn’t want Cather, and returned him to the Cardinals. With the Federal League making raids on the major leagues, the Cardinals needed Cather to fill in as an extra outfielder.34 The Federal League also was interested in Cather. Otto Knabe, manager of the Baltimore Terrapins, talked to Cather about playing for his team.35 But in the end, Cather went to camp with St. Louis and made the squad as one of only two right-handed-hitting outfielders. The other was Cather’s former fighting partner, Lee Magee.36 Cather started the season on fire. He was among the league leaders in hitting. Toward the end of May, Cather was hitting .352, tied for third in the National League. But the events of May 27 signaled the beginning of the end of Cather’s tenure with the Cardinals. During a 7-4 home loss to the Boston Braves, Cather fought pitcher Dan Griner after Griner became incensed over a play Cather made in the outfield. The two fought long enough for the 6-foot-1, 200-pound Griner to open up a gash on Cather’s chin that required five stitches to close.37 The teammates were fined $100 apiece by Huggins and left home as the team traveled to Chicago. A month later, despite his hot bat off the bench, Cather was traded with infielder-outfielder Possum Whitted to the Braves for pitcher Hub Perdue. Perdue was 2-5 with a 5.82 ERA for Boston when he was traded, yet the Cardinals were willing to give up both Cather and Whitted for him. Four years later Miller Huggins explained, “I needed a pitcher badly.” He “discovered that Hub Perdue might be had. I was glad to get him as he always pitched great against my club.”38 After two fights with his own teammates, it was clear to the press that Cather “could not get along very well with several of the players.”39 Baseball Magazine wrote that he was “condemned at St. Louis as too crude” and was just “tossed in as part of a midsummer trade for Hub Perdue.”40 Whatever the reason for the trade, Cather paid off for Braves manager George Stallings. Playing left field when the Braves opposed a left-handed pitcher, Cather hit .295 in 41 games from July 4 to the end of the season.41 The team turned around shortly after the trade and played great baseball, rising from last place to win the pennant. In a retrospective after the season, William A. Phelon in Baseball Magazine wrote that the trade “is often spoken of as something which counted heavily in the winning of the flag. It did and it didn’t. As far as any change in the playing array was concerned it made little difference.” He went on to note that “Cather was little used” but “Whitted made himself a regular outfielder toward the end of the season.” But he did believe the trade was responsible in part for the Braves’ turnaround. “Where the trade made the most real difference was in the way it woke up the fellows who still clung to the payroll and made them hustle from that time on until the end,” Phelon wrote.42 The nationally syndicated columnist “Monty” had a different take: Stallings “takes boobs and turns them into star ball players.” That was “9/10 of the reason” why Braves played so well.43 Whatever effect the trade had, the Braves turned their season around and won the National League pennant. Their reward was to play the powerful Philadelphia Athletics in the World Series. The Braves continued their amazing play, sweeping the Athletics in four games. Cather played in one game in the Series, Game Two. Batting third in the lineup, he was 0-for-5 against future Hall of Famer Eddie Plank as the Braves eked out a 1-0 win. After the World Series Cather was the toast of his hometown, Chester. October 22 was declared “Cather Day.” The day included a parade and banquet. The parade consisted of baseball teams from throughout the area.44 At night, 250 people attended a banquet at the Masonic Hall.45 Cather, in a brief speech, “predicted that the Braves would carry off both pennants again in 1915.”46 If the Braves would win the pennant in 1915, it would be without Cather, however. Spring training was a highlight of Cather’s 1915 season. After catching a train with a bunch of his teammates from Chester to Macon, Georgia, Cather found himself being tried out in the infield by Stallings. Stallings needed some depth in the infield and felt that Cather had the “natural grace and intelligence” to be a good utilityman.47 Stallings worked Cather at both shortstop and third base but mostly at third. Third base had been a question mark for Stallings even in 1914, with five players holding down the position at one time or another during the season. Charlie Deal, who had played the most games at the position in 1914, had jumped to the Federal League. With Red Smith getting the starting nod, it fell to Billy Martin, who had played all of one game at third, to be Smith’s backup for the coming season. But Martin had been injured early in training camp and Stallings decided to move Cather from the crowded outfield battle to the infield.48 None other than Grantland Rice noticed that “Cather is playing fine ball at third, fielding well and batting up with the club average and a few points higher.”49 Cather’s hometown paper, the Chester Times, went even further about “Lucky Ted,” writing that he “may get a regular berth.”50 But when the season began, Cather again found himself on the bench, starting only against left-handed pitchers. He struggled, batting .206 in 40 games. He did, however, hit the only two home runs of his major-league career. Both, curiously, came off future Hall of Famer Rube Marquard in different games.51 But it wasn’t enough for Cather to keep his spot on the roster as the Braves floundered. On July 12 he played his last major-league game. With the Braves’ record at 32-41 after a doubleheader sweep by the St. Louis Cardinals, Stallings released Cather, along with fellow outfielder Larry Gilbert, to Toronto of the International League.52 Though Cather never played in another major-league game, the release was far from the end of his baseball career. For the next ten years he played at the highest level of the minor leagues, just a short jump to the majors. Cather played for less than a month before Toronto released him. On August 10 he signed with Jersey City, where he finished out the season. His combined average was .284. Soon after the season was over, the Braves, who still had a string on Cather, traded him, outfielder Herbie Moran, and catcher Bert Whaling to Vernon of the Pacific Coast League for promising outfielder Joe Wilhoit.53 While Cather’s professional career was in disarray, he had managed to get his personal life under control. After finally being granted a divorce from his wife, he married Ida E. Dodge, a 28-year-old nurse. They moved to Charlestown, Maryland, at the head of Chesapeake Bay, a town he would live in for the rest of his life.54 Cather’s baseball odyssey continued in April 1916. Vernon sold him to Montreal along with infielder Billy Purtell and Herbie Moran.55 So Cather headed to Hackettstown, New Jersey, where the Royals had their training camp. The Royals were interested in trying Cather at second base.56 All of the changes of teams left Cather in a strange position of being paid by three different clubs in 1916, though Organized Baseball’s National Commission had to step in to ensure that he got his full amount. Cather’s release from Jersey City to Vernon was brought about by the Boston Braves, who had entered in an agreement with Vernon by which that club would pay Cather $325 a month and Boston would make up the rest of his salary. But Vernon decided it couldn’t pay Cather that much, and sent him to Montreal, which would pay him $250 a month. The National Commission ruled that Vernon had to pay the extra $75 a month.57 Cather got into 83 games for Montreal, playing solely in the outfield and batting .274. He returned to Montreal for 1917 and didn’t fare much better. He batted only .240 in 87 games. But he did manage to supplement his salary by hitting the Durham Bull, Blackwell Tobacco Company’s iconic ad for its popular smokeless tobacco product, which adorned the outfield walls of some of the parks in the International League. If you “hit the bull,” it was worth $50. Cather did it three times during the season.58 After the season the International League ousted Montreal, Richmond, and Providence in an effort to cut travel costs. Binghamton, Jersey City, and Syracuse were added to the league.59 As a result, Cather was a free agent. He was snapped up by Rochester manager Arthur Irwin and went to training camp.60 But there was a dispute over who actually owned the rights to Cather and eventually his contract was awarded to Newark.61 For the first time in his career, Cather was a regular and played injury-free. He played in all 127 games for the Bears, batting .278 and playing mostly in the outfield. In 1919 Cather’s batting average dipped to .226 in 105 games. After the season he was looking for a new team. When none came knocking, Cather played in an industrial league in Ohio for the 1920 season.62 But in 1921, Oakland Oaks owner Cal Ewing signed him to a contract that led to Cather’s best playing days.63 For the next four-plus years, Cather was a mainstay in the Oaks’ lineup. In his first season, 1921, he was mostly used as a utility player, getting into 63 games and batting .217. However, for the next couple of seasons, Cather improved on the previous season’s performance, culminating in his best season as a pro in 1923. Playing in 184 games that season, Cather led the Oaks in batting average (.344), hits (269), and doubles (46), and was second on the team in home runs (10) and triples (11). While 1923 was the high mark professionally for Cather, personally it was a low mark as he filed for divorce from his second wife, saying she had struck him.64 The 1924 season was another good one for Cather; he batted .300 in 173 games. But the 35-year-old player was noticeably slowing down. The Oakland Tribune wrote that he wasn’t a “good ground coverer” in the outfield.65 Cather started the 1925 season off poorly with the Oaks. By the end of May, he was hitting only .220.66 On June 14 the Oaks released him so they could sign Chicago Cubs castoff Hack Miller.67 Sacramento picked up Cather for some of the remaining season but cut him loose after it. The next year, 1926, became one of new starts for several reasons for the 37-year-old Cather. First, his third wife, the former Clara “Carrie” Bishop of Wilmington, Delaware,68 gave birth to his second child, a daughter named Mary Theo Cather.69 Second, after turning down and offer to become player-manager of the Logan Collegians of the Utah-Idaho League,70 Cather returned home to Maryland and joined the Easton Farmers of the Class D Eastern Shore League. Buck Herzog, manager of the Farmers, told the press that Cather was “setting a fine example” and had been given the nickname Old Folks by his teammates.71 He played in the Eastern Shore League for two seasons. In 1927 he briefly succeeded Herzog as manager of the Farmers. He also spent time with the Cambridge Canners of the ESL. At the age of 38 he retired after the 1927 season, going out with a flourish: He had batted over .300 in both seasons. By the time Cather retired, he was well established as a businessman in Charlestown. He owned the general store in town and became Charlestown’s postmaster.72 He built and operated 10 rental cabins for summer tourists along Chesapeake Bay.73 Later he became a member of the town commission. He spent the rest of his life in Charlestown. On March 3, 1945, Cather went into the hospital for an abdominal abscess that turned out to be appendicitis.74 While recovering in Union Hospital in Elton, Maryland, on April 9, Cather died of a coronary thrombosis at the age of 55. He was buried in Charlestown Cemetery.75 This biography is included in “The Miracle Braves of 1914: Boston’s Original Worst-to-First World Series Champions” (SABR, 2014), edited by Bill Nowlin. 1 Sporting Life, October 17, 1914 2 Baltimore City Health Department Certificate of Death 3 Richmond News Leader, October 31, 1991 4 Chester Times, October 8, 1914 5 Chester Times, October 8, 1914 6 Chester Times, March 26, 1913 7 Undated article in Cather’s Hall of Fame file 8 Williamsport Gazette & Bulletin, May 7, 1909 9 Philadelphia Inquirer, June 6, 1909 10 Trenton Times, April 4, 1910 11 Reading Eagle, October 4, 1910 12 Harrisburg Patriot, April 26, 1911 13 Sporting Life, July 1, 1911 14 Chester Times, May 13, 1912 15 Sporting Life, September 21, 1912 16 Washington Post, March 10, 1913 17 Sporting Life, October 17, 1914 18 Chester Times, February 2, 1914 19 Undated article in Cather’s Hall of Fame file 20 Syracuse Herald, July 18, 1913 21 Brooklyn Eagle, July 23, 1916 22 Syracuse Herald, July 18, 1913 23 New York Times, July 18, 1913 26 Alton (Illinois) Evening Telegram, July 19, 1913 27 The Sporting News, August 7, 1913 28 Duluth News-Tribune, August 4, 1913 29 Postville (Iowa) Review, August 22, 1913 30 Chester Times, October 26, 1913 31 Sporting Life, December 20, 1913 32 Duluth News-Tribune, December 21, 1913 33 Philadelphia Inquirer, December 16, 1913 34 Baseball Magazine, February 1915 35 Chester Times, February 2, 1914 36 Sporting Life, March 2, 1914 37 Pittsburgh Press, May 29, 1914 38 Fort Wayne News & Sentinel, April 16, 1918 39 Chester Times, October 8, 1914 40 Baseball Magazine, December 1914 41 Baseball Digest, October 1964 42 Baseball Magazine, February 1915 43 Miami Herald Record, September 10, 1914 44 Philadelphia Ledger, October 22, 1914 45 Chester Times, October 17, 1914 46 Philadelphia Inquirer, October 23, 1914 47 Boston Journal, March 13, 1915 48 Boston Journal, March 24, 1915 49 Washington Post, March 20, 1915 50 Chester Times, March 5, 1915 51 Bob McConnell and David Vincent, SABR Presents the Home Run Encyclopedia. (New York: Macmillan, 1996), 364. 52 Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 14, 1915 53 Ogden (Utah) Standard, November 27, 1915 54 Chester Times, September 22, 1915 55 Binghamton Press, April 4, 1916 56 Montreal Daily News, April 21, 1916 57 Wilkes-Barre Times, July 1, 1916 58 Rochester Democrat & Chronicle, July 20, 1917 59 William Brown, Baseball’s Fabulous Montreal Royals. (Montreal: Robert Davies Publishing, 1996), 24. 60 Wilkes-Barre Times, April 27, 1918 61 Rochester Democrat & Chronicle, May 20, 1918 62 The Sporting News, February 17, 1921 63 San Francisco Chronicle, February 5, 1921 64 Oakland Tribune, February 9, 1923 65 Oakland Tribune, April 3, 1924 66 Oakland Tribune, May 24, 1925 67 The Sporting News, June 18, 1925 68 Undated article in Cather’s Hall of Fame file 69 Richmond News Leader, October 31, 1991 70 Ogden Standard, March 30, 1926 71 Undated article in Cather’s Hall of Fame file 72 Undated article in Cather’s Hall of Fame file 73 Richmond News Leader, October 21, 1991 74 Baltimore City Health Department Certificate of Death 75 Bill Lee, The Baseball Necrology (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2003), 65.

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Joy James uses poet Lucille Clifton's image of “new bones” to reflect on a series of revolutionary anniversaries in 2021 and the nature of political leadership. “Elites do not invest in popular mechanisms that could replace them.” For the fearful bravely laughing as we fall into liberation formations. We recognize the devastations of lack of clean water, adequate food and shelter but the cause of those deficits cannot be remedied through policy. If so, then there is no need for confrontation only accommodation with colonialists and petitions for greater benefit packages. — Amilcar Cabral, Return to the Source we will wear new bones again. we will leave these rainy days, break out through into sun and honey time. worlds buzz over us like bees, we be splendid in new bones. other people think they know how long life is. how strong life is. — Lucille Clifton, “new bones” Introduction: New Bones and New Intellectualism Black poet, educator, and parent, Lucille Clifton’s “new bones” shapes skeletal reflections on revolutionary anniversaries: the 2020 summer of uprisings in response to the extrajudicial murders of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor, the 1871 Paris Commune; the 1951 We Charge Genocide: The Historic Petition to the United Nations for Relief From a Crime of The United States Government Against the Negro People in which the Communist Party USA Black-led Civil Rights Congress (as would Malcolm X a decade later) submitted the petition seeking justice and decolonization after WWII. The document utilizes the 1948 UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide to draw attention to white supremacist terror, police and prison violence, rape, poverty, denial of civil and human rights, and labor exploitation. 2021 is also the anniversary of the 1971 Attica rebellion following George Jackson’s assassination by San Quentin prison guards and administrators— another rebel trauma milestone in this excavation of new bones emanating from grassroots communities and Black liberation struggles. “New bones” grow out of the political cultures of material struggles. Core tenets of 20th century Black revolutionary struggles are embodied by the US Black Panther Party’s militancy, and shaped by rural Black radicals in the Jim Crow south and Black urban youths. Antiblack enslavement and genocide fueled the rise of international capitalism. New bones as political formations in resistance are international. Liberation movements seek to align in solidarity. For example, the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) and its central leader Amilcar Cabral urged ethical people to “return to the source” in order to end (neo)colonial exploitation, extraction, and terror. Transformative culture—a peoples’ political culture— arises from the mass demanding survival and dignity for their daily needs. The source, as discussed below, does not emanate from an employment sector or the prestige of any institution aligned with states and regimes. US “democratic” culture routinely denies access to political power through voter suppression, gerrymandering, the electoral college, lobbyists, as well as legislation and courts that repress the civil or human rights of the indigenous/Black, laboring/working classes, the undocumented and the imprisoned. “Antiblack enslavement and genocide fueled the rise of international capitalism.” When hegemonic leaders—in or out of government— market themselves as the source of “new bones” for social justice, their popularity is often leveraged, but rarely by the masses. Rather, mass media, political parties, and nonprofit industries invest in managing resistance to elite-dominated political-economic orders by raising a favorable profile visibility of their desirable leaders. Black feminist leadership has been celebrated for delivering an electoral victory (Black men were the second largest voting demographic for the Biden/Harris administration, thus Black people were key to defeating President Donald Trump). Still, hegemonic Black leadership—elevated during the Obama administration— has not developed and delivered a system for working and laboring classes to elect and remove “liberation leaders” based on their lack of accountability to under-resourced communities. Since the recent uprisings against antiblack police violence, millions have taken to the streets and hundreds of millions of donor dollars have poured into organizations and monetized political struggles. As Black suffering and protests become spectacles (similar to 19th- and 20th-century lynching) that fuel news, publications, and prestige, non-elite communities still lack access to power necessary to control the legal apparatus (as of 2021 no anti-lynching bill has passed into law) that legitimizes predatory policing. In newly-found markets, movement millionaires emerge to claim not only that they have rightly “earned” their wealth but that they sport new bones for effective leadership for mass and activist cadres that will not be purchased or funded. “Non-elite communities still lack access to power necessary to control the legal apparatus that legitimizes predatory policing.” Increasingly, academics—as rising celebrities or defenders of movement organizations that garner access to considerable wealth—play curious roles in stabilizing civil rights markets and defending questionable accumulations within their networks. The broken bones and necks of vulnerable civilians and militants confronting state violence spark movements. The most vulnerable activists mobilize in streets and under resourced communities. They tend to have low visibility and limited funds. Routinely surveilled, indexed, harassed, and arrested, they are most likely to be injured, incarcerated or killed by police forces or white supremacist vigilantes. Elites (in the making) benefit as their personal identities and ideologies align with dominant progressivism and liberalism to elevate new “movement leaders” who were not elected or chosen by grassroots or marginalized communities. Democratic social movements should be accountable to the mass, not the elites. Logically, elites do not invest in popular mechanisms that could replace them. The ideological conflicts between Black (petit) bourgeois progressives and their militant counterparts are largely shaped by desires and strategies for power (and for some, prestige). These conflicts might spur new bone growth between a class with leisure and institutional connections and classes marked as expendable workers in hustle/underground/Covid-essential/prison worker economies. Paltry numbers of the petit bourgeoisie betray their class interests to align with the working class, unemployed, and imprisoned (the “disposables” or “replaceables” who have nothing to lose but their chains and their lives). However, accountability on this level of solidarity and engagement is still unclear. Boundaries are rarely sufficiently established. Victims of state violence grapple with boundaries and autonomy among allies whose ideologies they might not share. Still, activists can use their platforms to promote the agency, not just the victimization, of working/laboring classes. Rather than exploit or personally benefit from social justice movements, ethical and reliable organizers struggle with those trapped in prisons and hyper-exploitative economies and poverty-wages, especially domestic care laborers who tend to the needs of children, elders, and the medically fragile. Such Captive Maternals manage “leftovers,” exhaustion, and stress in order to nurture their own families and communities without monetary compensation. “Victims of state violence grapple with boundaries and autonomy among allies whose ideologies they might not share.” Philanthropic funders work in tandem with academics and public intellectuals to redirect the “source” of transformative political culture away from the mass and towards the elite strata. Guerilla intellectuals resist such maneuvers. Beyond institutional or academic definitions of the “Black Radical Tradition,” valuable political strategies can be found in the writings of: imprisoned Black queer theorist Stevie Wilson who analyzes the “Imprisoned Black Radical Intellectual Tradition”; The Abolition of Slavery National Network (ASNN) which theorizes slavery abolition (rather than prison abolition) to focus on enslavement in prisons; August Nimtz’s 1985 “Marxism and the Black Struggle: The ‘Class v. Race’ Debate Revisited”; and, National Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression Executive Director Frank Chapman’s Marxist-Leninist Perspectives on Black Liberation and Socialism. State violence and co-optation require analyses of plutocracy amid global influencers. The investment of entertainment industries in social justice movements can gentrify rebellions after trauma leads to outrage and denunciations and protesters burn precincts . If development is a byproduct of capitalism’s ideological strategies, then inquiries into how radical movements are violently crushed and then turned into teachable moments that stabilize existing structures are relevant. Radical actors scrutinize and take actions to address the local and the global; e.g;, US drone strikes killing civilians and US mercenaries proliferating under the watch of AFRICOM; ICE deportations of Haitians and Africans accelerating under the Biden /Harris administration. In the material world, plutocracies tend to break the bones of resistors fighting for a better world for the masses, not just the individual. New bones do not organically grow within the academy, political celebrity, or professionalized activism. Bureaucratic imperial democracy and donor capitalism do not finance the growth of autonomous movements against empire and capital. Belarus activists argue that advocacy democracy plays on a political continuum in which advocates represent (or manage) the masses in pursuit of managerial political goals. “New bones do not organically grow within the academy, political celebrity, or professionalized activism.” Post-Civil War in the US, a Black elite, a “talented tenth,” was funded by white philanthropists to ensure that emancipated Blacks, terrorized by white supremacists and capitalists, would channel their energies into “uplift” mechanisms directed by the Black petit bourgeoisie but controlled by white capitalists. (Prestigious HBCUs such Morehouse and Spelman colleges take their namesakes from white philanthropists Henry Morehouse and Rockefeller family member Laura Spelman.) Movements were trained on the ground by communities struggling with the material conditions of deprivation and antiblack violence. Decades later, funding for campus “community engagement” has professionalized students into coordinators. Under the aegis of institutional education, professional intellectuals and professional activists are granted leeway to function in loco parentis for the parens patriae with little to no accountability to, or control by, impacted communities. Funding for current liberation movements has become less transparent than registering for business through the federal government’s System for Reward Management (SAM). Investment capital’s incursions into protests and cultures of political resistance have manufactured movement millionaires and political influencers who replicate the performances of reality tv/media stars while peaceful protesters kettled and beaten in the Bronx by the NYPD create the cultures of resistance. Walter Rodney’s “guerilla intellectuals” (Rodney was assassinated in 1980 in Guyana for organizing a peoples’ movement) sets a high standard. Still, it is one worth seeking given that (non)profit corporations and government continue to literally collect the bones of Black victims and rebels. In the case of the University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University claiming possession of the bones of MOVE children murdered by Philadelphia police, the remains of our casualties from state violence become instructional material for students at prestigious universities. This outrage is not unique. Families report that police routinely keep (or lose) remains from autopsies of victims who die in police encounters or detention. Guerilla intellectuals as a source or site for renewal requires further study. Two examples—Black Panther Party (BPP) and The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)— are offered below. Black Youth Militancy and Fragility Current political prisoners from the era of BPP resistance include: Sundiata Acoli, Russell Maroon Shoatz, Mutulu Shakur, Leonard Peltier, Kamau Sadiki, Imam Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin, and Mumia Abu Jamal. Santi Elijah Holley’s article, “The Forgotten Black Panthers,” quotes former political prisoners who share their analyses of betrayal from popular culture and influencers. According to Jalil Muntaqim, contemporary entertainment industries “exploit the name and the legacy of the Black Panther Party.” Incarcerated for forty-nine years, Muntaqim notes that such industries lack concern for those attacked by Cointelpro: impoverished elderly survivors who “suffer. . . .[under] circumstances. . . [that] are horrendous.” The wealth generated by the use of the Panthers as symbols and political postures for Panther adjacency gave radical credibility to celebrities who began to function as spokespersons for “justice”; yet these entertainers failed to provide material support for those imprisoned for decades. Muntaqim’s critique extends beyond Hollywood: “They’re not providing any services or support for these aging Panthers, but they’ll take the name. . . the legacy of [the Panthers] and exploit it.” For Panther Sekou Odinga: “Someone makes a lot of money. . . nothing goes to the families of the fallen. Nothing goes to those. . . locked up, fighting for their lives.” In a 1997 PBS interview, Black Panther veteran Kathleen Cleaver asserts that Panther revolutionaries challenged Americans who believed the US system could self-correct its predatory practices and willingly deliver equal and human rights to all; Panthers though viewed the US as “fundamentally corrupt” and so sought a revolutionary struggle to replace it. Describing the Panthers as a youth organization that lacked the resources for a concerted “educational program” to transform society, Cleaver notes how the FBI, CIA, DIA and local police “viciously sabotaged and attacked” the party’s educational mission and exacerbated its “internal confusion and dissension.” For Cleaver, the BPP needed “three or four generations to build a comprehensive educational program.” Three generations have passed in which, arguably, reactionary policing has become stronger. The Black (petit) bourgeoisie has also expanded its roles in capital and government thus distancing from the most vulnerable sectors. “Panther revolutionaries challenged Americans who believed the US system could self-correct its predatory practices.” For Cleaver, the petit bourgeoisie adheres to the “capitalist form of democracy.” “Commercial democracy,” she maintains, requires a stable Black middle class as well as inequality. Cleaver argues that the state apparatus and capital structure require “a certain number of people at the elite level, a certain number of people in the middle level, and the rest of the people scrambling and hoping they could get there, all following the same zealous commitment to making money.” In opposition to this political regime, according to Cleaver, revolutionaries “repudiate the commitment to making money and demand justice, structural change, transparency and truth, and freedom” because structures “based on financial rewards and financial incentives” cannot support revolutionary struggle; hence, the BPP said, ‘Power to the people’.” Some twenty years after Cleaver’s interview, the current political landscape promotes the idea that one can have it both ways — proclaim loyalties to transformational justice and become wealthy and influential by building political brands; movement portfolios; or PACs (political action campaign for donors), all the while working within a political duopoly shaped by racist, classist heteropatriarchy and (proto)fascist policies. If, as Cleaver argued decades ago, the “colonial power creates a middle class. . . to control the colony,” then Black middle class values, concerns, and ambitions did not grow new bones, but grafted onto justice movements the old bones of racial capitalists. If Black elites participate in the marginalization of the agency of the “underclass” they will align with the state’s intent to diminish or discredit that sector’s leadership. Rebellion cultures thus become the raw material harvested by the (petit) bourgeoisie and commodified in corporate culture; here Black death and trauma sell and secure funding for films and fashion. To demystify and shield revolutionary cultures from consumer culture requires resistance to any resin for radicalism. The struggles and sacrifices of Patrice Lumumba, Medgar Evers, Malcom X, Martin Luther King Jr., Fred Hampton, Jonathan Jackson, George Jackson, Amilcar Cabral, Walter Rodney, Dulcie September, Chris Hani, and many others offer insights into living formations within freedom movements. Amilcar Cabral and Return to the Source Freedom fighter, father, internationalist theorist during the anti-colonial war against Portugal, Amilcar Cabral lived long enough to see a liberation movement free three-quarters of the countryside before he was assassinated in 1973 (allegedly the US, NATO, and Britain clandestinely supported Portugal, the first European state to invest in, and the last to relinquish, genocidal trafficking of Africans in order to build an economy). Cabral’s injunction to “return to the source” synthesizes abolitionism, anti-imperialism, and communal culture to assert that communal material struggles create the cultures of liberation movements. As Secretary-General of PAIGC, Cabral was an outstanding theorist practitioner in the abolition of imperial warfare. He understood both the victimization and the transformative agency of the peasant and working classes. Revolutionary struggle would be shaped by revolutionary culture emanating from the lives of the masses: overly policed and struggling with impoverishment and exploitation. Those folks, out of necessity, adapted the mutations that grow “new bones” to resist violence and dispossession. Academics and intellectuals had a role to play in these militant mutations. They provided speaking platforms for Cabral, comprehending that he and African people were not hapless victims of imperial police powers but agentic intellectuals and skillful strategists. After Cabral’s murder, Africa Information Service (AIS) and Monthly Review Press, academics and educators, continued to support African, African-Caribbean, and African-American freedom movements and preserved speeches and analyses in texts distributed for popular education. (A similar process also occurred with Malcolm X’s speeches and analyses as they evolved towards socialism and [Black] revolutionary internationalism.) Academics and educators aligned with Cabral’s communal brilliance, humility, revolutionary love, and political will. The source came from those engaged in material struggle against regimes of repression. In an October 16, 1972 address to the UN General Assembly, Cabral noted the need for an “appropriate and effective intervention” by the UN to support the “inalienable rights” of African people in Guinea and Cape Verde Islands. He asserted that those seeking justice and human rights had hoped to “induce the Portuguese Government to respect international morality and legality,” only to wryly observe: “[W]e might well be considered to have been naïve.” “Cabral understood both the victimization and the transformative agency of the peasant and working classes.” The UN had the means and capacity to advocate for liberation movements. Located in wealthy Manhattan, its personnel lacked a desire to fight for “practical and effective measures designed to ensure respect” for its own Charter on human rights. Cabral challenged the international community and its elite representatives and management with a query: “When a fighter had succumbed in our country to police torture, or had been murdered in prison, or burnt alive or machine-gunned by the Portuguese troops, for what cause had [they] given [their] life?” His answer: Those who gave their lives for the liberation of their people served the cause of the United Nations because they had sacrificed their lives “in a context of international legality, for the ideals set forth in the [UN] Charter and resolutions. . . .” Return to the Source maintains that “We Africans, having rejected the idea of begging for freedom, which was contrary to our dignity and our sacred right to freedom and independence, reaffirmed our steadfast decision to end colonial domination of our country.” The book identifies three options for settling the conflict between colonizer and colonized: a radical change in the colonizing government; effective UN intervention on behalf of the oppressed; and “a struggle waged exclusively by the people with their own means.” The colonizer refused human rights. The UN refused to enforce its human rights charter. The only remaining option was a peoples’ movement based in resistance culture. Return to the Source states that in order to be “effective,” the UN must provide “simultaneously moral, political and material” support to the resistors in the field who disproportionately shoulder the risks of liberation movements. The same should be said of academia and nonprofits in their use of prestige. Money accumulates at the top. The absence of structured distribution systems for funds to reach the base is a design feature, not flaw. Cabral asserted that he did not appear before the UN Committee “in order to obtain more violent condemnations and resolutions against the Portuguese colonialists.” He came for material aid. He left empty handed. During his last tour of the US, “connecting the struggles” of Africans and Black Americans, Cabral recognized the primacy of international struggle: “I am bringing to you our African brothers and sisters of the United States-the fraternal salutations of our people in assuring you we are very conscious that all in this life concerning you also concerns us. . . . We try to understand your situation in this country. . . . we realize the difficulties you face, the problems you have and your feelings, your revolts, and also your hopes. We think that our fighting for Africa against colonialism and imperialism is a proof of understanding of your problem and also a contribution for the solution of your problems in this continent. Naturally the inverse is also true.” Captive Maternals in Abolitionism and Academia As an ungendered function, the Captive Maternal emanates out of the mutations of chattel slavery. The Captive Maternal is linked not only to the routine theft of generative powers of the enslaved but also to the inevitable (sporadic) organized revolts against captivity. Black parents and communities labor to keep children and elders and themselves stable and protected. That care can be fueled by fear or love, or loyalty, or a mixture of motivations. Often its labor is used to stabilize the very structures that prey on Black lives and honor in schools, hospitals, jobs, and prisons. Generative powers stolen and repurposed by the state and capital for accumulation can also be stolen back for rebellions. The “Womb of Western Theory” explores different stages of the Captive Maternal. Here, using the Attica rebellion and suppression as an illustration, I note these stages: celebrated/conflicted caretaker; protester for social justice; maroon; war resistor; betrayer/veteran survivor. Prison is the most tangible domestic war zone. War zones are destabilizing. The Attica rebellion, on this its 50th anniversary, exemplifies the torturous growth of new bones by Captive Maternals. Those in Attica, an ungendered mass of captives (not all identified as male although the state classified them as such), maintained the prison structure as trustees and laborers. Under pain of torture, death, or boredom, they cooked meals, tended gardens, did laundry, nurtured, and nursed each other. They also loved, hated, befriended or violated others in their community of captives. Laboring under penal slavery codified in the 13th amendment to the U.S. constitution., they stabilized the prison that preyed upon them as captives. Rejecting the early stage of contradiction in caretaking, they collaborated to organize a prison strike for human rights and dignity sparked by their outrage over the killing of George Jackson. From protests they moved into a social justice movement for rights. In that movement they took over the massive prison. In the next stage of struggle, captives rebuilt community as a maroon camp inside prison walls. They set up food systems, waste removal, medic sites, political education, security, designated spokespersons to speak to the public and the press, and they wrote their Liberation Manifesto. Community formed out of chaos; in extreme vulnerability, they grew new bones. Within the carceral plantation, they forge unity and political identities and leadership for transformative justice. “Generative powers stolen and repurposed by the state and capital for accumulation can also be stolen back for rebellions.” In the fourth stage they became war resistors. A democracy built on chattel slavery viewed Black agency for human rights as a declaration of war. Using military weaponry from Vietnam (as did Philadelphia police in the 1985 bombing of MOVE— today the 1033 program provides military gear to city police), the National Guard deployed by New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller shot through white prison guard hostages in order to kill Black and Brown dissidents. Their targets were not prisoners per se but Captive Maternal maroons, community builders and defenders. Once the prison was retaken, guards allegedly continued to torture and execute rebels. Attica’s rebellion and political agency are remembered differently as the history of freedom movements travels from prisons to classrooms and conferences. For two decades, academia has forged aspects of abolitionism. Complications and contradictions were inevitable. In 2011, Princeton University hosted a conference on prison abolitionism and mass incarceration. A young Black woman seated in the center, front rows of the auditorium calmly posed a query to the panel at which I sat. She identified herself as an academic who taught at a working class vocational college where her low-income/impoverished black and brown students lived under conditions of scarcity, violence, police aggression and imprisonment—all struggles that multiracial academics had discussed in their papers throughout the day. The young professor bravely noted that every academic presenting came from elite private institutions where students were shielded from the vulnerabilities and violence stalking her students. From the stage, I affirmed her critique by noting that abolitionist conferences at elite institutions had become the national norm not the exception for popularized abolitionism. My lone voice of support proved less powerful than that of another academic who chastised her for her lack of appreciation for the conference. Thus, academia mirrored the UN that Cabral had depended upon while knowing it would betray the freedom movement because mission statements without material aid to freedom fighters are designed to meet the preferences of empire. At that conference, I saw one anonymous Captive Maternal bravely determined to organize despite betrayal or censorship from Black captive (petit) bourgeoisie. Her resilience redirected abolitionism back to the source. Joy James is an American political philosopher, academic and author. She holds the Ebenezer Fitch Professorship of Humanities at Williams College This article is part of Against the Carceral State: Verso Roundtable. Follow the link to see more articles in the series. This article previously appeared in Versobooks.com. Please join the conversation on Black Agenda Report's Facebook page at http://facebook.com/blackagendareport Or, you can comment by emailing us at [email protected]

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Cyanobacteria of the genus Trichodesmium provide about 80 Tg of fixed nitrogen to the surface ocean per year and contribute to marine biogeochemistry, including the sequestration of carbon dioxide. Trichodesmium fixes nitrogen in the daylight, despite the incompatibility of the nitrogenase enzyme with oxygen produced during photosynthesis. While the mechanisms protecting nitrogenase remain unclear, all proposed strategies require considerable resource investment. Here we identify a crucial benefit of daytime nitrogen fixation in Trichodesmium spp. that may counteract these costs. We analysed diel proteomes of cultured and field populations of Trichodesmium in comparison with the marine diazotroph Crocosphaera watsonii WH8501, which fixes nitrogen at night. Trichodesmium’s proteome is extraordinarily dynamic and demonstrates simultaneous photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation, resulting in balanced particulate organic carbon and particulate organic nitrogen production. Unlike Crocosphaera, which produces large quantities of glycogen as an energy store for nitrogenase, proteomic evidence is consistent with the idea that Trichodesmium reduces the need to produce glycogen by supplying energy directly to nitrogenase via soluble ferredoxin charged by the photosynthesis protein PsaC. This minimizes ballast associated with glycogen, reducing cell density and decreasing sinking velocity, thus supporting Trichodesmium’s niche as a buoyant, high-light-adapted colony forming cyanobacterium. To occupy its niche of simultaneous nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis, Trichodesmium appears to be a conspicuous consumer of iron, and has therefore developed unique iron-acquisition strategies, including the use of iron-rich dust. Particle capture by buoyant Trichodesmium colonies may increase the residence time and degradation of mineral iron in the euphotic zone. These findings describe how cellular biochemistry defines and reinforces the ecological and biogeochemical function of these keystone marine diazotrophs. This is a preview of subscription content Subscribe to Nature+ Get immediate online access to the entire Nature family of 50+ journals Subscribe to Journal Get full journal access for 1 year only $9.92 per issue All prices are NET prices. VAT will be added later in the checkout. Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. Get time limited or full article access on ReadCube. All prices are NET prices. The mass spectrometry proteomics data has been deposited to the ProteomeXchange Consortium via the PRIDE partner repository with the dataset identifiers PXD016332 and https://doi.org/10.6019/PXD016332 (laboratory experiments) and identifier PXD027796 and https://doi.org/10.6019/PXD027796 (field data). The processed proteomic data are also available at the Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO) (https://www.bco-dmo.org/dataset/783873). Source data are provided for main text Figs. 1–5 and Extended Data Figs. 1–10. Source data are provided with this paper. Fully reproducible code for sinking velocity calculations, statistics and plotting is available at https://github.com/naheld/Held2020_TrichoDiel. Zehr, J. P. & Capone, D. G. Changing perspectives in marine nitrogen fixation. Science 9514, 729 (2020). Karl, D. et al. Dinitrogen fixation in the world’s oceans. Biogeochemistry 57–58, 47–98 (2002). Dugdale, R. & Wilkerson, F. in Primary Productivity and Biogeochemical Cycles in the Sea (eds Falkowski, P. G. et al.) 107–122 (Springer, 1992). Carpenter, E. J. & Capone, D. G. in Nitrogen in the Marine Environment 2nd edn (eds Capone, D. G., Bronk, D. A., Mulholland, M. R. & Carpenter, E. J.) Ch. 4 (Elsevier, 2008). Gruber, N. & Sarmiento, J. L. 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Matplotlib: a 2D graphics environment. Comput. Sci. Eng. 9, 90–95 (2007). Virtanen, P. et al. SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in Python. Nat. Methods 17, 261–272 (2020). Hagberg, A. A., Schult, D. A. & Swart, P. J. Exploring network structure, dynamics, and function using NetworkX. In 7th Python Scientific Conference (SciPy 2008) 11–15 (2008). This work was supported by NSF Graduate Research Fellowship grant 1122274 (N.A.H.), Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation grant GBMF-3782 (M.A.S.), National Science Foundation grants OCE-1657766, OCE-1850719 and OCE-1924554 (M.A.S.), National Institutes of Health grant GM135709-02 (M.A.S.), and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Ocean Ventures Fund (N.A.H.). N.A.H. was additionally supported by Principles of Microbial Ecosystems collaboration of the Simons Foundation (grant ID 542379). We thank the scientific staff and crew of the AT39-05/Tricolim research expedition, particularly chief scientist D. Hutchins, and the JC150/Ziploc expedition, particularly chief scientist C. Mahaffey. Special thanks to B. White. The authors declare no competing interests. Peer review information Nature Microbiology thanks Ilka Axmann, David Karl, Adam Kustka and Marc Strous for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. a) Average total spectral counts (peptide to spectrum matches) with error bar representing +/- one standard deviation, at each time point. Each data point is also shown individually as black scatter points. Yellow and indigo bars indicate the light and dark periods, respectively. Total spectral counts were relatively uniform and do not vary systematically throughout the diel cycle, implying consistency in the proteome analyses. b) Total protein content in the culture shown with error bar representing +/- one standard deviation, for biological duplicates after protein precipitation and purification, measured by a colorimetric assay. Higher protein abundances at night may suggest nighttime cell growth. Again, each data point is also shown individually as black scatter points. Yellow and indigo bars indicate the light and dark periods, respectively. Extended Data Fig. 2 Dynamics of the entire proteome of Trichodesmium erythraeum sp. IMS101 over the diel cycle. The dynamic range of the normalized spectral count data can be observed, as well as fluctuations in protein abundance occurring throughout the experiment. Extended Data Fig. 3 Proteome dynamics of separate replicate laboratory experiment over the diel cycle. a) Clustered heatmap of a replicate diel experiment conducted one year prior to the main experiment, under the same experimental conditions. Protein abundances were summed for each KO module and normalized across each row. b) Dynamics of the proteome clusters over the diel cycle, with each KO module represented as a line and colored based on the clustering in panel (A). Rapid oscillations of the proteome and clustering of the nitrogenase/nitrogen metabolism proteins with the photosystems are similar in the main experiment. Yellow and dark purple bars indicate the light and dark periods, respectively. a) Clustered heatmap of the proteome of a field Trichodesmium population sampled in situ over a diel cycle. Protein abundances were summed for each KO module and normalized across each row. b) Dynamics of the proteome clusters over the diel cycle, with each KO module represented as a line and colored based on the clustering in panel (A). Though the sampling was lower resolution than in the laboratory experiments, the rapid oscillations of the proteome are reproduced. Yellow and dark purple bars indicate the light and dark periods, respectively. Extended Data Fig. 5 In vivo specific activity of the nitrogenase NifH protein over the diel cycle for Crocosphaera watsonii. In vivo specific activity of the nitrogenase NifH protein (nmol ethyelene produced per min per mg NifH) over the diel cycle for Crocosphaera watsonii34. Unlike in Trichodesmium which exhibits significant variability in nitrogenase activity throughout the diel cycle, in Crocosphaera nitrogenase is either not present or highly present and very active. POC content versus total protein spectral counts in the main laboratory experiment. These are weakly correlated suggesting that POC content is driven mainly by carbohydrate content, not protein abundance. The populations were sampled on August 7, 2017 at 31°W 22°N in the early morning. Error bars are standard deviations of the mean value of the biological triplicates, and corresponding data points are plotted in grey circles. For each depth, n = 3 samples collected from replicate phytoplankton net sampling events, n = 2 samples for depth = 160 m. Glycogen content of Trichodesmium colonies sampled in situ at the surface and separated by morphology. The populations were sampled from the surface on March 10, 2018 at 65 22.420 °W 17 0.284 °N and separated by morphology at the time of picking. Extended Data Fig. 9 Synchrotron-based element maps used to determine mass of particulate iron associated with a puff-type colony. Synchrotron-based element maps used to determine mass of particulate iron associated with a puff-type colony, data originally collected as in Held et al., 202020. The left image is the X-ray fluorescence-based concentration, the middle image represents pixels with sufficiently high Fe to be considered a particle, and the right image is the product of the left and middle images. The total particulate Fe was determined as the area integrated Fe of the right image. The scale bar represents 180 microns. As detailed in Held et al., 2021, five Trichodesmium colonies of differing morphologies and degrees of particle association were examined in this way. These images are representative of a Trichodesmium colony with average-to-high particle loading. Extended Data Fig. 10 Calibration curves for 15N labeled standard peptides used for absolute quantitation of the nitrogenase proteins. Precursor ion intensities were linearly correlated with analyzed peptide concentrations between 0-10 fmol μL−1. Diel proteome data of Trichodesmium (main laboratory experiment) and Crocosphaera with annotated KO modules. Quantitative data for nitrogenase proteins and specific activity data for NifH. Selected protein and physiological data from main laboratory experiment. Spearmann correlation statistics for significant positive and negative correlations between protein pairs, and selected protein data used to generate the network. Modelling input and output data; Trichodesmium and Crocosphaera glycogen content over the diel cycle. Total spectral counts and total protein content for samples in main laboratory experiment. Global proteome data for main laboratory experiment. Global proteome data organized into KO modules for separate replicate replicate experiment. Global proteome data organized into KO modules for field samples. NifH specific activity for Crocosphaera watsonii. Total spectrum counts and POC content for samples in main laboratory experiment. Glycogen content data for field samples at different depths. Glycogen content for field samples separated by morphology. Calibration data for 15N-labelled peptide standards. About this article Cite this article Held, N.A., Waterbury, J.B., Webb, E.A. et al. Dynamic diel proteome and daytime nitrogenase activity supports buoyancy in the cyanobacterium Trichodesmium. Nat Microbiol 7, 300–311 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-021-01028-1 Nature Reviews Microbiology (2022)

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Hedgehogs can develop a variety of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular and Hematologic Diseases Hedgehogs can develop a variety of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, gastric ulceration, acariasis, neoplasia, dental problems, and pneumonia. Clinical signs are usually nonspecific... read more , gastric ulceration Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Diseases Hedgehogs can develop a variety of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, gastric ulceration, acariasis, neoplasia, dental problems, and pneumonia. Clinical signs are usually nonspecific... read more , acariasis Integumentary Diseases , neoplasia Neoplasia Hedgehogs can develop a variety of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, gastric ulceration, acariasis, neoplasia, dental problems, and pneumonia. Clinical signs are usually nonspecific... read more , dental problems Oral and Dental Diseases Hedgehogs can develop a variety of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, gastric ulceration, acariasis, neoplasia, dental problems, and pneumonia. Clinical signs are usually nonspecific... read more , and pneumonia. Clinical signs are usually nonspecific, such as lethargy, weakness, and anorexia, which emphasizes the importance of diagnostic testing, despite the need for chemical restraint. Cardiovascular and Hematologic Diseases of Hedgehogs Cardiomyopathy Cardiomyopathies Mitral valve leaflets, especially the tips, are thickened due to myxomatous degeneration. There is also a linear (horizontal) left atrial tear present. Myxomatous degeneration is a process of... read more is a common postmortem finding in captive African hedgehogs. The etiology of the disease is not known; however, genetic and nutritional causes have been suggested. Affected hedgehogs are typically ≥3 years, although cardiomyopathy may occur in animals as young as 1 year. Clinical signs include dyspnea, decreased activity, weight loss, an auscultable murmur, ascites, and acute death. Radiographic analysis can demonstrate varying degrees of cardiac enlargement, pulmonary edema, pleural effusion, hepatic congestion, and abdominal fluid. Common gross necropsy findings associated with cardiovascular disease in hedgehogs include cardiomegaly, hepatomegaly, pulmonary edema and/or congestion, hydrothorax, ascites, and pulmonary or renal infarcts. Suspected cardiac disease indicates a need for full-body imaging and a full cardiovascular examination, including ECG and an echocardiogram. Normal echocardiographic measurements have been published for African pygmy hedgehogs. Hematologic and biochemical testing are useful to screen for concurrent problems and to monitor the effects of therapeutic agents. Therapy with cardiovascular drugs commonly used in veterinary medicine to treat congestive heart failure (eg, diuretics, ACE inhibitors, pimobendan) may be helpful initially, but the longterm prognosis for hedgehogs with congestive heart failure is poor. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Diseases of Hedgehogs GI obstructions are often caused by ingestion of rubber, hair, or carpet fibers. Clinical signs include acute anorexia, lethargy, and collapse. Vomiting may occur. Marked gaseous dilation of the GI tract can be a nonspecific finding in ill hedgehogs, complicating diagnosis. Alimentary inflammation, including esophagitis, gastritis, enteritis, colitis, and gastric ulceration with perforation, has been reported. Most of the affected hedgehogs had nonspecific signs such as decreased appetite and weight loss; vomiting and diarrhea were not observed. Enteritis may be caused by Salmonella or other bacteria. Salmonellosis Salmonellosis in Animals Salmonellosis is infection with Salmonella spp bacteria. It affects most animal species as well as humans and is a major public health concern. The clinical presentation can range from... read more in hedgehogs may be asymptomatic, may cause diarrhea, weight loss, decreased appetite, dehydration, lethargy, and death. Diagnosis should be confirmed with fecal culture testing, using Salmonella-enriching medium. Although treatment is indicated in hedgehogs with clinical signs of disease, owners should be advised of the zoonotic potential and the risks of creating antimicrobial resistance. Alimentary candidiasis (Candida albicans) and cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidiosis in Animals Cryptosporidiosis is a highly prevalent gastrointestinal parasitic disease caused by protozoan species of the genus Cryptosporidium that infect a wide range of animals, including people... read more are other reported infectious diseases. Many species of nematodes, cestodes, and protozoa have been identified in wild hedgehogs; however, they seem to be far less prevalent in pet hedgehogs. Some commercial diets cause diarrhea, as do foods inappropriate for hedgehogs (ie, milk). GI neoplasia, particularly lymphosarcoma, is relatively common. Other considerations for GI signs include diet change, toxins, hepatic disease, and malnutrition. Hedgehog digestion does not rely on bacterial fermentation, and there is no evidence of antimicrobial sensitivity as occurs in small rodents and rabbits. Hematochezia must be differentiated from urinary or vaginal bloody discharge. Hepatic lipidosis is somewhat common and may be a sequela of numerous disease processes. Clinical signs include lethargy, inappetence, icterus, diarrhea, and signs of hepatic encephalopathy. Obese animals may have subclinical hepatic lipidosis. Diagnosis is supported by testing for hepatic enzyme activities, plasma bilirubin and bile acid concentrations. Radiography and ultrasound-guided liver aspiration may also be performed. Treatment for hepatic lipidosis is similar to that in other species. Integumentary Diseases of Hedgehogs Acariasis caused by Caparinia tripilis (psoroptic mite) is very common. Both male and female C tripilis mites have three long setae on the third pair of legs. The mnemonic “three-on-three” may help with recollection. Infestation with Notoedres spp (sarcoptic mite) has also been reported in hedgehogs. Clinical signs of acariasis include: excessive quill loss white or brownish crusts (mite droppings) at the base of the quills and around the eyes nonspecific signs such as lethargy and decreased appetite Hedgehogs may scratch or rub themselves, but many do not display evidence of pruritus. Some hedgehogs can harbor subclinical infestations. Diagnosis is confirmed by identifying mites and eggs (nits) via superficial skin scraping or tape impression. Treatment consists of administration of selamectin (20–30 mg/kg topically every 21–28 days) or ivermectin (0.3–0.4 mg/kg, PO or SC, every 10–14 days for 3–5 treatments). In some cases, ivermectin alone may not effectively treat mite infestations. Bedding must be removed, and any items in the cage must be disinfected or discarded. During treatment, the cage should be lined with paper that is changed daily. All hedgehogs in the home should be treated concurrently. Dermatophytosis is a common clinical disease in African pygmy hedgehogs; however, infection without notable clinical signs is also possible. Dermatophytes (Trichophyton erinacei, T mentagrophytes, Microsporum spp, and Arthroderma benhamiae) cause crusting dermatitis, especially around the face and pinnae. Quill loss may also be noted. Although some animals may scratch with the hindlimbs or rub against stationary objects, many do not display signs of pruritus. Some infections are secondary to other dermatopathies, such as acariasis or trauma. Diagnosis is confirmed by culturing spines in dermatophyte test medium. Treatment consists of administration of topical antifungals (eg, enilconazole, clotrimazole) in spray or shampoo formulations and/or oral agents (eg, terbinafine, itraconazole). Lime-sulfur dips may also be used. Other hedgehogs in the home may be subclinically infected, and treatment of all animals is recommended. Skin neoplasia is common. Squamous cell carcinomas, epitheliotropic T-cell lymphomas, papillomas, and sebaceous gland carcinomas have been reported. Pinnal dermatitis is a common condition in hedgehogs; skin crusts, accumulated secretions, and a ragged pinnal margin may be observed. Dermatophytes and acariasis are important differential diagnoses for this condition; other possibilities include nutritional deficiencies Nutritional Disorders Hedgehogs can develop a variety of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, gastric ulceration, acariasis, neoplasia, dental problems, and pneumonia. Clinical signs are usually nonspecific... read more , dry skin from inappropriate husbandry, or nonspecific seborrhea. Ear mites Otodectic Mange: Sarcoptes scabiei. Sarcoptes scabiei var canis infestation is a highly contagious disease of dogs found worldwide. The mites are fairly host specific, but animals (including... read more (Notoedres cati) are occasionally present; signs, diagnosis, and treatment are as for cats Notoedric Mange (Feline Scabies): Sarcoptes scabiei. Sarcoptes scabiei var canis infestation is a highly contagious disease of dogs found worldwide. The mites are fairly host specific, but animals (including... read more . Bacterial or yeast otitis externa infections are often secondary to acariasis or another cause of chronic inflammation. Clinical signs include purulent discharge, odor, and sensitivity of the face and ear. Otic cytology, skin scrapings, cleansing, and topical antimicrobial/anti-inflammatory therapy are used as for other species. Otitis media/interna also occurs in hedgehogs. Musculoskeletal Diseases of Hedgehogs Fractures can occur when a limb is trapped in a cage wire or exercise wheel. Distal limb fractures can be splinted. Surgical correction may also be performed, but any fixation device must be able to withstand the hedgehog's strong rolling-up mechanism. Causes of lameness include ingrown toenails, arthritis, nutritional deficiencies, pododermatitis, constriction of a foot or digit by fibrous material, neurologic disease, or neoplasia. Neoplasia of Hedgehogs Neoplasia is extremely common in African pygmy hedgehogs. A wide variety of tumor types affecting virtually every body system has been reported. Major body systems affected are the integumentary, reproductive, hemolymphatic, and alimentary systems. Commonly reported tumors include mammary gland tumors, lymphosarcomas, and oral squamous cell carcinomas. Proliferative uterine tumors or polyps are common and are associated with vaginal bleeding, hematuria, and weight loss; ovariohysterectomy can allow for prolonged survival. Although neoplasia is most commonly diagnosed in hedgehogs >3 years old, tumors are observed in patients as young as 2 years old. In one survey, > 80% of the tumors were malignant, and it is not rare for hedgehogs to have more than one type of neoplasia concurrently. Some sarcomas have been associated with retroviral infection. Oral squamous cell carcinomas are extremely common in African pygmy hedgehogs and often present as gingival swellings. These tumors are locally invasive, and affected animals may have facial asymmetry, loose or missing teeth, and gingivitis. Eosinophilic leukemia has been reported in hedgehogs with nonspecific clinical signs. A peripheral eosinophilia is not always present. Postmortem findings can include gross splenic pathology and infiltration of neoplastic eosinophils in multiple organs (including bone marrow) with neoplastic eosinophils. The prognosis for eosinophilic leukemia appears poor: in most reports, the disease course was rapid and patients died soon after diagnosis. Clinical signs of neoplastic disease depend on the location and severity of disease and may include palpable masses, marked lethargy, neurologic signs, weight loss, anorexia, diarrhea, dyspnea, and ascites. Diagnosis is based on cytologic or histopathologic evaluation. Diagnostic imaging to evaluate for signs of local invasion or metastasis, as well as a CBC and serum chemistry panel, can be helpful when attempting to determine prognosis. For many neoplasia types, surgical excision and supportive care are treatments attempted, although other treatment modalities can be used. Although malignant neoplastic disease is very common in hedgehogs, other causes of masses have been reported in this species, including abscesses, bone cysts, papillomas, and uterine polyps. Neurologic Diseases of Hedgehogs Hedgehogs with severe, systemic disease without CNS involvement also commonly present with apparent neurologic abnormalities, confounding diagnosis. Neurologic signs (particularly ataxia) may be caused by: white matter demyelination (“wobbly hedgehog syndrome”) intervertebral disc disease neoplasia (with or without CNS involvement) infectious disease (eg, parasitic migration) Demyelinating paralysis or “wobbly hedgehog syndrome” (WHS) has been reported since the mid-1990s in captive African pygmy hedgehogs. The onset of WHS commonly occurs in animals <2 years old but can occur at any age. In contrast, intervertebral disc disease typically occurs in older animals. One of the earliest indications of WHS is the inability to roll into a ball (“close the hood”). Mild, intermittent ataxia follows. Clinical signs gradually increase in severity and may include falling to one side, tremors, unilateral exophthalmos, scoliosis, seizures, muscle atrophy, self-mutilation, and marked weight loss. The paralysis usually ascends from hindlimbs to forelimbs and can lead to complete paralysis 9–15 months after the onset of clinical signs. Death usually occurs 18–25 months after the onset of clinical signs. Appetite is usually normal until the terminal stages, at which point most hedgehogs become dysphagic. Diagnosis of demyelinating paralysis is confirmed via necropsy examination. WHS has been described as a "spongy myelinopathy," with bilateral, symmetrical status spongiosis of multiple CNS sites, including the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and spinal cord. Peripheral nerves may also be involved. Inflammation of the CNS is not associated with WHS. The etiology of WHS remains unknown, but a hereditary basis is suspected. Numerous treatments have been attempted without success. Although supportive care and hand feeding can be performed, euthanasia is warranted when the quality of life is compromised. Cold temperatures (< 68°F [20°C]) or sometimes, very high temperatures, may cause torpor in hedgehogs. In this state, the hedgehog has a greatly diminished response to stimulation, decreased heart and respiratory rates, and possibly increased susceptibility to infection. Dormancy can last for several weeks, during which the hedgehog may have periods of activity with ataxia. If a hedgehog housed at inappropriate temperatures is presented nonresponsive, torpor should be considered. Prognosis is good. A quiet, warm environment should be provided and fluid therapy administered, and the patient should be monitored for greater alertness over the next several hours. Hypocalcemia may result from postpartum eclampsia, malnutrition, or for unknown reasons and usually responds to calcium supplementation. Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD) has been reported in hedgehogs. Clinical signs associated with IVDD include progressive hind limb ataxia, urinary stasis, loss of proprioception, and lameness. These clinical signs are similar to those of WHS. In IVDD, cervical and lumbar lesions have been identified; multiple discs may be affected. Radiographic findings include spondylosis, disc-space narrowing, and disc mineralization. Necropsy findings in hedgehogs with IVDD may include degeneration of the nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus, dorsal extrusion of disc material, and mineralization of the nucleus pulposus. Evidence of fibrocartilaginous embolism was noted in one patient. Temporary improvement with corticosteroids has been described in two cases of IVDD. As in other species, head tilt or circling may be caused by otitis media/interna or primary neurologic disease. Nutritional Disorders of Hedgehogs Obesity is very common in pet hedgehogs. Obese hedgehogs are often unable to completely roll up into a ball because of large subcutaneous fat deposits. These deposits are commonly located in the axillary and rump areas. Reducing high-fat foods, avoiding free-choice feeding, and increasing exercise can help manage obesity. Hiding food in the substrate or distributing it around the enclosure increases exercise through foraging activity. Weight reduction should be gradual to prevent clinical signs associated with hepatic lipidosis, a common finding in African pygmy hedgehogs. Nutritional excess or deficiency may occur with unbalanced diets; for example, calcium deficiency may result from a diet consisting mainly of invertebrates. Ocular Diseases of Hedgehogs Hedgehogs are susceptible to corneal ulcers and other ocular injuries. Diagnosis and treatment are similar to those for other species, although administration of topical medication can be difficult. Blindness does not seem to appreciably reduce the quality of life of pet hedgehogs or impair their ability to move around their cages. Ocular proptosis is relatively common; prognosis for viability of the affected eye(s) is poor. Hedgehogs' shallow orbits may predispose them to proptosis, especially with excessive fat accumulation or orbital inflammation. Concurrent neurologic disease may result in ocular trauma. Oral and Dental Diseases of Hedgehogs Oral neoplasia, particularly squamous cell carcinoma, is common in hedgehogs. Dental disease, including calculus, gingivitis, and periodontitis, is also common. Periodontal disease Periodontal Disease in Small Animals Periodontal disease is infection and inflammation of the periodontium (the tissues that surround and support the teeth) due to plaque bacteria and the host’s response to the bacterial insult... read more is often associated with a bacterial component. Treatment is with antimicrobials. The addition of abrasive items to the diet (eg, hard kibble) is recommended for prevention. Dental prophylaxis, periprocedural antimicrobials, and tooth extraction may be necessary to treat severe dental disease. In cases of advanced periodontal disease requiring extraction of all teeth, hedgehogs can be maintained on a diet of soft food. Tooth fractures Dentofacial Trauma in Small Animals Teeth and jaws play a prominent role in the interaction of animals with their environment. This predisposes them to traumatic injury, most commonly fights with other animals, automobile impacts... read more and dental abscesses also occur. Actinomyces infection has been reported; anaerobic culture and treatment should be considered for dental abscesses in hedgehogs. Excessive tooth wear occurs in older hedgehogs, and hedgehogs with this condition should be fed a softer diet. Hedgehog teeth do not grow continuously and should not be trimmed. Hedgehogs are prone to wedging of hard items (eg, peanuts) against the palate. Stomatitis may develop in males that bite their mates; treatment is with soft food and antimicrobials. Reproductive Diseases of Hedgehogs Hemorrhagic vulvar discharge or hematuria is common in female hedgehogs and is often caused by uterine neoplasia or endometrial polyps, although differential diagnoses such as cystitis Bacterial Cystitis in Small Animals Bacterial cystitis is infection and inflammation of the urinary bladder. Clinical signs are pollakiuria, hematuria, dysuria, and urinating in inappropriate places. Hematuria may be more noticeable... read more or lower urinary tract infections should be considered. Pyometra Pyometra in Small Animals Pyometra is a hormonally mediated diestrual disorder characterized by cystic endometrial hyperplasia with secondary bacterial infection. Pyometra is reported primarily in older bitches (>5 yr... read more and metritis Metritis in Small Animals Metritis is postpartem infection of the uterus. Predisposing causes include prolonged delivery, dystocia, and retained fetuses or placentas. Escherichia coli is the most common bacterium... read more have also been reported in hedgehogs. Dystocia Dystocia in Small Animals Dystocia refers to abnormal or difficult birth. Causes include maternal factors (uterine inertia, inadequate size of birth canal) and/or fetal factors (oversized fetus, abnormal orientation... read more is treated as in other small mammals. Premature births occasionally occur; the prognosis for young without a suckling reflex is poor. Agalactia may be suspected if neonates lose condition within 72 hours after birth. Diagnosis may be confirmed by attempting to express the mammary glands; however, this usually requires anesthesia and may cause the dam to abandon or cannibalize its young. Respiratory Diseases of Hedgehogs Predisposing factors for upper and lower respiratory tract infection in hedgehogs are suboptimal environmental temperature; aromatic, dusty, or unsanitary bedding; concurrent disease causing immunocompromise; and aspiration of material from an oral infection. Clinical signs include nasal discharge, increased respiratory noise, dyspnea, lethargy, inappetence, and sudden death. CT scan, radiographs, hematologic testing, and culture of respiratory secretions are useful for diagnosis. Treatment includes antimicrobials, nebulization, supportive care, and correction of underlying problems. Differential diagnoses for dyspnea are pulmonary neoplasia and cardiac disease. Urinary Diseases of Hedgehogs Cystitis Bacterial Cystitis in Small Animals Bacterial cystitis is infection and inflammation of the urinary bladder. Clinical signs are pollakiuria, hematuria, dysuria, and urinating in inappropriate places. Hematuria may be more noticeable... read more and urolithiasis Urolithiasis in Small Animals Some mineral solutes precipitate to form crystals in urine; these crystals may aggregate and grow to macroscopic size, at which time they are known as uroliths (calculi or stones). Uroliths... read more in hedgehogs cause changes in urine color, stranguria, pollakiuria, inappetence, and lethargy. Urinalysis with culture should be obtained and diagnostic imaging performed. Kidney disease is also common and in many cases may be secondary to systemic disease. Genetic or dietary factors may contribute to the high prevalence of kidney disease. Nephritis, tubular nephrosis, glomerulosclerosis, infarcts, polycystic kidneys, neoplasia, and glomerulonephropathy have been reported. Clinical signs associated with kidney disease tend to be nonspecific, although polyuria and/or polydipsia may occur. Diagnosis should be based on urinalysis and serum chemistry panels. Treatment consists of correcting the underlying cause, if possible, administration of fluid therapy, and supportive care. Zoonoses of Hedgehogs Several strains of Salmonella occur commonly in hedgehogs, particularly S Enterica serovar Tilene, S Typhimurium, and S Enteritidis; in many cases, hedgehogs are asymptomatic carriers. Numerous cases of transmission to humans have been documented, particularly in young children, even without direct contact with the affected animals. Hedgehogs have soft, messy feces and a tendency to walk through their droppings, facilitating the spread of Salmonella. Anyone handling hedgehogs should assume that the hedgehog carries and transmits Salmonella and should take appropriate measures, including washing hands immediately after handling, not allowing hedgehogs or fomites to contact food or food preparation areas, and keeping cages clean. Because infected animals may shed salmonellae intermittently, a negative culture does not exclude a carrier. Treatment aimed at eliminating the carrier state is unlikely to be successful and may lead to antimicrobial resistance. Dermatophytosis in humans, transmitted from pet hedgehogs, is also well documented. African pygmy hedgehogs can be subclinical carriers of Trichophyton mentagrophytes erinacei, Microsporum spp, and Arthrodermabenhamiae. In addition, some humans are extremely sensitive to contact with African hedgehog spines and develop transient, markedly pruritic urticaria within minutes of handling hedgehogs. Wild African hedgehogs are susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Animals Foot-and-mouth disease is one of the world's most economically important viral diseases of livestock. The virus infects cattle, pigs, and sheep and many cloven-hoofed wildlife species. The infection... read more . Importation of African hedgehogs into the US, therefore, was banned by the USDA in 1991 to prevent introduction of this disease. Rabies Rabies Rabies is an acute, progressive encephalomyelitis caused by lyssaviruses. It occurs worldwide in mammals, with dogs, bats, and wild carnivores the principle reservoirs. Typical signs include... read more has not been reported in wild or captive African hedgehogs, although the salivation that occurs during self-anointing behavior may be mistaken as a sign of rabies.

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UNWTO which stands for United Nations World Tourism Organizations. UN specialized and leading organization in the area of Travel and Tourism. UNWTO is formed in 1975, and its headquarter is in Madrid, Spain. This agency is responsible for the“promotion of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism. At present it has 159 member states nad five hundred affiliate members around the globe. History of UNWTO The history of UNWTO dates back to the year 1920 when the “International Congress of Official Tourist Traffic Associations (ICOTT)” was established at The Hague, the Netherlands. The origin can also be linked to “International Union of Official Tourist Publicity Organizations (IUOTPO)”, although the UNWTO states that “the ICOTT became the International Union of Officials Tourist Publicity Organizations first in 1934”. After the brief discontinuity during the Second World War an International Conference was held in London that gave birth to The International Union of Official Travel Organization (IUOTO) in the year 1947 and IUOTO was finally transformed into an Intergovernmental organization called World Tourism Organization on January 2 1975. The headquarters was established in Madrid, Spain in January 1976. The resolution for setting up the headquarters was already taken in the first General Assembly of the WTO. The UN General Assembly decided to add UN before the World Tourism Organization in order to differentiate between World Trade Organization and World Tourism Organization. Finally, the organization was renamed as UNWTO on December 1 2005. Also read Tourism Promoting tourism as the driver for economic growth is the main work of this agency. While it offers leadership and support to the tourism sector in advancing knowledge and tourism policies worldwide, it promotes sustainable development and environmental sustainability. The UNWTO is an apex body in the field of tourism and it works with different governments on matters relating to tourism policy issues on a global basis. It provides a practical source of tourism knowledge and statistics for planners, researchers and academics alike. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism were enforced by UNWTO to promote the sustainability in tourism operations. UNWTO aims to maximize the benefits of tourism to the society and economy of nations while minimizing the negative impacts of it. Aims and Objectives of UNWTO Following are the aims nad objectives of UNWTO: Promotion and development of sustainable tourism that can contribute to the economy of countries International understanding to bring peace and prosperity Development of universal respect for tourism Working towards protection of basic freedom and human rights of citizens without any discrimination based on region, religion, language, race, or sex. Functions of UNWTO To accomplish the objectives, the UNWTO functions in the following six main areas: 1. Improving competitiveness in tourism industry 2. Promoting sustainable development 3. Promoting tourism for poverty reduction and development 4. Bringing up knowledge, education and capacity building 5. Creating partnership and mainstreaming 6. Achieving tourism which should be responsible, sustainable and universally accessible. Also read History of Travel and Tourism Activities of UNWTO The UNWTO plays a vital role in development and promotion of tourism worldwide. It, therefore, undertakes a number of projects and activities for promoting and developing tourism, such as: To conduct research related to the tourism market, industry, physical and financial planning and development, promotion and marketing, economic analysis and techniques. To disseminate the data, research and study findings on various fields of tourism to its members. To conduct studies about tourism trends, changes in the world economic and social conditions and their effects on tourism. To conduct studies about the fluctuations in the market and preparing and maintaining standards within tourism sector. To conduct courses and vocational training programmes aiming at human resource development especially in the developing countries. To prepare drafts of international agreements on tourism. To carryout systematic collection, analysis and dissemination of statistics and other data on various aspects of tourism. To function like a data source to disseminate available information related to international, regional and domestic tourism; including statistics, legislation and policies, facilities. To build a consortium of legislation, regulations and documents on all aspects of travel of various countries. To work with different governments and competent specialized bodies in simplification of formalities for international travel and to remove barriers for the free movement between countries. To organize international conferences, conventions, seminars, workshops, symposiums and meetings on contemporary aspects of tourism. Structure of UNWTO The UNWTO works through its various subsidiaries, having well defined responsibilities fixed for such subsidiaries. 1. General Assembly: It is a composition of full members and associate members. It is a congregation of members to meet on a periodic basis of every two years to approve the amendments in policies, finalization budget and programme for the entire period. Contemporary and relevant issues are debated and discussed in it. The Affiliate Members and representatives of other International Organizations attend the General Assembly as observers. General Assembly elects a general secretary in every four years. Subsidiary organ of the general assembly is the “world committee on tourism ethics”. 2. Executive Council: This works as governing board for the UNWTO. This Council consists of full members elected by the General Assembly at a ratio of one member for every five. Representatives such as ‘One’ of Associate Members and ‘One’ of Affiliate Members represent the issues of their group. The Council ensures that the organization carries out its work and adheres to its budget. Spain as the host of UNWTO has a permanent seat in the Executive Council. The Council works in consultation with the Secretary General and it works towards the implementation of the resolutions in the General Assembly. The Council meets at least twice a year. There are some subsidiary organs created by Executive Council which meet on a regular basis to discuss the matters which fall within their jurisdictions and they report to the Council of the same. “The subsidiary organs are : Technical Committee for Programme and Coordination(TCPC), Committee on Budget and Finance(CBF), Facilitation Committee, Environment Committee, Sub-Committee for the review of applications for affiliate membership, Sub Committee on Statistics and Joint WTOIATA Working Party” You may read Tourism Product Concept 3. Committees. There are some specialized Committees of UNWTO members and the task of these committees is to advise the Executive Council on management and policies. The specialized committees are: The Programme Committee, The Committee on Budget and Finance, the Committee on Statistics and The Tourism Satellite Account, The Committee on Market and Competitiveness, the Sustainable Development of Tourism Committee, the World Committee on Tourism Ethics, The Committee on Poverty Reduction and the Committee for the Review of Applications for Affiliate Members. 4. Secretariat: The Secretariat of the organization is consisted of the Secretary General and the Staff Members. It is responsible for implementing the UNWTO’s programme of work and serving the needs of members. The responsibility of Secretary General is to carry out the general policy and work programme of the organization as directed by the General Assembly and the Executive Council. The Secretary General’s duty is to ensure the legal representation of the organization. The group is led by the Secretary General who supervises about 110 full-time staff at UNWTO’s Madrid headquarters. A full-time Executive Director supports and assists the Affiliate Members. The Secretariat has a Regional Support Office for Asia-Pacific in Osaka, Japan which is financed by the Japanese Government. Members of UNWTO. 1. Affiliate Members: Public and private organizations working in the field of tourism can become Affiliate Members of UNWTO. These organizations contribute to the UNWTO in promotion and development of responsible, sustainable and accessible tourism. The members of the board meet at least twice a year. The organizational structure of affiliate members include mainly two organs such as: The Plenary: In this the Affiliate Members are represented and it consists of all the membership with each having voice and vote & The Board of the Affiliate Members: It is an advisory organ to the UNWTO Secretary General. It is responsible for the alignment of its members to the overall goals, mission and general programme. It also helps in the design and implementation of the policies of the Affiliate Members programme. 2. State Members: There are 156 State Members of UNWTO worldwide. It has 6 Associate Members and 2 Observers. Regions of UNWTO. There are six regions of UNWTO namely Africa, the Americas, East Asia, the Pacific, Europe and the Middle East. There are different regional programmes for different regions which are held considering mission and objectives of these regions. You can read Tourism Product Concept 1. Regional Programme for Africa. The mission of Regional Programme for Africa is to support and assist UNWTO African members. It also helps the stakeholders to develop the tourism industry in all spheres of sustainable development be it economic or social development. It ensures the members get full benefit from the services provided by the organization. There are objectives of the programme which are meant for the particular region. The objectives for Africa region are as follows: To ensure the implementation of the programme within African region. To work as a link between the Member States and The Secretariat through which all local, regional and national tourism needs and concerns are communicated. To make the African countries more competitive, it strengthens the institutional capacity in various domains such as HRD, ICT, MARKETING AND PROMOTION, statistics and sustainable development of tourism. To contribute to poverty reduction through the UNWTO ST-EP (Sustainable tourism- Eliminating Poverty) initiative. To strengthen the presence of UNWTO in the region by increasing full and affiliate membership in the continent. 2. Regional Programme for the Americas. The mission of “The Programme for The Americas” of UNWTO is to ensure that its members get full benefits from the transfer of technology generated by the activities done in the region and to enhance the quality and efficiency of development. It focuses on the needs of the local authorities and enterprises and National Tourism Administrations in the region. Topics and courses related to the tourism industry are also discussed in seminars and conferences. There are two main objectives of Regional Programme for America the first one is Technical Cooperation Programme which helps the governments in the formulation of tourism policies and strategies, development of new product, marketing and HRD. Based on the policy of sustainability the programme concentrates on master planning at all levels such as founding tourism institutes, preparing marketing programmes, building national capacity for project management, strengthening the role of parliament in forming tourism policies and the economic measurement of the tourism. The development of Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) helps in managing all such planning. The second one is the Sectoral Support Mission which is for shorter duration and works on the specific request of member countries in identifying, evaluating and describing specific technical assistance needs and provides policy advice in formation of project proposals. Funds for such mission are released by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) or some other bilateral or multilateral financing agencies. 3. Regional Programme for Asia and the Pacific This programme is restricted to the geographic region of Asia and the Pacific. The Regional Programme for Asia and The Pacific is the operational arm of world tourism organization. Its task is to implement general programme of work of UNWTO within the region. It is a direct link of UNWTO through which Member States are communicated to the Secretariat on the local, regional, and national needs and concerns for tourism development. It has got some objectives to perform within the region: To bring up partnerships between private sector, government agencies and educational institutions by organizing seminars, conferences and workshops on contemporary tourism issues. To support and assist Member States for promotion, management and development of the tourism industries so that Asia and the Pacific Region could maintain its endeavor in growth of tourism. To increase full and affiliate membership of countries and private sectors in the region. To promote the UNWTO ST-EP (Sustainable tourism- Eliminating Poverty) initiatives and make endeavors towards the UN Millennium Development Goals for the benefit of countries within Asia and the Pacific Region. To supply with information and news and activities of UNWTO in the region and to its members. To make different plans such as tailor- made contingency plan, crisis management plan in order to establish tourism – oriented warning system network which could be tapped by Member States when needed. To establish networks of academicians, industry representatives and government officials in the region for the production of periodical Asia-Pacific market trends report. 4. Regional Programme for Europe The mission of the Regional Programme for Europe is to achieve greater standards of performance in tourism governance and policy by framing sufficient contents in the UNWTO programme of work and publications. There are two important objectives. To increase the participation of member states of UNWTO European region and maximize the benefits too within the region. To work towards the synergy between the UNWTO and external institutions and businesses, by making policies and strategies for governance. Activities of European Region include the development of strategies in the context of turbulent markets to help Member States use instruments which addresses the issues of quality and CRM. The preparation and implementation of the programmes relates to value addition such as novelty and innovation in the area of technology, HRD, capacity building etc. You may be interested to read Aviation Industry in India 5. Regional Programme for Middle –East The mission of Regional Programme for Middle-East is the regional representation for the Middle East and the objectives are as follows: To work towards fulfillment of unique and specific needs of the tourism organizations and enterprises. To organize workshops, seminars, meetings and conferences on relevant issues concerning tourism industry. UNWTO’s Global Code of Ethics The history UNWTO’s global code of ethics in tourism is a recent phenomenon. It was first proposed in International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism Congress in the year 1992 held in Paris. It proposed the conception of a commission to deal with ethical problems in tourism. The Rio Earth Summit (Agenda 21) in 1992 called upon institutions to adopt codes of ethics in their organisational practices. Adherence to ethics is required to establish good relations and equation between hosts and guests. The ethics of tourism are tied to human rights, environmental justice, equity, and virtue ethics. It encourages greater transparency in work that pays close attention to the ethical issues in gathering data and conducting research. The ethics builds an attitude of tolerance and respect towards the moral beliefs and philosophical issues. It builds cooperation between diversity of people in their religious belief. It is the foundations of responsible and sustainable tourism as viewed by UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. In the year 2001, UNWTO has established Global Code of Ethics that focuses on universal standards of addressing different aspects and traits such as cross-cultural tolerance, promotion of human rights, environmental and developmental sustainability, accessibility, economic growth, reduction of poverty, and self-education. However, ethical standards are purely voluntary. Though it is not a legally binding document, there is a provision for voluntary implementation of ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’. The different stakeholders’ institution and organisation may refer on a voluntary basis to the matter concerning the application and implementation of the code of ethics. The role of the ‘World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE)’ stands pre-eminent in the formulations and implementation of legal framework of tourism internationally. The WCTE is subsidiary organ that reports directly to the General Assembly of UNWTO. It has been assigned with tasks such as “promotion and dissemination of code of ethics and evaluation and monitoring the implementation of the ethics”. The “Global Code of Ethics for Tourism” was adopted on October 1, 1999 in the meeting of General Assembly of United Nations World Tourism Organization in Santiago, Chile. This contains set of principles for the key players of the tourism industry including the governments, the travel industry, communities and tourist alike. It aims at “minimizing the negative impacts on environment, society and culture and maximizing economic benefits across the world”. You may be interested to read Aviation Industry in India At the meeting, the UNWTO General Assembly recommended: “States Members or non-members of WTO, without being obliged to do so, to accept expressly the principles embodied in the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism and to use them as a basis when establishing their national laws and regulations and to inform accordingly the World Committee on Tourism Ethics”. ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ is a guide book of principles for all stakeholders, entrepreneurs, workers, local communities etc. worldwide. The idea of this Global code was conceived in 1997 when a committee was formed during the UNWTO General Assembly meeting in Istanbul. The process of preparation involved wide ranges of discussion and consultation with all stakeholders of tourism industry for the benefit and development of tourism industry worldwide. More than 70 Members states and other entities sent their written comments on the concept of code. The UNWTO meeting held in Santiago, Chile in October 1999 and finalised 10 principals of Global Code of Conduct for Tourism that was subsequently approved by UNWTO General Assembly in UNWTO resolution A/RES/406(XIII). Then in the year 2001 a draft resolution on ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ was adopted by the ‘United Nations Economic and Social Council’. This ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ got final official recognition by United Nations General Assembly on 21st of December 2001 through UN RESOLUTION A/RES/56/212. As per the directions of United Nations, the World Tourism organization has since then been promoting these code of ethics for implementation by member countries worldwide. Not a legally binding document, it is purely voluntary which stakeholders may chose to implement for the long-term benefit of the industry. In the process of implementation of this global code of ethics, the World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE) has gained its prominence as an Autonomous and Impartial Body of UNWTO. The basic objectives of the ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ are to: • Establish a synthesis of the documents, codes and declarations out of the available records or by comparing the aspirations of stakeholders published over the years. • Complement the codes, documents and declarations with new considerations which would reflect the growth and development of the society. • Serve as a term of reference for the stakeholders in the tourism industry. 2. World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE) Established in the year 2004, ‘World Committee on Tourism Ethics’ is an independent and impartial body of UNWTO. It directly reports to the General Assembly of UNWTO as a subsidiary organ. The members of this world Committee on tourism ethics are selected on their personal capacities rather than as officials or representatives of governments of member countries. The Committee is responsible for interpreting, applying and evaluating the provisions of ‘The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ in promotion of sustainable and responsible tourism. The mandate of this Committee rests with tasks of ‘promotion and dissemination of code of ethics, evaluation and monitoring the implementation of the ethics.’ 3. Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (GCET) Global Code of Ethics for Tourism contains 10 Articles in which there are nine principles and the tenth article is a summary of all of others focused on the implementation part. These articles are further divided into sub-sections with laws, regulations and recommendations mentioned for various stakeholders of tourism. The Ten Articles are mentioned below. • Contribution to mutual understanding and respect between peoples and societies • Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective fulfillment • Factor of sustainable development • A user of the cultural heritage of mankind and a contributor to its enhancement • Beneficial activity for host countries and communities • Obligations of stakeholders in tourism development • Right to tourism • Liberty of tourist movements • Rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry • Implementation of the principles of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism”. You may be interested to read Aviation Industry in India Article 1: “Contribution of Tourism to Mutual Understanding and Respect between Peoples and Societies” This Article observes, Tourism sector is well known for developing goodwill and harmony among regions and countries. People’s motives to travel to a place can be judged over the selection of place or destination. While travelling, tourists or visitors come across different societies and tradition, they experience different culture and practices. Therefore, they must maintain the dignity of other culture and must have a sense of respect for them. The tradition and culture of minorities and indigenous people must be observed. Tourist activities must be done in sync with the traditions and culture of the host community. On the other hand, the host community must have respect for the tourists and they must supply them with all important information. They must not misguide or misbehave with them. The host community must provide a warm welcome and hospitality to the tourists. Government or the concerned authorities must ensure the safety and security of the tourists. They must provide protection from illegal activities such as communal riots, war, kidnapping, murder, rape, snatching of goods, theft etc. Nonetheless the natural and cultural heritage must be preserved and conservation and preservation laws must be implemented. No criminal act should be allowed. Misconduct with tourists must not be allowed. However, tourists must keep themselves away from any criminal activity. They must not indulge in any offensive act like smuggling, trafficking of valuable species etc. Tourists must collect enough of information of rules and regulations, travel formalities and health information before the departure from their respective countries of residence. Article 2: “Tourism as a Vehicle for Individual and Collective Fulfillment” In any tourist destination whatever tourist activities take place that must be linked with rest and relaxation. It should provide learning about different culture of different people or society and of different region. There should not be any discrimination between men and women in any form, equality must be maintained. Cooperation of all states is mandatory in promoting human rights and it should be meant for all class of people without any discrimination. Exploitation in any form must not be accepted and in case of any such thing, states should deal with it. Educating people about touristic activities and benefits of tourism like social and cultural benefits, economic benefits is also very necessary, on the other hand tourists must be told about the risks. Article 3: “Tourism, as a Factor of Sustainable Development” Article 3 enshrines about development that one thing always strikes our mind, whether it is sustainable or not? Sustainability must be maintained in all forms be it environmental or cultural or social or economic. Tourism development must safeguard natural environments for present as well as future growth. Ecotourism should be promoted and natural heritage preservation should be given top priority. Priority should also be given to conserve energy at all levels such as; local, regional and national level. Destination carrying capacity should be maintained while conducting any tour or tourist activity. The infrastructural development in the name of tourism activities must be limited in order to protect natural heritage. Also read on UNWTO Article 4: “Tourism, as User of the Cultural Heritage of Mankind and a Contributor to its Enhancement” Article 4 briefs the following ethics in its sub-sections. The local community plays a great role in protecting and enhancing cultural heritage. Tourism uses the cultural heritage of the local community as a product. Thus the local communities should have rights and obligations on the cultural heritage. They should protect the local culture, maintain its authenticity and pass this on to the future generation. Government must make policies and activities for protection and they should also ensure that tourism should not affect any of the cultural heritage such historical monuments, or other structures. Revenue obtained from the visits to the heritage places, should be utilized for the development and conservation of the heritage. Article 5: “Tourism, as a Beneficial Activity for Host Countries and Communities” Article 5 comprehends the benefit of tourism to the host countries and communities. Tourism is a beneficial activity that brings prosperity in the society and local communities. Right from creation of jobs to implementation of policies, it plays a significant role in raising standard of living, quality of life, meeting the needs of the host communities and countries. Therefore, the participation of the host community in providing activities and services to the tourists is mandatory for economic, cultural and social benefits. While framing policies, government or the concerned authorities must consider the local people and their social and economic growth. Economic growth is found less in coastal and hilly areas so that such regions must be given special attention because such places lag behind in development than the other accessible places. On regular interval studies on impacts should be done by the authorities or its professionals keeping in view the objectives. Suitable corrections and changes in the policies need to be affected if negative impacts are noticed in the due course of development. Article 6: “Obligations of Stakeholders in Tourism Development” This Article includes obligations of stakeholders to be followed in tourism industry. Stakeholders pay a great contribution to the tourism industry as they provide good ambience for tourists’ quality of experience and supply tourists with valuable destination information. Stakeholders in tourism thus must provide accurate and genuine information of activities and services about a destination. The information related to nature, price, quality etc. must be mentioned clearly in the documents given to the tourists at the time of booking. Such information should not be exaggerated so that the committed services are not different from the services being offered. In case of service deficiency provider should compensate the tourists against such deficiency in services. The services offered must be in accordance with the national regulations at the same time they should show concern in cooperation with public authorities for safety and security, protection and food safety etc. Stakeholders must update tourists with the travel regulations and existence of insurance and assistance as tourists may face any adverse situation related to travel formalities while travelling abroad. Also read on UNWTO It is government’s duty to inform their nationals of any probable difficult situation faced by the tourists. Travel advisories should discuss regarding this with the host countries and concerned people beforehand. Media plays an important role in it so they should provide accurate, reliable, balanced and genuine information without disrespecting the rules and regulations of the host countries. Article 7: “Right to Tourism” Every human being has got some fundamental rights and “right to tourism” is discussed as a fundamental right in the Seventh Article of the global code. Tourism should be open to all habitants of the world without any discrimination for the proper utilization of leisure, be it disabled people or any other. Facilities must be provided to disabled at the same time they should be encouraged to travel. For this, there ought to have the “right to rest and leisure including limitation in working hours and periodic holidays” so that there could be more and more participation of tourist in various tourism activities. Social tourism should be enhanced by providing facilities for travel and leisure activities. Public authority’ support is required in this way. Article 8: “Liberty of Tourist Movements” The sub-sections of Article -8 also relates to free movement of tourists. The growth of tourism industry cannot be imagined without tourists’ movements so there has to be freedom to move anywhere they wish, be it their own country or region or the other countries. There should not be too much of formalities which may tangle them. Formalities related to visa, entry, health etc. must be simplified for convenience. There should be access to the places that tourists wish to visit and access to communication, stays, transits, legal and health services and access to allowances of convertible currencies for tourists. There should not be any discrimination and tourists should have the same rights as the citizens have in that particular country. Article 9: “Rights of the Workers and Entrepreneurs in Tourism Industry” In order to ensure a healthy work environment, the Global Code outlines ‘the rights of the worker and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry’ in the Article 9. Like right to tourism and right to tourism movements, workers and entrepreneurs have got some rights in the tourism industry. Every employee in the industry has right to get initial training which is provided by the firm. There should be job security for the seasonal workers and they should be given social protection. There should be interaction programme for exchanging experience between executives and workers from different regions and different countries. Such interactions contribute to the development of the industry. The entrepreneurs should involve themselves in social development as partnership among various organizations and building relations between enterprises help in sustainable development and growth. Article 10: “Implementation of the Principles of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism” Article 10 is the summarization of all the other articles of the code of ethics. The stakeholders who implement the principles need to be appreciated. Stakeholders should show their intentions to refer the disputes concerning interpretation of GCET. The article emphasizes public and private stakeholders to cooperate and complement each other in the implementation of code of ethics. Also read on UNWTO All players in tourism should respect apart from the guidelines of international law, the role of international tourism organizations such as the UNWTO and other non-governmental tourism organizations in all aspects of tourism activities. All stakeholders should approach the ‘World Committee on Tourism Ethics’ as an impartial third party to resolve any disputes amicably.

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