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A new and thorough analysis of high-resolution images and data from NASA’s Dawn mission have now provided fresh insights into the dwarf planet Ceres, with intriguing evidence that Ceres has a global subsurface salty ocean, and has been geologically active in the recent past.Continue reading “It’s Starting to Look Like Ceres is an Ocean World, Too” In 1802, German astronomer Heinrich Olbers observed what he thought was a planet within the Main Asteroid Belt. In time, astronomers would come to name this body Pallas, an alternate name for the Greek warrior goddess Athena. The subsequent discovery of many more asteroids in the Main Belt would lead to Pallas being reclassified as a large asteroid, the third-largest in the Belt after Ceres and Vesta. For centuries, astronomers have sought to get a better look at Pallas to learn more about its size, shape, and composition. As of the turn of the century, astronomers had come to conclude that it was an oblate spheroid (an elongated sphere). Thanks to a new study by an international team, the first detailed images of Pallas have finally been taken, which reveal that its shape is more akin to a “golf ball” – i.e. heavily dimpled.Continue reading “New Images of the “Golf Ball” Asteroid Pallas” Welcome back to our series on Colonizing the Solar System! Today, we take a look at the largest asteroid/planetoid in the Main Belt – Ceres! Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter lies the Solar System’s Main Asteroid Belt. Within this region, it is estimated that there are over 150 million objects that measure 100 meters (330 ft) or more in diameter. The largest of these is the dwarf planet Ceres (aka. 1 Ceres), the only body in the Main Belt that is large enough – 940 km (585 mi) in diameter – to have undergone hydrostatic equilibrium (become spherical). Because of its important location and the amenities this dwarf planet itself possesses, there are those who have proposed that we establish a colony on Ceres (and even some who’ve explored the idea of terraforming it). This could serve as a base for asteroid mining ventures as well as an outpost of human civilization, one which could facilitate the expansion of humanity farther out into the Solar System.Continue reading “How Do We Colonize Ceres?” Ceres, at almost 1,000 km (620 miles) in diameter, is the largest body in the asteroid belt. Between 2015 and 2018, NASA’s ion-powered Dawn spacecraft visited the dwarf planet, looking for clues to help us understand how our Solar System formed. Ceres is the first dwarf planet ever visited by a spacecraft. Now that scientists have worked with the data from Dawn, we’re starting to see just how unusual Ceres is. One of the most shocking of Dawn’s findings is the volcano Ahuna Mons, a feature that seems out of place on this tiny world. Now scientists from the German Aerospace Center (DLR) have figured out how this strange feature formed on this intriguing little planet.Continue reading “Ceres is a Strange Place, Including a Volcanic Peak 4,000 Meters High Made From Bubbling Salt Water, Mud and Rock” Welcome to the 583rd Carnival of Space! The Carnival is a community of space science and astronomy writers and bloggers, who submit their best work each week for your benefit. We have a fantastic roundup today so now, on to this week’s worth of stories! Continue reading “Carnival of Space #583” In 2007, the Dawn mission launched from Earth and began making its way towards two historic rendezvous in the Main Asteroid Belt. The purpose of this mission was to learn more about the history of the early Solar System by studying the two largest protoplanets in the Main Belt – Ceres and Vesta – which have remained intact since their formation. In 2015, the Dawn mission arrived in orbit around Ceres and began sending back data that has shed light on the protoplanet’s surface, composition and interior structure. Based on mission data, Pasquale Tricarico – the senior scientist at the Planetary Science Institute (PSI) – has also determined that the Ceres also experienced an indirect polar reorientation in the past, where its pole rolled approximately 36° off-axis. In science, one discovery often leads to more questions and mysteries. That’s certainly true of the ice volcanoes on the dwarf planet Ceres. When the Dawn spacecraft discovered the massive cryovolcano called Ahuna Mons on the surface of Ceres, it led to more questions: How cryovolcanically active is Ceres? And, why do we only see one? In March of 2015, NASA’s Dawn mission became the first spacecraft to visit the protoplanet Ceres, the largest body in the Main Asteroid Belt. It was also the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet, having arrived a few months before the New Horizons mission made its historic flyby of Pluto. Since that time, Dawn has revealed much about Ceres, which in turn is helping scientists to understand the early history of the Solar System. Last year, scientists with NASA’s Dawn mission made a startling discovery when they detected complex chains of carbon molecules – organic material essential for life – in patches on the surface of Ceres. And now, thanks to a new study conducted by a team of researchers from Brown University (with the support of NASA), it appears that these patches contain more organic material than previously thought. The new findings were recently published in the scientific journal Geophysical Research Letters under the title “New Constraints on the Abundance and Composition of Organic Matter on Ceres“. The study was led by Hannah Kaplan, a postdoctoral researcher at Brown University, with the assistance of Ralph E. Milliken and Conel M. O’D. Alexander – an assistant professor at Brown University and a researcher from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, respectively. The organic materials in question are known as “aliphatics”, a type of compound where carbon atoms form open chains that are commonly bound with oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine. To be fair, the presence of organic material on Ceres does not mean that the body supports life since such molecules can arise from non-biological processes. Aliphatics have also been detected on other planets in the form of methane (on Mars and especially on Saturn’s largest moon, Titan). Nevertheless, such molecules remains an essential building block for life and their presence at Ceres raises the question of how they got there. As such, scientists are interested in how it and other life-essential elements (like water) has been distributed throughout the Solar System. Since Ceres is abundant in both organic molecules and water, it raises some intriguing possibilities about the protoplanet. The results of this study and the methods they used could also provide a template for interpreting data for future missions. As Dr. Kaplan – who led the research while completing her PhD at Brown – explained in a recent Brown University press release: “What this paper shows is that you can get really different results depending upon the type of organic material you use to compare with and interpret the Ceres data. That’s important not only for Ceres, but also for missions that will soon explore asteroids that may also contain organic material.” The original discovery of organics on Ceres took place in 2017 when an international team of scientists analyzed data from the Dawn mission’s Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIRMS). The data provided by this instrument indicated the presence of these hydrocarbons in a 1000 km² region around of the Ernutet crater, which is located in the northern hemisphere of Ceres and measures about 52 km (32 mi) in diameter. To get an idea of how abundant the organic compounds were, the original research team compared the VIRMS data to spectra obtained in a laboratory from Earth rocks with traces of organic material. From this, they concluded that between 6 and 10% of the spectral signature detected on Ceres could be explained by organic matter. They also hypothesized that the molecules were endogenous in origin, meaning that they originated from inside the protoplanet. This was consistent with previous surveys that showed signs of hydorthermal activity on Ceres, as well others that have detected ammonia-bearing hydrated minerals, water ice, carbonates, and salts – all of which suggested that Ceres had an interior environment that can support prebiotic chemistry. But for the sake of their study, Kaplan and her colleagues re-examined the data using a different standard. Instead of relying on Earth rocks for comparison, they decided to examine an extraterrestrial source. In the past, some meteorites – such as carbonaceous chondrites – have been shown to contain organic material that is slightly different than what we are familiar with here on Earth. After re-examining the spectral data using this standard, Kaplan and her team determined that the organics found on Ceres were distinct from their terrestrial counterparts. As Kaplan explained: “What we find is that if we model the Ceres data using extraterrestrial organics, which may be a more appropriate analog than those found on Earth, then we need a lot more organic matter on Ceres to explain the strength of the spectral absorption that we see there. We estimate that as much as 40 to 50 percent of the spectral signal we see on Ceres is explained by organics. That’s a huge difference compared to the six to 10 percent previously reported based on terrestrial organic compounds.” If the concentrations of organic material are indeed that high, then it raises new questions about where it came from. Whereas the original discovery team claimed it was endogenous in origin, this new study suggests that it was likely delivered by an organic-rich comet or asteroid. On the one hand, the high concentrations on the surface of Ceres are more consistent with a comet impact. This is due to the fact that comets are known to have significantly higher internal abundances of organics compared with primitive asteroids, similar to the 40% to 50% figure this study suggests for these locations on Ceres. However, much of those organics would have been destroyed due to the heat of the impact, which leaves the question of how they got there something of a mystery. If they did arise endogenously, then there is the question of how such high concentrations emerged in the northern hemisphere. As Ralph Milliken explained: “If the organics are made on Ceres, then you likely still need a mechanism to concentrate it in these specific locations or at least to preserve it in these spots. It’s not clear what that mechanism might be. Ceres is clearly a fascinating object, and understanding the story and origin of organics in these spots and elsewhere on Ceres will likely require future missions that can analyze or return samples.” Given that the Main Asteroid Belt is composed of material left over from the formation of the Solar System, determining where these organics came from is expected to shed light on how organic molecules were distributed throughout the Solar System early in its history. In the meantime, the researchers hope that this study will inform upcoming sample missions to near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), which are also thought to host water-bearing minerals and organic compounds. These include the Japanese spacecraft Hayabusa2, which is expected to arrive at the asteroid Ryugu in several weeks’ time, and NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission – which is due to reach the asteroid Bennu in August. Dr. Kaplan is currently a science team member with the OSIRIS-REx mission and hopes that the Dawn study she led will help the OSIRIS-REx‘s mission characterize Bennu’s environment. “I think the work that went into this study, which included new laboratory measurements of important components of primitive meteorites, can provide a framework of how to better interpret data of asteroids and make links between spacecraft observations and samples in our meteorite collection,” she said. “As a new member to the OSIRIS-REx team, I’m particularly interested in how this might apply to our mission.” The New Horizons mission is also expected to rendezvous with the Kuiper Belt Object (KBO) 2014 MU69 on January 1st, 2019. Between these and other studies of “ancient objects” in our Solar System – not to mention interstellar asteroids that are being detected for the first time – the history of the Solar System (and the emergence of life itself) is slowly becoming more clear. In March of 2015, NASA’s Dawn mission arrived around Ceres, a protoplanet that is the largest object in the Asteroid Belt. Along with Vesta, the Dawn mission seeks to characterize the conditions and processes of the early Solar System by studying some of its oldest objects. One thing Dawn has determined since its arrival is that water-bearing minerals are widespread on Ceres, an indication that the protoplanet once had a global ocean. Naturally, this has raised many questions, such as what happened to this ocean, and could Ceres still have water today? Towards this end, the Dawn mission team recently conducted two studies that shed some light on these questions. Whereas the former used gravity measurements to characterize the interior of the protoplanet, the latter sought to determine its interior structure by studying its topography. The first study, titled “Constraints on Ceres’ internal structure and evolution from its shape and gravity measured by the Dawn spacecraft“, was recently published in the Journal of Geophysical Research. Led by Anton Ermakov, a postdoctoral researcher at JPL, the team also consisted of researchers from the NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, the German Aerospace Center, Columbia University, UCLA and MIT. Together, the team relied on gravity measurements of the protoplanet, which the Dawn probe has been collecting since it established orbit around Ceres. Using the Deep Space Network to track small changes in the spacecraft’s orbit, Ermakov and his colleagues were able to conduct shape and gravity data measurements of Ceres to determine the internal structure and composition. What they found was that Ceres shows signs of being geologically active; if not today, than certainly in the recent past. This is indicated by the presence of three craters – Occator, Kerwan and Yalode – and Ceres’ single tall mountain, Ahuna Mons. All of these are associated with “gravity anomalies”, which refers to discrepancies between the way scientists have modeled Ceres’ gravity and what Dawn observed in these four locations. The team concluded that these four features and other outstanding geological formations, are therefore indications of cryovolcanism or subsurface structures. What’s more, they determined that the crust’s density was relatively low, being closer to that of ice than solid rock. This, however, was inconsistent with a previous study performed by Dawn guest investigator Michael Bland of the U.S. Geological Survey. Bland’s study, which was published in Nature Geoscience back in 2016, indicated that ice is not likely to be the dominant component of Ceres strong crust, on a count of it being too soft. Naturally, this raises the question of how the crust could be light as ice in terms of density, but also much stronger. To answer this, the second team attempted to model how Ceres’ surface evolved over time. Their study, titled “The Interior Structure of Ceres as Revealed by Surface Topography and Gravity“, was published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Led by Roger Fu, an assistant professor with the Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences at MIT, this team consisted of members from Virginia Tech, Caltech, the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), the US Geological Survey, and the INAF. Together, they investigated the strength and composition of Ceres’ crust and deeper interior by studying the dwarf planet’s topography. By modeling how the protoplanet’s crust flows, Fu and colleagues determined that it is likely a mixture of ice, salts, rock, and likely clathrate hydrate. This type of structure, which is composed of a gas molecule surrounded by water molecules, is 100 to 1,000 times stronger than water ice. This high-strength crust, they theorize, could rest on a softer layer that contains some liquid. This would have allowed Ceres’ topography to deform over time, smoothing down features that were once more pronounced. It would also account for its possible ancient ocean, which would have frozen and become bound up with the crust. Nevertheless, some of its water would still exist in a liquid state underneath the surface. This theory is consistent with several thermal evolution models which were published before the Dawn mission arrived at Ceres. These models contend that Ceres’ interior contains liquid water, similar to what has been found on Jupiter’s moon Europa and Saturn’s moon Enceladus. But in Ceres’ case, this liquid could be what is left over from its ancient ocean rather than the result of present-day geological activity in the interior. Taken together, these studies indicate that Ceres has had a long and turbulent history. While the first study found that Ceres’ crust is a mixture of ice, salts and hydrated materials – which represents most of its ancient ocean – the second study suggests there is a softer layer beneath Ceres’ rigid surface crust, which could be the signature of residual liquid left over from the ocean. As Julie Castillo-Rogez, the Dawn project scientist at JPL and a co-author on both studies, explained, “More and more, we are learning that Ceres is a complex, dynamic world that may have hosted a lot of liquid water in the past, and may still have some underground.” On October 19, 2017, NASA announced that the Dawn mission would be extended until its fuel runs out, which is expected to happen in the latter half of 2018. This extension means that the Dawn probe will be in orbit around Ceres as it goes through perihelion in April 2018. At this time, surface ice will start to evaporate to form a transient atmosphere around the body. During this period and long after, the spacecraft is likely to remain in a stable orbit around Ceres, where it will continue to send back information on this protoplanet/large asteroid. What it teaches us will also go a long way towards informing our understanding of the early Solar System and how it evolved over the past few billion years. In the future, it is possible that a mission will be sent to Ceres that is capable of landing on its surface and exploring its topography directly. With any luck, future missions will also be able to explore the interior of Ceres, and other “ocean worlds” like Europa and Enceladus, and find out what lurks beneath their icy surfaces! Further Reading: NASA The Dawn probe continues to excite and amaze! Since it achieved orbit around Ceres in March of 2015, it has been sending back an impressive stream of data and images on the protoplanet. In addition to capturing pictures of the mysterious “bright spots” on Ceres’ surface, it has also revealed evidence of cryovolcanism and the possibility of an interior ocean that could even support life. Most recently, the Dawn probe conducted observations of the protoplanet while it was at opposition – directly between the Sun and Ceres surface – on April 29th. From this position, the craft was able to capture pictures of the Occator Crater, which contains the brightest spot on Ceres. These images were then stitched together by members of the mission team in order to create a short movie that showcases the view Dawn had of the planet. The images were snapped when the Dawn probe was at an altitude of about 20,000 km (12,000 mi) from Ceres’ surface. As you can see (by clicking on the image below), the short movie shows the protoplanet rotating so that the Occator Crater is featured prominently. This crater is unmistakable thanks to the way its bright spots (two side by side white dots) stand out from the bland, grey landscape. This increase in brightness is attributable to the size of grains of material on the surface, as well as their degree of porosity. As scientists have known for some time (thanks to the Dawn mission data) these bright spots are salt deposits, which stand out because they are more reflective than their surrounding environment. But for the sake of movie, this contrast was enhanced further in order to highlight the difference. The observations were conducted as part of the latest phase of the Dawn mission, where it is recording cosmic rays in order to refine its earlier measurements of Ceres’ underground environment. In order to conduct these readings, the probe has been placed through an intricate set of maneuvers designed to shift its orbit around Ceres. Towards the end of April, this placed the probe in a position directly between the Sun and Ceres. Based on previous data collected by ground-based telescopes and spacecraft that have viewed planetary bodies at opposition, the Dawn team predicted that Ceres would appear brighter from this vantage point. But rather than simply providing for some beautiful images of Ceres’ surface, the pictures are expected to reveal new details of the surface that are not discernible by visual inspection. For more than two years now, the Dawn probe has been observing Ceres from a range of illumination angles that exceed those made of just about any other body in the Solar System. These has provided scientists with the opportunity to gain new insights into its surface features, properties, and the forces which shape it. Such observations will come in very handy as they continue to probe Ceres’ surface for hints of what lies beneath. For years, scientists have been of the opinion that Ceres’ harbors an interior ocean that could support life. In fact, the Dawn probe has already gathered spectral data that hinted at the presence of organic molecules on the surface, which were reasoned to have been kicked up when a meteor impacted the surface. Characterizing the surface and subsurface environments will help determine if this astronomical body really could support life. At present, the Dawn probe is maintaining an elliptical orbit that is taking it farther away from Ceres. As of May 11th, NASA reported that the probe was in good health and functioning well, despite the malfunction that took place in April where it’s third reaction wheel failed. The Dawn mission has already been extended, and it is expected to operate around Ceres until 2017. Further Reading: NASA

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The goal of a war is to defeat an enemy’s will to fight. So argues the author of Nothing Less than Victory: Decisive Wars and the Lessons of History (Princeton University Press, 2010), who makes the case that a strong military offense can win a war and establish lasting peace while playing defense often leads to destruction. This study of six major wars, from the Second Punic War to World War 2, by historian John David Lewis, contrasts the use of overwhelming force, such as the Greek victory over Xerxes’ army and navy, with a lack of reason, purpose, and commitment to fight. On the eve of the 10th year since the worst attack in American history, I turned to my friend John Lewis, a visiting associate professor of philosophy, politics, and economics at Duke University and teacher at Objectivist Conferences (OCON), to discuss today’s war from a historical perspective. Dr. Lewis is the author of Solon the Thinker: Political Thought in Archaic Athens and Early Greek Lawgivers. Scott Holleran: What is the theme of Nothing Less Than Victory: Decisive Wars and the Lessons of History? John David Lewis: That wars are driven and caused by people’s decisions to fight and that those decisions are based on the ideas they hold. This has enormous implications for what victory means, because it means discrediting the ideas we’re trying to defeat. For example, one could never explain Germany’s massive attacks [against other countries] or Japan’s massive attack on America, in which they launched into intercontinental warfare, without understanding the ideals that they held. The theme of Nothing Less Than Victory is that one must defeat the enemy by discrediting his ideas. Scott Holleran: How was Nothing Less Than Victory suggested by your students? John David Lewis: I was teaching a class on ancient and modern warfare and it became clear that a comparative history would be useful. My students posed good questions. Scott Holleran: While writing about the rise of the Nazis, did The Ominous Parallels: The End of Freedom in America by Leonard Peikoff help your understanding? John David Lewis: Yes, because it’s the only book I know of that places philosophical ideas as the lesson of history. It’s not only an explanation of Nazi Germany in terms of ideas but, much more deeply and widely, it demonstrates how ideas move history. Scott Holleran: The current administration supports military involvements in Iraq, Afghanistan and Libya, as well as other underreported incursions in nations such as Yemen and Pakistan, with something other than, or less than, a purpose let alone a victory. The Oxford English Dictionary defines warmonger as “a person who seeks to bring about or promote war.” As a commander-in-chief who supports and initiates militarism with no purpose or end, is President Obama a warmonger? John David Lewis: I think he’s incompetent but I don’t think Obama is a warmonger. He inherited those wars but he’s simply unable to bring those wars to a decisive end. His main goal is to bring about a fundamental restructuring of the relationship of every American to the government, which is why ObamaCare was among his top three initiatives, because there’s no better way to define that relationship than through health care. So, his major initiative is to change us from the inside out and I think foreign policy is a distraction to him. It’s a symptom of his incompetence, not warmongering. One other aspect of this is that, unlike Bush, with regard to rules of engagement, he generally lets the generals do as they want but this slight improvement [over Bush] is not because Obama is driven to victory. Scott Holleran: Are the U.S. military interventions in Libya, Iraq and Afghanistan properly described as wars? John David Lewis: When you have combatants you have a war. As Ayn Rand said about the Vietnam War, and I’m paraphrasing, when foreign soldiers are killing Americans, it’s a war and nothing but a war. Certainly, these are wars, but they’re wars in which one side knows it’s fighting a war and the other side is desperately avoiding using that term. Scott Holleran: You have publicly discussed your cancer diagnosis with regard to domestic health policy and compared your battle against cancer with the themes in Nothing Less Than Victory. Has your condition affected your thoughts on war? John David Lewis: It has sharpened something—that my battle against cancer is a metaphor, not a war. There’s intelligence gathering in the first stage, nuclear warfare—chemicals and radiation—in the second stage and then we send in the Marines—with doctors and nurses. In a war, you’re dealing with other human beings, who have free will. With cancer, the disease does not have a mind of its own; beating it is a matter of biological causality. Scott Holleran: Are you primarily a teacher, a writer or an historian? John David Lewis: It depends on what day it is. Tomorrow, I start teaching two courses at Duke, so tomorrow I’m a teacher. I don’t see any kind of exclusivity—I think they’re mutually supportive. I would not want to be only a historian or writer, because I need the stimulation of teaching. Scott Holleran: If the U.S. continues to deteriorate, with, for example, an economic collapse or major Islamic terrorist attack, historically speaking, which is more likely: anarchy, civil war, or religious dictatorship? John David Lewis: Probably some form of religious dictatorship. The two events you name, economic collapse from inside and an attack from outside, are very different. In the case of an attack, I think the American people would look for a leader to unite them and the chances are much greater that they’ll look to a religious leader and we’ll end up with a fascist dictatorship. It depends on the attack, too; obviously, if there are 20 nuclear bombs detonated at once, we may lose our infrastructure and descend into some form of anarchy, but I think we’re more likely to have a single nuclear attack. With an economic collapse, the public would [be more likely to] look for a leader who would seek centralization of power. The infrastructure—the command structure—the equipment—for a police state is already in place at our airports with the TSA. The American people are already habituated to accept it. Scott Holleran: What is your most controversial point in Nothing Less Than Victory? John David Lewis: That ideas drive history. Two things are necessary in war; the capacity to fight and the will to fight. During the so-called Cold War, the two great powers were the Soviet Union and the United States, but a third power with capacity was England—and no one went after them because they posed no threat. So, in fact, the most controversial idea is the most obvious; that ideas are the drivers of history. Among readers, the most controversial idea is my point that it was moral to drop the atom bomb on Japan. Scott Holleran: We now know that the Soviets had infiltrated the United States government and U.S. industries, including motion pictures, and society. Is jihadist Moslem infiltration—including takeover—of the U.S. government possible? John David Lewis: I don’t think takeover was the kind of thing the Communists were after. What they were going to do is [try to] elect people who would be sympathetic to the Soviet cause. I think that, in a certain sense, there’s a strong parallel, because those who want a radical Islamic war culminating in a one-world government are just as overt in pursuing their goals as were the Communists. But the Soviets were less interested in a one-world government [than jihadists]. The Iranians may be less focused on one-world government than the Saudis. The Iranians act more like the Soviets—they want to have nukes to play like the big boys, whereas the Saudis are more like the Trotskyites. They want this worldwide evolution [toward Islamic statism] and are more patient about infiltrating [Western civilization]. The Saudis have built thousands of mosques and [radical Islamic group] CAIR has directly said that Sharia law imposed over the United States will come. To actually take over the U.S. government in the sense that they impose Sharia law? We’re a long way from that. But if you mean creating sympathies and bringing about a radical Islamic-influenced government… Scott Holleran: Certain presidential candidates have recently been linked to campaign donors who may be connected, directly or indirectly, to groups that support Islamic jihadist aims. Are you concerned that the enemy could shape and influence American government through a Manchurian candidate? John David Lewis: Yes. It’s part of the insidiousness of these groups. Today, any candidate knows that accepting money from jihadist groups for influence would kill the campaign—you can’t keep that kind of thing a secret. So that would be less likely than the threat of covert multiculturalist ideas being spread and accepted throughout the culture. John David Lewis: The need to name the enemy, identify him as an enemy and develop a strategy that defeats him at his center—an elusive concept—or close to a center of gravity of economic, social, political support for the [jihadist] war [against the West]. [Carl von] Clausewitz writes about this—that Americans have a strong moral center, so that, by attacking our moral center, the enemy imposes guilt. We saw this in the Vietnam War when we were criticized for distinguishing between [Communist] North and [non-Communist] South Vietnam. After the war ended, one of our generals went to a former North Vietnamese military general and said, “you never defeated us in the battlefield.” And his North Vietnamese counterpart said that was irrelevant. You need to be right in what you’re doing and you need to know that you’re right in what you’re doing. Scott Holleran: You write about the citizens of ancient Carthage and those in South Carolina and Georgia during the Civil War not facing the consequences of war. Are today’s Americans disconnected from war? John David Lewis: Yes. In a certain sense, they’re very disconnected from the war because they’re not facing an attack on their soil right now, so I don’t think they know what’s going on. When I talk to soldiers, I get a very different sense about what’s going on in Iraq and Afghanistan than what I see in the media. But, in another sense, we are more connected because we live in the age of technology, and people can get news from the battlefield. What would Americans at home have said had images from Iwo Jima been sent back home? Scott Holleran: You write about Union General Sherman’s remarkably low casualties during the Civil War. Why is that fact not widely taught or known? John David Lewis: Because people today are caught up in the myth of Sherman as the Attila from the North. Southerners created that myth. Scott Holleran: How did the myth become so widely accepted in the North? John David Lewis: That’s a good question. The intellectuals, historians and the press are all complicit in this—it strikes their morality that Sherman specifically targeted civilians—and once they accept that that’s what Sherman did, they move on rather than examine the facts of what happened. Why are Hiroshima and Nagasaki held up as moral evils while failing to consider what alternatives the United States had? Facts are forgotten and subordinated for moral reasons. Scott Holleran: You also write about Confederates hiding behind civilians like today’s Moslem jihadists. Are there other examples in history of using civilians as covers for combatants during war? John David Lewis: That happens all the time in war. Any time an army backs up into a city and defends against its walls, the civilians are being held hostage in some way. So there’s certainly a precedent in history. I don’t think the Confederates were necessarily worse even than the Union. Palestinian snipers look for Israeli troops where they are facing civilians and what they want is to get the Israelis to return gunfire against civilians to get publicity—they want the enemy to kill civilians as a pretext. That’s worse. Scott Holleran: Is the mass death of freed slaves at Ebeneezer Creek in any way indicative that the Union army was racist, too, and does the tragedy diminish the moral righteousness of the Union cause? John David Lewis: Racist? Of course. Everyone was a racist back then. Does it diminish the moral status of the Union’s cause? Absolutely not! Many freed slaves wanted to be with Sherman’s army. As Union armies were moving ahead under Union General Jefferson C. Davis’s command, freed slaves followed. Coming to the creek, with Confederates behind them, Davis ordered pontoons brought up, leaving the freed slaves behind, and then they were attacked by Southern armies. Davis may have been racist but who caused the dangers to the freed slaves? It was the Southern army. Davis is given moral criticism for failing to rescue blacks from Southerners. But it’s the Southerners that were to blame. They were the ones attacking. They were ones who’d enslaved them. Scott Holleran: Coming to the 20th century wars, you write that President Woodrow Wilson sought “peace without victors.” Who is the last president who didn’t? John David Lewis: Franklin Roosevelt. Scott Holleran: You trace President Wilson’s ideals to philosopher Thomas Hobbes and, centrally, to philosopher Immanuel Kant. Is Wilson America’s first Kantian president? John David Lewis: I don’t know enough about the intellectual history of American presidents to say whether he’s the first but he’s heavily influenced by Kant because the basis of his education was German. It’s Kant’s 1795 essay on Perpetual Peace that calls for the establishment of a worldwide state. Kant calls for “a league of nations”. Kant directly influenced the League of Nations. People forget that Kant said that all nations of the world should be republics and he rejected democracy—but he blanked out the fact that all nations in the world are not republics. The influence of Kant in education that was German-based clearly influenced Woodrow Wilson. Scott Holleran: Why do liberals condemn Nazi Germany but drop the context of the Nazis’ government-controlled economics? John David Lewis: I don’t know. I think the inference takes them down a road that they don’t want to go. They don’t want to face the fact that being an advocate of a government-controlled economy makes them tyrannical. It’s forgotten that these fascist states were woefully inefficient. I have evidence that Mussolini did not make the trains run on time, yet this notion that fascism is efficient persists. Last night, I saw a Star Trek episode in which Spock tells Kirk that Nazi Germany was the world’s most efficient society. That’s not true. Scott Holleran: You report that the media aided and abetted the rise of the Nazis. Is today’s press complicit in aiding the rise of fascism, too? John David Lewis: Oh, sure, though they wouldn’t say it that way. The press itself is almost always solidly on the side of greater and bigger government programs, except for the Wall Street Journal and some conservative outlets. They don’t want to call themselves fascists but in effect that is what they are supporting. Scott Holleran: Did the West drive Italian dictator Benito Mussolini into an alliance with Nazi Germany? John David Lewis: I don’t know—I don’t have a good answer for that. If it’s true that Mussolini was afraid of Nazi Germany, there certainly were times, especially when the Germans moved into the Rhineland and Czechoslovakia, when all offers and opportunities might have stopped the Nazi flood. I think the West was instrumental—and complicit—in driving Mussolini into an alliance with Nazi Germany in the same way we did with [Cuban dictator] Fidel Castro and the Soviet Union, but I would never place primary blame or cause on the West because both probably would have happened anyway. They shared a basic philosophy. Scott Holleran: Was Imperial Japan as racist as Nazi Germany? John David Lewis: In its own way, yes. The more I read about Japan, the more I realize what a truly foreign nation it is—in their morals, in their writing, you see now that, when something goes wrong in a company, the executives have to bow down and apologize. Japan was as racist as Germany in the sense that they saw themselves as racially superior and destined to rule Asia. Scott Holleran: Is General Douglas MacArthur underestimated as leader and thinker in occupied Japan? John David Lewis: Yes. In terms of the occupation of Japan, which MacArthur was put in charge of, it resulted in zero deaths and there were no insurrections. What he did was a monumental task and it went as benevolently and well as any occupation in history. He is greatly underestimated. Scott Holleran: Is it possible for the U.S. public to come to worship a leader, such as Texas Governor Perry, Minnesota Congresswoman Bachmann, or President Obama, as a deity as people did in Japan? John David Lewis: We’re a long way from that, especially the way it was done in Japan. But the way people treat Barack Obama—as if he’s the divine one, his word is oracle and he can do everything—has parallels. Scott Holleran: There are a number of war movies in recent years, from 300 and The Alamo remake to recent war-themed pictures such as Stop-Loss, Jarhead and The Lucky Ones—even The King’s Speech hinges upon an understanding of what’s at stake in war. Do you recommend any movies as effective dramatizations of war and/or a proper historical perspective? John David Lewis: I don’t have a recommendation. I did see one war movie recently—Escape from Sobibor [British made for television, which aired on CBS in 1987] with Alan Arkin. It’s about a German concentration camp—a death camp—in Poland. Like all these camps, there were some prisoners who were not killed; they were out in barracks. Sobibor was where the only full-scale revolt by camp prisoners took place. They ran into the woods and escaped—it’s the one case where everyone, especially the Jews but also the Poles, fought back. They killed the Germans, and then they rushed the main gate and hundreds escaped. That’s worth seeing. I stopped seeing a lot of modern war movies. I have not seen 300. I’ve got the graphic novel and it looks awful. A much better movie about the historic battle is The 300 Spartans [starring Richard Egan, 1962]. Scott Holleran: Any other classic movie recommendations? John David Lewis: I still like to see Battle of the Bulge [starring Robert Shaw, 1965], which is about reversing the wills to fight. In the beginning, the Americans are demoralized and the Germans are motivated. In the end it’s the opposite. There are some good classic war movies set in World War 2. Even a movie like A Bridge Too Far has a certain point to it. Scott Holleran: You write that President Franklin Roosevelt wrote about “the destruction of a philosophy” in achieving victory in World War 2. Does the planned construction of an Islamic mosque near where the Twin Towers once stood—before Islamic jihadists destroyed them on 9/11—represent a victory to the enemy? John David Lewis: I think it does. It’s not because the people who want to build the mosque are on the side of those who want to destroy the U.S. but they chose to build it near the World Trade Center site for sympathetic reasons and those reasons—for building a $100 million cultural center—are the same reasons that make me want to oppose it. In the plans, there are separate places for men and women, so it’s clearly a place to enforce certain political ideas, which are not consistent with the ideals of the United States. That they choose to build it there is why I oppose building it there. Scott Holleran: You contrast the Japanese with the Americans in terms of motive, demonstrating that the Japanese, like today’s jihadists, were motivated by death while the Americans fighting in World War 2 were motivated by life. We have been fighting and appeasing jihadists for over 10 years with thousands of U.S. casualties and no progress toward victory. Are Americans losing the will to live? John David Lewis: That’s a difficult question. If one sees an enemy as out to destroy you and does not act against him, and instead builds bridges to him, then certainly Americans are losing the will to live. Certainly, if we don’t demand a nation that defends itself, that’s true. Scott Holleran: You write about dropping napalm and atom bombs, not food, on civilians during war. What is the primary reason why we drop food packages not bombs on our enemy? John David Lewis: On one level, we don’t want to destroy and kill people that way—Americans are very benevolent—and we fail to make the connection between dropping bombs and saving our lives. American intelligence in Japan looked at what was happening inside the country of Japan—inside the houses. When they found out that civilians were being trained to kill Americans, they realized that within those houses were weapons and that civilians were an active part of the war effort and an American intelligence officer made a direct connection; he reported there were no civilians in Japan as far as the war effort was concerned. Recently, we saw a Navy SEAL team come across a group of shepherds that were hostile to the U.S.—and they let them go, knowing the shepherds would turn them over to the enemy if given a chance. It goes back to your question about the will to live, and, in that sense, it’s gone. Scott Holleran: Which is the greater threat to the United States—Iran, which openly declares its intent to destroy America—or Saudi Arabia, which sponsors Islamic jihadism while claiming to do otherwise? John David Lewis: They’re both threats. I can’t elevate one above the other. Scott Holleran: The Nazis were appeased by the West and swept into power, exterminating millions of Jews. The Soviets were allied with and appeased by the West and subsequently conquered much of the civilized world, exterminating millions of people, enslaving tens of millions and fighting a proxy war with the U.S. that funded the forces that created jihadist Islam. Islamic jihadists, too, were allied with and appeased by the West and are fighting a proxy war with the U.S. through subversive terrorism. What horror awaits civilization should jihadists prevail? John David Lewis: The first thing we would see is the entire Middle East given to Islamic government and all-out war—we would see Islamic rule in the south of France, Spain, and Indonesia, and the predominantly Islamic republics of the former Soviet Union. I do not think that we would see a single caliphate against the United States. I think we would see Iran and Syria against Saudi Arabia and Egypt and whatever would come out of that would push out against the West. European nations are already failing by internal rot. But how far are we from France becoming an Islamic state? Probably far off. The war would spread like a plague through Africa and South America, where they would come to regret the alliance that [Venezuelan dictator] Hugo Chavez made with Iran. And if Iran gets nuclear weapons—and then the Saudis do, too—that would be very bad for the rest of the world. Scott Holleran: Is America’s current predicament with regard to the unacknowledged war with jihadist Islam fundamentally comparable to either the 300 Spartans or the Alamo? John David Lewis: [Pauses] No. I don’t think so. In neither Greece nor the Alamo was it denied that there was a problem. Today, we are evading the fact that there’s a problem—that this politicized Islam [jihad, which means holy war] is what motivates the enemy. In that sense, it’s not comparable. The Greeks made a stand against the Persians and it became a rallying cry—the men at the Alamo made a stand against the Mexicans and it became a rallying cry—but when the passengers of United [Air Lines flight] 93 made a stand against the radical Moslems, there should have been a rallying cry, and there wasn’t. Throughout history, we’ve heard “Remember the 300 [Spartans]!” “Remember the Alamo!” and “Remember the Maine!” No one cries “Let’s Roll” to remember United 93. John David Lewis: It makes me sad to think of that. [Pauses] There is one that comes to mind, though I haven’t been there—the U.S.S. Arizona at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The [sunken] ship [destroyed with her 1,777 crewmen by the Japanese] was left there and a memorial was built over it. Some of the Confederate war memorials, such as the memorial at Shiloh, are very moving. But the one that seems most moving to me is the Arizona memorial. [Pauses] I do not think it’s time to build a memorial to the victims of 9/11. There’s a line about building a war memorial during a war that may be attributable to, of all people, Eleanor Roosevelt: We’ll win the war—then we’ll have a memorial. Scott Holleran: What one idea, more than any other idea, must be accepted in our culture for the West to achieve victory over jihadist Islam? John David Lewis: Knowledge of our own good. Most of all, we must realize that we stand for the values of freedom, the sanctity of the individual, and reason.

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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Holy Week Holy Week is the week which precedes the great festival of the Resurrection on Easter Sunday, and which consequently is used to commemorate the Passion of Christ, and the event which immediately led up to it. In Latin is it called hebdomada major, or, less commonly, hebdomada sancta, styling it ἡ ἁγία καὶ μεγάλη ἑβδομάς. Similarly, in most modern languages (except for the German word Charwoche, which seems to mean "the week of lamentation") the interval between Palm Sunday and Easter Day is known par excellence as Holy Week. Antiquity of the Celebration of Holy Week From an attentive study of the Gospels, and particularly that of St. John, it might easily be inferred that already in Apostolic times a certain emphasis was laid upon the memory of the last week of Jesus Christ's mortal life. The supper at Bethania must have taken place on the Saturday, "six days before the pasch" (John, xii, 1, 2), and the triumphant entry into Jerusalem was made from there next morning. Of Christ's words and deeds between this and His Crucifixion we have a relatively full record. But whether this feeling of the sanctity belonging to these days was primitive or not, it in any case existed in Jerusalem at the close of the fourth century, for the Pilgrimage of Ætheria contains a detailed account of the whole week, beginning with the service in the "Lazarium" at Bethania on the Saturday, in the course of which was read the narrative of the anointing of Christ's feet. Moreover, on the next day, which, as Ætheria says, "began the week of the Pasch, which they call here the "Great Week", a special reminder was addressed to the people by the archdeacon in these terms: "Throughout the whole week, beginning from to-morrow, let us all assemble in the Martyrium, that is the great church, at the ninth hour." The commemoration of Christ's triumphal entry into the city took place the same afternoon. Great crowds, including even children too young to walk, assembled on the Mount of Olives and after suitable hymns, and antiphons, and readings, they returned in procession to Jerusalem, escorting the bishop, and bearing palms and branches of olives before him. Special services in addition to the usual daily Office are also mentioned on each of the following days. On the Thursday the Liturgy was celebrated in the late afternoon, and all Communicated, after which the people went to the Mount of Olives to commemorate with appropriate readings and hymns the agony of Christ in the garden and His arrest, only returning to the city as day began to dawn on the Friday. On the Friday again there were many services, and in particular before midday there took place the veneration of the great relic of the True Cross, as also of the title which had been fastened to it; while for three hours after midday another crowded service was held in commemoration of the Passion of Christ, at which, Ætheria tells us, the sobs and lamentations of the people exceeded all description. Exhausted as they must have been, a vigil was again maintained by the younger and stronger of the clergy and by some of the laity. On the Saturday, besides the usual offices during the day, there took place the great paschal vigil in the evening, with the baptism of children and catechumens. But this, as Ætheria implies, was already familiar to her in the West. The account just summarized belongs probably to the year 388, and it is of the highest value as coming from a pilgrim and an eyewitness who had evidently followed the services with close attention. Still the observance of Holy Week as a specially sacred commemoration must be considerably older. In the first of his festal letters, written in 329, St. Athanasius of Alexandria speaks of the severe fast maintained during "those six holy and great days [preceding Easter Sunday] which are the symbol of the creation of the world". He refers, seemingly, to some ancient symbolism which strangely reappears in the Anglo-Saxon martyrologium of King Alfred's time. Further he writes, in 331: "We begin the holy week of the great pasch on the tenth of Pharmuthi in which we should observe more prolonged prayers and fastings and watchings, that we may be enabled to anoint our lintels with the precious blood and so escape the destroyer." From these and other references, e.g., in St. Chrysostom, the Apostolic Constitutions, and other sources, including a somewhat doubtfully authentic edict of Constantine proclaiming that the public business should be suspended in Holy Week, it seems probable that throughout the Christian world some sort of observance of these six days by fasting and prayer had been adopted almost everywhere by Christians before the end of the fourth century. Indeed it is quite possible that the fast of special severity is considerably older, for Dionysius of Alexandria (c. A.D. 260) speaks of some who went without food for the whole six days (see further under Lent). The week was also known as the week of the dry fast (ξηροφαγία), while some of its observances were very possibly influenced by an erroneous etymology of the word Pasch, which was current among the Greeks. Pasch really comes from a Hebrew word meaning "passage" (of the destroying angel), but the Greeks took it to be identical with πάσχειν, to suffer. Special Observances of Holy Week We may now touch upon some of the liturgical features which are distinctive of Holy Week at the present time. Palm Sunday comes first in order, and although no memory now remains in our Roman Missal of the supper at Bethany and the visit to the "Lazarium", we find from certain early Gallican books that the preceding day was once known as "Lazarus Saturday", while Palm Sunday itself is still sometimes called by the Greeks κυριακὴ τοῦ Λαζάρου (the Sunday of Lazarus). The central feature of the service proper to this day, as it was in the time of Ætheria, is the procession of palms. Perhaps the earliest clear evidence of this procession in the West is to be found in the Spanish "Liber Ordinum" (see Férotin, "Monumenta Liturgica", V, 179), but traces of such a celebration are to be met with in Aldhelm and Bede as well as in the Bobbio Missal and the Gregorian Sacramentary. All the older rituals seem to suppose that the palms are blessed in a place apart (e.g. some eminence or some other church of the town) and are then borne in procession to the principal church, where an entry is made with a certain amount of ceremony, after which a solemn Mass is celebrated. It seems highly probable, as Canon Callewaert has pointed out (Collationes Brugenses, 1907, 200-212), that this ceremonial embodies a still living memory of the practice described by Ætheria at Jerusalem. By degrees, however, in the Middle Ages a custom came in of making a station, not at any great distance, but at the churchyard cross, which was often decorated with box or evergreens (crux buxata), and from here the procession advanced to the church. Many details varying with the locality marked the ceremonial of this procession. An almost constant feature was, however, the singing of the "Gloria laus", a hymn probably composed for some such occasion by Theodulphus of Orléans (c. A.D. 810). Less uniformly prevalent was the practice of carrying the Blessed Sacrament in a portable shrine. The earliest mention of this usage seems to be in the customs compiled by Archbishop Lanfranc for the monks of Christ Church, Canterbury. In Germany, and elsewhere on the Continent, the manner of the entry of Christ was sometimes depicted by dragging along a wooden figure of an ass on wheels (the Palmesel), and in other places the celebrant himself rode upon an ass. In England and in many parts of France the veneration paid to the churchyard cross or to the rood cross in the sanctuary by genuflections and prostrations became almost a central feature in the service. Another custom, that of scattering flowers or sprays of willow and yew before the procession, as it advanced through the churchyard, seems to have been misinterpreted in course of time as a simple act of respect to the dead. Under the impression the practice of "flowering the graves" on Palm Sunday is maintained even to this day in many country districts of England and Wales. With regard to the form of the blessing of the palms, we have in the modern Roman Missal, as well as in most of the older books, what looks like the complete Proper of a Mass — Introit, Collects, Gradual, Preface, and other prayers. It is perhaps not unnatural to conjecture that this may represent the skeleton of a consecration Mass formerly said at the station from which the procession started. This view, however, has not much positive evidence to support it and has been contested (see Callewaert, loc. cit.). It is probable that originally the palms were only blessed with a view to the procession, but the later form of benediction seems distinctly to suppose that the palms will be preserved as sacramentals and carried about. The only other noteworthy feature of the present Palm Sunday service is the reading of the Gospel of the Passion. As on Good Friday, and on the Tuesday and the Wednesday of Holy Week, the Passion, when solemn Mass is offered, is sung by three deacons who impersonate respectively the Evangelist (Chronista), Jesus Christ, and the other speakers (Synagoga). This division of the Passion among three characters is very ancient, and it is often indicated by rubrical letters in early manuscripts of the Gospel. One such manuscript at Durham, which supposes only two readers, can hardly be of later date than the eighth century. In earlier times Palm Sunday was also marked by other observances, notably by one of the most important of the scrutinies for catechumens (see Catechumen, III, 431) and by a certain relaxation of penance, on which ground it was sometimes called Dominica Indulgentiae. The proper Offices and Masses celebrated during Holy Week do not notably differ from the Office and Mass at other penitential seasons and during Passion Week. But it has long been customary in all churches to sing Matins and Lauds at an hour of the afternoon or evening of the previous day at which it was possible for all the faithful to be present. The Office in itself presents a very primitive type in which hymns and certain supplementary formulae are not included, but the most conspicuous external feature of the service, apart from the distinctive and very beautiful chant to which the Lamentations of Jeremias are sung as lessons, is the gradual extinction of the fifteen candles in the "Tenebrae hearse", or triangular candlestick, as the service proceeds. At the end of the Benedictus at Lauds only the topmost candle, considered to be typical of Jesus Christ, remains alight, and this is then taken down and hidden behind the altar while the final Miserere and collect are said. At the conclusion, after a loud noise emblematical of the convulsion of nature at the death of Christ, the candle is restored to its place, and the congregation disperse. On account of the gradual darkening, the service, since the ninth century or earlier, has been known as "Tenebrae" (darkness). Tenebrae is sung on the evening of the Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, the antiphons and proper lessons varying each day. Maundy Thursday, which derives its English name from Mandatum, the first word of the Office of the washing of the feet, is known in the Western liturgies by the heading "In Coena Domini" (upon the Lord's supper). This marks the central rite of the day and the oldest of which we have explicit record. St. Augustine informs us that on that day Mass and Communion followed the evening meal or super, and that on this occasion Communion was not received fasting. The primitive conception of the festival survives to the present time in this respect at least, that the clergy do not offer Mass privately but are directed to Communicate together at the public Mass, like guests at one table. The Liturgy, as commemorating the institution of the Blessed Sacrament, is celebrated in white vestments with some measure of joyous solemnity. The "Gloria in excelsis" is sung, and during it there is a general ringing of bells, after which the bells are silent until the Gloria is heard upon Easter Eve (Holy Saturday). It is probable that both the silence of the bells and the withdrawing of lights, which we remark in the Tenebrae service, are to be referred to the same source — a desire of expressing outwardly the sense of the Church's bereavement during the time of Christ's Passion and Burial. The observance of silence during these three days dates at least from the eighth century, and in Anglo-Saxon times they were known as "the still days"; but the connection between the beginning of this silence and the ringing of the bells at the Gloria only meets us in the later Middle Ages. In the modern celebration of Maundy Thursday attention centres upon the reservation of a second Host, which is consecrated at the Mass, to be consumed in the service of the Presanctified next day. This is borne in solemn procession to an "altar of repose" adorned with flowers and lighted with a profusion of candles, the hymn "Pange lingua gloriosi corporis mysterium" being sung upon the way. So far as regards the fact of the consecration of an additional Host to be reserved for the Mass of the Presanctified, this practice is very ancient, but the elaborate observances which now surround the altar of repose are of comparatively recent date. Something of the same honour used, in the later Middle Ages, to be shown to the "Easter Sepulchre"; but here the Blessed Sacrament was kept, most commonly, from the Friday to the Sunday, or at least to the Saturday evening, in imitation of the repose of Christ's sacred Body in the Tomb. For this purpose a third Host was usually consecrated on the Thursday. In the so-called "Gelasian Sacramentary", probably representing seventh-century usage, three separate Masses are provided for Maundy Thursday. One of these was associated with the Order of the reconciliation of penitents (see the article Ash Wednesday), which for long ages remained a conspicuous feature of the day's ritual and is still retained in the Pontificale Romanum. The second Mass was that of the blessing of the Holy Oils (q.v.), an important function still attached to this day in every cathedral church. Finally, Maundy Thursday has from an early period been distinguished by the service of the Maundy, or Washing of the Feet, in memory of the reparation of Christ for the Last Supper, as also by the stripping and washing of the altars (see Maundy Thursday). Good Friday is now primarily celebrated by a service combining a number of separate features. We have first the reading of three sets of lessons followed by "bidding prayers". This probably represents a type of aliturgical service of great antiquity of which more extensive survivals remain in the Gallican and Ambrosian liturgies. The fact that the reading from the Gospel is represented by the whole Passion according to St. John is merely the accident of the day. Secondly there is the "Adoration" of the Cross, equally a service of great antiquity, the earliest traces of which have already been noticed in connection with Ætheria's account of Holy Week at Jerusalem. With this veneration of the Cross are now associated the Improperia (reproaches) and the hymn "Pange lingua gloriosi lauream certaminis". The Improperia, despite their curious mixture of Latin and Greek — agios o theos; sanctus Deus, etc. — are probably not so extremely ancient as has been suggested by Probst and others. Although the earliest suggestion of them may be found in the Bobbio Misal, it is only in the Pontificale of Prudentius, who was Bishop of Troyes from 846 to 861, that they are clearly attested (see Edm. Bishop in "Downside Review", Dec., 1899). In the Middle Ages the "creeping to the cross" on Good Friday was a practice which inspired special devotion, and saintly monarchs like St. Louis of France set a conspicuous example of humility in their performance of it. Finally, the Good Friday service ends with the so-called "Mass of the Presanctified", which is of course no real sacrifice, but, strictly speaking, only a Communion service. The sacred ministers, wearing their black vestments, go to fetch the consecrated Host preserved at the altar of repose, and as they return to the high altar the choir chant the beautiful hymn "Vexilla regis prodeunt", composed by Venantius Fortunatus. Then wine is poured into the chalice, and a sort of skeleton of the Mass is proceeded with, including an elevation of the Host after the Pater Noster. But the great consecratory prayer of the Canon, with the words of Institution, are entirely omitted. In the early Middle Ages Good Friday was quite commonly a day of general Communion, but now only those in danger of death may receive on that day. The Office of Tenebrae, being the Matins and Lauds of Holy Saturday, is sung on Good Friday evening, but the church otherwise remains bare and desolate, only the crucifix being unveiled. Such devotions as the "Three Hours" at midday, or the "Maria Desolata" late in the evening, have of course no liturgical character. (See also Good Friday.) The service of Holy Saturday has lost much of the significance and importance which it enjoyed in the early Christian centuries owing to the irresistible tendency manifested throughout the ages to advance the hour of its celebration. Originally it was the great Easter vigil, or watch-service, held only in the late hours of the Saturday and barely terminating before midnight. To this day the brevity of both the Easter Mass and the Easter Matins preserves a memorial of the fatigue of that night watch which terminated the austerities of Lent. Again the consecration of the new fire with a view to the lighting of the lamps, the benediction of the paschal candle (q. v.), with its suggestions of night turned into day and its reminder of the glories of that vigil which we know to have been already celebrated in the time of Constantine, not to dwell upon the explicit references to "this most holy night" contained in the prayers and the Preface of the Mass, all bring home the incongruity of carrying out the service in the morning, twelve hours before the Easter "vigil" can strictly speaking be said to have begun. The obtaining and blessing of the new fire is probably a rite of Celtic or even pagan origin, incorporated in the Gallican Church service of the eighth century. The magnificent "Praeconium Paschale", known from its first word as the "Exsultet", was originally, no doubt, an improvisation of the deacon which can be traced back to the time of St. Jerome or earlier. The Prophecies, the Blessing of the Font, and the Litanies of the Saints are all to be referred to what was originaly a very essential feature of the Easter vigil, viz., the baptism of the catechumens, whose preparation had been carried on during Lent, emphasized at frequent intervals by the formal "scrutinies", of which not a few traces are still preserved in our Lenten liturgy. Finally, the Mass, with its joyous Gloria, at which the bells are again rung, the uncovering of the veiled statues and pictures, the triumphant Alleluias, which mark nearly every step of the liturgy, proclaim the Resurrection as an accomplished fact, while the Vesper Office, incorporated in the very fabric of the Mass, reminds us once more that the evening was formerly so filled that no separate hour was available to complete on that day the usual tribute of psalmody. Strictly speaking, Holy Saturday, like Good Friday, is "aliturgical", as belonging to the days when the Bridegroom was taken from us. Of this a memorial still remains in the fact that, apart from the one much anticipated Mass, the clergy on that day are not free either to celebrate or to receive Holy Communion. PUNKER in Kirchenlexikon, s. v. Charwoche; CABROL, Le Livre de la Priere Antique (Paris, 1900), 252-57; THURSTON, Lent and Holy Week (London, 1904); MARTENE, De Antiquis Ecclesiae Ritibus, III; KUTSCHKER, Die heiligen Gebrauche (1842); DUCHESNE, Christian Worship (tr., London, 1906); CANCELLIERI, Settimana Santa (Rome, 1808); KELLNER, Heortology (Tr., London, 1908); Venables on Holy Week and other articles in Dict. of Christ. Antiq. The articles on various points of detail, such as, e.g., that of CANON CALLEWAERT on Palm Sunday in the Collationes Brugenses (1906) or that of EDMUND BISHOP in Proceedings of the Society of St. Osmund, are too numerous to specify here.

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This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Genre (from French genre 'kind, sort') is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other forms of art or entertainment, whether written or spoken, audio or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria, yet genres can be aesthetic, rhetorical, communicative, or functional. Genres form by conventions that change over time as cultures invent new genres and discontinue the use of old ones. Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand-alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed-upon or socially inferred conventions. Some genres may have rigid, strictly adhered-to guidelines, while others may show great flexibility. Genre began as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature, as set out in Aristotle's Poetics. For Aristotle, poetry (odes, epics, etc.), prose, and performance each had specific design features that supported appropriate content of each genre. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, for example, and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best. Genres proliferate and develop beyond Aristotle’s classifications in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre has become a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictability through artistic expression. Given that art is often a response to a social state, in that people write, paint, sing, dance, and otherwise produce art about what they know about, the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Musician, Ezra LaFleur, argues that discussion of genre should draw from Ludwig Wittgenstein's idea of family resemblance. Genres are helpful labels for communicating but do not necessarily have a single attribute that is the essence of the genre. The term genre is much used in the history and criticism of visual art, but in art history has meanings that overlap rather confusingly. Genre painting is a term for paintings where the main subject features human figures to whom no specific identity attaches – in other words, figures are not portraits, characters from a story, or allegorical personifications. These are distinguished from staffage: incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting. Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the "hierarchy of genres" was a powerful one in artistic theory, especially between the 17th and 19th centuries. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a central role in academic art. The genres in hierarchical order are: - History painting, including narrative, religious, mythological and allegorical subjects - Portrait painting - Genre painting or scenes of everyday life - Landscape (landscapists were the "common footmen in the Army of Art" according to the Dutch theorist Samuel van Hoogstraten) and cityscape - Animal painting - Still life A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young adult, or children's. They also must not be confused with format, such as graphic novel or picture book. The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups. The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, novel, and short story. They can all be in the genres prose or poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Additionally, a genre such as satire might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they were composed. In popular fiction, which is especially divided by genres, genre fiction is the more usual term. In literature, genre has been known as an intangible taxonomy. This taxonomy implies a concept of containment or that an idea will be stable forever. The earliest recorded systems of genre in Western history can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle. Gérard Genette, a French literary theorist and author of The Architext, describes Plato as creating three Imitational genres: dramatic dialogue, pure narrative, and epic (a mixture of dialogue and narrative). Lyric poetry, the fourth and final type of Greek literature, was excluded by Plato as a non-mimetic mode. Aristotle later revised Plato's system by eliminating the pure narrative as a viable mode and distinguishing by two additional criteria: the object to be imitated, as objects could be either superior or inferior, and the medium of presentation such as words, gestures or verse. Essentially, the three categories of mode, object, and medium can be visualized along an XYZ axis. Excluding the criteria of medium, Aristotle's system distinguished four types of classical genres: tragedy (superior-dramatic dialogue), epic (superior-mixed narrative), comedy (inferior-dramatic dialogue), and parody (inferior-mixed narrative). Genette continues by explaining the later integration of lyric poetry into the classical system during the romantic period, replacing the now removed pure narrative mode. Lyric poetry, once considered non-mimetic, was deemed to imitate feelings, becoming the third leg of a new tripartite system: lyrical, epical, and dramatic dialogue. This system, which came to "dominate all the literary theory of German romanticism (and therefore well beyond)…" (38), has seen numerous attempts at expansion or revision. However, more ambitious efforts to expand the tripartite system resulted in new taxonomic systems of increasing scope and complexity. Genette reflects upon these various systems, comparing them to the original tripartite arrangement: "its structure is somewhat superior to…those that have come after, fundamentally flawed as they are by their inclusive and hierarchical taxonomy, which each time immediately brings the whole game to a standstill and produces an impasse" (74). Taxonomy allows for a structured classification system of genre, as opposed to a more contemporary rhetorical model of genre. The basic genres of film can be regarded as drama, in the feature film and most cartoons, and documentary. Most dramatic feature films, especially from Hollywood fall fairly comfortably into one of a long list of film genres such as the Western, war film, horror film, romantic comedy film, musical, crime film, and many others. Many of these genres have a number of subgenres, for example by setting or subject, or a distinctive national style, for example in the Indian Bollywood musical. A music genre is a conventional category that identifies pieces of music as belonging to a shared tradition or set of conventions. It is to be distinguished from musical form and musical style, although in practice these terms are sometimes used interchangeably. There are numerous genres in Western classical music and popular music, as well as musical theatre and the music of non-Western cultures. The term is now perhaps over-used to describe relatively small differences in musical style in modern rock music, that also may reflect sociological differences in their audiences. Timothy Laurie suggests that in the context of rock and pop music studies, the "appeal of genre criticism is that it makes narratives out of musical worlds that often seem to lack them". Music can be divided into different genres in several ways. The artistic nature of music means that these classifications are often arbitrary and controversial, and some genres may overlap. There are several academic approaches to genres. In his book Form in Tonal Music, Douglass M. Green lists madrigal, motet, canzona, ricercar, and dance as examples of genres from the Renaissance period. According to Green, "Beethoven's Op. 61 and Mendelssohn's Op. 64 are identical in genre – both are violin concertos – but different in form. However, Mozart's Rondo for Piano, K. 511, and the Agnus Dei from his Mass, K. 317 are quite different in genre but happen to be similar in form." Some, like Peter van der Merwe, treat the terms genre and style as the same, saying that genre should be defined as pieces of music that share a certain style or "basic musical language". Others, such as Allan F. Moore, state that genre and style are two separate terms, and that secondary characteristics such as subject matter can also differentiate between genres. A music genre or subgenre may be defined by the musical techniques, the styles, the context, and content and spirit of the themes. Geographical origin is sometimes used to identify a music genre, though a single geographical category will often include a wide variety of subgenres. Several music scholars have criticised the priority accorded to genre-based communities and listening practices. For example, Laurie argues that "music genres do not belong to isolated, self-sufficient communities. People constantly move between environments where diverse forms of music are heard, advertised and accessorised with distinctive iconographies, narratives and celebrity identities that also touch on non-musical worlds." Popular culture and other media This section does not cite any sources. (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The concept of genre is often applied, sometimes rather loosely, to other media with an artistic element, such as video game genres. Genre, and numerous minutely divided subgenres, affect popular culture very significantly, not least as they are used to classify it for publicity purposes. The vastly increased output of popular culture in the age of electronic media encourages dividing cultural products by genre to simplify the search for products by consumers, a trend the Internet has only intensified. In philosophy of language, genre figures prominently in the works of philosopher and literary scholar Mikhail Bakhtin. Bakhtin's basic observations were of "speech genres" (the idea of heteroglossia), modes of speaking or writing that people learn to mimic, weave together, and manipulate (such as "formal letter" and "grocery list", or "university lecture" and "personal anecdote"). In this sense, genres are socially specified: recognized and defined (often informally) by a particular culture or community. The work of Georg Lukács also touches on the nature of literary genres, appearing separately but around the same time (1920s–1930s) as Bakhtin. Norman Fairclough has a similar concept of genre that emphasizes the social context of the text: Genres are "different ways of (inter)acting discoursally" (Fairclough, 2003: 26). A text's genre may be determined by its: - Linguistic function. - Formal traits. - Textual organization. - Relation of communicative situation to formal and organizational traits of the text (Charaudeau and Maingueneau, 2002:278–280). In the field of rhetoric, genre theorists usually understand genres as types of actions rather than types or forms of texts. On this perspective, texts are channels through which genres are enacted. Carolyn Miller's work has been especially important for this perspective. Drawing on Lloyd Bitzer's concept of rhetorical situation, Miller reasons that recurring rhetorical problems tend to elicit recurring responses; drawing on Alfred Schütz, she reasons that these recurring responses become "typified" – that is, socially constructed as recognizable types. Miller argues that these "typified rhetorical actions" (p. 151) are properly understood as genres. Building off of Miller, Charles Bazerman and Clay Spinuzzi have argued that genres understood as actions derive their meaning from other genres – that is, other actions. Bazerman therefore proposes that we analyze genres in terms of "genre systems", while Spinuzzi prefers the closely related concept of "genre ecologies". This tradition has had implications for the teaching of writing in American colleges and universities. Combining rhetorical genre theory with activity theory, David Russell has proposed that standard English composition courses are ill-suited to teach the genres that students will write in other contexts across the university and beyond. Elizabeth Wardle contends that standard composition courses do teach genres, but that these are inauthentic "mutt genres" that are often of little use outside of composition courses. This concept of genre originated from the classification systems created by Plato. Plato divided literature into the three classic genres accepted in Ancient Greece: poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry is further subdivided into epic, lyric, and drama. The divisions are recognized as being set by Aristotle and Plato; however, they were not the only ones. Many genre theorists added to these accepted forms of poetry. Classical and Romance genre theory The earliest recorded systems of genre in Western history can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle. Gérard Genette explains his interpretation of the history of genre in "The Architext". He described Plato as the creator of three imitational, mimetic genres distinguished by mode of imitation rather than content. These three imitational genres include dramatic dialogue, the drama; pure narrative, the dithyramb; and a mixture of the two, the epic. Plato excluded lyric poetry as a non-mimetic, imitational mode. Genette further discussed how Aristotle revised Plato's system by first eliminating the pure narrative as a viable mode. He then uses two additional criteria to distinguish the system. The first of the criteria is the object to be imitated, whether superior or inferior. The second criterion is the medium of presentation: words, gestures, or verse. Essentially, the three categories of mode, object, and medium can be visualized along an XYZ axis. Excluding the criteria of medium, Aristotle's system distinguished four types of classical genres: tragedy, epic, comedy, and parody. Genette explained the integration of lyric poetry into the classical system by replacing the removed pure narrative mode. Lyric poetry, once considered non-mimetic, was deemed to imitate feelings, becoming the third "Architext", a term coined by Gennette, of a new long-enduring tripartite system: lyrical; epical, the mixed narrative; and dramatic, the dialogue. This new system that came to "dominate all the literary theory of German romanticism" (Genette 38) has seen numerous attempts at expansion and revision. Such attempts include Friedrich Schlegel's triad of subjective form, the lyric; objective form, the dramatic; and subjective-objective form, the epic. However, more ambitious efforts to expand the tripartite system resulted in new taxonomic systems of increasing complexity. Gennette reflected upon these various systems, comparing them to the original tripartite arrangement: "its structure is somewhat superior to most of those that have come after, fundamentally flawed as they are by their inclusive and hierarchical taxonomy, which each time immediately brings the whole game to a standstill and produces an impasse". Although genres are not always precisely definable, genre considerations are one of the most important factors in determining what a person will see or read. The classification properties of genre can attract or repel potential users depending on the individual's understanding of a genre. Genre creates an expectation in that expectation is met or not. Many genres have built-in audiences and corresponding publications that support them, such as magazines and websites. Inversely, audiences may call out for change in an antecedent genre and create an entirely new genre. The term may be used in categorizing web pages, like "news page" and "fan page", with both very different layout, audience, and intention (Rosso, 2008). Some search engines like Vivísimo try to group found web pages into automated categories in an attempt to show various genres the search hits might fit. A subgenre is a subordinate within a genre. Two stories being the same genre can still sometimes differ in subgenre. For example, if a fantasy story has darker and more frightening elements of fantasy, it would belong in the subgenre of dark fantasy; whereas another fantasy story that features magic swords and wizards would belong to the subgenre of sword and sorcery. A microgenre is a highly specialized, narrow classification of a cultural practice. The term has come into usage in the 21st century, and most commonly refers to music. It is also associated with the hyper-specific categories used in recommendations for television shows and movies on digital streaming platforms such as Netflix, and is sometimes used more broadly by scholars analyzing niche forms in other periods and other media. - Devitt, Amy J. (2015), Heilker, Paul; Vandenberg, Peter (eds.), "Genre", Keywords in Writing Studies, Utah State University Press, pp. 82–87, doi:10.7330/9780874219746.c017, ISBN 978-0-87421-974-6, retrieved 2021-02-04 - Miller, Carolyn R. (1984). ""Genre as Social Action"". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 70.2: 151–67. - Aristotle (2000), Butcher, S. H. (ed.), "Poetics", Poetics, Internet Classics Archive, retrieved 2021-04-27 - Todorov, Tzvetan (1976), ""The Origins of Genre"", New Literary History, 8.1: 159–70 - Ezra LaFleur. "What is Classical Music? A Family Resemblance". - Bakhtin 1983, p. 3. - Samson, Jim. "Genre". In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Accessed March 4, 2012. - Laurie, Timothy (2014). "Music Genre as Method". Cultural Studies Review. 20 (2). doi:10.5130/csr.v20i2.4149. - Green, Douglass M. (1965). Form in Tonal Music. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. p. 1. ISBN 0-03-020286-8. - van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-19-316121-4. - Moore, Allan F. "Categorical Conventions in Music Discourse: Style and Genre". Music & Letters, Vol. 82, No. 3 (Aug. 2001), pp. 432–442. - Bawarshi, A. S., & Mary Jo Reiff. (2010). Genre: An Introduction to History, Theory, Research, and Pedagogy. chs. 5 and 6 - Miller, C. R. (1984). Genre as social action. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 70(2), 151–167. - Bitzer, L. F. (1968). The Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1(1), 1–14. - Schutz, A., & Luckmann, T. (1973). The Structures of the Life-World. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. - Bazerman, C. (1994). Systems of Genre and the Enactment of Social Intentions. In Genre and the New Rhetoric (pp. 79–101). London/Bristol: Taylor & Francis. - Spinuzzi, C., & Zachry, M. (2000). Genre Ecologies : An Open-System Approach to Understanding and Constructing Documentation. ACM Journal of Computer Documentation, 24(3), 169–181. - Russell, D. R. (1995). Activity theory and its implications for writing instruction. In J. Petraglia (Ed.), Reconceiving writing, rethinking writing instruction (pp. 51–78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. - Wardle, E. (2009). "Mutt Genres" and the Goal of FYC: Can we Help Students Write the Genres of the University? College Composition and Communication, 60(4), 765–789. - "subgenre". dictionary.com. - "Subgenre". The Free Dictionary. Farlex. - "A Recent History of Microgenres". The FADER. Retrieved 2020-02-21. - The microgenre: a quick look at small culture. O'Donnell, Molly C.,, Stevens, Anne H., 1971-. New York. 2020. ISBN 978-1-5013-4584-5. OCLC 1139150914.CS1 maint: others (link) - Aristotle (2000). Poetics. Translated by Butcher, S. H. Cambridge, MA: The Internet Classics Archive. - Bakhtin, Mikhail M. (1983). "Epic and Novel". In Holquist, Michael (ed.). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71527-7. - Charaudeau, P.; Maingueneau, D. and Adam, J. Dictionnaire d'analyse du discours. Seuil, 2002. - Devitt, Amy J. "A Theory of Genre". Writing Genres. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. 1–32. - Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. Routledge, 2003. - Genette, Gérard. The Architext: An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. - Jamieson, Kathleen M. "Antecedent Genre as Rhetorical Constraint". Quarterly Journal of Speech 61 (1975): 406–415. - Killoran, John B. "The Gnome In The Front Yard and Other Public Figurations: Genres of Self-Presentation on Personal Home Pages". Biography 26.1 (2003): 66–83. - LaCapra, Dominick. "History and Genre: Comment". New Literary History 17.2 (1986): 219–221. - Miller, Carolyn. "Genre as Social Action". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 70 (1984): 151–67. - Rosso, Mark. "User-based Identification of Web Genres". Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 59 (2008): 1053–1072. - Todorov, Tzvetan. "The Origins of Genre". New Literary History 8.1 (1976): 159-170. - Pare, Anthony. "Genre and Identity". The Rhetoric and Ideology of Genre: Strategies for Stability and Change. Eds. Richard M. Coe, Lorelei Lingard, and Tatiana Teslenko. Creskill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 2002. - Sullivan, Ceri (2007) "Disposable elements? Indications of genre in early modern titles", Modern Language Review 102.3, pp. 641–53 |Look up genre in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikidata has the property:

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Protecting Workers: Guidance on Mitigating and Preventing the Spread of COVID-19 in the Workplace OSHA will update this guidance over time to reflect developments in science, best practices, and standards. Guidance posted January 29, 2021 This guidance is intended to inform employers and workers in most workplace settings outside of healthcare to help them identify risks of being exposed to and/or contracting COVID-19 at work and to help them determine appropriate control measures to implement. Separate guidance is applicable to healthcare (CDC guidance) and emergency response (CDC guidance) settings. OSHA has additional industry-specific guidance. This guidance contains recommendations as well as descriptions of mandatory safety and health standards. The recommendations are advisory in nature, informational in content, and are intended to assist employers in providing a safe and healthful workplace. COVID-19 is a highly infectious disease that is spread most commonly through respiratory droplets and particles produced when an infected person exhales, talks, vocalizes, sneezes, or coughs. COVID-19 is highly transmissible and can be spread by people who have no symptoms. Particles containing the virus can travel more than 6 feet, especially indoors, and can be spread by individuals who do not know they are infected. Face Coverings, either cloth face coverings or surgical masks, are simple barriers that help prevent respiratory droplets from your nose and mouth from reaching others. Face coverings protect those around you, in case you are infected but do not know it, and can also reduce your own exposure to infection in certain circumstances. Wearing a face covering is complementary to and not a replacement for physical distancing. Employers should implement COVID-19 Prevention Programs in the workplace. The most effective programs engage workers and their union or other representatives in the program's development, and include the following key elements: conducting a hazard assessment; identifying a combination of measures that limit the spread of COVID-19 in the workplace; adopting measures to ensure that workers who are infected or potentially infected are separated and sent home from the workplace; and implementing protections from retaliation for workers who raise COVID-19 related concerns. The guidance below provides additional detail on key measures for limiting the spread of COVID-19, starting with separating and sending home infected or potentially infected people from the workplace, implementing physical distancing, installing barriers where physical distancing cannot be maintained, and suppressing the spread by using face coverings. It also provides guidance on use of personal protective equipment (PPE), when necessary, improving ventilation, providing supplies for good hygiene, and routine cleaning and disinfection. OSHA will continue to update this guidance over time to reflect developments in science, best practices, and standards, and will keep track of changes for the sake of transparency. In addition, OSHA expects to continue to update guidance relevant to particular industries or workplace situations over time. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has prepared this guidance for planning purposes. Employers and workers should use this guidance to help identify risks of being exposed to and of contracting COVID-19 in workplace settings and to determine any appropriate control measures to implement. This guidance is not a standard or regulation, and it creates no new legal obligations. It contains recommendations as well as descriptions of existing mandatory safety and health standards. The recommendations are advisory in nature, informational in content, and are intended to assist employers in recognizing and abating hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm as part of their obligation to provide a safe and healthful workplace. Pursuant to the Occupational Safety and Health Act ("the OSH Act" or "the Act"), employers must comply with safety and health standards and regulations issued and enforced either by OSHA or by an OSHA-approved state plan. In addition, the Act's General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1), requires employers to provide their workers with a workplace free from recognized hazards that are causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm. COVID-19 is a highly infectious disease that is spread from person to person through particles produced when an infected person exhales, talks, vocalizes, sneezes, or coughs. COVID-19 may also be transmitted when people touch a contaminated object and then touch their eyes, nose or mouth, although that is less common. COVID-19 is highly transmissible and can be spread by people who have no symptoms and who do not know they are infected. Particles containing the virus can travel more than 6 feet, especially indoors. The CDC estimates that over fifty percent of the recent spread of the virus is from individuals with no symptoms at the time of spread. More information on COVID-19 is available from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. What Workers Need To Know about COVID-19 Protections in the Workplace - The best way to protect yourself is to stay far enough away from other people so that you are not breathing in particles produced by an infected person – generally at least 6 feet (about 2 arm lengths), although this is not a guarantee, especially in enclosed spaces or those with poor ventilation. - Practice good personal hygiene and wash your hands often. Always cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you cough or sneeze or use the inside of your elbow and do not spit. Monitor your health daily and be alert for COVID-19 symptoms (e.g., fever, cough, shortness of breath, or other symptoms of COVID-19). - Face coverings are simple barriers to help prevent your respiratory droplets or aerosols from reaching others. Not all face coverings are the same; the CDC recommends that face coverings be made of at least two layers of a tightly woven breathable fabric, such as cotton, and should not have exhalation valves or vents. - The main function of wearing a face covering is to protect those around you, in case you are infected but not showing symptoms. Studies show that face coverings reduce the spray of droplets when worn over the nose and mouth. - Although not their primary value, studies also show that face coverings can reduce wearers' risk of infection in certain circumstances, depending upon the face covering. - You should wear a face covering even if you do not feel sick. This is because people with COVID-19 who never develop symptoms (asymptomatic) and those who are not yet showing symptoms (pre-symptomatic) can still spread the virus to other people. - It is especially important to wear a face covering when you are unable to stay at least 6 feet apart from others since COVID-19 spreads mainly among people who are in close contact with one another. But wearing a face covering does not eliminate the need for physical distancing or other control measures (e.g., handwashing). - It is important to wear a face covering and remain physically distant from co-workers and customers even if you have been vaccinated because it is not known at this time how vaccination affects transmissibility. - Many employers have established COVID-19 prevention programs that include a number of important steps to keep workers safe – including steps from telework to flexible schedules to personal protective equipment (PPE) and face coverings. Ask your employer about plans in your workplace. The Roles of Employers and Workers in Responding to COVID-19 Under the OSH Act, employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthy workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. Implementing a workplace COVID-19 prevention program is the most effective way to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 at work. The most effective COVID-19 prevention programs engage workers and their representatives in the program's development and implementation at every step, and include the following elements: - Assignment of a workplace coordinator who will be responsible for COVID-19 issues on the employer's behalf. - Identification of where and how workers might be exposed to COVID-19 at work. This includes a thorough hazard assessment to identify potential workplace hazards related to COVID-19. This assessment will be most effective if it involves workers (and their representatives) because they are often the people most familiar with the conditions they face. - Identification of a combination of measures that will limit the spread of COVID-19 in the workplace, in line with the principles of the hierarchy of controls.This should include a combination of eliminating the hazard, engineering controls, workplace administrative policies, personal protective equipment (PPE), and other measures, prioritizing controls from most to least effective, to protect workers from COVID-19 hazards. Key examples (discussed in additional detail below) include: In addition to these general guidelines, more specific guidance is available for certain industries. - eliminating the hazard by separating and sending home infected or potentially infected people from the workplace; - implementing physical distancing in all communal work areas [includes remote work and telework]; - installing barriers where physical distancing cannot be maintained; - suppressing the spread of the hazard using face coverings; - improving ventilation; - using applicable PPE to protect workers from exposure; - providing the supplies necessary for good hygiene practices; and - performing routine cleaning and disinfection. - Consideration of protections for workers at higher risk for severe illness through supportive policies and practices. Older adults and people of any age who have serious underlying medical conditions are at higher risk for severe illness from COVID-19. Workers with disabilities may be legally entitled to "reasonable accommodations" that protect them from the risk of contracting COVID-19. Where feasible, employers should consider reasonable modifications for workers identified as high-risk who can do some or all of their work at home (part or full-time), or in less densely-occupied, better-ventilated alternate facilities or offices. Establishment of a system for communicating effectively with workers and in a language they understand. Ask workers to report to the employer, without fear of reprisal (see 12 below), COVID-19 symptoms, possible COVID-19 exposures, and possible COVID-19 hazards at the workplace. Communicate to workers, in a language they can understand and in a manner accessible to individuals with disabilities, all policies and procedures implemented for responding to sick and exposed workers in the workplace. See below for additional elements involving educating and training workers of COVID-19 procedures. In addition, a best practice is to create and test two-way communication systems that workers can use to self-report if they are sick or have been exposed, and that employers can use to notify workers of exposures and closures, respectively. - Educate and train workers on your COVID-19 policies and procedures using accessible formats and in a language they understand. Communicate supportive workplace policies clearly, frequently, in plain language that workers understand (including non-English languages, and American Sign Language or other accessible communication methods, if applicable), and in a manner accessible to individuals with disabilities, and via multiple methods to employees, contractors, and any other individuals on site, as appropriate, to promote a safe and healthy workplace. Communications should include: - Basic facts about COVID-19, including how it is spread and the importance of physical distancing, use of face coverings, and hand hygiene. See About COVID-19 and What Workers Need to Know About COVID-19, above and see more on physical distancing, PPE, face coverings, and hygiene, respectively, below; - Workplace policies and procedures implemented to protect workers from COVID-19 hazards (the employer's COVID-19 prevention program); and Some means of tracking which workers have been informed and when. In addition, ensure that workers understand their rights to a safe and healthful work environment, whom to contact with questions or concerns about workplace safety and health, and their right to raise workplace safety and health concerns free of retaliation. This information should also be provided in a language that workers understand. (See Implementing Protections from Retaliation, below.) Ensure supervisors are familiar with workplace flexibilities and other human resources policies and procedures. - Instruct workers who are infected or potentially infected to stay home and isolate or quarantine to prevent or reduce the risk of transmission of COVID-19. Ensure that absence policies are non-punitive. Policies that encourage workers to come to work sick or when they have been exposed to COVID-19 are disfavored. See below for additional guidance involving eliminating the hazard. - Minimize the negative impact of quarantine and isolation on workers. When possible, allow them to telework, or work in an area isolated from others. If those are not possible, allow workers to use paid sick leave, if available, or consider implementing paid leave policies to reduce risk for everyone at the workplace. The Families First Coronavirus Response Act provides certain employers 100% reimbursement through tax credits to provide employees with paid sick leave or expanded family and medical leave for specified reasons related to COVID-19 through March 31, 2021. - Isolating workers who show symptoms at work. Workers who appear to have symptoms upon arrival at work or who develop symptoms during their work shift should immediately be separated from other workers, customers, and visitors, sent home, and encouraged to seek medical attention. See below for additional elements involving screening and testing. - Performing enhanced cleaning and disinfection after people with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 have been in the facility. If someone who has been in the facility is suspected or confirmed to have COVID-19, follow the CDC cleaning and disinfection recommendations. This includes: - Closing areas used by the potentially infected person for enhanced cleaning. - Opening outside doors and windows to increase air circulation in the area. - Waiting as long as practical before cleaning or disinfecting (24 hours is optimal). - Cleaning and disinfecting all immediate work areas and equipment used by the potentially infected person, such as offices, bathrooms, shared tools and workplace items, tables or work surfaces, and shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, and remote controls. - Vacuuming the space if needed. Use a vacuum equipped with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, if available. Wait until the room or space is unoccupied to vacuum. - Providing cleaning workers with disposable gloves. Additional PPE (e.g., safety glasses, goggles, aprons) might be required based on the cleaning/disinfectant products being used and whether there is a risk of splash. - After cleaning, disinfecting the surface with an appropriate EPA-registered disinfectant on List N: Disinfectants for use against SARS-CoV-2. - Following requirements in OSHA standards 29 CFR 1910.1200 and 1910.132, 133, and 138 for hazard communication and PPE appropriate for exposure to cleaning chemicals. Once the area has been appropriately disinfected, it can be opened for use. Workers without close contact with the potentially infected person can return to the area immediately after disinfection. If it is more than 7 days since the infected person visited or used the facility, additional cleaning and disinfection is not necessary. Continue routine cleaning and disinfection, described below. - Providing guidance on screening and testing: Follow state or local guidance and priorities for screening and viral testing in workplaces. Testing in the workplace may be arranged through a company's occupational health provider or in consultation with the local or state health department. Employers should inform workers of employer testing requirements, if any, and availability of testing options. CDC has published strategies for consideration of incorporating viral testing for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, into workplace COVID-19 preparedness, response, and control plans. (See below for more on the use of testing to determine when a worker may return to work after illness or exposure.) Note: Performing screening or health checks is not a replacement for other protective measures such as face coverings and physical distancing. Asymptomatic individuals or individuals with mild non-specific symptoms may not realize they are infected and may not be detected during through screening. - Recording and reporting COVID-19 infections and deaths: Employers are responsible for recording work-related cases of COVID-19 illness on their Form 300 logs if the following requirements are met: (1) the case is a confirmed case of COVID-19; (2) the case is work-related (as defined by 29 CFR 1904.5); and (3) the case involves one or more relevant recording criteria (set forth in 29 CFR 1904.7) (e.g., medical treatment, days away from work). Employers must follow the requirements in 29 CFR 1904 when reporting COVID-19 fatalities and hospitalizations to OSHA. More information is available on OSHA's website. Employers should also report outbreaks to health departments as required and support their contact tracing efforts. In addition, employers should be aware that reprisal or discrimination against an employee for speaking out about unsafe working conditions or reporting an infection or exposure to COVID-19 to an employer or OSHA would constitute a violation of Section 11(c) of the Act. In addition, 29 CFR 1904.35(b) also prohibits discrimination against an employee for reporting a work-related illness. - Implementing protections from retaliation and setting up an anonymous process for workers to voice concerns about COVID-19-related hazards: Section 11(c) of the OSH Act prohibits discharging or in any other way discriminating against an employee for engaging in various occupational safety and health activities. For example, employers may not discriminate against employees for raising a reasonable concern about infection control related to COVID-19 to the employer, the employer's agent, other employees, a government agency, or to the public, such as through print, online, social, or any other media; or against an employee for voluntarily providing and wearing their own personal protective equipment, such as a respirator, face shield, gloves, or surgical mask. In addition to notifying workers of their rights to a safe and healthful work environment, ensure that workers know whom to contact with questions or concerns about workplace safety and health, and that there are prohibitions against retaliation for raising workplace safety and health concerns or engaging in other protected occupational safety and health activities (see educating and training workers about COVID-19 policies and procedures, above); also consider using a hotline or other method for workers to voice concerns anonymously. - Making a COVID-19 vaccine or vaccination series available at no cost to all eligible employees. Provide information and training on the benefits and safety of vaccinations. - Not distinguishing between workers who are vaccinated and those who are not: Workers who are vaccinated must continue to follow protective measures, such as wearing a face covering and remaining physically distant, because at this time, there is not evidence that COVID-19 vaccines prevent transmission of the virus from person-to-person. The CDC explains that experts need to understand more about the protection that COVID-19 vaccines provide before deciding to change recommendations on steps everyone should take to slow the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19. - Other applicable OSHA Standards: All of OSHA's standards that apply to protecting workers from infection remain in place. These standards include: requirements for PPE (29 CFR 1910, Subpart I (e.g., 1910.132 and 133)), respiratory protection (29 CFR 1910.134), sanitation (29 CFR 1910.141), protection from bloodborne pathogens: (29 CFR 1910.1030), and OSHA's requirements for employee access to medical and exposure records (29 CFR 1910.1020). There is no OSHA standard specific to COVID-19; however, employers still are required under the General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, to provide a safe and healthful workplace that is free from recognized hazards that can cause serious physical harm or death. Additional Detail on Key Measures for Limiting the Spread Eliminating the Hazard by Separating and Sending Home Infected or Potentially Infected People from the Workplace One key element involves eliminating the hazard, which means isolating workers who are infected or potentially infected so they cannot infect other workers. Most employers will follow a symptom-based strategy for identifying and separating and sending home workers. However, there are certain circumstances where employers may consider a COVID-19 test-based strategy. - Workers who have or likely have COVID-19 should be isolated until they meet CDC guidelines for exiting isolation: - If they think or know they had COVID-19 and had symptoms, they can return after: - At least 10 days since symptoms first appeared and - At least 24 hours with no fever without fever-reducing medication and - Other symptoms of COVID-19 are improving (loss of taste and smell may persist for weeks or months and need not delay the end of isolation). - Some workers might need to stay home and isolate longer than 10 days, as recommended by their healthcare providers: - A healthcare provider may recommend that a worker who had severe illness from COVID-19 (admitted to a hospital and needed oxygen) stay in isolation for up to 20 days after symptoms first appeared. - Workers who had COVID-19 or tested positive for COVID-19 and have a weakened immune system should consult with their healthcare providers for more information. Their doctors may work with infectious disease experts at the local health department to determine when they can be around others. - Under the Americans with Disabilities Act, employers are permitted to require a doctor's note from workers to verify that they are healthy and able to return to work. But given potential delays in seeking treatment and demands on the healthcare system, requiring a COVID-19 test result or a healthcare provider's note for workers who are sick to validate their illness or return to work may cause significant delays affecting employers and workers alike. - A worker who has recovered from symptoms after testing positive for COVID-19 may continue to test positive for three months or more without being contagious to others. For this reason, these workers should be tested only if they develop new symptoms of possible COVID-19. If they have new symptoms, they should discuss getting tested again with their healthcare provider, especially if they have been in close contact with another person who has tested positive for COVID-19 in the last 14 days. CDC reports that instances of reinfection have so far been infrequent. - CDC does NOT recommend that employers use antibody tests to determine which workers can work. Antibody tests check a blood sample for past infection with SARS-CoV-2, and are not very reliable. Viral tests check a respiratory sample (such as swabs of the inside of the nose) for current infection with SARS-CoV-2. - If they think or know they had COVID-19 and had symptoms, they can return after: - Workers should quarantine if they have been exposed to COVID-19, which means: - They were within 6 feet of someone who has COVID-19 for a total of 15 minutes or more within a 24-hour period, starting from 2 days before illness onset (or, for asymptomatic patients, 2 days prior to test specimen collection) until the time the patient is isolated, or - They provided care at home to someone who is sick with COVID-19, or - They had direct physical contact with a person who has COVID-19 (hugged or kissed them), or - They shared eating or drinking utensils with a person who has COVID-19, or - Someone who has COVID-19 sneezed, coughed, or somehow got respiratory droplets on them. Local public health authorities determine and establish the quarantine options for their jurisdictions. CDC guidance provides that individuals who have been exposed should: - Stay home for 14 days after last contact with a person who has COVID-19, - Watch for fever (100.4°F), cough, shortness of breath, or other symptoms of COVID-19, and - To the extent possible, stay away from others, especially people who are at higher risk for getting very sick from COVID-19. CDC also recognizes that local public health departments may consider other options for ending quarantine; for example, end quarantine after day 10 without testing, or after day 7 after receiving a negative test result (test must occur on day 5 or later). CDC continues to endorse quarantining for 14 days and recognizes that any quarantine shorter than 14 days balances reduced burden against a small possibility of spreading the virus. Therefore, after stopping a quarantine of less than 14 days, these individuals should: - Watch for symptoms until 14 days after exposure; - Immediately self-isolate and contact the local public health authority or their healthcare providers if symptoms appear; and - Wear a face covering, stay at least 6 feet from others, wash hands, avoid crowds, and take other steps to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Employers may consider permitting critical infrastructure workers to continue to work in limited instances when it is necessary to preserve the function of critical infrastructure workplaces. Implement Physical Distancing in All Communal Work Areas The best way to protect individuals is to stay far enough away so as not to breathe in particles produced by an infected person – generally at least 6 feet, although this is not a guarantee of safety, especially in enclosed spaces or those with poor ventilation. - Limit the number of people in one place at any given time: - Implement flexible worksites (e.g., telework). - Implement flexible work hours (e.g., rotate or stagger shifts to limit the number of workers in the workplace at the same time). - Deliver services remotely (e.g., phone, video, or web). - Implement flexible meeting and travel options (e.g., postpone non-essential meetings or events, in accordance with state and local regulations and guidance on size limits for meetings). - Increase physical space: - Between workers at the worksite to at least 6 feet. This may require modifying the workspace or slowing production lines. - Between workers and customers by adjusting business practices to reduce close contact with customers — for example, by moving the electronic payment terminal/credit card reader farther away from the cashier, or by providing drive-through service, click-and-collect online shopping, shop-by-phone, curbside pickup, and delivery options. - Alter workspaces to help workers and customers maintain physical distancing and physically separate workers by at least 6 feet from each other and from customers. Methods of physical distancing include signs, tape marks, decals, or other visual cues, placed 6 feet apart, to indicate where to stand. - Shift primary stocking activities to off-peak or after hours, to reduce contact with customers. - Offer vulnerable workers duties that minimize their contact with customers and other workers (e.g., restocking shelves rather than working as a cashier), if the worker agrees to this. - Other measures that may reduce close contact: - Close or limit access to common areas where workers are likely to congregate and interact. - Prohibit handshaking or other forms of physical contact. - Ensure that all businesses and employers sharing the same workspace follow this guidance. - When work tasks do not allow for adequate physical distancing, employers should check for additional industry-specific guidance. Installing Barriers Where Physical Distancing Cannot Be Maintained At fixed workstations where workers are not able to remain at least 6 feet away from other people, transparent shields or other solid barriers (e.g., plexiglass, flexible strip curtains) should be installed to separate workers from other people. - The barriers should block face-to-face pathways between individuals in order to prevent direct transmission of respiratory droplets. The posture (sitting or standing) of users should be considered when designing and installing barriers. - Where an opening in the barrier is necessary to permit the transfer of items, the opening should be as small as possible. - Barriers do not replace the need for physical distancing – 6 feet of separation should be maintained between individuals whenever possible. Suppressing the Spread of the Hazard Using Face Coverings Provide all workers with face coverings (i.e., cloth face coverings, surgical masks), unless their work task requires a respirator. Employers should provide face coverings to the workers at no cost. Employers must discuss the possibility of "reasonable accommodation" for any workers who are unable to wear or have difficulty wearing certain types of face coverings due to a disability. In workplaces with employees who are deaf or have hearing deficits, employers should consider acquiring masks with clear coverings over the mouth for all workers to facilitate lip-reading. Face coverings should be made of at least two layers of a tightly woven breathable fabric, such as cotton, and should not have exhalation valves or vents. They should fit snugly over the nose, mouth, and chin with no large gaps on the outside of the face. Require any other individuals at the workplace (e.g., visitors, customers, non-employees) to wear a face covering unless they are under the age of 2 or are actively consuming food or beverages on site. - Wearing a face covering that covers the nose and mouth is a measure to contain the wearer's respiratory droplets and helps protect others. It may also protect the wearer. - Wearing a face covering does not eliminate the need for physical distancing of at least 6 feet apart. - For operations where the face covering worn by workers can become wet and soiled, provide workers with replacements daily or more frequently. Face shields may be provided for use with face coverings to protect them from getting wet and soiled, but they do not provide protection by themselves. - Workers in a setting where face coverings may increase the risk of heat-related illness indoors or outdoors or cause safety concerns due to introduction of a hazard (for instance, straps getting caught in machinery) may consult with an occupational safety and health professional to determine the appropriate face covering/respirator for their setting. The CDC has released important guidance about ways to improve ventilation and prevent the spread of COVID-19 in buildings. Below are a number of strategies to do so. Some of these recommendations are based on ASHRAE Guidance for Building Operations During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Review these ASHRAE guidelines for further information on ventilation recommendations. - Ensure ventilation systems operate properly and provide acceptable indoor air quality for the current occupancy level for each space. - Increase ventilation rates when possible. - When weather conditions allow, increase fresh outdoor air by opening windows and doors. Do not open windows and doors if doing so poses a safety or health risk (e.g., risk of falling, triggering asthma symptoms) to occupants in the building. - Use fans to increase the effectiveness of open windows. To safely achieve this, fan placement is important. Avoid placing fans in a way that could potentially cause contaminated air to flow directly from one person over another. One helpful strategy is to use a window fan, placed safely and securely in a window, to exhaust room air to the outdoors. This will help draw fresh air into the room via other open windows and doors without generating strong room air currents. - Disable demand-controlled ventilation (DCV). - Reduce or eliminate recirculation, for example by opening minimum outdoor air dampers. In mild weather, this will not affect thermal comfort or humidity. However, this may be difficult to do in cold or hot weather. - Improve central air filtration to the MERV-13 (the grade of filter recommended by ASHRAE) or the highest compatible with the filter rack, and seal edges of the filter to limit bypass. - Check filters to ensure they are within service life and appropriately installed. - Keep systems running longer hours, 24/7 if possible, to enhance air exchanges in the building space. - Ensure restroom exhaust fans are functional and operating at full capacity. - Inspect and maintain local exhaust ventilation in areas such as kitchens and cooking areas. - Use portable high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) fan/filtration systems to help enhance air cleaning (especially in higher-risk areas such as a nurse's office or areas frequently inhabited by persons with higher likelihood of COVID-19 and/or increased risk of getting COVID-19). - Generate clean-to-less-clean air movement by re-evaluating the positioning of supply and exhaust air diffusers and/or dampers (especially in higher-risk areas). - Consider using ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) as a supplement to help inactivate SARS-CoV-2, especially if options for increasing room ventilation are limited. Upper-room UVGI systems can be used to provide air cleaning within occupied spaces, and in-duct UVGI systems can help enhance air cleaning inside central ventilation systems. - If ventilation cannot be increased, reduce occupancy level in the building. This increases the effective dilution ventilation per person. Use Personal Protective Equipment When Necessary When the measures described above cannot be implemented or do not protect workers fully, OSHA standards require employers to provide PPE to supplement other controls. - Determine what PPE is necessary to protect workers. - Provide all PPE, if necessary, including respirators (N95 filtering facepiece respirators or better, including elastomeric respirators, without exhalation valves or vents), face shields, protective gowns and gloves, to the workers at no cost. - Make sure to provide PPE in accordance with relevant OSHA standards and other industry-specific guidance. Respirators, if necessary, must be provided and used in compliance with 29 CFR 1910.134 (e.g., medical determination, fit testing, training on its correct use), including certain provisions for voluntary use when workers supply their own respirators, and other PPE must be provided and used in accordance with the applicable standards in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart I (e.g., 1910.132 and 133). See additional information on PPE flexibilities and prioritization in the Personal Protective Equipment Considerations section within the Interim Guidance for U.S. Workers and Employers of Workers with Potential Occupational Exposures to SARS-CoV-2. - There are times when PPE is not required under OSHA standards or other industry-specific guidance, but some workers may have a legal right to PPE as a "reasonable accommodation" under the Americans with Disabilities Act, or other workers may want to use it if they are still concerned about their personal safety (e.g., if a family member is at higher-risk for severe illness, wearing a face shield in addition to a face covering as an added layer of protection). Encourage and support voluntary use of PPE in these circumstances. Provide the supplies necessary for good hygiene practices Ensure that workers, customers, and visitors have supplies to clean their hands frequently and cover their coughs and sneezes: - Provide tissues and no-touch trash cans. - Provide soap and warm or tepid water in the workplace in fixed worksites. If soap and water are not readily available, use alcohol-based hand sanitizer that is at least 60% ethanol or 70% isopropanol. Ensure that adequate supplies are maintained, and follow safe handling and storage requirements for sanitizer supplies and similar flammable liquids. - Place touchless hand sanitizer stations in multiple locations to encourage hand hygiene. - Provide workers with time to wash their hands often with soap and water (for at least 20 seconds) or to use hand sanitizer. Inform workers that if their hands are visibly dirty, soap and water is preferable to hand sanitizer. Key times for workers to clean their hands include: - Before and after work shifts - Before and after work breaks - After blowing their nose, coughing, or sneezing - After using the restroom - Before and after eating or preparing food - After putting on, touching, or removing PPE or face coverings - After coming into contact with surfaces touched by other people - Place posters that encourage hand hygiene and physical distancing to help stop the spread of COVID-19 at the entrance to your workplace and in other workplace areas where they are likely to be seen. This should include signs for non-English speakers, as needed. - Promote personal health monitoring and good personal hygiene, including hand washing and good respiratory etiquette. - Supplies necessary for good hygiene should be provided to the workers at no cost. Perform routine cleaning and disinfection - Follow the Guidance for Cleaning and Disinfecting to develop, implement, and maintain a plan to perform regular cleanings to reduce the risk of exposure to COVID-19. - Routinely clean all frequently touched surfaces in the workplace, such as workstations, keyboards, telephones, handrails, and doorknobs. - If surfaces are dirty, clean them using a detergent or soap and water before you disinfect them. - For disinfection, most common, EPA-registered, household disinfectants should be effective. A list of products that are EPA-approved for use against the virus that causes COVID-19 is available on the EPA website. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for all cleaning and disinfection products (e.g., concentration, application method, and contact time). - Do not share objects or tools between workers, but if shared tools are required, ensure appropriate cleaning and disinfection is performed between uses. - Provide disposable disinfecting wipes so that workers can wipe down commonly used surfaces (e.g., doorknobs, keyboards, remote controls, desks, electronic payment terminals, other work tools and equipment) before each use. - Store and use disinfectants in a responsible and appropriate manner according to the label. - Do not mix bleach or other cleaning and disinfection products together. This can create toxic vapors. - Advise workers always to wear gloves appropriate for the chemicals being used when they are cleaning and disinfecting and that they may need additional PPE based on the setting and product.

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The Ashlar Company - Masonic Shop For the good of the craft... We will beat any competitors price by 5%. Freemasonry How Whence Whither FREEMASONRY HOW, WHENCE & WHITHER? FREEMASONRY made its first appearance as a Society, i.e. as a distinct organisation, in the year 1717. Four Lodges then existing in London combined on St. John's Day of that year to form a Grand Lodge, "as a centre of concord and harmony", and within a very few years there had developed from this modest foundation an intellectual and spiritual movement of an extent that seems almost incredible. The Grand Lodge of 1717 was certainly not the beginning of speculative Freemasonry, but nevertheless its inauguration clearly marks a re-beginning on a new foundation. When Masonic students learn today that the formation of the first Grand Lodge is accepted as the real starting-point of the history of the modern Order, they are inclined to take it for granted that there is nothing more likely to be beyond question than the circumstances under which Speculative Freemasonry originated. This view, however, is fallacious. To delve into so-called Masonic history is like trying to find one's way through a labyrinth, or, rather, through an innumerable succession of labyrinths for although works on the subject are numerous, the theories propounded by some of the authors are frequently in direct contradiction to those of others. The reason for this is easily explained: the origin of Speculative Freemasonry is shrouded in mystery. We know approximately what happened in 1717. We know what was then fundamentally decided, but we know nothing whatever of the men who assembled on that 24th day of June which has become so significant. Solely from the fact that the Founders of the first Grand Lodge were corporations or Lodges and not individuals, it is clear that something more or less in obscurity predeeded the organisation which made its fact pubic at the date in question. But, in the course of more than two hundred years of research this "something" has never been properly determined. The beginnings of Speculative Freemasonry are lost in obscurity, an obscurity that is all the greater because the Brethren of 1717 evidently made no attempt to throw even the faintest ray of light upon it. Quite the contrary is the case. The author of the first and fundamental Constitutions of 1723, Dr. James Anderson, who was also the first Masonic historian, has indeed bequeathed us an extensive history but what he wrote can only be regarded as legend, dictated by the desire to make the newly created So ciety appear as venerable as possible. In the Book of Constitutions of 1723 Anderson made very few references to the events which took place in 1717 and the succeeding years. The only direct allusion occurs at the end of the historical portion, and is as follows:- "And now the Freeborn British Nations, disentangled from foreign and civil Wars, and enjoying the good Fruits of Peace and Liberty, having of late much indulg'd their happy Genius for Masonry of every sort, and reviv'd the drooping Lodges of London, this fair Metropolis flourisheth, as well as other Parts, with several worthy particular Lodges, that have a quarterly Communication and an annual grand Assemble, wherein the Forms and Usages of the most ancient and worshipful Fraternity are wisely propagated, a nd the Royal Art duly cultivated, and the Cement of Brotherhood preserv'd so that the whole Body resembles a well built Arch". In the light of the foregoing it is quite in order to place on record that modern Speculative Freemasonry had a beginning in the early years of the eighteenth century, but this statement is only valid in the sense that in the year 1717 there originated that which afterwards developed into, and now subsists as, the English Masonic Constitution. Masonry itself, however, existed long before that time, and in two distinct forms: (1)..EXOTERIC: In the Operative Building Guilds connected with the practical building trade. (2)..ESOTERIC: In a variety of secret communities consisting of mystics and occultists, having no relation to the practical building trade, but using builder's terminology for symbolical purposes of their own. The advent of modern Speculative Freemasonry proclaimed to the world that henceforth both these forms of Masonry were "cemented" in one "grand design", and their affinity for the purpose contemplated by the now organisation was demonstrated in "a peculiar system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols", when it became apparent that the Art and Craft of Masonry which was Operative in an old order of things had emerged Figurative in a new. How this transformation was effected, and under who se direction, are two problems which still remain to be solved to the satisfaction to of the large majority of Masonic students. There seems little doubt, however, that in the Middle Ages there existed in this country a school of philosophical thought which practised a form of the Ancient Mysteries suitable to those times and conditions. At the close of the 15th century a decision appears to have been come to by some of those far-seeing men to put forward the old mystical tradition in a simple form and to attempt to interest a small section of the public in it. Some of the members of thi s advanced school therefore became incorporated with surviving Lodges of the Guild and Fellowship of Operative Masonry, from whom we probably derive our First and Second Degrees, with their Operative symbols and moral instruction thereby combining and preserving a form of the ancient moral dramas, of which our system is a mystical descendant and legitimate exponent. It is admitted that this suggestion is incapable of rigorous proof, and will not, perhaps, commend itself to the academic mind, but notwithstanding its rejection on these grounds, we find, about the year 1600 and onwards, the first small s igns of a movement that has eventuated in the vast modern Masonic Craft. The "Mary's Chapel" Lodge in Edinburgh preserves as its most valued treasure the oldest existing masonic minute book, the entries in which go back to the year 1598. As early as the "aucht day of Janij the zeir of 'God 1600 yeirs", the registration of the first non-operative - John Boswell, Laird of Auchinlook - took place. Operative Lodges were at that time becoming obsolete and defunct, and by 1620 we find that in London Operative Masonry had become entirely superseded by Speculative, the members of the fo rmer no longer working in Guilds but striving to keep alive their old form of fellowship. In the year 1641 Sir Robert Moray, Quartermaster-General of the Scottish Army, was initiated in Newcastle, i.e, on English soil, by the Edinburgh Lodge, at a meeting convened specially for his reception almost on the field of battle. This distinguished soldier and philosopher was a Founder and the first President of the Royal Society. Five years later one of th e greatest scholars of the seventeenth century, the Rosicr ucian philosopher Elias Ashmole (founder of the Ashmolean museum at Oxford) was "made a Freemason" at Warrington, on the 16th October, 1646. In 1665 Randle Holm (to whom we are indebted for a copy of the "Antient Charges", the so-called Harleian Manuscript), described himself as a Freemason. Accretions to the ranks of the Craft proceeded to be made, but were at first few and gradual, owing to disturbed political conditions. In 1717 four Old Lo ndon Lodges were prompted to combine in order to constitute a new nucleus. From them the first Grand Lodge was formed and thus modern Speculative Freemasonry was born, at an inn, The Apple Tree Tavern, in Lincoln's Inn Fields, In 1721 Dr. Anderson was entrusted by Grand Lodge with the task of drawing up the Constitutions of the new community, and these were published in 1723 when the Society announced its existence to the popular world. The purpose of this study so far has been to formulate briefly, for the benefit, for the benefit of students, certain facts that illustrate that both historical research and other considerations point to the conclusion that we owe the inception of Speculative Freemasonry to group of Initiates who devised and projected the general design in the 16th and 17th centuries to keep alive the universal tradition of the Divine Mysteries at the critical period when the modern mechanical and industrial age was about t o set in. In the words of a leading Masonic authority (W.Bro.A.E.Waite), they "made an experiment upon the mind of the age" by restoring to the modern world the traditional mystic wisdom and science formerly taught in the Mysteries, but which during the sway of the Roman Empire, had been withdrawn from the knowledge of the public, although it had been perpetuated in secret. It was they who inspired the movement which has now grown into our vast Mason ic system they grafted the elementary principles of the s ecret science upon the organisations of the then decaying Building Guilds and left it heavily veiled and crypticised, with the sure knowledge that the seed planted therein would came to fruition in due season. All great movements towards human betterment - and we must certainly number Freemasonry among them - will be found to have come to birth in circumstances of obscurity, and to have been Founded by wise men who are usually unknown as historical per sonalities. Such movements also pass through an evoluti onary progress, from a rudimentary, to an ultimately advanced condition, the extent of the advance being in proportion to the force and vitality of the truth looked up in them which serves as their motive power. Of this nature has been the evolutional history of the Craft hitherto, but its evolution is still far from complete. The dynamic energies implanted in the Craft by its Founders have now expanded into a vast framework. This process of expansi on has been essential, because before the true spirit and inward content of Freemasonry could be appreciated upon a scale sufficiently wide to constitute the Order a real spiritual power in the social body, it has been necessary to build up a vigorous physical organisation as a vehicle in which that spirit may eventually manifest. The growth of an institution is a slow growth, proceeding from material apparently unpromising, and involving continual selection, before it becomes finally forged into an efficient ins trument. So with the Masonic Order as a physical v ehicle, a material organisation, it is as complete, as elaborated and as efficiently controlled, as it can ever be expected to be. It now stands waiting illumination, and that illumination must come from within itself, even as the Divine Presence is represented as manifesting within the symbolic Temple of Solomon. The Order awaits the liberation and realisation of its own inner consciousness, hitherto dormant, and this fact is amply demonstrated in that no sooner is the d eeper and true nature of the Masoni c design revealed to the Brethren than they leap to the recognition of it and desire to realise it and, for such, there can be no going back to the old ways and old outlooks. In this manner, then, will the Craft throughout the world become gradually regenerated in its understanding, so fulfilling the destiny planned for it by those who inspired its formation three centuries ago. The coming change must, and will, disclose that the Masonic creed is essentially spiritual, and that all its articles relate to interior conditions, principle and processes. It will be found to be based upon experimental knowledge, not on authority, and its central figures are to be regarded in the light of attributes, qualities and sacraments (mysteries), not persons, nor events, however great or remarkable. For persons and events belong to time and to the phenomenal, while principles and processes are e ternal and noumenal. Freemasons, therefore, are called upon to reflect that history and individual entities must ever be regarded as constituting the accidental, and not the essential element in a system which aims at repairing the errors of the past fifteen centuries, by reconstructing the Mysteries on a scientific and intelligent basis. Further, one important reparation must, and will, be made as the direct result of enlightenment. Today by a tac it and quite unwarranted convention members of the Craft avo id mention in Lodge of the Christian Master, and confine scriptural readings and references almost exclusively to the Old Testament, the motive being to observe the injunction as to refraining from religious discussion and to prevent offence on the part of Brethren who may not be of the Christian faith. This motive is an entirely misguided one and is, of course, negated by the fact that the "Greater Light" upon which every Candidate is obligated , and to which his earnest attention is recommended from the moment of his admission to the Order, is not only the Old Testament, but the Volume of the Sacred Law in its entirety. Freemasons will come to recognise that the New Testament is as essential as the Old, not merely on account of its moral teaching, but in virtue of its constituting the record of the Mysteries in their supreme form and historic culmination. It will be perceived that the Gospels, like the Masonic Degrees, are a record of preparation and ill umination, leading up to the ordeal of death, follow ed by a raising from the dead and the attainment of Mastership, and they exhibit the process of initiation carried to the highest conceivable degree of attainment. Thus the Craft will learn that the Grand Master and Exemplar of Freemasonry, Hiram Abiff, is but a figure of the Great Master, and Saviour of the world, the divine Architect by whom all things were made, and without Whom is nothing that hath been made. Neither the Ancient Mysteries, nor Modern Freemasonr y, their descendant, can be rightly viewed without reference to their relation to the Christian evangel, into which the pro-Christian schools became assumed. Hence we find that St. Augustine affirms (Retractationer, 1, 13, 3), "the identical thing that we now call the Christian religion existed among the ancients, and has not been lacking from the beginnings of the human race." A study of Patristic literature makes it quite clear that the primitive method of the Christian Church was not the one which now obtains, u nder which the religious offices a nd teaching are administered to the whole public alike and in a manner implying a common level of doctrine for all and uniform power of comprehension by every member of the congregation. It was, on the contrary, a graduated method of instruction and identical with the Masonic system of Degrees conferred by reason of advancing merit and ability. Admission to the early Church was by three ceremonial degrees exactly corresponding with those of Freemasonry, as the following quota tion from one of the most inst ructive of the early Christian treatises proves conclusively: "The most holy initiation of the Mystic Rites has as its first Godly purpose the holy cleansing of the initiated and as second, the enlightening instruction of the purified and finally and as the completion of the former, the perfecting of those instructed in the science of their appropriate instructions". (Dionysius: On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy). Originally, therefore, membership of the Christian Church involved a sequence of three initiatory rites, and the names give to those who had qualified in those Rites, together with their modern equivalents in the Craft today, are respectively:- FIRST DEGREE: CATECHUMIENS. ENTERED APPRENTICES. SECOND DEGREE: LEITURGOI. FELLOWCRAFTS. THIRD DEGREE: PRESBYTERS. MASTER MASONS. Their first degree signified re-birth and purification of the heart the second was concerned with the illumination of the intelligence and the third related to a total death unto sin (self-centred individuality) and a new birth unto righteousness, in which the Candidate died with Christ on the Cross, as in our modern Order he is made to imitate the death of Hiram, and was raised to that higher order of life (organic integration - resurrection in Christ, the Universal Manhood) which is Mastership. When Chr istianity became a state-religion and the Church a world-power, the materialisation of its doctrine proceeded apace and has only increased with the centuries. For this reason the science of regeneration has long been, and still is, outside the scope of orthodox religion. But despite inhibition on the part of official orthodoxy the wisdom and the traditional methods of the Mysteries have never been without living witnesses in the world, and since their suppression in the sixth century the tradition and teaching have been continued in secret and under various concealments and to this continuation, our present Masonic system is due. Like the light of a Master Mason which never becomes wholly extinguished, so in the world's darkest days the light of the Mysteries never goes out entirely, and, if, in comparison with other witnesses, Freemasonry is shown to be but a glimmering ray, it is n one the less a true ray from the world's central altar- flame. Hence, the attention of the modern Craft may be directed to the words of the well known hymn, "Lead Kindly Light", for indeed it is sufficient to lead us on amid the encircling gloom, until the now day shall dawn Light is granted to us in proportion to the desire of our hearts, and have we not affirmed that, "Light is the predominant wish of our hearts"? The Masonic system was devised at a time of general unrest and change when spiritual life was running extremely low and the modern intellectual, mechanical and industrial era was about to commence. In such circumstances something had to be done in order to preserve the universal mystical tradition, and this "something" had to be of such a nature that it would at the same time provide an introduction to the root principles and methods of the Secret Doctrine of Initiation for the benefit of any who could disc ern and profit by them during the period of spiritual obsouration. As we have seen, following upon the decision come to by certain Illuminates calling themselves members of the "Invisible Society," Speculative Freemasonry emerged in the year 1723 as a system of morality presented in the form of Ritual. From that time to the present the process of development has gone steadily forward, and however misunderstood and misapplied have been the rites and ceremonies, it at last may be affirmed that the soul and consciousness of every voluntary participant in them, stands imperishably impressed with the memory of them. The familiar axiom, "Onc e a Mason always a Mason" expresses an occult truth not realised by those who are unaware of the subjective value and persistence of deliberated actions. Let it therefore be clearly understood that the incorporation of each Candidate in the "body of Freemasonry" means also an addition to the aggregate volume of the group Masonic consciousness, and that following this incorporation reactions and consequences ensue of a nature too abstruse to dilate upon here. Meanwhile, tinctured and affected by this m etaphysical influence from the subjective world, th e work of the Craft proceeds within this bourne of time and place beginning, as we have ample evidence to show, with tendencies of the natural order and following along the line of the law of orderly development as propounded in the dictum of St.Paul, recorded in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, Chapter 15, verse 46, "Howbeit, that was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural, and afterward that which is spiritual". Operative Masonry preceded and became spiritualised into Speculative, and the crude beginnings of the latter are now becoming sublimated into a more subtle conception and tending towards a scientific mysticism, at once theoretic and practical. We may, then with confidence, look forward to the gradual spiritualisation of the Craft and to its becoming - when time and circumstances permit - the porchway or entrance to a still more advanced expression of the Sacred Mysteries. But, at the same time we must never forget that the Craft will only beco me what its individual members m ake it, and if they continue to see in it only a ceremonial procedure, at such it will remain. Let us then strive, each one of us, to realize and make our own the living spirit and intention which lies behind the outward rites, and enter into the Mystical Quest for that "which is lost," when we ourselves find we shall be able to communicate to our fellow seekers, until the Craft is justified of all its Brethren and becomes - as it was intended to become - a great light in a dark world. Finally, the future of the Order cannot be appraised without reference to the general social life surrounding it for it is not something apart and detached from that life but an integral element of it, and between the two there is perpetual interaction and reaction. It follows, therefore, that in the fleeting glimpses of the revival of the Masonic philosophy which are even now discernable as taking place within the Craft, may be seen at once the token and the agent of the world's deliverance. For, Brethren of the Craft, it means the supersession of a period of obsouration by one of illumination, in which men can once more rise fro m the appreciation of the Form to that of the Su bstance, of the Letter to that of the Spirit, and thus discern the meaning of the Divine Word, whether written or enacted. This recognition of the ideal will signify the reconstruction of the religious life upon a scientific basis, and of science upon a religious basis. So long as Masonry continues to build upon the mere facts of phenomena and history, she builds upon a sandbank, on which the still advancing tide of scientific and academic criticism is ever encro aching, and which sooner or later must be s wept away with all that is founded upon it. But, when She (Masonry - intuitional understanding) learns the secret of the HIRAMIC, that is the Esoteric interpretation, then, and then only, does She build upon a Rock or Foundation, which shall never be shaken. Such is the import of the name HIRAM (As the Spirit of Understanding, the name HIRAM or HERMES signifies both ROCK and INTERPRETER) the Foundation of the Masonic Temple, and it is on this Hermetic Rock of inward illumina tion and spiritual life, called the Mount of Regeneration, that the great Mystics of all time have ever taken their stand. Hereon were founded the Pythagorean and Neoplatonic Schools, the system of the Alexandrian Gnostics, and the various Lodges of semi-oriental philosophy of Egypt and Asia Minor in the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era. And in later days the self same illumination formulated itself by the lips of and pens of the Initiates of the thirteenth and following centuries - the epoch of St. Bernard, of Eckhart, T auler, Ruysbroeck. In the early eighteenth century Speculative Freemasonry emerged, heavily veiled and crypticised, but proclaiming itself in the direct line of succession of the Ancient Wisdom. It is true that in our day, even as the Old Teacher declares, "Wisdom is the principal thing therefore get wisdom: and with all thy getting get understanding" (Proverbs 4, 7), and this counsel may well be commended to the Masonic Fraternity, which at present so little understands its own system. But, understandin g depends upon the gift of the Supernal Light, and this gift in turn depends upon the ardour of our desire for it. If Wisdom today is widowed, lot us not forget that all Freemasons are actually or potentially the Widow's sons, and she will be justified of those of her children who labour for her and thus obey the injunction, "Exalt her, and she shall promote thee" (Proverbs 4, 8). Brethren of the Craft, "now is the time to perform our allotted task"! "EST IN MERCURIO QUICQUID QUOERUNT SAPIENTES" (All is in the understanding that the wise seek). Hermetic Motto. SO NOTE IT BE. Remember, if you don't see the Ashlar "A", it's not authentic. By Brothers, For Brothers & always For the good of the craft... © 2021 Ashlar Group, LLC

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In a progressing organization, there has to be the core activities that have to be made and the organization should be able to manage and direct them without any failure. If any occurs, then it should be followed and corrected in a manner that will not confuse the schedule. Business value is anything that contributes to an organization’s stated primary goal, e.g. increasing or protecting revenue, reducing/avoiding costs, improving service, meeting regulatory obligations, achieving market strategy, and developing staff. Organization’s stated primary goals presuppose that all organizations are required to clearly articulate the statement on their existence and how they describe the success of all the organizations (i.e. the mission, goal statement, and vision). Moreover, all that is claimed to be business value is required to be attributable to organizations, thus stating the primary goal. If a project does not deliver something that contributes toward one of those goals, it does not have a sound business case (Haines, 2007). We are going to discuss the leadership styles and the types of leaders we have in our communities (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Values are central in the organization, and they are the control units in the organization. They try to explain the ways in which leaders are capable of managing and leading organizations to achieve excellent activities like the beginning and mounting of victorious commercial firms, business turnarounds in the face of irresistible competition, armed victories in the eyes of the forces in the high rank, when it comes to the management of flourishing social arrangements, from the colonial period movements, or the political tyranny. There is also an explanation to how certain levels of admirers’ motivation, respect, dedication, trust, loyalty, commitment, admiration, and performance are achieved by certain leaders, hence achieving some surprising levels. The earlier theories have dependent variables that are followers’ satisfaction, expectation, and normal performance levels. These dependent variables of the recent theories are inclusive of a variety of effects such as the followers’ motivational and emotional arousal, followers’ emotional attachment to leaders, and therefore this enhances the values of the followers according to the mission and visions that the leaders have come up with as well as the followers’ significant values. The latest theories address the fact that previous theories have not emphasized. There are conditions that have a magnificent effect on the followers, and these conditions could include such things as identification with the leader’s mission and vision, follower’s efficacy, and also perceptions of self-worth (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). The earlier theories characterize the leader behavior that is instrumental to the followers, and they are instrumental to the performance of the followers and the support. They are referred to as person- and task-oriented leader behavior (House, 1971). On the contrary, most of the latest theories stress the fact that most values that have been infused of late in the organizations are emotion arousing, inspirational, and symbolic. This is made a success through the leader’s behavior. The theories that were there earlier take various attitudes to the desires, values, opinions, and preferences of the followers. The latest theories show that the leaders have a substantial role to play in the value of a particular organization. Therefore, the leaders are expected to ensure that these values are infused into the followers and that they transform the individuals and the organization as well. This therefore appeals to ideological emotions and values of the followers. Book The Best Top Expert at Top-papers.com Your order will be assigned to the most experienced writer in the relevant discipline. The highly demanded expert, one of our top-10 writers with the highest rate among the customersHire a TOP Writer for 10.95 USD McClelland (1975) formulated a theory that had an intention to explain effectiveness of the leader, which performs a function of combining specific motives and which is referred to as Leader Motive Profile. The theory acts as a complement to other theories. This is evidenced by various researches that have been conducted previously since the 1980’s. It is described below This theory is meant to incorporate the newer theories. It is defined as a theory that is aimed at creating a relationship between the follower and the leader. The relationship is not strictly between one follower and a leader, but it could also go all the way to more than one follower. It is based on the ideological values that are internalized by the follower and are introduced by the leader. This leads to identification of the follower to these values. The values that are termed as ideological are those values that are concerned with what is right or wrong. Therefore, the values are determined according to the morals of a society and by the effect on others that is brought out by the values. It could concern fairness, honesty, and justice, and also how the leader is obliged to meet the customers, followers, or even the organization’s stakeholders at large. This value-based theory explains in details what is meant under being a qualifying leader. This may be the remarkably strong recognition of the team supporting the leader, the combined and communal vision supported by the leader, the inner or internalized obligation to the leader and to the collective, stimulation of devotees’ motives that are related to the achievement of the combined vision, and followers’ motivation to make important sacrifices and elongate a crack above and away from the call of duty. The theory based on leadership values has been chosen to describe an actual meaning of the type of management that should be in a real organization setting. The theory of 1976 stating leadership is based on charismatic character is a precursor of the theory of leadership based on values. It has been preferred because it is popular in high-hand undertone. Charisma can be defined as the act of expressing impressions of people who are attractive, amicable, sexually attractive, and flamboyant. On the contrary, leadership that is based on the values is intended to express the intention of the leader to arouse the follower’s values that have been inactive and as such to cause new values to be activated and hence internalized. For this to happen, a conducive environment is needed, such as an emotion-free, quiet, or even more emotionally expressive environment. There are leaders who have exploited an emotionally expressive manner, for instance, Martin Luther King, John F. Kennedy, Winston Churchill, and Lee Iacocca. Mother Teresa, Mahatma Ghandi, and Nelson Mandela are examples of those leaders who have communicated in a less emotionally expressive manner. This therefore helps an individual realize that it is possible to provide any type of conducive environment. In this section, the leadership that is based on values is discussed at length. There is enough evidence to show that this theory has an essential effect on any organization’s performance. The evidence to support this includes two studies reported by Waldman and his associates. They are about value-based leader’s behavior as an antecedent to organizational profitability. According to the research, the profitability of the firm was affected positively by the values that were formulated by the leaders. It therefore accounted for 15 to 25 percent. This research controlled the profitability of the firm, the firm size, and executive turbulence. The leaders infuse their collectives with their values by making clear their vision to the followers who are deemed to have a moral right. Ideological values are termed as values that are intrinsically satisfying in a moral way. The end values are also termed as the ones that cannot be exchanged for other values unlike the pragmatic values. The ideological values are deeply held values as well as followers’ emotions. Exclusive savings! Save 25% on your ORDER 15% OFF your FIRST ORDER (with the code toppapers15) + 10% OFF every order by receiving 300 words/page instead of 275 words/page According to value-based theories in leadership, visions that are articulated by this kind of leaders are reliable with combined followers’ identity, and are motivationally and emotionally arousing. Motivational and emotional provocation induces followers’ classification with the cooperative vision and the joint results in the enhancement of followers’ self-esteem and self-efficacy and has influential motivational belongings on followers and on overall organizational performance. Government and manufacturing organizations’ leaders conduct vision actualization with the aim of improving their business. Such visions can never be grandiose. Dazzling leaders’ vision in the work, which is ordinary, has the ability to embrace ideological values both as a rewarding work and challenging environment, freedom from rule and supervision, which is highly controlling, and a working environment, which is rewarding. Such visions also have the ability to embrace values such as freedom from supervision and rules, which is highly controlling, as well as opportunities of professional development, significant constituencies’ returns, which are fair, integrity and craftsmanship, fairness, high quality products and services, respect for clients, members, or customers of the organization, and the environment where the organization carries out its operations. Furthermore, whether conception is solely done by the leader, by the followers in a joint manner, or by members articulating the ideological vision beyond duty call, synergy is exceptionally important among collective members of an organization. Followers’ trust, self-sacrifice, and respect are inspired by value identification that is born by visions of the leader. Apart from that, there is a demonstration of determination and self-sacrifice by the leader, and this happens in organization’s interests as well as according to the vision of the organization. As per these identifications, leaders who are value-based use identification of followers’ values, trust, and respect accorded to them to motivate a high performance and a mission sense as they quest the vision, which is collective, and finally introduce changes in the organization. The act of bringing latent values to a conscious level occurs owing to the vision that value-based leaders articulate. There are a number of individuals who act like leaders as they change values to remind the ones of their leaders. There is a need to formulate visions that value-based leaders articulate, and this should be done by one leader. Conception of this collective vision is done by collective members or leaders who come after a current leader. At that point, vision perpetration is performed by the leader and at the same time the leader continuously communicates the vision while institutionalizing the vision. Vision institutionalization is prepared through the formation as well as maintenance of means of institutions, which include policies, strategies, norms, ceremonies, symbols, and rituals. Alternatively, formulation of organizational visions may be done by the leader and members of the organization. They can work together to ensure that there is a successful formulation. Original writing according to your instructions Deadlines from 3 hours to 60 days All disciplines covered Skilled writers with Master’s/PhD degrees Personal data security Instant replies to all your questions Effects of articulation on ideological values can be described as profound. Members of the organization have the knowledge of ideological values, which are shared between themselves and the leaders. There is a development of collective cohesion, which is of high level, and this happens after the identification of members with the collective vision. There is enhancement of collaborative interaction among members of the organization. Collective efficacy is experienced by individuals. In addition, individuals exhibit high self-esteem and this is due to support from leaders who express confidence that members have the capacity to ensure that there is attainment of the vision. Apart from that, vision accomplishment of relevant motives is aroused. Members of the organization assess their worth and judge it on the basis of their vision attainment as well as collective contribution. The theory of equity stipulates that when there is a perception by individuals that their contribution ratio to a personal reward is equal to that reward of other individuals, there is a feeling that treatment accorded is fair. In situations when there is a feeling of unfairness, there emerge de-motivation, resentment, and unwillingness to give support. Any influence made by the leader in such circumstances will be resisted by the followers. The end result is members who are strongly internalized and committed. In addition, members will have intrinsic motivation that will enable them to have the will to contribute to the vision of the organization. There is willingness of the members to offer support to changes that the top management introduces, including technological, structural, and strategic changes. Such changes lead to an organizational culture that is characterized by teamwork-oriented values while at the same time meeting clients’, customers’, constituents’, and competitive needs. Owing to this, there is a reduction of intra-organizational conflicts as well as a team effort of high degree, which is also effective. There is an effort expedition by members and this effort is far above as well as beyond what the duty calls for. There is a sacrifice of self-interests by members in favor of organization’s interests. Owing to this, there is a likelihood of collective vision alignment with the organizational culture, individual motivation, structure, and strategies. According to Mischel (1973), situation’s psychological strength influences the extent to which disposition of individual, for example, personality traits and motives are behaviorally expressed. Situations are said to be strong if behavior norms are strong; expectations, which are clear regarding the behavior, are to be rewarded as well as an incentive for specific behavioral type is strong. As per this argument, there is constraining of the tendencies of motivation as well as personality in situations, which are strong. Owing to this, rules, norms, policies as well as procedures govern highly formalized organizations. The tendency of members of an organization to express disposal becomes minimal. Theoretically, in strongly psychological situations, the motives of the leaders influence their behavior in a minimal manner. Apart from that, the behavior of the leader has a smaller impact on the outcome of the organization and the subordinates as compared to weak psychological situations. A process of reinforcing is prone to occur in a situation where members of the organization have increased confidence in as well as respect for the leader and at the same time for each other. The end result is organizational success. Owing to this, there is further reinforcement of initial confidence. There is consistence of such effects with the romanticized leader. The leader gains more confidence and, owing to this, he/she is able to have more influence. The leader is thus able to increase organization’s performance further. This is theoretical scenario of “ideal type”. Table of Contents Taking into account all that is said and done, everything does not really depend on the value-based leadership. It is therefore expected that followers are motivated by their identification to the leaders. This is made possible by shared internal values, which are motivational factors for the followers. In the process, leaders express their vision and missions and incorporate them into the followers. There is a possibility that they can introduce their own strategies and hence act to their own interests, which could work to the detriment of the organization. There are also high chances that leaders may express their selfish benefits instead of values. These selfish values could include persecution, racism, dishonesty, ethnicity, and illegal or unfair competitive practices. Whatever the expression of values by the leaders is, it still stands that the leadership based on values improves the organization’s performance and that the relationship between the leader and the follower is improved to a large extent. There are several types of leadership. This shows how leading people or organizations can achieve the set values and objectives planned by the management in different ways. This includes the following types. Charismatic leadership is a type of leadership, which mainly bases its functions on the normal state of the organization. This requires extraordinary individuals for them to be perfected. An ordinary person will not make it in both controlling and directing the modules. Full-range leadership is divided into two subtypes, which are transformational and transactional leadership types. According to Bernard Bass, transformational leadership is meant for researchers and people who are willing to restructure the workplace. These people are said to be motivators of the organizations and they happen to reshuffle the structure of organizations, and they are scheduled to do this by their duties. Transactional type differs from the transformational one, although this difference is not outlined. Transformational one is said to be of more importance than the transactional type. Transformational leadership is extensively discussed by Nancy Roberts to show how widely it has been used. Strategic leadership exploits strategy as a term often used by big companies. Strategy promotes policy context that allows self-management and governmental management. This is usually associated with the notion of planning for the future or predicting what the future should hold for the organization. The technique applied is the use of the SWOT analysis, which entails the strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats. The combination of the factors means that leaders act in bound rather than open-ended rational conditions and they must satisfy rather than maximize. Distributive leadership is when an individual concentrates on what the management is doing and on the entire community. Gibbs’ summary states that the work of the communities done by the management will contribute more than the work done by a single person. It encourages team work. The bulk of the material listed for reading provides case studies of distributed formations or explores the dynamics of distribution. Other descriptive relations amongst units of more than two people include an early and particularly thorough study by Hodgson. This supports the work of the top managers who are in control of the departments (House, 1971). Complexity leadership has introduced a new way of doing things in terms of controlling and guiding. This theory does not focus on the individual performance; groups are made according to the responsibility assigned to each person. For the practice of leadership, attention shifts to how organizational interactions are to be managed, regulated and how they influence ways that facilitate organizational performance and effectiveness. As such, complex leadership views and traditional notions of leadership have limited applicability as contemporary organizational demands are for nimble addictiveness, learning, and innovation in response to rapidly changing environments. Complexity leadership appears broadly compatible with distributed views of leadership where interactive dynamics, distributed knowledge, and intelligence coordinate all processes (Marion and Uhl-bien 2001). Furthermore, new methodological possibilities for research and understanding are opened up through simulation and computational modeling of complex processes (House, 1971). The important aspects of leadership are mainly concerned with gender and whether the leadership styles of men and women are different. Thereafter, there are influential and early discussions about gender and style in a business context by Schwartz, 1989 and Rosener, 1990s. Women are considered to be the same as men. They are imposed with work more so as to meet the goals. Another aspect of the leadership style is the extent of their consequences. The findings of different authors discuss the impact of the consequences. The findings of De Roaches, 1994 concern the depth of penetration of styles in the organizational cultures. The consultancy work is considered as the key factor of the management system of organizations. Another aspect of styles is concerned with the extent to which these comprise fixed and enduring sets of attributes or are amenable to change. Styles can be managed differently in organizations depending on how they have been perceived by managers. It is suggested that rather than seeing individuals as embodying particular sets of style attributes, the adaptive behavior is increasingly demanded of organizational leaders and it requires from them to be able to embody the entire range of behaviors, which may have previously been disaggregated into sets of individual styles (House, 1971). Being a leader is sometimes critical in daily life. Leaders can be chosen manually by the organization since their leadership skills cannot be wasted by letting them down. Recruitment of leaders is a wide area in every organization, and it has to be considered as a key factor for the organization to move on swiftly. There are several stages that organizations need to go through before mentioning their leaders. According to Silverman and Jones (1976), organizational work shows that there are regular procedures and the selectors are very experienced people, not the ones who have no skills of choosing the best out of employers. The procedure entails how this people can audit their attributes and consider traits. They can undertake a diagnostic assessment of leaders’ skills and capacities. The assessment centers are set aside, and the historical background is also set separately with the conditions attached to it. The interview procedures are organized, after which the management is ready to pick on the leaders. Since the interviews carry more weight in terms of individuals’ character, people involved in selection are left to discuss the members’ code of behavior in general. The final statements are then given out to the public for their comments and achievements. The induction cycle comes in when the newly elected leader is in a position to work and meet the required and desired goals of the employees and the general public. The new leader faces several challenges, and he/she has to take control of them before the pubic handles them. He/she confronts the shadow or legacy left by the forerunner. It is so difficult to deal with such a situation since the successor will always want to do things that are unique and that they may be far from the values of the organization. Newly appointed leaders will want to express their competitiveness in the first years. That is why, being a leader is represented not simply by word of mouth, but by deeds and how these ideas are planned to enable each individual to achieve the desired goals. The values used in an organization are a source of the support for the growth and development. The types of leadership that are used in the organization are made to control the management of the organization. The humans will be likely goal-oriented and pragmatic, but they are also self-expressive. According to the human characters, people not only have an instrumental calculative as assumed, but also have aesthetic values, expressions of feelings, and self-concepts. People are entitled and subjected to what they do to describe themselves. Furthermore, by doing these things, they will establish and affirm their identity sometimes even when their behaviors do not serve the worldly or practical self-interests. People are provoked to sustain and improve their widespread self-worth and self-efficiency. Moreover, the generalization of self-efficacy is based on the ability to always cope with the environment and to control power and competence. Self-worth relies on the sense of morality and virtue and it is stranded in norms and principles concerning conduct.

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F. Scott Fitzgerald and WWI: The "Crack Up" Essays By Colin Halloran Paul Fussell, in his seminal The Great War and Modern Memory, posits that “logically, one supposes, there’s no reason why a language devised by man should be inadequate to describe any of man’s works. The difficulty was in admitting that the war had been made by man and was being continued ad infinitum by them” (170).* While there is much debate and discussion over the “official” definition and dates of Modernism, we cannot overlook WWI and the ways it changed literary language. Broadly, the Modernist movement sought to move away from traditionalism and towards originality, particularly focusing on a “non-logical, non-objective, and essentially causeless mental universe.”** Because the war itself was non-logical. Even the innovative language and stylizations that propelled Modernist writings prior to the war were suddenly inadequate after the horrors the world now knew humankind was capable of. Yet much of the poetry to come out of World War I was still focused on the collective “we” and the broader identifiers (things like “English,” “American,” “French,” “German,” “Homefront,” “Trenches”), and non-fiction remained largely historical and fact-based (which is to say, external). Writers of fiction, on the other hand, delved into the internal workings of the individual brain. For example, Freud’s work with WWI veterans and dreams helped fuel the movement’s interest in the human subconscious and psyche, leading writers to approach their realities and experiences through metaphor, mythology, internal monologues, and even dream sequences, as in Wilfred Owen’s “Strange Meeting.” In addition, the Great War stripped young authors—many of whom would shape the Modernist movement of interwar literature—of their idealism. Included in this group was titan of the twenties, F. Scott Fitzgerald, author of The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald, in spite of dropping out of Princeton to join the Army as a second lieutenant, never shipped out, a fact that he would later lament. Unlike many Modernist authors of the time who were pushing the boundaries of fiction with experimental forms and techniques, Fitzgerald and his contemporary, Ernest Hemingway, kept their writing largely in the realm of realism that was so popular in the 19th century. However, Fitzgerald’s stylization, characters’ attitudes, and choice of themes place him firmly within the Modernist oeuvre. For example, while there is no question that Hemingway’s fiction is highly autobiographical, he was able to distance himself from his own experiences by assigning them to his various characters such as WWI ambulance driver Frederic Henry in A Farewell to Arms. This technique surely contributed to his success, as many of his readers recognized their own thoughts and experiences in the musings of Hemingway’s fictional narrators. Hemingway and his work embodied the values of stoicism and ambivalence that were to be expected from a world emerging from the devastation of war. Boys had become men and men had died doing their duty, serving their homelands, protecting what was right and good, as extolled in so many poems and media of the time. Detachment was viewed as strength, and strength was now expected. Which is also why some lesser-known works by Fitzgerald are so important. I am referring especially to the so-called “Crack-Up” personal essays published in Esquire in 1936. The first essay sets the fragmented, dismal tone of the collection; it begin “Of course, all life is a process of breaking down…”(36).*** Many of Fitzgerald’s contemporaries and friends recoiled at these autobiographical, emotional essays that chronicled his own personal post-war crisis. In fact, as if embarrassed for his friend, novelist John Dos Passos, wrote to Fitzgerald, “…most of the time the course of world events seems so frightful that I feel absolutely paralysed [sic]…We’re living in one of the damndest tragic moments in history—if you want to go to pieces I think it’s absolutely O.K. but I think you ought to write a first rate novel about it…instead of spilling it in little pieces.” Dos Passos’ statement reflected the ways American society shunned the display of male emotion. In the post-war years, male emotion was acceptable for public consumption only if it were fictionalized, not as an autobiographical confession. Fitzgerald explored this very dilemma in the essay, “Sleeping and Waking,” published just more than a year before “The Crack-Up” essays appeared in print. Written in response to Hemingway’s short story, “Now I Lay Me,” which discusses the agony of insomnia, Fitzgerald observes “there was nothing further to be said about insomnia…it appears that every man’s insomnia is as different from his neighbour's as are their daytime hopes and aspirations” (67). Fitzgerald acknowledges here that “Now I Lay Me” must be a fictional representation of Hemingway’s own struggles with insomnia and emotional suffering; but, in recognizing that insomnia is deeply personal, he also seems to say sees that there is a need for further, public discussion on this kind of suffering, perhaps directly, rather than filtered through fiction. Fussell points out that in real correspondence, WWI soldiers in the trenches would make use of the passive voice in order to create a sort of narrative distance. For example, Fussell says that a soldier might write in passive voice “A very odd sight was seen here,” instead of using the active voice with “I saw …” to “avoid designating themselves as agents of nasty or shameful acts” (177). The deployment of fiction served the same purpose: distancing the author from real emotion. Fictionalizing acts and thoughts and psychological struggles allowed the author to maintain a sense of credibility in the public’s eyes. It allowed them to maintain the masculine façade of the early twentieth century. It allowed them to maintain a perspective gained and solidified during the war years, no matter how long after it they were writing. As Fitzgerald himself observes in his essay “Ring,” “A writer can spin on about his adventures after thirty, after forty, after fifty, but the criteria by which these adventures are weighted and valued are irrevocably settled at the age of twenty-five” (79). This reminds me of Tim O’Brien’s “How to Tell a True War Story,” and John McCrae’s “In Flanders Fields.” As a war veteran, I know firsthand that the rest of soldiers’ lives are shaped by what we were taught on the way to war, in war, and as we made that terrible transition back into a civilian world that lauded those “nasty or shameful acts” as heroic. These experiences shape the way we view all those that follow, whether we want to acknowledge them or not. Fitzgerald explores these ideas later in his essay “Sleeping and Waking” as he recounts “the war dream.” In an attempt to get himself to sleep, he replays a fabricated scenario in which the Japanese have invaded the US and made it as far as Minnesota, Fitzgerald’s home state. In reality, he was a never-deployed, but, in the dream, he is an assistant to a general and called “Captain Fitzgerald.” He is “the character who bears [his] name has become blurred,” but, in the dream is also vital to the survival of his men and his country. As he recounts the heroics of defending the place he knows so well, Captain Fitzgerald’s tale falls apart. He writes, “waste and horror—what I might have been and done that is lost, spent gone, dissipated, unrecapturable. I could have acted thus, refrained from this, been bold where I was timid, cautious where I was rash. I need not have hurt her like that. Nor said this to him. Nor broken myself trying to break what was unbreakable.” We see, perhaps for the first time—in fiction or personal essay—the guilt Fitzgerald bears because he was never deployed during the Great War. This is a feeling that many veterans I know share. Not having deployed, or having deployed but not left Kuwait or Bagram or the FOB. Or having deployed but only once or twice, when that guy there had deployed seven times. Or, in my case, having been med-evaced out and living with the guilt of leaving my men behind, even though I had no say in the matter. And just like Fitzgerald, this particular guilt of war is so often the launching point, the pry bar that opens the vast fissure of all other guilts in my life. But I’m getting ahead of myself, and Hemingway would not approve. At least Fitzgerald might. In the opening lines of “The Crack-Up,” Fitzgerald states, “Of course all life is a process of breaking down, but the blows that do the dramatic side of the work—the big sudden blows that come, or seem to come, from the outside—the ones you remember and blame things on and, in moments of weakness, tell your friends about, don’t show their effect all at once.” This sentence, packed with dense ideas, changed the way Fitzgerald’s contemporaries viewed him and perhaps the way he viewed himself; he was no longer the debonair socialite with an acute talent for observing human behavior in social interactions but a broken, troubled man. First comes the idea of the internal vs. the external with “the big sudden blows…that seem to come from the outside”. As mentioned earlier, the majority of WWI and interwar literature focused on factors external to the human psyche: facts, figures, patriotism, illustrations of events and scenes while Modernists focused on the internal process that happens long after such events take place: “the ones” that “don’t show their effect all at once.” Second, it hints at the idea of life as a continuous process of breaking down, which, if applied globally, speaks to war as a natural part of humanity, which goes against Fussell’s claims of the inadequacy of language to describe it. It also speaks to the idea of key moments in life lingering, not showing their full impact all at once, which contextualizes Fitzgerald’s own view that a writer’s viewpoints are solidified by the age of 25. But perhaps most importantly, it points out that the act of acknowledging that you are breaking down, even to one’s closest friends and confidantes, is the result of weakness, the antithesis of early twentieth-century masculine values, and one of the hurdles contemporary military writers like me still face. Part of this could be attributed to the trend we see in the poetry of World War I of the collective “we,” the soldier as a part of an idea, something bigger than himself. This foundational concept is still an essential part of military tradition: the stripping of the individual, the reshaping of a recruit into part of a unit, a piece of a greater whole. Uniform. Maybe this is why Full Metal Jacket remains one of the most popular war films among veterans; it focuses on how a soldier is made rather than on what they are intended to do. In the second “Crack-Up” essay, “Pasting it Together,” Fitzgerald parallels this concept by considering those who influenced him most. His ultimate conclusion? “So there was not an ‘I’ anymore—not a basis on which I could organize my self-respect—save my limitless capacity for toil that it seemed I possessed no more. It was strange to have no self.” Such realizations, he acknowledges, “always confused me and made me want to go out and get drunk” (81). These sentiments, the breaking down of individual identity, and the realization there is a lack of a true self are elements that are at the forefront of contemporary military literature. How does one balance their own personal feelings and beliefs with the mission of the machine in which they are a cog? How do we reconcile the idea that the many influences in our lives may, at times, be in conflict? How do we, as veterans especially, find an individual identity when we leave the collective “we” of the military? These are all questions that Fitzgerald raises and that come up in post-9/11 war literature. Another commonality? The solution: it “made me want to go out and get drunk” because it’s damn confusing. These are themes that run throughout much of the personal creative-nonfiction coming out of these current wars. How do we reconcile our roles as warfighters once we’re back in the realm of civilians? The answer to this question is something Fitzgerald gets closer to in the third and last of his “Crack-Up” essays: “My self-immolation is something sodden-dark. It was very distinctly not Modern—yet I saw it in others, saw it in a dozen men of honor and industry since the war…I had stood by while one famous contemporary of mine played with the idea of the Big Out for half a year; I had watched when another, equally eminent, spent months in an asylum unable to endure any contact with his fellow men. And of those who had given up and passed on I could list a score” (81). At its core, “The Crack-Up” is an account of how “an exceptionally optimistic young man experienced a crack-up of all values, a crack-up that he scarcely knew of until long after it occurred.” Again, this is a sentiment expressed throughout the literature of the Global War on Terror. On September 11th, 2001, the world changed. For the first time since WWII young people, the government, the citizenry, had a clear “them” to our “us.” Though this new war would not have the clarity of blue uniforms against grey uniforms, of the khaki and green of the allies against the grey of the Germans that WWI poets used to subvert Romantic tropes, there at least was a clearly defined good versus evil. Or at least that’s how it seemed at the start, at least that was the sentiment that caused so many young Americans, including myself, to enlist. Fitzgerald’s final essays in the 1930’s finished with a great deal of cynicism. Gone was the hopeful—if arrogant—character readers met in This Side of Paradise, Amory Blaine, a reflection of Fitzgerald in fiction that would make even Hemingway proud. In his place was a man, a writer, a patient, who saw the value in no longer fictionalizing his truth. In his place a man who, rather than seeking the false glories of war, declares, “Let the soldiers be killed and enter immediately into the Valhalla of their profession. That is their contract with the gods. A writer need have no such ideals…the old dream of being an entire man…has been relegated to the junk heap of the shoulder pads worn for one day on the Princeton freshman football field and the overseas cap never worn overseas.” Fitzgerald never became the Princeton football star he dreamed of. He never became the leader of military men who he tried to use to find rest years after the war had ended. And yet, Fitzgerald leaves his readers with an odd parallel: “My own happiness in the past often approached such an ecstasy that I could not share it even with the person dearest to me but had to walk it away in quiet streets and lanes with only fragments of it to distil into little lines in books.” Once again, we see the repression of emotion, though this time it is happiness. What we’re left with, is the conclusion that the men of the interwar years we’re supposed to be stoic. That trials and triumphs alike were to be suppressed, even to those they were closest to. And yet in the last decade of his life, Fitzgerald—who had never gone to war, but who wished to and who moved in circles of those who had—wrote about what the previous decade had caused him to feel, to do. He gave voice—real voice, not fictionalized—to what so many of his contemporaries were feeling. What so many of his contemporaries were not allowed by society to write as true experience. Though he expressed what so many had translated to fiction—what so many people saw, but ignored in society—he was shunned, berated, dismissed, even by those closest to him. And yet, without his writing, without the death of his dreams, contemporary war writing would not be where it is today. Confessional poetry would emerge after World War II. The Vietnam War would see poetic narrative voice shift from the collective, nationalistic “we” to the confessional, shamed “I.” But it would not be until post-9/11 war literature that Fitzgerald’s influence would truly be felt. This man, who would receive so much flak from me and my combat arms brethren today for being a POG, paved the way for us to write honestly about our experiences in poetry and non-fiction. His bravery in alienating himself from his peers preempted so many war writers of the last fifteen years who have been questioned, criticized, and ridiculed by their peers. Much of this negative response has been directed toward female veterans, but the truth is that male veterans experience this underlying conflict just as much, if not more. The difference is, men are perhaps more hesitant to reveal the true impact of their experiences. It is my hope that they will turn to Fitzgerald as an example. That they will do what I and so many of my peers have done, and reveal the true impact of war—whether deployed or not. It is my hope that civilians and veterans alike will share their true stories, not bury the emotional impact of war in fiction. And it is my hope that our peers, those whose voices aren’t able to reach the public eye, are able to learn from the courage of F. Scott Fitzgerald and share their stories. And it is my hope that those who are not able to share, willing to share, or allowed to share because they are still in the military, will recognize their own stories in ours. But most importantly, it is my hope that in these wars, a century after the cessation of hostilities in WWI, we can all—military or civilian—recognize the value in sharing not just the external truths of war (something modern media allows us to experience daily), but also in sharing the true psychological impact of war. To recognize those sleepless nights, those many looking for the “Big Out,” that drive to drink, and that loss of self. Let us, as writers, follow the path Fitzgerald laid for us, and let us, as readers, not respond as Hemingway and Dos Passos, but as citizens who recognize that it is we who have sent these young men and women to their own particular “Crack-Up.” * Fussell, Paul. The Great War and Modern Memory. Oxford University Press, 2000. ** Everdell, William R. The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth-Century Thought.University of Chicago Press; 1 edition (July 15, 1998) *** Fitzgerald, F. Scott and Edmund Wilson. The Crack Up. New Directions; Reprint edition (February 27, 2009) Colin D. Halloran served as an infantryman in the US Army, deploying to Afghanistan in 2006. He writes about this experience in his debut book, 2012's Shortly Thereafter, a memoir-in-verse that was named a Massachusetts Must-Read Book of 2013. His follow-up poetry collection, Icarian Flux, was published in 2015, and explores themes of PTSD and post-traumatic growth through metaphor, persona, and experimental form and narration. In addition to poetry, his essays have been published broadly, including in 2016's Retire the Colors and in translation in Japan. He also has a short story featured alongside two dozen veteran-writers in the anthology The Road Ahead: Fiction from the Forever War. When not writing or teaching writing, Halloran leads creative writing workshops for veterans and their families in an effort to promote healing and connection through the arts. He can be found online at www.colindhalloran.com, facebook.com/colindhalloran, and on Twitter @poetinpinkshoes.

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Part Five (of 22) –Music in Ramayana 1.1. After the Music of Sama comes the singing of Akhyana or ballads, narrating a story in musical forms. Of all the Akhyana-s, the Ramayana of the Adi Kavi Valmiki is the most celebrated one. It is a divine ballad (Akhyanam Divyam) narrating history of ancient times (Itihasam puratanam). 1.2. It is believed; the Ramayana had its origins in folk lore; and was preserved and spread as an oral epic (Akhyana), for a very long-time. It is suggested that poet Valmiki rendered the folk lore into a very beautiful, sensitive and lyrical epic poem by about 7th century BCE. Thereafter, in age after age, the Suthas narrated and sang the glory of Rama and Sita, in divine fervour; and spread the epic to all corners of the land and beyond. Even to this day , the tradition of devote groups of listeners gathering around a Sutha to listen to the ancient story of chaste love between Rama and his beloved, and their unwavering adherence to Dharma amidst their trials and tribulations; is still very alive. What characterize the Dharma in Ramayana are its innocence, purity and nobility. The Indian people prefer listening with joy, the rendering of Ramayana as musical discourse, to reading the epic themselves. 1.3. Ramayana of Valmiki is a renowned Kavya, an Epic poem in classic style. It is also the Adi-Kavya, the premier Kavya; the most excellent among the Kavyas (Kavyanam uttamam); and, the best in all the three worlds (Adikavyam triloke). The Epic of Valmiki is at the very core of Indian consciousness; and is lovingly addressed variously as: Sitayasya-charitam-mahat; Rama-charitam; Raghuvira-charitam; Rama-vrttam; Rama-katha; and Raghu-vamsa-charitam. 1.4. The Great scholar-philosopher Abhinavgupta (Ca.11th century) hailed Valmiki as Rasa Rishi one who created an almost perfect epic poem adorned with the poetic virtues of Rasa, Soundarya (beauty of poetic imagery) and Vishadya (lucid expression and comfortable communication with the reader) ; all charged and brought to life by Prathibha , the ever fresh intuition. 2.1. Ramayana is more closely associated with music than other epics. That might be because Ramayana is rendered in verse; and, its poetry of abiding beauty melts into music like molten gold, with grace and felicity. Further, the epic has a certain lyrical lustre to it. The epic itself mentions that the Rama tale was rendered in song by two minstrels Kusi and Lava to the accompaniment of Veena, Tantri- laya-samanvitam (I.20.10), during the Asvamedha. 2.2. There are innumerable references to Music in Ramayana. Music was played for entertainment and in celebration at the weddings and other auspicious occasions; (II.7.416-36; 48.41.69; III.3, 17; 6.8; IV 38.13; V.53.17; VI.11.9; 24.3; 75.21 etc.) . Music was also played in palaces and liquor parlors (IV 33.21; V.6.12; X.32; 37.11.4; Vi.10.4). Soulful songs were sung to the accompaniment of instruments, at religious services and in dramas. Music was played in the festivities; to welcome and see off the guests. The warriors fighting on the battlefield were lustily cheered and enthused by stout drum beats; and piercing blow of conchs, horns and trumpets. There is also mention of those who took to music as a profession. Besides, there were court (state) sponsored musicians. Music was thus a part of social fabric of the society as described in Ramayana. 2.3. There are numerous events narrated in Ramayana where Music was sung or played. The word Samgita in Ramayana is a composite term covering Gana (vocal), Vadya (instrumental) and Nritya (dance). Samgita or Music was referred to as Gandharva-vidya. There is also a mention of Karna sung to the accompaniment of Veena (R. VII. 71.5). Samgita was also Kausika (kaisika) the graceful art of singing and dancing (gana-nrtya-vidya), the delightful art of singing and dancing in groups (kausika-charya) to the accompaniment of instruments. :– The sage Valmiki, the author of the Epic, at the commencement says that the Ramayana he composed is well suited to musical rendering in melodious (madhuram) tunes (Jatis) having all the seven notes (Svaras) in three registers (vilambita, Madhyamaand Drita) with proper rhythm (laya) to the accompaniment of string instruments (tantrī laya samanvitam) – pāṭhye geye ca madhuram pramāṇaiḥ tribhir anvitam | jātibhiḥsaptabhiḥ yuktam tantrī laya samanvitam (R.1-4-8) :- Describing the glory and the beauty of Ayodhya, it is said the city resounding with the rhythmic drum beats of Dundubhi, Mrudanga and Panava; with the melodious tunes of string instruments like Veena , the city , indeed, was unique ; and undoubtedly the best city on earth – dundubhībhiḥ mṛdangaiḥ ca vīṇābhiḥ paṇavaiḥ tathā | nāditām bhṛśam atyartham pṛthivyām tām anuttamām (R.1.5.18) : – And, in the hermitage of Rishyasrnga the girls sent by King Lomapada sang and danced – tāḥ citra veṣāḥ pramadā gāyaṃtyo madhura svaram (R.I .10.11 ). :- When Sri Rama and his three brothers took birth, the Gandharvas in great jubilation sang cheerfully; the celestial nymphs Apsaras danced with great delight, the Devas played on the drums enthusiastically, while the heavens showered flowers ; and, with that there was a great festivity in Ayodhya among its joyous people who had thronged in celebration – jaguḥ kalam ca Gandharvā nanṛtuḥ ca Apsaro gaṇāḥ | deva duṃdubhayo neduḥ puṣpa vṛṣṭiḥ ca khāt patat utsavaḥ ca mahān āsīt ayodhyāyām janākulaḥ (R. 1-18-17 ) : – Sri Rama himself is said to have been proficient in Music (Gandharve Ca bhuvi Sresthah). : – As Lakshmana enters the inner court of the Vanara King Sugriva, he hears singing and ravishing strains of the music of the Veena and other string instruments. : – As Hanuman flew over the sea towards Lanka he heard a group of musicians singing sons (kausika-charya). :- Hanuman , as he entered the city of Lanka, while going from one building to another, heard a sweet song which was decorated by sound from the three svaras – Mandra, Madhya and Tara of love lorn women like Apsara women in heaven. :-Hanuman while wandering at night through the inner courts of Lanka heard melodious and sweet songs adorned with Tri-sthana and Svara; and, the songs had regular Taala (sama-taala) and aksara (words) – (R.V.4.10)- Śuśrāva madhuram gītam tri sthāna svara bhūṣitam | strīṇām mada samṛddhānām divi ca apsarasām iva (R . 5-4-10 ) :- Hanuman found the huge palace of Ravana, vast like the legendary mansions of Kubera, encircled by many spacious enclosures; filled with hundreds of best women; and, resounding with the sounds of percussion on Mrudangas with deep sound – mṛdanga tala ghoṣaiḥ ca ghoṣavadbhir vināditam ( R.5-6-43) :- Silently wandering through the inner courts of Ravana, in the middle of the night, the bewildered Hanuman came upon sleeping groups of women, adorned with rich and sparkling ornaments (R 5.10-37-44) . These women who were skilled in dance and music, tired and fast asleep, lying in various postures, was each clutching or hugging to a musical instrument ; such as Hanuman sees a lady of the court, tired and asleep, clutching to her Veena, like a cluster of lotuses entwining a boat moored on the banks of a stream – kācid vīṇām pariṣvajya prasuptā samprakāśate | mahā nadī prakīrṇā iva nalinī potam āśritā (R. 5-10-37) There was one woman with black eyes sleeping with an instrument called Maddukaunder arm pit shone like a woman carrying an infant boy with love – Maḍḍukena asita īkṣaṇā | prasuptā bhāminī bhāti bāla putrā iva vatsalā (5-10-38). A woman with beautiful body features and with beautiful breasts slept tightly and hugged instrument called Pataha as though hugging a lover, getting him after a long time – paṭaham cāru sarva angī pīḍya śete śubha stanī | cirasya ramaṇam labdhvā pariṣvajya iva kāminī (5-10-39) Another woman with lotus like eyes hugging a vaṃśam (flute ) slept like a woman holding her lover in secret – kācid vaṃśam pariṣvajya suptā kamala locanā | rahaḥpriyatamam gṛhya sakāmeva ca kāminī (R. 5-10-40 ) Another woman skilled in dance obtained sleep getting Vipanchi an instrument like Veena and being in tune with it like a woman together with her lover– vipañcaiim parigṛhyānyā niyatā nṛttaśālinī | nidrā vaśam anuprāptā saha kāntā iva bhāminī (R.5-10-41) Another woman with lusty eyes slept hugging a percussion instrument called Mridanga – Anya kanaka … mṛdangam paripīḍya angaiḥ prasuptā matta locanā (R. 5-10-42 ) Another tired woman slept, clutching an instrument called Panava between her shoulders and reaching arm pits- bhuja pārśva antarasthena kakṣagena krśa udarī | paṇavena saha anindyā suptā mada krta śramā (R. 5-10-43 ) Another woman with an instrument called Dindima near her slept in the same way as a woman hugging her husband and also her child – ḍiṇḍimam parigrhya anyā tathaiva āsakta ḍiṇḍimā | prasuptā taruṇam vatsam upagūhya iva bhāminī (R. 5-10-44) And, Another woman with eyes like lotus petals slept making the instrument called Adambara pressing it by her shoulders – kācid āḍambaram nārī bhuja sambhoga pīḍitam |kṛtvā kamala patra akṣī prasuptā mada mohitā (R. 5-10-45) Some excellent women slept hugging strange instruments – ātodyāni vicitrāṇi pariṣvajya vara striyaḥ (6.10.49) :-Some versions of Ramayana mention that Ravana was a reputed Saman singer; and music was played in his palace. He, in fact, suggests to Sita, she could relax like a queen listening to music in his palace, instead sitting tensely under the tree- mahārhaṇi ca pānāni śayanānyāsanāni ca | gītam nṛttaṃ ca vādyaṃ ca labha maṃ prāpya maithili (R. 5-20-10 ) :- According to some versions of the Ramayana , Ravana was a well known player of Veena called Ravana-hastaka (an instrument played with a bow). :- As Ravana’s soldiers prepare for the war, they hear the sounds of the Bheri played by Rama’s monkey –army. Sarama asks Sita to listen and rejoice the Bheri sounds resembling the thundering rumbles of the clouds- Samanahajanani hesya bhairava bhiru bherika / Bherinadam ca gambhiram srunu toyadanihsvanam – (6-33-22) :- Ravana compared the battlefield to a music stage; bow (weapon for firing arrows) to his Veena; arrow to his musical bow; and the tumultuous noise of the battle to music – jyā śabda tumulām ghorām ārta gītam ahāsvanām | nārā catalasam nādām tām mamā hita vāhinīm | avagāhya maha raṅgam vādayiṣyāntagan raṇe – ( R. VI: 24:43-44) :- As the battle ended with victory to Rama, the Apsaras danced to the songs of Gandharvas, such as Narada the king of Gandharvas (Gandharva-rajanah), Tumbura, Gopa, Gargya, Sudhama, Parvata, and Suryamandala (R.6.92.10). Tumbura sang in divine Taana (divya-taaneshu). :-The triumphant Rama, the foremost among men, on his return, was greeted and loudly cheered by the people of Ayodhya accompanied by sounds of conchs (shankha) buzzing in the ears and tremendous sounds of Dundhubi – Śankha śabda praṇādaiśca dundubhīnān ca nisvanaiḥ | prayayū puruṣavyāghrastāṃ purīn harmyamālinīm (R. 6-128-33) :- Rama drove to his palace, surrounded by musicians cheerfully playing on the cymbals, Swastika and such other musical instruments singing auspicious (mangalani) songs- Sa purogāmi abhistūryaistālasvastikapāṇibhiḥ | pravyāharadbhirmuditairmaṅgalāni yayau vṛtaḥ ( 6-128-37 ) :- On that auspicious and most joyous occasion of the coronation of the noblest Sri Rama, the Devas, the Gandharva sang gracefully ;and , the troupes of Apsaras danced with great delight – Prajagur deva-gandharvā nanṛtuśc āpsaro gaṇāḥ | abhiṣeke tadarhasya tadā rāmasya dhīmataḥ (6-128-72 ) 3.1. Ramayana is not a thesis on music; it is an epic poem rendering the story of chaste love between a husband and his wife. The music or whatever musical elements mentioned therein is incidental to the narration of the story. And, yet, Valmiki accorded importance to music and elements of music in his work. He crafted situations where music could be introduced naturally. More importantly, his verses have a very high lyrical quality; and, can be rendered into music quite easily. All these speak of Valmiki’s love for music and his aesthetic refinement. 3.2. Many Music-terms are mentioned in Ramayana, indicating the state of Music obtaining during the time of its composition – (not necessarily during the event-period). : – Valmiki mentions that Kusi–Lava sang in Marga style – Marga-vidhana-sampada – (R. I.4.35); in seven melodic modes called Jatis (jatibhih saptabhiyuktam) that were pure (shuddha) ; to the accompaniment of the musical instrument like veena- tantri – laya – samanvitam (R. I.4.8.34 ); :- Valmiki endorsed use of sweet sounding words, with simple and light syllables; and advises against harsh words loaded with heavy syllables (R. IV.33.21). : – The music of Kusi-Lava was Baddha, structured into stanzas – with apt rhythm (Taala), tempo (Laya) and words (Pada); and with alamkaras – pathye geye cha madhuram” (R.I.4.8). : – Valmiki mentions, Kusi-Lava were well-versed with Murchana and Tri- Sthana (sthana-murcchana-kovidau); the art of Gandharva (tau tu gandharva – tattvajnau) and (bhrataran svara – sampannau gadharva viva- rupinam); as also with the rhythmic patterns – Laya, Yati – in three-speeds. Tri-Sthana might either refer to three voice registers (Mandra, Madhyama and Tara) or three tempos (Vilamba, Madhyama and Druta). : – Lava and Kusi were said not to fall away from Raga. Here, the term Raga is said to mean sweetness of voice (kanta-madhurya). :- Lava and Kusha used to sing Ramayana gana with the application of kaku (variations of the vocal sound for expressing aesthetic rasas) –Tam sa shushrava kakusthah purvacharya vinirmitam | Apurvam pathyajatim cha geyena samalamkritam 1 1 From these it is evident that Lava – Kusa were well trained in in the Gandharva type of music; sung with the seven shuddha jati-raga (like like shadji arshabhi, gandhdri, madhyami, panchami, dhaivati and naishadi) having seven svaras, murcchana, sthana or register, rhythm and tempo, and aesthetic ornamentation (alamkara) and mood (rasa and bhava} – rasair-yuktam kavyametadgayatam Here are some terms that perhaps need short explanations: : – Marga or Gandharva is regarded the music fit for gods. It is said to have been derived from Sama Veda; and constituted of Pada (the text), Svara (notes) and Taala (rhythm). Marga was rather somber and not quite flexible too. Marga or Gandharva in the later centuries gave place to free flowing Desi, the Music derived from the folk and the regions. : – Baddha is a song format that is well structured into stanzas. It contrasts with Anibaddha unstructured Music without restrictions of Taala. It is analogous to the present-day Aalap, and rendering of Ragamalika, Slokas etc. The Baddha – Anibaddha distinction is observed even today, just as in Valmiki’s time. : – Grama (group) was the basic gamut of notes employed in the early music-tradition. The ancient tradition is said to have employed three Grama-s beginning from Shadja, Madhyama, or Gandhara note. Later, the third Grama, based on Gandhara reportedly went out of vogue as it required moving in a usually high range of notes. : – Jaati refers to the classification of musical compositions as per the tones. Svaras and Jaati-s were seven primary notes such as Shadja, Rshabha etc of the octaves – patya-jati. Ana is said to be a drag note generally called ekasruti. It means Kusi Lava rendered the verses in several melodies. However, since the raga concept was, then, yet to be evolved, there might not have been much depth and variation in their rendering. :- Murchhana was the ancient mode of extending available tonal frameworks by commencing ascents and descents, ranging over (purna) seven notes, every time from a new note. This mode gave place to the Mela system around the 15th -16th century. 4.1. Valmiki’s Ramayana mentions varieties of musical instruments. The term Atodhya denoted instrumental music. The musical instruments, of the time, were categorized, broadly, as those played by hand (hastha-vadya); and as those played by mouth (mukha- vadya) (R. II.65.2). The string and percussion instruments came under the former category; while the wind instruments were among the latter category. Instrumental Music was primarily individualistic; not orchestrated. It appears instruments were used mainly as accompaniments (not solo) and depended on vocal music. Group music- vocal with instruments –appeared to be popular. 4.2. Among the string instruments, Ramayana mentions two kinds of Veena: Vipanchi (fingerboard plucked ones with nine strings like the Veena as we know) ;Vana or Vallaki (a multi stringed harp); and, Kanda-Veena (made by joining reeds). In fact, till about 19th century, string instruments of all kinds were called Veena: harps like the Chitra; fingerboard plucked ones like the Vipanchi, Rudra Veena, the Saraswati Veena and the Kacchapi Veena; bowed ones such as the Ravana hastaveena and the Pinaki Veena. 4.3. As regards the percussion instruments, the Epic refers to quite a large number of them: Mrudanga; Panava (a kind of Mridanga which had a hole in the middle with strings were laid from one side to another); Aataha; Madduka ( a big drum of two faces having twelve and thirteen angula- finger lengths ); Dundubhi (Nagaara); Dindima (resembling Damaru but smaller in size); Muraja (a a bifacial drum, the left one of eight fingers and right one of seven fingers); Adambara ( a sort of kettle drum made of Udambara wood); Bheri (two faced metal drum in a conical shape , the leather kept taut by strings; the right face was struck by a Kona and the left one by hand, striking terror in the heart of the enemy ); Pataha (resembling Dholak); and Dundubhi (drums made of hollow wood covered with hide) played during wedding ceremonies as also for welcoming the winning-warriors . Gargara was another drum used during the wars. All these were leather or leather bound instruments. They were played with metal or wooden drum-sticks with their ends wrapped in leather. There is also a mention of Bhumi –Dundubhi where the lower part of a huge drum is buried in a pit while the exposed upper part covered with animal hide is beaten with big sized metal or wooden drum-sticks to produce loud booming sounds. It was played during battles to arouse the warriors; to celebrate victory; or in dire emergency. Bhumi –Dundubhi was also played at the time of final offering (Purna-Ahuthi) at the conclusion of a Yajna. The other instruments to keep rhythm (Taala) were: Ghatam and cymbals. Aghathi was a sort of cymbal used while dancing. 4.4. The instruments played by mouth (mukha- vadya) , that is the wind instruments, mentioned in Ramayayana include : Venu or Vamsa (flute) , Shankha ( conch) blown on auspicious occasions and at the time of wars ; Tundava ( wind instrument made of wood); Singa ( a small blower made of deer horns to produce sharp and loud sounds); and, kahale or Rana-bheri (long curved war- trumpet). The flute was also used for maintaining Aadhara- Sruthi (fundamental note). [Tambura or Tanpura did not come into use till about 15th-16th century.] State of Music 5.1. It is evident that during the period in which Ramayana was composed (say 7th century BC) , the Music was fairly well developed ; and the basic concepts were, in place. However, a full-fledged musicology and elaborate theories on music were yet to develop. Marga system was prevalent; and, Desi with its Ragas was yet centuries away. 5.2. The Singing of well known texts of poetry, in public, appeared to be the standard practice. Instruments were used for accompaniment and not for solo performances. Group singing with instrumental support appeared to be popular. Music was very much a part of the social and personal life. [ As compared to Ramayana, there is relatively less information about Music in Mahabharata. Yet; Music (Gandharva) did occupy an important place in the life of its people. There are references to Music played on various occasions, including welcoming and seeing off the guests. Along with singing (Gita) such Musical instruments as Panav, Vansa and Kansya Tala etc., were played. The Music instruments were broadly covered under the term Vaditra, denoting the four-fold group of Tata, Vitata, Ghana and Sushira -Vadyas. In Shanti-parva, there are references to Veena and Venu. The string instrument (Tantri-Vadya) Veena, was played during religious ceremonies like Yajnas; and, for relaxation by the ladies of the Queen’s court- vīṇā-paṇava-veṇūnāṃ svanaś cāti manoramaḥ / prahāsa iva vistīrṇaḥ śuśruve tasya veśmanaḥ – 12,053.005 In Dronaparva, there are references to Drum class instruments like: Mridanga, Jharjhara, Bheri, Panava, Anaka, Gomukha, Adambara, and Dundubhi (paṇavānaka-dundubhi-jharjhar-ibhiḥ – 07,014.037). And, in Virata-parva, there is a reference to Kansya (solid brass instrument), the cymbal; Shankha (conch) and Venu (flute), the wind instruments Sushira -Vadyas. And, Gomukha was perhaps a cow-faced horn or trumpet – śaṅkhāś ca bheryaś ca gomukhā-ḍambarās tathā – 04,067.026. The known Musical Instruments of the Mahabharata Period could be grouped as under: Continued in Part Six Gandharva or Marga Music Sources and References Ramayanadalli Sangita (Kannada) by Prof. Dr. R Satyanarayana Telling a Ramayana Music of India Glossary of music terms The Music and Musical Instruments of North Eastern India by Dilip Ranjan Barthakur Painting by Shri S Rajam

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Michigan artist Edgar Yaeger (1904-1997) spent almost his entire life as a painter working and living in the Detroit area. Credited as being among the first modernists in Michigan, Yaeger created a distinctive style influenced by synthetic cubism and surrealism. While his long career is worthy of greater attention, this article focuses upon his Works Progress Administration (WPA) murals painted during the 1930s and 1940s; specifically, the discussion provides a context for his sketches and mural in the Kresge Art Museum collection. Yaeger, a fourth-generation Detroiter, attended Robert Herzberg’s Detroit School of Fine and Applied Art and the John P. Wicker School of Fine Arts. In 1932 he won the Founder’s Society Purchase Prize from the Detroit Institute of Arts. In a review of this exhibition in Art Digest, January 1932, titled “Michigan’s 22nd Annual Gets Roasted for its Modernism,” the author illustrated Yaeger’s award-winning painting Figures in a Landscape and summarized the critical reaction to the paintings in the show, ranging from praise for those who had “discarded all the old fogy ideas about perspective anatomy, draftsmanship, composition and color harmony” to criticism of the “lopsided jugs and bottles, distorted landscapes, flowers that only exist in the imagination of the artist,” to the contrary view that “Michigan art is getting into its stride.” Yaeger’s work was at the forefront of this experimentation, and his modernism was to be further nurtured that year when the Detroit News awarded him the Anna Scripps Whitcomb Traveling Scholarship. With this support, he went to study in Paris at the Academie Andre Lhote, the Ecole Scandinav with Marcel Gromaire, and the Academie Ranson with Orthon Friesz. Yaeger was forced to return home abruptly when his Detroit bank closed as a result of the depression. However, having proven how frugal he was and how worthwhile the European stay was for him, Mr. and Mrs. Whitcomb gave him the remaining funds in 1935, enabling him to travel by bicycle through France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Holland, Belgium and Germany. As a young artist, Yaeger actively exhibited throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and his activities were often reported in the Detroit newspapers. He entered numerous competitions and was accepted into prestigious exhibitions such as the Corcoran Biennial (1930, 1932), The Art Institute of Chicago exhibition of American paintings and sculpture (1931, 1937, 1941), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1931, 1934, 1958), Minneapolis Institute of Arts (1931), and the Museum of Modern Art (1933, 1936). A high point of these competitions was acceptance into the 1930 Carnegie International Exhibition, juried, among others, by Henri Matisse. What Matisse undoubtedly responded to was the young artist’s sense of color. Yaeger later recalled “My French art teachers always said I was one of the few Americans they had seen with an eye for color. I attribute it to painting directly from nature.” He credited Andre Lhote with teaching him how to use color, how to apply a color and counterbalance it with another. He also recounted that “Cezanne helped me more than anyone – his use of color.” This colorism, combined with the new European modernism he studied in Paris – synthetic cubist still-life compositions and figures practiced by Picasso and Braque in the 1920s, surrealist space especially as seen in De Chirico’s work, as well as the School of Paris artists – helped inform his style. Yaeger returned to the United States in 1935 in the depths of the depression and soon become employed by the Federal Arts Project (FAP) of the Works Progress Administration (WPA). By then, Diego Rivera had painted his Detroit Industry (1932-1933) murals in the Detroit Institute of Arts, which provided a most visible prototype for Yaeger’s own murals to come. The FAP, a relief program to support artists in need, was the biggest and best known of the WPA programs and was an unprecedented venture in federal funding for the arts, employing thousands of out-of-work artists during its eight-year existence. Other federally funded art programs existed at this time also, the most important being the Treasury Section of Fine Arts, which awarded commissions based on national competition for the decoration of federal buildings such as post offices and courthouses. The FAP, working on a local level, provided salaries to artists and gave them commissions for public (but not federal) buildings. Yaeger worked only on FAP commissions around the Detroit area. When asked many years later why he didn’t apply for the section’s post office competitions, Yaeger remarked that “those painters weren’t any good.” Usually a modest man, his uncharacteristic statement probably alluded to the greater freedom artists had in the WPA/FAP projects compared to the section commissions where work had to fit the public art style approved by Washington as well as constraints on its subject matter, style and interpretation. Yaeger completed six projects for the WPA. These include the Children’s Ward of the Receiving Hospital of Detroit (now destroyed); Brodhead Naval Armory (1936-1937); Ford School Library in Highland Park, ca. 1936-1937 (also destroyed); University of Michigan West Quad Dormitory (ca. 1940); Grosse Pointe South High School Library (1941); and the Public Lighting Commission Building in Detroit (ca. 1942-1943, partially destroyed and parts relocated). The earliest of the projects, which was done for the Receiving Hospital, probably in 1935, consisted of scenes from childrens’ stories placed high on the walls of the children’s’ ward. From an extant black-and-white photograph, it appears that Yaeger used a pleasant, straightforward illustrative style for the mural. Large leafy vines separated the individual stories which included the three little pigs and two children on a seesaw, among others. Murals such as these, intended to help the children escape mentally from their surroundings, were popular FAP decoration for hospitals across the country, and Yaeger’s fits this type very well. Yaeger’s succeeding projects were fare more ambitious and even audacious. Among the most elaborate of his WPA projects is the 180-foot-long mural that rings around the men’s mess hall on the third floor of the Naval Armory in Detroit. The building was constructed in 1930, but remodeled and enlarged with WPA funds in 1936-1939. Yaeger worked for one and a half years on the site and completed the murals by 5 September 1937, when a picture was published in the Detroit News. The lower portion of the walls is painted battleship grey, while the upper portion, about five feet high, is painted as if the viewer were on the deck of a large ship looking out at a 360-degree panorama of the sea and distant hills. Yaeger’s imaginary harbor filled with twelve historical ships painted with great accuracy and identified with small plaques contrasts with a view of the Detroit River seen through the windows of the room. Captain Richard Thornton Brodhead, commander of the armory at that time and for whom the armory was renamed in 1947, took far greater interest and played a more crucial role than was usual in WPA projects, apparently checking daily on the artist’s progress. He suggested to Yaeger the subject for his mural and also provided black-and-white photographs to ensure the accuracy of the various ships that sailed the Great Lakes, including the USS Yantic, the first presidential yacht, built in 1864 for Abraham Lincoln and eventually used for training in Detroit. It seems that Brodhead’s purpose in choosing this subject was to instruct and to instill a sense of history and pride in the men who ate in this room. When the murals were unveiled to the public, Florence Davies, the enthusiastic Detroit News reporter, wrote of the tremendous feat that Yaeger accomplished in representing these ships and she described “the simple device of bringing the ships nearer to the foreground or further away provides the needed variety in the size of his ships” so that there was no sense of unrest, disturbance or monotony. She praised the way he painted rigging lines that swing into the picture at just the right places and create diagonal movements that gently lead the eye along. She was equally impressed by how daringly Yaeger “slams into a small wall space the bow of an armored cruiser and its two guns pointed at you and following you around the room like the eyes of a well-painted portrait.” Yaeger’s unexpected and ingenious treatment of the room’s corners – in another, one looks directly into the opening of a ship’s ventilating stack – reinforces the sense of being on the ship’s deck and looking out at the ships that sail in serene waters, perfectly reflected on the mirror-calm of the sea. Yaeger’s mural was part of a larger decorative project at the armory which included two murals by David Fredenthal depicting the shipboard and leisure activities of sailors, completed by 1937, in the commissioned officers meeting and dining room and in the third-floor bar. Subsequently, Yaeger painted an underwater scene in the bar that no longer exists. He also made sketches for other murals doorways, and bas reliefs in plaster. Some of the motifs are wonderfully playful, such as a woman who extends her hand underwater to a man in scuba diving gear with fish swimming past him. For a fireplace screen, he drew a devil who, when the hearth was lit, would breathe fire out his mouth and would appear to be on fire himself. The final parts of the Brodhead ensemble, completed in 1940, are imaginative incised-plaster reliefs by Gustav Hildebrand on the first floor showing sailors going about typical activities, and John Tabaczuk’s exuberant carvings of mermaids, fish, and underwater plants on the three flights of the wooden staircase railings, benches and doorways. Altogether, Brodhead is a stunning example of a coordinated effort to harmonize all of the decoration, and even if it has seen better days, the lively, often delightful scenes mark it as a major effort of the WPA. As the exhilarated Davies wrote: “If the art project of the WPA never accomplished anything else except the murals at the Navy Armory, it would not have existed in vain.” Yaeger’s next commission, approved by the FAP in 1936, was the Ford Grammar School Library, where he painted a 60-foot-long mural representing various fables chosen by the students. Although destroyed when the building was demolished in the 1980s, the murals are known through the sketches and photographs. Unlike his earlier hospital mural, Yaeger ties together the different stories seamlessly with a unified background to make a far more interesting and lively composition. Varying the scale of the figures and taking advantage of the placement of the mural around doorways and windows, Yaeger confounded the separation between the real space of the room and the fictive space of the painting. For example, Jack climbs up the beanstalk on one side of a door, while on the other side a large giant is scrunched between the top of the bookcases and the ceiling. Elsewhere, Pinocchio’s exaggeratedly long nose stretches completely across the top of a doorframe, while the rest of his wooden body is folded into a small narrow space alongside a door. A one-legged, one-eyed pirate rests an elbow on the actual school clock, passing the time as he waits for his helper, seen from the waist up, who seems to dig for treasure in the bookshelves below. Other stories are form Paul Bunyan and the Blue Ox, Billy Goats Gruff and the Jungle Book. Scenes from children’s literature to adorn school libraries, as well as large hospitals, were natural choices for administrators and were very popular among artists for FAP commissions. Yaeger’s mural was exceptionally humorous and upbeat. The Men’s West Quad Dormitory murals at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, were painted next, probably in 1940 following construction of the building in 1939. Adorning the upper reaches of the entrance lobby, Yaeger’s six murals in the curved archways of the walls alternate with Hildebrand’s plaster reliefs. Unlike the Ford Library murals, there are no figures and the subjects are vague, relating generally to Michigan and its early history, agricultural resources and industry, athletics, and art and architecture. In style, these murals are closer to Yaeger’s easel paintings, employing flat space, cubist designs, and arbitrary color. For example, in the mural relating to art and architecture, a Picasso-like linear profile on the left is balanced on the right by a still-life composition on a table and a cubist play of collage painting made to look like a wood graining for the floor. A series of arches in the background joins left to right and has a surreal sense influenced by De Chirico. In a mural on recreation, a checkerboard that in a preliminary sketch was dramatically foreshortened, when executed, was turned vertically to flatten any sense of space or recession. On top of this decorative backdrop, Yaeger drew a suspended football, a gracefully curving bow that floats across the composition, several chess pieces, a badminton birdie and a target. Yaeger recounted that he and Hildebrand drove form Detroit to Ann Arbor every day, were paid for the hour commute each way as part of their 8 to 5 day, and were engaged on these murals for many months. Although Yaeger and his assistant worked on site, the murals had to be lifted into position once completed. More typically, Yaeger worked in the Detroit studio provided for the artists by the WPA, and the murals were moved to the site once completed. This was the case with his three 1941 murals for the Cleminson Library at the Grosse Pointe South High School. According to an article in the Grosse Pointer Review, 24 April 1941, about the forthcoming high school open house to unveil the murals, Yaeger was chosen from among several artists who submitted designs to a jury of three. Yaeger recalled that he spent over a year and a half on preparations for the three murals, although the painting itself took only six months. It is clear from the sixty-three sketches in the Kresge Art Museum collection that he considered details and composition extensively. At first he seems to have pictured only classical figures, including at one point a woman with two men. At another time, he explored using two figures, one of whom was Minerva, goddess of wisdom. A short notice in the Detroit Free Press, dated 21 April 1940, reports that Yaeger was spotted in the library photographing details of clothing and shoes in preparation for this mural. Additionally, before creating the paintings, “he made clay models about eight inches high of all the figures in order to study the effect of light. He also studied the color scheme of the library before choosing the murals so that he could select the colors that would harmonize.” Unlike the situation at Brodhead, once approved for the project Yaeger was left alone to carry out his designs. The three brightly colored murals, painted in tempera on canvas and mounted on plywood, are placed high on the entrance wall of the large library on the main floor. The room rises two stories and is well lit by windows on the opposite side. The two larger murals (each approximately 12 by 8 feet) represent learning in the ancient world, on the right, and learning in the medieval world on the left. In each, a group of three men is dressed in costumes appropriate to their time; one stands while the others are seated. They read, write, or contemplate. Each trio is set before an extensive landscape, also carefully depicted to evoke the period with classical temples and a sculpted relief and in the other, beyond the leaded glass window, a hamlet of sienna-colored buildings. The smallest of these paintings in the center measures approximately eight feet square and includes symbols of the arts: Music, literature, drama, and architecture. This still life, very typical of Yaeger’s easel paintings, is composed of a lute, a profile head representing the mask of theater (similar to one he painted at University of Michigan), an open book with a red banner across it, a lamp, and a curtain drawn back. The high placement of this painting, coupled with the intrusion of the large clock that blocks the lower portion, challenged the artist to create an image that made sense from the viewer’s perspective. In fact, his early ideas included a one-point perspective view of a street scene with one or two figures, a man operating a large book press, and a simplified still life with a book, hand, and birds. In his final version, he brought the elements close to the picture plane so they would be visible from a distance. Murals in schools, of which the WPA commissioned many, provided the artist with an opportunity not only to educate about aspects of history or literature, but also about art. Yaeger certainly sought to evoke the intellectual life of two past eras in the larger murals, but he also conveyed a lesson about the techniques and language of painting itself. His decision to situate the figures in the large murals in receding landscape space, rather than in the flat modernist he favored in other work, helps to convey pictorially a sense of ancient and medieval perceptions of the world. On the other hand, the still-life painting, symbolic rather than representational, having to do with art and artifice, is in the modernist style of his easel paintings. Yaeger’s last WPA mural project, for the Public Lighting Commission building in Detroit, is also his least constrained and most imaginative. Discovered hidden behind and partially ruined by wood paneling that covered them, only two fragments of the murals that encircled the room were in good enough condition to be saved when the building was torn down to make way for the Renaissance Center in 1977. Using the four final color sketches submitted for the FAP competition and now in the Kresge Art Museum collection, we can reconstruct the major scenes. As befits the setting, Yaeger chose scenes of importance for the history of lighting starting with the discovery of fire and progressing to Benjamin Franklin’s discovery of electricity and Thomas Edison and the invention of the incandescent light bulb. Yaeger’s careful study of early to contemporary lamps is also featured prominently through the murals emphasizing progress and prosperity through science and technology. One of the destroyed scenes was a small mural between a door and a window, showing a man looking towards the water, his way lit by a street lamp. A storefront on the right, placed above actual windows, bore the letters ELEC, comprising individual light bulbs that glowed bright yellow. Yaeger’s depiction of Benjamin Franklin flying his kite was also destroyed. In Yaeger’s final drawing, Franklin is accompanied by a colleague seated on the ground reading a drawing before an open sunlit waterfront with sailing ships on the water and distant hills beyond. Yaeger took care to dress the men appropriately for the eighteenth century. Kresge Art Museum Magazine EDGAR YAEGER, WPA ARTIST Susan J. Bandes Dramatically foreshortened, she awkwardly soars above the other figures while holding aloft a lit lamp. In the preparatory sketches, Yaeger sometimes included rolling hills in the background, and the aqueduct appears in the final color sketch. However, the small stone building on the left where a woman is silhouetted in the open doorway was added at the time of painting perhaps to imply the implications of fire in domestic use. The largest expanse of space available for murals, unbroken by doorways or windows, was used to depict Thomas Edison’s laboratory and the invention of the incandescent light bulb. Except for a missing portion from the right side, most of this mural survives in four strips that now hang in the main lobby of the Union Building at Michigan State University. It depicts several industrious men, including Edison on the right, working laboratories and (in the center) inventing the electric light bulb. Again, this scene is dominated by a large bare-chested woman, symbolic of light, who hovers slightly above the other figures. The strong beam of light form her lantern illuminates everything in its path and becomes a wall that turns around on itself to form the background cityscape that appears as if painted on a folding screen. The missing portions on the right, reconstructed from evidence of the final sketch, depicted a female figure with a ladder, and on the far right, a man with top had and overcoat, walking away from the viewer along a street lit with lamps. Always a bit of a surrealist, Yaeger introduced a sense of unreality into these murals with the change in scale of the figures, the mixture of historical and symbolic figures, the womens’ nudity, and the ambiguous space. At a time when most section art for post offices, as well as WPA commissions, was painted in the predominant social-realist style, Yaeger’s mix of reality and fantasy is surprising. His illusion of depth that shifts and changes into flat planes and his often arbitrary planes of color and surface decorativeness evoke the modernist art of the School of Paris. Nudes were specifically disallowed by the section, and are rarely found in WPA art because they took attention away from the message and onto the image as art. In the social-realist milieu, the government sought to present through public art a world recognizably related to the viewer’s history, time and place. Nudes remove the image from the experience of everyday to that of the extraordinary. Considering Yaeger’s WPA output, it is clear that he did not use murals as a platform to promote social and political goals, setting him apart from those who followed the tradition of Diego Rivera and the Mexican muralists. But neither was he content to or even interested in producing painting in the sanctioned regionalist or representational style that would have gained him a nationally juried commission. To our contemporary eyes, his style seems quite tame, especially considering the art produced in New York at that time, but to his 1930s viewers in Michigan, it would have appeared quite modern. From his tentative, straightforward early hospital mural, Yaeger evolved to more modernist compositions, especially at the University of Michigan and the Public Lighting building, where he was allowed free rein to produce his murals. Edgar Yaeger clearly considered the appropriateness of art and subjects to their settings, and happily in the last of his mural projects, for the Public Lighting Commission, his unconstrained creativity reduced a felicitous history of visual delight. (Complete article with footnotes and bilbiography is in the KAM Bulletin) Preliminary sketches for the scene of early lighting and the discovery of fire reveal that Yaeger decided quickly upon the crouching nude (or half nude) male figure on the right, who creates fire by striking a flint on a piece of stone. The seated man on the left reading a scroll by lamplight was arrived at over time. Only the upper six feet of this mural survives but the drawings allow us to reconstruct and identify the missing lower parts of these two figures. The central figure in the painting evolved the most. In one early sketch, Yaeger drew a standing woman placed in space between and beyond the two men. In subsequent sketches she holds a hanging lamp; in another she lights her lamp from one placed on a pedestal in the center. In some drawings she is replaced by a nude male whose body and outstretched arm form a diagonal across the composition from lower left to upper right. In the final color sketch, Yaeger settled on a seated frontal female, much larger in proportion than the men in the foreground, holding up a small lit lamp. The bare-breasted flying woman whom Yaeger actually painted in the mural appears in none of the extant sketches.

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Every day scientists publish research results. Most often the resulting technical papers are sent to the scientific journals and often the abstracts of these papers make their way onto the Internet as a stream of news items that one can subscribe to through RSS feeds. A major source of high quality streamed science data is the Cornell University Library ArXiv.org which is a collection of over one million open-access documents. Other sources include the Public Library of Science (PLOS ONE), Science and Nature. In addition when science reporters from the commercial press hear about new advances, they often publish articles about these discoveries that that also appear as part of the RSS stream. For example Science Daily, Scientific American, New Scientist, Science Magazine and the New York Times all have science news feeds. Suppose you are doing research on some topic like “black holes and quantum gravity” or “the impact of DNA mutation on evolution” or “the geometry of algebraic surfaces”. Today you can subscribe to some of these topics through the RSS feed system, but suppose you had a virtual assistant that can alert you daily to any newly published progress or news reports related to your specific scientific interests. You may also want to see science results from disciplines that are different from your standard science domains that are may be related to your interests. What I would really like is a “Science Cortana” that can alert me with messages like “here are some interesting results from mathematics have been published today that relate to your science problem…” or “Yo! You know the problem you have been working on … well these people have solved it.” Object classification using machine learning is a big topic these days. Using the massive on-line data collection provided by user photos in the cloud and movies in YouTube, the folks at Google, Microsoft, Facebook and others have done some amazing work in scene recognition using deep neural networks and other advanced techniques. These systems can recognize dogs down to the breed … “this dog is a Dalmatian” … or street scenes with descriptions like “a man with a hat standing next to a fire truck”. Given this progress, it should be an easy task to use conventional tools to be able to classify scientific paper abstracts down to the scientific sub-discipline level. For example, determine if a paper is about cellular biology or genomics or bio-molecular chemistry and then file it away under that heading. In this post I describe some experience with building such an application. This is really the first of a two-part article dealing with cloud microservices and scientific document analysis. The work began as I was trying to understand how to build a distributed microservice platform for processing events from Internet sources like twitter, on-line instruments, and RSS feeds. Stream analytics is another very big topic and I am not attempting to address all the related and significant issues such as consistency and event-time correlation (see a recent blog post by Tyler Akidau that covers some interesting ideas not addressed here.) There are many excellent tools for stream analytics (such as Spark Streaming and Amazon Kinesis and Azure Stream Analytics) and I am not proposing a serious alternative here. This and the following post really only address the problem of how can a microservice architecture be used for this task. The application: classifying scientific documents by research discipline It turns out that classifying scientific documents down to the level of academic sub-discipline is harder than it looks. There are some interesting reasons that this is the case. First, science has become remarkably interdisciplinary with new sub-disciplines appearing every few years while other topics become less active as the remaining unsolved scientific problems become scarce and hard. Second a good paper may actually span several sub-disciplines such as cellular biology and genomics. Furthermore articles in the popular press are written to avoid the deeply technical science language that can help classify them. For example, a story about the search for life on the moons of Jupiter may be astrophysics, evolution, geophysics or robotics. Or all of the above. If the language is vague it may not be possible to tell. Finally there is the issue of the size of the available data collections. There are about 200 science articles published each day. As an event stream this is clearly not an avalanche. The work here is based on a harvest of several months of the science feeds so it consists of about 10,000 abstracts. This is NOT big data. It is tiny data. To approach the machine learning part of this problem we need two starting points. - A list of disciplines and subtopics/sub-disciplines we will use as classification targets - A training set. That is a set of documents that have already been classified and labeled. For reasons described below the major disciplines and specific sub-disciplines are Astrophysics and astronomy General Relativity, Gravitation, Quantum Gravity Condensed Matter Physics High Energy Physics Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning Engineering & Math Software CS and Game Theory Data Structures, Algorithms & Theory Systems, Programming Languages, Soft Eng HCI & Graphics Databases & Information Retrieval Networks, Security and Soc Nets Table 1. Semi-ArXiv based topic and sub-discipline categories. (ArXiv has even finer gained categories that are aggregated here.) Unfortunately, for the many of our documents we have no discipline or subtopic labels, so they cannot be used for training. However the ArXiv collection is curated by both authors and topic experts, so each document has a label. Consequently we have built our training algorithms to correspond to the discipline subtopics in ArXiv. In some cases the number of discipline subtopics in ArXiv was so large it was impossible for our learning algorithm to distinguish between them. For example mathematics has 31 subtopics and computer science has 40. Unfortunately the size of the data sample in some subtopics was so tiny (less than a few dozen papers) that training was impossible. I decided to aggregate some related subtopics for the classification. (For mathematics I chose the four general areas that I had to pass as part of my Ph.D. qualification exam! A similar aggregation was used for computer science.) ArXiv has another discipline category not represented here: Statistics. Unfortunately, the interdisciplinary problem was so strong here that most of Statistics looked like something else. A large fraction of the statistics articles were in the category of machine learning, so I moved them to the large sub-discipline of CS called AI-ML. The rest of statistics fell into the categories that looked like applied math and theory so they were moved there. Using the ArXiv classification as training data worked out well but there was one major shortcoming. They do not have all major science disciplines covered. For example there is no geoscience, ecology or psychology. (PLOS covers a much broader list of disciplines and we will use it to update this study soon.) This lack of earth sciences became very noticeable when classifying papers from the popular science. I will return to this problem later. The application is designed as three layers of microservices as shown in the diagram below (Figure 1). The first layer pulls recent docs from the RSS feeds and predicts which major category is the best fit for the document. It then pushes this document record to second level services specific to that topic. In fact, if our classifier cannot agree on a single topic, it will pick the best two and send he document to both subtopic analyzers. The second level service predicts which subtopics are the best fit and then pushes the document to a storage service where it is appended to the appropriate sub-discipline Technically RSS is not a “push” event technology. It needs another service to poll the sources and push the recent updates out as events. That is what we do here. FYI: ArXiv is pronounced archive. Very clever. Figure 1. Basic Microservice architecture for science document classifier (click to enlarge) The output will be a webpage for each subtopic listing the most recent results in that sub-domain. What follows is a rather long and detailed discussion of how one can use open source machine learning tools in Python to address this problem. If you are not interested in these details but you may want to jump to the conclusions then go to the end of the post and read about the fun with non-labeled documents from the press and the concluding thoughts. I will return to the details of the microservice architecture in the next post. Building the Document Classifiers The document analyzer is a simple adaptation of some standard text classifiers using a “Bag of Words” approach. We build a list of all words in the ArXiv RSS feeds that we have harvested in the last few months. This collection is about 7100 ArXiv documents. The feed documents consist of a title, author list, abstract and URL for the full paper. The ArXiv topic label is appended to the title string. Our training is done using only the abstract of the article and the topic label is used to grade the prediction. The major topic predictor and the sub-discipline classifiers both use the same code base using standard Python libraries. In fact we use five different methods in all. It is common believe that the best classifier is either a deep neural net or the Random Forest method. We will look at deep neural nets in another post, but here we focus on Random Forest. This method works by fitting a large number of random binary decision trees to the training data. Another interesting classifier in the Scikit-Learn Python library is the Gradient Tree Boosting algorithm. This method uses a bunch of fixed size trees (considered weak learners) but then applies a gradient boosting to improve their accuracy. In both cases it is the behavior of the ensemble of trees that is used for the classification. For any Bag-of-words method you first must convert the words in the training set into a dictionary of sorts so that each document is a sparse vector in a vector space whose dimension is equal to the number of words in the dictionary. In this case we use a “count vectorizer” that produces a matrix of word token counts. We then apply a Term Frequency – Inverse Document Frequency (TFIDF) normalization to a sparse matrix of occurrence counts. This is a sparse matrix where each row is a unit vector corresponding to one of the training set documents. The size of the row vector (the number of columns) is the size of the vocabulary. The norm of the row vector is 1.0. In the code, shown below, we then create the random forest classifier and the gradient tree boosting classifier and train each with the training data. Figure 2. Sample Python code for building the random forest and gradient tree boosting classifiers. Finally we make a prediction for the entire set of documents in the ArXiv collection (all_docs in the code above). This is all pretty standard stuff. The training set was a randomly selected subset of ArXiv data. Using a relatively small training set of no more than 400 of the documents from each category we got the following results. With five major categories that represents about 33% of all of the ArXiv documents. This provided a correct classification for 80% of the data using only the Random Forest Classifier. Unfortunately the distribution of documents among the various categories is not uniform. Physics and Math together constitute over half of the 5500 documents. Using a larger training set (75% of the documents from each category) gave a stronger result. However, when we use both Random Forest (RF) and Gradient Boosting (GB) and consider the result correct if either one gets the answer right, we get a success rate 93%. Looking more closely at the numbers, the success rate by topic is shown below. We have also listed the relative false positive rate (100*number of incorrect predictions/the total size of the category) ||% RF or GB correct ||% relative false positive rate Table 2. Basic top-level classifier results with success percentage if one of the two methods are correct. The relative false positive rate is 100*total incorrect predictions of a document belonging to domain-x/sizeof(domain-x) It is also worth noting that RF and GB agree only about 80% of the time and RF is only slightly more accurate than GB. The false positive rates tell another story. For some reason Mathematics is over predicted as a topic. But there are additional more sociological factors at work here. The choice of the ArXiv label often reflects a decision by the author and tacit agreement by the expert committee. For example the article titled “Randomized migration processes between two epidemic centers.” Is labeled in ArXiv as [q-bio.PE] which means quantitative biology, with the sub area “population and evolution”. This paper is illustrates one of the challenges of this document classification problem. Science has become extremely multidisciplinary and this paper is an excellent example. They authors are professors in a school of engineering and a department of mathematics. If you look at the paper it appears to be more applied math then quantitative biology. This is not a criticism of the paper or the ArXiv evaluators. In fact this paper is an excellent example of something a quantitative biologist may wish to see. The Random Forest classifier correctly identified this as a biology paper, but the gradient boosting method said it was math. Our best of three (describe below) method concluded it was either computer science or math. (In addition to some rather sophisticated mathematics the paper contains algorithms and numerical results that are very computer science-like.) All of this raises a question. Given a science article abstract, is there a single “correct” topic prediction? Textbooks about machine learning use examples like recognizing handwritten numerals or recognizing types of irises where there is a definitive correct answer. In our case the best we can do is to say “this document is similar to these others and most of them are in this category, but some are in this other category”. Given that science is interdisciplinary (and becoming more so) that answer is fine. The paper should go in both. This point can be further illustrated by looking at the subtopic level where the distinction between sub-disciplines is even more subtle. Physics is the most prolific science discipline in the ArXiv. It has many sub-discipline topics. For our purpose we have selected set listed in Table 1. Our classifier produced the following results when restricted to Physics using a training set consisting of 75% of the items in each category but no more than 200 from each. The overall score (either RF or GB correct) was 86%, but there were huge false positives rates for General Relativity (GR-QG) and High Energy Physics (HEP) where we restricted HEP to theoretical high energy physics (HEP-th). ||100*relative false positive rate |General Relativity & Quantum Grav |High Energy Physics Table 3. Classifier results for Physics based on RF or GB predicting the correct answer In other words the system predicted General Relativity in places were that was not the correct category and High energy physics also incorrectly in others. These two subtopics tended to over-predict. A closer look at the details showed many HEP papers were labeled as GR-QG and visa-versa. There is a great way to see why. Below are the “word cloud” diagrams for HEP, GR-QC and Astrophysics. These diagrams show the relative frequency of words in the document collection by the size of the font. Big words are “important” and little ones less so. As you can see, the HEP and GR-QC word clouds are nearly identical and both are very distinct from Astrophysics. Figure 3. Word cloud for documents in General-Relativity and Quantum Gravity Figure 4. Word cloud for Theoretical High Energy Physics documents Figure 5. Word cloud for Astrophysics (Restricting the High Energy Physics category to only Theoretical papers caused this problem and the results were not very valuable, so I added additional subcategories to the HEP area including various topics in atomic physics and experimental HEP. This change is reflected in the results below.) A Clustering Based Classifier Given the small size of the training set, the random forest method described above worked reasonably well for the labeled data. However, as we shall see later, it was not very good at the unlabeled data from the popular press. So I tried one more experiment. There are a variety of “unsupervised” classifiers based on clustering techniques. One of the standards is the K-means method. This method works by iterating over a space of points and dividing them into K subsets so that the members of each subset are closest to their “center” than they are to the center of any of the others clusters. Another is called Latent Sematic Indexing (LSI) and it is based on a singular value decomposition of the document-term matrix. And a third method is called Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) which build linear expressions of features that can be used to partition documents. The way we use these three methods to build a trained classifier is a bit unconventional. The basic idea is as follows. Each of the three methods, K-means, LSI and LDA has a way to ask where a document fits in its clustering scheme. In the case of K-means this is just asking which cluster is nearest to the point represented by the document. We use the LSI and LDA implementations from the excellent gensim package. In the case of LSI and LDA, we can use a special index function which performs a similarity query. As before we begin by converting documents into unit vectors in a very high dimension space. We begin with the list of documents. The list of words from these abstracts is then filtered to remove Standard English stop words as well as a list of about 30 stop words that are common across all science articles and so are of no value for classification. This includes words like “data”, “information”, “journal”, “experiment”, “method”, “case” etc. Using the excellent pattern Python package from the Computational Linguistics & Psycholinguistics Research Center at the University of Antwerp, we extract all nouns and noun phrases as these are important in science. For example phrases like “black hole”, “abelian group”, “single cell”, “neural net”, “dark matter” has more meaning that “hole”, “group”, “cell”, “net” and “matter” alone. Including “bi-grams” like these is relatively standard practice in the document analysis literature. For each document we build a list called “texts” in the code below. texts[i] is a list of all the words in the i-th document. From this we build a dictionary and then transform the Text list into another list called Corpus. Each element in Corpus is a list of the words in the corresponding document represented by their index in the dictionary. From this corpus we can build an instance of the LSI or LDA model. We next transform the corpus into tfidf format and then into the format LDA or LSI need. From these we create an index object that can be used to “look up” documents. For example, suppose I have a new four-word document “dna genome evolution rna” and I want to find the abstracts in our collection that are most similar. Index_lsi (or Index_lda) returns a list of floating point numbers where the i-th number is the similarity in lsi space to our new document. To find the top five most similar documents we enumerate and sort the list. Looking at the head of the list we have Document 534 is one with title “Recombinant transfer in the basic genome of E. coli” and is indeed a good match for our rather short query document. The best of three classifier So now we have three ways to find documents similar to any given document. Here is how we can use it to build a crude classifier we call “best-of-three”. - Assume you have n target categories. At the top level we have n = five: Physics, Biology, CS, Math and Finance. - Sort the training set of documents into n buckets where each bucket consist of those documents that correspond to one of the categories. So bucket 1 contains all training documents from physics and bucket 2 has all training documents from Biology, etc. - Given a new document x we compute the top 5 (or so) best matches from each of the three methods (KM, LSI and LDA) as shown above. We now have 15 (or so) potential matches. - We now have 15 (or so) potential matches. Unfortunately each of the three methods uses a different metric to judge them and we need to provide a single best choice. We take a very simple approach. We compute the cosine distance between the vector representing the document x and each of the 15 candidates. The closest document to x is the winner and we look to see in which bucket that document lives and the label of that bucket is our classification. The Centroid classifier Unit length vectors are points on a high dimensional sphere. The cosine distance between two vectors of unit length is simply the distance between those points. Because the best-of-three method uses the cosine distance as the final arbiter in a decision process we can envision an even simpler (and very dumb) method. Why not “summarize” each bucket of training set items with a single vector computed as the “centroid” of that set of training set documents. (By centroid here we mean the normalized sum of all the vectors in training set bucket k. ) We can then classify document x by simply asking which centroid is closest to x. This turns out to be a rather weak classifier. But we can improve it slightly using he best-of-three method. For each bucket k of documents with training label k, we can ask KM, LDA and LSI which other documents in the training set are close to those elements in k. Suppose we pick 5 of the nearby documents for each element of the bucket and add these to an extended bucket for label k as follows. We now have buckets that are larger than the original and the buckets from different labels will overlap (have non-trivial intersections). Some physics documents may now also be in computer science and some math documents will now also be in biology, but this is not so bad. If it is labeled as being in physics, but it looks like computer science then let it be there too. We now compare the methods RandomForest (rf), Best-of-Three (best) and the new centroid classifier (cent) against each other for all the labeled data. The results are complicated by two factors related to the selection of the training sets. The balance between the numbers of papers in each subcategory is not very good. At the top level, physics has thousands of papers and finance has only a few hundred. Similar imbalances exist in all of the individual disciplines. Consequently if you take a random selection of X% of the labeled data as the training set, then the prolific disciplines will be heavily represented compared to the small disciplines. The result is that the false positive rates for the heavy disciplines can be extremely high (greater than 10% of all documents.) On the other hand if you take a fixed number of papers from each discipline then the training set for the big disciplines will be very small. The compromise used here is that we take a fixed percent (75%) of the documents from each discipline up to a maximum number from each then we get a respectable balance, i.e. false positive rates below 10% . The table below is the result for the top level classification. Table 4. Top-level results from 7107 labeled documents with a training set consisting of 63% (with a maximum of 1500 documents from each sub-discipline.) (In Table 4 and the following tables we have calculated the “correct” identifications as the percent of items of domain x correctly identified as being x. This is the same as “recall” in the ML literature. The “false pos” values is the percent of items incorrectly identified as being in category x. If n is the total number of documents and m is the number identified as physics but are not physics then the table represents 100*n/m in the physics column. This is not the same as the textbook definition of false positive rate. ) In the tables below we show the results for each of the disciplines using exactly the same algorithms (and code) to do the training and analysis. Table 5. Physics sub-domain consisting of 3115 documents and a training set of 53%. (300 doc max per subcategory) Table 6. Math sub-domain consisting of 1561 documents and a training set size of 39% (200 doc max per subcategory) Table 7. Biology sub-domain consisting of 1561 documents and a 39% training set size (200 docs max size per subcategory) Table 8. Computer Science sub-domain consisting of 1367 documents and 56% training set size (200 doc max docs per subcategory) Table 9. Finance sub-domain consisting of 414 documents and a 64% training set size (50 documents max per subcategory) As can be seen from the numbers above that Random Forest continues to be the most accurate, but the Best-of-Three method is not bad and in some cases outperformed Random Forest. And, because we assume that science is very interdisciplinary, we can use both methods as a way to push documents through our system. In other words if bf and best agree that a document belong in category X, then we put it there. But if they disagree and one says category X and the other says category Y, then we put the document in both. Now we turn to the non-labeled data coming from the RSS feeds from Science Daily, Scientific American, New Scientist, Science Magazine and the New York Times. The reader may wonder why we bothered to describe the centroid method and list its performance in the table above when it is clearly inferior to the other methods on the labeled ArXiv data. The surprise is that it beats the Random Forest and Best-of-Three on the popular press data. I do not have a good explanation for this result other than the fact that the popular press data is very different from the clean scientific writing in science abstracts. Furthermore the science press feeds are often very short. In fact they often look more like tweets. For example, one from Science Daily reads “Scientists have found that graphene oxide’s inherent defects give rise to a surprising mechanical property caused by an unusual mechanochemical reaction.” The subject here is materials science and the Best-of-Three algorithm came the closest and called this physics. In other cases all the algorithms failed. For example from the science day feed this article “While advances in technology have made multigene testing, or \’panel testing,\’ for genetic mutations that increase the risk of breast or other cancers an option, authors of a review say larger studies are needed in order to provide reliable risk estimates for counseling these patients.” was determined to be “Finance” by all three algorithms. And there were many posts that had no identifiable scientific content. For example “Casual relationships, bittersweet news about chocolate, artisanal lightbulbs and more (full text available to subscribers)” “If social networks were countries, they’d be police states. To change that we may have to rebuild from the bottom up. “Footsteps of gods, underground dragons or UFOs? Rachel Nuwer joins the fellowship of the rings out to solve the enigma in the grassy Namibian desert.” This does not mean these stories had no scientific or educational value. It only means that the abstract extracted from the RSS feed was of no value in making a relevance decision. Another major problem was that our scientific categories are way too narrow. A major fraction (perhaps 70%) of the popular press news feeds are about earth science, ecology, geophysics, medicine, psychology and general health science. For example, the following three have clear scientific content, but they do not match our categories. “Consumption of sugary drinks increases risk factors for cardiovascular disease in a dose-dependent manner — the more you drink, the greater the risk. The study is the first to demonstrate such a direct, dose-dependent relationship.” “Nearly a third of the world’s 37 largest aquifers are being drained faster than water can be returned to them, threatening regions that support two billion people, a recent study found.” “While the risk of suicide by offenders in prison has been identified as a priority for action, understanding and preventing suicides among offenders after release has received far less attention.” By extracting a random sample of 200 postings and removing those that either had no scientific content or no relationship to any of our main disciplines, the results were that Centroid was the best classifier of the remainder correctly identifying 56%. Best together with Centroid the success rate rose to 63%. Random forest only correctly identified 16% of the papers because it tended to identify many papers as mathematics if the abstract referred to relative quantities or had terms like “increased risk”. The greatest weakness of the approaches I have outlined above is the fact that the methods do not provide a “confidence” metric for the selections being made. If the classifier has no confidence in its prediction, we may not want to consider the result to be of value. Rather than putting the document is the wrong category it can be better to simply say “I don’t know”. However it is possible to put a metric of “confidence” on Best and Centroid because each rank the final decisions based on the cosine “distance” (actually for the unit length vectors here, the cosine is really just the dot product of the two vectors). The nearer the dot product is to 1.0 the closer two vectors are. For the Centroid method we are really selecting the classification category based on the closest topic centroid to the document vector. It turns out that for the majority of the public press documents the dot products with the centroids are all very near zero. In other words the document vector is nearly orthogonal to each of the topic centroids. This would suggest that we may have very little confidence in the classification of these document. If we simply label every document with a max dot product value less than 0.04 as “unclassifiable” we eliminate about 90% of the documents. This includes those documents with no clear scientific content and many of those that appear to be totally unrelated to our five theme areas. However, if we now compute the true positive rate of the centroid classifier on the remainder we get 80% correct. For Best or Centroid together we are now over 90% and RF is up to 35% (now slight above a random guess). We can now ask the question what max dot product cutoff value will yield a true positive rate of 90% for the centroid method? The table below shows the true positive value and the fraction of the document collection that qualify for dot product values ranging from 0.04 to 0.15 (called the “confidence level” below. Another way of saying this is that if the maximum of the dot products of the document vector with the topic centroids is above 0.05 the chance of a correct classification by the Centroid method is above 90%. Of course the downside is that the fraction of the popular press abstracts that meet this criteria is less than 7%. The two great weaknesses of this little study are the small data set size and the narrowness of the classification topics. The total number of documents used to train the classifiers was very small (about 6,000). With 60,000 or 600,000 we expect we can do much better. To better classify the popular press articles we need topics like geoscience, ecology, climate modeling, psychology and public health. These topics make up at least 70% of the popular press articles. In a future version of this study we will include those topics. Another approach worth considering in the future is an analysis based on the images of equations and diagrams. Scientists trained in a specialty can recognize classes of scientific equations such as those for fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, general relativity, quantum mechanics or chemical reaction diagrams or biochemical pathways, etc. These images are part of the language of science. Image recognition using deep neural networks would be an ideal way to address this classification problem. In the next post I will describe the implementation of the system as a network of microservices in the cloud. I will also release the code use here for the document training and I will release the data collection as soon as I find the best public place to store it.

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|Location:||Holladay/Ridley Tract, Capron, VA, United States| |Occupation Dates:||Late 18th- to early 19th-century. Phasing and mean ceramic dates can be found on the Chronology page.| |Excavator(s):||Dr. Theodore R. Reinhart.| |Dates excavated:||May to August 1986.| The Pope site (44SN180) was located approximately three miles west of Capron, Virginia, in Southampton County, along U.S. Route 58. The archaeological remains represent a rural, late eighteenth- to early nineteenth-century farmstead. Prominent features include a large brick and cob foundation and cellar of a frame house, two post-in-ground structures with cellars, and an outbuilding (Reinhart 1987:3,112). The Pope site was identified in early 1986 during a Phase I survey conducted by Lyle Browning, a VDOT archaeologist, in advance of highway construction. Phase II and III surveys were subsequently conducted at the site by archaeologists from the College of William and Mary between May and August 1986 (Reinhart 1987:7). Based on Southampton County deed books, by 1786, the area including the Pope site was completely out of Native American ownership, when Thomas Ridley purchased land from John Holladay and James Ridley. Between 1785 and 1815, Ridley owned from 20 to 39 enslaved individuals. Upon his death in 1815, Thomas Ridley’s property passed to his son, Francis. Francis Ridley owned the Pope site until 1879 and owned nearly 3500 acres and upwards of 125 slaves (Reinhart 1987:103-110). While Southampton County was the scene of one of America’s most bloody slave uprisings, Nat Turner’s rebellion in July 1831, there is no evidence that the Pope site or its inhabitants were involved (Reinhart 1987:108-109). Excavation history, procedure and methods The Phase II survey of the Pope site consisted of a systematic shovel test survey. A 350 x 125 foot grid was laid across the site. The grid consisted of quadrants measuring 25 x 25 feet, fourteen quadrants long and five wide, for a total of seventy STP’s. A single STP was placed at the center of each quadrant and was dug to subsoil. All sediment was screened through ¼-inch hardware cloth (Reinhart 1987:13). Based on features found during the Phase II survey, the Pope site was determined to be an important part of early Southampton County history. Because the site was in the path of proposed highway construction, a complete excavation of the site was conducted. The plowzone was mechanically removed to reveal 246 features intruding subsoil; the most significant being those related to three structures and multiple fencelines. The topsoil and plowzone removed by the gradall was discarded without screening. Most features were sectioned in halves or quarters, profiles were drawn, then completely excavated. The cellars were divided into quadrants, with the southeast quarter excavated first. The sediment directly above the cellar floors was removed separately, otherwise, the features were excavated in natural layers. Large postholes and pits were sectioned in half, with the southern portion excavated first (Reinhart 1987:14-15). Except for Feature 7, all the features at the Pope site were screened through ¼-inch hardware cloth. The decision not to screen Feature 7 was based on the high-frequency, low-analytical value of brick fragments, the large size of the feature, and the low density of other types of artifacts (Reinhart 1987:15-16,18). Summary of research and analysis Three dwellings and an outbuilding were identified at the Pope site. The most substantial dwelling, Structure 1 on the site map, was a frame building with a brick and cob foundation, and cellar; all subsumed under Feature 7 (DAACS feature number F007). The foundation hole measured roughly 16 foot square. Evidence for a chimney base was found in the northeast corner of Feature 7. A line of posts just north of the cellar could have supported a porch. Based on the number of artifacts, the cellar was most likely not used as a trash depository and when Feature 7 was no longer inhabited, the site was abandoned (Reinhart 1987:28,31). Some sixty feet to the southeast of F007 was one of two post-in-ground dwellings, Structure 2 on the site map. The structure was composed of a cellar (F001) and its associated postholes. The building measured 16 x 12 feet with a 5-foot porch or shed on the south side. The structure was torn down as opposed to being burnt down and the cellar remained open for some time after the destruction of the house (Reinhart 1987:31,38). One hundred and twenty feet east of F001 was the second earthfast dwelling, Structure 4 on the site map. The archaeological remains of this structure consist of a cellar (F005) and its associated postholes. This building also measured 16 x 12 feet. This cellar was also used as a trash pit after its destruction. The trash was concentrated on the west side of the cellar indicating that this structure occupied the eastern edge of the site (Reinhart 1987:38-39,45). The outbuilding (F053 and Structure 3 on the site map) was located thirty-seven feet east of F001 and seventy-five feet west of F005. It measured 8 x 7 feet and had a large, irregular patch of burnt sediment in its center. Feature 53 was tentatively identified as a smokehouse by its excavators. This identification is based on the burnt area in the center of the floor combined with the lack of evidence suggesting the structure itself burned. In addition, the building’s small size and limited quantity of domestic artifacts added to this conclusion (Reinhart 1987:45-46,52). Two pits to the east of F053 were probably associated with exterior activity areas. Feature 19 (6.5 x 3.5 feet) and Feature 21 (6.75 x 3.5 feet) were both a foot or less deep (Reinhart 1987:52,55). In addition to structures, the other major archaeological features consist of multiple fencelines constructed at various times during the site’s occupation. Three north-south fencelines were designated by DAACS as Feature Groups 04, 07, and 10. And the three east-west fencelines were designated FG05, 08, and 09. The north-south fencelines all had trees growing along the line and they may have served as posts. Fenceline FG10 is probably the oldest of the north-south lines. The posts lacked molds indicating they were removed and the few artifacts recovered points to its removal prior to the construction of Structure 2 (DAACS FG01). Fenceline FG07 was built after FG10, along the edge of FG01. The low frequency of artifacts recovered from the posts indicate a contemporaneous construction with FG01. And the large amount of artifacts recovered from FG04 point to a construction date late in the site’s history (Reinhart 1987:56-63). Two of the east-west fencelines (FG08 and FG09) were located on the east side of the site, between the two post-in-ground dwellings. Feature Group 08 was the earlier of the two and three of its posts were most likely destroyed by the construction of the two dwellings and outbuilding. It definitely predates the outbuilding (Feature 053) due to the fact that the fenceline would have run through the structure. Feature Group 09 was built after FG08, probably as a replacement, and possibly served to separate activity areas, as features 19 and 21 are located on either side of it. The third east-west fenceline was located on the southwest edge of the site and may have been partially destroyed by FG01. It was composed of square posts except for two round posts at a close interval (DAACS features F041F and F041G) that probably indicate the location of a gate (Reinhart 1987:56-63). Digital Archaeological Archive of Comparative Slavery Things you need to know about the Pope site before you use the data: - Measurements are in feet and tenths of feet. - Topsoil and plowzone were mechanically stripped and not screened. - Photos on the Site Images page courtesy of the Theodore R. Reinhart Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Earl Gregg Swem Library, The College of William and Mary. - Some postholes on the site map are represented schematically. The excavators’ site map shows the location of these postholes but not their shape. The postholes’ context records record their dimensions but DAACS has not been able to locate plan drawings of the postholes. As a result, DAACS has chosen to represent these postholes as boxes with the appropriate dimensions and locations. - Due to the topsoil and plowzone being stripped, a large number of contexts/features do not appear on the Harris matrix because no stratigraphic relationship exists between those contexts and any other deposit. The original excavators of the Pope Site assigned numbers to individual features and their associated contexts. Their feature numbering system is the same one used by DAACS: a F-prefix is placed before the feature number (F001 refers to Feature 1). Excavated contexts that belong to the same depositional basin (e.g. a posthole and postmold or the layers in a single pit) were given a single feature number (i.e. F022 contains the following feature contexts: F22/S/1 and F22/S/2). In addition, single contexts were given feature numbers when the original field records indicate that the excavators recognized a context’s spatial distinctiveness from surrounding contexts. Feature groups are sets of features whose spatial arrangements indicate they were part of a single structure (e.g. structural postholes, subfloor pits, and hearth) or landscape element (e.g. postholes that comprise a fenceline). Feature Groups were not assigned by the original excavators. However, feature groups have been assigned by DAACS and they carry a FG-prefix, which precedes the number (i.e. FG01 equals Feature Group 1). |F001||Cellar||F1/2, F1/NE/P, F1/NE/1, F1/NE/2, F1/NE/3, F1/NE/4, F1/NW, F1/NW/1, F1/NW/2, F1/NW/3, F1/NW/4, F1/SE/2, F1/SE/1, F1/SE/3, F1/SW/1, F1/SW/2, F1/SW/3, F1/SW/4, F1/1| |F002||Posthole||F2/1, F2/3, F2/N/1, F2/N/2, F2/S/1, F2/S/2| |F003||Posthole||F3/N/2, F3/N/3, F3/S/1| |F006||Posthole||F6/S/1, F6/S/2, F6/S/3, F6/N/1, F6/N/2| |F010||Posthole||F10/N/3, F10/S/1, F10/S/2, F10/N/1, F10/N/2| |F015||Posthole||F15/S/1, F15/S/2, F15/N/1, F15/N/2, F15/1, F15/2| |F016||Posthole||F16/S/1, F16/N/1A, F16/N/1B| |F020||Posthole||F20/S/1, F20/S/2, F20/NE/1, F20/NE/2, F20/2| |F023||Posthole||F23/S/3, F23/S/1, F23/S/2, F23/S/4| |F005||Cellar||F5/1, F5/NE/2, F5/SE/1&2, F5/SE/3, F5/SE/W, F5/SW/1, F5/SW/2, F5/SW/3, F5/4, F5/NE/1, F5/NE/3, F5/NE/4, F5/NW/1, F5/NW/2, F5/NW/3, F5/NW/4| |F009||Posthole||F9/N/2, F9/N/1, F9/S/1A, F9/S/1B, F9/S/2, F9/S/3| |F012||Posthole||F12/S, F12/N/2, F12/3| |F014||Posthole||F14/N/1, F14/N/2, F14/S/1, F14/S/2| |F053||Cellar||F53/NE/P, F53/NE/F, F53/NE/1, F53/NE/2, F53/NE/3, F53/NW/1, F53/NW/2, F53/NW/3, F53/NW/4, F53/SE/1, F53/SE/2, F53/SE/3, F53/SW/1, F53/SW/2, F53/SW/4, F53/SW/3| |F040E||Posthole, possible||F40E/1, F40E/2| |F040F||Posthole, possible||F40F/1, F40F/2| |F071F||Tree hole||F71F/1, F71F/2, F71F/3| |F071P||Tree hole||F71P/1, F71P/2, F71P/3| |F026||Posthole||F26/1, F26/2, F26/3| |F004||Tree hole||F4/1, F4/S/1| |F007||Cellar||F7/NE/2, F7/NE/3, F7/NE/4, F7/NE/5, F7/NW/1, F7/NW/2, F7/NW/3, F7/NW/4, F7/SE/1, F7/SE/2, F7/SE/3, F7/SW/1, F7/SW/2, F7/SW/3, F7/SW/4, F7/NE/1, F7/1, F7/SW/5, F7/SW/6| |F019||Pit, unidentified||F19/S/1, F19/S/2, F19/N/1| |F021||Pit, unidentified||F21/S/1, F21/N/1| |F040J||Tree hole||F40J/1, F40J/2| |F040M||Tree hole||F40M/1, F40M/2| |F086||Tree hole||F86/1, F86/2, F86/3| |F133||Posthole, possible||F133/1, F133/2| Chronology is a necessary first step to wringing historical meaning from the archaeological record. Because the archaeological record is a contemporary phenomenon, time is an inferred dimension in archaeology. Here we present three different types of chronologies for the Pope site using methods we have developed to infer and evaluate archaeological chronologies for artifact assemblages included so far in DAACS. The three different chronologies for the Pope site are described below. Chronologies for every archaeological site in DAACS are produced by DAACS staff using the same methods. As a result, DAACS chronologies are standardized and provide the best means for comparing data from multiple sites and regions. Our choice of methods is driven by both theoretical and practical considerations. On the theory side, we are interested in placing assemblages as events in time so that we can chart trends in assemblage content – say the frequency of tea vessels – across multiple sites. However, assemblages are not instantaneous events. Assemblages accumulate over periods of time, usually decades. Some chronological methods in historical archaeology provide estimates of the mean of the assemblage temporal distribution, while others do not. Termini post and ante quem, the most commonly encountered methods, are estimates of the upper and lower extreme values of the assemblage temporal distribution, not its mean. They are therefore poorly suited to our purposes. Two methods, frequency seriation and mean ceramic dating, do offer estimates of temporal distribution means and we rely on them here. We do, however, provide TPQs in the following analyses. Phase assignments, mean ceramic dates, and TPQs are generated using ceramic ware dates found on the Ceramic Ware and Mean-Ceramic-Date Types page in the About the Database section. If a site’s principal investigator produced a site chronology using different dates and methods, it is discussed on the site’s background page. DAACS users are also encouraged to explore the Mean Ceramic Date Queries for dating individual contexts, features, and stratigraphic groups. Pope Site Phases For each site, DAACS staff attempt to produce an intra-site chronology using seriation methods. The units in the seriation are ceramic assemblages from contexts with more than five sherds. Plowzone and topsoil contexts are excluded from this analysis. An initial seriation solution is derived using correspondence analysis of type frequencies in the assemblages. This order is then compared to an order derived from mean ceramic dates. If the orders are correlated, we assign assemblages – and the contexts and stratigraphic groups to which they belong – to phases based on their CA scores. Phases can be further evaluated by plotting them on a Harris Matrix (for details see Neiman, Galle and Wheeler 2003). Based on the correspondence analysis, DAACS divided the Pope site occupation into 3 temporal phases. The ceramics from Feature 005, the cellar at Structure 4, comprise a large portion of the assemblage for Phase 1. P01 is dominated by colonoware, with Staffordshire Mottled and Westerwald contributing to the early date. Ceramic assemblages from F001 (cellar) and F002 (posthole) from Structure 2 and the ceramic assemblage from Feature 53, SG13 fall into Phase 2 (P02). Ceramics from Feature 007, the cellar at Structure 1, comprise Phase 03. |Phase 1 (P01)||1762.4||1762||1700||1775||245| |Phase 2 (P02)||1766.8||1775||1775||1775||191| |Phase 3 (P03)||1789.3||1820||1775||1775||95| Pope Site Mean Ceramic Date and TPQs Generated From Non-Topsoil/Plowzone Contexts DAACS staff also produce a site-wide Mean Ceramic Date and TPQs using ceramic-ware types from all stratified, non-plowzone contexts at a given site. A total of 733 ceramic sherds from non-plowzone and non-topsoil contexts at the Pope site contributed to the following dates. The Pope site’s Mean Ceramic Date of 1769.5 places the entire site’s occupation in the third quarter of the eighteenth century. Two other measures that are less sensitive to excavation errors and taphonomic processes that might introduce a small amount of anomalously late material into an assemblage were used. They are TPQp90 and TPQp95. The TPQp95 of 1775 provides a robust estimate of the site’s TPQ based on the 95th percentile of the beginning manufacturing dates for all the ceramics comprising it. The TPQp90 of 1762 provides a more robust estimate of the site’s TPQ based on the 90th percentile of the beginning manufacturing dates for all the ceramics comprising it. |All Pope Site Contexts except Plowzone and Topsoil||1769.5||1830||1762||1775||773| Pope Site Mean Ceramic Date and TPQs Generated From All Contexts The Pope site had no plowzone or topsoil contexts since these stratigraphic layers were mechanically stripped prior to excavation. As a result, the MCD and TPQs that result from this analysis are identical to the MCD and TPQs generated in the previous section. A Seriation Chronology for the Pope Site Click on the following link to access a seriation chronology for the Pope site. We use the indefinite article to signify that it is not the only chronology possible, nor even the best one possible. Pope Site (44SN180) Harris Matrix The Harris Matrix summarizes stratigraphic relationships among excavated contexts and groups of contexts that DAACS staff has identified as part of the same stratigraphic group. Stratigraphic groups and contexts are represented as boxes, while lines connecting them represent temporal relationships implied by the site’s stratification, as recorded by the site’s excavators (Harris 1979). Stratigraphic groups, which represent multiple contexts, are identified on the diagram by their numeric designations (e.g. SG05). Contexts that could not be assigned to stratigraphic groups are identified by their individual context numbers. Boxes with color fill represent contexts and stratigraphic groups with ceramic assemblages large enough to be included in the DAACS seriation of the site (see Chronology). Their seriation-based phase assignments are denoted by different colors to facilitate evaluation of the agreement between the stratigraphic and seriation chronologies. Grey boxes represent contexts that were not included in the seriation because of small ceramic samples. See the Pope site Chronology page for stratigraphic and phase information. This Harris Matrix is based on data on stratigraphic relationships recorded among contexts in the DAACS database. It was drawn with the ArchEd application. See http://www.ads.tuwien.ac.at/arched/index.html. For a printable version, download the Harris Matrix [323.08 KB PDF]. PDF of composite excavator’s plan, compiled by DAACS from original field drawings PDF of composite excavator’s plan, compiled by DAACS from original field drawings, without feature numbers visible Harris, Edward C. 1979 Principles of Archaeological Stratigraphy. Academic Press, London, England. Neiman, Fraser D., Jillian E. Galle , and Derek Wheeler 2003 Chronological Inference and DAACS. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Providence, Rhode Island. On file at the Department of Archaeology, Thomas Jefferson Foundation, Charlottesville, Virginia. Reinhart, Theodore , Eric G. Ackermann , Barbara Davis , and Esther C. White 1987 Material Culture, Social Relations, And Spatial Organization On A Colonial Frontier: The Pope Site (44SN180), Southampton County, Virginia. Prepared for the Virginia Department of Transportation, 1221 E. Broad St. Richmond, VA 23219. 30 April 1987.

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IVF Treatment in India Overview of IVF Treatment: In vitro fertilization is infertility treatment and a procedure helps with fertilization, embryo development and implantation, so a women get pregnant. In other term it can be defined as a complex procedure which is used to help with fertility or prevent genetic problems and assist with the conception of a child. IVF is the most effective form of assisted reproductive technology (ART). IVF treatment works by using mix combination of medication and surgical procedure to help sperm to fertilize an egg and help fertilized egg implant in uterus. Why IVF Treatment done? In vitro fertilization treatment s performed for infertility problem or genetic issues related to infertility. IVF is offered to primary infertility in women over age 40. Below are the causes of infertility which IVF can treat: - Disorders of ovulation - Uterine fibroids - Impaired sperm production or function. - Any genetic disorder related to infertility. - Poor egg quality - Damage of blockage of fallopian tube Diagnosis before the procedure: Doctor will recommend some clinical and physical test before begin to the IVF cycle. Some screening includes - Semen analysis - Uterine exam, Ultrasound - Infectious disease screening - Some genetic testing - Testicular biopsy and HSG How to prepare for IVF treatment: After clinical and physical investigations only further IVF treatment plan will be decided. Below are steps of IVF treatment procedure: - 1. Ovarian Induction: In this 1st step some medications or with the help of some synthetic hormones given to patient to increase the production of eggs, in case of usage of own egg. In every month menstrual cycle, women produce one egg but IVF requires multiple eggs. In this step doctor will regularly perform blood test and ultrasound to monitor the production of eggs. - 2. Retrieval of Egg: Egg retrieval procedure is done under general anaesthesia. With the help of ultrasound probe which is inserted into vagina for the identification of follicles. Then needle is inserted through the vagina and into the follicles to retrieve the eggs. In some cases, abdominal ultrasound may use. - 3. Retrieval off sperm: A male partner who will give semen sample for fertilization of egg artificially. - 4. Fertilization: A lab technician will mix egg and sperm in petri dish. If this procedure doesn’t produce embryo then doctor may decide to use ICSI. - 5. Embryo Culture and Transfer: Doctor and team will continuously monitor the fertilized egg to ensure that the cells are dividing and developing. Some genetic test can be performed on embryo to avoid any issue. Embryo transfer procedure is done suing mild sedative. This procedure is painless, patient may feel mild cramping. Transferring procedure is done using the long, thin and flexible tube called catheter into the vagina, through cervix. If IVF treatment is successful, then embryo will be implanted in the lining of uterus about six to 10 days after egg retrieval. After the Procedure: After embryo transfer, patient can resume daily activities but avoid vigorous activities. If after procedure if person notices some severe or moderate paint, then contact doctor. Complications after procedure: - Multiple pregnancies increases the risk of low birth weight and premature birth - Ectopic pregnancy - Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) - Bleeding, infections, IUI (Intrauterine insemination) The semen is collected and then processed in the laboratory. The seminal plasma is discarded and the best quality sperms are harvested and kept in special culture media. The ratio of half to one ml of sperms are then artificially deposited into the uterine cavity with the aid of a thin catheter IUI. The success rates vary from 10-20% per cycle depending on the cause of infertility. The best results are seen among patients with cervical factor and IUI using donor sperms. IUI success is usually low among patients with severely low semen counts - less than 10 million per mg. On the whole, if 10 patients undergo IUI every month, one or two will become pregnant every month. In about 6 months time out of the ten patients who started treatment, 4 to 6 patients will become pregnant. The rest would have to be treated with advanced procedures such as IVF or ICSI to achieve pregnancy. IVF – IN VITRO FERTILIZATION IVF is useful in treating unexplained infertility, endometriosis, failed IUI etc. This procedure includes removal of eggs from vagina, which are attached with ultrasound probe, and they will be mixed with the sperms of donors or husband, before keeping them in incubator for two days. After two days selected fertilized egg (embryo) is transplanted into the uterus (womb) of the female. Step By Step Guide to IVF Consultation with a fertility specialist is the primary step before going for the treatment. We at Fortis Bloom understand that infertility problems can be emotionally distressing, and hence we respect your situation and help you overcome it. First step of consultation leads to the understanding of problems and a brief guided outlook of the right treatment procedures. A complete assessment of the associated problem is necessary before undergoing any treatment. Hence, the experienced team at Fortis Bloom prefers to conduct some investigations to track your reproductive health. The investigation procedures include routine blood tests, specific test to assess ovarian reserve, ultrasound pelvis and semen analysis. The best way to deal with stress due to infertility is through counseling, which is suggested as a solution to the patients. We understand what patients are going through and we put forward the best way to reduce emotional stress over the subject. Counselors deal with patients to take out their fears and help them to relax beforehand. 4. Revision of your reports Next step includes the revision of your reports by specialists to decide the procedure to be used for the treatment, and then a brief discussion over the protocols to be used. Before the ART cycle starts, our counselor will advise you to undergo some surgeries like laparoscopy/hysteroscopy before coming to the conclusion. 5. Starting the treatment Regulations to control the hormonal level starts on 21st day and to maintain the down regulation of hormones you need to take 7-14 injections, which suppresses the hormonal levels that exist during the normal time. After accomplishing the task of down regulating hormonal level, stimulation procedures starts, which are checked with the help of USG or blood tests. Sometimes these down regulating procedures are not needed and your fertility specialist decides this. Once the down regulation is achieved, which is done with the help of hormonal tests or by 2nd and 3rd day of periods, an ultrasound is carried out as a baseline for this procedure. 7. Egg collection After 34-36 hours of trigger injection eggs are collected by giving mild anesthesia to the patient. This procedure is performed by using trans-vaginal scan, a procedure in which a needle, with attached probe, punctures the follicles via vagina. A negative pressure is then maintained to fetch the eggs and fluid, which then transferred to the IVF lab for further procedures. This procedure only takes 30 mins and the patient will be discharged after 4-6 hrs. 8. Sperm collection The day when eggs are collected, the partner of the female donates fresh semen sample needed for further procedure. If the case is of male infertility, then the donor sperms are used. After collection of semen it is washed so that to separate the sperms and seminal fluids. The option of sperm freezing is also available at Fortis Bloom wherein the male partner can donate the semen sample beforehand, in case he will not be available to do it on the same day. After the collection of sperms and eggs, the specialists at Fortis Bloom will use specific technique for the fertilization procedure. Afterwards, the sample is being stored in incubator for future use. Incubated eggs are kept undisturbed for 18-24 hours with regular checks under microscope for proper fertilization. The egg which gets fertilized and starts to divide is then known as the embryo. Embryo cells divide and have four to eight cells in them after 2-3 days of growth. This is the time when specialist checks the viability of embryos to be used for procedure by grading them according to the standards. Now is the time when you will be informed about the status of embryo and decision of fertility specialist over embryo transfer. 10. Embryo transfer Now is the time when selected embryos are transferred to catheter and then are transferred into the uterus with extreme care. This whole procedure is monitored by using ultrasound technique, which uses vaginal route. This step ensures the acceptance of embryo and hence is an important and crucial step of an IVF program. Procedure can be of little discomfort, and hence after resting for 20 minutes, one can go home. The maximum number of embryo transferred in single procedure is three embryos. In exceptional cases if a good quality embryo is seen, then that is stored in frozen state for later use. 11. Post transfer care Initial 14 days after the embryo transfer are the crucial ones, as during this time embryo attaches to uterus. To make this process a little more relieving few medications are prescribed with detailed description from specialist. You can do your routine work even after the procedure, as there is no compulsion that you have to take bed rest. Pregnancy test is done after 14 days of embryo transfer. If the test comes positive then it gives the confirmation of pregnancy and you can meet up with your doctor for future guidance on this stage. After 7-10 days, regular ultrasound procedures are done to check the pregnancy stage. If due to some unseen circumstances procedure failed and test result comes out to be negative then you have to stop medication with immediate effect and you have to keep track of your periods. This can be disappointing but a consultation with doctor about the failure is necessary, as you will be told for future course to be followed. ICSI – INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION ICSI was serendipity when happened in 1992, but yet effective in treating male infertility. It was until 1990s when males with low sperm count (less than 5 million per ml) or poor sperm quality were not able to father children. The reason behind this was the traditional IVF technique, which works on the fusion of sperms with fertilized egg that is a rare event in case of low sperm count, as only one sperm will be able to penetrate the egg and if the number of sperms are low the chances reduces gradually. However, with ICSI, single sperm can be injected by handling the fertilized egg in-vitro, which enables the use of single viable sperm. Candidates for ICSI ICSI is likely to be recommended if the male partner has: - A very low or zero sperm count - A high percentage of abnormally shaped sperm, or sperms with poor motility - Ejaculatory dysfunction due to spinal cord injury or malfunction such as quadriplegics or paraplegics - Retrograde ejaculation (ejaculation of the sperm into the urinary bladder) who’s partner fails to get pregnant with IUI - Patients where fertilization has failed with In Vitro Fertilization ICSI for men with zero sperm counts Azoospermia in males, i.e. where there is no sperm present in the semen, can be because of two reasons. It can either be of the obstructive type where there is production of sperms in the testis but blockage of the conduction system, which brings the sperm out into the semen. Alternately, the azoospermia may be of the non-obstructive type, where there is a failure of the testes to produce sperms. In both these cases sperms can be extracted either from the Epididymis, in a procedure known as percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA), or Testicle, in a procedure known as testicular sperm aspiration (TESA). Sometimes when these don’t yield sperms then a biopsy of testicular tissue is taken, which sometimes has sperm attached. This is called testicular sperm extraction (TESE) or micro-TESE, if the surgery is carried out with a microscope. Steps in ICSI Most of the steps in ICSI are similar to a standard IVF which include: - The woman is given injections called gonadotropins to produce many eggs - The egg growth is monitored by vaginal sonography and serial Estradiol hormone estimation - Once the leading follicles are 18 to 20 mm in size, a trigger injection of HCG is given - The oocyte or egg retrieval is then done under short general anesthesia 35 to 37 hours after HCG injection - The eggs are than identified from the fluid in a laboratory - Sperm collection and processing in the lab. In case of azoospermia (no sperms in the semen), the sperms are collected directly from the testis with the procedures of PESA/MESA/FTNB/TESE or TESA - The eggs are than dissected from surrounded material and healthy mature eggs are identified and placed into small droplets of culture media under oil - The sperms are also placed into small droplets of PVP under oil and immobilized with a microinjection needle and aspiration of the immobile sperm into the needle - The sperm is then injected into the egg and following that, they are placed in an incubator to provide them an optimum environment to fertilize and grow to form embryo - Of these embryos 1, 2 or 3 good quality embryos are selected depending upon the clinical history and age of the patient - These embryos can be transferred after 2 (four cell embryo), 3 (six-eight cell embryo) or 5 (blastocyst stage) days. If all goes well, an embryo will attach to your uterus wall and continue to grow to become your baby. After about two weeks, you will be able to take a pregnancy test How long does ICSI treatment last? One cycle of ICSI takes nearly four to six weeks for completion. Most of the treatment is an outpatient-based treatment requiring 4-6 hours admission only on the day of egg retrieval. The success rate for ICSI is higher than conventional IVF methods. A lot depends on your particular fertility problem and your age. The younger you are, the healthier your eggs usually are, and the higher your chances of success. IMSI (Intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection) As a new breakthrough in treating male infertility, a new microscope machine allows infertility specialists to pick the best quality sperm while carrying out the specialized test-tube baby procedure of ICSI. IMSI helps magnify the image of the sperm 7,200 times, thereby allowing doctors to pick the best looking healthier sperms. We at Fortis Bloom IVF Centre at Fortis LaFemme Hospital, are using this technique to enhance and maximize results. The machine is an advanced version of the earlier technique of Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), having the magnification capacity 16 times higher than ICSI. In ICSI technique, an egg is held and injected with the husband's sperm, with the help of a machine called micromanipulator. If the husband has no sperms, then sperms are obtained by doing a testicular biopsy. The fertilization occurs outside the woman's body. The baby / embryo is created outside the body of the mother and then placed inside the mother's womb. The IMSI method was first developed in 2004 by a team led by Benjamin Bartoov, of Barilan University in Israel, who used IMSI to select those sperms with a shape and size that indicated good genetic quality. The pregnancy rate in patients jumped from 30% to 66%. IMSI helps improve the success rate among men with the worst prognosis and is said to be more beneficial than ICSI in patients with previous two IVF or ICSI failures. It is also useful in couples with unexplained infertility. It has been shown that IMSI resulted in better egg fertilization rates, better quality embryos, better rate of blastocyst formation and therefore better pregnancy rates. This technique was discovered in order to minimize the chances of multiple pregnancies, which can occur, by IVF technique. This procedure also increases pregnancy rate as only few viable Blastocyst wibb are used during the procedure. Culturing of embryos is done for 3 days initially, which is the cleavage stage (4-10 cells), before they are transferred to uterus. After extending the time of culture to 5-6 days, culture attains Blastocyst stage (up to hundred of cells). This is the time when embryologist do the selection of the most viable and potential embryo for implantation. Blastocyst transfer may be appropriate for those patients who have: - A better chance of having Blastocyst development (this will be determined by age and infertility conditions) - Previous failed attempts at achieving a pregnancy - Strong concerns about delivering high-order multiple pregnancies It is important to consult with your doctor about whether blastocyst culture and transfer is for you. Some couples are unable to conceive because of issues with the female eggs. These patients immensely benefit from egg donation. Egg donation is recommended for: - Women with premature ovarian failure or menopause - Women with poor quality eggs - Carriers or women suffering from genetic disease, which can be transmitted to the offspring - Women with recurrent abortions or recurrent IVF failures In egg donation, a healthy young woman is selected, screened and then stimulated to produce multiple eggs, which are extracted and fertilized with the sperm of the recipient’s partner. Selecting an egg donor - Donor is typically a young healthy woman between the age of 21-and 30 years. Married women with normal and healthy children of their own, as egg donors are prefferred. - Medical history of the egg donor is elicited and we screen them for all possible disorders like infections e.g. HIV, Hep B, Hep C, Syphilis, genetic screening and thalassemia screening is also done. - Counselors do psychological screening of all egg donors. - Process of matching: These egg donors are matched with the recipient and we try to match the physical characters like height, complexion, hair color, eye color, and skin type and last but not the least the ethnicity. - Patients are also given an opportunity to select the donor on the grounds of social and educational background. How does the cycle work? Once we have finalized the donor, the next step is to synchronize the patient’s and the donor’s menstrual cycle. We then start stimulating the donor to produce egg and simultaneously we start the medicines for the recipient to develop the lining of the uterus, which enables the embryo to implant. Once the egg is mature, oocyte aspiration is done and then fertilized with the partner’s sperm of the recipient, and the embryo is transferred in the uterus of the patient after 2-3 days. The chances of conception in egg donation cycle at our centre is 40-50% per attempt. It is an excellent tool to help women with egg problem to fulfill their dreams of motherhood Surrogacy is a viable option for the couples in which mother is unable to give birth to a child due to some medical or undesirable medical grounds. In traditional surrogacy, the surrogate mother provides the oocyte as well as the uterus to foster pregnancy. However, in IVF surrogacy (otherwise known as ‘gestational surrogacy’ or ‘full surrogacy’), the surrogate mother carries a genetically unrelated baby produced by the gametes of the commissioning couple. Indications for gestational surrogacy include: - Conditions where the uterus is absent congenitally or after hysterectomy - Patients with damaged uterus as in asherman’s syndrome, multiple fibroids etc. - Recurrent abortions, Rh incompatibility or cervical incompetence - Patients with repeated failure of IVF treatment - Severe medical conditions where pregnancy can be life threatening like pulmonary hypertension Recruitment of Surrogates According to ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) the following guidelines have been laid down for the selection of surrogate mothers, which are strictly adhered to while recruiting these surrogates. - Surrogate mother should not be more than 45 years of age. Before accepting a woman as a possible surrogate, it must be fully ensured that the woman satisfies all the testable criteria to go through a successful full term pregnancy. - A relative, a known person, as well as an unknown person can act as a surrogate for the couple. In the case of a relative acting as a surrogate, the relative should belong to the same generation as the woman desiring surrogate. - A prospective surrogate mother must be tested for HIV and should be seronegative for the virus just before the embryo transfer. - No woman may act as a surrogate more than thrice in her lifetime. - All potential surrogates undergo a complete work-up, which includes screening for sexually transmitted disease, basic endocrinological test, and ultrasound of pelvis. We as a routine perform hysteroscopy in a previous cycle for all women to evaluate the uterine cavity. The commissioning couple and the gestational carrier along with their spouses then undergo psychological and legal counseling with appropriate legal contracts. Cycle Synchronization and Treatment Protocol Both the commissioning mother and the surrogate mother are put on oral contraceptive pills in the previous cycle in order to synchronize their menstrual cycles. Ovarian stimulation is done using gonadotropins starting on cycle day–2. The dose is adjusted according to ovarian response, which is monitored by doing transvaginal sonographies and serum estradiol levels. HCG is administered when two or more leading follicles reached ≥ 18mm and oocyte retrieval is done under general anesthesia after 34–36 hours. The gestational carriers undergo pituitary desensitization by a long acting GnRh analogue administered in the luteal phase of the previous cycle. All these then receive exogenous estrogen (estradiol valerate) therapy for endometrial preparation before the embryo transfer. Micronized Progesterone is added on the day of ovum pickup of the commissioning mother. On day 3 or day 5, embryo transfers are done. Post transfer luteal support is given to all the recipients in the form of estradiol valerate 6mg/day and micronized progesterone 600mg/day. ß–hcg test is done on day 14 post transfer to confirm pregnancy. If pregnancy is confirmed, luteal support is continued until 12 weeks of gestation. A similar protocol for preparation of gestational carrier is used in case of frozen embryo transfer cycles. Micronized progesterone is started once the endometrial thickness and endometrial blood flow is adequate on sonography. Embryo transfer is subsequently done on day 3 or day 5 of starting of progesterone.

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number(redirected from N A) Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Legal. number,entity describing the magnitude or position of a mathematical object or extensions of these concepts. The Natural Numbers Cardinal numbers describe the size of a collection of objects; two such collections have the same (cardinal) number of objects if their members can be matched in a one-to-one correspondence. Ordinal numbers refer to position relative to an ordering, as first, second, third, etc. The finite cardinal and ordinal numbers are called the natural numbers and are represented by the symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Both types can be generalized to infinite collections, but in this case an essential distinction occurs that requires a different notation for the two types (see transfinite numbertransfinite number, cardinal or ordinal number designating the magnitude (power) or order of an infinite set; the theory of transfinite numbers was introduced by Georg Cantor in 1874. ..... Click the link for more information. ). The Integers and Rational Numbers To the natural numbers one adjoins their negatives and zero to form the integers. The ratios a/b of the integers, where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0, constitute the rational numbers; the integers are those rational numbers for which b = 1. The rational numbers may also be represented by repeating decimals; e.g., 1/2 = 0.5000 … , 2/3 = 0.6666 … , 2/7 = 0.285714285714 … (see decimal systemdecimal system [Lat.,=of tenths], numeration system based on powers of 10. A number is written as a row of digits, with each position in the row corresponding to a certain power of 10. ..... Click the link for more information. ). The Real Numbers The real numbers are those representable by an infinite decimal expansion, which may be repeating or nonrepeating; they are in a one-to-one correspondence with the points on a straight line and are sometimes referred to as the continuum. Real numbers that have a nonrepeating decimal expansion are called irrational, i.e., they cannot be represented by any ratio of integers. The Greeks knew of the existence of irrational numbers through geometry; e.g., √2 is the length of the diagonal of a unit square. The proof that √2 is unable to be represented by such a ratio was the first proof of the existence of irrational numbers, and it caused tremendous upheaval in the mathematical thinking of that time. The Complex Numbers Numbers of the form z = x + yi, where x and y are real and i = √−1, such as 8 + 7i (or 8 + 7√−1), are called complex numbers; x is called the real part of z and yi the imaginary part. The real numbers are thus complex numbers with y = 0; e.g., the real number 4 can be expressed as the complex number 4 + 0i. The complex numbers are in a one-to-one correspondence with the points of a plane, with one axis defining the real parts of the numbers and one axis defining the imaginary parts. Mathematicians have extended this concept even further, as in quaternionsquaternion , in mathematics, a type of higher complex number first suggested by Sir William R. Hamilton in 1843. A complex number is a number of the form a+bi when a and b are real numbers and i ..... Click the link for more information. . The Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers A real or complex number z is called algebraic if it is the root of a polynomial equation zn + an − 1zn − 1 + … + a1z + a0 = 0, where the coefficients a0, a1, … an − 1 are all rational; if z cannot be a root of such an equation, it is said to be transcendental. The number √2 is algebraic because it is a root of the equation z2 + 2 = 0; similarly, i, a root of z2 + 1 = 0, is also algebraic. However, F. Lindemann showed (1882) that π is transcendental, and using this fact he proved the impossibility of "squaring the circle" by straight edge and compass alone (see geometric problems of antiquitygeometric problems of antiquity, three famous problems involving elementary geometric constructions with straight edge and compass, conjectured by the ancient Greeks to be impossible but not proved to be so until modern times. ..... Click the link for more information. ). The number e has also been found to be transcendental, although it still remains unknown whether e + π is transcendental. See G. Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers (1999). in linguistics, the grammatical category indicating the number of participants in an action—subjects and objects— through morphological means. The primary distinction in the category of number is between singular and plural. Some languages also have a dual number and, more rarely, a triple number. In the historical development of a language, the dual may weaken and be absorbed by the plural, as happened in the Slavic languages; for example, in the second person personal pronoun Old Church Slavonic distinguished singular (ty, “thou”), dual (va, “you two”), and plural (vy, “you”). The forms and meanings of the plural include the distributive plural, which indicates that plurality is thought of as consisting of individual objects (listy, “leaves”), and the collective plural, which indicates that plurality is thought of as a single aggregate (list’ia, “leaves”). Collective meaning can also be expressed by a singular form (triap’e, “rags,” voron’e, “crows”). Plural forms can also indicate the concept of class (generic plural) (v etoi mestnosti vodiatsia volki, “there are wolves in this area”). Plural forms may sometimes be used with the meaning of the singular, such as the polite, or honorific, form of the second person personal pronoun (vy, “you,” in addressing one person) and the plural form in the first person (my, “we”) as used in the speech of sovereigns. Number is an independent category in nouns and personal pronouns. Other parts of speech, including verbs, adjectives, and the other types of pronouns, acquire marking for number through agreement (syntactic number). Number agreement is obligatory in the Indo-European languages (on rabotaet, “he works,” oni rabotaiut, “they work”). However, as morphology becomes simpler, agreement may also disappear. For example, in English there is no number agreement between adjective and noun (“clever child,” “clever children”). There are various ways of expressing plural number: affixation (stol, “table,” stoly, “tables”), suppletion (chelovek, “person,” liudi, “people”), internal inflection (Arabic radžulun, “man,” ridžālun, “men,”), in which the root vowel changes, and reduplication (Indonesian [Malay] orang, “person,” orang-orang, “people”). In Indo-European languages the plural form is required if a noun is modified by a word denoting quantity (desiat’ knig, “ten books,” mnogo knig, “many books”); in other languages the noun may have the form of the singular in such constructions (Hungarian könyv, “book,” tu könyv, “ten books,” sok könyv, “many books”). In many Asian and American languages the plural of nouns used in constructions containing a numeral is expressed by means of special classifiers, which differ according to the lexical group to which the noun belongs. In such instances the nouns do not change their form (Vietnamese hai con meo, “two cats,” where con is the classifier). REFERENCESSapir, E. Iazyk. Moscow-Leningrad, 1934. (Translated from English.) Jespersen, O. Filosofiia grammatiki. Moscow, 1958. (Translated from English.) Reformatskii, A. A. “Chislo i grammatika.” In the collection Voprosy grammatiki. Moscow-Leningrad, 1960. Vinogradov, V. V. Russkii iazyk, 2nd ed. Moscow, 1972. V. A. VINOGRADOV the most important mathematical concept. The concept of number arose in simplest form in primitive society and over the ages has undergone changes, gradually growing richer in content with the expansion of the range of human activities and the range of problems requiring quantitative description and investigation. In the first stages of development, the concept of number was determined by the requirements of counting and measurement in man’s daily activities. Subsequently, number became the basic concept of mathematics, and the further development of the concept has been determined by the needs of mathematical science. The concept of natural number, or positive integer, arose as far back as prehistoric times in connection with the need to count objects. In general, its formation and development proceeded as follows. At the lower stage of primitive society, the concept of abstract number was nonexistent. This did not mean that primitive man was unable to ascertain the number of objects in a given set, such as the number of people involved in a hunt or the number of lakes in which fish could be caught. However, the consciousness of primitive man still could not perceive that which was common to various groups of objects, such as “three people” or “three lakes.” Analyses of the languages of primitive peoples have shown that different phrases were used in counting different objects. The word “three” was conveyed differently in the contexts of “three people” and “three boats.” Of course, such named number series were very short and terminated in a nonindividualized concept (“many”) of a large number of some object, which was also named, that is, expressed by different words for different kinds of objects, such as “crowd,” “herd,” and “pile.” The concept of abstract number emerged out of the primitive way of counting objects, consisting in comparing the objects of a given specific set with objects of some defined set that acts as a standard. Among most peoples, fingers served as the first such standard (“finger counting”), confirmed by linguistic analyses of the names of the first numbers. At this stage, number becomes abstract, independent of the nature of the objects being counted, and at the same time acts as a fully concrete embodiment associated with the nature of the reference set. The expanding needs of counting forced people to use other counting standards, such as notches on sticks. For recording comparatively large numbers, a new idea came to be used—the designation of some specific number (ten among most peoples) by a new symbol, for example, a notch on a different stick. With the development of writing, the possibilities of reproducing numbers expanded significantly. At first, numbers were denoted by lines on the writing material, such as papyrus or clay tablet. Later, other symbols were introduced to denote large numbers. The Babylonian cuneiform notations for numbers, like the Roman numerals that have been preserved to this day, clearly show that it was precisely in this manner that number notation developed. A major step forward was the Hindu positional numeration system, which made it possible to write any natural number by means of ten symbols—digits (seeNUMERATION SYSTEM). Thus, as writing developed, the concept of natural number assumed increasingly abstract form. Also, the abstract concept of number, expressed by special words in speech and denoted by special symbols in writing, became increasingly entrenched. An important step in the development of the concept of natural number was the recognition of the infiniteness of the sequence of natural numbers, that is, the possibility of its unlimited continuation. A clear understanding of the infiniteness of the sequence of natural numbers is reflected in Greek mathematical works (third century B.C.),specifically in Euclid’s and Archimedes’ works. The unlimited continuability of the sequence of prime numbers is established as early as Euclid’s Elements, and the principles for the construction of names and symbols for any large number, particularly numbers larger than the “number of grains of sand in the world,” are given in Archimedes’ book Sandreckoner. Operations on numbers came into use with the development of the concept of natural number in connection with the counting of objects. The operations of addition and subtraction originally arose as operations on sets themselves, in the form of the joining of two sets into one and the separation of part of a set. Multiplication, apparently, arose as a result of counting in equal parts (by twos or threes, for example), and division arose as the division of a set into equal parts (seeMULTIPLICATION and DIVISION). The abstract nature of these operations became evident after centuries of experience, as did the independence of the quantitative result of an operation from the nature of the objects forming the set, for example, that two objects and three objects will add up to five objects, regardless of the nature of the objects. Only then did mathematicians begin to develop the rules of operations, to study the operations, and to devise methods of solving problems; in other words, only then did the development of the science of numbers—arithmetic—begin (seeARITHMETIC). Arithmetic developed above all as a system of knowledge with an overt practical orientation. However, in the very process of its development, it became evident that there was a need to study the properties of numbers as such and to elucidate the increasingly complex regularities in their interrelations brought about by the very existence of the operations. The refinement of the concept of natural number began, and various classes, such as even and odd numbers and prime and composite numbers, became distinguished. The study of the deep-seated regularities of the natural numbers continues and constitutes the branch of mathematics known as number theory (seeNUMBERS, THEORY OF). Natural numbers, in addition to their primary function of characterizing the number of objects, have another function, that of characterizing the order of objects in a sequence. The concept of ordinal number (first, second, and so on), which arises in connection with this function, is closely linked with the concept of cardinal number (one, two, and so on). In particular, the most frequently used method of counting objects since time immemorial has been the placement of the objects being counted in a sequence and then counting them using ordinal numbers (for example, if the last object being counted is seventh, then the total number of objects is seven). The question of substantiating the concept of natural number is rather recent. The concept is so familiar and simple that the need for its definition in terms of some simpler concepts never arose. It was only in the mid–19th century, under the influence of the development of the axiomatic method in mathematics, on the one hand (seeAXIOMATIC METHOD), and the critical reassessment of the foundations of mathematical analysis, on the other, that the time became ripe for substantiating the concept of cardinal natural number. A clear definition of the concept of natural number based on the concept of set (an aggregate of objects) was provided in the 1870’s by G. Cantor. First, Cantor defines the concept of the equivalence of sets. Specifically, two sets are said to be equivalent if the objects of the sets can be put into one-to-one correspondence. Then the number of objects within a given set is defined as that which the given set and any other set of objects equivalent to it have in common. The definition reflects the essence of the natural number as that which results from counting the objects composing the given set. Indeed, at all historical levels, counting has consisted in comparing one by one the objects being counted with the objects constituting a “reference” set (in the early stages, the fingers of the hands and notches on sticks; today, words and symbols representing numbers). Cantor’s definition was the starting point for the extension of the concept of cardinal number from finite to infinite sets. Another substantiation of the concept of natural number is based on an analysis of the relation of succession, which, it turns out, can be axiomatized. A system of axioms constructed on the basis of this principle was formulated by G. Peano. It should be noted that the extension of the concept of ordinal number to infinite sets (transfinite ordinal numbers and, more generally, ordinal types) diverges sharply from the generalized concept of cardinal number, since quantitatively identical (equivalent) sets can be ordered by different methods. (SeeTRANSFINITE ORDINAL NUMBER and SET THEORY.) Historically, the first extension of the concept of number was the introduction of fractions. The first use of fractions was connected with the need to carry out measurements. The measurement of some quantity consists in comparing it with another qualitatively similar quantity, which is taken as the unit of measurement. This comparison is performed by means of the operation—specific to the method of measurement—of “applying” the unit of measurement to the quantity being measured and counting the number of such applications. Length is measured in this way by applying a segment that is taken as the unit of measurement, and the amount of a liquid is measured by means of a measuring vessel. However, the unit of measurement does not always fit the quantity being measured a whole number of times, a fact that cannot always be ignored, even in the most primitive practical activity. Herein lies the source of the simplest and most “convenient” fractions, such as one-half, one-third, and one-fourth. It was only with the development of arithmetic as the science of numbers that the idea emerged of considering fractions with any natural denominator, as well as the concept of fractional number as a quotient in the division of two natural numbers, of which the dividend is not divisible by the divisor (see FRACTION). The further extension of the concept of number was now no longer connected with the direct needs of counting and measurement but was a direct consequence of the development of mathematics. The introduction of negative numbers was brought about of necessity by the development of algebra as the science providing general methods for the solution of arithmetic problems, regardless of content or given numerical data. The need for negative numbers in algebra arose in the solution of problems that reduce to linear equations with one unknown. A possible negative answer in problems of this kind may be interpreted by using as examples very simple directed quantities (oppositely directed segments, motion in the direction opposite to the direction chosen, property-debt). However, in problems that involve the repeated application of the operations of addition and subtraction, a great many cases must be considered in the course of a solution if negative numbers are not used, which may prove to be so burdensome a task that the advantage of an algebraic solution over an arithmetic solution is lost. Thus, the extensive use of algebraic methods in solving problems is extremely difficult unless negative numbers are used. In India negative numbers were used systematically as early as the sixth to 11th centuries in problem solving and were interpreted basically as they are today. In European science the use of negative numbers did not become firmly established until the time of R. Descartes, who provided geometrical interpretation of negative numbers as directed line segments. Descartes’s creation of analytic geometry, which made it possible to consider the roots of an equation as the coordinates of the points of intersection of some curve with the axis of abscissas, at long last eliminated the fundamental difference between the positive and negative roots of an equation, since their interpretation proved to be essentially the same. Integers and fractions, both positive and negative, as well as the digit zero, were grouped under the general term “rational numbers.” The set of rational numbers is said to be closed with respect to the four arithmetic operations. This means that the sum, difference, product, and quotient (except the quotient in division by zero, which is meaningless) of any two rational numbers is also a rational number. The set of rational numbers is ordered with respect to the concepts of greater than and less than. Furthermore, it has the property of density: there are infinitely many rational numbers between any two different rational numbers. This makes it possible to carry out various measurements, for example, of the length of a line segment using a selected unit of measurement, to any degree of accuracy by means of rational numbers. Thus, the set of rational numbers turns out to be sufficient to satisfy many practical needs. The formal substantiation of the concepts of fraction and negative number was accomplished in the 19th century and, in contrast to the substantiation of the concept of natural number, posed no fundamental difficulties. The set of rational numbers proved insufficient for the study of continuously changing variables, which necessitated a further extension of the concept of number, consisting in the transition from the set of rational numbers to the set of real numbers. This transition involved the addition to the rational numbers the irrational numbers. A discovery of vast fundamental importance was made by the ancient Greeks: not all precisely defined line segments (the term “precisely defined” itself is an idealization inherent in geometry) are commensurable; that is, the length of a line segment cannot always be expressed by rational numbers if another line segment is taken as the unit. A classic example of incommensurable line segments is the side of a square and its diagonal. That incommensurable line segments exist was not an impediment to the development of geometry. The Greeks worked out a theory of the ratios of segments, presented in Euclid’s Elements, that takes into account the possibility of incommensurability. The Greeks knew how to compare the magnitude of such ratios and to perform arithmetic operations on them (in purely geometrical form); that is, they treated them as numbers. However, they did not fully perceive the idea that the ratio of the lengths of incommensurable line segments may be considered as numbers. This may be attributed to the idealist separation of theoretical mathematics from practical problems prevalent in the school to which Euclid belonged. In Archimedes’ works we find greater interest in practical problems, particularly approximate calculations of the ratios of incommensurable line segments, but even Archimedes did not develop the concept of irrational number as a number that expresses the ratio of the lengths of incommensurable line segments. In the 17th century, the era of the birth of modern science, particularly modern mathematics, a number of methods of studying continuous processes and methods of approximate calculations were developed. A clear definition of the concept of real number is given by I. Newton, one of the founders of mathematical analysis, in Arithmetica universalis: “By number we mean not so much a set of units as the abstract ratio of some quantity to another quantity of the same kind that we have taken as unity.” This formulation gives a unified definition of a real number, whether rational or irrational. Later, in the 1870’s, the concept of real number was refined on the basis of a detailed analysis of the concept of continuity in the works of R. Dedekind, G. Cantor, and K. Weierstrass. According to Dedekind, the property of continuity of a straight line consists in the fact that if all the points that make up a straight line are divided into two classes such that every point of the first class lies to the left of every point of the second class (that is, if the straight line is “broken” into two parts), then either the first class contains a rightmost point or the second class contains a leftmost point In either case, the “extreme” point is the point at which the “break” of the straight line occurred. The set of all rational numbers does not possess the property of continuity. If the set of all rational numbers is divided into two classes such that every number of the first class is smaller than every number of the second, then upon such a subdivision (a Dedekind cut) it may turn out that there will be no largest number in the first class and no smallest number in the second. This will be the case, for example, if all negative rational numbers, zero, and all positive (rational) numbers whose square is less than 2 are placed in the first class and all positive (rational) numbers whose square is greater than 2 are placed in the second class. Such a cut is said to be irrational. Then the following definition of an irrational number is given: with every irrational cut in the set of rational numbers we associate an irrational number assumed to be larger than any number of the first class and smaller than any number of the second class. The set of all real numbers, both rational and irrational, already has the property of continuity. Cantor’s substantiation of the concept of real number differs from Dedekind’s, although it too is based on an analysis of the concept of continuity. Both Dedekind’s. and Cantor’s definitions use the abstraction of the actual infinite. For example, in Dedekind’s theory an irrational number is defined by means of a cut in the set of all rational numbers, which is conceived as being given in its entirety. Recent years have seen the development of the concept of computable numbers, that is, numbers approximations to which can be given by means of some algorithm. This concept is defined on the basis of a refined concept of algorithm and without resorting to the abstraction of the actual infinite. The final stage in the development of the concept of number was the introduction of complex numbers (seeCOMPLEX NUMBERS). The concept of complex number emerged in the course of algebra’s development. Apparently, it first arose among 16th-century Italian mathematicians (G. Cardano, R. Bombelli) in connection with the discovery of the algebraic solution of third-and fourth-degree equations. It is known that even the solution of a quadratic equation can sometimes lead to the operation of extracting the square root of a negative number, which cannot be performed in the domain of real numbers. This occurs only in cases when the equation does not have real roots. A practical problem that reduces to the solution of such a quadratic equation turns out to have no solution. The following fact was observed in connection with the discovery of the algebraic solution of third-degree equations. If all three roots of the equation are real numbers, then it proves necessary, in the course of calculations, to extract the square root of a negative number. The “imaginariness” that arises in this case disappears only if all subsequent operations are performed. This fact was the first stimulus to the study of complex numbers. However, mathematicians were slow to accept the use of complex numbers and operations performed on them. The remnants of disbelief in the legitimacy of complex numbers are reflected in the term “imaginary,” preserved to this day. This disbelief was dissipated only after the establishment, in the late 18th century, of the geometrical interpretation of complex numbers as points in a plane and the establishment of the indisputable benefit derived from the introduction of complex numbers in the theory of algebraic equations, especially after the celebrated work of K. Gauss. Even before Gauss, in the works of L. Euler, complex numbers played a significant role not only in algebra but also in mathematical analysis. They acquired particular importance in the 19th century, in connection with the development of the theory of functions of a complex variable. The set of all complex numbers, like the set of real numbers and the set of rational numbers, is closed with respect to the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Moreover, the set of all complex numbers has the property of algebraic closure, which means that every algebraic equation with complex coefficients has roots that are also in the domain of all complex numbers. The set of all real numbers, especially the rational numbers, does not have the property of algebraic closure. For example, the equation x2 + 1 = 0, with real coefficients, does not have real roots. As established by Weierstrass, the set of all complex numbers cannot be enlarged by the inclusion of new numbers in such a way that all laws of operation that are valid in the set of complex numbers are preserved in the enlarged set. In addition to the main line of development of the concept of number (natural numbers→rational numbers→real numbers→complex numbers), the specific requirements of certain branches of mathematics have engendered various generalizations of the concept of number in essentially different directions. For example, in branches of mathematics associated with set theory, the aforementioned concepts of cardinal and ordinal transfinite numbers are of major importance, P-adic numbers, systems of which are obtained from systems of rational numbers by the inclusion of new entities different from irrational numbers, have assumed major importance in modern number theory. Various systems of entities possessing properties that are more or less close to those of the set of integers or rational numbers—groups, rings, fields, and algebras (seeGROUP; RING, ALGEBRAIC; and FIELD)—are being studied in algebra. (See alsoHYPERCOMPLEX NUMBERS.) REFERENCESIstoriia matematiki, vols. 1–3. Moscow, 1970–72. Van der Waerden, B. L. Probuzhdaiushchaiasia nauka. Moscow, 1959. (Translated from Dutch.) Entsiklopediia elementarnoi matematiki, book 1: Arifmetika. Moscow-Leningrad, 1951. Nechaev, V. I. Chislovye sistemy. Moscow, 1972. D. K. FADDEEV

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How is cocoa butter made? Some companies use solar panels or dry ovens for the drying process, while small businesses may simply sundry the cocoa beans. In the United States, 100% cocoa butter must be used for the product to be called chocolate. The step removes any excess moisture from the cocoa beans. The edible kind includes a fermentation process that produces cocoa butter worthy of making high-quality chocolate. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. The cocoa nibs are ground to form cocoa mass, which is liquid at temperatures above the melting point of cocoa butter and is known as cocoa liquor or chocolate liquor. How Cocoa is Made. Focus on profit margins by cocoa growers in major producing countries such as Ivory Coast and Ghana, is taking the cocoa, cocoa butter and processed cocoa markets to a more organized level. Cocoa butter is becoming more and more expensive because of the demand all over the world. , Cocoa butter is becoming increasingly costly. And yes, cocoa butter is vegan, despite having the name ‘butter’ plastered onto it. Anyway is the provider Overly Building confidence. Here is a simple breakdown of the steps involved in the cocoa making process. The final step is pressing the bean to separate the cocoa butter. As a nontoxic solid at room temperature that melts at body temperature, it is considered an ideal base for medicinal suppositories. On average, cocoa beans are 50-54% made up of cocoa butter. After the Cocoa Beans are extracted from the inside of a Cocoa Fruit, the beans are cleaned, roasted and then usually pressed in hydraulic machinery. eval(ez_write_tag([[250,250],'foodiosity_com-leader-1','ezslot_5',137,'0','0']));The process improves the quality of the beans and the quality of the products extracted from them. This can easily happen when chocolate bars are allowed to melt in a hot room and leads to the formation of white patches on the surface of the chocolate called fat bloom or chocolate bloom.. This site is owned and operated by Ciuraru Dragos PFA, and is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com. To make cocoa butter, cocoa beans are first fermented then roasted. Set the stove at a lower heat and melt the cocoa butter buttons on a saucepan. You. 120 g. Cocoa Butter 12 g. fat-soluble powdered colorant. Make sure the box has small hols on the bottom, and is raised off the ground. Other companies prefer to grind the beans into a pulp then press the pulp to extract the oil. Lower moisture content ensures that companies get the purest form of cocoa butter. The manufacturer supplies the cocoa butter in liquid form in tankers, or in solidified form in cardboard boxes. Of course, you can keep it in a colder place like a pantry or the fridge, and it will keep very long. Cocoa butter is also unusual in that it melts at 89 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit -- just below body temperature -- and so is responsible for giving chocolate its melt-in-your-mouth appeal. These beans are fermented and roasted, which separates the saturated fat or cocoa butter from the solids, such as cocoa powder. Last but not least, cocoa butter resists oxidation and rancidity very well, allowing it to be stored at room temperature for years without spoiling. And yes, it's brown. Some manufacturers prefer roasting the beans instead of the fermentation process. Here’s What To Know, Why Is Almond Milk So Expensive ? This structure is obtained by chocolate tempering. Largely made up of cholesterol-neutral fatty acids, it’s perfect eaten on its own or even mixed with our Peruvian powder and agave sweetener for homemade chocolate treats. These cocoa beans are the same ones that produce chocolate and cocoa powder. The remnants are then processed into cocoa powder. Cocoa butter is the fat pressed from of the cocoa bean. It’s beautiful, rich colour comes from the addition of cocoa butter and exotic bacuri butter, both of which are very emollient and therefore ideal for dry or mature skin. The grinding step ensures the maximum extraction of cocoa butter from the cocoa beans. The standard butter you find in the supermarket is made using raw cow’s milk – and lots of it. Then they're roasted, stripped, and pressed to separate out the fat—the cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is becoming more and more expensive because of the demand all over the world. - Before we cook anything, the first thing we have to do is make our marinade, per se. We can find cocoa butter in numerous chocolate bars, truffles, recipes, and also personal skincare products. Make an ultra-moisturizing whipped DIY body butter with the delicious scent of peppermint and hot cocoa. Some companies opt to dry the pods and extract the beans later, but it takes longer to dry them.eval(ez_write_tag([[250,250],'foodiosity_com-large-leaderboard-2','ezslot_4',136,'0','0'])); Some cocoa beans are attached, and they are separated when being extracted from the pods. There are two ways that the cold pressing process can go. Next, you need to dry the cocoa beans. This produces a substance from which Cocoa Butter is extracted, and the remaining solids are processed into cocoa powder, which is another ingredient in Chocolate. My family calls it epis, it's basically our go-to seasoning for everything, it's like celery, green peppers, a crap ton of garlic, some shallots, some scallions, lemon juice and a little bit of chicken bouillon and that's it. However, cocoa butter contains zero percent dairy, so it is entirely vegan. It is valued for its melting characteristics, remaining brittle at room temperature or lower but melting just below body temperature. Cocoa butter is a natural type of vegetable fat that is extracted from cocoa beans and is the same healthy fat that is used to make chocolate. Use Refined Cocoa Butter whenever you make body butter. Adding cocoa butter is what makes your homemade body butter a terrific skin softener with an organic chocolate aroma. For a fat melting around body temperature, cocoa has good stability. The cocoa liquor is now ready for use as an ingredient of chocolate. Cocoa butter can be added to chocolate. Keep in mind that the butter will have a yellowish color after the extraction, don’t expect it to be brown. Jojoba oil in this recipe has many different advantages, too. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma.Its melting point is just below human body temperature. Studies have also indicated that the antioxidants found in cocoa can aid in preventing oxidative stress. We’ve covered how to store cocoa butter in this article, and you’ll also find out how you can make it last longer. Understanding how cocoa butter is made can help you when you decide to extract some as a DIY project. Cocoa Butter is a solid butter rich in antioxidants, vitamins and fatty acids that deeply penetrate the layers of skin to moisturize, improve elasticity and protect it. This needs to be done for about 10 days if you’re using large, full boxes. Once the milk is delivered it will be pumped directly from the delivery truck into a machine called ‘the separator’. Compare how to make Cocoa Butter and Butter explained in simple steps here. Set the controller to 92.4 F (or 122 F and make great steaks!!) With the non-harmful Substances sets can i use cocoa butter to make CBD salve on known Effecttypes. The purpose of fermentation is to intensify the flavor of the beans. Some manufacturers prefer to roast or ferment the cocoa beans before drying them. In less than an hour you can press the butter from a pound cocoa nibs and be on your way to a higher level of single origin chocolate. Although factory produced butter goes through a rigorous process, it is actually simple enough to make at home. Ripe cocoa pods are red, and the cocoa beans inside will be white. The process begins with roasting cocoa beans, stripping them of their hulls, revealing cocoa nibs. This recipe is not hard to make. The beans are then roasted and separated from their hulls to produce cocoa nibs. The boiling point of cocoa butter is low, but it will be solid during the cold seasons. Rather, along with cocoa powder, it is one of the two major products made from the cocoa bean. Or, you can always buy cocoa butter for topical application when you want to make shampoos, conditioners, lotions, and creams. Keep in mind that cocoa butter has no caffeine in it, the majority of caffeine remains within the solids (cocoa powder). "Cocoa liquor, cocoa butter, sugar and milk powder. Extract the butter at home and whip up a highly … Cocoa butter, unlike non-fat cocoa solids, contains only traces of caffeine and theobromine. Variants of cocoa butter are becoming popular due to increasing health consciousness amongst end users and cost-effectiveness amongst manufacturers. It’s typically used to make skin care or food products, such as chocolate. To harness cocoa butter, the beans are taken out of the larger cacao plant. The results are similar no matter the procedure manufacturers use. Once you’ve got the beans in one spot, cover them and stir them every two days, changing the box with each stir. Then pour into a shallow container and let it set for a few hours. About 54–58% of the cocoa nibs is cocoa butter. This may take a while however, turn off the heat when all the buttons are nearly melted to avoid overheating. The Acquisition is without Recipe feasible & can by a secure Management made be. At room temperature, this oil solidifies just like coconut oil. The beans are flipped during the process to ensure they dry evenly and prevent moisture accumulation on the rack. The cocoa plant produces a cocoa pod that is full of cocoa beans on the inside. Cocoa butter is also unusual in that it melts at 89 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit -- just below body temperature -- and so is responsible for giving chocolate its melt-in-your-mouth appeal. Step 5: Clean out the filter. The cocoa liquor is now ready for use as an ingredient of chocolate. Instead of olive oil, however, you get theobroma oil. Always check the butter before using for any texture changes or to note if it has an unpleasant odor. When the cocoa butter has fully melted, stir in the cocoa powder, sweetener, vanilla, sea salt and any additional flavours you want to add. Not only will you enjoy the deep, rich scent of vanilla and chocolate, but your bath becomes a silky smooth haven from life's stress. So, how is Cocoa butter made? You can use cocoa butter for desserts or skincare, and both will only make you want even more chocolate. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. To make cocoa butter, freshly harvested cocoa beans are first fermented, dried, and roasted. Cocoa butter has a smooth texture and is the natural fat of the Cacao Bean - Cocoa Beans. Cocoa Butter is great in all bath and body products, and contributes hardness to CP soap. Cocoa butter is a single ingredient food product extracted directly from the cocoa bean. eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'foodiosity_com-medrectangle-4','ezslot_1',124,'0','0']));You need to harvest cocoa pods and remove the seeds. Next, you need to dry the cocoa beans. How cocoa butter is made. The global Cocoa Butter Equivalent (CBE) market is valued at 1566.2 million US$ in 2020 is expected to reach 1917.4 million US$ by the end of 2026, growing at a CAGR of 2.9% during 2021-2026. Cocoa butter is sometimes deodorized to remove strong or undesirable tastes. Keep in mind that cold pressed or raw cacao butter is always more expensive than regular cocoa butter. This application continues to dominate consumption of cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is used in all kinds of products too ! The treated press cake is then cooled, pulverized, and sifted to form cocoa powder. Extract the butter at home and whip up a highly moisturizing cream in the comfort of your home. The cold pressing method ensures that you get the purest form of cocoa butter. Sun-drying can take a few days before the beans have extremely low moisture content. The steps include harvesting the beans, drying, fermentation, and cold pressing. Cocoa beans have a complex journey from jungle trees to foil-wrapped confections. Although the butter has a long shelf life, many people want to know if it can go bad. Yes, one of the most amazing sweets on this earth lends half its flavor to cocoa butter. Melting the cocoa butter in chocolate and then allowing it to solidify without tempering leads to the formation of unstable polymorphic forms of cocoa butter. If you decide to melt your cocoa butter, set your controller to 92 F. Put your chopped up cocoa butter in … you're going to get layers separated by gravity. Know to can i use cocoa butter to make CBD salve. Adulterated cocoa butter is indicated by its lighter color and its diminished fluorescence upon ultraviolet illumination. Cocoa butter has a smooth texture and is the natural fat of the Cacao Bean - Cocoa Beans. You should try to buy cold-pressed cocoa butter if possible, especially if you’re looking for more nutrients. The pods are ready for harvest when they turn a deep shade of red. Cocoa butter displays polymorphism, having different crystalline forms with different melting points. Unlike cocoa butter, adulterated fat tends to smear and have a higher non-saponifiable content. And, that’s the process. 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People associate with dairy milk find the purest form of cocoa butter cake is then cooled, pulverized, products. Mitre 10 Herbs, New Construction Projects In Dighi, Pune, Shadow Bonnie Music Box, Mobile County Business License, Aecon Heavy Equipment Operator Jobs, Guess The Meme Roblox, How To Kick In Street Fighter 2,

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A Great Book for Grades 6-8+ The 2019 young adult book Look Both Ways by Jason Reynolds is beloved in middle school classrooms and summer reading lists for good reason. This collection of ten short stories about students walking home from the same school has won numerous awards, including a Coretta Scott King Award Honor and National Book Award finalist. Analysis vs. Review What follows in this article is an analysis of the novel, going into detail about the motifs, messages, and hidden meanings. If you’re wondering who I am to be writing this article — good job checking your sources! — my name is Ms. Marshall and I’ve been an English teacher since 2003. I hold National Board Certification in ELA, and am also a writer and illustrator. There WILL be spoilers here, so make sure you’ve finished the book before reading on. If you would prefer a spoiler-free review, here are links to the New York Times and Washington Post write-ups. The summary of these reviews, and mine too, is that Look Both Ways is a fantastic, engaging, original novel which is well worth reading — no matter how old you are. Regardless of which article you use to better understand this book, please remember to always properly cite and attribute your sources. Scroll to the end for more citation help. Further, if you’ve been assigned to read the book and are just reading this as a summary to avoid reading, please go back and actually get the book because you’re majorly missing out if you don’t experience it, and it is a foundation of academic integrity to interact with the text itself versus just an analysis by someone else. If you have trouble accessing the book, reach out to your local library (by email or social media) and they can help you get an electronic or hard copy for FREE. Now… on to the analysis! Look Both Ways: Themes and Motifs What is refreshing and beautiful about Look Both Ways is that it tackles the wild liminal space of middle school and early high school by honoring the humor, poetry, and kindness in life instead of dwelling only on pain. Young adult books can be notoriously depressing, so it is much appreciated that Reynolds balances laugh-out-loud funny scenes with poignant ones. This leads to one of the messages of the book: Negative stereotypes surrounding middle school kids (especially Black and Brown students) ignore so much beauty, wit, and brilliance within these young people and their communities. Each of the ten stories in the collection highlights different forms of that power. “Looking Both Ways” The fundamental framework of “Look Both Ways” is the motif (recurring element) of… looking both ways. Now, the literal meaning of course is that all the kids in the story need to check both left and right before crossing each street for oncoming cars — a fact which becomes particularly important in the last chapter — but what is the figurative (metaphorical or symbolic) meaning of this “looking both ways?” Figuratively, looking both ways is about seeing two (or more) sides of a person or situation. For example, a student who is seen as a “bad kid” or troublemaker is revealed to have a truly kind heart and ingenious mind, and a “crazy lady” ends up uttering one of the wisest questions of the book. The message? Everything and everyone has multiple facets, and it’s highly damaging to forget that. A School Bus Falling from the Sky Every chapter of Look Both Ways has a reference to a “school bus falling from the sky,” and the literal origin of the phrase isn’t revealed until the last chapter: that a boy threw a broom head into the air, and his mother said it looked like a school bus tumbling from the heavens. The book ends with the lines, “a school bus is many things. So is a walk home” (Reynolds 188). Clearly there are layers and layers of figurative meaning to this flying bus image. The biggest one connects back to the message that there is SO MUCH more to middle school life than stereotypes: especially innovation and creativity. The first three pages of Chapter 10 consist of a list of the endless things a school bus can be, including a science lab, court of law, and recording booth (173-5). Each of the items in the list highlights the inventive power of young minds. What I love about the phrase “school bus falling from the sky” is that it cleverly tricks the reader by activating negative scripts. For the entire book, I was terrified that there was going to be a horrible car crash somewhere involving the bus. It wasn’t until the end of the last chapter that I realized that Reynolds was playing with the trope of tragedy in young adult books. What a relief to come to the conclusion and see the truth was about imagination, joy, and freedom! The other aspect I enjoyed about the “school bus falling from the sky” image was that in its uniqueness and mystery, the repeated phrase adds an air of magical realism to the entire novel. Each chapter I wondered: Would the characters suddenly be able to fly like that mysterious bus that keeps being mentioned? Would houses levitate? Indeed, this sense of magic is true to the middle school experience, because what is stranger and more mystical than one’s entire body and mind morphing during adolescence? A final meaning of the “school bus falling from the sky” motif is the message that these ten student stories are universal. You could drop any school bus from any part of the country out of the sky and follow the kids home, and find all the same elements of love, fear, discovery, and innovation. Yes, the tales are based on many of Reynolds’s actual experiences growing up in the D.C. and Maryland area, but any middle schooler in any part of the country — or world — will recognize themselves in some part of the book. As an adult, I still did! Interconnections Between Stories One of the delights of Look Both Ways is the subtle and small ways some of the stories are connected. For example, one student notices flowers missing from a rosebush she walks by (65), and in a later chapter we realize that a boy picked them to apologize to his friend. Each of these tiny interconnections emphasizes the message: There is always a deep and important story behind everything, even a missing flower. We must be alert to appreciate them, and curious enough to learn about them instead of assuming, ignoring, or stereotyping. 9/2/20 update from a reader named Shannon Gilly: “Another interconnection between all the stories in the book is that each chapter is essentially a different versions of the homework assignment that is mentioned!” A powerful takeaway of this motif to remind teachers how many ways a single assignment can be completed, and to leave room as educators for unexpected answers. Look Both Ways Chapter Analysis: 1: Water Booger Bears This opening chapter is designed to rope in the age set that enjoys irreverent topics such as snot. However, it expertly pairs the booger discussion with very real young adult topics like friendship, the meaning of life, divorce, and foster care — all in a poetic and accessible way that doesn’t feel heavy-handed. In fact, this is the first teen text I’ve read which touches on sickle cell anemia: something that many students I’ve taught have experienced, but which rarely makes it into books. Reynolds builds suspense at first by referring to the student Jasmine’s “attack,” making the reader think that this will be another story of kids beating each other up… then revealing “She ain’t get jumped or nothing. Instead her body attacked itself” with the disease (8). In the last line of the chapter, Ms. Macy asks Jasmine what the two kids learned that day, and they reply, “Nothing.” This is a perfect way to launch the short stories in Look Both Ways because it shows how often adults don’t (or can’t) see the immensely intellectual and imaginative inner world of young adults. For example, the entire middle of the chapter consists of Jasmine and TJ discussing, analyzing, and extending learning from classes (in particular, Mr. Fantana’s Biology lesson about water bears), pairing these school lessons with theological and ontological inquiries — and their own lived experiences — to make meaning of the world. The ultimate message of this chapter is that young people are brilliant, strong, and hilarious… and we mustn’t forget that, even when they’re hard to reach. 2: The Low Cuts Strike Again This is one of the most moving chapters in the whole book. It follows four “troublemaker” children who are known for stealing change. Through a series of ingenious moves, the kids are able to turn a few coins into fresh ice cream for a parent ailing with cancer. “The Low Cuts Strike Again” perfectly epitomizes the book’s message to “look both ways” beyond stereotypes or assumptions. By the end of the chapter, we realize how resourceful, hard-working, and caring these young people are, though it seemed from the chapter’s title and opening that we would be reading about rule-breaking hooligans. Let’s examine the title for a moment. “Strike again” makes it seem as if these kids will be violently attacking or robbing someone. However, the double meaning of “strike” is revealed at the end to instead be akin to a triumphant Strike in the context of bowling: That glorious moment when all of the pins are knocked down with a single ball. In other words, the moment when everything works perfectly. 3: Skitter Hitter I found this chapter the heaviest, as it deals with (albeit in a poetic and middle-school-appropriate way) bullying, death, domestic violence, and how to get help or make things better when pain is deep. This was the one chapter I had to take breaks from reading due to the sadness, but my worst fears about what would happen didn’t occur. It’s an important piece in Look Both Ways because the characters in it appear fleetingly in other chapters, highlighting the fact that the people we race by every day (and rarely give a second thought to) all have stories worth hearing — stories which help us understand their actions. 4: How to Look (Both) Both Ways “How you gon’ change the world?” is the line sung (repeatedly) by Benni Austin, the “offbeat” woman in the street who sees the student, Fatima, every day on her walk home. These words are also written across the back of the Look Both Ways book cover, emphasizing their centrality to the novel. So what does this line mean? In this chapter, we learn that Fatima has hyper-observant and structured behavior patterns which might correlate with the autism spectrum or OCD. Through the girl’s meticulous notes, we’re able to learn very specific details about other students and the neighborhood — some of which we later learn more about from other chapters. This is the first hint about the meaning of “How you gon’ change the world?” because it shows that every small thing that someone does can make a difference. At the end of the chapter, Fatima writes, “I might want to be wet cement to fill the cracks in the sidewalk […] to stop someone else from tripping. Or maybe I’d be an umbrella to keep rain from someone’s head” (75). Though Fatima goes on to say, “I don’t think either of those things would change the world,” we realize as we read on in the book that such small actions — in the metaphorical sense — CAN change things. Take, for example, the missing flowers from the rosebush that Fatima notices on page 65. It’s revealed in the next chapter that these roses were picked by Ty to thank Bryson for defending him, and to repair their friendship. This little action of grabbing the flowers changed the world by repairing a relationship. In the final line of the chapter, Fatima says, “I tell [Benni] I don’t know. […] I don’t know how to change the world. Then ask her if she’d maybe let me borrow one of her instruments to play” (75). We learned earlier that Benni’s “instruments” are imaginary: for example, pretending her umbrella is a guitar. Given this, we can take the last line of the chapter to mean that we can change the world through imagination, creativity, and connection with others. 5: Call of Duty This powerful chapter deals with homophobia, toxic masculinity, and internalized oppression. The title has a double meaning, alluding both to the video game name, and to the real-world question of what duty a person has to defend someone who is being bullied. The protagonist, Bryson, excels at courageously answering the call of duty in the online and in-person world. The story explores the many complex faces of “masculinity.” It opens by describing Bryson’s beaten-up self after a physical fight at school (a stereotypically hyper-masculine image) which is then juxtaposed with Bryson’s father kissing his son on the cheek and saying “I love you:” a protective, lovingly-expressed version of paternal masculinity. As the chapter progresses, we see the courageous masculinity of Bryson standing up for his friend Ty — surprisingly carried out with a kiss. Then there is the masculine wise sage as Bryson states: “Those that scar you are you” meaning either that those who you bully and are upset by are actually just versions of yourself that you’re ashamed of, or that people who say hurtful things can actually become embedded in your own mind in a form of internalized oppression (88) . The closing moment is brilliant. Why Ty appears at Bryson’s door, Bryson says, “Hey, man, we’d better wash that blood off your hand” (93) which you’d think would be about something violent — but the bleeding was actually caused by Ty picking roses for Bryson as thanks for defending him. What a perfect way to sum up the “both ways” nature of “call of duty:” Duty can encompass both violence and the kindness of caring. 6: Five Things Easier to Do Than Simeon and Kenzi’s Secret Handshake A theme of this chapter is finding connection even when there is pain. This is epitomized in the moment when the two friends, Kenzi and Simeon, are walking through their neighborhood, and the narrator explains, “Most people tighten up when they walk down Chestnut. […] But for Kenzo and Simeon, this was where they could let loose” (107). In other words, many people negatively stereotype the street as a dangerous or “bad” place, but these boys see its beauty. The paragraph goes on to show how they know the shopkeepers, who in turn know their families — demonstrating the close-knit and caring aspect of this street which others “tighten up” at and don’t understand. This street goes “both ways” in terms of what it symbolizes to people! It is no accident that Reynolds wrote Simeon as physically huge and Kenzi as tiny, with an exceedingly complex handshake between them. This symbolizes how in this world, two total opposites can be joined — though it’s not always easy to understand how they connect. 9/20/20 Update from a reader named Shannon Gilly: “At a book talk event WITH Jason Reynolds, he gave us a little ‘nugget’ from Look Both Ways that Simeon and Kenzi’s handshake was actually sign language for ‘I can hear you even when the world can’t.’” WOW!!! Thank you so much for letting us in on that hidden beauty, Shannon. I encourage any other readers with insights on the book to leave comments as well so we can build knowledge together! 7: Satchmo’s Master Plan This chapter is about how fear can run a person’s life (and also really give the imagination a workout!) — but it’s also about how something that seems scary can turn out to be a lifesaver. Satchmo’s terror of dogs — and constant planning about how to avoid one –remind me so much of mental gymnastics I do, myself, when I get fixated on fear of something. Satchmo’s five-page plan for what to do to escape the dog shows the creativity that a petrified mind can produce. In the last line of the story, however, we learn at the same time as Satchmo that the dog he thought would be a brutal beast is actually a loving pup who is guiding Mr. Jerry through grief and loneliness and giving him a new lease on life. A dog — or any potentially scary thing — can go both ways. 8: Ookabooka Land What a wonderful and poignant chapter! What stood out most to me in this story was the demonstration of how a teacher can honor a “disruptive” student for the good of everyone. Mrs. Stevens explains, “This was the only way to keep Cynthia from disrupting and derailing the entire lesson. […] If Cynthia could be attentive and serious all class, she would get the last five minutes to do her thing” (137-9). As an educator, I find this out-of-the-box solution inspiring! The rest of the chapter shows how behind every “loudmouth student” is a complex and often poignant story that is worth knowing — and are skills of ingenuity which are too often untapped or ignored… but could make the world smile. Ultimately this chapter is about the power of determination in the face of setbacks, and the centrality of humor in connecting and uplifting the human spirit. 9: How a Boy Can Become a Grease Fire I loved this chapter. It is a familiar story of a boy trying to ask a girl out, and his friends trying to help him “beautify” to wow her — but it’s told in a hilarious, unique way that keeps you guessing about whether all the primping and preening will work. The end result is heart-warming and very real in its middle school awkwardness. The closing line, “Sandra was smiling. And Gregory thought maybe it was the kind of smile that came just before laughing. […] But maybe not” (169) encapsulates those magical moments in life where hope lives, and anything is possible — and even if it all falls apart, the experience of try to shoot for the moon was worth it. 10: The Broom Dog I’ve analyzed some of this chapter already in the earlier section about the “school bus falling from the sky” motif, so let’s focus on another aspect: The way in which the story honors the often-unsung heroes of schools… Staff members beyond the classroom walls such as crossing guards and custodians. This chapter has a beautiful scene where the custodian, Mr. Munch, consoles young Canton after his mother (the crossing guard) is almost run over by a bus. Mr. Munch turns a broom head into an emotional support dog, demonstrating both caring and creativity in a way which truly helps Canton. This scene also echoes Chapter 7, “Satchmo’s Master Plan,” which features an emotional support dog, and Chapter 4, “How to Look Both (Both) Ways,” which includes an umbrella that is imagined into a guitar. Together, these three chapters — and others, too — demonstrate how we can always “look both ways” at an object, person, or situation, and imagine it into something new and wonderful. What are Your Thoughts on Look Both Ways? For those of you who’ve read Look Both Ways, I’m so curious to hear your ideas about the book. Do leave a comment below with your thoughts to continue our discussion of this fascinating text! Want another suggestion for a young adult book? A Long Walk to Water is excellent, and is based on the true story of Salva Dut, a “Lost Boy of Sudan” who finds a powerful way to help his country. How to Cite This Article To avoid plagiarism and maintain integrity, please correctly cite this article if you use ideas from it. If you’re writing for a digital medium, clearly credit this URL with a clickable hyperlink to https://www.teachingtraveling.com/jason-reynolds-look-both-ways/ . If you’re writing a piece with a bibliography, the citation for this article would be: Marshall, Lillie. “Look Both Ways by Jason Reynolds: Analysis by a Teacher” Teaching Traveling, 16 August 2020, www.teachingtraveling.com/jason-reynolds-look-both-ways/. Bibliography Citation for Look Both Ways: Reynolds, Jason. Look Both Ways. Simon & Schuster Children’s Publishing, 2019. The author, Lillie Marshall, is 6-foot-tall National Board Certified Teacher of English from Boston who has been a public school educator since 2003. She launched TeachingTraveling.com in 2010 to share expert global education resources, and over 1.6 million readers have visited over the past decade. Lillie also runs AroundTheWorld L.com Travel and Life Blog, and DrawingsOf.com for educational cartoons. Do stay in touch via subscribing to her monthly newsletter, and following @WorldLillie on social media!

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24 Sep A year after Hurricane Maria, Puerto Ricans who moved to the mainland U.S. are still living with essential uncertainties. Original Post: https://features.weather.com A year after Hurricane Maria destroyed Vimarie Cardona’s home in Puerto Rico, she and two daughters faced homelessness in Central Florida. The federal program paying for their stay in a hotel near Orlando was set to end. Cardona’s full-time job, making beds at a Disney hotel, doesn’t pay enough to rent an apartment. “Where am I going to go? What am I going to do? Put my kids in a car? And then go where? Sleep where?” she asked, holding her palms skyward. She was wearing the puffy blue-and-white pinstriped uniform of a housekeeper at the Magic Kingdom. If it were just her, she added, she could live in her car. The $1,600 a month she earns — before taxes — just isn’t enough for rent, car payments, daycare and food. Cardona is part of the desperate exodus from Puerto Rico to the U.S. mainland in the aftermath of Maria. Tens of thousands of transplants are still adrift, many feeling they can’t go home, yet struggling mightily where they are — foreshadowing future waves of climate-driven migration across the globe. Cardona’s experience underscores the human consequences of the intensifying compound effects of climate change and of governments often ill-equipped to safeguard people in the places from which they flee. Those who fled Puerto Rico a year ago were traumatized first by the terror of the hurricane. Then, in its wake, came the prolonged suffering without power, clean water or communications. That was followed by an anguishing decision to leave behind relatives, friends, pets and all they knew to undertake a worrisome journey to the unknown with virtually no preparation, belongings or money. Most arrived on the U.S. mainland in a state of shock with only a suitcase in hand. Many were children. Almost all are American citizens. Then, for the neediest and most vulnerable families, came the evictions and heightened uncertainty. In mid-September, 45 families from Puerto Rico who had sought shelter in Orlando and neighboring Kissimmee faced eviction from hotels because of the expiration of the “Transitional Sheltering Assistance” provided by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). “Many will be leaving (their hotel rooms) in wheelchairs, crutches and I even know one family with someone who will be carted out in a hospital bed,” said Father José Rodriquez of Christ the King Episcopal Church in Orlando. FEMA sheltered 7,000 families in more than 1,000 hotels in 48 states and Puerto Rico at a cost of $100 million, the agency reported. It tried several times to end the program in recent months but a judge extended the deadline until Sept. 14. As recently as July, more than 400 families were still living in hotels in the Orlando-Kissimmee area. Non-governmental organization like the Hispanic Federation whittled that number down to 45 in the waning days of the program. Other Puerto Rican families are living in temporary or makeshift quarters with relatives or friends. Even those who have found jobs and managed to get apartments deal with the hardships and challenges that come with being in the ranks of America’s working poor. Most, like Cardona, have landed jobs in Orlando’s booming hospitality economy — yet the jobs pay little more than minimum wage. Like generations of newcomers before them, they arrived on the shores of the U.S. mainland, discouraged by the realities of life in their homeland, enticed by opportunity, and with a determination undaunted by hardship. But unlike other migrants, their arrival was triggered by a single, harrowing weather event — the kind of event that can be expected to unleash ever-larger migration around the world in the decades ahead. In this instance, it was a storm within the United States — not some distant tragedy on a Pacific or Indian Ocean shoreline. Hurricane Maria ripped away any illusions that Puerto Rico, a U.S. territory whose residents are U.S. citizens, can handle a weather disaster of Maria’s magnitude. This was not the way Cardona, the housekeeper, expected her life to turn. She had completed nursing school in Santa Isabel on the southern coast of Puerto Rico a few weeks before Maria’s runoff washed away her home. She hadn’t gotten her nursing license yet, she said, so now, because of Maria, she finds herself making beds at a hotel in Orlando rather than performing nursing duties at a hospital in Puerto Rico. “We can’t go back,” Cardona said. “We have nothing to go back to.” It remains unclear how many Puerto Ricans moved to the mainland because of Maria. The migration surge the storm triggered comes against the backdrop of 12 years of recession and a steady flow of people from the island for economic reasons. The most credible estimate comes from Hunter College’s Center for Puerto Rican Studies, which concluded in a March 2018 report that 135,000 Puerto Ricans moved to the mainland in the months immediately following the hurricane. Maria also exposed shortcomings in Washington. FEMA, for instance, faced numerous challenges in responding to a natural disaster on an island a thousand miles out to sea. The agency’s struggles in Puerto Rico stand in stark contrast to its performance last year when hurricanes Harvey and Irma struck Texas and Florida, respectively. Perhaps nothing highlights the breakdown in the disaster response in Puerto Rico — and the failure to even comprehend its magnitude — more than the death toll. Initially, it was placed at 16. President Trump, during a post-Maria visit to San Juan, cavalierly tossed paper towels to people gathered at a church and tried to soothe Puerto Ricans by telling them they were lucky Maria wasn’t a “real catastrophe” like Hurricane Katrina in 2005, which killed 1,833 people. After Trump left, Puerto Rico revised its official death toll to 64 and left it there for the better part of a year even as academic and media reports estimated the death toll was in the thousands, including one from Harvard that put the death toll at 4,645. Eleven months after Maria, Puerto Rico’s governor, Ricardo Rossello, finally “accepted” the findings of a study by George Washington University and officially lifted the death toll from 64 to 2,975 — far more than Katrina killed. It’s precisely the kind of denial that allowed Puerto Rico’s power grid to deteriorate to the point that it could be knocked out for so long, so completely by Maria. For Puerto Ricans, it revealed the harsh reality of decades of neglect to the electrical system. A year after Maria, some parts of the island are still dark. The fumbled disaster-recovery response has hardened the skepticism of many Puerto Ricans that the island government can dig its way out of the hole it finds itself in after Maria’s carnage. They’re also skeptical the territorial government can prepare for what many fear is coming due to climate change — continuing rising sea levels and even more extreme weather. That fear is likely to continue driving migration to the mainland, experts say. “The post-Maria exodus is clearly the largest outflow of people in the history of the Puerto Rican diaspora,” said Jorge Duany, director of the Cuban Research Institute at Florida International University. Edwin Melendez, director of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies at Hunter College, added, “We should expect the massive exodus to continue.” As climate change unfolds, Maria offers a clear example of how even a single weather event — let alone a relentless cascade of them all around the globe — can affect the human tide of history. ‘IT SOUNDED LIKE HELL WAS OUT THERE’ Just as the sun rose on Sept. 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria slammed into the southeastern corner of Puerto Rico near the city of Yabucoa Harbor. It had just been downgraded from a Category 5 but was still packing winds in excess of 145 mph. Over the next 14 hours, moving at 10 mph, Maria cut a diagonal swathe across the island ripping roofs off homes, flooding neighborhoods, destroying crops and demolishing most of the island’s vital infrastructure, including water, power and communications. With up to 35 inches of rain falling on parts of Puerto Rico over the course of the day and night, it’s no wonder damage estimates reached $90 billion — a staggering hit for the economically struggling island. Carlos Padin and Joanna Santiago rode out the storm with his 65-year-old mother in the couple’s home in the seaside city of Aguadilla, population 60,000, on the northwest corner of island. They tracked the storm on TV as it approached Puerto Rico, but just as the TV was reporting the storm had made landfall on the far side of the island about 6:15 a.m., their power went out. They turned on a transistor radio but, as the storm peaked later in the day, the radio cut off, too. They decided to see if the car radio worked. Locking arms to keep from being blown away, the three made their way to their car, but that radio wasn’t working either. So they returned to the house. “It sounded like hell was out there,” Santiago recalled. Back inside, she started to panic. She drank Benadryl hoping it would put her to sleep. It didn’t. The worst part, Padin said, was “that desperate moment during the hurricane when you didn’t know about your family or your friends. … Everything was moving in slow motion. It was an eternal night.” Maria left them without power, water or any form of communication. They had no idea what was happening across the rest of Puerto Rico. As it turned out, their relatives all survived but many of their homes were flooded or otherwise badly damaged. More than 1,500 homes in Aguadilla lost their roofs. In the days immediately after the storm, there was no sign of outside help. All services were out, including water, power and cell phone networks. Much of the roadway and many of the bridges were in a shambles. ATMs weren’t working, but even if you had money there was nothing you could buy with it. No stores or restaurants were open. Fresh water was unavailable. River water wasn’t safe to drink because of the presence of Leptospira — a genus of bacteria that can cause fever, chills and diarrhea initially and ultimately lead to kidney or liver failure, or meningitis. When Padin and Santiago did have the opportunity to buy a gallon of clean drinking water, the cost was exorbitant for them — $6. Meanwhile, they bathed and washed their clothes in a nearby stream believed to be contaminated with Leptospira, they said. Santiago wanted to leave for the mainland immediately, but Padin thought they should stay. Things would get better, he believed. After six weeks, though, Padin changed his mind while watching neighbors who were still using glass jars to catch storm water flowing past their house. Things had gotten worse rather than better, he said. It was time to go. They tried selling their belongings, but nobody had money. They ended up giving most of it away. Santiago had an unused airline ticket that she traded in for three one-way tickets to Miami. Santiago, Padin and his mother arrived in Miami with $50 in cash and whatever possessions they each could fit in a single suitcase. Within a week, Santiago landed a hairdressing job at a Miami Beach salon. Staying with a relative, they lived off her tips until she got a paycheck. Padin now has a part-time job doing website work for his cousin, and they’re renting living space from him. Gradually, they’re putting together items for their new household as Padin looks for full-time work. They are cautiously optimistic about their new lives on the mainland. Padin predicted that many Puerto Ricans who moved to the mainland after Maria will stay. The island is still a wreck and it’s clear that both the territorial government and FEMA were badly overmatched, he said. The lesson for many Puerto Ricans, he added, is that the federal and state governments can help when disaster strikes on the mainland, where there are more resources and the infrastructure generally is more resilient. That’s not so on Puerto Rico. In Florida, “it’s like a child being close to his parents,” Padin said. In Puerto Rico, “it’s like being an orphan.” Wilfredo Morales, 65, was born in the South Bronx but moved to Puerto Rico in 1980. He lived in the city of Humacacoa, in Eastern Puerto Rico not far from where Maria made landfall. He was alone throughout the initial 8-hour ordeal. As the wind blew outside his house and the air pressure went down, the doors rattled on their hinges and bowed outward. He tied them to one another across the room — doorknob to doorknob — with a yellow rope hoping they would fortify each other from blowing outward. The tin roof was pounding so violently he thought it had been ripped off. At the peak of the storm, he cowered alone in the blackness of his bathroom. “Is this the end?” he wondered. When he went outside after the hurricane had passed, Morales said he saw a tangle of fallen poles and dangling power lines up and down the street. Poles were lying across the street and leaning against homes. A neighbor’s 250-gallon water tank had toppled, spilling its contents. The canal that runs by his house was strewn with debris. His neighborhood looked like a bomb had gone off, he said. There was no water or power, no phone, no Internet. No TV or radio. Neighbors with machetes worked to clear the streets. The lush, tropical landscape had been mangled and pulverized. Leaves were gone and grass had blown away or died. Over time, the traumatized environment turned a bleak, barren brown. He survived on his stockpile of cans of various soups and his favorite, pork and beans. He ate his meals directly from the can, cold, he said. Thinking back, he couldn’t remember if it was a week or a month before he was able to reach his grown children in Orlando by phone and let them know he was alive. Before the hurricane, he had been a salesman for Liberty Cable. After the hurricane, he went into the office everyday and waited for them to have something for him to do. But he was a salesman, and there was nothing for a salesman to do with the cable and power systems down. When the stores finally opened, he had to wait hours in line to buy a few things, he said. He couldn’t sleep. Dark thoughts filled his head during sleepless nights. He grew depressed. He felt lost. His children urged him to come to the mainland. He was torn. He wanted to stay and help. But there was nothing for him to do. The tedium, depression and harsh conditions wore him down. Finally, in November, he flew to Orlando in the early morning hours. He was leaving behind a customer base built over decades of selling cable subscriptions. On the mainland, he expected to build from his experience. Gregarious, well spoken, bilingual and in seeming good health, he would seem to be a perfect candidate for jobs at cable companies near Orlando, where he applied for sales jobs. Without a bite in nearly a year, he continues applying. He did snare a part-time job distributing cell phones under a federal program that provides them for people who can’t afford them. For each cell phone he distributes, he receives $8. He lives with an aunt and remains hopeful. “I still feel lost,” he said. In Orlando, he is with his family — four daughters, one son and seven grandchildren. But he misses the security and purpose that came with his job in Puerto Rico. Will he return? “I’m torn. I want to stay here because of my family, but I also miss the people I’ve known there for many years.” For now, Morales is determined to stay in Orlando. It’s one thing for a young person like Cardona, but Morales is 65. Instead of retiring, he is struggling to rebuild his life from scratch. ‘YOU GET HERE WITH THE CLOTHES ON YOUR BACK’ As Hurricane Maria hurtled across Puerto Rico, Dayivet Valez, 16, and her family huddled in her grandmother’s cement block house in the Cordillera Central, the mountainous hearts of the island. They all lived in the town of Adjuntas, but the grandmother’s house was sturdier, so they chose to make their stand there. Valez was already feeling unwell before the storm arrived, so her mother medicated her to help her sleep through it. While she slept, the hurricane’s 145 mph winds and torrents of mountain runoff tore apart her bedroom at home, scattering her belongings forever. Her younger brother, who suffers from autism, screamed as the winds raged, she said. Maria left their wooden home it tatters and infested with rats and ants. It was uninhabitable. So, with the help of FEMA, they moved to Kissimmee, where they took up residence at a Super 8 motel using temporary housing vouchers provided by FEMA. The Super 8 is on Route 192, one of those commonplace strips lined with extended-stay hotels that cater to tourists and in whose shadow are rooms that provide inexpensive housing for the labor force supporting that tourism — in this case, the legion of employees at theme parks, hotels and restaurants. The area has a shortage of apartments. Landlords can be picky. So they require tenants to earn three times the amount of their monthly rent. The typical rent for a two-bedroom apartment is $1,000 a month, so a family would need to earn $3,000 a month to qualify. However, most of these workers make near-minimum wage and so earn less than half of what is needed. It requires many households to have the equivalent of three full-time jobs. Also, to move in, renters must save up three months of rent — first and last month and a deposit. That means saving $3,000 just to move into an apartment — if you can find one. Already for many Kissimmee families, getting an apartment is an elusive dream. The newcomers are now in similar predicaments. For now, though, it appears Valez and her family will realize that dream, They will do so even though her father can’t work; when he was 16 he sustained a hip injury when a tractor he was driving overturned and tumbled down an embankment. Her mother, a teacher in Puerto Rico, works part time in Kissimmee as a substitute. Her younger brother, wrestling with autism, had access to special education programs at his public school. A year after Maria, they plan to move into a house in Kissimmee. State Sen. Victor Torres, who represents the district surrounding the Super 8, battled in vain to get support from the state capital and Washington for the Maria refugees. A Democrat, he wrote letter after letter requesting help, he said. But Florida has a Republican governor and GOP legislature. Disaster relief — the kind that is needed well after a storm has past — can become partisan. Congress, too, is controlled by the GOP, which also controls the White House. Torres’ pleadings, he said, fell largely on deaf ears, likely because lawmakers, the governor and the president don’t have a real sense of what Maria victims are still going through. “You get here with the clothes on your back,” he said. “You’re working a minimum-wage job. You’ve got four to five people living in one room. No kitchen.” The communities around Kissimmee are already under stress because of a lack of affordable housing, education funds and health care services, he said. “So when the evacuees came from Puerto Rico, that sets up a burden on our local cities and counties,” he added. “And with no affordable housing in sight, how are we going to help these families?” The Puerto Ricans forced to move to the mainland arrived in time for this fall’s midterm elections, where they could impact congressional races across the country. But their potential impact is being watched most closely here in Florida, with its very tight U.S. Senate and gubernatorial race. Florida has some House seats in play, too. Both the U.S. House and Senate are up for grabs, with the potential to reshape the balance of power in Washington at a time of deep political divisions. In most states, control of the statehouse is crucial to determining which party will benefit when political boundaries are redrawn for the 2020s, affecting control across the country for a decade. Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917, but they can’t vote in presidential general elections and they have no voting representative in Congress. However, if they move to the mainland, they enjoy the full rights of citizenship — including voting in presidential and congressional races. Technically, Puerto Rico became a U.S. commonwealth in 1952 — seven years before Alaska and Hawaii became states. Maribel Gomez Cordero is a family therapist and program coordinator for Proyecto CASA, a nonprofit that helps Maria families get on their feet after they arrive in Central Florida. As recently as July, she and two case workers were handling 400 families living in 38 extended-stay hotels in Orlando and Kissimmee. As of last week, she and others working with the nonprofit Hispanic Federation had whittled that number down to 45 by helping the others find homes. Child survivors of Maria in Florida have shown high levels of depression and anxiety, Gomez said, citing a high incidence of what she called adjustment disorder — a stress reaction caused by the compounded traumas of the hurricane, its grim aftermath and then the sudden relocation to Florida. The children, in most cases, left behind friends, pets or relatives. They were thrust into a new school with the academic year already under way. Some didn’t speak English. “Their anxiety went up like crazy,” she said. COMING TO AMERICA CLUB Manny Hernandez, a language arts teacher at Osceola High School, is a man on a mission. He wants to teach students new to America how to succeed in America. In fact, he said he moved from Puerto Rico to Kissimmee four years ago precisely to position himself in front of the flow of students coming to Kissimmee from Puerto Rico — and, as it turned out, all over the world. Kissimmee has become an immigration landing mat for people from across the Americas, including Venezuela and Cuba. When Hernandez arrived four years ago, he and his family endured a similar challenging transition; they lived for several months in an extended stay hotel. Even with a master’s degree and 30 years of teaching experience, it took four months for him to get his family into an apartment. Hurricane Maria changed the landscape at Osceola High School, Hernandez said. With classrooms already overcrowded, 300 new students from Puerto Rico enrolled in the immediate aftermath of the storm. They kept arriving on a daily basis all the way through spring. “Tensions among the faculty skyrocketed because their classrooms became smaller and their workload increased dramatically,” he said. When Valez, the 16-year-old who survived Maria in Adjuntas, enrolled last year at the high school, Hernandez invited her to join his “Coming to America Club.” Students in the club wrote autobiographical essays that were published as a book titled, “Coming to America.” In her essay, Valez describes the tearful goodbyes and uncertain arrival. “We got on the airplane and took the last look at our island,” she writes. “When we got to Orlando, one of my father’s cousins was waiting for us. He drove us to the Super 8 Hotel in Kissimmee.” Now, after almost a year at the Super 8, she has had her own tale of coming to the mainland published in a book. She’s cruising through her senior year of high school as she looks toward college. And, soon, she and her family will realize the fulfillment of their hard-fought post-Maria dream: to have a home again. Hovering over that dream, however, is a stark reality: They still live in a hurricane corridor. Published September 19, 2018 Written By: Marcus Stern

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One-fourth of young women don’t have a chance to complete elementary school, comprising 58% of people who haven’t received primary education. 7% of women with the same qualifications as men have been turned down for a job. Gender discrimination facts confirm that the education gap between young men and women will heavily impact their future. In 2017, a majority of these complaints were categorized as retaliation (49%), race (34%), disability (32%), or sex (over 30%).Sixty-four percent were officially dismissed as having found no issue after investigation, and around 18% were closed for administrative reasons. Unfortunately, this number dropped again to 46.7% and has hardly risen so far. Unfortunately, not all women around the world have the right to decide when they will give birth. 1. A report by the U.S. This is a federal agency responsible for monitoring complaints against discrimination and harassment. Since 2002, the Commission has conducted national sexual harassment phone surveys every five years. Harassment in employment is unwelcome conduct directed against a person in a protected class. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces federal laws prohibiting discrimination against a job applicant or an employee during a variety of work situations including hiring, firing, promotions, training, wages and benefits. The history of gender inequality in the workplace reveals astonishing figures. These steps can reduce the frequency of retaliation charges and support the employer’s defense when claims arise. Two-thirds of the total number of illiterate people across the globe are women. The following charge categories experienced only a slight increase in percentage of all charges filed in FY 2019: race discrimination (increased .8%), sex discrimination (increased .1%), national origin discrimination (increased .3%), color discrimination (increased .6%), age discrimination (increased .3%), and claims under the Equal Pay Act (.1% increase). Sexual harassment in the workplace statistics indicate that such training provides adequate and practical information so that every individual is fully aware of such behavior and its consequences. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has tracked discrimination on the basis of sex in the workplace for decades. Your employee handbook that employers give to their workers, Your diary or log — it’s essential to keep a diary or a journal in which you’ll write all instances of discrimination, Physical proof of harassment or discrimination that you obtained from your GP. Harassment is unlawful under the Equality Act 2010. As the US Department of Labor reveals, female workers with full-time employment made 79% as much as their male peers in 2014. Workplace Discrimination: Employers Responsibilities. Yet studies show that only one in 10 victims of workplace harassment report it (and just 17% stand up to the bully themselves). From 1997 to 2018 (the last year data was available), there were 1,889,631 discrimination complaints filed with the EEOC. 2020 LGBT Discrimination Statistics in the Workplace In the United States, an estimated 4.5% of the population—11 million people— identify as LGBT . Looking back at the available data since 1992, fewer discrimination charges were filed in FY 2019 than in any other year and this is a far cry from its peak year in 2011 with 99,947 charges filed. Latin American women make 53 cents while Asian females earn 85 cents for each dollar white men make. African-American women with full-time employment make only 61 cents for each dollar white men earn. The average gender pay gap at a global level amounts to 17%, while the two extremes range from 3% to 51% globally. What’s more, it can even end in some legal issues. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) today released detailed breakdowns for the 72,675 charges of workplace discrimination the agency received in fiscal year 2019. the barriers facing unionized workers seeking fair resolution to discrimination and other unfair treatment in the workplace, and; the troubling statistics which show that the promises of fair process offered by our current system of addressing cases of workplace discrimination are not being kept. All Rights Reserved. Domestic sexual and economic abuse has a considerable impact on women’s ability to prosper. There are a few surprises in the enforcement and litigation statistics for FY 2019 released by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (“EEOC”). Even though the pay gap between men and women has narrowed since women became eligible to work, it still exists in spite of all the efforts and progress feminists have made. The Civil Rights Act forbids any kind of discrimination, while the Equal Pay Act offers protection to both men and women in cases of workplace discrimination. Similarly, a year ago, only 11 women were Head of State. The Sex Discrimination Act 1984 prohibits harassment in the workplace by employers, co-workers and other “workplace participants”, such as partners, commission agents and contract workers. Conversely, only 22% of men reported facing gender discrimination. More than half of women have experienced sexual advances. On a global scale, 40% of pregnancies are unwanted or unplanned. According to gender discrimination stats and facts, workplace bias is far more widespread than what people think. According to research that the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission carried out, that figure goes up to 85% in some instances, as indicated by sexual harassment in the workplace statistics. Such treatment is not only frowned upon, representing the violation of fundamental civil rights, but it’s also illegal. According to gender discrimination in the workplace statistics, 23% of working women admitted they had received unfair treatment compared to 6% of men. The agency also received 7,514 sexual harassment charges. GDPR Notice. … As with discrimination, there are different types of harassment, including unwelcome behavior by a co-worker, manager, client, or anyone else in the workplace, that is based on race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), nationality, age (40 or older), disability, or genetic information. Similarly, the percentages of charges of discrimination asserting claims for discrimination based on religion and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act remain static. Addressing such issues in the workplace must be every company’s priority to ensure a healthy workplace environment. For some unknown reason, people tend to ignore gender discrimination and its consequences. Afro-American women have been participating in the labor market for quite a while. Even though the overall number of sex discrimination charges decreased, sex discrimination charges compared to all filed charges is at its all-time high according to the EEOC’s data. The more adverse effects may include deterioration of a victim’s overall health. Employers have a responsibility to: Create a workplace that is free from discrimination and harassment; Provide a mechanism (discrimination policy) for dealing with discrimination when it occurs, and; Ensure that all employees, as well as management staff, understand the policy Therefore, it comes as no surprise that 9% of women feel isolated at work. It often goes even further, making women victims of something they have a hard time recovering from. There have been only 102 females in the House of Representatives since January 2019, not taking into account four territorial delegates. 15% of women have had less support from senior managers or leaders compared to 7% of men. Despite the laws prohibiting it and the negative stigma surrounding it, workplace sexual harassment continues to rear its ugly head far too often in many work settings. Also, they don’t have benefits or bonuses like sick or maternity leave and flexible working hours. Harassment is a form of employment discrimination that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, (ADEA), and … The examples of discrimination may vary from offensive jokes to sexual harassment. Even though it’s unlawful, gender discrimination continues to be one of the main issues in the workplace. The effects of gender inequality in the workplace may be detrimental to the victim. In such a workplace environment, employees feel safe and are more productive. As it relates to the EEOC’s litigation data, the EEOC filed only 157 lawsuits in FY 2019, in comparison to 217 lawsuits filed in FY 2018. In addition, perceptions of FEMA’s overall work environment varied depending on race and gender. 2. Likewise, Hispanic females account for 22.8% while Asian, Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander women make up 6.7% of the minimum wage workforce. Another statistic indicated that racial discrimination in the workplace against Latin/Hispanic workers took the form of much lower salaries. EEOC Releases Likewise, 37% of bisexual and 41% of transgender people heard or were subject to such jokes, according to transgender discrimination in the workplace statistics. The main factor that dissuades women from mentoring is the time commitment. Likewise, company policies and procedures regarding complaints should be clearly drafted and consistently followed. At the other end of the scale, on Northern Ireland, this figure falls to 15.6%. Yet, they still occupy underestimated positions and receive minimum wage. Sadly, only a small number actually manages to get a mentor, although mentorship programs help companies increase retention rates for women by 15–38%. Female candidates achieved colossal success during midterm elections in 2018. As HR professionals strive to ensure a safe and inclusive workplace for everyone, they should note that some harmful bullying behaviors that aren't technically unlawful harassment … Some would argue that they intentionally reject women despite their qualifications and expertise, giving a chance to men who are less qualified and experienced than female candidates. Despite the significance of mentorship, female workers hardly obtain it. Retaliation charges experienced the largest gain in percentage of all filed charges in FY 2019, which increased 2.2%. However, not all industries are equally stricken. Harassment is unlawful if tolerating the offensive conduct is a condition of employment, or if the conduct creates a generally hostile work environment. Interestingly, the percentage of EEOC charges alleging retaliation continues to increase significantly. Their findings illustrate that discrimination and harassment are pervasive: 1. More precisely, 15% of women reported receiving less support versus 7% of men who had such an experience. As reported by employment discrimination statistics, one out of four female employees (25%) admitted making less money than male employees for doing the same job. Many workers in the legal industry experience workplace harassment —demeaning, abusive, or authoritarian behavior perpetuated by coworkers or even employers. Updated October 10, 2019. Disclaimer. In contrast, only 5% of men encountered such unpleasantries. All Rights Reserved. Similarly, the EEOC’s recovery on behalf of employees through litigation significantly reduced from $53.6 million in FY 2018 to $39.1 million in FY 2019, even though the number of matters resolved increased from 156 in FY 2018 to 180 in FY 2019. As for gender bias in hiring statistics, 7% of women versus 4% of men didn’t get a job they applied for, even though they were equally qualified for the position. Leaders tend to give difficult or impossible assignments, knowing that employees won’t manage to complete them or exclude workers from important projects. enforcement and litigation statistics for FY 2019, Looking back at the available data since 1992, LGBT-based sex discrimination charges increased in FY 2019 to 1,868 charges, EEOC Guidance on Mandatory COVID-19 Vaccine Policies, Third Judge Rules Against DOL’s H-1B Visa Wage Increases, FCPA – Maintaining Financial Records for a Culture of Compliance – Part III, Product Liability and Complex Litigation Update. © Copyright 2020 Butler Snow LLP. Approximately 90% of harassment victims do not file a claim. On the other hand, even 71% of them confirmed they would accept to be mentors if they were asked. Awareness of Discrimination and Workplace Harassment Policy and Program The Workplace Harassment and Discrimination Policy (HR-07) will be included in the library’s policy binder and will be posted in the staff area along with this Workplace Harassment Program information. Workplace harassment statistics disclosed that even 75% of workers who reported any mistreatment in the workplace encountered some sort of retaliation. The following is a breakdown of claims filed in FY 2019 (some charges alleged multiple bases): In FY 2019, the percentage of sex discrimination claims only rose slightly to 32.4% of all charges filed. One of the reasons might be that male superiors or managers aren’t comfortable with mentoring their female colleagues. Preventing sexual harassment is a top priority, and more and more companies are looking to provide mandatory training to each employee. Call it discrimination, bullying, workplace harassment or whatever it is not something that rhymes with innovation which Uber is known for. In 2018, over half of LGBTQ employees were victims of inappropriate jokes at work. Out of seven acts listed above, the Civil Rights Act, the Equal Pay Act, and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act may be considered the most important when it comes to protection against workplace bias. Oddly enough, statistics on discrimination in the workplace reveal that hiring managers subconsciously let gender-bias influence their selection of candidates. These figures are undoubtedly encouraging compared to past years. Gender discrimination, sometimes called sex or gender bias, can be defined as an unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender. Jones AM(1), Finkelstein R(2), Koehoorn M(3). For legal purposes, workplace harassment is based on the victims national origin, age, religion, disability, sexual orientation, gender, or other characteristic that is protected by state and federal laws. Recently, InsuranceQuotes.com gathered 20 … 16% of women have received insults at work, compared to 5% of men. Some countries even fail to protect women against harassment at work, school, home, or in public. Some of the most frequent examples include rejection at the job interview, unequal pay, exclusion or isolation in the workplace, and failing to give accurate information. With a large majority of this population—88%—in the workforce, more employers have pushed for LGBT centric initiatives. Despite the severe consequences it may have, discrimination at work is still taken lightly. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission found that 75 percent of workplace harassment victims experienced retaliation when they spoke up. Offensive jokes based on an individual’s gender identity or sexual orientation are viewed as harassment. But when the entire hiring team assessed the candidate, gender didn’t impact their decisions. Likewise, the Age Discrimination in the Employment Act safeguards employees who are over 40 years of age. Without a doubt, the worst possible example is sexual harassment in the workplace that has the most detrimental effects on a victim. In Yorkshire, over 34% of the workforce believes they’ve experienced discrimination on the grounds of gender. Since women fear retaliation in the form of dismissal from the job, it’s no wonder victims of sexual harassment in the workplace hesitate to report it. However, female employees are about three times as likely to experience it (22% of females as opposed to 7% of males). That’s the main reason why three out of four working women refuse to mentor a junior colleague. To give evidence that you have been discriminated against in the workplace, you’ll need to collect the documents listed below: As gender discrimination in the workplace statistics show, there is an array of gender bias instances ranging from jokes and sexual slurs to sexual harassment and termination of employment. Key Statistics on Harassment at the workplace For a clearer insight into harassment, we take a look at a few key statistics that define just how much it has pervaded the workplace. Although significant progress has been made over the years, women still don’t have adequate representation in parliaments. The above statistics and daily practice show that as of now the most effective way to regulate issues relating to workplace harassment is local regulation. Nearly two-thirds of male managers or supervisors find it uncomfortable to mentor, socialize, or work one-on-one with their female colleagues. This gap has been narrowing ever since the ‘70s when many women graduated from universities and started to work. Statistics show that working women are nearly twice as likely to experience one out of eight particular forms of gender discrimination at work. The most severe instances are all forms of sexual harassment, ranging from offensive jokes to assaults. Some of them are well-known pros like Denise Morrison (Campbell Soup Company), Meg Whitman (Hewlett-Packard), Irene Rosenfeld (Mondelez), and Sheri McCoy (Avon). Still, it’s widespread and may even result in severe consequences and medical conditions such as depression, anxiety, and even attempted suicide. Workplace Discrimination, Harassment and Bullying Policy, November 2020 • age, whether young or old, or because of age in general • sex • industrial activity, including being a member of an industrial organisation like a trade union As much as 67% of women regard mentorship as a crucial factor for their career advancement, according to discrimination in the workplace statistics. By comparison, twenty years ago, in 1999, retaliation claims represented only 25.4% of all charges filed with the EEOC, and this percentage has increased every year since. Another typical reason is self-confidence. As far as racial discrimination in the workplace statistics goes, African-American women are particularly vulnerable to both race and gender discrimination referred to as double discrimination. The typical outcome for over 60% of closed cases was “no cause” determination. Workplace bullying and harassment Bullying and harassment is behaviour that makes someone feel intimidated or offended. Nearly four out of ten American women admitted they had experienced discrimination at work due to their gender, according to the sexism in the workplace statistics. Eight … Workplace harassment occurs when a person is put down, shown hostility, or the recipient of unwanted conduct from a fellow employee or supervisor. Sexual harassment in the workplace continues today, even after the growth of the MeToo movement. Unfortunately, not all employees get it. According to workplace discrimination statistics, not many women succeed in becoming mentors. It may lead to conflicts with colleagues or superiors and low productivity and morale. During the period examined, 56 percent of … Looking forward to 2020, employers should train management and human resources personnel on how to receive and address internal reports of discrimination and/or harassment. Data show that retaliation continued to be the most frequently filed charge followed by disability, race and sex. Namely, bad treatment and discrimination may lead to depression, anxiety disorders, and even attempted suicide. Gender discrimination is present in almost every segment of the business world. Women account for 47% of the entire US labor force. Female workers are nearly four times as likely as their male colleagues to report having been regarded as incompetent because of their gender. 10% of women haven’t been taken into account for significant tasks as opposed to 5% of men. Needless to say, non-white LGBTQ community members are 32% more prone to discrimination versus 12% of white LGBTQ Americans. Discrimination in the workplace can result in anxiety, depression, and other mental health conditions. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, banning employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, or national origin, The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA), protecting men and women from gender-based pay discrimination, The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), protecting individuals who are 40 or older, Title I and Title V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, as amended (ADA), banning employment discrimination against skilled individuals with impairment both in the private sector and in state governments, Sections 501 and 505 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, prohibiting discrimination against skilled individuals with impairments working in the federal government, Title II of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA), prohibiting employment discrimination based on genetic information. The U.S. The reason for such a drop lies in the fact that over one-third of female CEOs quit their jobs. The most frequent discrimination that women reported included a range of incidents, from being paid less than male colleagues for the same job to being disregarded by managers for some important tasks. African-American women comprise 17.6% of the minimum wage workforce. The previous progress mainly started to decline in 2001, only to halt over time. Sadly, job interviews are not the only examples of gender discrimination in the workplace. ©2020 WhatToBecome - All Rights Reserved. They chose the most qualified candidate for that particular job position. Gender discrimination in the workplace statistics is rather harsh. The EEOC’s data shows that there were only 72,675 charges of discrimination filed in FY 2019. The increase in LGBT discrimination charges suggests a greater awareness of these issues as the Supreme Court is expected to rule this year about whether these claims are viable under Title VII’s statutory framework. An AARP study “found that 6 out of 10 older workers have seen or experienced age discrimination on the job and 90 percent say it is common. WASHINGTON - The U.S. The remaining 21% shouldn’t be neglected. Topline results from the Rand Corporation’s “Harassment and Discrimination in the FEMA Workplace” report. Around 300,000 employed people, or 11 percent of workers, said they had experienced discrimination, harassment, or bullying in the past 12 months. According to sexual harassment in the workplace statistics and a month-long study, which included 4,914 adults, both men (35%) and women (36%) reported sexual harassment as a workplace problem. Even so, in the wake of the #MeToo movement, the EEOC has significantly increased the monetary benefits related to sexual harassment charges obtained through its administrative process from $56.6 million in FY 2018 to $68.2 million in FY 2019. What’s more, it can even make a victim attempt suicide. As you may guess, it’s women who are constantly denied support when they need it most. Author information: (1)School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 E Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z9, Canada. As WHO reveals, more than 200 million sexually active women don’t use contraception for several reasons. 2. The comprehensive enforcement and litigation statistics for FY 2019, which ended Sept. 30, 2019, are posted on the agency's website , which also includes detailed breakdown of charges by state. In 2010, women made 81% as much as men. Besides, 7% of working women reported that their managers refused to promote them, compared to 5% of men who encountered the same problems with their promotion. 7% of women have been denied a promotion, compared to 5% of men. Other instances include lower payment, lack of support, and exclusion from important tasks. Still, the number is far too small regarding female CEOs at S&P 500 companies. Next, let them know you don’t take the matters lightly. It’s more than evident that women lack adequate political representation. When it comes to the US, pay equality has improved since 1979. During the ‘70s and ‘80s, female presence in the US workforce dropped, only to reach 60% at the beginning of the new millennium. In the S&P 500 companies, women of color comprise only 9.8% of first-level and middle-level managers and directors, 5% of senior-level managers and executives, and only 3.8% of board members. However, surprisingly, this did not carry over into FY 2019. Out of more than one million complaints, almost 930,000 had been closed by January 2018. a. bullying, discrimination or workplace harassment b. bullying c. discrimination d. workplace harassment Where possible, and if under the £600 limit, please detail how many complaint have been i. resolved ii. Retaliation charges continue to represent the majority of charges with 53.8% of all filed charges in FY 2019. But only then 1 in 10 believe it’s happening in their own office. 23% of women have been treated as incompetent, as opposed to 6% of men. Productivity must not come at the cost of employees’ job satisfaction. Recently, an ex-Uber employee posted an article anonymously on Medium regarding the kind of harassment she faced at her workplace. Disability and workplace harassment and discrimination among Canadian federal public service employees. The female presence in politics and governments is essential as women raise questions of parental leave and childcare, gender equality legislation, pension, and gender-based violence that politicians tend to neglect. Racial discrimination in the workplace statistics show that non-white females frequently experience massive labor force gaps involving compensation and leadership positions. Employees should know their rights and act accordingly to protect themselves from harassment of any kind. exhausted the complaints process iii. However, a rate of change is still moving slowly and indicates that US female employees won’t reach equal pay as their male counterparts up until 2059. 25% of women (compared to only 5% of men) have been paid less for the same job. For the sake of comparison, only 5% of men said they made less than their female colleagues. The data shows retaliation was by far the most frequently alleged basis for charges brought to the EEOC, making up over half of all filed charges. Also, one out of ten women stated that managers counted them out for some essential tasks, as opposed to 5% of men. Top Sexism in the Workplace Statistics (Editor’s Choice), Gender Inequality in the Workplace Statistics You Didn’t Know, Distressing Sexism in the Workplace Statistics, Shocking Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Stats and Facts, Racial Discrimination in the Workplace Is Still Present, Top Causes of Gender Inequality in the Workplace — Stats and Facts, Everyday Examples of Sexism in the Workplace. As for LGBT discrimination in the workplace statistics, one-fifth of the LGBTQ Americans have encountered discrimination against their gender identity or sexual orientation when applying for a job. However, female employees are about three times as likely to experience it (22% of females as opposed to 7% of males). (Medscape) The Sexual Harassment of Physicians Report from 2018 shows that more than 10% of women have personally experienced misconduct, harassment, or sexual abuse, and 4% of men have. Furthermore, 22% of LGBTQ people haven’t received equal pay or promotion at the same rate as their straight counterparts. Similarly, a number of other studies indicate that numerous organizations fail to react to sexual harassment. Namely, one-fourth of females have encountered sexual harassment at work. Working people in the US don’t favor Muslim colleagues, as religious discrimination in the workplace statistics show. Some of the most extreme gender discrimination examples include job interview questions and choice of candidates, the notorious gender pay gap, gender-based insults at work, the lack of support from seniors and supervisors, exclusion from significant tasks, promotion rejection, and sexual harassment. Gender discrimination at work comes in various shapes and forms. This is a low watermark for the EEOC’s caseload and represents 3,743 less charges than were filed in FY 2018. It’s no secret that the majority of hiring managers are twice as likely to employ a male over a female worker. The Civil Rights Act of 1991, providing, among other things, financial compensation for damages in cases of intentional employment discrimination. firstname.lastname@example.org. Yorkshire, over half of them have chosen an underperforming candidate just because of their gender women the. Lower salaries condition of employment, or in public isn ’ t take the matters.. 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The late 20th century saw dramatic growth in incarceration rates in the United States. Of the more than 2.3 million people in U.S. prisons, jails, and detention centers in 2020, 60 percent were Black or Latinx. Harvard Business School assistant professor Reshmaan Hussam probes the assumptions underlying the current prison system, with its huge racial disparities, and considers what could be done to address the crisis of the American criminal justice system in her case, “Race and Mass Incarceration in the United States.” HBR Presents is a network of podcasts curated by HBR editors, bringing you the best business ideas from the leading minds in management. The views and opinions expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Harvard Business Review or its affiliates. BRIAN KENNY: 1865 was a momentous year for the United States. Citizens witnessed the end of a devastating civil war and the abolition of slavery. They mourned the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. It was, by the account of many historians, a critical turning point in the history of the Republic. Many criminologists might agree, because 1865 also triggered the nation’s first prison boom, with surging numbers of Black Americans being thrown into prison, fueled by a wealthy white class unnerved by a sudden shortage of labor and pending post-war recession. It’s no coincidence that the Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1865. The Black Codes, or laws, enacted across the southern states in that year would see Black people thrown in prison for such offenses as walking without a purpose or walking at night. So, how have things changed in the past century and a half? We’ll take that up next with professor Reshmaan Hussam, discussing her case entitled, “Race and Mass Incarceration in the United States.” I’m your host, Brian Kenny, and you’re listening to Cold Call, on the HBR Presents network. Reshmaan Hussam is a member of the Business, Government, and International Economy Unit at HBS, what we affectionately call the “Biggie” Unit. Her research explores questions at the intersection of development, behavioral and health economics. Reshma, thank you so much for joining me today. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Thank you so much for having me. BRIAN KENNY: It’s your first time on the show, so we’ll try to make it painless for you, so we can get you to come back at some point in the future. I know you’ve got some other very interesting cases. Let me ask you to start by telling us, what would your cold call be to start this case in class? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: It is a little bit funny that I’m on the Cold Call podcast because this is one of those very few cases in which I don’t have a cold call. BRIAN KENNY: That’s okay. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: One of the reasons that is, it’s quite a heavy case and a heavy topic. I try to avoid more nervousness or tension than is necessary. The question I ask is, to start off the class is, what are the social and economic roots to the racial disparities we now see in mass incarceration in the US? Really to probe how each moment in history is a measure or a signal of racial disparities in that moment, that are then persistent, and why that persistence really exists. BRIAN KENNY: Let me ask you, what prompted you to write the case? How does it relate back to the work that you do as a scholar? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: It was a little bit circuitous actually. I had a personal interest in this space, but in terms of my research, most of my research is based in South Asia. In particular, I’m doing a bunch of work with the Rohingya refugees, who left from a genocide in Myanmar and are now in Bangladesh. I had written a case on that and my goal in that case had been to help our students think through the processes of dehumanization that can end with something as stark and terrifying as genocide. My goal, beyond understanding those processes, had been to get students to think about how this not only happens in other places in the world, but how this also can happen in your own back yard. When we taught that case, those students were very invested in the context and the question. I don’t think they were quite making that connection, that these sorts of steps of dehumanization, in fact, can happen right in your own back yard, and in fact, we can be party to those processes of dehumanization. That’s really what pushed me to write this case on mass incarceration because it illustrates quite explicitly how those things that we think only happen half the world over are in fact something that has happened within our history and within our current context as well in the US. BRIAN KENNY: You can really see that unfolding as you follow the narrative of the case. There’s a protagonist in this case. Can you tell us about Alexis Jackson and her background as the protagonist? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: I’ll do my best. She’s fantastic, Alexis Jackson. She’s a second-year EC student now at HBS. She was kind and generous and courageous enough to share her story with us. Alexis grew up in Pennsylvania in Pittsburgh. She had a father who was incarcerated for several years while she was young. She described to us how it was that he came to be incarcerated and her experiences with her father in prison. Her father was in fact the first in his family to attend college. His name is Al Caldwell. When he came out of college he struggled quite a lot to find a job. He ended up working at a gas station. Part of trying to make ends meet to provide for his family meant that he became involved in drug selling. He was caught with possession of drugs and sentenced to a few years in prison. That’s how it came to be that she would go with her grandmother twice a month to go visit him in prison in West Virginia. She describes it strikingly as quite a normal thing, not something that was very jarring. She certainly missed him. She was very close to him. She missed him. She just remembers playing Scrabble with him in prison. He would send the very little money that he could accumulate home to her on her birthdays. Eventually he got out and was lucky enough to find a job with a company that accepted individuals who had been formerly incarcerated. I think it’s worth it to read one line of what she describes about this experience. BRIAN KENNY: Please do. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: She basically said, “It was normal, and I was lucky. I had a dad who was active in my life. In our neighborhood, we used to accept the idea that by the time you’re 21, as a Black man, you’re either in jail or dead,” which I thought was quite powerful. The other thing I’d like to mention about what she shared with us, is that her brother was also tangled with the carceral system and in quite a different context, which is that he had been suffering from depression and mental health challenges for quite a while after the death of his grandmother, who was his main caretaker. Then he became incarcerated for having an unregistered firearm. As Alexis describes it, she saw that he needed therapy, mental health help, but instead, what he got was prison. She saw it as a cycle. He was incarcerated. He eventually got out. Again, because he didn’t have the right therapy, he found himself back in prison. It was through the experience of her brother that she really saw that prison is not a rehabilitative place. It is not a place that was able to deter crime. In fact, it was only punishing her brother, when what he actually needed was mental health help. BRIAN KENNY: Very powerful stories. We talk about Alexis, saying that this felt normal to her. I think what’s happened in the United States is that it feels normal to people who aren’t in the prison system to assume that everybody that’s there belongs there and this is how it’s supposed to be. Your case really illustrates why that should not be the assumption. Let’s just dive into just a little bit, some of the numbers in the case. How do US incarceration rates compare with incarceration in other countries? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: It’s quite striking. I think, in fact, it’s the most striking statistic in the case. The US is a leader in incarceration in the world. The next highest incarceration rate, in 2012 was Rwanda. The US incarceration rate in 2012 was 707 per 100,000. Rwanda is 492 per 100,000. Now I checked more recent statistics and I think El Salvador is now in the 590s and the US has dropped into the 690s. Still, that is a massive margin. In fact, we shouldn’t be comparing ourselves to Rwanda or El Salvador. We should be comparing ourselves to comparable Western European democracies. If we do that, then the US is about seven times the average incarceration rate of comparable Western European democracies. BRIAN KENNY: Unbelievable. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: So, it’s striking. BRIAN KENNY: If you look at the numbers that you just described, those are astronomical numbers. We don’t want to be leading that way in the world, but it hasn’t always been that way. The case describes a turning point where we entered this modern era of incarceration. What was that turning point? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: If you look at the numbers of incarceration rates, there is a clear rise, a rapid rise, what you would call a turning point, from the mid-1970s through the 1990s. We can talk about why that is, there were certain legislative changes and changes in funding, and also changes in crime rate that arguably led to this steep rise of what we call this era of mass incarceration. Even though we see these numbers rise during those few decades, I think it’s very important to think about what were the social norms, the desires of the population, the expectations of the population, that allowed, that permitted that sort of legislation to pass, that permitted that sort of funding to be diverted to what we call the criminal justice system. That deeper social dimension I think was fostered and nurtured for centuries, not just in those few decades before. BRIAN KENNY: One thing that I didn’t ask you before, Reshma, has to do with the percentage of Blacks that are in the prison system versus whites. Is it safe to say that, on a percentage wide basis, there are many more Blacks being incarcerated than whites, or even Latinx? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Absolutely. Both Black and Latinx communities are clearly disproportionately represented within the carceral system. As a base measure, if we think of these minority communities, Blacks and Latinx, representing 30 percent of the US population, they represent 60 percent of the prison population. It’s a massive over-representation. BRIAN KENNY: Massive, and it gives us a stepping off point to look at the history around this, that number has been fairly consistent, even going back to 1865, what I teased in the beginning of the show about the Black Codes. Can you describe a little bit about the incarceration system at that time? I loved the way you described the origins of policing, which I had no idea those origins began in the Deep South. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Yeah. The first arguably, state sponsored policing, were slave patrols, individuals who were tasked with finding runaway slaves and punishing them and incarcerating them and returning them also to their slave masters for further punishment. I think that’s quite important, that the origins of the carceral system, as one of retribution, as one of punishment, is something that scholars now are articulating, can be traced back to this institution of slavery. Arguably, I should say, this case doesn’t go back a little further, which maybe we should and scholars do, which is to the genocide of Native Americans. That might seem like quite a different phenomenon, but in fact, Bryan Stevenson, who is part of the Equal Justice Initiative, makes this really powerful point, which is, the reason that the carceral system evolved to be one of retribution is because it’s much easier to punish those who you think of as less human. Now, how do you come to this place of thinking of someone as less human? Within our own history in America, the starting point was with the genocide of Native Americans, where we “other-ized” this population, this large population of indigenous peoples, to a point in which we could think, it’s okay if they are eliminated, effectively. That sentiment was echoed in the process of slavery, and in the ways in which we thought of and conceived of slaves, which was not as human. You can see this process of dehumanization really, through both the way one treated slaves, and then as you said, after 1865, with the Black Codes in which individuals were punished for doing very normal, mundane human activities. How do we understand the legal mandate that comes from a popular, from a social desire, to segregate, to really think of the black community as less than and polluted as Isabel Wilkerson describes in her amazing book, Caste. Then you had the Jim Crow Laws that was accompanied by this social activity one would say, called lynchings. BRIAN KENNY: Much more prevalent than I realized until I read the case. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: It’s a phenomenon that we’ve all heard of, that individuals were lynched. But I think it’s really important for us, and our audience, to sit with this event called the lynching, which again, like I said, was a social activity. Lynchings happened when a community thought that the functioning criminal justice system, the court system, was not going to really deliver the justice, what they called justice. That’s powerful. The case has a picture in there where you have little children watching a lynching and smiling at the camera. It’s really hard to articulate these ideas, but we should articulate them and we should recognize that they’re well within our own lived and remembered history when, to think of a Black body that was murdered even outside the court systems, was something to celebrate. BRIAN KENNY: In a truly barbaric fashion. I couldn’t help but think about, when I read that Blacks could be arrested for things like walking without a purpose, you think about the phenomenon today of driving while Black, or doing almost anything while Black can bring you under suspicion, and we’ve seen this play out time and time again. Very sadly, it feels like not a lot has changed from that period of time to this period of time for the Black experience. Let’s bring it up a little bit more to modern day and talk about the 1994 Crime Act. It seemed like, in the case, that was really a turning point that fueled things as well. Can you describe the impact of that? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: I think one of the important things with the 1994 Crime Act is that it reflects the bipartisan nature of this phenomenon of mass incarceration. The Crime Act was brought up under Bill Clinton. It was championed by our current President Joe Biden, who has since acknowledged that it was a mistake, as many others have, but it’s again, really worth recognizing that this was championed by democrats. It was advocated for by Hillary Clinton, using the idea of super predators, which was this idea that was popularized by a then Princeton professor that there was going to be a massive group of dangerous, quote unquote, super predators who are young teens looking to pillage and destroy communities. The image was of young Black men. The Crime Act was part of a several decade long trajectory of being tough on crime, which was a very popular political position to take at the time. What it led to were much, much higher rates of imprisonment following conviction, far longer sentences, and a much greater proportion of time served on those sentences, rather than, for example, on probation or parole. In addition, it tied up much more federal funding in the carceral system. One of the reasons this is so significant, besides the bipartisan nature of it, is that these things are very hard to roll back. Once you say you’re tough on crime, nobody finds it politically popular to say you are light on crime, or weak on crime. The tough on crime is this ratchet effect and the Crime Act was maybe the pinnacle of that. BRIAN KENNY: There were also huge disparities in sentencing between whites and non-whites following the implementation of the Crime Act. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Not just following, even prior to, but yes, following as well. Maybe some statistics will be useful, in the end of the 1980s, Blacks were arrested at four times the rate of whites, despite the fact that the Black population is less than a fifth of the white population. In particular, this was especially disproportionate with drug crimes. The rates of drug use among Blacks was consistently lower than whites, as were rates of drug selling. I think those two statistics are things that are not understood or recognized in popular culture or popular media, and yet, despite lower rates of drug selling and drug use, the proportion of Blacks arrested and convicted and jailed was far, far higher than for whites. By 2010 we were in a position where one in every three Black men could be expected to be incarcerated in their lifetime. BRIAN KENNY: Remarkable, and the case describes firsthand what it’s like to be in prison. I think everybody assumes it’s no picnic, and we see it depicted on TV and in movies. I would say, having read the case, it feels to me like it’s a little different than what we see in the movies but it’s just as horrific in different ways. Can you describe a little bit about what that is like? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: One of the common themes is the material constraints, so things that you and I just take for granted to be able to do, like read a book. It often costs an exorbitant amount of money to do in prison. Make a phone call, again an exorbitant amount of money. Of course, these are for individuals who are lacking that very thing. They’re lacking cash. Often they were the bread winners of their family. It’s quite ironic that not only are they being charged far, far, far higher than you or I would be for either of those things or for sending a text. They don’t have the cash to even pay for that. But I think what was most powerful to me as I wrote this case was learning about the psychological constraints. Again, this harkens back to the social desires that create what we think of as a carceral system now, which is one again, of retribution, of punishment, rather than of rehabilitation. The prison is designed to always punish, to punish in a deep way, again as I described, in this way of dehumanizing. If I might just read a quote from a fantastic podcast, a very, very short series of recordings called, “The Zo.” Which is slang for the prison. It’s a collection of formerly incarcerated and incarcerated individuals who describe prison as, “The life of a prisoner is not a life at all. It is nothing short of a bleak, pitiful existence within an inhumane, artificial environment that is scientifically proven to degrade an individual’s sense of humanity to base levels.” I do think that’s worth sitting with. The little things one does to shape prison life to make one feel less than human. BRIAN KENNY: Let’s talk about reform, because the case talks a lot about the kinds of reforms that have been tried. I would love for you to describe a couple of them and tell us if they have any merit. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: What we want to do is address the system, not just be desperately sad about the system. BRIAN KENNY: Right, exactly. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Which is often where I am. If we think about reform, typically it might be useful to separate reform policies into two camps, traditional reform policies and what we think of as abolitionist policies. In the traditional reform policies, things that are now currently being championed with bipartisan support, you might think of improving prison conditions, so improving the conditions that I just described of life in prison, ending cash bail. A huge proportion of individuals who are currently sitting in jails are sitting there, not because they have been convicted of anything, but because they can’t afford the cash bail to release them until the trial. That’s something around 60 to 75 percent of individuals currently sitting in jails are in that position. If we were to end cash bails those individuals would not be missing their work and then consequently losing their job, which in turn, creates this vicious cycle. There’s also reform in sentencing laws. Both the 1994 Crime Bill and previous acts enforced ideas like mandatory minimums, the Three Strikes law. These legal moves made sentencing quite harsh, so perhaps we want to reform sentencing, and perhaps even decriminalize certain current acts which are considered criminal, for example, homelessness and perhaps drug possession. Then there’s also increasing rates of probation and parole instead of prison, so how might one do this. One new technological innovation is, for example, using GPS bracelets to track individuals rather than having to keep them within prison to be monitored. Also implementing various policing algorithms called predictive policing, or algorithms that determine what you’re risk of recidivism is and help shape what you’re sentencing should be like. That’s in the reform camp. Now when I say abolition, there’s a community of activists who consider themselves abolitionists, meaning they want to abolish the prison system as we know it. Now, how do they wish to do that, in two ways. The first is to defund or to divest funding from the industrial prison complex, the broad set of companies or corporations including prisons that feed this large system. BRIAN KENNY: We know what a charged word defunding is. I’m sorry to interrupt, but defunding is a very charged word these days. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Absolutely. Yes, absolutely, and I think that it helps to think about this idea of defunding both in the prisons and in policing. It’s a very charged word that is often… Those arguments or those conversations are often lacking nuance. The defunding term is not intended, I think, to say eliminate entirely, but rather to divert resources from what, for example abolitionists see as organizations that contribute to reducing safety in these communities to initiatives that increase safety. For example, mental health initiatives, investing in education, investing in healthcare in these communities, et cetera. I think it’s useful to have this conversation, because often one might say, yes it’s important to invest in these communities. Let’s invest in mental health initiatives and healthcare, but let’s keep the prison system as it is. But of course money or budget constraints are typically the policy constraint. Where will you get the funding to invest in communities? And that’s what abolitionists argue one must do through divesting in the carceral system. BRIAN KENNY: Why not just privatize the whole thing, just have private prisons? That’s one of the things the case covers too. What are the issues around privatizing? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Good question, and important for, I think, a business school audience. Are prisons a setting in which incentives are aligned? In fact, they’re exactly not. It’s exactly the space in which we would not want to privatize, because when one privatizes, private companies are incentivized to maximize profit. How do they maximize profit in the prison industrial complex? They do so by the number of prisoners who they house, or the number of prisons that they build. The government contracts out these services. They pay you per prisoner often. So their incentives are to maximize the number of prisoners, which effectively means both to make crime laws tougher to increase the number of people who go through their system, to increase these rates of criminality potentially, and finally to reduce rehabilitative efforts as much as possible, because you prefer high recidivism rates. You prefer that individuals return to prison rather than eliminating the need for prisons. That would be destroying their own business model. So in order to maximize their profits, their incentives are actually just switched. The worse their services, the cheaper their services, for example, healthcare, education, quality of food, rehabilitative services, the more money they pocket. It’s precisely an industry in which we should not be engaging arguably, in privatizing. BRIAN KENNY: This has been a fabulous conversation, Reshma. I want to ask you one more question before I let you go, which is, what’s the one thing you would want people to remember from reading this case? RESHMAAN HUSSAM: I think my main goal, and I should not say “my” by the way. This was written with a fantastic co-author, Holly Fetter, who is a former student of mine at HBS. I think our main goal is to get our students to probe the underlying assumptions that have built the current carceral system. It’s easy enough to talk about the legislative policies that have led to increased incarceration, but I think it’s very important to think about why we find imprisonment and this vast carceral system in the US so normal. I think we find it that way because retributive policies, policies of punishment, punishment for crimes, and on top of that, thinking of an individual as a criminal rather than an individual, an individual who has committed a crime, all of these things are quite normal in our day to day ethos. Why are they normal? That, I think, goes back to this question of race, which sits deep, deep within our psyche, within how we understand human beings within this country because of our history. In the end, I think it’s important for us to think about reform. I think it’s important for us to think about action items moving forward, but I don’t think we can really do that in a sincere and genuine and meaningful way until we grapple with these underlying assumptions and feelings that even you and I have, about who is a criminal, what they deserve, and the idea that we often prefer punishment to rehabilitation in these spaces because of how we’ve defined criminality along lines of race. BRIAN KENNY: Reshma Hassam, thank you so much for joining us on Cold Call today. RESHMAAN HUSSAM: Thank you so much for having me. BRIAN KENNY: If you enjoy Cold Call, you’ll like other podcasts on the HBR network. They’re full of management insights from the best thought leaders in business, all curated by Business Harvard Review, and they’re free on Apple Podcasts. I’m your host, Brian Kenny, and you’ve been listening to Cold Call, an official podcast of Harvard Business School, on the HBR Presents network.

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The Mahabharata is an epic that comprises one hundred thousand stanzas of verse divided into eighteen books, or parvas. It is the largest single literary work in existence. Originally composed in the ancient language of Sanskrit sometime between 400 BC and 400 AD, it is set in a legendary era thought to correspond to the period of Indian culture and history in approximately the tenth century BC. The original “author” was Vyasa who tried to tell about the Great War between the Pandavas and the Kauravas – cousins who claimed to be the rightful rulers of a kingdom. The background to get to where the epic starts is very confusing (in medias res). I’ll present the background a bit here just to lay the groundwork. King Santanu married a strange woman he found by the river. They had many children and she drowned all of her children. The king stopped her from drowning the last child (a boy). She then said she was a goddess and that this child was a god but had to remain on earth as punishment for stealing a sacred cow in a past life. The child was named Devavratha, but to confuse you he is called Bhishma (one of firm vow). The goddess went back to wherever it is that goddesses go, and the king continued ruling. One day he fell in love with a woman who ran a ferry; her name was Satyavathi. King Santanu asked her father if he could marry her, and he said yes, but only if Satyavathi’s children inherit, leaving poor Bhishma out in the cold. Bhishma was actually cool with this and said he would remain celibate so that he never had children. Thus, King Santanu and ferry woman Satyavathi married. They had two boys: one had no children and died in battle, and one (Vichitravirya) grew to adulthood and married two women (Ambika and Ambalika). But before either of his wives had children, Vichitravirya died and not long after that King Santanu also died. Thus, the only surviving member of the royal family was Bhishma who had taken a vow of celibacy and refused to break it. What Queen Satyavathis had not told anyone that before she was married she had actually been born from a fish and had had an encounter with a sage and given birth to a son named Vyasa. So even though Vyasa isn’t exactly the heir, but did inherit. Thus with his yogic vision, Vichitravirya’s two wives progeny took place, they had two children. Ambika gave birth to a boy named Dhritarashtra. He was nice and should have become the king, but he was born blind. Meanwhile, Vichitravirya’s other wife gave birth to a boy named Pandu. Dhritarashtra, being blind, realizes he can’t really rule, so he gives his kingdom to his brother Pandu. Pandu loves to hunt. One day he is out hunting and he kills a deer while it is in the middle of “love play.” Turns out this is no ordinary deer but a god who curses Pandu. The curse states that Pandu, if indulged in physical closeness would die…though he had two wives but no kids at this time – Kunthi and Madri. He decides that he can’t rule, so he and his wives go away into the woods. One day Kunthi, in her former days, calls out for the sun god. He actually appears and she is freaked out. He says, don’t call me unless you want me. He essentially ravishes her, though it’s presented in the book as somewhat consensual. She gives birth to a boy names Karna but sends him down the river in a basket. He is discovered and raised by a Drithrashtra’s Charioteer and his wife. Pandu tells Kunthi to have relations with some other gods and have children. Kunthi gets with Yama (god of death and justice) and she gives birth to Yudhistira. Then she gets with Vayu (god of the wind) and has Bhimasena. Finally she does the deed with Indra (chief god) and gives birth to Arjuna. Meanwhile, Pandu’s second wife, Madri, entices the gods Aswins and has twins Nakula and Sahadeva. They are all boys, they are all awesome and they are collectively known as the Pandavas. The epic focuses on these guys. Pandu just can’t resist his urges and tries to have sex with his wife Madri. He dies in her arms and she flings herself on his funeral pyre. Kunthi (Pandu’s other wife) takes the boys to the blind brother of Pandu, Dhritarashtra, to be raised, inherit the kingdom. Meanwhile, Dhritarashtra (Pandu’s blind brother) married the princess Gandhari and becomes a blind king (not a desirable leader) wife. She blindfolds herself in sympathy of his blindness and never sees again. While Pandu was out in the woods with his two wives avoiding sex, Dhritarashtra became king, and he and Gandhari had 100 sons (I00 born quite delayed) that she harbors in her womb for years. she wacks her womb in frustration and vyasa creates an incubation room to get them all safely delivered. These sons are not good boys and fight with their cousins all the time. The oldest of these children is named Duryodhana and he’s a real baddy. This collection of boys is called the Kauravas. All 105 boys are looked after by Bhishma who is constantly trying to train them and have them get along. The epic is an ongoing feud between the Kauravas and Pandavas. The evil brothers Duryodhana were envious of their cousins Yudhistira, Bheema, Arjuna, Nakul and Sahadev and started scheming to dethrone him. Their first attempt to kill the Pandavas was by burning them inside a palace. The Pandavas managed to escape, but then the evil brothers once again attempted to gain control. Again they challenged the eldest brother Yudhisthira to a game of dice which led Yudhisthira to lose everything, including his and his brothers’ wife, Draupadi. He, along with his brothers and their wife Draupadi, were exiled from the kingdom. For twelve years they had to live in the forest and upon the thirteenth year they were to hide in a city in disguise. It was during those thirteen years that the brothers grew to learn what it was like to live with the bare minimum and became more knowledgeable. After the thirteenth year Duryodhana decided that he would fight against them which led to a huge war and the deaths of many. Many died from both sides and after the war, they realized that nothing was really gained. The saddest part included the disrobing of Draupadi who cursed the kauravas. Truly the dharma of the Bharatas is lost, their own dharma is Violated.’ Said Draupadi. Dharma, the sacred law, invested with divine authority, based on the Vedas, sacred scriptures is revealed by the Divine. In Mahabharata, the great sage Narada, tells King Yudhisthira, that dharma is trayi-mula. Trayi ‘Three principle Vedas’, the Rg-, Yajur-, and Sama-veda; and the ‘mula’ “root, foundation or basis”. Dharma is the root of the Vedas. But it is not always easy for mere mortals to arrive at dharma-viniscaya, a firm decision about dharma. Yama, the lord of death, is said to be “a knower of dharma-viniscaya” for his duty is to reward and punish conditioned souls on the basis of their compliance and noncompliance with dharma. It is a tangible, substantial, central issue. An act is either dharma or adharma. A dramatic discussion of Dharma, when Yudhisthira gambles away his chaste wife Draupadi. Unable to tolerate the prosperity and fortune of the Pandavas, Duryodhana and Sakuni arranged to rob the five brothers of their kingdom through a crooked gambling match. Having lost everything, Yudhisthira finally gambled away Draupadi. Draupadi is dressed in a single blood-stained garment, for she is in her menstrual period. Duryodhana’s wicked brother Duhsasana drags her into the assembly hall. Nothing could be more cruel and impious, yet in the assembly of great men, Draupadi is left to defend her own honor. Debate in the assembly hall centers on dharma… she will not give up her dignity and chastity by obeying the Kuru order. she fearlessly defies them, placing her faith in the power of dharma. Duhs asana claims that in the deceitful gambling match, the Kurus have won Draupadi “by dharma”, i.e. in accord with the principles of noble, religious life. She tells that ‘The king [Yudhisthira] is the son of [the god] Dharma and he is situated in dharma. But even by the order of my husband, I will not agree to pollute myself by giving up my principles, not even to an infinitesimal degree!’. She fully condemns the proceedings and…’Let there be a curse! Truly the dharma of the Bharatas is lost, here in the assembly all the Kurus watch as the boundary of their own dharma is Violated.’ …Draupadi’s argument was simple and powerful. Normally, a husband held authority over his wife. But since the husband had already gambled away himself, and thus had no authority over himself, he clearly had no authority over his wife. -As one who had given up all personal pleasure for the sake of dharma, Bhisma was unable to act. -Bhima, second Pandava brother sees clearly that an intolerable offense has been committed against a godly lady, responds with unmitigated rage. He even threatens to burn the arms of his elder brother Yudhisthira, who has wagered Draupadi. -Arjuna’s concern for dharma extends beyond the case of Draupadi. It is believed that the Pandavas had a divine mission on earth, to assist the Supreme Lord Krsna in His task of destroying the wicked, saving the pious…so that they could establish dharma on earth. -Only Vikarna, brother of Duryodhana took the side of Draupadi. -Karna calls her a ‘harlot’. -Wicked Duryodhana finally decides to strip Draupadi naked in the public assembly, she simply took shelter of the Lord, the highest personification of dharma. The great soul Krsna, who was invisible, but who is dharma, covered her with a mass of variegated cloth. -Then Vidura, the knower of all dharma, said Dharma was being injured here. He pointed the members of the assembly have either spoken falsely in claiming that the false gambling match was dharma, or have simply kept silent. Karna and Duhsasana then proceeded to cruelly drag Draupadi in the assembly. Draupadi spoke, finally revealing that this total disregard of dharma signaled the end of the Kuru age. In reply, Bhisma confirms that the failure of the kings, especially the Kurus, to protect dharma, signals the end of the Kuru dynasty. The most dramatic figure of the entire Mahabharata, however, was Krishna who was the supreme personality of Godhead himself, descended to earth in human form to reestablish his devotees as care takers of the earth, and who practiced Dharma. Krishna was the cousin of both parties, but he was a friend and advisor to the Pandavas, became the brother-in-law of Arjuna, and served as Arjuna’s mentor and charioteer in the Great War. Krishna is portrayed several times as eager to see the war occur, and in many ways the Pandavas were his human instruments for fulfilling that end. Throughout their lives and the terrible Great War, there were examples of the ethical gaps between men which were never resolved. In the aftermath of the war, Yudhishthira alone was terribly troubled, but his sense of the war’s wrongfulness persisted to the end of the text. This was in spite of the fact that everyone else, from his wife to Krishna, told him the war was right; even the dying patriarch, Bhishma, lectured him at length on all aspects of the Good Law (the Duties and Responsibilities of Kings). In the years that followed the Great War, the only survivors on the part of the Kauravas, Duryodhana’s parents, King Dhritarashtra and his queen, Gandhari lived a life of asceticism in a forest retreat and died with yogic calm in a forest fire. Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas was with them too. Krishna departed from this earth thirty-six years after the Great War. When they learned of this, the Pandavas believed it was time for them to leave this world too and they embarked upon the ‘Great Journey,’ which involved walking north toward the polar mountain that is toward the heavenly worlds, until one’s body dropped dead. One by one, beginning with Draupadi, the Pandavas died along the way until Yudhishthira was left alone with a dog that had accompanied him from the start. Yudhishthira made it to the gates of heaven and there refused the order to drive the dog back, at which point the dog was revealed to be an incarnate form of the God Dharma (the God who was Yudhishthira’s actual, physical father), who was there to test Yudhishthira’s virtue. Once in heaven Yudhishthira faced one final test of his virtue: He saw only the Dhartarashtra Clan in heaven, and he was told that his brothers were in hell. He insisted on joining his brothers in hell, if that were the case! It was then revealed that they were really in heaven, that this illusion had been one final test for him. The Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita forms a section of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, an important Sanskrit epic in the Hindu tradition that recounts a lengthy struggle and brief war between two sides of the Bharata family—the Pandavas and the Kauravas—over their kingdom of Hastinapura. The Gita recounts a dialogue in the moments leading up to the war between the Pandava warrior Arjuna and his charioteer and trusted advisor, Krishna, who turns out to be a worldly incarnation of Vishnu, a god who serves as the Supreme Being in many forms of Hinduism. However, Arjuna and Krishna’s dialogue is actually recounted through a frame story: Sanjaya, an advisor to Dhritarashtra (the Kauravas’ father and the blind king of Hastinapura), reports this dialogue to the king after the Pandavas have already won the war. In the first of the Gita’s eighteen sections or discourses, Sanjaya describes the extensive Pandava and Kaurava armies that meet to fight on the “field of dharma.” While the Kauravas have more men, the Pandavas seem to have the gods’ favor, as they respond to the Kauravas’ impressive conch horns with divine ones that shake the earth and sky. As Krishna drives Arjuna’s chariot into the middle of the battlefield, Arjuna realizes that he cannot bear to kill his cousins, which he believes would destroy the dharma, or moral standing, of his entire family and poison any pleasure he might derive from victory. He lowers his weapon and begins to weep. Krishna reprimands Arjuna at the beginning of the second discourse, calling him a coward and suggesting that he is blind to the fundamental truth that people’s souls do not die with their bodies. Rather, the eternal soul is reincarnated in another body, so Arjuna should not grieve for his family members but instead follow his dharma as a kshatriya (warrior) by fighting. If he wins the war, Arjuna will rule the earth; if he loses, he will ascend to heaven; but if he refuses to fight, he will disgrace himself. In addition to grasping these truths intellectually, Krishna says that people can learn to stop clinging to the fruits of action, turn away from the false realm of the senses, and free themselves from negative emotions by practicing yoga. Each of these routes promises to help people dissolve their sense of self, transcend the material world, and blissfully reunite with the absolute being called Brahman. In the third discourse, Arjuna asks why Krishna wants him to act if he believes that enlightenment comes from restraining one’s impulse to action. Krishna argues that everyone must act by virtue of being in the world, but that these actions are the workings of material elements called gunas rather than the will of the individual soul. The only pure form of action is sacrifice to the gods, which leads the gods to sustain human life on earth. Krishna begins to reveal his true nature to Arjuna in the fourth discourse: he is eternal, intervenes in the universe whenever necessary to maintain dharma, and dedicates himself to those who perform sacrifices for him—especially those who sacrifice their knowledge by surrendering it to him. In the fifth discourse, Arjuna notes that the renunciation of action (samnyasa) and yoga (which is a form of action) seem to be opposites, yet Krishna considers both as viable means to enlightenment. Krishna replies that yoga is a means to renunciation, because it allows people to overcome their ignorant motivations for action. In the sixth discourse, Krishna explains that this meditative yogic discipline allows people to understand their unity in Brahman with all other beings, which can lead them to transcend the cycle of rebirth (samsara) or, at the very least, reincarnate into purer bodies. In the seventh discourse, Krishna explains that he truly encompasses everything, from all the material things that comprise the earth to his higher being, the force that creates and dissolves the world. His true being is formless, timeless, and beyond all dualities; he loves the wise few who understand these fundamentals. In discourse eight, Krishna suggests that people can transcend rebirth and join him directly if they learn to fix their minds on him constantly, and particularly at the moment of death. The ninth discourse expands on Krishna’s all-pervasive nature, absolute power over the world, and providence over those who worship him. In the tenth and eleventh discourses, Krishna turns from an intellectual explanation of his power to concrete demonstrations of it. The god professes his love for Arjuna, who in return acknowledges him as the highest being of all and asks about his divine forms. Krishna begins to enumerate these forms, declaring himself the greatest of each kind of thing, person, and force that exists in the world as well as the characteristics in virtue of which such kinds exist at all—he is wisdom among the wise and authority among rulers, silence among the hidden and “the ancient seed of all beings.” But Krishna’s numerous descriptions barely scratch the surface of his infinite power; he shows himself to Krishna in the eleventh discourse, taking on a form with innumerable eyes, mouths, and limbs that seems to contain everything, including infinite light, all the Bharata warriors, the entire world, and all the other gods. Arjuna worships Krishna with shock and fear, apologizing for his ignorance and asking the “Incomparable One” for mercy and patience. Krishna notes that nobody—not even the gods—has seen this form before. After securing Arjuna’s eternal fealty, Krishna goes on to explain that it is easier for devotees to worship his embodied forms than to grasp his true, formless self and offers practical advice for Hindus of different dispositions in his twelfth discourse. In the thirteenth, he distinguishes the body from the eternal, immaterial soul that bears various bodies on its way to enlightenment. The gunas that comprise the body and bind the soul to it—sattva (purity), rajas (passion), and tamas (ignorance)—are the subject of Krishna’s fourteenth discourse. By relinquishing rajas and tamas for the sake of sattva, people can rise up toward disembodiment through the cycle of reincarnation (samsara). Krishna begins the following discourse with the image of a holy ashvattha tree whose roots can be severed by “the strong axe / of non-clinging”—again, by relinquishing one’s attachments to action, one can overcome even the most firmly rooted connections to the world and integrate oneself into the indestructible, eternal spirit that lies behind apparent reality. In his sixteenth discourse, Krishna distinguishes characteristics of the divine person nearing enlightenment—like truthfulness, self-control, discipline, compassion, and courage—from those of greedy, angry, demonic people who turn away from Vedic laws and elevate desire above God. Arjuna asks Krishna to elaborate on Vedic rituals in the seventeenth discourse, and the Lord tells him that sattvic people perform sacrifices according to Vedic law in order to honor the gods and without any simultaneous material goals. He also outlines three forms of food, bodily discipline, and gift-giving in accordance with the three gunas. In the final discourse, Krishna emphasizes the distinction between renouncing all action—which usually happens because of desire—and acting for action’s sake, without an attachment to consequences or desires. People who can relinquish this interest in the fruits of action are called tyagis, and in their actions, they perceive all beings as eternal dimensions of the same unified whole, following their dharma fearlessly and steadfastly. He notes that dharma often follows one’s position in the caste system—which in turn reflects people’s inner nature—and emphasizes that one must fulfill this prescribed role, even if imperfectly, in order to purify oneself. Accordingly, Krishna implores Arjuna once again to fight the war but reminds him that the decision is his alone. Finally, Krishna requests Arjuna’s absolute devotion and charges him with spreading the Gita’s message to those sufficiently disciplined and devoted to properly receive “this highest, hidden truth.” Arjuna resolutely agrees; in the Gita’s closing lines, the minister Sanjaya expresses his gratitude and enthusiasm at hearing Krishna’s words and declares that Arjuna is blessed to bring “splendor, / victory, well-being, / and wise conduct” - Nama Japam(repetition) or Nama Sankeertanam is the japa or Sankirtana of nama (name) of the Almighty. The devotee chooses Ishta-deva or Ishta devata (Sanskrit iṣṭa-deva(tā), literally “cherished divinity” from iṣṭa “desired, liked, cherished” and devatā “godhead, divinity,” or deva “deity”) and picks up a name of the Ishta deva to repeatedly chant the name vocally or in the mind any time, anywhere. Devotees can form a group and do sankeertanam or singing together of name of the Almighty. - Bhishma considered chanting of the Vishnu sahasranama the best and easiest of all dharmas, or the means to attain relief from all bondage. - Adi Sankaracharya, the Advaita enlightened master, in verse 27 of his hymn, Bhaja Govindam, said that the Gita and Vishnu sahasranama should be chanted and the form of the Lord of Lakshmi-Narayana should always be meditated on. He also said that the Sahasranama bestowed all noble virtues on those who chanted it. - Sri Krishna has mentioned in Srimad Bhagavad Gita, that He resides in the hearts of those who chant and sing His namas. GOVINDA NAMA BHAJAN CHANT- HARE KRISHNA HARE KRISHNA KRISHNA Watch the animation Movie with sub titles..

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ONEONTA – Common Council Tuesday will be asked to approve a contract with REVPAR International Inc., Alexandria, Va., to do a feasibility study on whether a boutique hotel would be successful in downtown Oneonta. During Mayor Dick Miller’s administration, such a plan was discussed for the lot between Ristorante Stella Luna and Foothills, but the concept did not move forward at that time. The land was owned by the late Gene Bettiol. Can Human Ingenuity Save Us From Perils Of Our Successes? It’s a widespread article of faith that “economic growth” is essential to future prosperity. That’s hardly surprising, since the modern world has been brought into being in less than 200 years by an unprecedented wave of economic growth. If we go back 200 years – to 1818 – we see there were no automobiles, no airplanes, no railroads, no antibiotics, no anesthesia, no electricity, no central heating, no telecommunications, no refrigerators or appliances, no computers, no internet, no a lot of things. Life was, comparatively speaking, nasty, brutal, and short. In 1818 there were about a billion people on the planet. The overwhelming majority were farmers, peasants and artisans, with a thin veneer of landlords, officials, merchants, professionals and entrepreneurs. Energy came through physical effort, or from water and wind power. Most consumer goods were made on the homestead or in the nearest town. People lived sustainably, whether they liked it or not, dependent as they were on renewable resources and the rhythm of the seasons. Fossil fuels changed all that. They made explosive economic growth possible. Coal and oil and gas turned out to be much more potent sources of energy than muscle, water or wind. The energy density of fossil fuels is orders of magnitude greater than muscle power. Try pushing your car when the engine doesn’t work! Further, fossil-fuel-based fertilizers dramatically expanded agriculture and helped support much larger populations. Fossil fuels also made possible the chief instruments of the industrial revolution – large-scale machines, beginning with railway locomotives and steamships and the steel mills to build them, and on to tractors, bulldozers, motor vehicles, paved roads, power plants, the electric grid, airplanes, appliances and the whole range of modern products and infrastructure. A famous study, called “Limits to Growth,” published in the 1972 by a team of MIT researchers led by Dennis Meadows, focused on the global resource consumption required for the production of goods and services. It projected that the depletion of natural resources and the finite capacity of the planet to absorb emissions and other pollutants would force society by the 21st century to divert more and more capital to make up the difference, eventually bringing economic growth as we’ve known it to a halt. A 30th anniversary edition of the work, in 2002, found its projections confirmed. Since then, the challenges of resource depletion and environmental degradation have only intensified. Economic growth has become increasingly expensive and uncertain. The steep decline in energy return on energy invested is a good example of the limits to growth, and that’s true of many other resources as well, from fisheries to arable land to clean water. Around World War II, the return of investment in an oil well was on the order of about 100 to one. It cost about a dollar’s worth of energy to extract $100 worth of energy. That’s $99 of more or less free energy. Today that ratio is down to about 15 to 1, and declining. Another measure of economic limitation is what economists call the externalities of production, where the costs are born not by the producing enterprise, but by the public or the environment. Industrial pollution – such as General Electric’s release of PCBs polluting the Hudson river – is a classic economic externality. The widespread use of pesticides, which has seriously reduced amphibian, insect, and bird populations, is another of many examples. Similarly, the climate costs of greenhouse gas emissions – storm damage, wildfires, flooding, loss of property values, stress on agriculture, and the rest – are not priced into the energy economy, but are disproportionately borne by the individuals who suffer them. The only growth that seems to escape these limits is mental rather than physical – growth of the imagination, of the digital technology of cyberspace, of the production and exchange of ideas, images, and stories and the values they represent. Many believe that this human ingenuity will also find a way to deal with the undesirable consequences of traditional economic growth. Maybe. So far that remains a hope, not a fact. In the meantime, the obstacles to conventional economic growth continue to increase. Many ecologists say that we need a sustainable, steady-state economy, not an economy predicated on a belief in endless economic growth. A steady-state economy presumably would wax and wane with the cycles of renewable resources upon which we ultimately have to depend. How that might work, we have yet to figure out. In that event, we would not have to go back to 1818. Since we have the advantage of all the knowledge and technology accumulated since then, we can hope for efficiencies that would give us more energy than we could find back then. If the limits to growth are as real as they seem to be, we may have little choice but to relearn how to live within the ecological budget of our physical home, of our planet. Adrian Kuzminski, a retired Hartwick College philosophy professor and moderator of Sustainable Otsego, lives in Fly Creek. GET KIDS OUT – 10 – 11:30 a.m. Bring kids out for Columbus day, explore world of trees. Kids explore property, learn tree identification, understand trees roles in world, have fun. Mohican Farm, 7207 St. Hwy. 80, Cooperstown. 607-547-4488 or visit occainfo.org/calendar/get-the-kids-out-trees/ GARDEN CLUB – 7 p.m. Presentation by Dr. Robinson, curator of The Jewell and Arline Moss Settle Herbarium containing specimens from the North East spanning 1898-2015. Learn about history, function of teaching herbariums, their importance to past, future of plants. Club also offering free bags of daffodil bulbs. Includes refreshments, free, open to public. St. James Episcopal Church, 305 Main St., Oneonta. E-mail Wendy at firstname.lastname@example.org FIBER ARTS FEST – 10 a.m. – 5 p.m. Explore world of natural fibers through demonstrations, exhibits, hands-on-activities showing how they’re harvested, processed, transformed to wearable, utilitarian, and decorative items. Included with admission, $12/adult. The Farmers’ Museum, Cooperstown. 607-547-1450 or visit www.farmersmuseum.org/fiber-weekend Bryan Stevenson, above, author of “Just Mercy: A Story of Justice and Redemption,” presents this year’s Mills Distinguished Lecture at the SUNY Oneonta Alumni Field House this evening. Founder of the Equal Justice Initiative, Stevenson spoke on ways the audience might go about changing the world. “Our capacity to change our world is waiting for us with the poor and excluded.” he said. “We cannot get to where we want to go if we are unwilling to change our narrative.” He went to highlight the importance of telling the truth and staying hopeful and to be willing to talk about things that are uncomfortable and inconvenient. At right: David Brenner, a College Council member, and Sid and Deb Parisian sit enraptured. (Ian Austin/AllOTSEGO.com) Otsego County needs a new direction for energy and economic development. An important step to that end was taken last week when the county board’s Intergovernmental Affairs Committee endorsed the idea of setting up an energy and economic development task force. Kudos to them! A county-wide task force would give us two things we don’t have now: long-term economic planning and a wide range of interests and expertise systematically participating in local decision-making. We’re increasingly recognizing how vulnerable we are. We depend on long supply lines for food, energy and necessities. As climate change accelerates, those supply lines become less reliable. We read, almost daily, of one disaster after another regionally, nationally, and internationally: mega-hurricanes, severe droughts, enormous wildfires, melting polar ice, mass extinctions, etc. No place is immune from climate change, not even Otsego County. Nonetheless, our quiet corner of the planet looks more and more like a refuge compared to many in other places, and that may be our greatest asset. In fact, climate change may have some advantages for us: milder winters, a longer growing season, plenty of water. We may be more resilient as well – thanks to a lower population density – than overdeveloped areas, including coastal cities in the South and drought-prone regions in the West, which now bear much of the brunt of climate change. We need an economic plan that builds on sustainable assets, not on unsustainable liabilities. Our sustainable assets include, above all, an uncrowded, serene, clean, safe, attractive and relatively stable environment – something increasingly rare in a world of accelerating climate change. We have an underutilized rural base, including agriculture, forestry and the potential of value-added products. Farming has not recovered from the death-blow to the dairy industry, it’s true, but if local boutique and organic farmers had more financial support and better distribution systems, they could be more competitive and develop new local products. We have a high-quality health care system, and we often forget it is our major industry. Even so, it has yet to realize its full potential as a magnet for medical and nursing care. Bassett Healthcare, as an integrated medical system, provides a superior level of care that could be coupled with additional facilities for assisted living, similar to those in other locales around the country. An aging population will demand it, and we could supply it. We have, in Oneonta, institutions of higher learning that could be further developed and better folded into the community. Curriculum innovation and more partnerships between the colleges and local institutions and businesses – after the model of the Hartwick College nursing program – could make it possible for more students to stay on in our communities after graduation, as we see in other college and university towns. Tourism has become the main interface between Otsego county and the world. Our cultural attractions – events, concerts, festivals, galleries, and museums – could be expanded even further. But tourism works only insofar as the powerful symbiosis between our cultural assets and the historical aura and natural beauty of the area is maintained. Tourism needs to be kept proportional and diversified, so as not to overwhelm the fabric of local life. And, perhaps most important of all, we have a steady in-migration of people looking for second homes, or retirement living, or the opportunity to conduct internet-related businesses and raise families in a new setting, away from the urban madness. These new immigrants are attracted by the natural assets they find here, as well as good schools, good healthcare, a lively cultural scene, and a vibrant civic life worth being a part of. They want sustainability, which we can offer, in contrast to the increasingly unsustainable systems they’re looking to escape. If I were to make an optimistic prediction about the future of our communities in response to the growing ecological and economic crises, I would look to a synthesis of high-tech internet with a rural, family-oriented lifestyle. Such a synthesis would realize participation in the global economy with the virtues of small town and country living. If this is to be our future, if these are the people we want to attract, then we need universal broadband to sustain the economy, as well as renewable energy to preserve a clean and beautiful local environment. That’s where our investments ought to be going. Adrian Kuzminski, a retired Hartwick College philosophy professor and Sustainable Otsego moderator, lives in Fly Creek. PORTLANDVILLE – Anita Marie McChesney, 56, Portlandville, devoted to operating her family’s business, Mount Vision Garden Center, while becoming dedicated nature photographer, passed away on Wednesday, Sept. 19, 2018, at Albany Medical Center following her struggle with breast cancer. Anita was born May 14, 1962, in Oneonta. Shortly thereafter, her parents moved to New Jersey where she spent the first 15 years of her life. The family then moved to Mount Vision, where they established the Mount Vision Garden Center. FLEETWOOD MAC – 7 p.m. Performance by Tusk, Fleetwood Mac Tribute band, performing some of their greatest hits. Cost, $35 in front half of theater. Foothills Performing Arts Center, Oneonta. 607-431-2080 or visit foothillspac.org THEATER – 7 p.m. Performance by Tom Morgan “Tales from the Empire” telling story of the Morgan family, former owners of The Empire Hotel in Gilbertsville. Adapted from autobiographical stories in newspaper columns, radio show “Moneytalk.” Cost, $15/adult. Auditorium, Fenimore Art Museum, Cooperstown. 607-547-1400 or visit www.fenimoreartmuseum.org/calendar-a 125 Years Ago The bright, spring-like weather of Friday and Saturday last, a warm sun shining on bare ground, was succeeded by a dark day Sunday, and that night began the heaviest snowfall of the season. The wind came up with the day, and the dry, powdery snow still falling, drifts formed very quickly. The scene on Main Street Tuesday morning was Arctic enough – nothing in sight but great heaps and long reaches of dazzling snow, with here and there a puzzled wayfarer; and nothing astir but the snow shovel. Toward noon things wore a livelier aspect, and many got out to enjoy the fine sleighing, while trade went on in a small way. But, it was a pretty dull day in the stores and business places. Not a stage or a train the whole day long and most of the telephone and telegraph lines down. Wednesday brought a marked change. The day dawned bright, the sun shone warm and the whole countryside was soon up and armed with shovels to clear the roads. The stage from Davenport was the first one to reach Oneonta, getting here about noon. That from Morris arrived toward night – having toiled through mighty drifts. The Hartwick stage pulls through today and perhaps that from Delhi, though the drifts on the hills are of fifty to a hundred feet at a stretch and six to eight feet deep. 100 Years Ago Saturday night the local high school quintet played the Morris team on the latter’s court and were victorious by the score of 56 to 13. The game was rather one-sided, but nevertheless interesting. The team work of the Oneonta boys was excellent and aided materially in winning the game. Soden and Gregory of Oneonta were the stars of the game, the former throwing ten baskets and the latter seven. Bull, the fast left guard of the Oneonta team, was unable to go with the team and Manager Polley was substituted in his place. He too, played a good game, holding his man down to one lone basket, while he caged the sphere three times himself. 60 Years Ago Camilla Williams, leading soprano of the New York City Opera Co. for five years, will be heard at 8:15 p.m. Wednesday, in State Teachers College auditorium in the third and final program of the 1952-1953 Community Concert Series. As a concert singer she has captivated audiences from Venezuela to northern Alaska, and as a soloist with orchestras she has won the praise of noted conductors, among them Stowkowski. She is the first prima donna of the Negro race who had a steady job in a major opera company. Early in 1946 she auditioned for Laszlo Halasz, director of the New York City Opera Company and soon broke tradition by creating the most talked of post-war Cio-Cio-San in Madame Butterfly. Her roles have been Nedda in Pagliacci, Mimi in Lae Boheme, and the title role in Aida. She has sung excerpts from Butterfly on the Kate Smith television hour. MGM and Columbia records have released a number of her selections. 40 Years Ago Bicycling shoppers will get a place to “park” their bicycles on Main Street, if locations suggested by the city’s Anti-Pollution Board are accepted. The merchants division of the Chamber of Commerce has offered to put up bicycle racks and the Common Council asked the Anti-Pollution Board to suggest locations for the racks. Anti-Pollution board members decided to ask for bicycle racks on each Main Street downtown block, one on each side of the street from Chestnut Street to Dietz Street to Ford Avenue. It will be suggested that another bicycle rack be placed on the north side of the Main Street block from Ford Avenue to Elm Street. Other racks would also be recommended for each park and in the municipal parking lot. The city will celebrate Earth Week in conjunction with the State’s Earth Week from April 9 to 15. 30 Years Ago Americans are among the world’s most satisfied people and are more likely to believe in heaven than in hell, according to a poll taken in 16 countries. Danes and Swedes also rank among the world’s most content people. However, Japanese, Italians and Spanish ranked as the most dissatisfied. The report also found that 80 percent of Americans and 55 percent of British were “very proud” of their nationality, but only 21 percent of East Germans, 30 percent of Japanese and 33 percent of French said they feel that way. Asked if they would fight for their country in a war, 71 percent of Americans and 62 percent of British citizens said they would. 20 Years Ago Opinion: Few people were surprised when they heard that Michael Griffin, dressed in his Sunday best, armed with a 38-caliber revolver, had shot Dr. David Gunn in the back. It was inevitable, said a pro-choice leader, who heard about the murder. “While Gunn’s death is unfortunate,” said Don Treshman of Rescue America, “it’s also true that quite a number of babies’ lives will be saved.” “While it is wrong to kill,” said Randall Terry of Operation Rescue, “we have to recognize that this doctor was a mass murderer.” “Praise God,” said a protester at a clinic in Melbourne, Florida. “One of the baby killers is dead!” If abortion is murder, after all, then the moral arithmetic taught by this rhetoric would seem to justify killing one life to save hundreds. Michael Griffin cannot become the next step on an escalator of violence. He must be the last step. 10 Years Ago City police and troopers raided downtown bars Friday night, arresting more than a dozen on charges of underage drinking. Law enforcement officials hit 10 bars during the raid and arrested 16 people for underage possession of alcohol. Two bartenders were also arrested for prohibited sales. Oneonta police Lt. Joseph Redmond said the raid went smoothly and promised his department would have more officers on duty for St. Patrick’s Day. The department also met with bar owners. YARN CLUB – 6 – 7:30 p.m. Knitter, Crocheter’s of all skill levels meet to work on projects. Accompanied youths welcome. The Study, Huntington Memorial Library, 62 Chestnut St., Oneonta. Call 607-432-1980 or visit hmloneonta.org/adult-programs/ HOLIDAY MARKET – 5 – 7 p.m. The Taj Garage comes early. Visiting artist Steve Clorfeine, poet, world traveler, teacher, more, presents items from Nepal, India. Includes handcrafted items from silk, cotton, sculpture, paintings, dolls, more. Find great wedding, holiday presents. Show continues thru 8/26. The Art Garage, 689 Beaver Meadow Rd., Cooperstown. 607-547-5327 or visit www.facebook.com/TheArtGarageCooperstown/ FINE CRAFTS – 5 – 7 p.m. Opening reception for Fine Crafts Invitational exhibit “Made in New York: Earth, Wind & Sky” with joint Miniature Show inspired by Thomas Cole. Displayed thru 9/21. Cooperstown Art Association. 607-547-9777 or visit www.cooperstownart.com O-COUNTY FAIR – 8 a.m. – 8 p.m. See best Otsego County has to offer. Daily shows, rides, more. Highlights include demolition derby, cake walk, chain saw art auction, goat show, dessert contest, more. Otsego County Fair, Mills St., Morris. 607-263-5289 or visit www.otsegocountyfair.org MUSIC FESTIVAL – 7:30 p.m. Enjoy music by world renowned jazz guitarist/vocalist John Pizzarelli with Mike Karn, bass, and Andy Watson, drums. Trio performs works by George Gershwin, Duke Ellington, Antonio Carlos Jobim, others. Ballroom, The Otesaga, Cooperstown. 800-838-3006 or visit www.cooperstownmusicfest.org/events/

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Is your reef tank covered with unwanted algae? Do you want to know how to get rid of them and bring back the balance? Well, I know how disturbing it is to find your reef tank aquarium with excessive amounts of troublesome algae. There are a variety of nuisance algae such as green hair algae, bubble algae, brown diatom algae, red slime algae, and many more. Dealing with these algae to establish the natural ecosystem back in the tank is one of the most important things you should do as a reef aquarist. Removing algae by hand or filtration, adjusting the light intensity, reducing phosphate and nitrates, using RO/DI water, maintaining the proper water flow, removing the excess nutrients, and adding natural algae eaters are some of the effective ways to get rid of algae in a reef tank. In this article, I am going to talk about these ways in detail after letting you know the common causes of algae growth in a reef tank. I will also discuss specific types of reef tank algae and how you can get rid of them. Waiting no more, let’s dive in. What Are The Causes Of Algae In The Reef Tank? Do you know the causes of algae growth in the reef tank aquarium? Well, there are many reasons why algae can create a home in your reef tank. Here are some of them: Light Intensity and Quality: Some algae such as green algae grow when the intensity of the light is very high. On the contrary, brown algae and some other types may grow when the lighting intensity is low. Bad quality light can also promote the algae to grow. High amounts of nutrients or dissolved organic compounds in the tank water inspire the algae growth. It is because algae live on these nutrients. High Level of Nitrates and Phosphates: Nitrate and Phosphate are two key elements that let the algae thrive. Most of the algae are supported by the nitrate and phosphate to grow. Poor Tank Maintenance: In case an aquarist does not take care of his tank properly such as changing the water regularly and maintaining the balance of the nutrients level, and keeping the phosphate and nitrates in check, the tank becomes a breeding ground for the algae. Improper Water Supply or Flow: Some algae are more likely to grow at those parts of the tank where the water flow or circulation is low. On the other hand, there are some algae such as hair algae or filamentous species that grow more in high flow areas. Low-Quality Sea Salt Mix: Poor quality sea salt mix usage increases the risk of higher algae growth as they contain more phosphates and nitrates along with other harmful elements. Absence of Algae Eaters: Algae eaters or natural cleaning crew help to keep the algae in control by consuming the most of them. The absence of algae eaters causes the algae to grow quicker. Improper Water Source: If you use tap water in the reef tank, the possibility is that you are inspiring the algae. Tap water comes with a higher level of phosphates, nitrates, and other unwanted materials. Keep in mind that all the algae affect the reef tank ecosystem negatively. Macroalgae cultivation is common for the reef tank and is beneficial to remove the nitrates and phosphates from the tank water. A little amount of algae in a reef tank does not pose much threat to the tank inhabitants. However, problems occur when they cover the entire tank and go out of control. If you are having issues with the unwanted algae and get rid of them, you can follow the suggestions I am going to share with you in the upcoming sections. 13 Common Ways to Control Algae in a Reef Tank I will discuss some specific ways to get rid of different types of reef tank algae in the latter part of this article. But, there are some common techniques that you can adopt for almost all types of algae in the reef tank. Let’s have a look at some common approaches to follow if you want to get rid of a variety of algae in the reef tank: 1. Adjust the Light Intensity Many algae grow due to the excess amount of light in the aquarium. However, the opposite is also applicable to a few algae. No matter whether the excess of light or too little of it is creating the problem, adjusting the light as required is the best solution to deal with this issue. Make sure that you are not using the light in the tank for a longer period than required. Prolonged use of high-intensity lighting increases CO2 and nutrients in the water to let the algae grow. So, what’s the standard amount of lighting for your reef tank that does not help the speedy growth of algae? Well, it depends a lot on the tank size. Ideally, you can keep the light on for about 8 to 10 hours. However, it is also fine to give 6 to 8 hours of lighting if the tank is exposed to natural light. Arrange the lighting as per the demand of the tank creatures. Do not add additional light to make the tank look more enlightened. Keeping the brightness level soft helps the fishes and corals grow without letting the algae thrive. I talked about how much LED light is required for a reef tank in this article. 2. Upgrade the Lighting Type and Quality Fluorescent lights have a connection with algae problems. In this kind of light, both the quantity and the quality diminish over time. Most of the nuisance algae grow when the tank is not supplied with high-quality lights. If you are using fluorescent lights, you should replace the bulbs once to twice per year. However, I would suggest you consider setting LED fixtures instead of the fluorescent bulbs to get the best result when fighting against the nuisance algae. The reasons why you should switch to LED fixtures in the reef tank include better efficiency, low electricity bills, low heat, longer durability, etc. 3. Introduce Algae Eaters Inside the Tank Brining algae-eating inhabitants in your reef tank can help you to remove the algae to a great extent. Hermit crabs, emerald crabs, fox-face, tail spot blenny, chevron tang, chestnut cowries, and Mexican turbo snails are some of the common saltwater algae eaters you can adopt in your reef tank. 4. Consider Frequent Water Changes When did you last change the water? Is it more than a week? If yes, it can be one of the reasons why your reef tank is dominated by algae. If you do not change the water at least once a week, the level of phosphates and nitrates grow and thus creates a favorable environment for algae. Proper maintenance of the reef tank includes keeping the tank clean and tidy. If you clean the tank after a certain period, you will have fewer nutrients, less dissolved materials, and no suspended particles. However, when you change the water, use the right source. Do not use tap water that contains high levels of CO2, nitrates, and phosphates. Instead, use RO/DI water that comes with the standard amount of nutrients level. Make sure that the water you are using to replace the old water is properly filtered so that any contamination cannot affect the fishes and corals. 5. Control the CO2 Level More CO2 in the tank means more algae. So, make sure that your tank comes with a standard level of CO2 and the level is not so high. You need to be very cautious while using calcium reactors in your reef tank. 6. Decrease the Nutrients Adding excessive nutrients offer more nitrates and phosphates that increase algae growth. As algae feed on them, excess nutrients will help to grow more algae. Protein skimmers can help your reef tank in this respect. They are capable of physically removing the organic substances that are rich in nutrients. Apart from this, they can also help to particulate the substances before getting decomposed and releasing phosphates, nitrates, and other nutrients in the tank water. You can also use phosphate-removing filter media to control the amounts of nutrients your tank ultimately receives. Granular Ferric Oxide or GFO is capable enough to absorb phosphate from the water to a great extent. If your tank does not get much phosphate to let the algae live, the algae starve and eventually die. If you are using GFO in your reef tank, you have to keep in mind to replace them every 2 to 3 months so that the phosphate level remains low. Reducing the nutrients level in the saltwater tank is one of the safest ways to control algae growth. 7. Put the Right Plants Putting wrong plants that are not meant to be in your reef tank increases the risk of nuisance algae. You must be choosy while you pick plants for your tank. Some of the saltwater plants suitable for your tank include Halimeda, Mermaid’s Fan, Turtle Grass Shoots, Red Mangrove Propagule, etc. More suitable plants in the tank translate into fewer nuisance algae. 8. No Overfeeding or Underfeeding Maintaining the balance of food in the reef tank is a very important step to eliminate algae growth. Overfeeding the fishes contributes to creating more phosphate and along with polluting the tank water with toxic ammonia. However, underfeeding the fishes too is not a good idea. What you need to make sure is that the fishes get as much food as they require to stay healthy. Do not supply less or more food than required. Supplying more food will invite nuisance algae and supplying too little will lead to the death of the fishes due to starvation. 9. Clean or Cut the Algae Down You can clean the algae from your tank by hand or ripping them manually if possible. You can also use a filtration process. However, ripping the algae is a good way when the tank is overburdened with too many algae. Before you go to clean the algae from the glass, wall, surface, and the rocks of your reef tank, make sure that you are using rubber gloves in your hand. 10. Reduce Silicates Make use of live sand, gravel, or other appropriate substrate elements to reduce the silicates from the tank. Using the aragonite types of substrates is the best to get this task done. 11. Good Quality Sea Salt Mix Do not use average or low-quality sea salt mix if you want to get rid of algae. Rather, choose a sea salt mix that does not compromise with the quality. You have to be careful when you choose carbon. It can also be responsible to bring about unwanted materials in the tank. 12. Regulate the Water Flow Make sure that all the parts of the tank get the appropriate water flow. However, when dealing with algae, you have to be tactful about the amount of water flow. It is because, while some algae thrive in low water flow, some may thrive in high water flow as well. You can use wave makers to control the water flow. 13. Use Additives or Commercial Products If none of the methods mentioned come to your help, you can try additives and other anti-algae products to fight with the algae in the reef tank. Algaecides is one of the common products many reef tank users use as their last resort while working with excessive amounts of nuisance algae. 17 Types of Nuisance Algae and How to Get Rid of Them from Reef Tank Well, now that you know the common ways to get rid of algae, it is time to be more specific. In this section of the article, I am going to share the ways you should adopt to remove or starve out specific types of reef tank algae. Let’s go ahead. Green Hair Algae Though green hair algae have hundreds of filamentous green algae species, they come in simple and fine texture. You can easily trace them with some easily distinguishable features. Despite you cannot see them without a microscope when they are scattered, it is easy to identify them when they make groups. They are not very coarse as many other algae groups. You can easily pull and pluck them. Once you remove them from the water, they lose their form. Iron and potassium in the reef tank and excessive amounts of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are two of the main causes of green hair algae. How to Get Rid of Green Hair Algae from Reef Tank? - Change the tank water once a week - Remove them by hand or filtration. - Maintain proper alkalinity and magnesium level. - Employ algae green algae eaters like Emerald Crabs, Conchs, Florida Ceriths, Assorted Hermits, Urchins, Blue Legs, etc. - Siphon out the algae as much as possible. - Use high quality and updated fluorescent lights or LED fixtures. - Add a Phosban reactor. - Bring microalgae like Chaeto. Green Turf Algae Green turf algae are different species of green-colored algae with certain characteristics in common. Unlike green hair algae, these are wiry and coarse. It is really difficult to pluck them if they sprout from the rock. They have thicker and wider blades. Some of these algae feature a mat-like root structure. Once you discover green turn algae, it is wise to treat them outside the tank. How to Get Rid of Green Turf Algae from Reef Tank? - Take the affected rock or fag out and treat them by dipping into the water that contains algaecide. - Emerald Crabs, Chitons, and Urchins are three of the effective green turf algae-eating inhabitants. Adopt them in the tank. - If the green turf algae in your reef tank feature a root mat, you can peel them by pushing down on the algae. It works best when the algae become quite mature. Bryopsis Pennata and B. Plumosa These are some of the most stubborn macroalgae found in the reef tank aquariums. With visible midribs, Bryopsis pennata and B. plumosa have narrower branches. They feature a root system on the rocks that look like a mat. Bryopsis pennata comes with sparse and irregular branches while its cousin B. plumosa features full and symmetrical branches. Though many reef tank owners confuse green hair algae with these species, these are completely from different species. These algae are hated by the reef tank owners due to their clingy nature. It is not easy to get rid of them once they attack your reef tank. How to Get Rid of Bryopsis pennata and B. plumosa Algae from Reef Tank? - Add Nudibranchs, Sea Hares, Urchins, Chitons, Emerald crabs, and Astraea tubers in the reef tank. However, due to the stubbornness of these algae, algae eaters are not highly effective against them. - When you get to know that your tank is affected by Bryopsis pennata or B. plumosa, you have to be quick to act. If only one or two rocks are affected, take them away, remove the algae, and then put them inside a quarantine tank without light. - Though many people do not recommend removing the Bryopsis by hands due to the risk of quick-spreading, I will tell you otherwise. Remove them as much as possible by your hand. It is because untreated Bryopsis can spread quicker than the ones left after the removal process. However, it is best to remove the rock first and then clean the algae out of the tank. - Reduce the nutrients level as low as possible to starve the algae out. If you do so, it will be tough for them to hold strong for long or come back after manual removal. - If the above-mentioned methods do not work, you can raise your magnesium level to very high. Though many aquarists got success with this method, you should refrain from adopting this without proper research so that it does not cause any losses in your reef tank. I am not responsible if you make a mess. If you have just set a tank system, diatoms are the first uninvited guests you need to deal with. They are very abundant on the earth and in aquarium surfaces. They look like brown powder and appear usually after one or two weeks of a tank cycle. As they live on silicates, they appear when you bring about new rock, sand, or introduce any plastic substance in the tank. How to Get Rid of Diatoms from Reef Tank? - Use a mag float to wipe the diatoms from the glass. - A turkey baster and toothbrush can help clean them from the other parts of the tank. - Nerites, Astraea snails, Trochus, and Ceriths are some of the clean-up crew you can take help from to get rid of diatoms from your reef tank. - When the silicates in the tank decrease, other algae species can also replace diatoms. Cyano, Red Slime, or Cyanobacteria are the combination of bacteria and the algae. You will have to face them at least once in your reef tank as they are very common. Cyanobacteria have a lot of color variations including red. When it comes to the causes of red slime or cyano, nutrients especially phosphates and iron are the main triggers. They mostly prefer to grow at a low flow zone of the tank. The situation worsens if the water is warmer due to the excess lighting. Low alkalinity is another reason that encourages the growth of cyano in the reef tank. And finally, tap water fuels the red slime outbreak rapidly. How to Get Rid of Red Slime/Cyano/Cyanobacteria from Reef Tank? - Replace the tap water with RO/DI water. Change the water at least once a week. - Make sure that the water flows adequately to all the parts of the tank. - Control the lighting intensity to keep the water cold. - Increase the alkalinity level in the water and decrease the phosphates and nitrates level to the desired level. - Avoid feeding phosphate-rich foods like seasoned nori and other low-quality phosphate-enriched foods as long as the cyano outbreak is not under control. - Use a mag float, hard corals and rocks, light toothbrush, etc. to wipe the glass off. - You can pull the cyano off if they are on the sand. - If you are using a toothbrush to dislodge the cyano, use a net or siphon to remove them from the water. - Keep in mind that the cyano can come back if the balance of nutrients is not maintained properly. Green Film Algae Tanks of all ages may have a green, cloudy film of algae in it. They remain more or less in the tank all the time. Though you might not notice them all the time, green film algae are easily recognizable when they start blooming together. They create a cloudy and dense appearance in the reef tank. How to Get Rid of Green Film Algae from Reef Tank? - Copepods, Isopods, Amphipods are some good green film algae eaters on the earth. You can also try Nerites, Astraea, Chitons, and many species of limpets. Though many aquarists choose Hermit crabs, they are not so effective when it comes to fighting against green film algae. - To remove excess phosphates in your reef tank and thus starve out the green film algae, you can make use of a Phosban reactor or granulated ferric oxide (GFO). - Do not overfeed. Also, refrain from supplying phosphate-rich foods until the green film algae outbreak is under control. - Use a mag float to clean them from the glass. A toothbrush is a good option for cleaning the rocks. Take a turkey baster to blast the rocks. And when you are all done, change the tank water. Coming from the Valonia genus, these algae can cover the whole tank within a short period. They start affecting just a few plants at the beginning and later on spread rapidly. That’s why it is very important to treat these algae as soon as possible to stop promoting their further growth in the tank. - Remove every fragment of these algae from the rock if you want to prevent them from recurrence. Catch all the dislodged pieces that come out from the rocks. You have to be aggressive while following up on this process. - Ruby Crabs, Emerald Crabs, and other kinds of Mithrax Crabs are good at eating bubble algae from the water. - Inspect the frags and rocks of the tank regularly to know whether your tank is affected by bubble algae or not. Lobophora algae are brown and slippery macro algae species. They are semi-rigid and rubbery in appearance. Many aquarists can not identify them properly and end up confusing these algae with plating coralline. Lobophora algae vary a lot when it comes to color and form. They might have shapes like ruffled ribbons and sometimes like saucers. Similarly, they can be yellow or red. One good thing about Lobophora algae is that they do not spread from one rock to another too fast. How to Get Rid of Lobophora Algae from Reef Tank? - Quarantine the rock in a dark tank for an extended period. - Make use of Chitons, Turbos, Tangs, Limpets, Urchins, Emerald Crabs, and Sea Hares are some of the effective Lobophora eating inhabitants. Though they can’t stop the aggression of algae completely, they can help to keep the algae in control. Being filamentous, Lyngbya is one of the species of cyanobacteria. Though many people confuse Lyngbya with hair algae, these are different from hair algae in many aspects. Lyngbya algae are not slimy. Usually, they appear as reddish-brown in the tank. You can dislodge these quite effortlessly from the rocks. They do not have any mat structure or root. But, still, they grow very fast and can cover the tank quicker than you think. Their growth speed accelerates when they are attached to a powerhead or if they get warm water in the tank. How to Get Rid of Lyngbya from Reef Tank? - Use a toothbrush to remove Lyngbya from the glass and rocks. - Make use of the net to catch the floating parts. - Ceriths, Blue Legs, Nerites, and Ragged Sea Hares are effective eaters to keep the Lyngbya in check. - You can also follow the removal process of the red slime algae. Gelidium/Red Wiry Turf Algae Red Wiry Turf Algae are from the Gelidium genus. Apart from the red wiry turf algae, this genus also accommodates a lot of short but creepy red algae species. Red wiry turf algae can be hard to remove especially if they come with creep and fragile runners along the rocks. You have to consistently keep trying to get rid of these algae. How to Get Rid of Red Wiry Turf Algae from Reef Tank? - To remove the red wiry turf algae from the rocks, you might need to use a dental pick. While you clean the rock with the pick, make sure that the fragments that get loose from the rock are taken out. If you do not do so, they can spread again. It might be boring, but it is an effective solution to fight red wiry turf algae. - Take the affected rock out of the tank and replace that with a fresh rock. - Large Turbos, Sea Hares, Emerald Crabs, and Urchins are some of the common algae eaters that work against red wiry turf algae. Blue Green Cyano Though they are named as Blue Green Cyano, they appear as dark green. They form a slimy and green mat in the reef tank. Though you might treat them as regular cyanobacteria species, it is harder to remove them from the tank than cyano. The main reason is that most of the algae eaters are not very interested in them. Though algae cleaning crews like Limpets, Chitons, and Nerites consume it, they are not able to control the blue green cyano completely. However, you should not get frustrated if they come back in the tank after a removal process. You might need to treat them after a certain interval as they grow quicker than other types of nuisance algae. How to Get Rid of Blue Green Cyano from Reef Tank? - Take mag floats, corals, and rocks to wipe the glass. - Pull the cyano off from the sand. - Take out the dislodged cyano from the water by using a siphon or net. - To starve them out, use a Phosban reactor. You can also take help from granulated ferric oxide (GFO) to remove unnecessary phosphates. - Do not overfeed the tank inhabitants, especially refrain yourself from feeding phosphate-rich foods. Also, keep them away from immature plankton cultures. - Cultivate macroalgae like Chaeto and ensure that they get proper light. - If none of the above-mentioned methods work for you, use good chemical products from trusted brands. Calothrix is a variation of blue green algae. They are light, slimy, and hairy in appearance. When it comes to the look, Calothrix algae has a lot of similarities to Dinos. How to Get Rid of Calothrix from Reef Tank? - Remove the rock to clean it with a toothbrush to bring out the algae. Use a net or siphon to clean out the loose debris. - Controlling the phosphate level is an effective way to deal with Calothrix. Get a Phosban reactor or cultivate Chaeto to drop the phosphate down. - If you have a high level of nitrate in the tank, consider adding more live rock or rubble. - Nerites, Chitons, and other cyano cleaners are quite effective to consume Calothrix from the water. Dictoyota is a kind of brown algae with a blue hue. They are not rigid and come with forked branches. Many of the Dictyota species are microscopic. Some Dictyota species are not harmful to the inhabitants of your reef tank. You can easily remove them out of the tank. However, nuisance Dictyota species creep along the rock for a shorter period. They do not have any trunk. It is the rock from where the Dictyota branches form. Some Dictyota species are epiphytes and they can grow anywhere including the corals and coral’s base. However, the growth of Dictyota is easier to control compared to cyano species. How to Get Rid of Dictyota Algae from Reef Tank? - Clean every inch of the affected rock with the dental pick. - Sea Hares, Chitons, Tangs, Limpets, Emerald Crabs, and Urchins consume Dictyota in the reef tank. Longnose Decorator Crabs are the best Dictyota eaters. - Macroalgae like Chaeto and other species of Caulerpa can compete with these algae and starve them out. Cotton Candy Algae Having a lot of branches along with branchlets, cotton candy algae have an appearance of light pink. They grow mostly out of the water and later on sway in the current. Coming in a small loose form, they look quite good but do not have any aesthetic appeal. Though cotton candy algae are not so common, they can grow rapidly from the small fragments and then take hold of the tank. How to Get Rid of Cotton Candy Algae from Reef Tank? - It is tough to clean cotton candy algae if they get into a place where your fingers can’t reach. If it is possible to get them within your fingers, you can easily scrape the finger thumb on the surface and then remove the algae by holding in a way as you hold a pencil. - Emerald Crabs, Urchins, Large Turbos, Sea Hares, and Hermit Crabs are very effective algae eaters that love cotton candy algae. Red Bubble Algae Being one of the Botryocladia species, Red bubble algae may either be invasive or desirable depending on the type. To differentiate the desirable from the invasive, you have to look at how they grow. While invasive species grow straight on the rocks, the desirable ones grow from the branches. How to Get Rid of Red Bubble Algae from Reef Tank? - If you become clumsy in dealing with red bubble algae, the chance is that they will become all-pervasive in the tank. Try to remove them before they get bigger. - Cover the red bubble algae with any baster and then scrape it along with rock. You will see the bubble coming off. It is time to release the plunger and suck the thing up. Discard and repeat the process until you are done. - When it comes to manual removal, you should be aggressive so that the invasive red bubble algae do not get the opportunity to come back. - Small Rabbitfish and Juvenile Mithrax are the best red bubble algae eaters on the planet. However, you can also take assistance from Ruby Mithrax Crabs and Emerald Crabs. With a brownish look, Dinoflagellates are light nuisance algae with trapped air bubbles. They sprout up either from the sand or rock. However, keep in mind that all the species of Dinoflagellates are not necessarily evil. But, unfortunately, algae eaters are not effective to remove Dinoflagellates from the reef tank. How to Get Rid of Dinoflagellates from Reef Tank? - Take the affected rock out and keep it in a big saucepan. Add an adequate amount of water so that the rock goes underwater. Now, boil the water to get the tar out. Rinse it and keep going through scrubbing. - Repeat the same process once again. Place the rock under the sun to dry for about 3 days. - Introduce a Phosban reactor. - Ensure increased skimming. - Employ macroalgae like Chaetomorpha. - Some aquarists have got success to get rid of Dinoflagellates by raising the alkalinity and pH. level in the tank. You can also use it. But, do your research before adopting this method and proceed on with caution. Green Wiry Algae Green Wiry algae generally cling to the rock and create algae bloom from a runner. The branches of Green Wiry Algae are usually short. Luckily, Green Wiry Algae grow at a slow rate and are not very common. They are different from the green turf algae in the sense that while green turf algae sprout from the rock, green wiry algae just creep along the rock. How to Get Rid of Green Wiry Algae from Reef Tank? - It is quite tough to remove the green wiry algae manually. Algae that come with creeps along the rock and have fragile runners, it will be hardest to pluck them out. - By the way, try to give your best effort to remove them with the dental pick at the very first time you encounter them inside the tank. - Sea Hares, Emerald Crabs, Turbos, Rock Boring Urchins are some of the clean-up crews you can take assistance from. However, though they consume it, they do not seem to be much interested in green wiry algae. - If you play nutrient lulls, the chance of winning against these stubborn Green Wiry Algae is not so high. So, manual removing and the clean-up crews are the guns you can make use of to demolish them. By now, you know a lot of ways about how to get rid of algae in a reef tank. Note that different kinds of algae react differently to the actions you take. All of your actions might not work well for all types of algae. So, follow the ways mentioned above to deal with the specific types of nuisance algae we have talked about. However, always try to start with the manual removing process and employing the algae eaters as they are the safest resorts. But, if those are of no use, you can adopt the advanced stages like decreasing the nutrients, bringing a balance in alkalinity, magnesium, pH. level, etc., or use a good commercial product from a trusted source. Always keep in mind that getting rid of algae can be a long-term process and it requires your patience to be successful against the nuisance algae. Just do not lose hope and keep striving.

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It took 4.5 billion years of tumultuous history before Earth hit upon the right conditions for the creation of organic chemicals. Of the crystal replicators, it was DNA that was the most successful, becoming the prevalent and stable replicator, marshalling the available materials to endlessly copy itself. From then, it was a long time before single-cell life emerged, and then an even longer period before multicellular life finally burst upon the scene. This page is old and poorly referenced especially in the details on biochemistry, despite a 2008 edit that improved the style of the page. There are two main theories on abiogenesis1: Hydrothermal vents "on the early Earth's deep ocean floor gave rise to conditions for life. The early Earth would be a prime place for such vents, as the thin crust had many more breaks than today's thicker crust"1. Primitive extreme heat-loving life has indeed found on such vents, which spew the correct chemicals suitable for the development of life. Primordial soup: "In 1953, chemists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey developed a mixture of molecules thought to be similar to Earth's atmosphere about 4 billion years ago and subjected the mix to an event similar to lightening". They thusly produced a variety of organic chemicals1. Likewise, a more accurate replication of the conditions on the early Earth was used by John Sutherland from the University of Manchester, UK. He "seem[s] to have got it right. The recipe and conditions that they came up with to mix the five ingredients - including a good blast of UV light - produce ribonucleotides" - New Scientist (2009)2. The hydrothermal vents origin generally has more evidence for it than the lightning-strike model, although, the evidence does not yet rule either theory out. The most ancient genes traced on Earth hint that extreme heat, radiation and pressure were the environmental conditions that early life endured3. Geologists inform us that in the preceding 4.5 billion years, the Earth has gone through many changes. Prof. Paul Davies quips that "Earth" is a most unsuitable name for our planet as life was forming: Back four billion years [...] the whole world is almost completely submerged beneath a deep layer of hot water. No continents divide the scalding seas. Here and there the peak of a mighty volcano thrusts above the surface of the water and belches forth immense clouds of noxious gas. The atmosphere is crushingly dense and completely unbreathable. The sky, when free of cloud, is lit by a sun as deadly as a nuclear reactor, drenching the planet in ultra-violet rays. At night, bright meteors flash across the heavens. Occasionally a large meteorite penetrates the atmosphere and plunges into the ocean, raising gigantic tsunamis, kilometres high, which crash around the globe. The seabed at the base of the global ocean is unlike the familiar rock of today. A Hadean furnace lies just beneath, still aglow with primeval heat. In places the thin crust ruptures, producing vast fissures from which molten lava erupts to invade the ocean depths. The seawater, prevented from boiling by the enormous pressure of the overlying layers, infuses the labyrinth fumaroles, creating a tumultuous chemical imbroglio that reaches deep into the heaving crust. And somewhere in those torrid depths, in the dark recesses of the seabed, something extraordinary is happening, something that is destined to reshape the planet and, eventually perhaps, the universe. Life is being born.” The Earth used to be a highly radioactive place. It still is: the deeper you dig, the more radioactive the rocks are. Billions of years ago there was no ozone layer, so the Earth was bathed in deadly UV radiation, as mentioned by Prof. Davies above. He also charts the most ancient forms of life that still exist. We find that the oldest single-cell life copes incredibly well with radiation. It is also anaerobic and even anaerphobic, and thrives only in intense heat. It is clear that the oldest bacteria have such resilience and requirements because life itself evolved in an environment that had no oxygen, was heavily laden in radioactivity, and was at a high temperature. But even these primitive forms of life required organic molecules. Where did they come from? Experimenters have reconstructed several methods by which biological molecules would have arose, as we will see. “Chemotrophs make biomass from carbon dioxide, which has always been readily available on Earth either as a gas or dissolved in water. Energy can be supplied by a variety of chemical reactions. [...] Among the 50 or so identified species of hyperthermophiles, the organisms with the highest growth temperatures include Pyrodictium and Pyrobaculum. They have no truck with oxygen at all, which accords well with the theory that these heat-loving archaea are living fossils from an oxygen-free era of long ago. These superbugs obtain their energy from sulphur by combining it with hydrogen to make hydrogen sulphide. Sulphur is scattered widely among important biomolecules, a minor but important chemical in extant life. Sulphur-metabolizing bacteria include some of the most ancient hyperthermophiles. This points to a key role for sulphur in the formation of life. The old name for sulphur is brimstone, a devilish substance associated with fiery volcanoes and hell. [...] Not only was the real Eden most likely a Hadean inferno, it may also turn out that life was created from brimstone!” “Chemists have tried to imitate the chemical conditions of the young earth. They have put these simple substances in a flask and supplied a source of energy such as ultraviolet light or electric sparks - artificial simulation of primordial lightning. After a few weeks of this, something interesting is usually found inside the flask: a weak brown soup containing a large number of molecules more complex than the ones originally put in. In particular, amino acids have been found - the building blocks of proteins, one of the two great classes of biological molecules. [...] Laboratory simulations of the chemical conditions of earth before the coming of life have yielded organic substances called purines and pyrimidines. These are building blocks of the genetic molecule, DNA itself. Processes analogous to these must have given rise to the 'primeval soup' which biologists and chemists believe constituted the seas some three to four thousand millions years ago. [...] Under the further influence of energy such as ultraviolet light from the sun, they combined into larger molecules. [...] This process could continue as a progressive stacking up, layer upon layer. This is how crystals are formed. On the other hand, the two chains might split apart, in which case we have two replicators, each of which can go on to make further copies. [...] So we seem to arrive at a large population of identical replicas. But now we must mention an important property of any copying process: it is not perfect. Mistakes will happen. [...] Erratic copying in biological replicators can [...] give rise to improvement, and it was essential for the progressive evolution of life that some errors were made.” The conditions on primitive Earth can be reconstructed in a laboratory, wielding the production of simple amino acids and other biochemicals. These rose to fame with the famous Miller and Urey experiments. In 1953 Stanley Miller subjected a mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water in a 3-part system (gas, vapour, liquid) to the action of an electric discharge. Oparin and Haldane had already predicted the results of this: A multitude of organic molecules, sugars and amino acids were formed. These reactions were more efficient if the system was held at a higher temperature. The organic material was found mostly in the water chamber. The vast majority of organic molecules are not stable in an oxidizing atmosphere - such as the one we now have, which is another clue that biogenesis occurred deep, and not on the surface. We know more about the specific formation of organic material that we did fifty years ago, and all types of amino acid but one have been recreated using variations on the original experiments. Varying the temperature, ratios and methods of ionisation will lead to successful results - as long as the sphere remains reducing (not oxidizing). Katchalsky's group (Israel) first succeeded in forming polypeptides with Montmorillonite (a highly common clay) up to an efficiency of nearly one hundred percent. It is widely regarded that clay, with its ideal chemical properties and its abundance under most of the oceans and the Earth, is the likely candidate for the source of the main evolutionary steps that occurred from chemistry to biology. There are forms of crystal evolution that can be observed in clays, where different crystals cause the metabolism of different chemicals and forming patterns, of themselves, inside the clay. Many other experiments and variations of the Miller-Urey lines have resulted in the spontaneous production of organic molecules; many theorists have held that after millions of years of these processes, the Earth would have been covered in a primordial soup of organic compounds. From these chemicals many types of sugars and bases can be (and are) formed. More experiments continue to produce evidence that most important biochemicals are formed with ease under prebiotic conditions. Continued reactions such as simply stirring formaldehyde with calk produce important molecules such as deoxyribose, a constituent of DNA. Over such a huge span of time the reactions would have produced a huge abundance of organic matter laid on the clays of the oceans. Coincidentally some of our most ancient religions and philosophies have held that mankind was 'made' from clay. Although there some serious caveats to mention before the poor reader starts going all medieval: (1) they do not mean the precise substance as described by science, (2) life doesn't come "from" clay, some types of clay merely acted as a catalyst, and (3) we merely translate (quite a few) ancient words as 'clay' which were themselves used to describe a variety of materials. Nonetheless it is still nice that by luck some pre-science beliefs do actually hit on correct-sounding statements, even if for the wrong reasons. Finally, the use of clay as a building material of the gods makes sense in terms of human experience because after all, clay is what us Humans created models and figurines out of. 5000 years ago in Sumeria: It was said that the god Enki created humans by forming their shape in clay by laying in it7 and the goddess Aruru created the wild man Enkidu "from a piece of clay moistened with her own spittle"8. The Epic of Atrahasis records that humans are made from a mixture of clay and divine blood and saliva for the purpose of working the soil on the Earth (pictured on the right, from the British Museum).9 Greek science, 2500 years ago: Anaximander of Miletus (~610BCE-546BCE) was an early scientist from Ionia in ancient Greece. "He proposed the spontaneous origin of life in mud, the first animals being fish covered with spines. Some descendants of these fishes eventually abandoned the water and moved to dry land, where they evolved into other animals"10. A pleasing precursor to the theory of evolution! The Hebrew Scriptures, 6th centuryBCE: "The LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. [...] Out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air" (Genesis 2:7,19). The pagan Stoics, from the 3rd centuryBCE, believed that "a human being is partly fire, partly made of lower clay; in so far as he is fire [...], he is part of God"11. Our earthly component came from clay. Islam, 1300 years ago: The Qur'an contains many clear statements that mankind was made from clay. These can be found in Qur'an 3:49 (a bird is made by clay by the power of God), 6:2, 7:12, 15:26, 17:61, 38:71,76. But that's not the whole story. In Qur'an 15:26 there are some strange additions; mankind was made in clay "that gives forth sound, of black mud fashioned in shape", or from a different translation, "from dry clay and black moulded loam" (Dawood). Clearly, this is not the wet Monmorillonite clay that may have played an important part in the history of the earth in helping in the formation of the first organic molecules. Unfortunately this "scientifically" correct statement in the Qur'an falls foul of technicalities: the role clay played in the ancient evolution of life was merely that of a catalyst, and life does not come "from" clay at all. And... the formation of life from organic chemicals involved so many steps over such a period of time, that almost any statement about creating life "from" something could be said to be true. See: Islam and Science: Errors in the Qur'an and Arab Education: 2. Biology Mistakes. Even before the end of the period that produced the prebiotic soup, chemicals would have been inter-reacting in increasingly complex ways. A polymer (a generic name) consists of a row of molecules attached end on end. An example would be a chain of people holding hands. The chemical reactions mean that the highest potential is at the end of these chains where the chain can gain length by reacting with more molecules. Many types of polymers only accept the same molecules of which it is itself comprised. We therefore have a chain of "people" that grow in length. As the polymer becomes long it will eventually break into two. Physical forces, UV radiation, oxygen molecules, ionized particles can all cause this to happen and it is frequent. We therefore have a self-replicating polymer that duplicates, uses available resources and has potential to mutate when chemical reactions go astray. Any crystal that grows is a limited example of a type of life. So, here are a few quotes from experts in the first principles of evolution who both point out that this simple starting-point enabled evolution to start playing a part: “This process could continue as a progressive stacking up, layer upon layer. This is how crystals are formed. On the other hand, the two chains might split apart, in which case we have two replicators, each of which can go on to make further copies. [...] So we seem to arrive at a large population of identical replicas. But now we must mention an important property of any copying process: it is not perfect. Mistakes will happen. [...] Erratic copying in biological replicators can [...] give rise to improvement, and it was essential for the progressive evolution of life that some errors were made.” “...the law of natural selection takes a simple form: The organisms that reproduce most efficiently sooner or later dominate the population ... [this was] recognized long before Darwin developed his complete theory, for example by Malthus at the end of the 18th century” L.E.Orgel "The Origins of Life" (1973)12 However, it is not the generic crystal we are interested in. Why is carbon the fundamental organic element? The simple answer is that if another chemical, maybe Silicon, was more appropriate then the chemical reactions would have favoured it and it would have dominated. Of all the elements, one of them was most efficient at these complex reactions. It was carbon. Perhaps on other planets it will be a different element, it depends on factors unknown; most likely temperature, the speed that the planet cooled, etc. Here, carbon was best. Because of that, other elements that bind easily to carbon became prominent, mainly the CHOMSP group. It is obvious that if there are two similar strands which both require the same chemicals, that the most efficient one will eliminate the other one over time. Mutations and errors will create variants and we therefore have evolution, as attested to by our experts above. Let us consider three types of mutation: One that is irrelevant and causes no noticeable change, one that causes the protein (or structure) to be unstable or "broken" and the third type - where it continues to function in the same way, with only a small difference. In the second case, a major mutation could result in a radically different structure, but most the time it will result in failure. In the third case however we have possible evolution. If this mutation is more efficient or equally functional as the parent, it could result in a new type of crystal duplication. If the new variant uses the local chemical resources better than the parent with regards to self-duplication then it will proliferate. We are considering a time before such things as cells and other highly macroscopic complex organisms. The same methods of competition apply at every level of chemistry - driven by the fact that chemical resources are limited. Silicon is the same group as carbon. It is postulated that carbon, being -4 valency, is ideal to support complex molecules without making processing too difficult or unpredictable. Silicon is the most likely molecules, for most laymen, that can be considered a valid alternative for carbon as it can theoretically cover the same complexity range of molecules as carbon. Silicon based life would require a higher energy metabolism. Indeed silicon life, although it would seem plausible, would be highly different from carbon-based life. All reactions would be at a much higher temperature in order to react with silicon atoms and therefore most of the structures and metabolic paths that we use would not be enough. Also at higher temperatures many of the chemicals we use are unstable. It could be guessed that silicon life could only exist in a world where stronger and more consistent energy sources are available. A world closer to a sun, or with a heat-trapping atmosphere. However despite many attempts it has not been possible to build any accurate metabolic paths that could conceivably deal with a silicon-based organic system. Life based on silicon would be completely different (I mean it) from life as we know it. Life evolved on Earth using all the materials available - carbon happened to be the most suitable carrier for organic methods on this planet due to this planets environment and conditions. We can therefore guess that life on planets that are similar to ours will also find carbon the most suitable base-element for organic molecules. Towards the end of the abiogenesis era, masses of new biological compounds were being assimilated and used by replicating units that were once crystals, but which we now call by another name. DNA was produced very early on; it has existed for 3.5 billion years; Prof. Davies remarks that "[i]t makes nonsense of the phrase 'as old as the hills': DNA was here long before any surviving hills on Earth"13. For the following billions of years, DNA existed inside disconnected cells of protective material. Prof. Richard Dawkins succinctly describes the transformation from that state to the present day: “Was there to be any end to the gradual improvement in the techniques and artifices used by the replicators to ensure their own continuation in the world? There would be plenty of time for improvement. [...] Four thousand million years on, what was to be the fate of the ancient replicators? They did not die out [...] but do not look for them floating in the sea. [...] Now they swarm in colonies, safe inside gigantic lumbering robots, sealed off from the outside world, communicating with it by tortuous indirect routes, manipulating it by remote control. They are in you and in me; they created us, body and mind; and their preservation is the ultimate rationale for our existence. They have come a long way, those replicators. Now they go by the name of genes, and we are their survival machines.” “Biodiversity is the product of evolution from a single origin of life on Earth, which took place around 3.5-4.0 billion years ago.” How did these replicating chemicals evolve to collect such a massive quantity of material that their bodies contain uncountable billions of proteins and chemicals? The cell is the most important first stage. Macromolecules and such polypeptides would have survived better if they could retain molecules that they required for later use or for catalysts in reactions that they carry out during replication. Therefore, those that chemically retained some necessary chemicals survived more leading to the growth of species of 'things' that had thin membranes. Thick membranes, impermeable ones, would have held out too much, when the aim was simply to hold down some types of molecules/protein that is useful to the organism. The fossil records suggest that we had cells with membranes at least 3 billion years ago, but it was another two billion years from then until we had multicellular organisms appear in the fossil record. Following on from the formation of the prebiotic soup there was another 2 billion year phase of oceanic anaerobic oxygen production which is believed to be the source of a lot of today's oxygen. This production meant that aerobic respiration became possible, leading to today's typical oxygen dependant cells. There are many primitive types of cell-species known, but I will note one of the classes in particular because it is normally noted, within this context. It is hailed as one of the most important candidates of the ancestor of the cell as we know it. The class of Thermophilic Prokaryotic Bacteria (heat-loving with no nuclei) survive in non-boiling water over 100 degrees Celsius. They are endowed with a sulphur based metabolism. The only place these could have existed is in highly pressurized areas of ocean, near natural sources of heat. It is precisely at these locations, at the thermic chimneys that are abundant on the bottom of the deepest oceans, that we find such bacteria. The combination of the hot energy source and the concentration of the prebiotic soup that would exist at that depth, 4 billion years ago, would be a dreamily rich location of polypeptide chemical evolution. “Methanococcus jannaschii - a strange microbe that was recovered just recently by the deep sea vessel Alvin from a volcanic vent on the Pacific floor. This microbe lives at crushing pressures 245 times greater than at sea level and at scalding temperatures just a few degrees below the boiling point of water. The microbe belongs to an ancient kingdom of organisms known as the Archaea, often found in extreme environments, like hot springs or deep sea vents. Despite their obscurity, the Archaea constitute a third kingdom of life, alongside the Prokarya, cells like bacteria that have no nucleus, and the Eukarya, organisms with nucleated cells, which include all plants and animals. The entire genome or genetic blueprint of the microbe has now been chemically sequenced indicating that the Archaea is neither plant nor animal, yet is related to both -- and likewise related to humans. Further study of these organisms may lead to further clarification of the path of evolution on Earth -- and the possibility of life on other planets.” “Over the past two centuries scientists have painstakingly pieced together the history of life. The fossil record shows clearly that ancient life was very different from extant life. Generally speaking, the farther back in time you go, the simpler were the living things that inhabited the Earth. [...] This record of complexification and diversification is broadly explained by Darwin's theory of evolution.” From the appearance of the cell in the fossil record, through to multicellular organisms and amoebas, etc, life is increasingly well documented. Single-cell life has a very high rate of evolution and change17. Bacteria, therefore, adapt quickly (in evolutionary terms) to things like new antibacterial products. But the development from unicellular to multicellular life took a long time in history, as we will see below. The details are important, because analysing the timespans between major developments is one theoretical way to measure the likelihood that particular biochemical developments will be made on other planets similar to Earth, and, in general the greater insight we have into the genetic history of life, the greater our ability to combat problems such as disease and ageing. “Geologists divide up the 4600 million years of the earth's geological history into major areas and periods. [...] The earliest era is called the Precambrian - a long, complex and poorly understood phase. During it there were periods of mountain-building and at least one ice age. It was a time when the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere first developed, and the first organisms appeared. Life was, however, essentially primitive, consisting of simple plants like algae.” Some proteins that are produced by a cell's DNA protrude through the cell lipid wall, and actively retain chemicals from the local environment. These sensor molecules developed into the system of senses that single-cell organisms use to navigate their environment. In multicellular species, the same mechanisms "form the basis for chemical communication between cells and organs, using hormones and neurotransmitters"19. The mutation which caused multicellular plants to arise from replicating cells that do not divide properly had obtained by three billion years ago20. This and the arrival of sexual reproduction a billion years afterwards sped up the value and speed of evolution immensely, resulting in a rapidly expanding variety of life forms. “For most of the four billion years since the origin of life, the dominant organisms were microscopic blue-green algae, which covered and filled the oceans. Then some 600 million years ago, the monopolizing grip of the algae was broken and an enormous proliferation of new life-forms emerged, an event called the Cambrian explosion. Life had arisen almost immediately after the origin of the Earth, which suggests that life may be an inevitable chemical process on an Earth-like planet. But life did not evolve much beyond blue-green algae for three billion years, which suggests that large life-forms with specialized organs are hard to evolve, harder even than the origin of life. Perhaps there are many other planets that today have abundant microbes but no big beasts and vegetables.” “The oldest well-documented true animal fossils, [... in] Australia (in the Flinders Mountains north of Adelaide), are dated at 560 million years. Known as ediacara, they include creatures resembling jellyfish. Shortly after this epoch, about 545 million years ago, there began a veritable explosion of species, culminating in the colonization of the land by large plants and animals.”

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It is revealed that he has previously warned Roderigo of his daughter, saying “My daughter is not for thee,” (Act One, Scene One), but she takes control.She speaks for herself instead of letting her father speak for her, and she defends her relationship with Othello. . In act 1 of Othello, how does Iago use his power of persuasion with Roderigo, Brabantio, and Othello to create his scheme to undo Othello. ... Kahoot! He refuses to … What is Iago's plan and purpose in act 1, scene 3 of Othello? because he truly loved her and still believes she's beautiful, but he's hurt by her supposed actions. What further info does Iago reveal about Bianca? Act 2, Scene 1: A Sea-port in Cyprus. (178-179). Crazed with jealousy and heartbreak, Othello has a … answer choices . PLAY. Chapter Summary for William Shakespeare's Othello, act 4 scene 1 summary. Roderigo shows up. Iago plans to get Cassio talking about Bianca, so Othello will think Cassio is talking about Des. Act 3, Scene 1: Before the castle. Othello may very well possess a great military mind but in matters of the heart, he's easily fooled. Her testimony would be strong evidence of Desdemona’s innocence, except that Othello dismisses it all as lies, because it does not accord with what he already believes. Othello loses control of his speech and, as he writhes on the ground, his movements. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Synopsis of Act 3 Scene 4 In a complete shift of dramatic mood after the preceding scene, Desdemona has a witty exchange with the clown last encountered in Act 3 Scene 1. Othello Questions: Act 4 and 5 Flashcards | Quizlet Start studying Othello Questions: Act 4 and 5. Othello goes directly to the point: "How shall I murder him, Iago?" Cassio appears and wants to help Othello, but Iago sends him away and tells Othello that if he hides himself he will see Cassio talking about his encounters with Desdemona. Emilia tells him that he's crazy—she has observed Cassio and Desdemona every minute they were together, and nothing remotely suspicious has happened. by nelaf. About this webmix : No description. What's the result? 53% average accuracy. Start Using This Webmix. Othello: Act 4, scene 3 Summary & Analysis New! A4. In Act 4, Scene 1, Lines 123-130, which word best describes how Bianca feels about having accepted the handkerchief from Cassio? Emilia tells him that weare1848. Act 4, Scene 2 We open with Othello grilling Emilia, trying to get her to confess that Desdemona and Cassio are having an affair. Othello. IAGO Why, then, 'tis hers, my lord; and, being hers, She may, I think, bestow't on any man. Othello Act 4 Scene 1 Quiz. Synopsis: Iago continues to torment Othello with vivid descriptions of Desdemona’s alleged sexual activity. 7 months ago. Summary. Act 5, scene 1. Start studying Othello Questions: Act 4. Othello’s last line in act III, scene iii is “Now art thou my lieutenant” Othello made Iago his lieutenant, which Iago was enraged about from the beginning. Write. Edit. After a short time in Cyprus, Iago has managed to bring about Othello’s “savage madness” (IV.i. Psychologists say that manipulation works on four fronts: fear, guilt, hype, and moralism. to further heat up the situation; she asks about the handkerchief and further helps Iago trick Othello. Othello swears also to kill his wife this night, he curses her and weeps over her at the same time, mingling love and murder: "for she shall not live; no, my heart is turned to stone . A4. nelaf. . Themes and Colors Key LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Othello, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work. Iago tells Othello that Cassio has told him of his affair with Desdemona. Cassio asks the clown to entreat Emilia to come speak with him, so that he can ask her for access to Desdemona. She is looking for Cassio, but is also concerned that she has lost the handkerchief which Othello gave her. Othello must barricade Cyprus and prepare for an attack. Start studying Othello Act 4. In his somewhat deranged state, Othello refers to "goats and monkeys." Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. How? . English II Honors: Othello Act 4 Study Guide - Quizlet Act 4, Scene 2 We open with Othello grilling Emilia, trying to get her to confess that Desdemona and Cassio are having an affair. Choose from 500 different sets of vocabulary othello act 4 flashcards on Quizlet. by nelaf. Summary: Act IV, scene i. Othello and Iago enter in mid-conversation. 7 months ago. Iago calls Cassio in, while Othello hides; Iago speaks to Cassio of Bianca, but Othello, in his disturbed state, believes that Ca… Each quiz is multiple choice and includes questions on plot points, themes, and character traits. Test your knowledge on all of Othello. IAGO Her honour is an essence that's not seen; They have it very oft that have it not: But, for the handkerchief,--OTHELLO By heaven, I would most gladly have forgot it. Created by. Othello Act 4, scene 1. Perfect prep for Othello quizzes and tests you might have in school. . " 52). 12 times. he says it's all fine and Emilia needs to be quiet. Important quotes from Act I, scene iii in Othello. An Inspector Calls Jane Eyre Much Ado About Nothing Othello To … he wants him to kill Cassio and Othello will stay in Cyprus. Once someone figures out what your chief weakness is, that person can exploit it. Othello seems much calmer since he made up his mind. Act 3, Scene 2: A room in the castle. Test your knowledge online or print for classroom use. Enter OTHELLO … She might lie by an emperor’s side and / command him tasks.” – Othello (IV.i.178-81) “To beguile many and be beguiled by one.” – Iago (IV.i.97) When I hit it, it hurts my hand. Act 4, Scene 1 Iago continues his insinuations when speaking to Othello; he provides more "proofs" that are anything but, though Othello has calmed, and seems more troubled and less angry. Detailed Summary of Othello, Act 4, Scene 1 Page Index: Enter Othello and Iago. he asks questions about Bianca and Cassio laughs, which makes Othello think he is talking about Desdemona. 53% average accuracy. he tells him that his luck will change and that they are friends. This contrasts with Othello's train of thought in the previous act, where, with less actual evidence before him, he changed his whole view of himself and his marriage. By William Shakespeare. he asks why Othello is acting strange; he asks if he is sick or if he always acts this way. Iago then remarks that if he were to give his wife a handkerchief, it would be hers to do as she wished with it. Imagine you are Brabantio. A4. Read our modern English translation of this scene. Act 1, Scene 2: Another street. Iago makes up a story to trick Roderigo. By William Shakespeare. A4. Othello quotations Act 1. Othello must dismiss Iago and reinstate Cassio. He is talking with Iago about the handkerchief still, and its significance in being found; but, soon, Iago whips Othello into an even greater fury through mere insinuation, and Othello takes the bait. How does Iago say he'll show Othello further proof? Jealousy and manipulation are at the heart of this tragedy. Synopsis: Desdemona, still actively seeking to have Cassio reinstated, is worried about the loss of her handkerchief. Previous Next . From a general summary to chapter summaries to explanations of famous quotes, the SparkNotes Othello Study Guide has everything you need to ace quizzes, tests, and essays. Iago goads Othello by arguing that it is no crime for a woman to be naked with a man, if nothing happens. 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8 Reasons Why India Is so Poor The Super Poor India ! India has 269 million (21 percent of total population) people under the poverty line, as per the latest official headcount of the poor in India. It used to be 396 million (29 percent) prior to the announcement of new counting in June 1024. However, World Bank recently estimated Indian poverty to be 172 million (12.4 percent), based on its new poverty line of $1.90 per person per day using the new 2011 purchasing power parity (PPP) data. This is a measure of extreme poverty. [The World Bank revised its poverty line in October in 2015 to $1.90 a day from the earlier $1.25 a day.] In 1947 when colonial British left India, they left 70 percent Indians in deep poverty and a tiny elite class that controlled everything. Over six decades later in 2011-2012, poverty is down to 21 percent despite the multifold increase in population. However, despite the significant progress, even 21 percent poverty means a huge headcount in a country of 1.3 billion people. You may like to know that World Bank has set the target of bringing down the global extreme poverty to less than 3 percent by 2030. The global community is now also duty bound to pursue the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which provides a holistic global development agenda, particularly for the poor countries. There is a more comprehensive way to measure poverty, through the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). It is a joint venture of UK based Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Its 2017 report estimated India’s poverty at 41 percent (528 million). Note that various dimensions of the MPI are connected with the SDGs. Thus, progress in SDGs can be suitably monitored through the MPI data. While there can never be agreement on poverty numbers, compare these numbers with the European Union and US populations of 500 million and 320 million, respectively. The mammoth Indian poverty is a delight for poverty experts for playing the game of poverty line and counting the poor! Due to its very large population India holds the distinction of having the most number of poor of the world – a super poor nation! Consequently, South Asia has become the world’s biggest center of extreme poverty, followed by the sub-Saharan Africa. In both regions the MPI estimates higher poverty than calculated by the one dimensional income poverty line ($1.90 a day) of the World Bank. In South Asia, the MPI reveals 41.6% percent poverty compared with 19.2 percent from the WB’s income indicator. For the sub-Saharan Africa these figures are 60.1 percent and 46.4 percent, respectively. Multidimensional poverty indicators map the SDGs Poverty is Inherently Multidimensional Wise people say: Poverty is easy to spot, but hard to define. The income based one dimensional poverty line of the World Bank fails to reflect the hardships faced by the poor. It gives only headcount. A life in poverty means living deprived of sufficient food and nutrition, education, proper shelter, sanitation, clean water and so on. This points to the need of seeing poverty as a multidimensional phenomenon. The way MPI is constructed it offers a useful breakup of various deprivations faced by the poor as if poverty is being looked through a microscope. Education of girls is the best anti-poverty tool. Major Factors Behind India’s Poverty In this page, we will discuss major factors that led to deeply entrenched poverty in India. Given the multitude of languages, customs, cultures and castes in India, these factors are further intertwined. Here we highlight 8 important reasons for high poverty in India. However, one message is very clear: One has to look at poverty, beyond income. 1. Social Inequality Leading to Exclusion and Marginalization Societies cannot progress if certain sections of people are left-out simply because they happen to be from the “wrong” class, caste, ethnic group, race or sex. If the virus of color and race based discrimination has damaged the social set up of many countries in the West, the bacteria of “caste” division has undermined the cohesive social fabric of India. Lower caste people have traditionally been excluded from the mainstream society governed by the so-called upper caste communities. They have historically lived isolated in the periphery of the villages and townships and subsisted doing only those tasks considered “unfit” for the other castes. Their un-touchability can be considered the worst form of rejection by the mainstream society. While considerable change has taken place in people’s attitude since 1947, but the “lower caste” communities are still not satisfactorily absorbed in the mainstream society. Rural India (where 70% of the population lives) is still quite “caste conscious” compared with the urban society where education and financial well-being has largely erased the caste divisions. Mahatma Gandhi tried to remove the social stigma of un-touchability by coining the label "Harijan" (god's people) for them but with only partial success. The official label for about 170 million (around 14 percent of current total population) unfortunate lower caste people is Scheduled Caste (SC). Another segment of society that is still very much detached from the mainstream is the tribal community forming 8% of the population. These tribal people (called Scheduled Tribe (ST)) have historically lived in secluded areas such as forests. The Colonial British designated their habitations as "excluded areas", not due to any special privilege but for convenience of the colonial policies. Unfortunately, the “free” governments after 1947 never bothered to assimilate them into rest of the mainstream society and the tribal communities continued to remain isolated and “barely governed.” As a result, besides the poverty of the tribal communities, their backward due to lack of governance of their areas also gave rise to armed Maoist movement. It, ideologically, wants to establish communist state based on Mao’s principles through gun battle. Popularly called Naxals, these Maoists now pose the biggest internal security threat for the country. Fortunately, even now they have not formed any nexus with Islamic terrorist groups of next door neighbor Pakistan. Beside the SCs and STs, there are several other communities designated “Other Backward Classes” or simply OBC – they may or may not be Hindus. Their socioeconomic plight is also similar to SCs and STs. The list of OBCs is dynamic and every now and then the government edits it (mostly for political reasons); there is significant confusion about their exact proportion. However, most experts agree OBCs to be in the range 25 – 35% of the population. Combined together they form 50 – 60 percent India's population! Thus, the population of the so-called forward or upper class is less than one-third, but who by and large control everything. Now tell me how any country can possibly progress if over half of its people get excluded from the mainstream societal processes. While marginalization and exclusion happen in all societies, but in India it is in grotesque proportions due to sheer numbers. The policy of reservation in government jobs for the backward communities has certainly helped them to rise up to some extent. But it is insufficient because government jobs are limited. A far better way is to train and turn them into entrepreneurs. Here the idea of ‘social business’ offers a great opportunity for NGO and social organizations to make a difference. High level of illiteracy, particularly in the rural areas and among women, has been a crucial factor not only in perpetuating economic backwardness but also for high population growth. The persistence of high illiteracy has created a situation where poverty and population have been feeding each other. It is well established that female literacy plays an important role in the well-being of the family in many ways. When women are educated, they not only contribute economically but also raise healthier kids and keep the family size small. Early marriage of girls and early child bearing is closely related with their low literacy; it feeds poverty. In 2010 only 26.6% women above 25 years found to have received secondary education, as opposed to 50.4% men. In comparison, in China 54.8% women and 70.4% men had secondary education; in the US, this figure was 94.7% for women and 94.3% for men. While the growth rate of population has decreased significantly over the decades and the rate fertility decline has accelerated since 2011, India's population is currently growing annually at the rate of about 1.4 percent. The total fertility rate has sharply fallen to 2.3 and should approach the replacement rate of 2.1 by 2020 and country's population should stabilize by 2050 at around 1.5 billion and then begin to fall. The current population increase is largely driven by population momentum (large base of people in the fertile age); not because people want large families. Around 18 million people are added to population each year. However, not that many people are lifted out of poverty every year. Early marriage of girls and lack of awareness about reproductive healthcare, particularly in the rural areas, are major factors behind current population growth. Population is clearly a factor contributing to, and sustaining, high levels of poverty. But the Chinese population control through one-child model would be a bad example to follow for the democratic India. () 4. Gender Inequality Gender equality is both a core concern and an essential part of human development. Indian social fabric is highly patriarchal which has left women significantly exploited and discriminated. If caste based biases work only outside home in the open society, the discrimination against women operates both in and out of homes. Not only men always get preference in every walk of life, their attitude towards women is largely patronizing and imposing. Their weak status, particularly in the rural areas, is at the root of most chronic problems. It is their lack of awareness or access to family planning tools and early marriage of girls and their early child bearing, which ultimately have led to high population; lack of awareness of health issues related to pregnancy and child upbringing has resulted in high mortality rate, under-nutrition and malnutrition among children; lower education and lack of freedom has resulted in low participation in societal processes. All these factors are enough to feed and sustain poverty. On the World Economic Forum’s 2016 gender gap index (GGI) India ranked 87 out of 144 nations.Last year it was at 108 position. The index benchmarks national gender gaps on economic, political, education and health criteria. Indian Muslim community is easily the most backward group in terms of gender inequality. Its clergy habitually wants to live like the Arab tribes of the 7th century uncivilized Middle East, in the name of Sharia'h Law - confining women inside the veils and oppressed by polygamy and 'triple' Talaq.. But for their resistance, India would have by now a Uniform Civil Code for all Indians. As radical Islam (Wahhabi Islam) is spreading across the world due to push from the Saudi Arabia it will make the task of providing equal treatment to Muslim women even harder. Fortunately, Indian government is now firmly pushing an end to the stone-age practice of ‘triple talaq’ in the Supreme Court of India. There are chances that Indian Muslim women would now move a bit closer towards gender equality. 5. Unequal Distribution of Wealth India happens to be a rich country inhabited by very poor people. – Dr Manmohan Singh Unfortunately, since departure of the colonial British in 1947 all economic development has taken place in the cities, while the majority of the population lives in the countryside. Thus, the rural India has always remained neglected. Another peculiarity is the land holding pattern in India: most land has traditionally been under the control of a few landlords, leaving the vast majority landless. The "Zamindari system” of lopsided land ownership has ancient origin but given a boost during the British rule. Handful zamindars became legal owners of vast tracts of land and all others had to work for them to survive. This rent seeking exploitative system has since kept a vast majority of people in the rural India poor. Land reforms were debated noisily after independence but implementation lacked honest political will, despite the famous "Bhoodan Andolan" of Vinoba Bhave. Unfortunately, land reforms are no more an issue of public debates at present. All talks of poverty removal appear to center only around economic reforms, imitating the unsuitable Western capitalism. Rising wealth inequality According to the latest edition of Oxfam International’s global inequality report titled An Economy For The 99 Percent published in Jan 2017, the richest 1 percent in India owns 58 percent of the country’s wealth. As the myopic ‘economic experts’ gloat over rising number of billionaires in India, the inequality is growing bigger with each passing year. Rising inequality is trapping more and more Indians in poverty; it is also fracturing the society and undermining Indian democracy. It is in fact a global phenomenon. The report also revealed that 7 out of 10 people live in countries that have seen inequality widen in the last 30 years. Furthermore, the report also mentioned that during 1988 - 2011, the incomes of the poorest 10 percent around the world increased by an average of just $65 per year, while those of the richest 1 percent grew by an average of $11,800 a year—182 times as much! 6. Faulty Economic Reforms The so called economic liberalization and market reforms that started in the 1990s are nothing but an attempt to replicate the Western capitalism that promotes "trickle down" economy. It serves to make the rich richer and expand the economy. India has become more unequal in recent years. In early 1990s, there were just 2 billionaires; now there are 97 billionaires, in a country of 1.33 billion people. The rich elites are also controlling more wealth, their share increased from 1.8 percent in 2003 to 26 percent in 2008. Today, they are still richer and much more powerful. Experts suggest that if India could only freeze its rising inequality, by 2019 around 90 million more people could come out of extreme poverty. Reducing inequality by 10 points in Gini coefficient (equivalent of a 36 percent reduction) could further lift up another 83 million poor people. The push to urbanization means uprooting the poor from their rural roots and turning them into “cheap labor resource” for businesses in the town. In the cities they would live in large slums, exploited both by the mafia and employers, devoid of human dignity and livelihood security. Given the huge population and poverty, India needs an "employment centric" economy – millions of micro, small and medium business units. Only they can employ the unskilled or low skilled people from the vast pool of the poor. Large high-tech industrial units don't generate too many jobs and whatever jobs they create is suitable for those who are already well off. According to the NSSO survey, the size of India's workforce is around 450 million. Of which only about 30 million work in the formal or organized sector. The government recognizes only about 70 million as unemployed or underemployed. Thus, there are 350 million unrecognized by the government as unemployed. Government surveys list them as "self employed" but they barely survive and live chronically in poverty. Who are these "self employed" people, more in numbers than the population of United States, and how do they survive? They milk the cows, become seasonal farm workers, run small shops or sell on the roadsides, make incense sticks, match sticks and bidis, drive manual or auto rickshaws, work as domestic help, work as unaccounted contract workers on daily wages, work as gardeners and watchmen, or work as plumbers, carpenters or shoe repairers and so on. They have no safety net such as pension or healthcare benefits enjoyed by the regular employees and hence, are the most vulnerable. They are also the first victim of natural calamities, now becoming more frequent due to climatic disorder. [The poor are always the first victims of climatic disasters. Of course, nothing changes for better after their death-toll makes headline news.] Jobless Economic Growth Considering the population growth of around 18 million every year, around 10 million new jobs need to be created per year. In 7 years, between 2005 and 2012, India's GDP growth was 5.4% and only about 15 million new jobs were created. Official data say that 1.55 lakh jobs were created in 2015 and 2.31 lakh in 2016. All these numbers talk about the so-called formal economy of the rich people and their firms. This formal sector is all about the prosperity of the rich; not at all about the well-being of the poor. Arrival of the dynamic Modi government in 2014 did not make things any better for young job seekers. The GDP may be growing at 7% per year. But job growth remains pathetic and that too for those well educated. India’s textbook ‘economic experts’ are ‘worried’ about stagnating 5% unemployment rate because their book knowledge ends at GDP growth. They have never lived in poverty or read books that talk about how the poor masses survive and what type of economy they actually need. Why? Because the ‘poor men economy’ is labeled ‘informal economy’ and it is all about people’s well being; not GDP. The Economic Survey 2015-16 estimated that this informal sector provided 90% of jobs through the period 2004-05 to 2011-12. Further, the Survey also pointed to a shift in the pattern of employment from permanent jobs to casual and contract employment. The increasingly “temporary” nature of work has an “adverse effect” on the level of wages, stability of employment, and employees’ social security. It also indicates preference by employers away from regular/formal employment to circumvent labour laws. Here is another twist. Such employment surveys do not consider the hugeworkforce – people working in units employing less than 10 people – and those employed in the informal sector. A commonsense question: Why Indian government doesn’t make policies around this informal sector, if it is serious about eradicating poverty? And the answer is: because India is run by the "follow West" economists who haven't the slightest idea what type of economic reforms India and its poor people really need. Their thinking stops at inviting "foreign direct investments" and vision fails to go beyond air conditioned corporate houses of the rich few. They are capital market fundamentalists who worship their only God called GDP! I wonder why Indian finance minister doesn’t read about the capability theory of Nobel winner economist Amartya Sen to come out of his morbid obsession to GDP growth. India Needs “Social Capitalism” India must reject the Western capitalism model; it needs a “Social Capitalism” that is ideal for solving India’s problems. It should follow twin goals: ‘maximizing employment’ – given its huge population and poverty – and ‘maximizing social good’. This involves shifting away from the ‘shareholder’ to ‘stakeholder’ capitalism by incorporating interests of other stakeholders: employees, society, customers, and environment. Then finally encouraging what nobel winner Bangladeshi economist calls “social businesses” which operate to maximize chosen social goals while keeping the business profitable. Corruption and leakages in government schemes are widespread in India. Late Prime Minister Rajeev Gandhi had famously admitted that only about 15% money actually reaches the ultimate beneficiaries. Even if we discard this figure as highly pessimistic and assume that say 30-35% of the welfare funds actually reach the designated beneficiaries, the rest is siphoned off by the middlemen and people connected to the implementing government machinery. This is a common way for the people with “high connections” to acquire dirty wealth – by depriving the poor who generally have no voice or ability to assert. Another common form of corruption in schemes designed for the poor is inclusion of non-poor people with political connections in the list of beneficiaries. The end result is that the eligible poor are denied the benefits. The scale of corruption has steadily increased since the economic reforms were started. In 1992, when market reforms just started Harshad Mehta led stock market scam was estimated at 750 crores; it was mind boggling figure then. Corruption peaked during 2004-14 when Manmohan Singh ruled the country. India was rocked by scam after scam, as if the country was literally thrown to dogs. Fortunately, 2014 brought a nationalist government of Modi which is honest, efficient and far sighted. Indians are now full of hope about the future. How India was "colonized" is reflected in this "brilliant" thinking of a British Official 8. The Colonial Rule "A significant fact which stands out is that those parts of India which have been longest under British rule are the poorest today." – Jawaharlal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India The colonial British rule laid the foundation for a long term and chronic poverty in India after they departed. This is what Nehru is saying above using different set of words. The tiny state of Kerala in the southern India fortunately saw the least damaging influence of the British exploiters (there are many reasons for that) and is at present a unique model (in the world) of improvement in the quality of life through social and human development alone. It is something unthinkable for a Western brain which has been taught to see economic growth alone as "development." It was the traditional historic prosperity of India that attracted invaders from various parts of the world in the last 2000 years. Prior to the British, India had been ruled by the foreigners like the Kushanas, Turko-Afghans and Mughals. All of them gradually got assimilated into the Indian society and culture. They not only became absorbed in India but also protected and promoted Indian society, culture and economy. None of them systematically drained India’s wealth or resources to make another country prosperous. Revenue collected or wealth acquired by them was spent within India. Whether spent on the public or for personal luxury of the ruling elite, the wealth remained within the country. Thus, India remained prosperous even in the Mughal era until the East India Company started acquiring "diwani" (right to collect revenue) around 1760. It was the beginning of the legal "plunder." The colonial rule was all about robbing India to enrich Britain. The Battle of Plasssey in June 1757 marked the beginning of British dominance (and also the beginning of end of the Mughal Empire): when a small force of the East India Company's professional troops, defeated and killed the ruling Nawab of Bengal, Siraju-ud-daula. The outcome of the battle marked a significant turning point in the history of Indian subcontinent. It allowed the English East India Company foothold on the Indian soil, from which to undertake its future expansionist ventures within and around India. Soon, after the Battle of Buxar it acquired the "diwani" in Bengal and in 1765 its rights expanded to Bihar and Orissa. Unlike their predecessors the British, however, consciously remained in India as foreign occupiers until their departure in 1947. They remained isolated from the Indian society and culture and formed a separate class of their own within India. The only reason for their presence in India (and in other occupied colonies) was to secure raw materials for British industries and other goods for the comforts of their citizens. The vast population in India also provided market for goods manufactured back home. They subordinated Indian economy to the British trade and industry. Their economic policies actively favored non-Indians or made things difficult for Indian businessmen. As occupiers, they used Indian wealth to pay for all their expansionist ventures and territory building both inside and outside India. Moreover, the British policies forcibly disbanded community grain banks and promoted replacement of food crops for local consumption with cash crops like cotton, opium, tea and grains for export to feed the animals in England. This change in the cropping pattern left Indian farmers vulnerable to famines. There are documentary evidences to suggest that the colonial rulers chose to ignore the famine affected people. It is estimated that during the two centuries of colonial rule, famines and the resulting epidemics caused over 30 million deaths. The most recent Bengal Famine of 1943-44 led to about 1.5 million deaths from starvation; 3.5 million if deaths from epidemics are also included. In his masterpiece "Poverty and un-British Rule in India" Dadabhai Naoroji (popularly labeled as "The Grand Old Man of India" and "The Father of Indian Nationalism") also categorically blamed "the drain of wealth" for the poverty in India. As oppose to the Western ‘trickle down’ capitalism India needs a comprehensive “human development” plan in order to really crush the widespread poverty. 1. It needs an economy that supports millions of small and medium enterprises that are suitable to employ low skilled poor people. 2. Focus on good governance to root out deep rooted corruption that eats away major chunk of the welfare budget. 3. Finally, promote women empowerment through education and healthcare; it will greatly help deal with poverty fed by the population growth. These 8 major causes of poverty, by themselves, point to the right development model. India must realize that by blindly following GDP growth, it is only promoting inequality that sustains by keeping the poor in poverty.

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Fossil pollen grains are a valuable empirical record of the history of plant life on Earth. They are used to investigate a broad range of questions in plant evolution and paleoecology (e.g., Birks and Birks, 1980), and are used by the hydrocarbon exploration industry to date and correlate sedimentary rocks (Traverse, 2007; Punyasena et al., 2012a). Fossil pollen grains are identified based on aspects of their morphology (e.g., Traverse, 2007; Punt et al., 2007), and to extract the maximum amount of evolutionary, paleoecological, or biostratigraphic information from an assemblage of fossil pollen grains, researchers generally aim to identify pollen grains at the species level. In many cases, however, species-level identification of pollen grains is not possible, and researchers default to identifications at relatively low taxonomic ranks such as the genus or family level to ensure that their identifications are reproducible by other workers (Punyasena et al., 2012b). In such situations, the fossil pollen record is said to suffer from low taxonomic resolution, which presents a major barrier to the accurate reconstruction of vegetation history (Birks and Birks, 2000; Jackson and Booth, 2007; Mander, 2011; Punyasena et al., 2011, 2012b; May and Lacourse, 2012; Mander et al., 2013). Grass pollen is a classic case of low taxonomic resolution, and is seldom identified below the family level in routine palynological studies that use fossil pollen grains to reconstruct vegetation history (Strömberg, 2011). As a result, most of the fossil evidence for the evolutionary and ecological history of grasses (members of the Poaceae family) has been provided either by molecular phylogenetic methods (Edwards et al., 2010; Grass Phylogeny Working Group II, 2012) or from the fossil record of phytoliths (microscopic silica bodies that form in plant tissues), which can be used to identify grasses to a much finer taxonomic resolution than pollen grains (up to genus level; Piperno, 2006; Strömberg, 2011). Nevertheless, fossil grass pollen grains are a potentially rich source of information on the evolutionary and ecological history of grasses because of their wide dispersal, production in large numbers, and excellent preservation potential in most depositional settings apart from very oxidative environments. Consequently, researchers have made several attempts to increase the taxonomic resolution of the grass pollen fossil record. These include morphometric approaches to identify taxa based on the size and shape of characters such as the entire pollen grain, the pore and the annulus (e.g., Andersen, 1979; Tweddle et al., 2005; Joly et al., 2007; Schüler and Behling, 2011a, b), phase-contrast microscopy to identify taxa based on aspects of the organization of the grass pollen exine (Fægri et al., 1992; Beug, 2004; Holst et al., 2007), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to identify taxa based on the patterns of surface ornamentation (Andersen and Bertelsen, 1972; Page, 1978; Peltre et al., 1987; Chaturvedi et al., 1998; Mander et al., 2013). The most recent of these attempts employed a combination of high-resolution imaging (using SEM) and computational image analysis to identify 12 species of extant grass pollen based on the size and shape of sculptural elements on the pollen surface and the complexity of the ornamentation patterns they form (Mander et al., 2013). This approach differs from most routine palynological work in that it involves investigating and comparing detailed portions of the surface of individual pollen grains, rather than identifying pollen grains by viewing entire specimens using brightfield microscopy, and resulted in a species-level identification accuracy of 77.5% (Mander et al., 2013). By way of comparison, seven human analysts identified the same SEM images of grass pollen surface ornamentation with accuracies ranging from 68.33% to 81.67% (Mander et al., 2013). However, these seven analysts only analyzed one set of images, and as a result their self-consistency was not measured. This is problematic because low self-consistency, which is the degree to which an analyst makes identifications that are consistent with their own previous identifications (MacLeod et al., 2010), is cited as a primary reason to support the development of computational identification methods instead of manual identifications by human analysts (e.g., Culverhouse et al., 2003; Culverhouse, 2007; MacLeod et al., 2010). In the present paper, we address this issue by testing the ability of nine human analysts to identify the pollen of 12 species of grass using SEM images of surface ornamentation. This study builds on the preliminary investigation of Mander et al. (2013) and has the following specific aims: (1) to measure the identification accuracy of the nine analysts; and (2) to measure the consistency of the identification produced by each analyst. An overarching goal of this work is to provide context for the errors produced by computational methods of identifying grass pollen and to explore whether identification of grass pollen by human analysts in future work may provide reliable records of ancient grass diversity. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used the image library of SEM images of the pollen of 12 grass species generated by Mander et al. (2013) as the raw material for our study (Fig. 1). This library contains SEM images of 20 specimens of each grass species. These images were acquired by mounting specimens of pollen from each species onto separate SEM stubs, coating them with gold-palladium using a sputter coater, and imaging them at 2000×, 6000×, and 12,000× magnification using a JEOL JSM-6060-LV SEM (JEOL USA, Peabody, Massachusetts, USA) at 15 kV (Mander et al., 2013). In this study, we have used 400 × 400-pixel windows that were manually cropped from 6000× SEM images (Fig. 1). These are the same images that were used to develop algorithmic identifications of grass pollen by Mander et al. (2013). From this image library, we generated a training set of five SEM images of each species that were correctly classified and labeled. We also generated two test sets each containing 120 unidentified SEM images of grass pollen that were then manually identified by nine human analysts. We have used nine analysts because this was the number of people who agreed to participate in this work. One of the analysts (L.M.; Analyst 7) also analyzed the data. This should be borne in mind when interpreting the results of this study because this analyst may have gained an advantage through greater familiarity with the images. However, in the context of the performance of all the analysts who participated in this study, any advantage is not immediately apparent in the identification accuracy and consistency of this analyst. In this paper, we follow the terminology of Sokal (1974), in which classification is defined as the ordering of objects into groups on the basis of their relationships, and identification is defined as the assignment of additional unidentified objects to the correct class. The test sets contained 10 images of each of the 12 species. Both test sets contained the same images of the same species, and each image was engraved with a unique number (Fig. 1). Of the 240 SEM images in the two test sets combined, 48 were duplicate pairs. This arbitrary number of duplicate pairs was generated by randomly selecting two specimens of each species as duplicates. However, no identical images were present in both the training and the test sets, which ensured that the material identified by each analyst was independent of the material used for learning. The training set and the test sets were transmitted to the nine analysts electronically. The analysts were told that each test set contained 10 specimens of each species, and were instructed that each species should be represented by no more than 10 images in their identification scheme. The analysts were instructed not to guess at the taxonomic affinity of an image and to construct a list of images that were left unidentified. Identification was performed by comparing each image in the test set with the images in the training set, and listing the unique number engraved into each unknown image next to the appropriate taxon in a spreadsheet. Identification of images in the test sets was undertaken in two rounds. The second data set was transmitted to the analysts one month after the first, and after the analysts had completed the first identification round. The analysts did not receive any feedback on their performance after the first classification round. Analysts were instructed to record their reasons for each of their identifications in both the first and second identification rounds, and could use either technical (e.g., Punt et al., 2007) or nontechnical language to do so. Each analyst was instructed to place themselves into one of four groups based on their level of experience identifying pollen grains or any other microscopic objects that involve identification based on morphology (Table 1). These groups were as follows: (i) Novice (analyst has up to one month of experience studying pollen grains or any other microscopic objects that involve identification based on morphology); (ii) Intermediate (analyst has between one month and one year of experience); (iii) Expert (analyst has over one year of experience, but does not yet hold a PhD in palynology, or a PhD that involves the identification of microscopic objects using morphological criteria); and (iv) Professional (analyst holds a PhD in palynology, or a PhD that involved the identification of microscopic objects using morphological criteria). The unequal distribution of analyst experience is a consequence of the small, available pool of participants. We then examined the identification performance of the nine analysts by measuring the coverage, accuracy, and consistency of their identifications. Coverage was measured by calculating the proportion of images in each test set that each analyst attempted to identify (Kohavi and Provost, 1998), which provides a baseline measure of analyst confidence. Accuracy was measured by calculating the proportion of all images in each test set that were identified correctly, with images left unidentified treated as errors. Identification consistency was measured using two metrics. Metric one was generated by calculating the proportion of images that were identified as the same taxon in both identification rounds irrespective of whether the identification was correct or not. Metric two was generated by calculating the proportion of images that were correctly identified as the same taxon in both identification rounds. We also investigated the ability of each analyst to recognize duplicate images by measuring the proportion of duplicate image pairs that were split by misidentification in the two combined test sets. These metrics are summarized in Table 2. Coverage ranged from 87.5% (analyst 1 in round one) to 100% (analyst 9 in round two) (Table 1). Five analysts increased their coverage from the first to the second round, two analysts decreased their coverage from the first to the second round, and the coverage of two analysts remained the same in both rounds (Table 1). Averaged across both identification rounds, all analysts attempted to identify at least 90% of the images presented to them (Table 1). Identification accuracy ranged from 36.67% (analyst 1 in round one) to 90% (analyst 9 in round two) (Table 1, Fig. 2A), and mean accuracy averaged over the two identification rounds ranged from 46.67% to 87.5% (Table 1, Fig. 2B). The identification accuracy of six analysts increased from round one to round two, and the accuracy of three analysts decreased (Table 1, Fig. 2A). The largest increases in identification accuracy were by analysts 1 and 3, whose accuracy increased by 20% and 14.17%, respectively (Table 1). Analysts 1, 2, and 3 had markedly lower mean accuracies than the other analysts (Fig. 2B). Analysts 1 and 2 placed themselves into the Novice category, and analyst three placed themselves into the Professional category (Table 1). Coverage, accuracy, and consistency (reported as percentages) of grass pollen identification by the nine analysts in this study. Summary of the measures used to examine the identification performance of the nine analysts. Using metric one, the identification consistency of each analyst ranged from 32.5% to 87.5% (Table 1, Fig. 3A). Using metric two, the identification consistency of each analyst ranged from 22.5% to 84.17% (Table 1, Fig. 3A). There is a positive relationship between mean identification accuracy and identification consistency using both metric one (Fig. 4A) and metric two (Fig. 4B). The proportion of duplicate image pairs that were split by misidentification varied widely between analysts. For example, analyst 1 split 58.33% of the image pairs, but analyst 9 split just 6.25% of these images (Table 1, Fig. 3B). The proportion of duplicate image pairs split by the other seven analysts ranges from 20.83% to 47.92%, and three analysts each split 29.17% of these image pairs (Table 1, Fig. 3B). There is a negative relationship between mean identification accuracy and the proportion of duplicate image pairs split by misidentification (Fig. 4C). Each of the nine analysts produced different identification schemes, and this is highlighted by error matrices showing the identification errors made by each analyst in identification round two (Figs. 5–7). The identifications of analysts 1, 2, and 3 are characterized by numerous and widely scattered errors that differ considerably from one another, and typically there is confusion between two and three species, and occasionally between four and six other species (Fig. 5). For example, of the 10 specimens that analyst 2 identified as Eragrostis mexicana (Hornem.) Link, five were correct, but the other five specimens were each confused with a different species (Fig. 5B). The identifications of analysts 7, 8, and 9 are characterized by far fewer errors, but each of these analysts makes different identification errors (Fig. 7). For example, of the 10 specimens assigned to Triodia basedowii Pritz. by analyst 7, one was actually Bothriochloa intermedia (R. Br.) A. Camus and one was actually Phalaris arundinacea L. (Fig. 7A), but of the 10 specimens assigned to T. basedowii by analyst 8, one was actually B. intermedia and two were Dactylis glomerata L. (Fig. 7B). Similarly, of the 10 species assigned to T. basedowii by analyst 9, one was actually P. arundinacea and one was actually Anthoxanthum odoratum L. (Fig. 7C). However, there are also some areas of agreement among the analysts. For example, in identification round two all nine analysts correctly identified at least nine out of 10 images of Stipa tenuifolia Steud. (Figs. 5–7). This species is characterized by relatively simple surface ornamentation, consisting of regularly spaced granula, that is visually distinctive in the context of the 12 species investigated here (Fig. 1). Similarly, certain species appear relatively difficult for all analysts to identify. For example, just five out of 10 specimens of E. mexicana were identified correctly by analysts 2, 3, 4, and 6 (Figs. 5, 6). Analysts 1, 5, 7, and 8 identified six out of 10 specimens of this species correctly (Figs. 5–7), and analyst 9 identified eight out of 10 specimens of E. mexicana correctly (Fig. 7C). A growing body of evidence indicates that human analysts are unable to identify microscopic natural objects such as pollen grains with 100% accuracy (e.g., Ginsburg, 1997; Culverhouse et al., 2003, 2014; Culverhouse, 2007; Mander et al., 2013). Although based on portions of individual specimens, the mean identification accuracy of the nine analysts investigated here supports this view (46.67–87.5%; Fig. 2B). There are several psychological factors that are thought to reduce the ability of human analysts to identify objects (Evans, 1987) and that have been invoked to partly explain why human analysts identifying marine dinoflagellates achieved accuracies between 84% and 95% (Culverhouse et al., 2003). The first of these is the limited capacity of human memory. Classic work has shown that the human short-term memory has a general capacity of between five and nine items (Miller, 1956), and the visual information subsystem of the short-term memory can retain up to 16 individual features when they are distributed across four different objects (Luck and Vogel, 1997). Some of the identification errors made by each analyst in our study are likely to be related to this because the number of SEM images in each identification round (120) far exceeds the known capacity of human short-term memory. The second factor is fatigue and boredom. Several analysts reported that they suffered both fatigue and boredom during the course of this study, which may have prevented analysts from focusing adequately on the task, and may have led to identification errors. One analyst, however, reported that they felt no fatigue and boredom during the study, and instead described intense enjoyment of the activity and the challenge it posed. They felt that if they were to complete the task too quickly, which might happen if an analyst was aiming to avoid fatigue and boredom, then their accuracy would drop. The third factor is the recency effect, whereby more recent experiences are influential in judgments about present situations (Jones and Sieck, 2003). In the context of identification, recency effects mean that a new identification is biased toward those specimens in the set of most recently identified specimens (Culverhouse, 2007). The fourth is positivity bias, where an analyst's identification is biased by their expectations of the species likely to be present in the sample. Certainly the nine analysts in this were all subject to positivity bias because they were told that each test set contained 10 specimens of each species, and were instructed that each species should be represented by no more than 10 images in their identification scheme. However, although each of these four factors is a likely cause of misidentifications, it is not possible for us to convincingly tie specific identification errors to any one of these factors specifically. For example, of the 10 specimens identified as Poa australis R. Br. by analyst 8, two were actually E. mexicana (Fig. 7B), but we are unable to say conclusively whether these specific errors are the result of problems with short-term memory capacity, boredom, fatigue, recency effects, or positivity bias. These factors are also likely to play a role in the identification consistency of the nine analysts in this study, who exhibited a greater range of self-consistency values (32.5–87.5% metric one, 22.5–84.17% metric two; Fig. 3A) than trained personnel asked to identify marine dinoflagellates in previous work (67–83%; Culverhouse et al., 2003). The error matrices shown in Figs. 5–7 also highlight that each analyst produced a unique identification scheme. One of the roots of such inconsistency between workers is that human analysts are thought to create their own rules for identifying objects, so that the features used to identify an object by one analyst may not be the same as the features used to identify the same object by a different analyst (Sokal, 1974). The analysts in this study were instructed to complete the two identification rounds alone and without collaboration, and this allows us to look for evidence of such individualistic behavior. In some cases, there is evidence that the analysts used different features to identify the species, and this is reflected in the reasons given by each analyst for their identifications. Poa australis (see Fig. 1), for example, was described as having “large, expansive areolae (exine islands) with high numbers of granulae; low contrast between islands and negative reticulum” by analyst 8, but analyst 9 stated that the “granulae appear brighter, islands better defined” and also that they used “intuition” as part of their identification of this species. Of the 10 specimens identified as P. australis by these two analysts, eight were correct and two were not (Fig. 7). However, in the case of analyst 8, these two misidentified specimens were actually E. mexicana (Fig. 7B), whereas in the case of analyst 9, these two misidentified specimens were actually A. odoratum (Fig. 7C). These two analysts used different features as the basis of their identifications of this species, with analyst 8 using the size of the areolae and the number of granula on the surface of the pollen grain. It is possible that this is an example of the individualistic behavior described by Sokal (1974), and may explain the lack of consensus between these two analysts on the identification of P. australis (Fig. 7B, 7C). In most cases in this study, however, analysts appear to focus on the same features but use different vocabulary to describe them. The surface ornamentation of Stipa tenuifolia (see Fig. 1), for example, was described as follows: “small circular pustules with low frequency, irregular distribution” (analyst 4); “no clustering, no islands, large spots, spots not dense” (analyst 6); “lack of areolae (exine islands) and very prominent, round granulae” (analyst 8); “Sculptural elements appear widely spaced. Lacks islands” (analyst 9). In these descriptions, the analysts have all described that this species lacks areolae, either by using this term (analyst 8) or by using the term “islands” instead (analysts 6 and 9), or by omitting this feature from the description altogether (analyst 4). There is some evidence of the analysts focusing on different features, with analysts 4 and 8 describing the shape of the individual granula on the pollen surface. This example shows that analysts can achieve consensus in terms of identification accuracy (each of these analysts identified S. tenuifolia with 100% accuracy in round two [Figs. 6–7]) despite using different terminology and, in the case of analysts 4 and 8, despite describing subtly different morphological features during the identification process. It is difficult to make general statements about reasons for differences in the identification accuracy and consistency of the nine analysts. In this study, we have ranked each analyst in terms of their experience in classifying pollen grains or any other microscopic objects, such as charcoal, based on morphology. Using these categories, the level of analyst experience seems a poor predictor of classification accuracy as the two analysts with an intermediate level of experience achieved higher classification accuracy than two of the analysts with a professional level of experience, and the analysts with the highest classification accuracy have an expert level of experience (Table 1). Additionally, the mean classification accuracy of analysts 2 and 3 was identical, despite a wide gap in the level of experience of these two analysts (Table 1). These results may provide some support for the suggestion that the experience of an analyst measured in terms of “years on the job” is only weakly related to classification performance (Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996; Culverhouse, 2007). However, the scale on which we have ranked each analyst does not measure the intensity or quality of the hours that have been spent classifying objects using morphology. The two analysts with the highest classification accuracies are currently studying for PhD s in palynology and have been studying pollen morphology intensively recently for over a year. Perhaps these results should instead be interpreted as corroborating the idea that deliberate practice over a sustained period of time is crucial to the generation of expert levels of performance (Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996). The high identification accuracy achieved by some of the analysts in this study is heartening from the perspective of using SEM images of fossil grass pollen grains to track changes in the diversity and composition of grasslands through time (e.g., Mander et al., 2013). The performance of analyst 9, who was also able to classify with quite high self-consistency and to also recognize most of the duplicate image pairs in this study (Table 1), is especially encouraging. Grass species can clearly be identified using SEM images of the surface ornamentation on their pollen grains (Andersen and Bertelsen, 1972; Page, 1978; Peltre et al., 1987; Chaturvedi et al., 1998; Mander et al., 2013) (Fig. 2). Some additional features of grass pollen morphology that also have taxonomic significance, such as the distribution of tectal columellae (Fægri et al., 1992; Beug, 2004; Holst et al., 2007), cannot be seen using the SEM because this instrument records information from the surface of individual specimens (Sivaguru et al., 2012). Similarly, the shape of the grass pollen pore (Schüler and Behling, 2011a, b) can be hidden from view because of the orientation of the specimen on the SEM stub, and the collapsing of grains on the SEM stub can prevent the overall size of pollen grains from being measured accurately (e.g., Moore et al., 1991). Nevertheless, where possible, the use of additional features such as pore shape and grain size (e.g., Andersen, 1979; Tweddle et al., 2005; Joly et al., 2007; Schüler and Behling, 2011a, b) will presumably increase the accuracy of grass pollen identification by human analysts. This invites comparison of the accuracy of the nine analysts studied here and computational methods for identifying the same SEM images of grass pollen (e.g., Mander et al., 2013). Four of the analysts exceeded the accuracy of computational identifications of the same images based on quantifying the complexity of grass pollen surface ornamentation (Fig. 8), but only analyst 9 exceeded the accuracy of computational identifications based on descriptions of grass pollen surface ornamentation using histograms of local quantized image patches (Fig. 8). This shows that some human analysts are able to compete with current computational methods in terms of identification accuracy, albeit with half the number of specimens that were used for computational identifications based on quantifying the complexity of grass pollen surface ornamentation (Mander et al., 2013). These computational identifications took approximately eight hours. However, we emphasize that high identification accuracy alone does not necessarily represent success. It is the low consistency of identifications by the same analyst (e.g., Fig. 3) and by different analysts (Figs. 5–7) that leads researchers to identify pollen grains at relatively low taxonomic ranks, such as the genus or family, in an attempt to ensure that their identifications are reproducible (Punyasena et al., 2012b). It is this drive for consistency and repeatability that underpins the need for computational approaches to identification (MacLeod et al., 2010; Punyasena et al., 2012b). There are additional concerns, which include the amount of time it takes for human analysts to undertake difficult classification tasks such as the one described in this paper. For example, although the identifications of analyst 9 surpass both computational methods and are also reasonably consistent, this analyst spent around eight hours completing identification round one, and around five and half hours completing identification round two. One view of this might be that the length of time taken on a particular task should be of little concern if the data collected are valuable, but an alternative view is that spending too much time on a particular focused task reduces scientific productivity. We close this paper with a discussion of the role of human analysts in the present era of computational classification and identification. One of the primary reasons that is cited in support of computational approaches to the identification of natural objects such as pollen grains is to “free [analysts] from the drudgery of routine identifications” (MacLeod et al., 2010, p. 155). The Classifynder automated pollen-counting system, for example, has been explicitly “designed to dramatically reduce the time that the palynologist must spend at the microscope” (Holt et al., 2011, p. 175). However, we urge palynologists not to dismiss all routine work as drudgery to be passed entirely on to automated pollen-counting systems. This is because expert levels of performance are achieved only after spending about 10 years in intense preparation with deliberate and structured practice lasting at most four hours per day (Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996), and we suggest that daily routine work is the time when palynologists can practice their core identification skills and attain expert levels of performance. Viewed in this light, routine palynological work could be seen as analogous to the scales and rudiments that are practiced by expert musicians. Of course, continual practice of routine identification can create large-scale recency effects and positivity bias (Culverhouse, 2007), which may reduce the ability of analysts to recognize a new species in the middle of a routine investigation. However, if the time a palynologist spends undertaking routine identifications was structured to mimic the regimens of careful training and practice that lead to expert and exceptional performance in fields such as chess, music, and athletics (see Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996), then the performance of individual workers and the whole discipline would be raised considerably. Such improvement could be vital in the near future because some current automated identification systems, again using the Classifynder instrument as an example, require that “the classified images [be] then presented to the palynologist for checking” (Holt et al., 2011, p. 175). Clearly it is desirable to have any computationally generated identification system checked by an expert, particularly when tackling difficult palynological problems such as hyperdiverse tropical systems. Therefore, identification of pollen by human experts will remain a necessity in palynology. As automated systems become more common, palynologists must remain mindful that a certain level of regular exposure to pollen morphology is required to maintain their levels of expertise. The authors thank two anonymous referees and Kat Holt for helpful comments on this study. We acknowledge funding from the National Science Foundation (DBI-1052997 and DBI-1262561 to S.W.P.) and a Marie Curie International Incoming Fellowship within the 7th European Community Framework Program (PIIF-GA-2012-328245 to L.M.).

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Groundwater Quality in Guanajuato In Mexico, we are all concerned about the water that we ingest. As surely as water gives life, when contaminated it can have disastrous effects on our health and wellbeing. In this comprehensive inquiry into the quality of the groundwater in Guanajuato, WeExpats explores what contaminants lay in the buried recesses of the groundwater in Guanajuato, what effects it could have on our health, and whether or not it is related to the overexploitation of this natural resource for the purposes of industry and agriculture. In the end, we hope that this will be a call to action to all those who live in the Mexican state of Guanajuato to better inform themselves and ensure that their most precious resource is cared for so that future generations can also thrive and prosper. TABLE OF CONTENTS: - About Groundwater - Introduction to Groundwater - About Aquifers - Unsustainable Use of Groundwater Around the World - Regulations to Protect Groundwater Levels - Groundwater in Guanajuato, Mexico - Conflicting Legal Precedent for Groundwater Use - The Ineffectuality of Groundwater Regulations in Guanajuato - Groundwater Quality in San Miguel de Allende - Notes About the Natural Features in San Miguel de Allende Municipality - Groundwater Study in the San Miguel de Allende Municipality - Findings of Groundwater Study in the San Miguel de Allende Municipality - Conclusion of the Water Study in San Miguel de Allende - Radiation Found in Aquifers in Guanajuato - A Note on The Differences of Water Terms and Their Relations to the Efficacy of Water Policy – Introduction to Groundwater – Groundwater is the universal choice around the world for their primary source of freshwater. The availability of high-quality water nearly everywhere, and the relative ease of its extraction through different methods of tubewell technology, makes it ideal in nearly all facets of water use, including: - Industrial Use - Agricultural Use - Urban Use - Domestic Water Provision (Urban and Rural) Groundwater is often available on-site, and the wells dug generally tap into largely isolated reservoirs, therefore this provides an excellent source of reliable, inter-annual storage water available whenever the need should arise. Thus making groundwater use the preferred use of those listed above—and crucial in the operation and production of many societies around the world. When we think of groundwater, we often picture water flowing through porous rock, however, in reality, it can also contain permafrost, soil moisture, immobile water, and oil. Groundwater collects in soil pore spaces or fractures in the rock. Occasionally, groundwater will discharge to the surface and create springs, oases, or seeps. However, for the purposes of our discussion, generally, groundwater is collected in aquifers. – About Aquifers – Aquifers are underground reservoirs of water stored in permeable rock bordered by bedrock with very low conductivity which acts like a bowl containing the water in the aquifer. Typically an aquifer consists of pockets of water—which is not always freshwater by the way—separated by nonporous layers of rock called aquitards. A good way to understand this is by picturing the layers of a cake where the cake sections are porous and allow water to flow into the gaps, with layers of frosting (the aquitards) in between that separate different levels of porous rock and water. If the aquitard is dense enough to completely restrict the hydraulic conductivity (which is defined as the ease by which the water can flow within the structures), then it creates two separate sections: the unconfined aquifer at the top near the water table, and a confined aquifer beneath the aquitard. UNSUSTAINABLE USE OF GROUNDWATER AROUND THE WORLD: Due to the fact that groundwater is the preferred source for agriculture, industry, and rural/domestic use, then naturally it has led to unsustainable use of this natural resource. Whenever any renewable resource is used beyond what can be replenished, this is referred to as overexploitation, which means that more water is used from the aquifer than is replenished every year. – Regulations to Protect Groundwater Levels – Regulations in most countries have been put in place restricting the use of groundwater. Many of these regulations are in the form of drilling bans, electricity pricing, rights systems regulatory control with assigned volumes, and drilling company regulations. Though regulations have been put in place around the world in order to protect groundwater levels, these have been largely ineffectual in preventing unsustainable use. Nearly all countries with intensive use of groundwater continue to have unrestricted use of aquifers—which has had many dire socioenvironmental impacts around the world. Without regulations, the groundwater user has no contrary incentives in the form of subsidies or penalties for using water responsibly, and thus most users continue to use water unsustainably. Water regulations attempt to regulate the individual groundwater user in hopes of creating a stable ecosystem where all users can benefit. GROUNDWATER IN GUANAJUATO, MEXICO: Groundwater is vastly important in Guanajuato where it supplies 99% of the urban water supply. 84% of this groundwater goes toward irrigating 260,000 hectares for agricultural use. This means that groundwater supplies 3,900 million cubic meters of water each year, and each year only 2,800 million cubic meters are renewed. This continued practice of unsustainable use lowers the levels of Guanajuato’s aquifers roughly 2 – 3 meters per year. When wells dry up, they must be dug deeper—past the next aquitard—furthering the risk of contamination; and in the north and center of the state, large pockets of fluoride and arsenic have created a public threat to the health of the population. Since the 1950s, state regulations have attempted to curb the unsustainable use of groundwater in Guanajuato. In 1992, a noteworthy initiative throughout all of Mexico implemented a permit system with the chance for groundwater rights transmissions. In addition, they also tried to manage groundwater levels through energy pricing. In 1990, the state government of Guanajuato would form Aquifer Management Councils, which then became the leading example for the rest of Mexico. In addition, programs subsidized the modernization of irrigation systems in hopes of reducing agriculture’s dependence on groundwater. – Conflicting Legal Precedent for Groundwater Use – Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution states that “land and water property belong to the nation”. This article is laid from a 1910 Water Law precedent that affirms that water is public property for communal use. In 1945, an amendment to Paragraph 5 of Article 27 states that groundwater is national property: Groundwater may be freely brought to the surface throughout artificial works and appropriated by the owner of the land, but, when it is in the public interest or if it affects the supply of other users the Federal Government may regulate its extraction and utilization, and even establish prohibited areas, in accordance with that which applies for other waters of national property. Though, if we were to go by legal precedent alone, the private owner also has their rights. In 1884, the civil code establishes the landowner’s right to prospect and use water on their own land. The Law of Water of National Property of 1929 and 1934 also reaffirm the landowner’s rights to use groundwater as they see fit. Mostly, through the Federal Water Law of 1972, the government reserves the right to issue groundwater permits, establish regulations for groundwater use, and to prohibit sinking new wells without the consent of the National Water Authority in certain areas. Nevertheless, these laws have been ineffectual. – The ineffectuality of Groundwater Regulations in Guanajuato – The simple truth is that though the legal statutes are firmly in place, the reality is that their enforcement in the field is poorly executed with administrative and legal inconsistencies. It has not curbed the uncontrolled sinking of new wells and their uncontrolled extraction in Guanajuato and throughout Mexico. However, the National Water Authority does seem to have managed some form of control and efficacy in regulating water use. They do seem to manage to somewhat rein in the water use in the industrial sector—and to a lesser degree the domestic water sector. Unfortunately, the agricultural sector seems to find some way to escape real restrictions. Groundwater Quality in San Miguel de Allende: Situated in the Central Mexican Altiplano highlands of Guanajuato—over a mile in elevation—lies one of Mexico’s most important tourist and expatriate destinations: the town of San Miguel de Allende. For this reason, its economic importance has allowed a blind eye to be turned toward the deterioration in quality and the unsustainable use of groundwater in the municipality. The municipality of San Miguel de Allende—like much of the rest of the state of Guanajuato—relies heavily on groundwater, and as we have learned in previous sections this groundwater is an overexploited resource. This overexploitation is largely due to irrigation. Thus, a study to evaluate the chemical processes that result from both natural and human processes in the aquifers surrounding the town of San Miguel de Allende has been commissioned. – Notes About the Natural Features of the San Miguel de Allende Municipality – In the 6,840 km-squared hydrological basin known as Independence Basin, the San Miguel de Allende region is a semi-arid, intermountain sedimentary basin extending about 1,295 km-squared. This is mainly a rural area that depends heavily on agriculture. Annually, the mean temperature is 17°C, because this semi-arid climate has a rainy season from May – October and a dry season from November – April. The highest point of elevation in the basin is 2,600m above sea level, and the lowest point of elevation is 1,900m above sea level. The region selected to focus the study of the water quality in San Miguel de Allende is a plains area surrounded by La Joya and Palo Huérfano Volcanoes to the southeast and south, the Sierra de Cuarzos to the northeast, the Laguna Seca to the north, and the Sierra de Guanajuato to the west. The region selected for the study represents a major recharge area for the entire Independence Basin. In the last 30 years, a major water table drop has occurred. 83% of the water extracted has gone to irrigate broccoli, beans, chili, and corn. So much so, that the groundwater table reaches 136m in the Western section of the study region. The deepest section of the regional aquifer is located in the study region, which extends to a maximum depth of over 600m. Covering this section is a series of fractured geological formations with a maximum thickness of 400m that consist of: - Acid ignimbrites - andesitic lavas - Andesitic-dacitic spills - Lahar and breccia deposits - Tuff deposits - Granular material - Fluvial and alluvial sediments – Groundwater Study in the San Miguel de Allende Municipality – In the San Miguel de Allende municipality, 41 different production wells were sampled according to their coliform bacteria and hydrochemistry. After the physicochemical parameters were field-determined, then the cation and anion samples were then filtered (0.45mm) and stored with tri-distillate water in brand new, pre-rinsed HDPE bottles that were kept at a constant temperature of 4°C. (Also, the cation samples were acidified to a pH<2 using ultrapure nitric acid). The Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agricolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) conducted the research in Celaya, Mexico. They used the following methods to detect the following substances: - Turbimetric Method for sulfate - Selective Ion Electrode Method and Ion Chromatography for fluorine - Inductive-Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry for cations - Argentometric Titration Method for chloride - Counting of Incubated Membrane Filter for fecal coliform bacteria – Findings of Groundwater Study in the San Miguel de Allende Municipality – The salinity of the groundwater in the municipality of the San Miguel de Allende area is fairly low in salt, with a total dissolved solids are less than 624mg per liter. The pH is neutral registering between 6.2 and 8.3 (7 being the border between acid and alkaline). Due to thermal conditions near the wells that were tested, the average temperature varies between 19°C and 39°C. The type of groundwater is known as calcium to sodium bicarbonate. Also, the southern area of the tested region has a local dominance of magnesium. Using PHREEQC for their numerical hydrochemical models, the results indicate that the chemical processes can be characterized by four major qualities: - Irrigational and Natural induced evapotranspiration - Dissolution of calcium, sodium, and potassium silicates - Interaction of deeper thermal water with silicates - Carbonate dissolution – Fluorine – Fluorine concentration was incredibly high in 16% of the wells examined—4 times the concentration that is admissible in Mexico (MAC) for drinking water. The fluorine concentration was 5.9mg per liter to be precise. The specific distribution of high levels of fluorine was found in the vicinity of Allende Dam. *One thing is certain. Human causes for the fluorine have been excluded because of the characteristics of the area—the water table configuration as well as the rural nature of the area surrounding Allende Dam. In addition, dissolved fluorine is associated with chlorine, sodium, and water temperature—quite similar conditions to the aquifers near Allende Dam—leading to the conclusion that the occurrence of the fluorine is geological. – Arsenic – In 15% of the groundwater samples, the groundwater is higher in arsenic than the guidelines by the World Health Organization. The rest of the samples contained 16μg per liter, which is well below the MAC of 30μg per liter. It is likely that the high levels of arsenic in 15% of the samples result from the aquifer groundwater mixing with regional groundwater that has a deep circulation while forming Magnesium oxyhydroxide. – Lead – In addition, lead also appears in high concentrations in 8% of the sampled water—exceeding the MAC levels of 10μg per liter. Two major hypotheses seem to explain the phenomenon pretty well: - The groundwater has come in contact with older well tubing made of lead - The groundwater has come in contact with hydrothermal water containing sulfide minerals where lead is dissolving. If given the choice, reason #1 would be preferred because it would perfectly corroborate the rusted pumping well materials that were found in the field survey of the sampled wells where lead concentration was considered a problem. – Nitrate – In only one sample out of the 41 samples did nitrate exceed the MAC limits. For the most part, nitrate was not an issue. The concentration ranged between 0.01 and 11.5mg per liter. – Bacteria – Microorganism contamination of groundwater in Guanajuato is of increasing concern. In 85% of samples of groundwater in Guanajuato, coliform bacteria was found at alarming levels. Clearly, water disinfection treatments have been either negligent or completely absent. In many of the sampled wells, the levels of coliform bacteria are off the charts, reaching levels otherwise “uncountable”. The highest concentrations are found in the region of the town of San Miguel de Allende in the western part of the sample region, and in Corral de Piedra de Arriba in the northern section of the sample region. – Conclusion of the Water Study in San Miguel de Allende – The microorganisms in the groundwater in the San Miguel de Allende municipality is of concern because it could affect the health of those who drink it—including some fairly serious stomach and digestive ailments. It is recommended that all water be thoroughly sanitized before ingesting it. In addition, the arsenic, fluorine, and other metals present will not present a human adult any lasting issues in the short term. However, over long periods of time, these contaminants could have disastrous effects on the health of those who ingest this groundwater—including cancer and other degenerative conditions. Perhaps most dire are the dangers that these contaminants present to children. Nearly all of these metals present a clear and present danger to those children whose brains are still forming. These contaminants could lead to lasting health conditions, degenerative conditions, and other neurological ailments. It is highly recommended that children avoid drinking groundwater in the San Miguel de Allende municipality at all costs. RADIATION FOUND IN AQUIFERS IN GUANAJUATO: *The following data is based on these articles by El Universal, Mexico News Daily, and this article as well by Mexico News Daily (their data is currently in question and WeExpats encourages you to investigate the sources cited in these articles and their validity): In the Guanajuato region of San Jose Iturbide, high levels of radioactivity were found by the UNAM in October of 2016 prompting officials to release a warning. At least 2,500 wells were shown to have radiation contamination. Radiation is 300% above the tolerable levels for human consumption. 46 wells were identified in critical condition: 31 of them with fluoride limits that exceed MAC, and 14 of them with arsenic limits that exceed MAC. Over half of the contaminated wells provided water for farming, and at least 5 people died from health-related complications from the radiation. In addition, tens of stomach cancer cases are possibly connected, and the research continues at the UNAM campus in Santiago de Queretaro. Girls younger than 12 years old were stricken with fatal cases of lymphoblastic leukemia, and these cases have been directly linked to a well contaminated with elevated levels of alpha radiation that supplies water to three communities in San Jose Iturbide. At least 45 deaths have been linked to the radioactive contamination, including 14 deaths by very rare forms of cancer, which only vindicate the theory that they are caused by groundwater in Guanajuato. The contamination could possibly be a result of arsenic and fluoride contaminants whose levels have doubled in the last 14 years. Arsenic is a known carcinogen. These could likely be a result of overexploitation because the contaminants seem to be in deeper groundwater aquifers that do not circulate well, and the shallower aquifers have all but dried up. In addition, fluoride affects the skeletal structure, and between 8,000 and 11,000 cases of dental or skeletal fluorosis have been registered in Independence Basin in the last 15 years. Guanajuato also ranks 5th highest in Mexico for kidney disease—which could also be a sign of fluoride contamination. The CGEO has identified high levels of fluoride, arsenic, and other heavy metals in 10 municipalities in Guanajuato: - San Miguel de Allende - Tierra Blanca - San Luis de la Paz - Doctor Mora - San Jose Iturbide - San Diego Union - Dolores Hidalgo *For more information on radiation in Guanajuato, click here. *In San Miguel de Allende, communities have begun to organize and act. To learn more, click here. A NOTE ON THE DIFFERENCES OF WATER TERMS AND THEIR RELATION TO THE EFFICACY OF WATER POLICY: The non-uniform nature of definitions of crucial terms such as “scarcity” and “water crisis” add to problems in policy implementation. They can be definitions based on water in an aggregated area or in per capita terms. These definitions are often borrowed from industrialized fields like hydraulic engineering, hydrology, applied water management. . . etc. These definitions for crucial terms are then reflected in the making and implementation of policy—as well as how governments, NGOs, and private water service providers finance and subsidize water programs aimed at alleviating what their definitions of “scarcity” or “water crisis” entail. (The issue is that these approaches can be effective in alleviating their definition of “water scarcity”—for example—without alleviating the lives of those whose water security deemed the policy necessary in the first place). Some initiatives could work better to alleviate crises in industrialized middle-class areas by managing to adapt water supplies sustainably, however attempting to make policy by those same definitions in rural areas often fall lacking. Instead, initiatives by individuals and the private sector tend to operate better with ad hoc systems that are better equipped in their flexibility to tackle the vicissitudes of water management in rural areas—and those poor living on the outskirts of urban centers who also lack water security. Unfortunately, standardized approaches based on term definitions that apply to fields that are not directly concerned with water conservation and availability (but are instead concerned with water engineering and are loosely related to water infrastructure) often create more problems for those in the rural communities who spurred the initiative. Therefore, a shift in paradigm must be placed from a model centered around the resource to a model that allows for flexible and adaptable approaches. No longer are water conservationists looking for a one-size-fits-all solution, but instead are looking to alleviate the water scarcity issues in a given location through trial, experience, and experimentation. Individual models must be drafted to take into account the household usage patterns and water supply chains of a given area. This means that the bottom line of any initiative should no longer be one of water outputs, but instead, a final goal centered around the alleviation of the individual human suffering of those involved in water scarcity crises. We would like to invite you to join our Facebook discussion. Click here to see this article on Facebook. Please give us a like or a share if you enjoyed this article! If you would like to help support us please click below to find out how much it would cost to insure your adventure abroad!

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A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. The cockpit of an aircraft contains flight instruments on an instrument panel, and the controls that enable the pilot to fly the aircraft. In most airliners, a door separates the cockpit from the aircraft cabin. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, all major airlines fortified their cockpits against access by hijackers. The word cockpit seems to have been used as a nautical term in the 17th century, without reference to cock fighting. It referred to an area in the rear of a ship where the cockswain's station was located, the cockswain being the pilot of a smaller "boat" that could be dispatched from the ship to board another ship or to bring people ashore. The word "cockswain" in turn derives from the old English terms for "boat-servant" (coque is the French word for "shell"; and swain was old English for boy or servant).The midshipmen and master's mates were later berthed in the cockpit, and it served as the action station for the ship's surgeon and his mates during battle. Thus by the 18th century, "cockpit" had come to designate an area in the rear lower deck of a warship where the wounded were taken. The same term later came to designate the place from which a sailing vessel is steered, because it is also located in the rear, and is often in a well or "pit". However, a convergent etymology does involve reference to cock fighting. According to the Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, the buildings in London where the king's cabinet worked (the Treasury and the Privy Council) were called the "Cockpit" because they were built on the site of a theater called The Cockpit (torn down in 1635), which itself was built in the place where a "cockpit" for cock-fighting had once stood prior to the 1580s. Thus the word Cockpit came to mean a control center. The original meaning of "cockpit", first attested in the 1580s, is "a pit for fighting cocks", referring to the place where cockfights were held. This meaning no doubt influenced both lines of evolution of the term, since a cockpit in this sense was a tight enclosure where a great deal of stress or tension would occur. From about 1935, [ citation needed ]cockpit came to be used informally to refer to the driver's cabin, especially in high performance cars, and this is official terminology used to describe the compartment that the driver occupies in a Formula One car. In an airliner, the cockpit is usually referred to as the flight deck, the term deriving from its use by the RAF for the separate, upper platform in large flying boats where the pilot and co-pilot sat. [ clarification needed ] [ clarification needed ] In the US and many other countries, however, the term cockpit is also used for airliners. The seat of a powerboat racing craft is also referred to as the cockpit. The first airplane with an enclosed cabin appeared in 1912 on the Avro Type F; however, during the early 1920s there were many passenger aircraft in which the crew remained open to the air while the passengers sat in a cabin. Military biplanes and the first single-engined fighters and attack aircraft also had open cockpits, some as late as the Second World War when enclosed cockpits became the norm. The largest impediment to having closed cabins was the material used to make the windows. Prior to Perspex becoming available in 1933, windows were either safety glass, which was heavy, or cellulose nitrate (i.e.: guncotton), which yellowed quickly and was extremely flammable. In the mid-1920s many aircraft manufacturers began using enclosed cockpits for the first time. Early airplanes with closed cockpits include the 1924 Fokker F.VII, the 1926 German Junkers W 34 transport, the 1926 Ford Trimotor, the 1927 Lockheed Vega, the Spirit of St. Louis and the passenger aircraft manufactured by the Douglas and Boeing companies during the mid-1930s. Open-cockpit airplanes were almost extinct by the mid-1950s, with the exception of training planes, crop-dusters and homebuilt aircraft designs. Cockpit windows may be equipped with a sun shield. Most cockpits have windows that can be opened when the aircraft is on the ground. Nearly all glass windows in large aircraft have an anti-reflective coating, and an internal heating element to melt ice. Smaller aircraft may be equipped with a transparent aircraft canopy. In most cockpits the pilot's control column or joystick is located centrally (centre stick), although in some military fast jets the side-stick is located on the right hand side. In some commercial airliners (i.e.: Airbus—which features the glass cockpit concept) both pilots use a side-stick located on the outboard side, so Captain's side-stick on the left and First-officer's seat on the right. Except for some helicopters, the right seat in the cockpit of an aircraft is the seat used by the co-pilot. The captain or pilot in command sits in the left seat, so that they can operate the throttles and other pedestal instruments with their right hand. The tradition has been maintained to this day, with the co-pilot on the right hand side. The layout of the cockpit, especially in the military fast jet, has undergone standardisation, both within and between aircraft, manufacturers and even nations. An important development was the "Basic Six" pattern, later the "Basic T", developed from 1937 onwards by the Royal Air Force, designed to optimise pilot instrument scanning. Ergonomics and Human Factors concerns are important in the design of modern cockpits. The layout and function of cockpit displays controls are designed to increase pilot situation awareness without causing information overload. In the past, many cockpits, especially in fighter aircraft, limited the size of the pilots that could fit into them. Now, cockpits are being designed to accommodate from the 1st percentile female physical size to the 99th percentile male size. In the design of the cockpit in a military fast jet, the traditional "knobs and dials" associated with the cockpit are mainly absent. Instrument panels are now almost wholly replaced by electronic displays, which are themselves often re-configurable to save space. While some hard-wired dedicated switches must still be used for reasons of integrity and safety, many traditional controls are replaced by multi-function re-configurable controls or so-called "soft keys". Controls are incorporated onto the stick and throttle to enable the pilot to maintain a head-up and eyes-out position – the Hands On Throttle And Stick or HOTAS concept,. These controls may be then further augmented by control media such as head pointing with a Helmet Mounted Sighting System or Direct voice input (DVI). Advances in auditory displays allow for Direct Voice Output of aircraft status information and for the spatial localisation of warning sounds for improved monitoring of aircraft systems. The layout of control panels in modern airliners has become largely unified across the industry. The majority of the systems-related controls (such as electrical, fuel, hydraulics and pressurization) for example, are usually located in the ceiling on an overhead panel. Radios are generally placed on a panel between the pilot's seats known as the pedestal. Automatic flight controls such as the autopilot are usually placed just below the windscreen and above the main instrument panel on the glareshield. A central concept in the design of the cockpit is the Design Eye Position or "DEP", from which point all displays should be visible. Most modern cockpits will also include some kind of integrated warning system. In a 2013 comparative study of a number of novel methods for cockpit-user interaction, touchscreen produced the largest number of "best scores". In the modern electronic cockpit, the electronic flight instruments usually regarded as essential are MFD, PFD, ND, EICAS, FMS/CDU and back-up instruments. A Mode control panel, usually a long narrow panel located centrally in front of the pilot, may be used to control heading, speed, altitude, vertical speed, vertical navigation and lateral navigation. It may also be used to engage or disengage both the autopilot and the autothrottle. The panel as an area is usually referred to as the "glareshield panel". MCP is a Boeing designation (that has been informally adopted as a generic name for the unit/panel) for a unit that allows for the selection and parameter setting of the different autoflight functions, the same unit on an Airbus aircraft is referred to as the FCU (Flight Control unit). The primary flight display is usually located in a prominent position, either centrally or on either side of the cockpit. It will in most cases include a digitized presentation of the attitude indicator, air speed and altitude indicators (usually as a tape display) and the vertical speed indicator. It will in many cases include some form of heading indicator and ILS/VOR deviation indicators. In many cases an indicator of the engaged and armed autoflight system modes will be present along with some form of indication of the selected values for altitude, speed, vertical speed and heading. It may be pilot selectable to swap with the ND. A navigation display, which may be adjacent to the PFD, shows the route and information on the next waypoint, wind speed and wind direction. It may be pilot selectable to swap with the PFD. The Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (used for Boeing) or Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (for Airbus) will allow the pilot to monitor the following information: values for N1, N2 and N3, fuel temperature, fuel flow, the electrical system, cockpit or cabin temperature and pressure, control surfaces and so on. The pilot may select display of information by means of button press. The flight management system/control unit may be used by the pilot to enter and check for the following information: flight plan, speed control, navigation control, and so on. In a less prominent part of the cockpit, in case of failure of the other instruments, there will be a battery-powered integrated standby instrument system along with a magnetic compass, showing essential flight information such as speed, altitude, attitude and heading. In the U.S. the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have researched the ergonomic aspects of cockpit design and have conducted investigations of airline industry accidents. Cockpit design disciplines include Cognitive science, Neuroscience, Human–computer interaction, Human Factors Engineering, Anthropometry and Ergonomics. Aircraft designs have adopted the fully digital "glass cockpit". In such designs, instruments and gauges, including navigational map displays, use a user interface markup language known as ARINC 661. This standard defines the interface between an independent cockpit display system, generally produced by a single manufacturer, and the avionics equipment and user applications it is required to support, by means of displays and controls, often made by different manufacturers. The separation between the overall display system, and the applications driving it, allows for specialization and independence. Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term avionics is a portmanteau of the words aviation and electronics. Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with data about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed, vertical speed, heading and much more other crucial information in flight. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, and make turns, without a reference outside the aircraft such as the horizon. Visual flight rules (VFR) require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable magnetic direction indicator. Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic pitch-bank, direction and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator, adjustable altimeter, and a clock. Flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) require radio navigation instruments for precise takeoffs and landings. Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft. Articles related to aviation include: The attitude indicator (AI), formerly known as the gyro horizon or artificial horizon, is a flight instrument that informs the pilot of the aircraft orientation relative to Earth's horizon, and gives an immediate indication of the smallest orientation change. The miniature aircraft and horizon bar mimic the relationship of the aircraft relative to the actual horizon. It is a primary instrument for flight in instrument meteorological conditions. The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to another. A flight engineer (FE), also sometimes called an air engineer, is the member of an aircraft's flight crew who monitors and operates its complex aircraft systems. In the early era of aviation, the position was sometimes referred to as the "air mechanic". Flight engineers can still be found on some larger fixed-wing airplanes and helicopters. A similar crew position exists on some spacecraft. In most modern aircraft, their complex systems are both monitored and adjusted by electronic microprocessors and computers, resulting in the elimination of the flight engineer's position. A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic (digital) flight instrument displays, typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analog dials and gauges. While a traditional cockpit relies on numerous mechanical gauges to display information, a glass cockpit uses several multi-function displays driven by flight management systems, that can be adjusted to display flight information as needed. This simplifies aircraft operation and navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the most pertinent information. They are also popular with airline companies as they usually eliminate the need for a flight engineer, saving costs. In recent years the technology has also become widely available in small aircraft. Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator (ASI) on an aircraft, driven by the pitot-static system. It uses the difference between total pressure and static pressure, provided by the system, to either mechanically or electronically measure dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure includes terms for both density and airspeed. Since the airspeed indicator cannot know the density, it is by design calibrated to assume the sea level standard atmospheric density when calculating airspeed. Since the actual density will vary considerably from this assumed value as the aircraft changes altitude, IAS varies considerably from true airspeed (TAS), the relative velocity between the aircraft and the surrounding air mass. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the IAS corrected for instrument and position error. Aviation safety means the state of an aviation system or organization in which risks associated with aviation activities, related to, or in direct support of the operation of aircraft, are reduced and controlled to an acceptable level. It encompasses the theory, practice, investigation, and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education, and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. Simulation cockpits or simpits are environments designed to replicate a vehicle cockpit. Although many pits commonly designed around an aircraft cockpit, the term is equally valid for train, spacecraft or car projects. An instrument landing system localizer, or simply localizer (LOC), is a system of horizontal guidance in the instrument landing system, which is used to guide aircraft along the axis of the runway. An electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) is a flight deck instrument display system that displays flight data electronically rather than electromechanically. An EFIS normally consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-function display (MFD), and an engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS) display. Early EFIS models used cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, but liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now more common. The complex electromechanical attitude director indicator (ADI) and horizontal situation indicator (HSI) were the first candidates for replacement by EFIS. Now, however, few flight deck instruments cannot be replaced by an electronic display. The Garmin G1000 is an integrated flight instrument system typically composed of two display units, one serving as a primary flight display, and one as a multi-function display. Manufactured by Garmin, it serves as a replacement for most conventional flight instruments and avionics. A primary flight display or PFD is a modern aircraft instrument dedicated to flight information. Much like multi-function displays, primary flight displays are built around a Liquid-crystal display or CRT display device. Representations of older six pack or "steam gauge" instruments are combined on one compact display, simplifying pilot workflow and streamlining cockpit layouts. A flight management system (FMS) is a fundamental component of a modern airliner's avionics. An FMS is a specialized computer system that automates a wide variety of in-flight tasks, reducing the workload on the flight crew to the point that modern civilian aircraft no longer carry flight engineers or navigators. A primary function is in-flight management of the flight plan. Using various sensors to determine the aircraft's position, the FMS can guide the aircraft along the flight plan. From the cockpit, the FMS is normally controlled through a Control Display Unit (CDU) which incorporates a small screen and keyboard or touchscreen. The FMS sends the flight plan for display to the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS), Navigation Display (ND), or Multifunction Display (MFD). The FMS can be summarised as being a dual system consisting of the Flight Management Computer (FMC), CDU and a cross talk bus. A synthetic vision system (SVS) is a computer-mediated reality system for aerial vehicles, that uses 3D to provide pilots with clear and intuitive means of understanding their flying environment. L-3 SmartDeck - is a fully integrated cockpit system originally developed by L-3 Avionics Systems. and acquired in 2010 by Esterline CMC Electronics through an exclusive licensing agreement. This is a list of the acronyms and abbreviations used in avionics. The HAL HJT 39, aka CAT , was an Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) project proposal by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force. HAL HJT 39 CAT Programme was Announced at Aero India, February 2005, with mockup of front fuselage and cockpit shown. It was projected to fly within three and a half years of go-ahead with airframe and engine commonality with HAL HJT-36 Sitara, avionics comparable with those of HJT-36 and HAL Tejas. Letov LK-2 Sluka is a Czech single-seat high-wing ultralight aircraft produced by the Letov aircraft factory in 1990s and later as a kitbuilt or custom production using tools and material which remained after the closing of the factory production. Sluka is a simple, cheap and easy to fly aircraft which contributed to a rapid growth of ultralight flying organized by then established Light Aircraft Association in the Czech Republic. Its main purpose is a local hobby flying and a flight training as a complement to twin seat elementary trainers like Letov LK-3 and ST-4 or TL-32 Typhoon. Sluka does not offer any advanced training possibilities in respect of performance, speed, ceiling or aerobatics compared to the mentioned twin seat models but its purchase price and cost per flight hour are lower. In 2010s it is usually operated by private owners and enthusiasts as it never was widely used in aero clubs which preferred modern composite or metal designs with better performance and fuel economy usually powered by the 4-stroke Rotax 912. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aircraft cockpits .|

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Severe storms also formed on the 13th over southeast Queensland and the Wide Bay region. Dangerous fire weather conditions in early November had led to renewed fire activity in New South Wales and eastern Queensland, with the fires continuing to burn throughout December. The effect of the frost was compounded by antecedent low rainfall, and high temperatures following frost early in the month, as well as crops being at a vulnerable stage of development. Flooding was extensive and long-lived in the Gulf Country, with major flooding at Walkers Bend on the Flinders River by 2 February. The 1974 event resulted in the Lake being completely covered, while in 2011 it was at least 85% covered. Extremes Temperature area averages are derived from the ACORN-SAT version 2 dataset. The Busbys Flat fire had started during 4 October, and by the 9th the combined area burnt by both fires was more than 78 000 hectares. A major influence on this drying has been the strengthening and extension of the subtropical high pressure ridge during winter, shifting many potential rain-bearing weather systems south of the Australian continent. In winter, temperature ranges from 6 to 13 °C, and only 8 hours of sunshine. May days remained warmer than average for the northwest and coastal southeast, and while nights were warmer than average across the north. The index peaked at +2.15 °C for the week ending 13 October, well above the previous record of +1.48 °C for the week ending 5 November 2006. Temperature in Australia increased to 28.06 celsius in December from 26.95 celsius in November of 2015. Large fires affected Gippsland in Victoria and parts of Tasmania from summer into autumn, burning large swathes of remote and wilderness regions. Major flood levels were recorded across the Channel Country catchments (Georgina/Eyre, Diamantina, and Thomson/Barcoo/Cooper). The very strong positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) led to a delayed onset and a delayed withdrawal of the Indian Monsoon, resulting in large precipitation deficits over the Indian subcontinent during June, but above average rainfall in later months. Values remained above the previous record from mid-September to mid-November. Mean maximum temperatures were above to very much above average for most of Australia from September through December. Adelaide. Sydney, Australia: Annual Weather Averages. The transition of the monsoon trough into the southern hemisphere was very late, and the positive IOD persisted beyond the end of 2019. A number of stations set records for their warmest summer day in late December to early January in Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales, and South Australia, as did a few stations in Western Australia. Above average annual SSTs have been observed for the Australian region for every year since 1995, and have been persistently high for the past decade. January is the hottest month in Adelaide with an average temperature of 23°C (73°F) and the coldest is July at 11°C (52°F) with the most daily sunshine hours at 10 in February. The very strong positive IOD during 2019 has contributed to another late start to the northern wet season in 2019–20, with no monsoonal activity seen across northern Australia before the end of 2019. Warming associated with anthropogenic climate change has seen Australian annual mean temperatures increase by over one degree since 1910. Temperature in Australia averaged 21.64 celsius from 1852 until 2015, reaching an all time high of 29.86 celsius in January of 2013 and a record low of 12.53 celsius in July of 1891. The wintry blast was not rare for spring, which Imielska said brought “changeable conditions”. Temperature values from the observational datasets commence in 1880 for NOAAGlobalTemp and GISTEMP and in 1850 for HadCRUT4, while the two reanalysis datasets commence in 1958 for JRA and 1979 for ERA. More details can be found in the report on severe tropical cyclone Trevor. The full summer begins at around November so tourists are recommended to attend southern cities. Humidity: 63%. It is unusual but not unprecedented to have successive positive IOD events. The dust contributed to ambulance staff attending to a higher than usual number of patients with breathing difficulties. You can access these datasets on our website. it's always summer somewhere in western australia As the second largest state in the world (half the size of Europe), Western Australia’s sunny climate has shaped … The other main driver of natural climate variability in Australia, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), remained neutral throughout 2019. On two consecutive days, the 17th and 18th, records were set for Australia's hottest day on record. The Bureau of Meteorology has released its annual summer climate outlook, forecasting above-average daytime temperatures across parts of south-east and far-west Australia… In Sydney, the summers are warm and partly cloudy and the winters are short, cool, and mostly clear. The SES received 183 calls for roof and structural damage, water ingress, and downed trees. Based on weather reports collected during 1985–2015. Eleven tropical cyclones were recorded in the broader Australian region during the 2018–19 tropical cyclone season, equalling the long-term average (for all years since 1969–70). While recent heavy rainfall has eased dry conditions in the far east, further inland drought persists. Early reports estimated the damage bill as in excess of one hundred and twenty million dollars. Some stations also observed record warm nights for summer in New South Wales in late December or late January, in Victoria and New South Wales in the first days of February, and in Queensland scattered across the season. In north Queensland, trees were defoliated and felled, buildings were damaged at Lockhart River, and roads were cut due to localised flooding. The frequency of extreme heat events has increased approximately fivefold since the 1950s. All Year January February March April May June July August September October November December. The fires threatened communities in several parts of Tasmania, with the Tasmanian Fire Service issuing Emergency Warnings on many occasions. A hail storm in the Riverland District of South Australia on the evening of 4 November caused crop damage along a narrow band between Murray Bridge and Renmark. The 'filling' season has been below average for the past three years in the Murray–Darling Basin, and runoff in 2019 was the second-lowest on record behind 2006. February 19, 1998: WA's highest recorded temperature of 50.5 is set at Mardie. Frosts caused crop damage to some grain-growing regions in southern Australia. Much of northeastern New South Wales and southeastern Queensland, pastoral South Australia, the central and southern Northern Territory, and southeastern Western Australia received their lowest annual totals on record. The SES responded to 74 requests for assistance, most related to downed trees and other wind related damage. The strong northerlies which had driven these high temperatures over the New Year period also saw a significant increase in fire activity over eastern Australia. Further afield, SSTs were warmest on record for large areas around New Zealand. The total area burnt by the end of January was estimated at over 178 000 hectares, or about 2.6% of Tasmania. Hobart and Sydney had their second-warmest annual mean temperature. The Arctic was also unusually warm during 2019, with above average fire activity. They were warmest on record for much of southern Western Australia during September, northern Western Australia during October, and for very large parts of the mainland during December. In South Australia storms on the 8th brought strong and damaging winds and localised flooding to the Adelaide Hills, with power blackouts affecting thousands of properties across the State. In the low-lying regions of western Queensland, floodwaters spilled from the Flinders River into neighbouring catchments. At night temperatures vary from 20°C in summer to freezing zero in winter. January, March, and December were the warmest on record, with January and December exceeding their previous records by a substantial 0.98 °C and 1.08 °C respectively. Temperatures in the mid to high 40s were observed across large areas, in cases for several consecutive days, including at Perth where temperatures reached 40 to 41 degrees each day from the 13th to 15th. Autumn (March – May) Summer (December – February) During summer, average temperatures range from 18.6 - 25.8°C (65.5 - 78.4°F), and average humidity spikes to 65%. Unless otherwise noted, all maps, graphs and diagrams in this page are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Australia Licence, This page was created at 15:13 on Sunday 13 December 2020 (UTC), © Copyright Commonwealth of Australia 2020, Bureau of Meteorology (ABN 92 637 533 532) | CRICOS Provider 02015K | Disclaimer | Privacy | Accessibility, Table of annual national rainfall, temperature, and sea surface temperature anomalies and ranks, NOAA Extended Reconstructed Sea Surface Temperature dataset, ERSST v5, World Meteorological Organization Provisional statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2019, Creative Commons Attribution Australia Licence, Australia's warmest year on record, with the annual national mean temperature 1.52 °C above average, Both mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures above average for all States and the Northern Territory, Annual national mean maximum temperature warmest on record (2.09 °C above average), Widespread warmth throughout the year; January, February, March, April, July, October, and December all amongst the ten warmest on record for Australian mean temperature for their respective months, Significant heatwaves in January and in December, Nationally-averaged rainfall 40% below average for the year at 277.6 mm, Rainfall below average for most of Australia, Rainfall above average for parts of Queensland's northwest and northern tropics, Much of Australia affected by drought, which was especially severe in New South Wales and southern Queensland, Widespread severe fire weather throughout the year; national annual accumulated Forest Fire Danger Index highest since 1950, when national records began, One of the strongest positive Indian Ocean Dipole events on record; El Niño–Southern Oscillation neutral throughout the year, Warmest year on record; mean temperature +1.52 °C, Warmest year on record for New South Wales and Western Australia; amongst top ten warmest for Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and the Northern Territory, Highest annual mean maximum temperature on record for Sydney, Canberra, Brisbane, and Hobart, Australia's driest year on record, annual total rainfall 40% below average, One of the strongest positive Indian Ocean Dipole events on record, Late monsoon onset at Darwin in 2018–19 and 2019–20 seasons, Second-warmest year on record for the Northern Territory, Annual rainfall second-lowest on record for the Northern Territory, Significant rainfall deficiencies across the South West Land Division, Frost events in September caused damage to crops in southwest Western Australia, Warmest year on record for Western Australia, Annual rainfall second-lowest on record for Western Australia, Very large bushfires across southeast Queensland from September until the end of the year, Large areas of flooding in Queensland's tropical coast, including around Townsville, from late January into early February; and also in the Gulf Country and western Queensland from February into April, Severe storms with heavy rain and giant hail in southeast Queensland in November, and in early December, Sixth-warmest year on record for Queensland, Annual mean maximum temperature highest on record for Brisbane, Significant rainfall deficiencies across New South Wales and southern Queensland; driest year on record for the Murray–Darling Basin, Very large bushfires across eastern New South Wales from September until the end of the year, Smoke affected many communities for prolonged periods from September, Severe storms across New South Wales in late November, Warmest year on record for New South Wales, Annual mean maximum temperature highest on record for Sydney, Annual rainfall lowest on record for New South Wales, Most significant filling for Lake Eyre / Kati Thanda since 2010–11, Second-warmest year on record for South Australia, Annual rainfall lowest on record for South Australia, Heatwaves in January and December; high temperature records set across much of Australia, including Australia's warmest day on record on 18 December, July–December rainfall lowest on record for southern Australia, Coolest August mean minimum temperatures on record for parts of the inland southeast, Significant rainfall deficiencies for Gippsland, Bushfires in Gippsland and northeast Victoria from summer to autumn, and also for Gippsland from spring into December, Fifth-warmest year on record for Victoria, Annual rainfall tenth-lowest on record for Victoria, Large bushfires across remote and wilderness areas of Tasmania during summer and autumn, Annual mean maximum temperature highest on record for Hobart. 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We have many options to create artwork with Prosperity characters on a wall scroll or portrait. 21. Destiny / Fate 23. Destiny / Fate 25. A Bright Future 26. Glory and Honor 繁榮 means "prosperous", "flourishing", or "thriving" when used in regards to a person. However, when used in reference to a whole country, it can mean "booming economy". 繁榮 is the traditional Chinese, ancient Japanese Kanji, and ancient Korean Hanja version of prosperity. Note: If you order this from the Japanese master calligrapher, the second character may look more like the Kanji shown to the right. If you want a different form, please note that in the special instructions for your order. 繁榮富裕 is a proverb about "Prosperity and Abundance". 繁榮富裕 present and reinforce the ideas of being prosperous, a booming economy, well-to-do, well-off, wealth, riches, and opulence. 繁榮富裕 is the ancient/traditional Chinese way to write this but most Japanese can fully read and understand it. It's also the correct form of old Korean Hanja (though few Koreans of the current generation will be able to read this). See Also: Good Fortune This means, "live in prosperity". It's kind of a suggestion to be prosperity the center of your world. This is the way some people want to live (and you should always live for what you love). However, this phrase does not suggest a peaceful life - rather one that is always busy. It's not for everyone but it might be for you. 富樂 is the Chinese, Japanese Kanji, and old Korean Hanja for a title meaning prosperity and happiness. If you have a desire to live in prosperity and happiness, this is for you. Note: This title is often used in a Buddhist context. 繁栄 is the same "prosperity" as the Traditional Chinese version, except for a slight change in the way the second character is written (it's the Japanese Kanji deviation from the original/ancient Chinese form). Chinese people will still be able to read this, though you should consider this to be the Japanese form (better if your audience is Japanese). Sometimes the Kanji form shown to the right is used in Japanese. It will depend on the mood of the calligrapher, as to which form you may receive. If you have a preference, please let us know at the time of your order. 祿 is occasionally used in China to mean prosperity or good fortune. 祿 once meant the "official's salary" in old feudal China and Korea (obviously, the officials lived well, so you can imagine how this was associated with the idea of being prosperous). 祿 is only used in Korean historical documents for "salary". In old Japanese, this means fief, allowance, stipend, reward, pension, grant and sometimes happiness depending on context. It's very obscure in modern Japanese. We have other entries that are better-suited for a prosperity wall scroll. This entry just addresses "the coffee cup issue" where this character has been used on coffee cups and tee-shirts. However, without context, the meaning is ambiguous to some. This means "To bring flourishing peace and security to the world (our current era)". It's really a wish that a new door leading to peace and prosperity could be opened to mankind. Character and word breakdown: 啟 to open; to start; to initiate; to enlighten or awaken. 盛世 a flourishing period; period of prosperity; a golden age. 開 to open; to start; to turn on. 太平 peace and security; peace and tranquility; peace; tranquility. I don't really like to do breakdowns like this, as the words altogether create their own unique meaning (encompassed in the main title above). Please take that into consideration. This kind of prosperity applies to a business. Something great to hang behind your desk if you are a small or large business owner. Doing so says that you either are a successful business, or you wish success and prosperity for your business. Can also be translated as thriving, flourishing, brisk business, and other words related to prosperity in business. A good meaning in China but a little antiquated in Japanese. 年年有餘 is a common proverb or wish of prosperity you'll hear around the time of Chinese New Years. Directly translated character by character it means, "Year Year Have Surplus". A more natural English translation including the deeper meaning would be "Every Year may you Have Abundance in your life". On a side note, this phrase often goes with a gift of something related to fish. 年年有餘 is because the last character "yu" which means surplus or abundance has exactly the same pronunciation in Mandarin as the word for "fish". 年年有餘 is also one of the most common titles for traditional paintings that feature koi fish. In China, this phrase might make an odd wall scroll - a customer asked especially for this common phrase which is why it appears here. See my other abundance-related words if you want a wall scroll that will seem more comfortable in Chinese culture. Note: This can be pronounced in Korean, but it's not a commonly used term. See Also: Good Fortune The title says it all; this word is clearly understood in Chinese and Japanese as well as Korean Hanja. 福 is pronounced "fu" in Chinese. The character "fu" is posted by virtually all Chinese people on the doors of their homes during the Spring Festival (closely associated with the Chinese New Years). One tradition from the Zhou Dynasty (beginning in 256 B.C.) holds that putting a fu symbol on your front door will keep the goddess of poverty away. 福 literally means good fortune, prosperity, blessed, happiness, and fulfillment. See Also: Lucky Perhaps the Chinese equivalent of "This blessed house" or perhaps "home sweet home". This phrase literally means "Good fortune house" or "Good luck household". It makes any Chinese person who sees it feel that good things happen in the home in which this calligraphy is hung. 幸 can mean happiness, good fortune, good luck, and in the old days, good harvest or bounty. Note: From Japanese, this character is sometimes romanized as "sachi", and is often pronounced "kou" or sometimes "rei" when used in compound words with other Kanji. 財富 means wealth or riches in Chinese. Hanging this on your wall will label you as a "lover of money" or a "greedy person". Order this, only if you don't mind being seen in this light. This four-character proverb is used in Chinese to mean "realize your ambitions" or "exhibit your ambition and success". It's used to talk about someone with great career ambitions. Almost literally, it expresses the idea of someone unfolding a great career like a map or a set of blueprint plans. Very literally translated, these four characters mean, "Great unfolding of a huge map" or "Great exhibition of a colossal plan". This Chinese and Japanese word for "success" is often used to refer to "career success" but is also used for other successes in life. It matches the western dictionary definition of "The achievement of something desired, planned, or attempted". And it's also used it this old Chinese proverb: which means Failure is the Mother of Success. Sometimes this word is translated as prosperity but success, succeed, or successfully are more correct definitions. 明るい未来 is a Japanese proverb that means, "Bright Future". It suggests a lot of possibility and potential awaits in your future. A great gift for a graduate. The first part of this proverb literally means bright or light. The second part means the future but can also be translated as, "the world to come". Note: Because this selection contains some special Japanese Hiragana characters, it should be written by a Japanese calligrapher. 命 is often translated as "destiny". Sometimes this character is simply translated as "life" but more in terms of one's lot in life. In certain context, this can mean command or decree (generally from a king or emperor). Of course, such a decree are part of fate and lead you to fulfill your destiny. In Chinese, this word leans toward the fate or destiny definition. In Korean, it is usually read simply as "life". In Japanese, it can mean all definitions shown above, depending on context. See Also: Good Fortune These two characters specifically represent the fate or destiny that brings two people together. 緣份 is like the chance meeting of two people that leads sometime later to marriage. This could also be the chance meeting of two business people, who become partners and build a huge and successful company. Basically, this is an idea often associated with a fateful meeting leading to good fortune. Some will define this word as, "The destiny brings you two together", or "Meant to be". Note: The second character can also be written without the left radical, as shown to the right. If you have a preference, please let use know in the special instructions for your project. There is no difference in meaning or pronunciation, just two (alternate) ways to write the same character. These two characters contain the ideas of "fate", "destiny", "fortune" and "luck" in Chinese, Japanese Kanji, and old Korean Hanja. 運命 is often defined as "a person's fate" or "personal fate" in various dictionaries. These two characters can be reversed (written in either order) and yield roughly the same meaning. This particular character order happens to be more common in old Korean and less common in modern Chinese. This is just about the closest proverb to match the western idea of "Eat, drink, and be merry". This Chinese proverb more literally means, "Eat, drink, play, be merry, enjoy everything as long as you can". It's basically a suggestion that you try to enjoy everything in life, as long as you live, or as long as you are able. 鵬程萬里 is an ancient Chinese proverb used in modern times to wish someone a long and successful career. It's really about the 10,000 Flight of the Peng (Peng, also known as Roc is a mythical fish that can turn into a bird and take flight). 庄子 - Zhuangzi Breaking down each character: 1. Peng or Roc (a kind of bird). 2. Journey (in this case, a flight). 3. 10,000 (Ten Thousand). 4. Li is a unit of distance often referred to as a "Chinese Mile", though the real distance is about half a kilometer. Direct Translation: "Peng's Journey [of] 10,000 Li". Literal meaning: "The 10,000-Li Flying Range Of The Roc". Perceived meaning: "To have a bright future" or "To go far". This proverb/idiom comes from the book of Zhuangzi. It tells the tale of a huge fish which could turn into a gigantic bird. This bird was called "peng" and was many miles long. This legendary size allowed the Peng to fly from the Northern Sea to the Southern Sea in a single bound. Wishing someone "a Peng's Journey of 10,000 Li", will imply that they will be able to travel far without stopping, and will have great success, a long career, and a prosperous future. 榮 relates to giving someone a tribute or praise. It's a little odd as a gift, so this may not be the best selection for a wall scroll. I've made this entry just because this character is often misused as "honorable" or "keeping your honor". It's not quite the same meaning, as this usually refers to a tribute or giving an honor to someone. 榮 is often found in tattoo books incorrectly listed as the western idea of personal honor or being honorable. Check with us before you get a tattoo that does not match the meaning you are really looking for. As a tattoo, this suggests that you either have a lot of pride in yourself or that you have a wish for prosperity for you and/or your family. In modern Japanese Kanji, glory and honor looks like the image to the right. There is a lot of confusion about this character, so here are some alternate translations for this character: prosperous, flourishing, blooming (like a flower), glorious beauty, proud, praise, rich, or it can be the family name "Rong". The context in which the character is used can change the meaning between these various ideas. In the old days, this could be an honor paid to someone by the Emperor (basically a designation by the Emperor that a person has high standing). To sum it up: 榮 has a positive meaning, however, it's a different flavor than the idea of being honorable and having integrity. 家內安全 is kind of the Japanese way of saying, "Family First". It's really a Japanese proverb about the safety and well-being of your family, and/or, peace and prosperity in the household. Some Japanese will hang an amulet in their home with these Kanji on it. The purpose being to keep your family safe from harm. According to Shinto followers, hanging this in your home is seen as an invocation to God to always keep members of the family free from harm. We were actually looking for a way to say "family first" in Japanese when this proverb came up in the conversation and research. While it doesn't literally say "family first", it shows that the safety and well-being of your family is your first or most important priority. So, this proverb is the most natural way to express the idea that you put your family first. See Also: Peace and Prosperity This Japanese title can be translated as "for this time only", "chance meeting", "one meeting, one opportunity", "never again", or "one chance in a lifetime". The characters literally mean "one time one meeting" - of course, the Kanji characters have meaning far beyond a direct translation like this. Some might use this proverb to talk of an opportunity that presents itself just once in your life. It could also be the single chance-meeting with your true soul mate. Basically an expression for any event that might happen once in a lifetime. This is primarily a Japanese title, however, there is also a Traditional Chinese (and old Korean) version of this proverb. Just the last character is different. The traditional form was used in Japan before WWII and in Korea prior to 1900. This title is somewhat known in China. If you want the older traditional form, just click on the character to the right. This in-stock artwork might be what you are looking for, and ships right away... Gallery Price: $71.00 Your Price: $39.00 Gallery Price: $58.00 Your Price: $32.00 Gallery Price: $53.00 Your Price: $29.00 Gallery Price: $120.00 Your Price: $58.88 Gallery Price: $178.00 Your Price: $98.88 Gallery Price: $62.00 Your Price: $34.00 Gallery Price: $62.00 Your Price: $34.00 Gallery Price: $200.00 Your Price: $68.88 Gallery Price: $200.00 Your Price: $68.88 Gallery Price: $53.00 Your Price: $29.00 The following table may be helpful for those studying Chinese or Japanese... |Title||Characters||Romaji (Romanized Japanese)||Various forms of Romanized Chinese| |han ei / hanei||fán róng / fan2 rong2 / fan rong / fanrong||fan jung / fanjung| |Abundance and Prosperity||繁榮富裕| |fán róng fù yù| fan2 rong2 fu4 yu4 fan rong fu yu |fan jung fu yü |A Life of Happiness and Prosperity||幸福成功的一生||xìng fú chéng gōng de yì shēng| xing4 fu2 cheng2 gong1 de yi4 sheng1 xing fu cheng gong de yi sheng |hsing fu ch`eng kung te i sheng hsing fu cheng kung te i sheng |A Life of Happiness and Prosperity||幸福と繁栄の人生||kou fuku to ha nei no jin sei| ko fuku to ha nei no jin sei |Live in Prosperity||生活于繁榮中| |shēng huó yú fán róng zhōng| sheng1 huo2 yu2 fan2 rong2 zhong1 sheng huo yu fan rong zhong |sheng huo yü fan jung chung |Prosperity and Happiness||富樂| |furaku||fù lè / fu4 le4 / fu le / fule| |hanei||fán róng / fan2 rong2 / fan rong / fanrong||fan jung / fanjung| |fuchi||lù / lu4 / lu| |Worldwide Wish for Peace and Prosperity||啟盛世開太平| |qǐ shèng shì kāi tài píng| qi3 sheng4 shi4 kai1 tai4 ping2 qi sheng shi kai tai ping |ch`i sheng shih k`ai t`ai p`ing chi sheng shih kai tai ping |富裕||fu yuu / fuyuu / fu yu / fuyu||fù yù / fu4 yu4 / fu yu / fuyu||fu yü / fuyü| |kou ryuu / kouryuu / ko ryu / koryu||xīng lóng| |Year-In Year-Out Have Abundance||年年有餘| |nián nián yǒu yú| nian2 nian2 you3 yu2 nian nian you yu |nien nien yu yü |富||tomi||fù / fu4 / fu| |Fortune favors the brave||勇者は幸運に恵まれる||yuusha ha kouun ni megumareru | yusha ha koun ni megumareru |Fortune favors the brave||命運鐘情於勇士| |mìng yùn zhōng qíng yú yǒng shì| ming4 yun4 zhong1 qing2 yu2 yong3 shi4 ming yun zhong qing yu yong shi |ming yün chung ch`ing yü yung shih ming yün chung ching yü yung shih |福||fuku||fú / fu2 / fu| |House of Good Fortune||福宅||fú zhái / fu2 zhai2 / fu zhai / fuzhai||fu chai / fuchai| |幸||saki / sachi / rei / rē||xìng / xing4 / xing||hsing| |Soldier of Fortune||雇佣兵||gù yōng bīng| gu4 yong1 bing1 gu yong bing |ku yung ping |Soldier of Fortune||風雲児||fuu un ji / fuuunji / fu un ji / fuunji| |cái fù / cai2 fu4 / cai fu / caifu||ts`ai fu / tsaifu / tsai fu| |Realize Your Ambitions| Ride on the Crest of Success |dà jiǎn hóng tú| da4 jian3 hong2 tu2 da jian hong tu |ta chien hung t`u ta chien hung tu |Success||成功||seikou / seiko||chéng gōng| |Bright and Promising Future||明るい未来||akarui mirai| |命||inochi / mei||mìng / ming4 / ming| |緣份 / 緣分| 缘份 / 缘分 |yuán fèn / yuan2 fen4 / yuan fen / yuanfen||yüan fen / yüanfen| |un mei / unmei||yùn mìng / yun4 ming4 / yun ming / yunming||yün ming / yünming| |Eat Drink and Be Merry||喫喝玩樂及時行樂| |chī hē wán lè jí shí xíng lè| chi1 he1 wan2 le4 ji2 shi2 xing2 le4 chi he wan le ji shi xing le |ch`ih ho wan le chi shih hsing le chih ho wan le chi shih hsing le |A Bright Future||鵬程萬里| |péng chéng wàn lǐ| peng2 cheng2 wan4 li3 peng cheng wan li |p`eng ch`eng wan li peng cheng wan li |Glory and Honor||榮| 荣 / 栄 |ei||róng / rong2 / rong||jung| |Safety and Well-Being of the Family||家內安全| |ka nai an zen| |Live for What You Love||人生謳歌||jin sei ou ka| jin sei o ka |Once in a Lifetime||一期一會| |ichigoichie||yī qī yī huì| yi1 qi1 yi1 hui4 yi qi yi hui |i ch`i i hui i chi i hui |In some entries above you will see that characters have different versions above and below a line.| In these cases, the characters above the line are Traditional Chinese, while the ones below are Simplified Chinese. All of our calligraphy wall scrolls are handmade. When the calligrapher finishes creating your artwork, it is taken to my art mounting workshop in Beijing where a wall scroll is made by hand from a combination of silk, rice paper, and wood. After we create your wall scroll, it takes at least two weeks for air mail delivery from Beijing to you. Allow a few weeks for delivery. Rush service speeds it up by a week or two for $10! When you select your calligraphy, you'll be taken to another page where you can choose various custom options. The wall scroll that Sandy is holding in this picture is a "large size" single-character wall scroll. We also offer custom wall scrolls in small, medium, and an even-larger jumbo size. Professional calligraphers are getting to be hard to find these days. Instead of drawing characters by hand, the new generation in China merely type roman letters into their computer keyboards and pick the character that they want from a list that pops up. There is some fear that true Chinese calligraphy may become a lost art in the coming years. Many art institutes in China are now promoting calligraphy programs in hopes of keeping this unique form of art alive. Even with the teachings of a top-ranked calligrapher in China, my calligraphy will never be good enough to sell. I will leave that to the experts. The same calligrapher who gave me those lessons also attracted a crowd of thousands and a TV crew as he created characters over 6-feet high. He happens to be ranked as one of the top 100 calligraphers in all of China. He is also one of very few that would actually attempt such a feat.

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Image by/from Daniel Ramirez from Honolulu, USA Samoans or Samoan people (Samoan: tagata Samoa) would be the indigenous Polynesian people from the Samoan Islands, an archipelago in Polynesia, who speak the Samoan language. The group’s home islands are politically and geographically divided between your Independent Condition of Samoa and American Samoa, an unincorporated territory from the Usa. Though divided by government, the culture and language stay the same. The Samoan people and culture form an important link and walking stone within the formation and spread of Polynesian culture, language and religion throughout Eastern Polynesia. Polynesian trade, religion, war, and colonialism are essential markers within Polynesian culture that are usually rooted within the Samoan culture. Samoa’s colonial history, using the kingdom of Tonga, Fiji and French Polynesia make up the foundation of modern Polynesian culture. One of many areas of Samonan society, three are described below: The matai (chief), the aiga (family mind), and also the untitled aumaga (laborers) as well as their manaia (supervisor). Matai, also known as the mind from the family and relatives, is an extremely important estimate the Samoan culture. There are lots of aspects which go into fully comprehending the term Matai, for example how the first is elected and just what their role is. The function of the matai is an extremely large and important one. He’s likely to provide leadership in every aspect of family existence. He encourages warm family relations, offers advice, directs religious participation, and oversees disputes. In addition to watching within the family land and representing the household in village matters. Overall, a matai should have different attitude than everybody else, especially other males in the household. Matai’s will also be responsible for economic situations. For instance, a matai must manage the quantity of food his family earns and should store some away when ever occasions are difficult. The matai’s job like a leader is one that’s essential in Samoan culture helping the general structure remain in place.:219 The election of the Matai is really a extended procedure that can last as long as several days and it is frequently a very competitive race. Within this race different branches from each family help with men candidate, supported by explanations why he will be a good candidate. These reasons are the candidate’s knowledge to wealth, including highly recognized values for example negotiating, ritual understanding, politics and financial aspects. However, when the boy of the matai meets these needs, he’s typically given a significant edge within the race. An additional advantage the boy of the matai or any man within the matai’s folks are given is having the ability to observe which help the matai beginning from the youthful age. Most men considered for that Matai position are in least age forty, meaning many youthful candidates don’t even stand an opportunity. One strategy you can use by males ambitious to become matai would be to choose to reside in a family group which has not one other males, in order to proceed to his wife’s household should there be no males in her own family’s household either.:219 The election of the matai is underneath the guidance of some other matai who relates to the household, permitting a good election. When a new matai is selected, a feast is tossed for your loved ones, adopted with a bigger feast for the entire village later on. In the bigger feast, the matai is anticipated to provide a conventional inaugural speech, displaying his abilities to talk openly, his knowledge and retelling of Samoan myths. Throughout this speech he’s viewed by village council, in addition to the rest of the matai’s within the village. When the matai has demonstrated themself to another matai’s by providing the standard address, he’s known as onto serve the city in general. The recently elected matai is anticipated for hosting a village-wide feast where he’s given the job of supplying food for that meal, in addition to obtaining the other matais gifts.:219 Once this is finished the recently elected matai is formally considered the matai of his household and can contain the position throughout his existence, should he lead properly. In some cases in which a matai is considered cruel or ineffective, the title is stripped along with a new matai is elected. However, a far more frequently occurrence may be the current matai becoming seniors or ill and requesting that the new matai be elected because there to become a more stable and efficient leadership in position.:219 The primary leader of every individual folks are named the aiga from the family. One individual, predominately men figure, is elected to get the aiga of his relatives. Elections occur following the former Aiga has died or is not to satisfy his responsibilities, because of ethical reasonings or senior years. Elections really are a lengthy and strenuous process for people from the relatives. For just one area of the household is going facing another portion, resulting in tensions within everyone. Each Aiga has their extended family’s land. With that chunk of property, families live, grow your crops, prepare and do other cleaning. Also with that chunk of property is how the matai resides. Because of the great deal of households inside a single village, you will find a lot of aiga. So much in fact that some can trace back their aiga timeline more than a dozen different aiga. The reasoning for that great deal of aigas would be that the title might be claimed through bloodstream ties, marriage, and adoption.:217, 218 While leaders, speaking leaders and matais have the ability to a title, you will find men within the village which are untitled. These males are put into an organization known as the aumaga. These males are the labor core from the community because they perform most the heavy labor. The aumaga are given the job of building houses, repairing roads, planting and harvesting gardens, fishing, and cutting and selling coconut meat. The aumaga also provide ceremonial responsibilities, for example enhancing the chief in ritual cooking and serving the meals at events. Additionally they function as informal keepers from the peace, getting together with one another like a large number of buddies. They frequently play cards, cricket or gather for dances and parties with one another. The aumaga are supervised with a relative from the chief, known as the manaia (supervisor), who helps organize the aumaga and plan their activities. Despite not necessarily truly to be the boy from the matai (chief), the manaia continues to be known as “son” through the matai.:221 Even though the Samoan Natives (Tagata Mao’i) have lengthy claimed is the indigenous people of the islands — holding firm to the fact that Samoans were birthed from the tear within the Heavens (Lagi, Lani) special creation in Samoa — it’s been theorized by many people linguists and anthropologists, according to linguistic commonalities in addition to archaeological findings, that migrants from Maritime Southeast Asia showed up within the Samoan Islands roughly 3500 years back, settling with what has become referred to as Polynesia further towards the east. It’s possible, because the natives suggest, the Samoan Islands were settled a while before 1000 BC which the initial settlement predates the appearance of individuals with whom the pottery was culturally relevant. It’s also generally a large spread Cultural belief throughout Samoa the Island’s were the central base point for the start of the truly amazing voyages, the Polynesian expansion towards the East and South. These tales and Legends are recorded in publications by European historians, Anthropologists, Archaeologists but still spoken of in contemporary occasions by Samoan High Leaders within their great speeches and decrees during Kava events and Chiefly/ Royal events. The voyages still spoken of in ancient Polynesian Chieftain Oratory poetics (lauga) are known as ‘Taeao’ a recalling of past histories and contacts inside the Polynesian archipelago by Samoan Dental High Leaders. These ‘Taeaos’ include dental and written accounts of familial tribal/klan contacts using the neighboring islands of: Early connection with Europeans started within the 1700s. Christianity was formally introduced with the appearance of L.M.S. Christian missionaries in August 1830. Noisy . twentieth century the Samoan Islands were partitioned by Germany, The Uk and also the USA. Tutuila and Aunu’u islands were claimed through the USA and then became a member of through the Kingdom of Manu’a (1904) to get the present Territory of yankee Samoa. The western islands grew to become German Samoa. In 1914, Nz forces taken the hawaiian islands from Germany, thus becoming Western Samoa. Western Samoa obtained its independence on The month of january 1, 1962. In 1997 it formally altered its name to Samoa. Marriage events are essential Samoan cultural occasions. Marriage requires the change in property from the female, the toga, and also the male’s property, the oloa. It’s a village event, with two events along with a feast by the end. Within the first ceremony, the wedding couple march with the village to some district judge. The judge then conducts a civil ceremony. Concluding that official ceremony, the newlyweds next gather inside a church in which a religious ceremony is conducted by part of the church. In a feast, families provide food throughout the village. Following the conclusion from the wedding, the newlyweds determine which side from the family they wish to accept. After relocating having a particular family, they’re likely to will work round the land and also the house to assist offer their loved ones. When families have children, everybody are anticipated to assist with responsibilities and chores round the land, by age 3 or 4. The youthful women take proper care of other children and house work, as the boys assist with cultivation, creatures and water gathering. When the kids achieve age 7 or 8, they’re likely to know and become acclimated towards the existence and chores from the Samoan culture. Including being skilled at “agriculture, fishing, cooking, and day care” plus a large number of other chores their elders have directed these to do. Because the Samoans develop, they’re because of the most tasks and responsibilities they are able to hold, until they are able to dominate fully for that aging people of the relatives. When part of relatives dies, the funeral formulations start quickly. Choirs are forwarded to the mourner’s land. The deceased is bathed and outfitted in white-colored. They’re put on woven mats prior to the funeral under 24-hrs later. During individuals 24-hrs, a minumum of one member of the family has to stick with the deceased. A feast concludes the big event, with food being offered to mourners and those that contributed to the funeral. Other family people dominate the required the deceased while still serving their own individual chores round the land. The elected Matai from the community may be the controller of each and every part of a village land. The village Matai states what cultivators is going to do with land and “hold sway over allocation of plots and also the ways that individuals plots are utilized.” The only real aspect the Matai doesn’t control is who the land goes to after his dying. This really is to prevent it being controlled by one family for any lengthy time period. You will find four groups that land is split: Village House Lots, Underbrush, Family Reserve and Village Land. Village house lots is how individual houses or huts of single person or family lives. These houses are made in clusters. The clusters include multiple different factors, but all look exactly the same. Each house features a primary sleeping house, a guesthouse along with a latrine. Yards with trees and gardens from the house village lot, with a few lots that contains the whole from the relatives. The underbrush covers the whole from the land. These plots are recognizable to any or all villagers and therefore are separated by limitations. Limitations are often comprised of a number of rocks, streams, trees and plants. It’s very simple to distinguish the various qualities of separate families. Family reserve sections are where crops are cultivated. The greatest quantity of crops grown inside the Samoan culture is taro leaves and yams. These plots are for sale to be distributed to other villages along with other families. However, they’d not be any longer considered a household reserve but considered as owning the crops although not the land. The household reserve isn’t cultivated around other causes of property. It’s because the truth that crops grown here can grow rapidly and simply without many interruptions. Village land may be the least cultivated and many shared part of land in Samoan villages. So that you can plant here requires permission in the village council. It is because “the land is community property and never family owned”. Village land may be the greatest facet of any figure of land and it is where looking for food, for example wild pig and wild birds are permitted. Fishing can also be an element that’s permitted within village land. Traditional Samoan tattoo (tatau), pe’a (male tatau), malu (female tatau), demonstrate the strong ties many Samoans sense of their culture. Samoans have practiced the skill of tattooing women and men for more than 2,000 years. Even today, your tattoo extensively covers from mid-back, lower the edges and flanks, towards the knees. A ladies tattoo isn’t as extensive or heavy. The geometric patterns derive from ancient designs that frequently denote rank and standing. The va’a (canoe), for instance, stretches across your mid-back. In Samoa’s cultural past most males were inked between 14-18, if this was resolute they’d stopped growing, therefore the designs wouldn’t stretch and suffer in beauty. Today, there’s been a powerful revival of traditional tattooing previously generation, not just in Samoa but throughout Polynesia, frequently denoting cultural identity. Tatau, the Samoan word for tattoo has numerous meanings including correct or rightness. Additionally, it signifies the right quadrangular figures in reference that Samoan tattoo designs don’t include circular lines, although other Polynesian tattoo motifs do. Early Englishmen mispronounced the term tatau and lent it into popular usage as tattoo. Traditional tattooing is really a painful process. The Samoan tattoo master dips his cutting tools into black and white produced from the smoke of burnt candlenut shells after which punctures designs in to the skin. The cutting tool includes a short bit of bamboo or light wood with a bit of tortoiseshell bound at right angles at one finish. Just a little bone comb is likely to the low broad finish from the tortoiseshell. The bigger the comb, the higher the area onto the skin is included with less strokes. The actual utilizes a small hammer to frequently tap a brief-handled instrument. The procedure takes days and it is sometimes partly accomplished over for a longer time, with recuperation among.Tattoo designs have altered to incorporate freehand symbols like the kava bowl representing hospitality the portrayal from the Samoan house or fale signifying kinship emblems of nature — shells, fish, wild birds, waves, centipedes and also the traditional geometric lines and angles of various lengths and sizes. Modern pop and rock possess a large audience in Samoa, just like several native bands these bands have abandoned most aspects of Samoan traditional music, even though there are folky performers. Lately, the populace has witnessed an upsurge of old Samoan songs, remixed in design for reggae however with some traditional elements, like the utilisation of the pate and old chord structure. Initially in Samoan music, “there were only two instruments being used the pate, a useless log drum which comes in assorted sizes, and also the fala, a folded up pad beaten with sticks. Additionally for this was a persons voice. This limited selection of instrumentation didn’t have impact on the significance of music in Samoan existence. Because there wasn’t any written language many tales and legends were propagated through song and also the complex rhythms in the pate are crucial within the performance of numerous Samoan dances. Actually in lots of dances, the dancers themselves increase the rhythm by clapping their hands, and based mostly on the means by that the hands takes place produce a variety of different sounds. Two instruments were developed which are now symbolic of Samoan music, the selo and also the ukulele. The selo is really a stringed instrument produced from a broomstick, or similar object, mounted on a sizable box, bucket or any other object that functions like a sounding board. Just one period of string joins the top keep to the box, that is plucked to make a seem much like what bass. The ukele is really a small guitar-like instrument however with only four strings. It are available in two forms, the one that is sort of a miniaturised guitar, another in which the body is made of half a coconut covering.” Western string instruments for example guitars are broadly available over the Off-shore Islands, with lots of bands performing and recording acoustic and amplified music in Samoa because the 1970s. More youthful generations still perform in string bands in addition to gravitate toward genres for example reggae, rap, rhythm and blues, gospel and soul. In Samoa, music is a huge a part of their culture. Traditional Samoan music continues to have an objective along with a function in the current society, but has partly given method to contemporary or externally-influenced genre of Samoan music. Seem to be high combination of Reggae and Hawaiian music which could also illuminate being an important affect on Samoa. There are lots of popular musicians who hail from, or who’re of Samoan descent. They include the kind of Reggae artist: J Boog, the rap group: Boo-Yaa T.R.I.B.E., and probably the most recognizable bands of Samoa: The 5 Stars. Samoa hosts your guitar type of fingerpicking that is in known within the islands as “Le Igi”. It comes from Hawaii and may their people as “Slack Key Guitar”. One traditional instrument of Samoa is called the Fala. It consists of folded “wicker style mats” and it is beaten with drum sticks to help make the seem of the drum. Another instrument famous Samoa is a kind of drum known as the Pate. It’s initially from Tahiti and brought to Samoa about five centuries ago. It consists of wood from and created with tribal references or designs. The Fireplace knife dance or Siva Afi is easily the most popular Samoan dance among vacationers in Samoa. The Fa’ataupati or slap dance, done by males, includes fierce slapping from the body in rhythmic motion to drum beats. Other Samoan dances range from the Maulu’ulu, which is a brand-female dance that’s more elegant. The Sasa is really a dance that may be done by both men and women inside a sitting down position or standing. The Siva Tau is really a war dance done by Samoan sporting teams before each match. The Taualuga, a celebratory siva, and center of Samoan culture, continues to be adopted and altered throughout Western Polynesia. Typically done by the virgin highborn boy or daughter of the Samoan chief, a taupou(female) or manaia(male) will dressin full festive attire for that siva. Usually composed of the finely woven ie’toga pad decorated with down from the “sega”(collared lory or blue topped lorikeet). However, modern performances mainly contain dyed chicken down. Performers also dress yourself in the surplus of anklets and armbands made from ti leaves, ocean turtle shells (uga laumei), coconut shells, or boar’s tusk. Adopted through the crowning attire from the taupou or manaia, the headdress or “tuiga”. Taupous or Manaias, are completed having a drenching of coconut oil for cosmetic purposes. Throughout this performance, performers are supported by upbeat yet simple drum beats usually performed at a number of cultural celebrations. Athletes of Samoan descent are broadly recognized for their success entirely-contact sports for example American football, rugby union, rugby league, boxing, pro wrestling, and mma. Samoa is stated is the cradle from the Off-shore that creates the greatest quantity of top-level rugby union and rugby league players per person. American Samoa creates the greatest quantity of National football league players and it has been dubbed “Football Island” by landmass coaches and media. It’s believed that the boy born to Samoan parents is 56 occasions more prone to enter into the National football league than every other boy in the usa. Samoans will also be well symbolized in limited-contact and non-contact sports for example basketball, baseball, netball, soccer, and volleyball. Margaret Mead, a united states anthropologist, is known for her ethnography switched novel entitled Transitional phase in Samoa. This ethnography has info on problems adolescents in Samoa face, and also the methods to understanding these complaints. Mead authored, “A Samoan village consists of some 30 to 40 households, because both versions is presided over with a mind man known as a matai”. Regarding Samoan social structures and rules, Mead authored, “Until a young child is six or seven a minimum of she associates hardly any together with her contemporaries.” “The ladies,” she observed, “are totally based mostly on their husbands for his or her status within this village group”. Regarding attitudes toward female sexuality, Mead authored, “Where parents of lower rank complacently ignore their daughters’ experiments, our prime chief pads his daughter’s virginity because he pads the recognition of his name”.

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Universities are complex networks of buildings and organizations that provide education and jobs and health care and cultural enrichment. They take form in classrooms, dorms, dining halls, and hospitals. They field sports teams and community volunteers. They possess histories that include shameful compromises with the inequalities and oppression of their times. And they nurture opposition to those moral and ethical errors. Most fundamentally, universities are students, professors, staff, and alumni who think together about what is needed—from food and computers and trust to books and ideas and evidence—for us to continue in this essential act of collective thought. The book "Charlottesville 2017: The Legacy of Race and Inequity" brings together University of Virginia professors thinking about and feeling their way through the events of August 11 and 12, 2017. When white nationalists and neo-Nazis marched through the University of Virginia, students staged a counterprotest in front of the Rotunda by standing in a small, brave circle around the statue of Jefferson. When white supremacists of all kinds rallied in Emancipation Park and fought in the streets of downtown Charlottesville, students, staff members, alumni, and professors stood among the counterprotesters and said no to hate in our town and our nation. Here, professors write about these events as scholars—as students of history, law, photography, literature, and music, yes—but also as humans, as parents and spouses and siblings, as colleagues and congregation members and citizens of a historical moment in which choices must be made and false equivalencies abolished. I began my career as a professor of history researching how white Southerners created a culture that legitimated segregation: the system of violence, oppression, and discrimination they created to replace slavery. The question that animated my work was how white Southerners learned to live with what they had done, how they convinced themselves that their world was moral and good and true. Building Confederate statues in parks and in front of courthouses formed an essential part of that work. After twenty years of teaching at the University of Virginia and living in Charlottesville, I have become the rare academic who wishes her research was not quite so relevant. Here, on a campus where slaves once labored and African American students were not welcomed until almost a century after emancipation, the right to speak freely is not an abstract concept. It is a material, grounded, and embodied act that has been defeated in the past by slavery, war, lynching, rape and other forms of assault, eugenics, and segregation. It has also at times been defended by brave students, faculty, and staff members. It is palpable. In this collection, UVA professors suggest answers to what this history means the next time the white supremacists come to this or another university campus. They turn the university’s collective thinking to the prospect of creating a truly antiracist future. — Grace Elizabeth Hale, Commonwealth Professor of American Studies and History at the University of Virginia 1607: The Virginia colony is founded. 1625: The census enumerates twenty-three blacks living in the Virginia colony. 1737: William Taylor receives a patent for the land that would become Charlottesville. 1743: Thomas Jefferson is born on April 13 in Shadwell, Virginia. 1774: The Virginia General Assembly establishes Albemarle County. 1784: Thomas Jefferson publishes Notes on the State of Virginia. In the text Jefferson argues that African Americans were inferior to whites in both body and mind. His racial theories elicited outrage and critical responses from a variety of African American intellectuals and leaders, including Benjamin Banneker and David Walker. 1800: This transformative year witnesses numerous events that reveal the tension between freedom and liberty in the American republic. Thomas Jefferson defeats the incumbent president, John Adams, in a highly contested election. Gabriel Prosser, a blacksmith owned by Thomas Prosser of Henrico County, Virginia, devises a plan to liberate his people and put an end to the brutal institution of slavery. Gabriel reads the Bible closely and sees himself as divinely chosen to deliver his people from bondage. 1807: Robert E. Lee is born at Stratford, Westmoreland County, Virginia. 1814: Thomas Jefferson proposes a bill for the establishment of Central College in Virginia. 1817: On October 6 Jefferson begins construction on what would become the University of Virginia, located on a rocky ridge one mile west of the City of Charlottesville. The laying of the cornerstone for the first building draws many dignitaries, including James Monroe and James Madison. Building the university relies on the labor of enslaved African Americans, as well as free blacks. 1818: Jefferson convenes a group in Rockfish Gap, located in the Blue Ridge Mountains and thirty miles west of Monticello, and presents a report on his vision for Central College and explains why Charlottesville is the ideal location. This report is known as the Rockfish Gap Report. 1825: On March 7 the University of Virginia officially opens its doors to students. 1826: Thomas Jefferson dies on July 4. He is buried at Monticello the next day. 1859: James Lawrence Cabel, an 1833 graduate of the University of Virginia who joined the faculty in 1837, publishes The Testimony of Modern Science in the Unity of Mankind. In this book he posits the inherent intellectual, physical, and emotional inferiority of African Americans. Though insisting that blacks could never be equal to whites, Cabel asserts that the “civilizing” influence of slavery has improved African Americans’ condition. 1861: The start of the Civil War transforms both the City of Charlottesville and the University of Virginia. Ninety percent of the six hundred students enrolled at the university in 1860 would eventually fight on the side of the Confederacy. 1864: The Charlottesville African Church, now known as First Baptist Church, is organized. It remains an institutional cornerstone of the African American community in Charlottesville and surrounding counties to the present day. 1865: Robert E. Lee surrenders to Ulysses Grant at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9. A day later he issues his farewell address to the Army of Northern Virginia. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude. The Senate passes the amendment on April 8, 1864, the House on January 31, 1865. It is ratified on December 6, 1865. 1869: The Jefferson Lodge of Charlottesville successfully petitions for membership in the Union Grand Lodge of Virginia. 1881: Virginia-born educator Booker T. Washington is named principal of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. The most powerful African American in the nation until his death in 1915, Washington would have a profound impact on the development of black education. 1892: A graduate of Hampton Institute and a friend of Booker T. Washington, J. F. Bell opens the J. F. Bell Funeral Home. 1901: The University of Virginia hospital opens. Under the leadership of Paul Barringer, who served as the chair of the faculty from 1897 to 1903, the hospital develops into an important intellectual hub of the eugenics movement. 1902: On July 10 the new Virginia Constitution becomes law. To reduce the black electorate and undermine African Americans’ political power, the constitution implements requirements like the “understanding clause” and the payment of poll taxes in order to vote. The number of eligible black voters in the state declines from 147,000 in 1901 to 10,000 by 1905. 1907: Harvey Ernest Jordan joins the faculty of the medical school. A longtime member of the UVA community, he serves as the dean of the medical school from 1939 to 1949. A firm and unapologetic believer in the principles of white supremacy, Jordan promotes sterilization laws that prevent procreation among those he deems “unfit” for reproduction. To avoid weakening the gene pool among whites, he also advocates laws restricting intermarriage among whites and blacks. 1914: In the first of a series of attacks on African Americans’ property rights, the Albemarle County Board of Supervisors removes African Americans from the McKee Row section of Charlottesville by confiscating their land and deeding it to the city. McKee Row, a predominantly African American neighborhood near downtown, becomes the site of Jackson Park, where the equestrian statue of Stonewall Jackson is unveiled in 1921. 1915: D. W. Griffith releases The Birth of a Nation. Ivey Foreman Lewis joins the faculty at the University of Virginia. As chair of the biology department, he integrates eugenics into the curriculum and gains a reputation as an outspoken eugenicist. 1917: Philanthropist Paul Goodloe McIntire commissions artist Henry Shrady to create a statue in honor of Robert E. Lee. 1920: On October 5 three African American women in Charlottesville, Mrs. Maggie P. Burley, Mamie J. Farwell, and Mrs. Alice Grady, successfully register to vote. 1921: In June the Ku Klux Klan organizes a local chapter in Charlottesville. The City of Charlottesville unveils the Stonewall Jackson monument. 1922: To expedite the process of “Negro removal,” Lily White Republicans in Virginia bar blacks from participating at the Republican state convention. Claiming to be pragmatic rather than racist, white strategists within the party defend these moves as necessary steps in improving the GOP’s standing in the South. John Powell, a graduate of the University of Virginia, forms the Anglo-Saxon Clubs of America, a white supremacist organization that promotes separation of the races and the colonization of black Americans to West Africa, preferably Liberia. 1924: On May 21 the City of Charlottesville unveils the statue of Robert E. Lee as part of a two-day event in which the Sons of the Confederacy participate. The Virginia Assembly passes the Racial Integrity Act of 1924. 1926: Black Charlottesville celebrates the opening of the city’s first high school for African Americans, Jefferson High School. 1935: Alice Jackson, an alumnus of the historically black Virginia Union University in Richmond, applies to the University of Virginia to conduct graduate work in English. The university rejects her application and does not admit an African American until 1950. 1945: Under the leadership of Rev. Benjamin F. Bunn, local activists form the Charlottesville branch of the NAACP. By 1954 the NAACP chapter has 867 members. 1954: The U.S. Supreme Court issues its Brown v. Board of Education decision, which declares the separate but equal doctrine unconstitutional. Randolph Louis White founds the local black newspaper, the Charlottesville Albemarle Tribune. 1956: On February 25 U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd Sr. (D-VA) calls for massive resistance against the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision. 1956: Judge John Paul of the U.S. District Court for the Fourth Circuit issues an order for Venable Elementary School and Lane High School to integrate at the beginning of the school year. To delay the process the local school board appeals the decision for two years. 1958: After a federal court order to integrate several schools in Virginia immediately, Gov. J. Lindsay Almond Jr. orders the closing of public schools in Charlottesville, Alexandria, and Norfolk. In Charlottesville, Lane and Venable are closed until February 1959. 1960: The Charlottesville Redevelopment Housing Authority submits an application to the Charlottesville City Council calling for the redevelopment of Vinegar Hill, a central residential, business, intellectual, and cultural district for African Americans. 1964: Congress passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which bans discrimination on the basis of race, gender, religion, and national origin. This law plays a critical role in the desegregation of the City of Charlottesville and the University of Virginia. In addition, the Westhaven housing project is completed. It will house many of the city’s black residents displaced by the razing and destruction of Vinegar Hill. 1967: Virginia Anne Scott, Nancy Jaffe, Nancy L. Anderson, and Jo Anne Kirstein file a lawsuit against the University of Virginia charging that the school discriminates against women in its admissions policies. The court mandates coeducation within three years. In the fall of 1970, 450 women undergraduates enter the university. 1968: African American student leaders organize the Black Students for Freedom, a precursor to the Black Student Alliance. 1969: On February 18 hundreds of progressive students march on the University of Virginia’s historic Lawn, demanding an end to all vestiges of Jim Crow segregation, a living wage for workers, the creation of a Black Studies program, the integration of UVA’s athletic department, and the appointment of an African American as assistant dean of admissions. 1970: In early May, following the murder of four students at Kent State University, student activists at UVA engage in a series of protests over the war in Vietnam, the slow pace of integration at the college, the status and working conditions of low-wage employees on grounds, and law enforcement officials’ “invasion” of the Academical Village. 1972: Charles Lee Barbour becomes the first African American mayor of Charlottesville. 1974: UVA’s student newspaper, the Cavalier Daily, publishes several articles on the large number of UVA administrators, including President Frank Hereford, who belong to the all-white Farmington Country Club, which at the time excluded Jews, African Americans, and other people of color. In addition to President Hereford, this list includes seventeen department chairs, seven deans, and eight Board of Visitors members. 1976: After protests over the Farmington Country Club membership issues, as well as other related incidents, the Office of Afro-American Affairs is created in 1976. 1977: The number of African American undergraduates enrolled at the University of Virginia reaches five hundred for the first time. 1978: In response to constant demand for affordable housing in Charlottesville, Friendship Courts is constructed on Garrett Street. 1979: The poverty rate among African Americans living in Albemarle County is 22.7 percent. 1980: The eleven-million-dollar Primary Care Center at UVA opens in January. The site displaces the former neighborhood Gospel Hill, which was predominantly black. 1982: The Office for Civil Rights finally approves the state’s desegregation plan for higher education. This comes eighteen years after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 1987: UVA releases the Audacious Faith report, a detailed account of race relations on Grounds, documenting the experiences of students, faculty, and workers. It began in 1986 when the university commenced its preparations for its decennial reaccreditation evaluation from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. University president Robert O’Neil appointed a steering committee for the self-study report. The committee had as one of its tasks the evaluation of the university’s recruitment of black students and faculty. The committee suggested the formation of a separate task force that would focus solely on investigating the state of race relations on Grounds and recommending policies to achieve full integration at the university. President O’Neil impaneled a committee of sixteen faculty members, students, and administrators, who compile the Audacious Faith report. 1989: Virginians elect Lawrence Douglas Wilder as the sixty-sixth governor of Virginia. 1996: With strong support from the local chapter of the NAACP, the Office of Equal Opportunity releases An Examination of the University’s Minority Classified Staff (The Muddy Floor Report). The report reveals “glaring disparities” in employment opportunities, performance evaluations, and disciplinary sanctions between white and black employees. 2001: Richard Spencer graduates from UVA with a bachelor of arts in music. About twelve hundred African American undergraduates attend the university in the 2000–01 academic year. 2003: A series of racial incidents on Grounds leads university president John Casteen to create the Commission on Diversity and Equity, which conducts a year-long study on race relations on Grounds. This leads to the creation of the position of vice president and chief officer of diversity and equity. 2006: On February 21 the Living Wage Campaign releases Keeping Our Promises: Toward A Living Wage at the University, a detailed report that encourages the administration to adopt a living wage ($10.72 per hour) for classified staff and contract employees. A month and a half later, on April 12, seventeen students affiliated with the campaign stage a sit-in at Madison Hall. For the next three days, the Living Wage Campaign captures the attention of students, administrators, faculty members, community leaders, and perhaps most importantly, the media. 2008: During a retreat the Charlottesville City Council identifies two issues deserving serious and immediate attention: the need to ease strained race relations between whites and African Americans and the necessity of promoting greater diversity within city government. A series of conversations leads to the creation of the Dialogue on Race project. 2010: In June Dialogue on Race creates working groups to tackle a variety of issues, including housing, employment, and education. 2010: Richard Spencer founds the publication alternativeright.com. In June 2011 Spencer becomes president and director of the National Policy Institute. 2013: UVA president Teresa A. Sullivan establishes the Commission on Slavery and the University. 2015: On March 18 Martese Johnson, then a third-year student at UVA, is brutally arrested by officers from Alcoholic Beverage Control (ABC) on “The Corner,” a popular hangout near academic Grounds. His bloodied face circulates across the media and elicits a great deal of conversation about the politics of race and the treatment of African Americans on and beyond the Grounds of UVA. The following month the Black Student Alliance issues its report, Toward a Better University. In November, Wes Bellamy is elected to the Charlottesville City Council. 2016: In March Councilman Bellamy calls for the removal of the Robert E. Lee statue in Lee Park. On May 28 the Charlottesville City Council approves a resolution to create the Blue Ribbon Commission on Race, Memorials, and Public Spaces. The Blue Ribbon Commission submits its report to the council in late December. February: The Charlottesville City Council votes to remove the Robert E. Lee statue and rename Lee Park. March 20: Several groups, including the Sons of Confederate Veterans, file a lawsuit against the city council, noting that its decision to remove the Lee statue violates state law. May 2: Judge Richard Moore rules that the statues cannot be moved for six months. May 13: UVA alum and white nationalist activist Richard Spencer leads a nighttime rally in Lee Park to protest the city council’s decision to remove the statue. June 5: The city council votes unanimously to rename Lee and Jackson Parks. The former becomes Emancipation Park and the latter Justice Park. July 8: President Teresa Sullivan issues statement to the UVA community encouraging its members to avoid conflict with white supremacists. That same day dozens of KKK members rally in protest of the city’s plan to remove the Lee statue. Aug. 10: Jason Kessler—lead organizer of the Unite the Right rally, graduate of UVA, and resident of Charlottesville—files a federal suit against the City of Charlottesville with the support of the Virginia ACLU. Aug. 11: Federal Judge Glen Conrad rules that the Unite the Right Rally can be held in Emancipation Park. At approximately 8:45 p.m., a group of 250 white supremacists and nationalists assembles on Nameless Field, located in the back of Memorial Gymnasium at UVA. The group, led by Richard Spencer, then marches to the Thomas Jefferson statue near the Rotunda, where a small group of students have assembled to protest the white supremacists. Aug. 12: Early in the morning Unite the Right rally participants and counterprotesters assemble in various points in downtown Charlottesville, including the pedestrian mall and Emancipation Park. At approximately 11:32 a.m., law enforcement officials rule it an unlawful assembly as violence breaks out. At approximately 11:52 a.m., Gov. Terry McAuliffe declares a state of emergency. At 1:42 p.m., a car later identified as belonging to James Alex Fields plows into the downtown mall, killing counterprotester and Charlottesville resident Heather Heyer and injuring nineteen others. Aug. 20: The city council votes to shroud both the Jackson and Lee statues. Oct. 7: Three UVA students are arrested for trespassing at the Bicentennial Launch celebration. At the event the students held up the banner “200 years of white supremacy” in front of a screen showing coverage of the event. That same night white supremacists hold a tiki-torch rally in Emancipation Park. Chants of “you will not replace us” pierce the air as the participants gather around the covered Robert E. Lee statue. Sept. 24: Thousands pack Scott Stadium for A Concert for Charlottesville, which features the Dave Matthews Band, the Roots, Brittany Howard (of Alabama Shakes), Stevie Wonder, and Pharrell Williams, among others. November: Charlottesville native and local activist Nikuyah Walker is elected to the city council. She is later appointed mayor. Walker is the first African American woman to hold the position of mayor. Reprinted from “Charlottesville 2017: The Legacy of Race and Inequity” by permission of the University of Virginia Press. Chronology courtesy of Claudrena N. Harold, Professor of History and African American and African Studies at the University of Virginia and the author of “New Negro Politics in the Jim Crow South.”

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Koalas' fertility rates' success depends upon variety of factors. Eucalyptus leaves contain oodles of compounds which include water, proteins, cyanide compounds, tannins, fiber and scented oils etc. Koalas are also harmless and peaceful animals of Australia. Koalas consume almost 600 to 800 grams of Eucalyptus leaves per day. Poisonous Problem – The only problem with an all Koalas consume around 200 to 400 grams of eucalyptus leaves per day. Although koalas resemble bears, the koala is not a bear but a marsupial. / Shooting date; June 21, 2014. Age of the Koala. Koalas are blessed with a fur that has the natural ability to get rid of the rain water. Photo about A koala clinging on to a tree and eating eucalyptus leaves. Whenever, the young Koala Joeys grow up, female Koalas do become aggressive towards them. Koala Bears are a specialist species because they _____. They also offer good sense of hearing for koalas. More sleeping will help them to maintain energy levels. Cute sleepy koala sitting on eucalyptus tree branch A Koala sits in a tree on Magnetic Island, Australia. If their mother leaves, they start squeaking and triggering different behaviors. Slower Metabolism also helps Koalas to conserve their energy. As mentioned earlier; the Eucalyptus leaves contain highly poisonous and toxic compounds within them and yet still koalas prefer to eat Eucalyptus leaves as part of their diet. The koalas abrasive diet is chiefly responsible for its tooth-decaying. Koalas' each tooth grows steadily, however, after some time, because of grinding and combination of poisons and toxicants in Koalas food, their tooth decay starts. However; Manna Gums (Eucalyptus family) are the most common of them all and most preferable to the koalas diet as well. Koalas possess variety of facial expressions. Please consider upgrading. To think the Eucalyptus leaves are tough enough to digest and it takes most of their energy to do so and stay unharmed by their poison. Koalas urinate more during the winter seasons as compared to the summer seasons. Video clip id 4434806. The origin of the Marsupial animals goes back to almost 125 million years. Maximum recorded age of a koala is 21 years in captivity. To cope with such a diet, nature has equipped Koalas with specialised adaptations. Location;Hokkaido, Japan / A Koala chewing Eucalyptus leaves. Portrait of adorable but lazy Koala looks down before a late afternoon sleep. Koalas have highly powerful sense of smell. Koalas Prefer Fresh Eucalyptus Leaves Whereas; the precise answer to the first question is the presence of specialized digestive and intestinal system within the koalas which helps them to extract all the nutrients and energy from the leaves and excrete the poisons and toxic substances out of their bodies. The food which they consume offers very little level of energy and lower proteins. Koalas possess specialized claws which primarily help them in climbing trees. Whenever, the baby Koala Joey reaches the age of 7 months, its tooth quickly start to emerge. Usually marsupials are less playful but Koalas are more. Before that Koalas were obscure to almost every human being in the world. Playful Behavior of the Young Koala Joeys, Koala Informationen, Bilder, Neuigkeit, und Erforschung. Eucalyptus Digestion of Other Herbivores Not Possible and they may Die Lactating female Koalas consume more food as compared to the normal female Koalas. The Koala is the only mammal, other than the Greater Glider and Ringtail Possum, which can survive on a diet of eucalyptus leaves. Koalas are more popular as compared to the Kangaroos within Australia. Koalas do not like dry leaves. The presence of the water is one of the most essential compounds for the koalas and it is significantly present within the Eucalyptus leaves i.e., more than 61%. Therefore; high fiber contents within the Eucalyptus leaves allow the koalas to eat less Eucalyptus and sleep more to digest them to extract energy. Round about the 6 month, it becomes powerful enough to come outside. Territorial Encounters and fights among male koalas are very common. Koalas within Australia's Victorian territory are specifically awarded by nature with a very high degree of food supply, thereby, helping them as being we. Moreover, Koalas like to stay at the top branches of the trees which are their favorite zone and spot at the threes. Koalas can easily differentiate fresh Eucalyptus leaves from the other ones and mostly prefer the fresh Eucalyptus leaves. They live alone on trees and eat on their own. Koalas possess magical fur which is thick, fluffy, wooly and also waterproof. 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Currently, there are about 600 known species of the eucalyptus trees. Koalas rarely blink their eyes and they keep on staring at objects which attract them. Welcome to koalainfo.com! High Fiber Less Consumption Koalas are solitary animals and therefore, they live a solitary life. Video clip id 4436651. Learn interesting features about the koalas nose. Koalas lack energy and strength. This creature is so fond of eating those leaves, that sometimes it smells like them. Koalas' territories and ranges within Queensland Australia is relatively bigger than that of the Victorian areas of Australia. In Australia, the mating season of koalas begins from the month of September and it lasts till the end of April. Poor Chewing Poor Fermentation Poorly chewed leaves reduces the efficiency of the fermentation process and thus less nutrition and energy is extracted by the koalas. Absolutely so! Fresh Eucalyptus Leaves High in Nitrogen Moreover, deforestation is another reason for Koalas' dehydration. Many forests are destroyed by bushfires and Koalas are KOALA phascolarctos cinereus, ALBINO MALE EATING EUCALYPTUS LEAF, AUSTRALIA. They prefer to live alone. In the first 6 months they completely stay inside their mothers pouch while onwards they start looking and coming outside. Koalas can differentiate between fresh leaves and the old leaves through smell. Older Koalas Face Tooth Decaying They can eat a pound to two pounds of leaves a day and have developed specialized structures to aid in the digestion of so much foliage. They initiate it during the mating season through proper scent marking and urination and the approach female Koalas. According to the estimates, Eucalyptus fiber is 6 times more fibrous and less caloric than the normal bread fiber. Food Consumption and Feeding Timings of the Koalas, Koalas Always Prefer Eucalyptus Leaves from the Tree top, Koalas' Territories and ranges within Australia's Victorian Areas, Koalas' Territories and Ranges within Australia's Queensland Areas, Behavior of the Alpha Dominant Male Koala, Scent Marking Behavior of the Male Koalas, Fights and Territorial Encounters of Male Koalas, Sounds and Vocalization of the Female Koalas, Breeding Ages of the Male and Female Koalas, Factors Influencing the Success of Koalas' Fertility Rates, Behavior of the young and adolescent Koala Joey. The koala joeys live inside their mothers pouch for almost 8 to 9 months. Get a 14.000 second koala eating eucalyptus leaves stock footage at 25fps. Koalas Prefer Big Eucalyptus Trees and Love to Stay at Trees' tops. It is the mother koala which isolates herself from the joey by showing aggressive behavior towards him. Koalas, Koalas and Tough Life, Koalas Food Problem, Koalas and Tooth Decay, Koalas and Energy, Koalas and defense. We will do our best to Respond you Promptly on your each and every Request, Queries and Help! Koalas despite being very cute lack intellectual abilities. They are more attached with their mother and do not like loneliness. Normally all the babies of the Marsupials are called as Joeys. Other compounds such as proteins and fibers within the leaves offer nutrition and energy for the koalas while the remaining compounds are highly toxic and are of no use for the koalas but they still consume them. They have evolved eating eucalyptus leaves and manage their lives on them very well. Koalas possess button-shaped fascinating eyes which are very mysterious and adorable to look. And what they pick are eucalyptus leaves. During this period of time, it never sees the outside environment at all. Collared scops owl Otus sagittatus Baby Birds of Thailand, Black-capped Squirrel Monkey sit on branch in amazon lowland rainforest undergrowth and jump away close up, Owl cute face. 4K and HD video ready for any NLE immediately. These eucalyptus leaves which are at the top are fresh, have more nutrition, and offer more energetic calories for the Koalas. Minimum the Male Koalas weigh at least around 9 Kilograms and at maximum they can gain a weight of around 18 kilograms. Flinders Chase National Park, Kangaroo Island, South Australia. The Australian koalas can be categorized into three types i.e., the Brown Koalas, the Gray koalas and the Gray Brown koalas. Female koalas only select those eucalyptus leaves that are abundant in nitrogen levels for greater nutrition and energy. On average a Male Koala weighs around 11 Kilograms. Grooming help Koalas to get rid of parasites and ticks on their bodies. Koalas color and fur also play a core role in terms of their recognition. Myth 3. Each year hundreds of koalas die because of bushfires, thereby; bringing them on the brink of extinction. Koalas possess lower energy levels and strength. However, there is less food (Eucalyptus Leaves) for Koalas in Queensland, and therefore, the population is less also. Smaller Koalas also eat less as compared to the bigger Koalas. Male Koalas have loudest of voice among all the mammals across the continent of Australia. The koalas nose appears to be spoon-shaped and black in color. High Fiber Digestion Takes Time Koalas sleep 20 hours a day. This is also one of the basic reasons that the koalas sleep more than 20 hours (in some cases 22 hours) per day, as it allows them to retain and conserve their body energy. Koalas modern-day discovery took place in the 18th century. It helps Koala Joeys to spot their mothers' pouch and also teats as well to detect milk within the pouch. The food which Koalas prefer contains very little nutritional value. The Gray koalas, as the name suggest have a gray colored fur on their bodies. According to the estimates, Eucalyptus fiber is 6 times more fibrous and less caloric than the normal bread fiber. They smell nitrogen within the leaves and differentiate the fresh ones from the non-fresh ones, as fresh leaves contain more levels of nitrogen. These fresh leaves contain high source of water and energy levels as compared to the older (adult) leaves. Trying to change their diet would kill them. Lactating female Koalas require more energy and more nutrition to ensure milk supply for the young Koalas. The female koalas have a gestation period of around 34 to 36 days. The average age of a koala is around 13 years. Download 5 clips every month with our latest video subscription. Koalas are no match for dogs and usually more than 80% of koalas die if they suffer from the dog attacks. Proper Chewing Efficient Fermentation Process Their weights and sizes are smaller because of the availability of the nutrition and vegetation available for them for ea, Koalas living in Australia's Victorian Territory are bigger and they weigh around 14 kilograms. Daily Consumption 200 to 400 Grams per Day Get a 10.000 second koala eating eucalyptus leaves stock footage at 25fps. They show no courtesy to the female Koalas and grab them for mating. Download footage now! Fermentation Process in Koalas Slow Image of park, leaves, marsupial - 6134080 Therefore; naturally there is no threat to the habitat loss of the Eucalyptus leaves for the koalas. Marsupial females having a pouch is the key differentiation when compared with the females of Placental Mammals. Owl Japan cute face. Victorian Male Koalas are weigh more than Queensland Male Koalas. Choose from a wide range of similar scenes. Koalas prefer to stay at big Eucalyptus trees. Koalas sleep with various postures and these sleeping postures are usually dependent on weather, health and distress level etc. Elderly and mature Koalas are prone to tooth decay because of tooth grinding and the Eucalyptus leaves as their chosen food. Koalas usually consume around 200 to 400 grams of Eucalyptus leaves per day which is not much. Because these have high water content, most koalas meet their water requirements by simply dining on the leaves. As stated earlier, the animals prefer to live in woodlands where eucalyptus trees are plentiful. Male Koalas have to do a scent marking to attract the female Koalas. Habitat and food availability can prove out to be decisive for male Koalas' average age. It helps them to absorb more nutrients and it also provides them relatively higher nourishment as well. Maximum it can be eight (8) times and minimum it can give around three (3) births. Queensland ranges in Australia offer relatively lower and lesser nutritional values for the Koalas. This loud voice helps the dominant male koalas to maintain their territory and also it helps them to attract female Koalas as well. Koalas have almost half a dozen predators at the Australian continent. Koalas' Eat 400 Types of Eucalyptus Leaves During the winter season, koalas sleep in the hunched sleeping posture which helps them against the severe winter of Australia. Joeys start feeding on pap from 6th month and onwards while pap is excreted by their mothers after pellets. A newborn Koala Joey always keeps its head inside its mother's pouch for about 6 months. Коала - сумчатое животное, которое принадлежит континенту Австралии. Suffering from heat Exhaustion and Heat Strokes is also very common among the Koalas. Koalas' FavoriteManna Gum Eucalyptus Leaves. Koalas urinate less in hot weather. Koalas live a solitary life. As a koala researcher, I almost wish this was true. Koalas usually feed around the dawn and dusk timings. Koalas are not related to bears and are not called bears, just koalas. Their interaction is very much less with other koalas. Even the cyanide compounds within the Eucalyptus leaves can be extracted to produce the pure cyanide poison that can kill anyone. This is the core reason that they spend most of their time while sleeping. By nature mother koalas are very kind hearted rather than aggressive for their young koala Joeys. Young Koala Joeys are very playful in terms of their behavior. Koalas' population throughout history experienced an increase and decrease. Outback, Australia. Eucalyptus have thrived within the Eastern Australian region for the millions of years and they are known to be drought resistant as well. Eucalyptus leaves have high fiber contents, therefore; even after consuming little amounts, the stomach of the koalas gets full and they need to digest it which takes a lot of time. Koalas drink either no water or they were rarely spotted drinking water. For comparison, koalas eat 200-500 grams of eucalyptus leaves per day! For the Rest of the time the Koalas usually sleep for almost 20 hours a day. Koalas are one of the major victims of the dog attacks. Yet still Koalas have very strong stomach and lever to manage all of these poisons. Koalas eat Eucalyptus leaves which are highly toxic and poisonous for majority of the herbivores and even human beings as well. Koalas are very sluggish and sleep a lot. Adolescent and young Koala Joeys possess a unique behavior interacting with their mothers. Koalas' life specifically indicates that Koalas are non-social animals. Proper chewing of leaves improves the fermentation process. Copyright © 2020 - WWW.KOALAINFO.COM Powered by Avenir Technologies, Koalas are most popular animals in Australia, Koalas are more popular as compared to Kangaroos, Button Shaped Fascinating Eyes of the Koalas, Koalas are the largest tree climbing Mammals in Australia - Koalas as Arboreal, Sizes of Koalas from Queensland, Australia, Sizes of Koalas from Australia's Victorian Origin, Difference between Queensland and Victorian Koalas, Male Koalas have Loudest of voice among all Australian Mammals, Koalas Population Increased at the end of 20th century, Historical Evolution of the Koalas - A Physical Perspective, Koalas and their Aboriginal and Native Names, It Took 10 years for Aboriginal Australians to Spot and Recognize Koalas, Koalas Live Hardest and Toughest Lives Among all animals, Koalas Tooth Decay through its Abrasive Diet, Koalas' Food Eucalyptus has Lower Nutrition, Koalas - When Occasionally Spotted on other Leaves for their Food, Koalas & their Advanced Digestive Mechanisms. The koala's diet consists mainly of eucalyptus leaves. When Does Tooth Emerge for Baby Koala Joey? Eucalyptus Leaves & Koalas Native to Australia Throughout the history of more than 30 million years Koalas have gone through a very little or no Physical evolution. The Eucalyptus leaves offer lower nutritional value for koalas and it is just a miracle that koalas rely on the Eucalyptus leaves during their entire lifespan. Recorded in Brisbane Australia in June 2008. Female Koalas from Australias Victorian Territory weigh around 7 to 8 Kilogram, Male Koalas have more weight and size than the female Koalas. Aboriginal and Native Australians recognized and specified Koalas after 10 years of their stay at the Australian continent. An adult koala eats between 200 to 500 grams of leaves each day. It also helps them in conserving their precious body energy. Their key schedules to eat the Eucalyptus leaves are before sunrise, afternoon, post-afternoon, before sunset and after sunset. 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The main role of GATT in the international trade was regulating the contracting parties to achieve the purpose of the agreement which were reducing tariffs and other barriers, and to achieve the liberalization in international trade. The role was reflected in following aspects: Firstly, GATT established a set of standard to guide the contracting parties to participate in international trade practices. GATT stipulated several of basic principle to conduct the contracting parties in international business, such as General Most-Favored-Nation Treatment (Article II), Non-discriminatory Administration of Quantitative Restrictions (Article XIII), and General Elimination of Quantitative Regulations (Article XI) and so on in the “GATT 1947″. Every contracting party should obey these basic principles when they were involved in trade relations, otherwise they would be condemned, even be taken revenge by other parties. Besides this, contracting parties reached quite a little of agreements, and made some rules during pervious multilateral trade negotiations. For instance, Kennedy Round which was started from May 1964 brought about the Anti-dumping Agreement. (WTO). These rules and agreements which were made in the multilateral rounds later become the basic principles which were accepted by all the parties, and stimulated the development of international trade. Secondly, GATT reduced the tariff on the basis of mutual benefit, accelerate the trade liberalization after the World War II. GATT’s major contribution was to reduce of tariffs by sponsoring “rounds” of multilateral negotiations. (Mike.W.P, 2008) By sponsoring the multilateral negotiations, there was a significant reduce of the tariff. There were about 35% average tariff reductions in both Kennedy Round and Tokyo Round. Future more, in the Uruguay Round which was the most productive in the history of GATT multilateral negotiation, the contracting parties practiced the rules that kept cutting the tariff rate, there was an average tariff cut of 39% in this round of negotiation. (Reck A, 2010) By cutting the tariff rate, there is less trade barriers in doing international business which will mutual benefit the parties which participated, and promote trade liberalization. Thirdly, GATT reduced the discrimination in tariff and trade which promoted to reduce other trade barriers. As stated in the Article II: schedule of concession in “GATT 1947″, “Each contracting party shall accord to the commerce of the other contracting parties’ treatment no less favorable than that provided for in the appropriate Part of the appropriate Schedule annexed to this Agreement.” According to this statement, GATT regulate the contracting parties cannot increase the levels of tariff as their wish, but some countries used other non-tariff barriers to promote their protectionism. Therefore, GATT claimed the contracting parties should not use other barriers to protect their own industries, it requested the reduction of the non-tariff barriers and quantitative restriction to make sure the benefit from the reduction of tariff not be erased by the non-tariff barriers. After Kennedy Round, the multilateral negotiation started to cover non-tariff barriers on goods. In 1968/1969, GATT compiled the “Inventory of Non-tariff Barriers” which listed more than 800 individual trade barriers in several volumes. (Quambusch, L) Codes was one of the six agreements passed in the Tokyo Round, it established new rules on government procurement, technical barriers to trade, customs valuation, import licensing, antidumping, and subsidies and countervailing measures.(Morrison.A.V, 1986) The codes worked towards the goal which to eliminate the non-tariff barriers. Future more, the Uruguay Round also made the progress in decreasing and eliminating non-tariff barriers, especially in agriculture products. All these are good for eliminating the trade barriers, which towards the development of the international trade. Fourthly, GATT protected the benefits of the developing countries to a certain extent to international trade. One of the basic objectives of GATT was that “raising of standards of living and the progressive development of the economies of all contracting parties, and considering that the attainment of these objectives is particularly urgent for less-developed contracting parties.” (GATT 1947) In order to achieve this objective, GATT established some special measures for less-developed countries, such as provide tariff protect for specific industries, quotas which are with the purpose of balance of payment. With the increasing number of developing countries jointed the GATT, there were more concern in the trade position and benefit of less-developed countries, more over with the developing countries’ flight, so GATT established some measures for developing countries so that will benefit the less-developed countries in export-oriented trade. At the GATT ministerial meeting of 1963, it enabled the Contracting Parties to discharge the responsibilities towards the development objectives of the developing countries which led to add Part IV which entitled “ Trade and Development” to the General Agreement. (Yusuf.A, 1982) The new Part IV provided preferential treatment to the developing countries. In the Uruguay Round which was “an important milestone for developing countries in their integration into the global economy” (Martin.W & Winters.L.A, 1996), the participants agreed a number of rules which would benefit the developing countries, for example, agricultural liberalization, manufacture trade liberalization. There was a significant reduction of non-tariff barriers (especially export subsidies) in agriculture, it converted virtually all agriculture nontariff barriers into tariff. In manufacture trade, the tariff levied on manufacture products which imported from developing countries was reduced by 40 percent on average. All these measurement reduced the burden on the economy of developing countries, and had positives in the development of trade for less developed countries. Finally, GATT acted as the “court of international trade”, by providing a platform for contracting parties to negotiation and talk to settle disputes in international trade. One of the objectives of GATT was to settle the disputes between two or more parties. When two or more parties are involved in the international trade, it is inevitable that without disputes. Some of the disputes may be solved by the two parties themselves, however, some disputes could not be solved by themselves, without the help of the third party, and the disputes may be remaining unresolved for years. So it needed GATT to solve those disputes which could not solve by parties themselves. Before it was replaced by WTO, in a certain period, GATT had become a legal mechanism to settle trade disputes among contracting parties, it provided a platform for contracting parties to settle disputes so that the trade conflicts and disputes can be solved immediately which would protect the benefit of both parties, and lay the foundation to achieve the main objective of GATT. Why GATT was replaced by WTO? On January 1, 1995, the World Trade Organization was found to replace GATT after the eighth round of GATT multilateral negotiation. WTO to replace GATT was an inevitability of history. The replacement of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) by the WTO heightened concern among critics because its stronger enforcement powers represent a further shift in power from citizens and national governments to a global authority run by unelected bureaucrats. There are such reasons why GATT was replaced WTO. Firstly, the major weakness of the GATT was provisional arrangement. It was not an effective international covenant, and it had no real enforcement mechanism. If the bilateral agreement broke by one of another country, GATT has nothing could be done. There are some rules that have been set for enforcement by GATT but it has been dysfunction due to the rule did not have the power to make other countries or parties to follow the rule or agreement set by GATT. Moreover, the GATT created the solution during the emergency moment which is temporary. This will lower down the credibility of GATT and resulted nobody would follow the agreement. According to the WTO.org, in the period of 1948 to 1994, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) offer the rules for most of world trade and presided over the periods. Within the period, there was some moment of highest growth rates which was over the international commerce. It seemed well-established, but throughout those 47 years, it was a provisional agreement and organization. Beside that, the GATT system can still survived because of taking those sensitive areas of trade outside the rules. There were some rules for enforcement but they were basically has not been functioning. The “rules” were being unnoticed after the member countries internal political pressures or special-interest demands have become overwhelming. Secondly, the scope on jurisdiction of GATT was limited only in products transaction. However with development of globalization, the transactions in services and technologies, and international investments constitute a high proportion of international trade. Since the GATT only concentrated on the products transaction, there was a gap for GATT to regulate the transactions in services and technologies and international investments. With the increasing proportions of transactions in services and technologies, and international investments in international trade, it is unavoidable that some countries will impose tariff and other trade barrier or non-tariff barriers in these kinds of transitions. Because of the jurisdiction of GATT only limited in products transaction, so in this situations GATT can make nothing on it and leave the burden on trade rampant in the trade, it far block GATT to promote its objective to achieve trade liberalization. Thirdly, there were some limitations in the disputes settlement systems of GATT. According to the WTO.org, the major weakness of the disputes settlement systems of GATT was it should have a positive consensus in the GATT Council to bring the dispute into a panel, and adoption of the panel report as well. The positive consensus means that all the contracting parties should agree the decision of Council. For example, when the Council decide to the bring the dispute between two or more parties in to panel, if there was objection from one of the contracting parties, the Council can block the establishment of the panel. This weakness of dispute settlement system gives the chance for those countries which have discrimination on the parties involved in the disputes to object the decision. This will make the disputes among parties remain unsolved, and it does not have any positives on the promoting international trade liberalization. Fourthly, some rules in GATT were not strict enough, it was hard to execute in real economic practices. Some contracting parties would construe the rules of GATT in their self interests, and GATT did not have the necessary means of verification and inspection. In the Article XIX in GATT 1947, there is a statement that “any product is being imported into the territory of that contracting party …… to cause or threaten serious injury to domestic producers in that territory of like or directly competitive products” In this statement, GATT did not provide specific regulations about how to verify the injuries and how to investigate and check the injuries, more over the GATT did not specifically define who was the domestic producers. These made it hard to execute the rules. For example, as stated in the article, “to cause serious injury to domestic producers”, because it was not quite strict, some countries which did not injury seriously may use this article to impose sterner measures to other countries. Finally, the historical multilateral rounds of GATT were influenced by the policies of some larger countries. From the Geneva Round to Uruguay Round, there was national sovereignty existing in the multilateral negotiation rounds. The multilateral negotiation rounds were influenced by the Western signatory states, the decision making right was major handled by the Western countries, especially United States. (Rieger.E& Leibfried.S, 2003) Although the balance of power has changed by the establishing of European Communities (later known as European Union) and the emergence of Japan, but these countries are all industrial countries, they have the common interest in economic interest. So before the Part IV was add to GATT, there was a long period that GTAA was the place for small number of developed countries to adjust trade policies. With more and more developing countries contracted to GATT, the status of developing counties had improved. Yet still had majority of developing countries did not have common interest with United States and the Western European countries, so did economic interest. So the strong national sovereignty among contracting parties baffled the development of GATT. All in all, these factors make the GATT was replaced by WTO was needs of the times and follow the tide of development economy. The purpose and benefit of GATT The main purpose of the GATT was substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis. In the historical view, GATT was formed to inherit International Trade Organization. In 1945, United States invited its alliances in the war-time to negotiate an agreement which to reduce the tariff in goods. Later on, the United Nation proposal to have a conference to draw a charter for an International Trade Organization; however the Charter never enter into force. (Bossche.P.V.D, 2005) Almost at the same time, the first round of GATT negotiation took place in Geneva to salvaged from the aborted attempt to create the ITO.(WTO) In 1947, eight out of twenty three countries signed the GATT original text, “GATT 1947″. In the absence of an international organization for trade, the only existed international organization for trade, GATT took over to handle the problems in international trade. (Bossche.P.V.D, 2005) Another purpose of GATT was to reduce tariff. Before the GATT was formed, the tariff of each country was very high. The result of setting high tariff was because after the Second World War the economy of every country was suffering from depression. So the countries had to set high tariffs to protect their domestic producers and manufactures so that they could also protect their currency’s value. The high tariffs managed to cut down all the imports and exports between countries. As we can see that after the formed of GATT, they manage to keep on reduce the tariffs between countries to help international trade to encourage more imports and exports to go on again. They managed to reduce in all the 8 rounds of the multilateral negotiations. Future more, reduce discriminatory treatment was also a purpose that the GATT was formed. Discriminatory treatment happened in a lot of countries that they tend to be bias to the country that they favored. This issue was quite serious in the 1980’s. (Tovias. A) It sometimes caused the less favor countries not to invest anymore in that country. Their choices of export and import to a country would be reduced. Both countries stopped export and import to each other would suffer some lost in the economic because there was no cash flow movement between them. If without discriminatory treatment, every country would feel be respected and continue to do business with each other so that a large and steadily growing volume of real income and effective demand. The over 50 years’ history of GATT, it had promoted prosperity and development of it contracting members, and had positives in the development of world economic after the World War II. There are such benefits of GATT in its 50 years’ history: Firstly, GATT has reduced the tariff and boosted to the economy after the Second World War ended by encourage the imports and exports among countries again. After the Second World War ended, the tariffs level set by each country were very high. After the forming of GATT, it actively act perform is role in international trade, it reduced the tariffs by holding several rounds of multilateral negotiations which held for months or even years for each rounds. In the significant rounds prior Uruguay Round, there were a more than 21% tariff cut achieved in each round. In the Uruguay Round, the participants had made an agreement which included 550 pages of tariff reduction on 85 percent of world trade. (McEachern.W.A, 2009) The reduction of tariff had reduced the trade burdens lied on the countries which involved in international trade, so that promoted the trade liberalization and boosted the economics of contracting parties. Secondly, GATT was formed to help developing country to work well in the international trade. With the increasing number of developing countries contracted to GATT, the position of developing countries in the multilateral negotiation rounds had improved. The addition of Part IV ‘Trade and Development’ to the agreement in 1968 had provided a lot of benefit to the less developed countries. “It includes requirements on the concept of non-reciprocity in trade negotiations between developed and developing countries which means when developed countries grant trade concessions to developing countries they should not expect the developing countries to make matching offers in return.” (WTO) It benefits the developing country in trade transaction with developed countries. In Uruguay Round, the GATT further reduced the tariff on developing countries. There was a significant reduction of average tariff rate on less-developed countries after Uruguay Round. For instance, the average tariff rate in India was 71.4% before Uruguay Round, and there was a big drop in the percentage after the Uruguay Round, it was 32.4%. (Carbaugh.R.J, 2009) By reducing the tariff and other trade barrier on developing countries, and promote the development of economic of developing countries, it has reduced the economic gap between industrial countries and developing countries. GATT was also created to reverse the commercial policies of the 1930s that involved greater restrictions on and discrimination in the world trade. This objective is to stop the countries sought to insulate themselves from the Great Depression through what become as “beggar-thy-neighbour” policies (Irwin D, 2008) so here comes these anti trades to arise in part. GATT is to help countries to make more imports and exports by reducing the tariff so before these countries have been blocking imports and is proved to be a futile method of increasing domestic employment due to the economic slump. Since exports and imports will increase the number of job vacancies because of new investments from the other countries. These help to push up countries economy. The purpose and benefit of WTO GATT was replaced by WTO which is the world’s global leading body in the year of 1995, in the day when Uruguay round took effect. The purpose why WTO was created was to ensure that global trade start and go on smoothly, freely, and predictably. In order to ensure that the global trading go on smoothly, freely, and predictably, WTO creates and embodies the legal ground rules for global trade among WTO members and also offers a system for international commerce. (Heakal. R) In this way WTO can supervise its members’ behavior while trading among nations, and also to prevent misunderstanding nations. The other purpose of WTO was formed was to strengthening the GATT mechanism of settling trade disputes. Any issue that happens between nations will be bringing up to WTO to be solved. First case settled by WTO was the issue between US and several other countries in 1994. US government adopted a regulation imposing certain conditions on the quality of the gasoline sold in US; the purpose was to improve air quality by reducing pollution cause by gasoline. This action was challenged by Venezuela and Brazil by saying that the action of US was discrimination. When this issue appealed to WTO, US was told to cease its discriminatory actions against imported gasoline. (Carbaugh. R. J, 2009) To create economic peace and stability in the world especially those who are WTO members through a multilateral system that had adopted the rules that enforced by WTO into their own nations was another purpose of WTO was formed. In this case, it also means that every member of WTO have to apply WTO rules as a part of their nation’s legal system. For example, if a company decides to start a business or invest abroad, the rules of WTO will govern the whole process of the business of how it will be done. If a country is the member of WTO, its local legal system cannot contradict with the WTO rules and regulations. ( Heakal. R) Since WTO took effect in 1995, it serves as an international organization that deals with the trading process has eventually created some benefits toward the world in such aspects: First of all, WTO promotes the establishment of world trade liberalization and economy globalization. After WTO was established, the world market has experienced decline in tariff levels, WTO members experienced an average of 40% decline in tariff rate. For example, in the year of 1999, tariff rate of developed countries dropped from 6.3% to 3.9%, imported duty-free manufactured goods from increased from 20% to 43%, while high tariffs of imported manufactured goods reduced to 5%. In addition, in the agriculture, textile trade, security measures, anti-dumping and countervailing, investment, trade in services, intellectual property and other aspects of the operation mechanism, has made for the advantageous development of trade by the WTO. All of these agreements improved all of WTO members’ market access, and greatly promoted world trade liberalization and global economic integration. Next benefit is the WTO system actually creating peace among countries. WTO created system that helps the trade process to go on smoothly and providing countries a constructive and fair outlet for dealing with disputes between countries over trade issues. There was a trade war that happens in 1930s where countries competed to raise trade barriers in order to protect domestic producers and end up war against each other. This war actually worsened the great depression and one of the reasons of the happening of World War 2. Lastly, the possibility to decrease in cost of living is one of the benefits of WTO. It is because protectionism increases the cost of the goods, in terms of production, raw material, and so on. WTO system lower trade barriers through negotiation and brought up the principle of non-discrimination. Lower trade barriers mean less or no tariff will be imposed to the goods, therefore price of the goods will be cheaper, and it leads to decrease the cost of living. Creation of WTO has provided several benefits to developing countries as well. First of all, a rule-based system actually governs the international trade that these developing countries involved, and ensure that they would get the greatest benefits throughout the international trade. Unlike developed countries, developing countries don’t have the negotiating power in the market and only have to follow the price that using by those developed country. Therefore these rules of trade are very important for them. WTO came out with a Most Favored Nation (MFN) principle, which was market liberalization between any two members was extended to all members of WTO.(WTO). According to Mike Moore, the secretary general of WTO, developing countries demanded improvements in market access for agricultural products of actual and potential interest to them. (Moore. M, 2001). It has been one of the most important achievements of WTO which strengthen the merchandise sector such as agriculture, textile and apparel. Besides that, it strengthens the multilateral framework for rules and agreement. Furthermore, it also tightens the rules that use to measure the export of developing countries, such as subsidies, anti-dumping duties, and safeguard measures. Secondly, the benefit to developing countries is intellectual property rules. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) offers a benefit for developing countries by creating a policy framework that helps in promote technology transfer and foreign direct investment.(WTO). The purpose is to include non-discrimination and equal application by all members of minimum standard of protection of intellectual property rights. This agreement also protects developing countries as the owner of Intellectual property rights, especially those with high technology sector. This new rules have many complex effects, the higher the protection, the more significantly positive impact will be on bilateral flow in non-fuels goods trade.(Fink and Primo Braga – World bank, 1998) The third benefit is the preferential treatment for the developing country. Most of the developing country relied on the special preferential access to larger developed country market under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). Generalized system of preferences (GSP) is the enabling clause of WTO legal basis, its purpose is to ensure developed countries offer non-reciprocal preferential treatment to developing countries, and sometimes this non-reciprocal preferential treatment offer better access to developed countries market than MFN tariff rates. Lastly, benefit is that the flexibility for developing country. WTO has ensured that developing countries may need more time to implement new obligations especially those who are adopted in the Uruguay round. For example, developing countries have been given more time to in order to implement their TRIPS obligation. Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: Related ServicesView all DMCA / Removal Request If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on LawTeacher.net then please:

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Sweet potatoes have more sugar and around the same number of calories as russet potatoes. So why are sweet potatoes marketed as the healthier option? The answer is glycemic index (GI). Foods like russet potatoes, white rice and flour, and oatmeal are often exiled by the health-conscious because of their high glycemic index. The term is thrown around on every fitness blog and forum, but what does it actually mean? What is glycemic index? Glycemic index is a measurement of how much a carbohydrate-rich food spikes your blood glucose (sugar) level. It also measures how fast glucose is released in your body. The greater the GI, the greater the spike. According to Healthline, “chronic high blood sugar increases the likelihood of serious diabetes complications like heart disease, blindness, neuropathy, and kidney failure.” Therefore, it’s important to incorporate more low GI foods into a healthy diet. But that doesn’t mean cutting out carbohydrates altogether, since your body prefers glucose for energy. It just means being aware of the inconspicuous effects certain foods have on your body. When created, The low-GI diet was intended for diabetics. However, several other communities have adopted the lifestyle. It’s proven successful in managing blood sugar in Type 2 diabetics, according to Diabetes UK. Why follow a low glycemic index diet? Eating low glycemic foods can benefit anyone, not just diabetics. Unless you’re keto, carbohydrates are likely a major part of your diet. When choosing which carbohydrates to fuel yourself with, look at glycemic index databases online to find information beyond the nutrition label. Some popular benefits of the diet are weight loss and maintenance. Not only do low GI foods regulate blood sugar, but they metabolize slower. Not only do insulin spikes from high GI foods hurt your health in the long run, the make you hungry in the short run. Therefore, those spikes lead to more calories consumed, and more weight gained. Foods with low glycemic indexes usually fall under complex carbohydrates, which are carbs that take more time to become sugar in your body. Complex carbs don’t have the drastic effect that simple carbs (high GI foods) do. Weight loss isn’t the only thing to gain from this popular diet. With a few simple swaps to your carbs, here are some other low GI benefits, according to the Glycemic Index Foundation: - Improve heart health - Sustained energy levels - Heightened mental performance - Elevated sports performance - Acne reduction - Reduce breast cancer risk What foods have a low glycemic index? The many delicious foods you’re already eating that have a low glycemic index might surprise you. The GI scale ranges from 1-100: 1-55 being low, 56-69 being medium, and 70-100 being high. Keep in mind that amount, cooking method, fiber, and processing all affect glycemic index. Here’s how some of ingredients stack up: - Sweet Potato - Rolled oats - Brown rice - Whole wheat - White bread - Rice cakes - Instant oatmeal - Russet potatoes - White rice At Thrive Fitness, we help educate our members on the relationship between diet and exercise. The beauty of a low GI diet is that it can compliment almost any other nutritional preference. With Atlanta Meal Prep and our Holistic Nutrition coaches on-site, you can accomplish your goals both in and outside the gym. When you combine a healthy diet with one of Thrive Fitness’ personal trainers, you can live the healthy lifestyle that will benefit you for years to come. To get started today, email firstname.lastname@example.org. Detox diets are on the rise: consisting of colorful juices from an array of fruits, veggies, and spices as a method to cleanse and reboot the body. You may have heard of Beyonce’s ‘Master Cleanse Diet,’ which consisted of nothing but the combination of hot water, lemon juice, maple syrup, and cayenne pepper for ten days. She lost 20 pounds on that regimen, according to Shape Magazine. There is a vast range of detox programs out there, some of which take an incredible level of dedication. So while the weight loss may sound appealing, before you buy an expensive juicer and begin your trek on a juice journey, you should know the facts first. How do detox diets work? Meant with the good intentions, detox diets are supposed to remove toxins from your body, since we consume many of them without even knowing it. By removing foods like sugar, caffeine, and gluten and replacing them with an abundance of organic fruit and vegetables, you can eliminate inflammatory foods and increase your hydration. By detoxing, you’re pumping your body full of micronutrients your usual diet might not provide that boost your metabolism and well-being. In essence, it’s a restart button for your body. The possible pro’s Although the concept is controversial, there are a few health benefits to cleansing. Rich in vitamins and minerals, cleanse diets aren’t as terrible as people make them out to be. To name a few benefits: - Increases vitamin and mineral intake - Transforms unhealthy eating habits - Improves liver and kidney function - Strengthens the immune system - Boosts energy (in some individuals) and mental clarity Detoxes receive much more criticism than they do praise. Although there are possible health benefits, there are always two sides to the story. Like the keto diet, it’s extreme and shouldn’t be a long-term choice. Here are some of the costs to joining the hype: - Dangerously low in calories and protein - Extreme and unsustainable over long periods - Decreased energy levels (for some individuals), making exercise hard to push through - Loss of water weight and lean muscle rather than fat - Usually costly Detox diets can be risky. Therefore they are not suggested for: - Individuals who suffer from or are living on the edge of an eating disorder, - Individuals with auto-immune diseases, heart disease - Teenagers and children - Individuals who are pregnant or trying to conceive As with any diet, it’s always smart to consult with your physician or a nutritionist first. Safe alternatives to detox diets According to WebMD, a safe alternative to detox diets would be “clean eating,” which focuses on whole foods, whole grains, lean protein, fruits, vegetables, and non-processed foods. Eliminate high-fat and sugar-filled foods for weight loss and control. If you do decide to pursue a detox in hopes to prepare for a diet change, keep it short (around 3-4 days). Not sure what diet to start? Consult Thrive Fitness Atlanta’s nutrition coaches to find out which diet plan will work best for your age, gender, and body type. Email email@example.com today to start your personalized fitness and nutrition plan. 7 Tricks Athletes Use to Get the Perfect Night’s Sleep Getting a good workout in the gym can sometimes leave you feeling overstimulated when it comes to going to bed. World-famous athletes owe a lot of their success to their training coaches and also to their sleep coaches. If you’re having trouble falling asleep, here are some tricks and tips gathered from sleep coaches. Go To Bed Correctly Sleep is measured in 1.5-hour cycles. During one cycle, a person’s body passes through all the stages of sleep needed to restore it. For an adult, it’s best to sleep 5 cycles. The best way to get enough sleep is to draw up a timetable: Get up at 06:30am – Go to bed at 11:00pm Get up at 07:00am – Go to bed at 11:30pm Get up at 08:00am – Go to bed at 12:30am Get up at 09:00am – Go to bed at 01:30am If you can’t go to bed on time, it’s best to wait 1.5 hours as it’s better to wake up at the end of your sleep cycle rather than in the middle. Sleeping in Fetal Position Turning on your right side during your sleep helps your heart work normally as it’s larger part is located on the left side of the chest. Don’t Sleep on Your Stomach In this position, you have to sleep with your head tilted up. This makes your neck muscles press on the arteries that go to the brain which, in turn, receives less blood. Sleeping like this can leave you with a headache. Set the Temperature To 60-65°F A high-temperature risks dehydration by morning, and can lead to an uncomfortable sleep of tossing and turning. Choose the Correct Bedroom Items Choose items that benefit you- a low pillow, a microfibre blanket (adapts to body temperature), the stiffness of the mattress, etc. Make the Bedroom as Dark as Possible Turn off the lights, close the curtains, and even cover up the illuminated displays and buttons on your devices. Eat the Right Food Don’t consume caffeine and fats in high sugar or fatty dishes that take a long time to digest, thereby raising your body temperature. Wind Down Beforehand Avoid any cardio, stimulating activity, or technology at least two hours prior to sleeping. That means no Facebook too! Watch Your Stimulant, Over-The-Counter and Pharmaceuticals Intake Two primary causes of insomnia, especially in athletes are - The use, overuse or late-day use of stimulants and pre-workouts - Side effects from OTC and pharmaceutical medications. When taking stimulants (coffee, preworkouts, etc.) be sure to give your body a solid eight hours to flush out them out of your system before bedtime. With OTC (over-the-counter) and pharmaceutical medications, try taking them earlier in the day, or seek alternatives that may have reduced side effects. When it comes to training and athletic excellence remember rest and recovery are essential to your training. Thrive Fitness specializes in training for all types of athletes – from high school to professional sports. Train for peak performance, email us at firstname.lastname@example.org. Have you heard that you’re supposed to drink eight eight-ounce glasses of water a day? What about the one where you take your weight, divide it in half, and that’s how many ounces of H2O you’re supposed to get? Or what about the idea that you don’t need to drink water because you get enough from your food? The truth is: optimal water consumption varies for everybody. Hydration recommendations can be a confusing land to navigate. That’s because it’s not as simple as one baseline suggestion for everyone. The amount of water you need to drink in a day depends on your weight, sex, activity level, diet, and even where you live. The Institute of Medicine has determined that for an average-sized healthy man living in a temperate climate with a moderate activity expenditure has an Adequate Intake (AI) level of fluid of about 3 liters per day (it’s 2.2 liters for women). So, what does that mean in English? Well, if you’re a guy, who’s a healthy weight, does an average amount of exercise, and lives in a mild to moderate climate, you need a minimum of three liters of total fluid in a day. And fluid means more than just straight up tap water. Juices, milk, and even coffee can count to your total. But really, plain water is your best choice because it’s calorie free, doesn’t spike your blood sugar, add calories and doesn’t have other chemicals that affect your body (think: caffeine). So what if you aren’t an average-sized person living in an average climate with average energy expenditure? Well, chances are, you need even more water. Here are a few factors that might up your need: - Exercise. Love a good sweat session? If so, you need to be drinking more water to replace that sweat. Keep in mind that you not only lose water, but also electrolytes during heavy exercise. Sports replacement drinks (Try natural dissolvable tablets without added sugar) are a great way to keep your electrolyte balance intact. - Climate and altitude. Where you live can greatly impact how much water you need. If you live in a particularly hot and humid part of the world, you’ll need to stay hydrated more than someone that lives in a cooler climate. Live up in the mountains? High altitude can trigger symptoms of dehydration. Folks who live in high altitude areas need to drink more than the standard AI. - Health conditions. If you’re feeling under the weather, you’ll need to be downing more water than usual to keep your body in good condition to get healthy. It’s especially important to drink more than the AI if you have a fever or diarrhea. - Pregnancy and breastfeeding. Not only are you eating for two, but you’re also hydrating for two. It’s important for pregnant and breastfeeding women to drink more than the AI level of fluid. Great, but really, how much water should I drink? If all of this sounds too complicated, you’re in luck, because unless you have a medical condition that otherwise prevents it, your body gives you all the tools you need to determine your proper hydration levels. If you’re drinking enough during the day to rarely feel thirsty, you are in good shape. Also, check in the bathroom, if your urine is colorless or very pale yellow, you’re on the right path. Sometimes, just keeping an eye on your own body and how you feel is better than any recommendation you could read from even the most reliable source. The elite training and nutrition team at Thrive Fitness are able to guide you through the maze of proper training, nutrition, hydration and recovery. We offer one-on-one and small group training to provide the optimal training environment for you. Email us today at email@example.com. 11 Foods That Are Stealing Your Youth Before resorting to plastic surgery or searching for that miracle face cream, read our list of foods that age you and try to cut them out from your diet. - Dehydrates the body - Raises blood pressure - Disrupts bone metabolism - Removes intercellular water - Makes the skin less elastic - Causes arthritis - Causes swelling - Causes liver disease - Reduces vitamin A levels - Risk of rapid obesity - Makes the skin lose its healthy color - Block ups blood vessels - They contain fewer than 70% vitamins and minerals - May cause aggravated chronic illness - Disrupt metabolism - Contain cancer-causing carcinogens - Poison the body - Blocks blood vessels - Can contain sulphuric and hydrochloric acids and alkali - Causes kidney stones and hypertension - Can cause thrush in women - Disrupts intestinal microflora - Leads to acidification of the body Aspartame (sugar substitute) - Causes migraines and pain in the joints - Only increases desire for sweet things When it comes to a healthy diet, Thrive Fitness offers onsite diet and wellness counseling with our certified nutritionist as well as Thrive Healthy Meals to ensure you’re getting the proper nutrition and macros your body needs to reach it’s goals. Whether you’re seeking to improve your overall health, lose weight, learn to eat for sports excellence or counter the signs of aging, email us at firstname.lastname@example.org. Healthy Choice Hacks Cook instead of eating out. Even if you try to eat healthy at a restaurant, that pesky bread bowl or sneaky salad may pack more calories than you planned for. Trust your inner Top Chef skills, and turn on the (skillet) heat. Cooking at home will more likely result in a healthier meal, not to mention a happier wallet. Eat whole fruit instead of drinking fruit juice. A glass of O.J. contains very little of the pulp or skin from an orange—and none of the fiber content. Skip the glass, and go with the whole piece of fruit to reap the full nutritional benefits of this sweet, healthy snack (and save some calories while you’re at it). Pan-fry food instead of deep-frying it. Obvious news flash: Deep-fried food is unhealthy. Keep things crispy by pan-frying lean protein or veggies in the skillet with coconut oil. We promise it’ll be just as tasty! Buy local produce instead of supermarket veggies. Take a trip to the farmer’s market instead of the mass market produce aisle. According to the USDA, locally produced fruits and veggies that are in-season may be more nutritious. And it supports local farmers, too! Use oil and balsamic instead of processed dressings. Ever flip that dressing bottle around and see a million ingredients listed? Think “less is more,” and lightly dress a salad with some olive oil and balsamic vinegar—no additives included! Eat raw spinach instead of iceberg lettuce. Let’s be real, iceberg lettuce is boring and lacks nutrients. Spinach is a flavorful alternative – it’s full of vitamin K, vitamin A, calcium, and iron. Plus, Popeye loves it, so you can’t go wrong! Use Greek yogurt instead of sour cream. Crave sour cream in your burrito? To get that same creamy coolness, add a dollop of plain Greek yogurt. You’ll amp up the protein and slash the fat. Sprinkle cinnamon instead of sugar. Here’s a spicy suggestion: Use cinnamon instead of sugar packets to heighten the flavor of coffee without adding extra calories. Try it in oatmeal, too! Choose salsa instead of cream-based dips. Dip chips into this fiery, flavorful alternative to cheesy spreads to get extra nutrients for fewer calories. Eat frozen grapes instead of a Popsicle. It’s like eating bite-sized Popsicles with no artificial added sugars! Drink sparkling water instead of soda. Try a fun flavor like lemon-lime or even vanilla if you don’t like straight soda water. Need some sweetness? Keep it natural by dropping in a half or whole packet of Stevia. Top pancakes with fresh fruit instead of syrup. There’s nothing like a good stack of pancakes every now and then. Cut calories by skipping the maple syrup, (especially since many syrups on the market today aren’t made of maple at all!). Snack on air-popped popcorn instead of chips. Craving something to munch? Air-pop some popcorn, and add a dash of sea salt—three whole cups is only about 100 calories. That’s way more satisfying than six greasy chips. Order red wine or beer instead of a margarita. You’ll drink about half as many calories. Your body will benefit from the antioxidants in red wine plus its believed to help improve cholesterol, fight free radical damage, fight obesity and cognitive decline, and help manage diabetes. Choose brown rice over white. White rice is stripped of many essential nutrients (like fiber… which is great for healthy digestion). Choose whole-wheat pasta. Unlike regular pasta, whole-wheat pasta has a nutty flavor that’s filled with antioxidants and fiber. Eat oatmeal instead of sugary cereal. Options like Cap’n Crunch and Frosted Flakes are filled with sugar and artificial ingredients, while oatmeal boasts heart-healthy benefits. Choose the right oatmeal: reach for steel cut or rolled oats, never processed, to keep your diet lean, clean and nutrition-rich!. Pack a lunch instead of eating out. Bonus: That vending machine will look far less appetizing after you eat the meal you pack. Eat at least three times a day instead of skipping meals. When you don’t make the time to squeeze in a midday meal, you end up feeling tired and grouchy—and you set yourself up for overeating later. Use mustard instead of mayo. For tomorrow’s turkey sandwich, skip the fat-filled mayo and spread some tasty (and naturally fat-free) mustard on the bread. Spread avocado on bread instead of butter. Add a dash of sea salt and some sliced tomato for a great midday snack. Choose lean meats and seafood instead of fatty ones. For a boost of protein without the fat, choose lean meats like turkey, bison, fish and chicken over pork and beef. Opt for marinara sauce instead of white sauce. We doubt penne a la vodka is made with Grey Goose, so the extra calories in white sauce aren’t worth it. Get a doggy bag instead of overeating. To avoid eating more than planned, ask the waiter to wrap half of it up before it even gets to your table. Chew slowly instead of quickly. What’s the rush? Studies show people who eat faster consume more calories. Enjoy your food and all it’s flavor, and chew thoroughly to aid digestion. It takes your brain 20 minutes to recognize the status of your appetite so give it time to catch up! Eat at the table instead of in front of the TV. Dining in front of the television can lead to serious overeating. Eat breakfast instead of sleeping in. It may be tempting to hit the snooze button more than once in the morning, but allow some time for breakfast—it will help jump start your metabolism and helps wakes your brain and body before you head to work. Order black coffee instead of a latte. If that caffeine fix is calling, order a simple black coffee. A soy-mocha-extra-shot-Frappuccino extravaganza isn’t worth the calories (or cash). Choose toast instead of a bagel. A single bagel can be the caloric equivalent of five slices of toast, so fight that craving and enjoy a slice or two of whole-wheat bread instead. Use a medium plate instead of a large one. Smaller plates (about eight to 10 inches in diameter) can save you more than 20 percent of the calories you’d eat in a larger-plate-sized serving. Same goes for utensils and beverages by the way! Smaller quantities equal less over-consumption. Eat cereal from a bowl instead of a box. A few mindless handfuls of cereal can turn into more than a bowl-sized serving. Eat hard-boiled eggs instead of fried eggs. Who needs extra grease in the morning? Drop some eggs in boiling water, and cook them up for a protein-packed breakfast. Still want to scramble? Try new microwave-inspired poaching pans to cook them up simply and perfectly without oil. Eat with chopsticks instead of a fork. It may be a challenge, but it’ll stop you from speed-slurping those noodles. Go grocery shopping when you’re full instead of when you’re hungry. People spend more when they shop hungry—and choose less healthy foods. Stop when you’re full instead of when you clean the plate. A plate half-full means more leftovers and fewer calories! Eat raw nuts instead of nut butter. Nut kinds of butter contain more fat and sugar than raw nuts. Plus, it’s easy to overeat peanut butter. Nap instead of sipping on an energy drink. Energy drinks can pack as much sugar as six doughnuts, while catnaps are always calorie-free. At Thrive Fitness we offer on-staff diet and wellness counseling with our certified nutritionist, as well as Thrive Healthy Meals (nutritionally balanced and made fresh, personal to order, with clean local ingredients). Email us today to learn about your BMI and nutritional needs at email@example.com. Junk Food Swaps Swap these 14 common junk foods for our recommended healthier (great tasting) alternatives. These substitute options can help you achieve your desired body weight, and maintain your health for a more positive lifestyle choice. White potatoes and sweet potatoes have similar nutrition profiles except for sweet potatoes have more vitamins A & C. Sweet potatoes also have a lower glycemic load and glycemic index than regular potatoes (meaning, your blood sugar won’t rise as high when you eat a sweet potato compared to a white potato). Chips > > Veggies & Dip Chips are typically high in fat, calories, and salt, which can raise the risk of weight gain and obesity. Eating healthy snacks like veggies and dip will offer you full nutritional benefits in between meal times. Sports Drinks > > Coconut Water Because coconut water is high in potassium, and such a great electrolyte replacement, it has even been used for IV hydration in certain emergency situations. Some of the electrolytes found in coconut water, specifically calcium and magnesium, may help with stress and muscle tension. Many of us are missing these critical minerals in our diets, making stress management even more challenging. Cacao is chocolate’s natural superfood source. Unlike the processed milk chocolate in the aisle, raw and organic cacao is rich in antioxidants and fiber and has zero sugar. Carob is also another chocolate substitute, originating from the carob tree pods and has a creamy taste. Or if you must eat chocolate- eat dark chocolate for those health benefits! Forget about gelatins and corn fructose syrups – dried fruit is the way to go! Mix it up with a trail mix, or simply enjoy the natural sugar from fresh fruit. Try them all, mix your favorites, and create your own ziplock bags to take with you on the go! Read the label to ensure your dried fruit is free of added sweeteners and artificial ingredients. Fried Chicken > > Grilled Chicken Fried foods are unhealthy because they tend to be very high in fat and calories. But, deep frying also robs food of nutrients. Swap your fried chicken choice for grilled chicken instead. Sprinkle with your favorite herbs or a dry rub for mouthwatering flavor! Soda > > Sparkling Water Swapping those notoriously sugary carbonated drinks for bubbly aqua means you don’t have to give up the fizz and flavor, especially when the alternatives have fewer artificial ingredients, zero calories, and just as many bubbles. Treat yourself to some guilt-free ice cream substitutes that taste just as good and are such a healthier alternative. Sorbet is made from water and fruit puree or juice. It contains no milk, cream or eggs- making this a winner in our book. Alternatively, you can’t go wrong with a frozen yogurt as long as you don’t go overboard with toppings! Bagels > > Crackers If you are looking for calories and carbs, then a bagel is the snack you need. For something just as satisfying, try substituting your bagel for a multi-grain cracker, saltine cracker, or wheat thins. You can still top it with your favorites, and you’ve just saved yourself up to 350 calories. Sour Cream, or Cream Cheese > > Greek Yoghurt Greek yogurt is a protein and probiotic-packed alternative, that makes an equally tasty ingredient in dressings, dips, and sauces. Or dollop this thick and tangy swap onto baked potatoes, tacos, and chili for a healthy dose of vitamin D12, calcium, and potassium. Pizza is a convenient food weakness for many! But it is quicker to make your own homemade tortilla pizzas, or stuffed Portobello mushrooms. Swap that doughy pizza base for a tortilla or mushroom instead, and top it with your favorite toppings (and try to be moderate with the cheese)! If you’re craving carbs and tempted to whip up mashed potatoes, reach for this equally hearty (and more vitamin-packed) substitute, which can be quickly steamed and mashed. Add almond milk, grass-fed butter, and sea salt to complete the dish. Spaghetti > > Squash or Zucchini Noodles If Italian comfort food is your culinary weakness, try substituting spaghetti pasta for squash or spiralized zucchini. The benefits- you’ll create a tasty low-carb, veg-heavy “pasta” dish that’s full of vitamins, minerals and filling fiber. Ketchup > > Salsa Ketchup may sound healthy with the primary ingredient being tomatoes, but the sugar content is ridiculously high! Homemade ketchup is easy enough to make, but if you are out and about, then substitute that ketchup for salsa instead. Looking for sound diet and nutritional advice? Contact Thrive Fitness for BMI testing or to meet with our onsite nutritionist to learn about your body’s needs for optimal wellness. Email us at firstname.lastname@example.org. Have any other suggestions you would recommend? We’d love to hear them! Comment below and let us know your favorite junk food swaps! Fitness Goals: How Much Exercise Is Right For You? The ‘right’ amount of exercise for you can depend greatly on what you’re hoping to accomplish. Someone who is overweight and trying to shed pounds, for example, will probably have to exercise differently to a thin person whose aim is to build muscle, but less than someone in marathon training. Most of the studies have shown that the more exercise you do, the better you are. A minimum of 30 minutes per day is the advised amount of exercise for everyone, no matter your age or gender. Goal: Staying Healthy Recommendations issued by the Institute of Medicine, an independent group that advises the government, urged at least an hour of moderate exercise a day for optimal health. Regular exercise prevents loss of muscle and bone mass which can result in a deterioration of physical function and frailty. Working out will increase your physical stamina, decrease your chances of osteoporosis, improve your heart and lung function. Exercise can also reduce the risk of depression and memory loss, prevent and regulate diabetes, boost your mood and metabolism, and so much more. Goal: Losing Weight Half an hour a day of moderate activity simply won’t work for this goal. To shed the extra pounds, it’s necessary to tap into the body’s stored fuel source – fat – by eating less, eating healthier, and exercising more. How to properly adjust your diet and exercise will depend on various factors, including your current weight, diet, and metabolism. Goal: Training/Body Sculpting Weight training is key to developing that ‘sculpted’ look. How much exercise you need to burn fat and look fitter will depend on your metabolism, weight, diet and just how toned you want to be, but it will be a more intense workout in order to achieve dynamic results. Goal: Improve Athletic Performance Looking to dominate the game? Athletes become elite athletes by dedicating serious time at the gym and on the field or court! Overall, athletic training consists of exercises to build muscle, gain speed and improve agility — and vary greatly based on your sport: whether you play football, lacrosse, basketball, hockey or track. Understanding the balance of athletic training, gym time, proper diet and ample rest is essential to be a top athlete in your sport. At Thrive Fitness, our certified personal training team consists of specialists in professional sports to bodybuilding, or obstacle course training (American Ninja to Spartan Race) and total body transformation. Whatever your goal, we will match you with the best elite trainer to help expertly accomplish your goals. 11 Benefits of Exercise You Didn’t Know… We all know that exercising is good for you. We all know that exercise benefits in weight loss, body sculpting, and improved athletic performance. But do you know how exercise supports our overall health and longevity? Here are 11 benefits of exercise beyond looking good! 1) Decreases Depression. Exercising increases the endorphins released in the brain which leads to an elevated mood and confidence and helps reduce stress. 2) Live Longer. Exercise oxygenates the blood which maintains your skin and organs, slowing down the aging process. 3) Improves your heart and lung function. Like all muscles, the heart becomes stronger as a result of exercise, so it can pump more blood through the body with every beat with less strain. 4) Slows Dementia. Research has shown regular exercise slows down memory loss, stimulates cognitive ability and improves your memory. 5) Prevents and Regulates Diabetes. You naturally lose muscle mass with age, which slows down your metabolism. Exercise boosts metabolism and can reduce blood pressure as well as the glucose in your blood. 6) Reduces Pain. An inactive lifestyle can lead to back, muscle and joint pain. Even if you are in pain, one of the most recommended treatments is to exercise and strengthen the surrounding muscles. 7) Healthy Libido. Regular exercise leads to a higher self-esteem, improved circulation, and an increased level of endorphins and release of adrenaline – all factors that contribute to improved sex drive and performance. 8) Promotes Quality Sleep. Research has shown that exercise contributes a better night’s sleep in quality, length, and frequency. 9) Builds Immune System. The risks of illness and disease are greatly reduced when you exercise regularly, as you build up and strengthen your immune system. 10) Strengthens Bones. Exercise prevents loss of bone mass and keeps bones strong. This is great for your posture and decreases your chance of osteoporosis. 11) Physical Stamina. Exercise has been proven to prevent loss of muscle mass and increase flexibility. Often when we suffer from one or more of the above ailments or issues, we rely on supplements or prescriptions. Alternatively, exercise is proven medically to support overall wellness naturally on many levels. Step up your lifestyle and stop in Thrive Fitness to learn more about your body’s current state of wellness with our new Fit3D Body Scan and InBody 370 Scan technology. Thrive’s trainers and nutritionists will help you start your unique journey towards a healthy diet and exercise!

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24. The King of Glory When young people want us to know that something is of major importance, they sometimes say, “Man, that’s heavy.” The subject of glory is in that category. It is heavy! As a matter of fact, the most common word for glory in the Old Testament comes from a root that means literally “to be heavy.” In Old Testament times, a person’s weight was his glory. Now please let me explain that statement. It does not mean that overweight people were any more glorious than underweight people, or that we all ought to start eating more in order to increase our glory. It simply means that a person who was considered to have glory in that day was usually one who had some kind of weight, such as the weight of riches, the weight of power, or the weight of position. A man’s glory referred to what he was and what he had—his honor, his reputation, or his possessions. The Biblical References To God’s Glory When we read through the Old Testament, it does not take long to discover that God has glory. It was first mentioned when the people of Israel grumbled because they had no food. Moses promised them a miraculous provision of manna from Heaven which would be an evidence of the glory of the Lord (Exodus 16:7). God’s faithful provision for His people was part of His weight of glory. As the Old Testament progresses, it becomes evident that God not only has glory, but also that He is glorious. David calls Him “the God of glory” (Psalm 29:3), and later declares, “For great is the glory of the LORD” (Psalm 138:5). The phrase “the glory of the LORD” appears with such frequency, we begin to suspect that it refers to more than just one attribute of God. It is the Lord Himself in all His intrinsic and eternal perfections, the sum and substance of all His attributes, the totality of all His inherent majesty. God’s glory is who He is, what He possesses, and what He is like. God’s glory is God Himself in His essential being. When God promised to show Moses His glory, He revealed His mercy, His grace, His long-suffering, His goodness, His truth, His forgiveness, and His righteous wrath against sin (Exodus 33:22; 34:6-7). When David asked, “Who is the King of glory?” the answer came back, “The LORD strong and mighty” (Psalm 24:8). His glory in that case referred primarily to His power. When the Psalmist said, “Tell of His glory among the nations” (Psalm 96:3), and “Ascribe to the LORD the glory of His name” (verse 8), things such as His honor, His majesty, His strength, His beauty, His sovereignty, His justice, His righteousness, and His faithfulness were mentioned (verses 6,10,13). God’s glory is all that He is. Furthermore, He can never lose any of His glory and still be God. That is not true of human beings. We can lose anything we might be known for—our position, our reputation, our money, or anything else—and still be as human as we ever were. But God would not be God if He lost His glory. That is one reason why He cannot share any of it with any other god. I am the LORD, that is My name; I will not give My glory to another, Nor My praise to graven images (Isaiah 42:8). God must exercise His wrath against people who exchange His glory for images (Romans 1:18-23). He cannot allow anyone to diminish His worth or detract from His majesty. There have been occasions in human history when God has allowed His glory to take limited visible form, and it has always been revealed in terms of brightness and radiant light. The Psalmist said, “For the LORD God is a sun and a shield” (Psalm 84:11). Evidences of His brilliance are found all through the Bible. For instance, when He gave the law to Moses on Mount Sinai, His glory covered the mount like a consuming fire (Exodus 24:16-17). When Moses came down from that encounter with God “the skin of his face shone” (Exodus 84:29), another indication that God had revealed Himself to Moses in resplendent light. When the people of Israel finished constructing the tabernacle, an amazing thing happened. “Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle. And Moses was not able to enter the tent of meeting because the cloud had settled on it, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle” (Exodus 40:34-35). That cloud of glory seems to have been brilliant light, so bright that Moses could not look at it or stand before it. It was called by the Jews the Shekinah, a non-Biblical term derived from a Hebrew verb meaning “to dwell,” emphasizing God’s presence among His people in that shining cloud of glory. The same Shekinah glory filled Solomon’s temple years later when it was completed (1 Kings 8:10-11). When Ezekiel saw a vision of the glory of the Lord, he too described it in terms of brightness: “As the appearance of the rainbow in the clouds on a rainy day, so was the appearance of the surrounding radiance. Such was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD” (Ezekiel 1:28). A similar idea is present in the New Testament word for glory, a verb that means “to think.” It referred to a man’s self evaluation (what he thought of himself), or his reputation (what others thought of him). When it is applied to God, it carries over the Old Testament idea of His majesty and splendor, the totality of His essence—what He is and how He expresses Himself. It does not take long before His glory is visibly manifested in brilliant light. When a group of shepherds heard the announcement of Messiah’s birth from an angel of God, “the glory of the Lord shone around them” (Luke 2:9). God’s glory shines! The Apostle John wrote that “God is light” (1 John 1:5). He predicted that the New Jerusalem will not need the sun or moon, “for the glory of God has illumined it” (Revelation 21:23). The Apostle Paul taught that God “dwells in inapproachable light; whom no man has seen or can see” (1 Timothy 6:16). All through the Bible God is depicted as light. Just as no man can look directly at the brightness of the sun with his naked eye without destroying his eyesight, so no mortal man can gaze at the undiminished brightness of God’s glory without being consumed (Exodus 33:20). Yet, there have been sufficient veiled glimpses of His radiant glory through history to give men some idea of the majesty and splendor of His being. Even today, we see the evidences of His glory. The Present Revelation of God’s Glory God must exist to glorify Himself. There is no one higher or greater for Him to glorify, so we can expect Him to keep on demonstrating the perfections of His person and revealing the radiance of His glory. He does this in several ways, the first being in creation. Just as we saw God’s goodness and His wisdom revealed in creation, so also do we see His glory. The heavens are telling of the glory of God; And their expanse is declaring the work of His hands (Psalm 19:1). It is impossible to contemplate the starry heavens and fail to see the glory of God. They reveal that He exists, for such a glorious creation demands a Creator. They reveal His power, for such a powerful effect demands a more powerful cause. They reveal His wisdom, for their amazing design demands an all-wise divine Designer. And they reveal His infinity, for their extent defies discovery by man’s best scientific efforts. But the heavens are only the beginning. The earth likewise reveals His glory: one of the seraphim cried to Isaiah in his vision of God, “The whole earth is full of His glory” (Isaiah 6:8). It is impossible to contemplate the beauty of a flower, the perfection of a snowflake, the loveliness of a tree, the strength of the mountains, the vastness of the oceans, or the amazing instincts of the animal kingdom and fail to see the glory of God. But the highest of God’s glorious creation is man. He reflects the very image of God (Genesis 1:26-27). David wrote concerning him: Yet Thou hast made him a little lower than God, And dost crown him with glory and majesty! (Psalm 8:5) It is impossible to contemplate the intricacies of the human body, the capabilities of the human mind, or the complexities of the human personality and fail to see the glory of God. No man can contemplate God’s dealings with the human race through history and fail to see His glory, particularly His love, His grace, His mercy, His long-suffering, as well as His wrath against sin. Nothing, however, can possibly reflect the glory of God like the God-man Himself—Jesus Christ. Christ claimed to have possessed equal glory with the Father before the worlds were formed (John 17:5). When He came to earth, those who saw His glory recognized it for what it was: “glory as of the only begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth” (John 1:14). His divine glory was veiled by human flesh throughout His earthly life, but on one momentous occasion that veil was pulled aside: “And He was transfigured before them; and His face shone like the sun, and His garments became as white as light” (Matthew 17:2). Peter, James, and John beheld the magnificent glory of the eternal that day. When Peter wrote, years later, about his thrilling experience, he said, “we were eyewitnesses of His majesty. For when He received honor and glory from God the Father, such an utterance as this was made to Him by the Majestic Glory, ‘This is My beloved Son with whom I am well-pleased’” (2 Peter 1:16-17). All other manifestations of God’s glory grow dim in the light of this revelation in Jesus Christ. The writer to the Hebrews called Him “the radiance of His glory and the exact representation of His nature” (Hebrews 1:3). Just as surely as the radiant light that flooded the Old Testament tabernacle was the visible manifestation of God’s glory, so was Jesus Christ. He is the Shekinah glory of God because He is God in flesh, the express image of God’s person, the very impress of God’s being. In the same way an image on a coin exactly matches the mold from which it was cast, so Jesus Christ bears the exact stamp of God’s nature. He is, as the Apostle Paul called Him, “the Lord of glory” (1 Corinthians 2:8). Since He is continually being revealed to us in His Word, we have the exciting prospect of personally beholding the very glory of God as we get to know Jesus Christ. “For God, who said, ‘Light shall shine out of darkness,’ is the One who has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ” (2 Corinthians 4:6). The Proper Response To God’s Glory I had a professor in seminary who used to say, “Revelation demands response.” The primary reason God reveals His truth to us is to transform our lives. If we profess to know the truth, but refuse to let it affect the way we live, we are guilty of hypocrisy. God has revealed to us His glory. What then should our response be? What are we going to do about it? If God’s ultimate goal for all things is His own glory, and if He goes to great lengths to manifest His glory, then we as His children should also establish as our highest goal in life the demonstration of God’s glory. We should live to glorify Him. The Apostle Paul said that very explicitly: “Whether, then, you eat or drink or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God” (1 Corinthians 10:31; cf. also Romans 15:6; 1 Peter 4:11). To glorify God simply means to bring His innate glory to light, to expose it, manifest it, reveal it, demonstrate it, make it known. It is to put God on display and show Him off for who He is. Suppose you decide to take up painting and you work very hard to develop your talent as an artist. You finally reach a stage of proficiency that permits you to produce a masterpiece. What are you going to do with it? Hide it in the attic? Hardly! That painting gives testimony to your talents. It is your glory. You hang it in a prominent place so others can see it. You show it off. In the same way, when we glorify God, we bring His glory to light for others to see. We make His attributes prominently known. There are several ways by which we do that. The first is by heartfelt worship. When Moses saw the glory of the Lord, there was no question in his mind about what he should do: “And Moses made haste to bow low toward the earth and worship” (Exodus 34:8). To worship God is simply to acknowledge His glory. The Psalmist said, Ascribe to the LORD the glory due to His name; Worship the LORD in holy array (Psalm 29:2). God wants us to acknowledge who He is, to confess that we understand who He is, and to bow in submission to Him as He is. That is true worship. Some people think worship is merely following a prescribed form of service in the proper building, saying the right thing, and singing the right song in the right order. Worship may take place in that setting, but it does not necessarily happen that way. Worship is basically the joyful response of our hearts to the revelation of who God is and what He has done. It can take place any time, anywhere, and should take place regularly—not just when we are in a church building. But it cannot take place unless we are growing in our knowledge of the Lord. When we know Him and rehearse His attributes and acts in appreciation, gratitude, praise, and adoration, He is glorified. One lone Samaritan leper showed us how. Jesus had healed ten lepers and sent them to the priests for the cleansing ceremony. “Now one of them, when he saw that he had been healed, turned back, glorifying God with a loud voice, and he fell on his face at His feet, giving thanks to Him. And he was a Samaritan.” Jesus asked, “Was no one found who turned back to give glory to God, except this foreigner?” (Luke 17:15-16,18) By rehearsing God’s love, His mercy, His goodness, and His power, and by thanking Him for His act of healing, that leper gave glory to God. People learned something about God that day through the leper’s thanksgiving, and in that way God was glorified. The Lord said, “Whoso offereth praise glorifieth Me” (Psalm 50:23 KJV). The second means by which we can glorify God is holy living. Jesus said, “By this is My Father glorified, that you bear much fruit, and so prove to be My disciples” (John 15:8). The fruit Jesus spoke of may have included converts brought to Him through our witness (John 4:36), or contributions made for the needs of others (Romans 15:28), but it certainly includes a Christlike character (Galatians 5:22), as well as conduct that honors Him (Colossians 1:10)—in other words, holy living. Jesus was also talking about the way we live when He said, “Let your light shine before men in such a way that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father who is in heaven” (Matthew 5:16). The quality of our lives should be such that the very character of the Lord is displayed to the people around us. The Apostle Paul was talking about moral purity when he exhorted us to glorify God in our bodies (1 Corinthians 6:20). We can actually display the holiness of God by keeping ourselves from sexual immorality. We can demonstrate other aspects of God’s character as well by the way we live. When we submit to His will, we display His sovereignty. When we accept others unconditionally, we display His love. When we show kindness to those who have wronged us, we display His grace. When we reach out to those in need, we display His mercy. When we are honest, we display His truth. When we pray, we display His power. When we trust Him, we display His faithfulness. In all these, He is glorified. When we fail to glorify God because of sin in our lives, we must confess and forsake that sin in order for Him to be glorified. A greedy Israelite named Achan took clothing, silver, and gold for himself during the conquest of Jericho, contrary to God’s command. Joshua confronted him: “My son, I implore you, give glory to the LORD, the God of Israel, and give praise to Him; and tell me now what you have done. Do not hide it from me” (Joshua 7:19). When we acknowledge our sin and turn from it, our holy God is glorified. The most significant means by which we can glorify God is simply getting to know Him as He is. The source of many of our problems as Christians is our unwillingness to accept God as He is. We want to remake Him as we would like Him to be so that we can live as we want to live, and the result is heartache and tragedy. Paul wrote to the Corinthians, “But we all, with unveiled face beholding as in a mirror the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord, the Spirit” (2 Corinthians 3:18). As we focus our attention on God’s glory and get to know Him as He truly reveals Himself, we become progressively more like Him. His character rubs off on us and we begin to display Him more perfectly. That brings glory to God. We will never give much time or attention to knowing God, however, as long as we are glorying in ourselves or in any earthly thing. “Thus says the LORD, ‘Let not a wise man boast of his wisdom, and let not the mighty man boast of his might, let not a rich man boast of his riches; but let him who boasts boast of this, that he understands and knows Me, that I am the LORD who exercises lovingkindness, justice, and righteousness on earth; for I delight in these things,’ declares the LORD” (Jeremiah 9:23-24). Life’s greatest joy is knowing God in a personal, precious, loving, intimate, yet submissive relationship. It is not that “good buddy” relationship which some talk about flippantly and irreverently. It is not that “get God on my side” attitude which is motivated by a desire for success in worldly pursuits. It is a Creator-creature relationship that recognizes His lordship, His right to be God in our experience. When we abdicate the throne of our lives and let Him be our sovereign Ruler, our King of glory, then and then alone will He be glorified. Most of us will struggle with this until our dying day. As our knowledge of God grows, we will discover additional areas of our lives which have not yet been brought under His sovereign control. Every new challenge will meet with new resistance from our sinful natures and will require new surrender to His lordship over our lives. But someday the struggle will be over and we ourselves shall be glorified (cf. Romans 8:29-30). That does not mean we shall take the place reserved only for God, but that our stubborn natures will be changed and we shall be made like our glorious Saviour (cf. 1 Corinthians 15:52; Philippians 3:21; 1 John 3:2). We shall become vessels that are perfectly fitted to express His glory throughout eternity. Then God’s purpose for saving us will have been fully realized; our entire existence will be perfectly and uninterruptedly directed to the praise of His glory forever (cf. Ephesians 1:6,12,14). “Now to Him who is able to keep you from stumbling, and to make you stand in the presence of His glory blameless with great joy, to the only God our Saviour, through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, dominion and authority, before all time and now and forever. Amen” (Jude 24-25). Action To Take: List some of the things you are doing which you believe bring glory to God. Thank Him for the desire, the ability, and the privilege of so glorifying Him. List some of the things in your life which do not glorify God. Ask Him to help you change them. Related Topics: Theology Proper (God)

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By June 1944 as many as 1.5 million US servicemen and women were stationed in Britain, nearly ten per cent of them African Americans. The impact of the presence of a segregated army on foreign soil is recorded in the following items in wartime newspapers and periodicals. Dance Ban on Coloured Troops ‘Coloured American soldiers stationed in the district were refused admission to an Army dance at Eye, Suffolk …’ Daily Herald, 7 September 1942. Vicar’s Wife Insults Our Allies ‘A six point code which would result in the ostracism of American coloured troops …’ Sunday Pictorial, 6 September 1942. From A London Diary ‘Examples are beginning to reach me of the complications that are almost certain to arise if considerable numbers of coloured troops arrived with the American army …’ New Statesman and Nation, 22 August 1942. From A London Diary ‘It was a really good dance. A couple of hundred couples I suppose …’ New Statesman and Nation, 19 September 1942. Colour Bar: Use of the City’s Amenities ‘The military authorities imposed a bar on the Kent Street baths to members of that particular unit …’ Birmingham Mail, 15 May 1945. Dixie Invades Britain – by Roi Ottley ‘Americans export race prejudices, force discrimination on England.’ From Negro Digest, September 1944. Dance Ban on Coloured Troops Coloured American soldiers stationed in the district were refused admission to an Army dance at Eye, Suffolk, on Saturday. A coloured military policeman was posted at the door to turn his comrades away. Now they are under orders not to attend any dances there in future. It is understood that the action was taken at the instigation of the American military authorities. Our own Army Command, the Daily Herald was told, had offered no objection to the entry of coloured soldiers to functions attended by our own troops. These coloured American soldiers have also been refused admittance to the town’s reading room, which has billiards, ping-pong tables and a dart board, as well as facilities for reading and writing. At the moment they have nowhere to go when off duty. Vicar’s Wife Insults Our Allies The women of Worle, Weston-super-Mare, are amazed by Mrs. May, wife of their vicar. She called them together and attempted to lay down a six-point code which would result in the ostracism of American coloured troops if they ever go to the village. The women of the village have come to the angry conclusion that this code amounts to an insult to the troops of our Ally. These (in her own words) were the rules Mrs. May laid down: 1. If a local woman keeps a shop and a coloured soldier enters, she must serve him, but she must do it as quickly as possible and indicate as quickly as possible and indicate that she does not desire him to come there again. 2. If she is in a cinema and notices a coloured soldier next to her, she moves to another seat immediately. 3. If she is walking on the pavement and a coloured soldier is coming towards her, she crosses to the other pavement. 4. If she is in a shop and a coloured soldier enters, she leaves as soon as she has made her purchase or before that if she is in a queue. 5. White women, of course, must have no social relationship with coloured troops. 6. On no account must coloured troops be invited to the homes of white women. Mrs. May forbade her hearers to mention her ‘talk’ to the newspapers. But they were so astonished that they told their husbands. One of the husbands, a local councillor, is preparing a full statement to be sent to the Ministry of Information. He said: ‘If the woman is talking like this in the name of the Church, I should be interested to know what her husband’s bishop thinks of it.’ Mrs. May’s reason for not making her code public, she said, was that ‘it might hurt the coloured troops if they heard of it.’ Feeling is so high in the district that it is more likely to hurt Mrs. May. A local woman who attended the meeting told the Sunday Pictorial last night: ‘I was disgusted, and so were most of the women there. We have no intention of agreeing to her decree.’ Any coloured soldier who reads this may rest assured that there is no colour bar in this country and that he is as welcome as any other Allied soldier. He will find that the vast majority of people have nothing but repugnance for the narrow-minded uninformed prejudices expressed by the vicar’s wife. There is – and will be – no persecution of coloured people in Britain. From A London Diary Examples are beginning to reach me of the complications that are almost certain to arise if considerable numbers of coloured troops arrived with the American army. For instance, a British soldier writes to complain that in an English port part of a well-known restaurant is barred to coloured troops. He says that the employees of the restaurant disliked discriminating against coloured soldiers, and that a group of British soldiers near said what they thought about colour prejudice. He adds that his unit was called together and instructed to be ‘polite to coloured troops, answer their queries, and drift away.’ They were not to eat or drink with coloured soldiers. Before going off the deep end about this we must try to understand the nature of the problem that confronts the authorities, British and American. English people will find that coloured troops are particularly easy and pleasant to get on with, and I should think they should be extremely popular in most villages. American troops from a large part of the U.S.A. would agree with this, and be prepared to rub shoulders with the negro soldiers. But the feeling of white troops from the ‘deep South’, where the position of slavery has never left the land, is something far too deep to brush aside. I have met Southerners who seemed rational enough until the negro problem was mentioned, and who would then suddenly show a terrified lynching spirit which was about the ugliest thing imaginable. The colour problem in the South is economic, political, and sexual. The political side has been increased lately because the parties have begun to canvass for the negro vote. The economic aspect has increased with the increased opportunities of wartime employment. The social and sexual prejudice is so deep that there will be many Southern whites in this country who will take it for granted that it is their duty to interfere if they see black troops with white girls. What is to be done? The American Government must itself face the problem. It must use every device of persuasion and authority to let white Southern troops know that it is against discipline to treat negro soldiers in the way to which their training and education has accustomed them. I am aware that with a prejudice as deep as that of the South, discipline and re-education will not work nearly quickly enough I feel it is a mistake to send large numbers of coloured troops. If things are left to drift an impossible problem will be set to the British authorities, and very unhappy incidents will occur between black and Southern troops, and, only too naturally, between Southern troops and the British, who will instinctively take the side of the blacks against their white assailants. From A London Diary The village hall is large and pleasant, and the Clerk of the Council, who sat at the receipt of custom and kept a fatherly eye on everything, is an efficient and experienced person who knows how to let things get jolly without getting out of hand. We had heard talk of a lot of jitterbug thrills, with the girls flying hilariously over the shoulders of their American partners. Nothing of the sort. It was a really good dance. A couple of hundred couples I suppose. A few of the girls were in uniform; most of them came from the district, one had seen them in shops or working on the farms. One was conspicuous in a frock that swept the floor; most of them just had on their prettiest light dresses. At ten o’clock, when the pubs closed, the numbers rapidly increased and the dancing became hotter and more expert. There seemed to me little changing of partners; mostly the boy and the girl, or at least the boys and girls of a single group of friends, stuck together. No one was drunk; everyone seemed to be enjoying it. There had been, I was told, an unpleasing incident not long ago. The band that night contained a West African; the Americans, including these Southerners with the usual phobia, were, of course, contented enough to have the coloured soldier as an entertainer. They are used to that in the United States. But when the West Indian [sic] took the floor with the wife of one of his colleagues in the band, one of the southern American boys promptly went across the room and struck him. The band stopped; the players went to the rescue of their colleague, who was conducted out of the ball by a back way, and the show went on as if nothing had happened. But something had happened. An English soldier, who told me of this incident, was restrained but angry and puzzled. What made these Southern boys behave in this incredibly uncivilised fashion? I told him the story of slavery and liberation, the Ku Klux Klan and about present relations of white and black in the South. He listened gravely. But obviously nothing could or should change his view of the conduct of these Southern boys, which is a real barrier to the friendship which I could see happily developing between British and Americans. Colour Bar: Use of the City’s Amenities Resentment against discrimination between white and coloured persons in the use of Birmingham’s amenities was expressed by Councillor A F Bradbeer at to-day’s City Council meeting. He moved that the General Purposes Committee consider and report upon the desirability of issuing to all Corporation departments an advice to the effect (a) that all services provided by the Corporation are available to persons irrespective of race or colour; (b) that the Corporation, in offering employment for the staffing of departments, shall not discriminate against a person because of his or her race or colour. The proposal was defeated by 49 votes to 31. Councillor Bradbeer gave two instances of what he termed the colour bar in Birmingham. A qualified doctor appointed to the staff of a hospital, he said, was given a month’s salary in lieu of notice because when he attended at the hospital for duty he was seen to have coloured skin. A member of the US Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps went to the Kent Street Bath for a Turkish bath. She received every attention, but within a few hours the military authorities imposed a bar on the Kent Street baths to members of that particular unit. The Deputy Mayor (chairman of the General Purposes Committee) said that if military authorities put any place out of bounds the City Council could not put that place in bounds. Dixie Invades Britain – by Roi Ottley The noose of prejudice is slowly tightening around the necks of American Negro soldiers, and tending to cut off their recreation and associations with the British people. For – to be frank – relations between Negro and white troops have reached grave proportions. The reason for its acuteness is complex. Much of it lies deep in the American way of life. For in essence, there are those here who are still fighting the Civil War – this time on British soil. American observers who were here in 1942 when the first contingents arrived from America saw amicable and smooth relations develop between the Negro troops and their British hosts. Some were even lionized – so much so that certain white American soldiers became openly resentful. And they lost no time in attempting to discipline the British people. For – and this is perhaps the crucial issue – in back of the Southerner’s mind here is the belief that on his return the Negro will be mighty difficult to remold into the Jim Crow pattern. Many thousands of American Negro troops are in Britain. They represent a larger Negro population than the British Isles has ever known. For most Britons it is the first time that they have seen Negroes in relatively large groups. For most of the Negroes it is the first time they have been away from their homes and communities. But the people here have a racial tolerance which gives them a social lever. They are inclined to accept a man for his personal worth. Thus the Negro has social equality here in more ways than theory. To put it in the language of the Negro soldier, ‘I’m treated so, a man don’t know he’s colored until he looks in the mirror.’ The fact is, the British do draw racial distinctions, but not within the doors of the British Isles – at least not until the arrival of the white American soldiers. This is not to say the British are without racial prejudice. They do have it in a subtle form. But, in the main, it is confined to colonial and military officials who have spent their lives administering affairs in the colored colonies and derive their incomes from them. What contact the British people had with Negroes before the arrival of the American troops was on the whole very good. Paul Robeson and many other Negro artists and entertainers made quite an impression on the British. In the ten years he resided in England Robeson created a good opinion of the American Negro. By and large Negro troops have been billeted in the country sections of England, Scotland and Ireland. The British people in the country are naturally, hospitable. They warmly greeted the Negro troops. Soon Negroes were invited to British homes, churches, and trade union meetings. Easy and friendly associations developed between the races. This was a great shock to many white Americans, particularly those from the deep South. At Highton [=Huyton?] in Northern England – to illustrate – a Negro soldier had an appointment with a British girl to meet him in front of his camp. When he got outside she was engaged in conversation with two white American soldiers. The Negro soldier walked over and greeted the girl. ‘I’ve been waiting about 15 minutes for you,’ she scolded cheerfully. They smiled, locked hands, and walked down the road. One of the white soldiers snatched off his hat and flung it to the ground. He broke into tears and kept repeating over and over, ‘I’m from Georgia and I just can’t take that!’ There are white commanders who when they arrive in an area with their unit, restrict passes to Negroes until after inspection has been made of the nearest town or city. The best cafes, restaurants, theaters and hotels are chosen for the white personnel and the proprietors and informed that they are to bar Negro soldiers. This has proved an effective strong-armed instrument for establishing the Jim Crow pattern in public places, and, incidentally, relegates Negroes to the worst sections on the outskirts of town or along the waterfront. A Negro Red Cross worker, J Clarice Brooks, former New York social worker, was alone late one night at a Belfast Red Cross club waiting for transportation home when in walked five white American soldiers. This is what transpired: ‘There’s the bitch that’s runnin’ the club for niggers,’ one shouted as they strode toward her. ‘This is a Red Cross club for American soldiers if they behave themselves,’ she replied. ‘What do you mean? Niggers are better behaved than we are?’ His companions interjected, ‘You going to let her talk to you like that?’ ‘Let’s beat her up,’ another said. ‘Yeah, we know how to treat niggers!’ They were about to assault her when luckily a white officer happened along and intervened. Miss Brooks told me that although she attempted to press charges against them, that was the last she heard of the affair. Negro Red Cross workers in England have been known to go home nights armed with baseball bats to fight off prejudiced white soldiers. In some areas, ‘gangs’ have been formed by white soldiers to terrorize Negroes. When such groups arrive in a town, they immediately declare it ‘their’ territory. Any Negro seen is run out. There are many cities, towns or villages that have witnessed race rioting. The most infamous of these clashes is called ‘The Battle of Bamber Bridge’ – an area in Lancaster [actually near Preston, in Lancashire]. Negroes billeted here complained of unfair restrictions. They were burning with resentments. One night a white MP regarded by Negroes as their mortal enemy shot a Negro soldier in the back following a fracas. News of the killing soon reached camp. The Negro soldiers felt they had reached the limit of their endurance. So they broke into the arsenal, took arms, and barricaded themselves for battle. When the first white officers approached, they were met by a volley of gun fire. Four of them went down. They other officers sought cover and called for armored cars. A great tragedy was averted by Lt Edmund Jones, a Negro popular with the troops. Well aware that these desperate Negroes were prepared to fight to the death, he persuaded his white commander to give him authority to end the affair without further bloodshed. He was made a provost-general for three days and was successful in having the Negroes end their futile battle. He assured them by radio that reforms would follow and in the future they would be dealt with fairly. This distressing racial situation must be laid squarely on the doorstep of the white officers. Certainly, if they wished to do something concrete about the problem, there are sufficient memorandums, directives and orders to bolster them. Tons of such literature had been published. I have seen much of it. Most is forthright in explaining, and even insisting on mutual respect among soldiers. Many are masterpieces of clarity. The declared policy of the American Army in relation to the Negro soldier is absolutely clear. ‘He is to receive the same treatment, wages, rations as the white troops. He is to have equal opportunities for recreation.’ Unhappily, certain of the officers whose tasks it becomes to implement these instructions violate them where the Negro is concerned. Few of them even bother to read the instructions. They well know that in practice there is no penalty for any show of racial hostility. The fact is, there is ample evidence to prove that racial prejudice is encouraged by such officers, a group often dominated by Southerners. An RAF flyer told me of an indoctrinaire course he attended, conducted by an American lieutenant. His whole lecture was devoted to explaining to the British the reasons why they should not associate with Negro soldiers. He made no bones about the fact that not to conform with the American view of race was to be the victim of actual physical violence. These roughhouse tactics have, of course, been augmented by word-of-mouth propaganda. At every turn attempts are being made to discredit the Negro. The catalogue of lies and misinformation is well known in America. But new twists have been given old cliches. A Negro major told me of being surprised when he visited a British home by the concern for his comfort. The mistress of the house had placed a number of soft pillows in his chair. Every so often she would anxiously look in his direction. Before the evening was over he learned the reason: His hosts had been told by American soldiers that Negroes have tails! The British are aggressively resisting the prejudice which certain white soldiers are intent upon imposing. This seems to have been the case when US soldiers boarded a bus in London and tried to eject two Negro soldiers from seats they already occupied. ‘You can’t do that sort of thing here,’ a woman conductor protested. ‘We won’t have it. Either you stand or off you go.’ They stood. But the seeds of prejudice are easily scattered. Even some white troops who shared no feeling of prejudice in the United States have accepted the anti-Negro attitudes held by certain Americans. Inevitably, in their contact with the British some have sought to transfer these attitudes. What’s true of the United States seems equally true in England: The customer is always right. When the manager of a restaurant was questioned recently a bout refusing service to a Negro soldier, he had a ready answer: ‘White Americans say they will not patronize my place if Negroes were served.’ Nevertheless, the Negro soldier has appealed to the British heart. The Negro has brought along his gifts. I was quite surprised to find British girls in Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and London dancing the lindy hop. Every Monday morning the newspapers are filled with reports of Negro activity with the British – such as hikes and picnics. Negroes are seen at churches, groups of them even taking over the choir loft on occasion. In England Negroes are on their very best behavior. They are fully aware of what is at stake. Their Negro officers and Negro Red Cross directors have done a splendid job of making them conscious that they are the guests of the British people, and as such they must prove themselves worthy of their hospitality. Negro troops stationed near Manchester originated the idea of entertaining the local children to repay some of the hospitality which they had received in that city. I attended the second of a series of six weekly parties. About 20 Negro soldiers sung and danced. Then they distributed chewing gum and candy from their rations. Five hundred children attended the party given at the Red Cross club. The Lord Mayor was present. The Negro soldiers feel keenly about the frequent show of racial animosity. Voicing a fairly typical attitude of troops who have recently arrived in England, Pfc William B Brown, Newark, NJ, told me how he felt: ‘Since my arrival I’ve been constantly reminded that I’m a Negro. The pattern seems more pronounced here than in the deep South.’ The fact is, numbers of people are scrambling around for a solution. I talked quite extensively with British officials. They are frankly embarrassed and even alarmed by the race situation provoked by certain Americans. None will talk for the record. Lend-lease makes them keep their official mouths closed, for they are well aware of the spitefulness of some Southern politicians. Moreover, they feel that Americans are creating a vast amount of anti-white feeling throughout the world, which will make the dealings of the British with colored colonials pretty difficult. Many of them feel Americans presumptuous to talk of freedom for India in the face of the unsolved race problem in America. Perhaps no one here is more disturbed than Americans. But individuals cannot stand up alone. Friends, whom I knew in the USA, admit they are helpless. Yet white officers are daily sticking their necks out to make democracy vibrant and living within the Army. Such Army publications as Yank and Stars and Stripes are dramatizing the Negro soldier’s vital role in the war. Several white American seamen signed a petition protesting the barring of Negroes from a ballroom they visited. The one hopeful aspect of this situation is the fact that the noose of prejudice has not closed. The reason may be found in the fact that many of the most rabid anti-Negro American soldiers are now not so sure of their positions. They do not have wide public support for any show of racial hostility. S L Solon, an American reporter working for a London paper, relates a conversation which he overheard. It sums up the situation, tying it in a nice tight knot. ‘Personally,’ a town councillor said, ‘I have no feeling of race prejudice. I’ve been led to believe, however, that our relations with American white troops will be better if we conform to what I understand to be American practices of discrimination.’ The answer to that came from a white American officer. ‘Discrimination is not American,’ he said. ‘Even less so today, when we are fighting a war to preserve and extend democratic values in the world.’

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Category: Course and School Feeling stumped on how and where to begin with a school fundraiser? You need to think about the demographics of the target group. It is very important to consider who they are, what they enjoy, and how you can appeal to them to get their attention. School fundraisers have started to have a negative connotation in several circles, mostly among parents. The same old discarded magazines, over-priced peanut clusters and undersized-sized candy bars show up each year. With today’s economy, over-burdened parents are trying to maintain a budget and keep their money straight. Also, it’s no longer safe for elementary students to go door-to-door and sell to strangers, so the same relatives often feel obligated to buy fundraising items throughout the year. To make your life a little bit easier, here is a simple direction to ensure that your school fundraising events reach their goals and run smoothly. Once you’ve decided which school fundraiser to introduce this year, there area few things to prepare before it’s initiated. Here are a few suggestions on how to organize a fundraiser. Set your goals: Decide how much money you need to raise. Take into account all costs that you anticipate to acquire. On the other hand, determining how much you need to raise can be quite a job. It is also essential to have definite goals in mind. Managing a school fundraiser campaign with a vague goal will probably not get a lot of support by parents and students. Have individual group members volunteer to manage a specific task, such as promotion, form collection and product delivery. Announce your fundraiser to your group and community: Know how you will promote your school fundraiser. The easiest way to endorse a fundraiser is through ample communication. Be sure to send an informational letter home with your sales brochure to the parents well before the start of the event. Parents can be busy and sometimes things slip their mind. Send home flyers with group members, publish announcements in your school’s newsletter or community newspaper and make announcements in morning homeroom. Devise a sales incentive structure for your top-sellers: Decide what prizes you want to give away and begin acquiring them. The incentive used in a school fundraiser, will help more with the success of that fundraiser than any other factor. A school could almost sell five dollar bills for ten dollars and do very well if they motivate the students and parents correctly. At any rate, themost significant issuefor your group is to keep your members motivated about your event. Your group’s success depends on your ability to keep your members eager about winning prizes and raising money for the group’s goal. Use these steps to plan your events. If you plan your work and work your plan, everything will fall into place. Nowadays, occupational safety has become the need of the hour. That is why, these days Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has initiated an educational session which is known as OSHA training. Factually, this educational session is provided to the learners with an intention to offer security and safety to workers in their field area. It makes sure that the learners will understand certain scenarios for workplace safety of the learners as well as his/her co-workers. A number of organizations follow this rule of having OSHA training online to make sure that each of their employees is aware and know exactly how to deal with a certain situation, especially during emergency. Learning through web-based means is believed to be cost-effective and time-effective. While attending web-based 10 hr OSHA training session, the learners can clear all of their doubts to ask which they might have felt shy of in a classroom setting. This educational session enables an individual’s brain to work properly whenever there is a situation of organizational hazard. However, it is difficult to understand the situation and act upon it in a very short span of time, but, one needs to be aware and beware. Factually, the web-based courses are available at nominal costs, mostly are free of cost. One thing you have to do is search for the perfect website which is capable enough of providing the learner with the most appropriate knowledge. Many of the web-based 30 hr OSHA training is done to understand how the safety devices work. For example, the educational session must tell the learners how does fire extinguishers and other similar safety devices are used in the most efficient manner. This means that such an educational session will be considered effective only when each and every learner know how these tools work. However, before attending any web-based training session, it is essential to know how good and efficient the training provider is. To do this, you can check the testimonials written by the previous users. Also, you can go through the past comments through which you can get an idea about the performance of the training provider. In conclusion, we can say that the web-based educational sessions for occupational safety can ensure that you are completely armored to deal with any type of adverse situation. To learn something is a good thing but should take place in the right place with right equipments. To learn more about 10 hr OSHA training, feel free to visit: Medical Oversight. Are you confused about whether or not Riverside technical schools are the right choice for you? Well, make sure you read this entire article to get the scoop when considering the best school for your new career. First and foremost, it is vital to select an accredited school to make sure that the education you complete will be highly regarded by future employers. Unfortunately, some companies won’t take recent graduate from non-accredited institutions into consideration. The amount of funds required for accredited schools might be high, but be rest assured that the education will pay off in your favor. Another important factor is the admission and prerequisite requirements. This may include, but not limited to, having a minimum grade point average or some sort of entrance exam to ensure you are aligned with the objectives of the technical school. Some Riverside technical colleges, for example, have rigorous academic entrance requirements. Therefore, make sure that you are willing to put forth the hard work or consider another school with much less requirements. Size and availability of classes is also a major consideration for technical programs for most applicants. This is especially true for individuals that have obligations during the day. Some Riverside technical schools will have more flexible class schedules versus others. Do your research right the first time so that you don’t end up overwhelmed with too much work and burning yourself out. The decision of choosing the best technical school in Riverside is not an easy task. Therefore, it’s important to utilize the internet, newspapers and other advertisements in your area to do your research and select the best school for your needs. Once you have decided on the best technical school to pursue for your medical career the next thing is to prepare yourself for the work that awaits you. In the UK Teaching Assistants are still not officially required to hold any formal qualifications. However, in reality most schools now only fill new Teaching Assistant posts with qualified people. This means completing a Teaching Assistant Course is a good move. Finding the correct Teaching Assistant course for you takes a little of your time and some careful research. There are 2 main kinds of Teaching Assistant courses available. They are divided up into work related or work based courses, a subtle but important difference. Which course you can take depends on your personal work circumstances. The NVQ courses are all work based. To qualify to do an NVQ course you need to currently be working in a classroom, in an assistance role. You will also need to find a teacher or a similar person to act as a mentor for you. Your role at the school need not be a paid role you could just be working at the school as a volunteer. Instead of taking an NVQ course you could choose to take a BTEC course instead. Like the NVQ a BTEC course is work based, so you must be working in a classroom to complete the course. There are 3 levels of BTEC course, which is right for you depends on your current level of responsibility and how experienced you are. In order to take a BTEC course you usually need to have passed a few GCSEs or equivalent qualifications. There are several other Teaching Assistant Certification or Diploma courses that do not require you to be currently working in a classroom. These are considered to be work related courses. You can take these courses remotely without stepping foot in a classroom, however at the end of most of these courses you are usually assessed in a classroom environment. The DSW school program is the Clinical Doctorate in Social Work program. The degree is designed to prepare students for advanced clinical practice as well as university-level teaching and research. The Clinical Doctorate in Social Work is geared toward the clinical practice and university-level teaching career path. One also can focus on social welfare as well as scholastic studies and research. Penn Social Policy & Practice is a school in Philadelphia, PA. They are dedicated to contributing to the advancement of more effective, efficient, and humane human services through education, research, and civil engagement. This has been around for approximately one hundred years and has an excellent reputation. Penns Clinical DSW program is one of the most unique programs in the US. The program is geared toward working professionals. University of Penn offers an intensive, accelerated program that allows students to satisfy all degree requirements, including the dissertation, in three years with minimal disruption in their current career. A few other reputable institutions you can attend that offer the DSW school program are the Columbia University School of Social Work or Hunter College School of Social Work in New York City. The Columbia University School of Social Work offers doctoral studies and advanced courses. Many graduates of the DSW program attend this school with their focus on research, administration, and policy analysis. The Hunter College School of Social Work is a public institution offering a diverse selection of Social Work degrees. It was established in 1958 and accredited through the Council on Social Work Education. Most graduates from the MSW and DSW programs offered attain positions as clinicians, educators, administrators, policy makers or researchers. Both school programs take roughly two to three years to complete the PhD program for social work plus additional time for writing the dissertation. Remember, the doctoral degrees offered by these educational institutes in the field of social work are intended for experienced practitioners seeking to further their careers through more in-depth training in research and policy analysis. Social work practitioners who are looking to move into research and teaching often choose this program. However, some students enter the program with the goal of continuing in leadership roles in either agency-based or self-employed social work practices. Often times these individuals will still teach part-time in a school or a department of social work while collaborating on research with their academic colleagues. The DSW school program offers exciting advancements, and you can take advantage of the program at many colleges and universities throughout the United States. One thing that students detest the most during their school lives is school exams. Under the current Indian education system, school exams are usually considered as the most reliable means of assessing a students progress. Undoubtedly paper & pencil exams are important ways of assessing students understanding of concepts, but relying solely on paper-pencil based assessments as the only way to test how much a child knows may not be right. There are various ways other than school exams that can prove immensely helpful in assessing students progress in schools. Teachers can also assess students through various classroom activities like discussions, debates, practical assignments etc. However, these techniques of assessing could possibly be time consuming and also require the teacher to be very insightful about child psychology. These techniques require teachers to practice strict caution against biases coming into play and demand from the teacher to be a lot more patient, so as to allow students to become comfortable with the set-up. Changes introduced by CBSE in its assessment system Unlike the other educational boards in India that still continue to rely solely on paper & pencil school exams to evaluate how much the student has understood, CBSE has made an attempt to move away from this system. Under the new scheme (CCE) adopted by CBSE, along with the paper & pencil tests (summative assessments) students are also evaluated through various classroom activities (i.e. formative assessments) like quizzes, presentations, etc. CCE also lays a lot of emphasis on the assessment of students in co-scholastics areas that contributes to the holistic development of student. In light of all the attempts made by the CCE to bring freshness into the education system, care has been taken not to undermine the importance of the traditional testing system (based on paper & pencil tests). How to prepare for school exams? In order to excel in school exams (formative assessments and paper-pencil tests) it is very important for students to be attentive in the class. Being attentive and focused in the class helps students to effectively understand the concept; as a result it helps them perform well in the classroom discussions. Whereas for the summative assessments it is very important for students to extensively go through the study material and understand all the concepts thoroughly. After understanding the concepts, the next important step is to test your understanding by taking chapter-wise tests. There are a few websites that provide such tests for students studying under CBSE, ICSE, Karnataka, Maharashtra & Tamil Nadu boards. The chapter-wise tests available on such sites are in multiple-choice & question-answer formats that ensure thorough testing. Apart from these chapter-wise tests, students should also try their hand at sample papers/ model tests available at such websites. These mock exams can also help students test their exam taking skills. Wishing you all the best for your school exams! Coming up with the perfect school fundraiser can seem like a headache but there are plenty of ideas around that, if you run throughout the year, can raise thousands of dollars for your school. You may want to stage something that hasn’t been done before, but the tried and tested ways of raising funds are often the best. Whether it’s a raffle, casual day or pie drive, rest assured parents won’t have a problem with putting their hand in their pockets and donating some of their hard-earned. Listed below are just a few ways that will help you raise funds. Bear in mind that there a whole host of other fundraisers out there you really are only limited by your imagination! Buy a basket for each class in the school and choose a theme such as sport, chocolate or something seasonal like summer or winter items. Contact local businesses to see if they can donate items relating to the theme, and sell raffle tickets for each basket. If every class takes part, you school will be able to make quite a profit especially if you do more than one a year. If, like everyone else out there, you need to do a thorough clean out of your house, why not pool everything you’d like to discard and have a garage sale? In this case, one person’s junk can definitely become your school’s treasure. The school will get 100 percent of the profit, and you get a cleaner house! Organise the garage sale for a weekend, where you can also combine it with another fundraising element such as a cake sale. There are quite a few companies such as Cadbury and Mars that will sell organisations cheap chocolate that you can on-sell to raise money. Although it’s not the healthiest option, the popularity of the sweet tooth will help you raise money quickly and easily. Ever popular, Entertainment Books are a fantastic way to raise funds. They provide a whole host of coupons and discounts (usually between 25-50%) on local restaurants, stores, and entertainment, and represent excellent value that can be taken advantage of throughout the year. You can expect to raise about $16 from each book sold. Ask a local restaurant, hall or bar to donate a room and hold a trivia night. Youll need to develop a list of questions (or buy them from the internet) and incorporate another fundraising element, like having a raffle or a jelly bean guessing competition. You can charge entry into the evening and add a theme to make it more fun. Students love going to school and not wearing a uniform, so why not turn this day into an important one on your fundraising calendar? Charge each student $2 for the privilege of not wearing a uniform once a term. Lots of people are looking for medical billing and coding courses in New Jersey. Working in the healthcare field can provide people with a steady income, job security and benefits that are unmatched by many other industries. With widespread changes to healthcare laws in the United States and more people being required to obtain insurance, the demand for people that can do this kind of work is expected to increase over the next few years. What does the course cover? Not everyone that enters this kind of program will have a background working in any kind of office. Some students will be entering the program directly from high school. For this reason, it can be important to find a course that addresses the basics to working in an office such as effective communication. Telephone etiquette, making appointments, and records management are things that people should look for. Another issue that needs to be included is medical terminology. Insurance billing will require this so that all procedures can be described. People will need to be able to understand not only what part of the body is being talked about but also what procedure has been done. Most people that enter these programs will have basic computer knowledge. There should be some discussion about computer use in the course because of the heavy use of computers in this field. Additionally people will want to find courses that specifically deal with electronic patient records. These are becoming widespread and will be the industry standard in the near future as more medical facilities convert patient records over to the new systems. People will also need to know how to transmit medical records safely so that no information is compromised.HIPAA regulations have very specific requirements for the handling and dissemination of patient information and anyone that works in the medical field has to be aware of this. Tuition and costs Many people that enter these programs will be able to pay for the courses outright while others may pay part of the tuition with cash and put the rest on a credit card. Others may need additional assistance. Some schools provide a way for students to pay in installments. This can often be stretched out over the length of the course to make it more affordable for some students. A few may offer some form of scholarship program to some students, which can reduce the cost of tuition. For more information about medical billing and coding courses in new jersey , please visit our website. There are many options available for those looking to buy a new camera. Some cameras are better suited to professional use, while others are perfect for capturing pictures from your weekend getaway. When you make the purchase, though, you are purchasing a tool that will allow you to capture incredible images. If you want to learn how to use the camera to its full potential or learn how to use it to create art, you should consider the benefits of photography courses. These courses have something to offer photographers at all skill levels, and picking the right course can change the way that you use your camera. Learning to Use Your Camera Cameras are expensive devices. Unfortunately, some buyers buy an expensive camera only to find that they have no idea how to use the product. While this might leave you with a quality device, it also leaves you with little more than an attractive paperweight. If you do decide to buy a camera, you should always make sure that you purchase a device that is at your skill level. If you really want to get the most out of one of those new Nikon cameras, you are best served by taking a photography course that can teach you how to use them correctly. You might not learn how to create art, but you will learn how to justify your purchase. Of course, some truly do want to use those new Nikon cameras to create art, and photography courses can help to teach you quite a bit about the process. Photography courses can offer students many advantages that a textbook cannot, especially when it comes to the actual art of photocomposition. Working with an experienced teacher can help you learn the various techniques used to get the most out of a single picture, and it can help you to learn how to make the most out of your camera purchase. Honing Your Skills Even if you already know quite a bit about using a camera, it is likely that your skills can still use a little work. You might be a professional photographer or an individual who participates in amateur competitions, but good photography courses can help you to hone your current abilities. You might learn about new apertures or lenses that can make a huge difference in your picture quality, or you might just be able to brush up on those basic techniques that you have left far in the past. No matter what, though, there is a better chance of becoming a photographer if you spend time working with a professional. No matter what your intentions, though, these courses will give you the knowledge necessary to take better pictures. If you are willing to invest in a camera that is more than just a disposable toy, it is always worth your time and your money to make sure that you know how to use it to its fullest potential. The city of Nawabs beckons you into an era of warm hospitality. The capital of the State of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow has probably one of the most refined and polite people in the nation. Home to the Nawabs of Avadh, Lucknow reflects the refined tastes and royal pastimes that is so much a part of Lucknow. The cultural hub of India, Lucknow is famous all over the world for its performing arts in the form of court dances, Urdu verse that have become popular as popular ghazals and its cuisine which are absolutely legendary. Lucknow has a number of government and private schools spread out across the city. These schools are affiliated to the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) or the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE). Lucknow has a variety of Montessori Schools, Convent Schools and Government Schools, but the Government- aided schools are all affiliated to the State Board. Most of the top schools in Lucknow, have English or Hindi as the medium of instruction. Some State run schools also follow a bilingual combination of Hindi and Urdu as their medium of instruction. Most schools either only cater to the primary level or the senior secondary level which is as per the board the 10+2 level. On the whole, Lucknow has a reputation of imparting standard education to its students. Some of the popular and best schools in Lucknow are: Baby Marteen Intl School, Baby Martin International School, Awadh Public School, Loreto High School and Delhi Public School. The nurseries that are attached to the mainstream schools are more in demand than those that dont have higher classes attached to them. If you are a parent and are worried about your childs admission in Lucknow, OSA invites you to get online and we will do everything for you right from giving you a choice of schools in Lucknow through our online school directory to scheduling an interview for your child from a number of schools. Admissions couldnt get easier, but then, thats because OSA understands parental woes that crop up during admission and is dedicated to ease the load off your shoulders.

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Design, patients and setting: Cohort study by medical record review of children aged 0–17 years referred during 2003–2011 for management at the GID clinic in a tertiary paediatric referral centre — the Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria. Results: Thirty-nine children and adolescents were referred for gender dysphoria. Seventeen individuals were pubertal with persistent GID, and were considered eligible for hormone treatment. Seven patients, comprising three biological males and four biological females, had legally endorsed hormone treatment. In this group, gender dysphoria was first noted at 3–6 years of age. Hormone treatment with GnRH analogue to suppress pubertal progression (phase 1) was given at 10–16 years of age. Treatment with cross-sex hormones (phase 2) was given at 15.6–16 years. One patient purchased cross-sex hormone treatment overseas. One patient received oestrogen and progesterone for menstrual suppression before phase 1. The annual frequency of new referrals increased continuously over the study period. Individuals with gender identity disorder (GID) have a persistent and profound discomfort with their biological sex and a strong identification with the gender of the opposite sex. The diagnosis can be made when this is manifested by unrelenting cross-gender thought and behaviour.1,2 Children as young as 3 years of age may experience gender dysphoria and cross-gender behaviour; however, only 16% of these children will continue to have persistent GID in adolescence and adulthood.3 In the group with profound and persisting cross-gender identification it is characteristic for severe distress to be exacerbated at the onset of puberty, due to revulsion toward unwanted physical changes. Of the larger group of children who do not continue to have persistent GID in adolescence and adulthood, it is reported that 42% will eventually identify as homosexual or bisexual.4 In addition to ongoing psychological support, peripubertal adolescents with persistent GID may be given hormonal treatment using gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue to suppress puberty once it has commenced, followed later by cross-sex hormone therapy to promote physical development in the affirmed gender.5 Current evidence suggests that when a strict assessment and clinical protocol is followed, hormone treatment to suspend the development of puberty is associated with a good outcome and a low rate of regret.3,6-8 The rationale for hormone treatment to suppress puberty is to reduce the psychological distress associated with unwanted pubertal development in the biological sex (which can result in hormonal self-medication, self-harm or suicide).9 This allows additional time for continued psychological support during the process of either resolving gender dysphoria or coping with its persistence, and to prevent irreversible secondary sex changes, which may be difficult to address later on and may significantly compromise adjustment in adulthood. Specialist clinics for child and adolescent GID have been established in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and several European countries. International consensus guidelines for hormonal treatment of adolescents with GID have been published10 and subsequently endorsed by the Australasian Paediatric Endocrine Group;11 and standards of care for children and adolescents with GID have also been published.12 At present, authorisation from the Family Court of Australia is required before commencement of hormone treatment leading toward gender reassignment in patients aged under 18 years. Past legal judgments have defined this treatment a “special medical procedure”, whereby parents are not able to consent to treatment on behalf of a child and the court acts to ensure valid informed consent. Australia is the only country with this requirement, and the legal costs incurred in seeking medical treatment of GID in an adolescent are borne by the family. Over the past 10 years, the number of children with gender dysphoria referred to the Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne (RCHM) has steadily increased. To provide a more comprehensive treatment program in Victoria, an interdisciplinary clinical group was formed in collaboration with Monash Medical Centre. The process for psychological and medical treatment of children and adolescents with GID established in Melbourne accords with international guidelines (Box 1).10-13 We reviewed the experience of hormone treatment of GID in children and adolescents at RCHM over the 8-year period since it commenced in 2003. In particular, we aimed to outline the clinical characteristics of the patient population, the treatment provided and frequency of referrals over time. Children and adolescents referred to RCHM for gender dysphoria during 2003–2011 were included in the study. Patient medical records were reviewed. Data were collected for gender transition, age at commencement of gender dysphoria, age at referral, date of referral, family and medical history, hormone treatment eligibility, treatment application and outcome, treatment prescribed, age at treatment commencement and duration of follow-up. Records of the Family Court of Australia were searched via the Australasian Legal Information Institute database for judgments related to special medical procedures, and recorded cases were verified against the study cohort. During 2003 to 2011, 39 children and adolescents were referred to the service and assessed. Of these, 18 patients were pre-adolescent and continued to have ongoing developmental psychological counselling. Twenty-one were either approaching puberty or pubertal, and were referred to a second psychiatrist for formal confirmation of a diagnosis of GID. Adolescent patients with persistent GID were then assessed by a paediatric endocrinologist. The adolescent group comprised 13 biological males and eight biological females. In the group of 21 adolescents reviewed for consideration of hormone treatment, the mean age at which GID was first perceived to be a problem was 3.26 ± 1.11 years. The mean age at presentation for GID assessment to any member of the service was 10.0 ± 4.13 years. Two of the adolescents were from dizygotic same-sex twin sibships, discordant for GID. During independent psychiatric evaluation, all 21 adolescents reported symptoms of anxiety or depression. Suicidal ideation was also reported. Many children expressed an intense sense of revulsion towards parts of their bodies and wished to have their genitals cut or modified. Other comorbid psychiatric disorders were present in five children. These included obsessional disorders in two, and Asperger syndrome in three, including patients of both biological sexes. There was a reported family history of homosexuality or gender dysphoria in first- or second-degree relatives in four of 12 children for whom detailed family history data were recorded. Of the 21 adolescents reviewed for consideration for hormone treatment, four experienced resolution of gender dysphoria or acceptance of gender variance with ongoing psychological counselling. Seventeen adolescents experienced persistence of profound GID with increased distress following commencement of puberty and were therefore considered eligible for hormone treatment. In this subset of eligible patients, 11 had made or planned to make an application to the Family Court for hormone treatment. As the families are required to themselves apply for court approval, in all cases the child was supported in their application by at least one parent. Reasons for not seeking court-approved hormone treatment included: age close to 18 years (when court approval is not required) in two cases, court financial cost in two cases, family not supporting hormone treatment in one case and one affirmed female patient who purchased oestrogen independently overseas without court approval. Seven patients (three biological males and four biological females) commenced court-approved hormone treatment. In this group, gender dysphoria was first noted at 3–6 years of age. Treatment with GnRH analogue to suppress pubertal progression (phase 1) was started at 10–16 years of age. Cross-sex hormones (phase 2) were introduced at 15.6–16 years. Four patients received both GnRH analogue and cross-sex hormones, two had GnRH analogue alone and two had only cross-sex hormones. One patient also received continuous oral oestrogen and progesterone followed by depot medroxyprogesterone acetate for menstrual suppression before phase 1 treatment with GnRH analogue. Five patients commenced medical intervention before completion of puberty in their biological sex. All patients who had phase 1 treatment went on to have phase 2 therapy when eligible. Our review showed that while cross-gender identification was noted in all patients from about 3 years of age, children did not present to our specialist service until a mean age of 10 years. Many families reported difficulty in finding specialists in this field; some medical and paramedical clinicians had previously rejected these patients from care. Our experience was that patients and their families were relieved to find specialist health care providers for paediatric GID. Of the patients considered eligible for hormone treatment, many wished to commence treatment urgently, with the court approving phase 2 treatment in one child at 15.6 years (younger than the current guideline of 16 years). The number of referrals increased over the study period and, based on international experience,14 is expected to rise further. We believe this increase is due to improved awareness of a medical service for children with GID, rather than any increase in the incidence of the disorder. In addition to the increasing numbers of new referrals, more than half of our patients are yet to reach puberty. Development of expertise in this area, including good transitional services to adult care, is necessary. There have been a number of challenges involved in establishing a treatment service for children with GID, from administrative concerns such as the gender and name assigned on the medical record, to comorbid diagnosis concerns, restrictions on Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme funding for hormone therapy, and appropriate choice of treatment dependent on physical and mental developmental stage. For example, GnRH analogue treatment, when used to suppress pubertal progression in a distressed peripubertal young person, provides more useful time for psychological counselling, but in a postpubertal biological female, simple suppression of menses using continuous treatment with the oral contraceptive pill may be more appropriate. While a clear management protocol has been developed, much consideration is required for each individual case. Due to the specialised nature of assessment and treatment, most cases nationally have been referred to RCHM when hormone treatment is considered. To the best of our knowledge, adolescents who received hormone treatment at RCHM during the period studied represent the entire population of children receiving puberty suppression and cross-gender hormone treatment for GID in Australia. Psychological causations have been proposed, however the precise aetiology of profound GID is not known. Biological factors may also be significant in causation of childhood GID, and a heritable component has been suggested by twin association studies.15,16 We noted comorbid behavioural disorders in one-quarter of children, with Asperger syndrome in one in seven. An association between paediatric GID and autism spectrum disorders has previously been reported, however the mechanism is also unknown.17,18 Concerns exist regarding the long-term outcome following hormone treatment of children and adolescents with GID.19 Evidence from larger international cohorts suggests behavioural problems and depression improve in the period following pubertal suppression, but anxiety, anger, and gender dysphoria may remain unchanged.8 The long-term psychological and health outcomes of cross-sex hormone treatment are unknown, as is the rate of “regret” with reversal of gender identity. These concerns, along with issues relating to the ability of a child or his or her parents to consent to such significant medical treatment, contribute to legal involvement in medical decision making in this area. The unfortunate corollary to this is that, as the financial burden of legal involvement is borne by the family and the process itself can be extremely stressful, some families have elected not to pursue hormone treatment, simply to avoid the complicated and costly legal process. These do not seem equitable or just reasons for restricting a young person’s access to medical care. Furthermore, a young person observing the distress that court application causes for the parents may feel uncomfortable expressing any doubts they have regarding hormone treatment. There is a growing body of literature on the management of GID in children, including internationally established consensus treatment guidelines, and keeping abreast of the scientific literature is a priority in clinical management. Because data on long-term outcomes are limited, assessment and treatment must be rigorous. We suggest that treatment should occur within specialised clinics where there are established clinical protocols in place, in a shared care arrangement with clinicians at remote sites if required. In practice, very close collaboration is required between psychiatrists, endocrinologists and gynaecologists, with regular case conferencing and clinical group meetings to discuss management, establish and audit process, and review new literature. Consultation with legal counsel and clinical ethicists is also required. Providing treatment to suspend the development of normal puberty may present an ethical dilemma for some physicians. Due to the complexity of treatment, we have established a stringent process of assessment and management within a clinical service for children with GID, and details can be found at http://www.rch.org.au/outpatient/directory/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.full&id=127. The response of clinicians to children with gender dysphoria has been varied, with some specialist practitioners who are willing to provide medical care encountering unclear referral and management pathways. We support the establishment of specialised, formal paediatric GID services within tertiary paediatric centres elsewhere in Australia, according to similar protocols and guidelines. The experience of growing up in a body which feels alien is difficult and confusing. Profound GID represents a mental health crisis in childhood, with implications for problematic psychosocial and relationship development throughout life. Our experience is consistent with reports from international centres — that children and adolescents with GID suffer with a great burden of morbidity, and are deserving of optimal medical care. However, in view of the significance of hormonal treatment and the still emerging evidence base, rigorous assessment and follow-up is essential, along with the stringent auditing and publication of outcomes. 1 Current procedure for treating children and adolescents with GID who are referred to the RCHM Gender Identity Service Parents who suspect their child is experiencing gender dysphoria can seek help from a range of health or educational professionals, who may then refer to mental health clinicians within the RCHM Gender Identity Service. A full psychiatric assessment follows, with the aim of engaging the child or adolescent in ongoing psychotherapy. For young adolescents entering puberty with profound and persisting GID, there may be discussions about the possibility of delaying progression of puberty. The current procedure, consistent with published protocol,13 involves two independent child and adolescent psychiatrists undertaking a standardised assessment of psychological development, and a formal assessment of the child’s gender identification and capacity to understand any proposed treatment. A formal diagnosis of persistent GID may be made if the young person meets the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition.1 A paediatric endocrinologist establishes pubertal staging, excludes disorders of sex development, and counsels regarding the reversible and irreversible effects and risks of hormonal treatment in eligible patients. Patient handouts and consent forms have been developed to assist with this (Box 2). Fertility counselling is provided by a gynaecologist or andrologist before application for clinical ethics review and Family Court authorisation of treatment. Phase 1 hormone treatment to suppress puberty can occur from Tanner pubertal stage 2–3. Phase 2 cross-gender hormone treatment can be given from age 16 years. 2 Effects of hormone treatment of GID in adolescence* Slower bone density accrual with catch-up at pubertal induction Slower growth with catch-up at pubertal induction Breast development and feminine body habitus Testicular softening and shrinkage Growth plate maturation with possible final height reduction Effects on mood, migraine headache, liver function, prolactin level and thromboembolism risk Muscle bulk increase Voice deepening (irreversible) Clitoral growth and increased erections Reduction or suppression of menses Growth plate maturation with possible final height reduction Effects on mood, erythrocytosis, lipid profile, liver function, polycystic ovaries, possible endometrial or ovarian cancer Received 3 February 2012, accepted 12 April 2012 - 1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2000. - 2. World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992. - 3. Steensma TD, Biemond R, Boer FD, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Desisting and persisting gender dysphoria after childhood: A qualitative follow-up study. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 16: 499-516. - 4. Wallien MSC, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47: 1413-1423. - 5. Gooren LJ. Clinical practice. Care of transsexual persons. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1251-1257. - 6. Delemarre-van de Waal HA, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Clinical management of gender identity disorder in adolescents: a protocol on psychological and paediatric endocrinology aspects. Eur J Endocrinol 2006; 155: S131-S137. - 7. Kreukels BPC, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Puberty suppression in gender identity disorder: the Amsterdam experience. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011; 7: 466-472. - 8. Cohen-Kettenis PT, Schagen SEE, Steensma TD, et al. Puberty suppression in a gender-dysphoric adolescent: a 22-year follow-up. Arch Sex Behav 2011; 40: 843-847. - 9. de Vries ALC, Steensma TD, Doreleijers TAH, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Puberty suppression in adolescents with gender identity disorder: a prospective follow-up study. J Sex Med 2011; 8: 2276-2283. - 10. Cohen-Kettenis PT, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, Gooren LJG. The treatment of adolescent transsexuals: changing insights. J Sex Med 2008; 5: 1892-1897. - 11. Hembree WC, Cohen-Kettenis P, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, et al; Endocrine Society. Endocrine treatment of transsexual persons: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 3132-3154. - 12. Australasian Paediatric Endocrine Group Disorders of Sex Development Working Group. Position statement and management guidelines. Gender Identity Disorder Guidelines. 2010. http://www.apeg.org.au/PositionStatementManagementGuidelines/tabid/87/Default.aspx (accessed Apr 2012). - 13. World Professional Association for Transgender Health. Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people. 7th version. 2011. http://www.wpath.org/publications_standards.cfm (accessed Apr 2012). - 14. Coolidge FL, Thede LL, Young SE. The heritability of gender identity disorder in a child and adolescent twin sample. Behav Genet 2002; 32: 251-257. - 15. Heylens G, De Cuypere G, Zucker, KJ, et al. Gender identity disorder in twins: a review of the case report literature. J Sex Med 2012; 9: 751-757. - 16. de Vries A, Noens I, Cohen-Kettenis P. Autism spectrum disorders in gender dysphoric children and adolescents. J Autism Dev Disord 2010; 40: 930-936. - 17. Kraemer B, Delsignore A, Gundelfinger R, et al. Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome and gender identity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 14: 292-296. - 18. Spack NP, Edwards-Leeper L, Feldman HA, et al. Children and adolescents with gender identity disorder referred to a pediatric medical center. Pediatrics 2012; 129: 418-425. - 19. Korte A, Lehmkuhl U, Goecker D, et al. Gender identity disorders in childhood and adolescence: currently debated concepts and treatment strategies. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2008; 105: 834-841. Publication of your online response is subject to the Medical Journal of Australia's editorial discretion. You will be notified by email within five working days should your response be accepted.

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Worksheet by software a scatter plot. x y x y, , , , , , , , x y x y x y.. construct a scatter plot. find the form of the equation of the line that best fits the data.Have each group create data and a data display that is not a line plot and also write questions similar to the questions you asked during this lesson to create a worksheet for another group. 52. Worksheet Fractions Line Plot Freebie Worksheets Grade 53. Line Plot Worksheets Common Core Graph 54. 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- Who is this brochure for - What is cancer - The female sexual organs - Cervical cancer - Early detection - The cervical smear - Treatment in an early stage - Less risk of cancer - Have you any questions? This brochure is published by the Information department of the Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign/ KWF If this brochure is more than 3 years old, ask whether there is a newer version. The brochure is printed on environmentally friendly paper. Each year in the Netherlands, cervical cancer is diagnosed in about 750 women. Cervical cancer is a sort of cancer which can be detected very early using a simple test. That test is the cervical smear. Whenever cervical cancer is detected and treated in a woman at a very early stage, then the chance of being cured is almost 100 per cent. This brochure is intended for women who want to know more about the cervical smear test. The following questions are discussed: - What is cervical cancer and what is known about the causes? - What is a cervical smear and who is tested? - How is a cervical smear test done? - What is the significance of the classification given to the test result? - How is a pre-stage of cervical cancer treated? If you have any other questions about the cervical smear, then you should discuss them with your general practitioner. You can also contact one of the information centres listed in the back of this brochure. Each year some 61,000 Dutch people are diagnosed with cancer. There are more than one hundred different sorts of cancer. Each sort of cancer is a different disease, but they all have one thing in common: there is an unlimited division of abnormal cells. In time this threatens our health. The body of an adult consists of billions of cells. These cells go old or become damaged and then have to be replaced. Children need new cells to grow. Per hour our body makes millions of cells. New cells arise from the division of cells, so that one cell becomes two new ones. If temporarily somewhere in our body no new cells are needed, then cell division ceases. Our body regulates that itself. Cancer cells show all kinds of abnormalities. These result amongst other things in our body being unable to stop the division of cancer cells. More and more abnormal cells are produced. Over a period of time a malignant tumour will develop. Other abnormalities in the cancer cells allow the tumour to be able to grow within surrounding tissue. There it causes damage and disturbs the functioning of our body. Cancer cells can also break loose from the tumour and using lymph fluid and/or blood for transportation, can finish up in other parts of our body. There the cells keep dividing. This causes new tumours : secondaries. The medical word for these is : metastases. Blood cells and lymph cells can also change into cancer cells. The large numbers of abnormal cells upsets the working of the blood and/or lymph. An example of cancer of the blood cells is leukaemia; an example of cancer of the lymph system is Hodgkin’s disease. There are also benign tumours. In that case there is no cancer. A benign tumour does not grow within surrounding tissues and there are no secondaries. An example of a benign tumour is a fat tumour (the medical name is lipoma). A benign tumour can however also cause symptoms that make treatment necessary. The female sexual organs include the womb (uterus), the ovaries and the Fallopian tubes. These organs lie in the lowest part of the abdomen (the lower pelvis). The womb is shaped like an upside -down pear. On either side of it lie the ovaries and the Fallopian tubes. The Fallopian tubes link the ovaries and the womb. These organs are held in place in the abdomen by supporting tissue. The womb consist of the main body of the womb and the neck of the womb. The neck of the womb forms the link between the body of the womb and the vagina; the cervix lies at the outer end of the neck of the womb. The body of the womb is lined inside with mucous membrane, which is broken down monthly – during menstruation (period). The neck of the womb and the cervix are also lined with mucous membrane. This is not broken down during the menstrual period. The mucous membrane in the neck of womb consists of a different type of cells than the mucous membrane in the cervix. At the place where these two sorts of cells meet there is a boundary. Illustration Female sexual organs - Fallopian tube - main body of womb - neck of the womb Cervical cancer occurs usually in cells in the mucous membrane on the boundary of the neck of the womb and the cervix. This generally takes place very slowly: the time between the first abnormal cell and the moment that cervical cancer actually occurs can be 10 to 15 years. To start with there are a few abnormal cells. At this point in time there is no cancer present. The cells are completely harmless. Moreover they often disappear by themselves. If the number of abnormal cells increases, then after a while a pre-stage of cervical cancer arises. The disorder is at this stage very limited and can with a simple method of treatment be treated effectively. If this pre-stage remains untreated, then cervical cancer is the consequence. To begin with the cancer cells are in a so-called initial stage. After treatment the chance of a cure at such an initial stage is almost 100 per cent. Even if the cervical cancer has progressed further, there is after treatment a good chance of a cure. This does however reduce the more that the disease has progressed and spread. Cervical cancer occurs in women of all ages, but mostly in women between 35 to 45 years old. Nowadays this sort of cancer is being found at somewhat younger ages than before. For each sort of cancer, certain circumstances can increase the risk of the disease. A virus, the human papilloma virus, often plays a role in the occurrence of cervical cancer. This virus is transmitted through sexual intercourse. The more varied the sexual contacts, the greater the chance of transmitting the virus. On the whole the human immune system will see off these sorts of viruses. Sometimes the virus still gets through. The virus can then cause changes to occur in the cells of the cervix. In a number of cases this leads to cervical cancer. Whenever a woman has cervical cancer, this should not lead automatically to the conclusion that she or her partner has (had) by definition a variety of sexual contacts. Cervical cancer seems to occur more frequently among women who smoke than among women who don’t smoke. Smoking affects the immune system whereby the body is more susceptible to disease agents. Research is still going on into the use of the pill and the possible risk of cervical cancer. The results up till now give no reason for advising against the use of the pill because of a possible risk of cervical cancer. Just like the majority of sorts of cancer, cervical cancer is not hereditary. Nor is cervical cancer infectious. There is, therefore, no risk that the partner would acquire some sort of cancer through sexual intercourse. Changes in the cells of the neck of the womb do not lead in the first instance to symptoms. The first sign that a woman would notice is an unusual bloody discharge. It does not always have to be real bleeding. If there is only a small amount of blood lost this produces a brownish discharge. Sometimes a woman will only notice a few brownish streaks. In all cases it concerns blood loss outside the normal menstrual period: - Thus blood loss can occur during or shortly after sexual intercourse. This is called contact bleeding. Any tumour present on the cervix can bleed as a result of sexual intercourse. Nevertheless contact bleeding can also occur in women using the pill without any abnormalities being present. - Bleeding or a bloody discharge can also occur between two menstrual periods. - Women who have already experienced the menopause can also suddenly be confronted with bleeding. This is sometimes confused with a sudden reappearance of menstruation. If, however, a woman has not menstruated for about a year, then such bleeding is not considered as normal menstruation. For all unusual bleeding, investigation by the general practitioner is necessary to find out precisely what is happening. The general practitioner will perform an internal examination and take a cervical smear. Using a cervical smear test changes in the neck of the womb can be detected before they give rise to symptoms. This makes the cervical smear a suitable method for the early detection of cervical cancer. General screening programme Until recently women between 35 and 55 years old were invited once every three years to have a cervical smear test carried out by their general practitioner. Scientific research has revealed that the cervical smear test is most useful between the ages of 30 and 60. This research also showed that most of the abnormalities were detected in time using a cervical smear test every five years. Of course, women with symptoms should have the test done earlier. Within in the framework of scientific research a test has been developed which shows up the virus in a smear. At present, research is still on-going as to whether women in whom this virus is found should be monitored more frequently. Also research will test whether women without the virus can be monitored less often. This test is still not yet suitable for use on a large scale, such as screening large populations. Before the test is taken, your general practitioner will ask a few questions, like: - Do you use a contraceptive? If yes, which one (pill, condom, IUD. Dutch cap, contraceptive injection)? - Do you still have regular periods? If yes, when was the last menstruation? - Do you have children? If yes, how many? - Are you bothered by any unusual loss of blood from the vagina: - between menstrual periods; - during or after sexual intercourse; - if you have had not had a menstrual period for more than a year? Even a small amount of blood loss – sometimes no more than a brownish discharge – are worth mentioning. All these issues play a role in the assessment of the cervical smear. That is why you are asked about them. To have a cervical smear taken you have to lie on an examination table. You keep your legs bent and rest your feet on the table. Some doctors have an examination table with special leg supports. To allow the cervix to be seen properly it is necessary to open the vagina a little wider. That is done using a metal or plastic instrument called a speculum. It looks a bit like a duck’s bill. First the speculum is held under a lukewarm tap so that it is not so cold to bring it in. Thereafter the instrument is carefully inserted, still closed, into the vagina (A). Then the speculum is slowly opened. In this way the cervix can be easily seen. It is now possible to take the cervical smear. This is usually done using a wooden spatula, sometimes a little brush is used. The point of the spatula is placed in the cervix and fully rotated once. In this way some mucous with cells is scraped from the cervix. (B) The mucous is smeared on a glass plate (C) Hence the term ‘smear’. It is then almost always sprayed with a fluid, called fixative, to preserve the cervical smear better; this is called fixation. The test is then finished. The speculum is closed and removed from the vagina. (D) On the whole having a cervical smear taken is painless. It is handy to take the following points into account: - The test is easier to perform if the bladder is empty and you relax your abdomen. - Removing the mucous can create a somewhat sickening sensation. - If you have not (or rarely) had sexual intercourse, then you should state so when having this test. Then a smaller speculum will be used. In this way the test can also be carried out painlessly in women with a somewhat narrower vagina. - Sometime there may be a little blood loss afterwards. This is however of no significance. The glass slide with the cervical smear is sent together with your details to a laboratory. There it is examined under a microscope. The cells in the cervical smear show whether the cervix is healthy or whether there are abnormalities. If abnormal cells are found, it does not always mean that there is cancer. A short-lived infection can also produce abnormal cells. In general it is several weeks before the result is known. Ask your doctor, when the cervical smear is done, about when you can telephone for the result. Repeat cervical smear Sometimes a cervical smear has to be repeated. That does not mean automatically that something serious has been found. It is also possible that the first smear was not done properly. For example, if there are too few cells in the mucous smear, then the smear cannot be assessed properly. Also if there is a bit of blood in the smear, then a second smear is sometimes necessary. It is therefore better not to have a smear test done if you are having a period. If a smear test needs to be repeated within a short period of time, you can always ask why it is needed. Making and assessing a cervical smear is a investigative method which was first applied by Dr Papanicolaou. The cervical smear test is also called the PAP test after him. The method of assessment which is used nowadays to judge a cervical smear is called the KOPAC-B classification. This KOPAC-B classification is used in the laboratory to indicate in detail the changes in the cells of the cervix. Each letter of the KOPAC-B classification stands for a particular aspect of the cervical smear.Thus the letter ‘P’ stands for squamous cell epithelium, a type of cell that occurs in the smear. The letter ‘O’ stands for inflammation. In the result of the smear the changes in the cells are indicated by the number 1 to 9. Number 1 indicates that no abnormal cells were found. The higher the number the greater the number of abnormalities found in the cells of the smear. As was stated before, this does not always have to mean that there is cancer. Abnormalities can, for instance, be caused by an inflammation or a not yet cancerous pre-stage. With the result, follow-up advice is also given about having another smear test or the patient is referred to a gynaecologist for further investigation: KOPAC-P1 – A repeat smear in five years KOPAC-P2. 3 and 4 – With these results a repeat smear is recommended after six months: If this repeat smear is again normal, then a smear will then be taken again after a year. If this repeat smear is abnormal, then a referral to a gynaecologist for further investigation follows. KOPAC-P5,6,7,8 and 9 – With these results investigation and (any) treatment by a gynaecologist is urgently needed. Usually tissue investigations will be needed to establish the diagnosis. If a cervical smear is necessary because you have certain symptoms then the test will be paid for by the national health insurance fund. Reimbursement by a private medical insurance company will depend on the conditions of your insurance. For women who have a cervical smear taken by their general practitioner within the scope of the national screening programme, then no costs are involved in that test. The costs are borne by the national government (AWBZ). Whenever you have no symptoms, are younger or older than the age limits set for the national screening programme and still want to have a cervical smear taken, then you have to reckon on paying the costs yourself. Since changes are regularly being made to the system of reimbursement it is advisable to get the latest information from your insurance company. Whenever the laboratory results show that an initial stage of cancer may possibly be present, further investigation by a gynaecologist is needed. This specialist always starts by carrying out an internal examination. He feels whether there are any abnormalities in the shape and size of the organs in the lower pelvis. With the aid of a colposcope, a special sort of high magnification microscope, the specialist will examine the inside of the womb. This is called a colposcopic examination. If an initial stage of cancer is detected, then the specialist can carry out a local treatment. There are a number of ways to treat an initial stage of cancer. This method destroys the affected tissue by freezing it. An anaesthetic is not necessary.No admission to hospital is needed for this treatment. Nowadays an initial stage of cervical cancer is sometimes treated using laser light. This light destroys the affected tissue. Anaesthetic is not needed, nor is a stay in hospital. A local excision is a treatment in which only the affected tissue is removed. The treatment is usually carried out as an outpatient procedure; local anaesthetic can be needed. The tissue which on colposcopic examination appeared to be suspect is scraped off the surface of the cervix during a local excision. You could compare this to peeling the skin. The doctor uses a diathermy loop. This electrically heated wire also cauterises the small blood vessels of this very superficial wound. This treatment consists of a small operation in which the affected tissue is removed; the uppermost portion of the cervix is cut away. The section removed is shaped like a cone. The womb remains intact. For this small operation the patient must spent a couple of days in hospital. The operation is performed under general anaesthetic or by using epidural anaesthesia to numb the lower body. Patients who have undergone one of the above treatments must be monitored annually using a cervical smear test. Removal of the womb Sometimes the gynaecologist will suggest that the patient with an early stage of cancer should have the entire womb removed. This may be the case for a woman who is sure she no longer wants children and who moreover is bothered by symptoms, such as excessive blood loss during menstruation. The brochure Cervical Cancer is available from the Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign. In the chapter on treatment, the operation to remove the womb is discussed. By having a cervical smear taken regularly, any changes can possibly be detected earlier. Early detection of cervical cancer increases the chance of a cure. It is certainly just as important to limit your risk of cancer in general as much as possible. How you can help yourself with prevention is set out in the first six recommendations of the ‘European Code against Cancer’. The last four recommendations summarise how you can help to detect cancer early. The recommendations below are good for your health. Moreover they help limit the risk of a number of forms of cancer. - Don’t smoke. Smokers, stop as soon as possible. Tobacco smoke is also damaging for non-smokers, so don’t smoke in their presence. Non-smokers, don’t start. - Drink beer, wine or other alcoholic beverages only in moderation. - Eat sufficient fruit and vegetables every day. Eat high fibre (grain) products regularly. - Avoid being overweight, make sure you have enough physical activity and use lower fat products. - Avoid too much sun radiation . Do not allow children to get sunburnt. - Apply the regulations which are aimed at preventing exposure to carcinogenic substances or which are aimed at limiting the risks. The earlier that cancer is detected the better it can be treated - Always go to see your doctor (even if you have no pain):– when an abcess or wound will not heal (also when it’s in your mouth) – if a birthmark or mole changes size, shape or colour; – if you have unusual loss of blood; – when you discover a lump or swelling. - Go to see your doctor when symptoms persist such as:– hoarseness or a cough – unexplainable loss of weight – change in bowel movement or when urinating. For women : - Have a cervical smear taken regularly. When you are called up for a national screening programme take part in the screening. - Check your own breasts every month. When you are over 50 take part in the national breast cancer screening programme. The European Code against Cancer has been drawn up by cancer experts from the fifteen countries of the European Union (EU). This forms part of the EU campaign programme ‘Europe against Cancer’. The aim of this campaign is to reduce the expected increase in deaths from cancer in the EU countries. If you have any questions after reading this brochure, don’t just keep them to yourself. Personal questions are best discussed with your general practitioner. If you have questions about cancer that are more general, or you want to talk to someone else about your questions before you visit your doctor, then you can also ask for help at the Information Centre of the Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign and at the Integrated Cancer Centres. Information Centre Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign The Information Centre of the Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign is situated at: Sophialaan 8, 1075 BR Amsterdam. In the Information Centre someone is available to discuss your questions. The centre is open from Monday to Friday between 9.00 and 17.00 hrs. For information in brief you can just walk in. If however you wish to discuss matters personally at length, then it’s better to make an appointment. You can also write or phone. There is a free Help and Information line 0800 – 022 66 22 (on working days between 10.00 – 12.30 hrs and 13.30 – 16.00 hrs. Your call will be received on a telephone answering system. By pressing or dialling numbers on your phone you can choose to talk to someone or order a folder. Orders from organisations and institutions can only be handled in writing! Suggestions about the contents of this brochure can be made in writing to the Information Centre of the Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign. Integrated Cancer Centres Information about cancer is also given by the Integrated Cancer Centres. Besides information for social workers, these centres also supply information to patients and the public. Information about cancer and anti-cancer by means of: folders brochures documentation video programmes training free help and information line for personal help and information 0800 022 66 22 The Information centre of the Dutch Anti-Cancer Campaign is open from 9am to 5pm Sophialaan 8, 1075 BR Amsterdam Extended visits, preferably by appointment

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One of the most well-known network scanners is Nmap. With a name derived from network mapper, Nmap has been around since 1997 and continues to be actively developed. As of March 2016, the latest stable version is 7. Nmap’s speed, reliability, and customization options have made it the preferred go-to tool for many network and security professionals. Nmap can be executed with a plethora of options, but when executed without any switches against a server named system1 with the IP address of 10.211.55.9, it generates the following output: Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-09 19:41 CET Nmap scan report for system1 (10.211.55.9) Host is up (0.00033s latency). rDNS record for 10.211.55.9: system1.shared Not shown: 993 closed ports PORT STATE SERVICE 21/tcp open ftp 22/tcp open ssh 23/tcp open telnet 79/tcp open finger 80/tcp open http 513/tcp open login 3306/tcp open mysql MAC Address: E8:2A:EA:41:F3:0D (Intel Corporate) The scan against system1 acknowledged the existence of seven services that are listening for incoming network traffic. The service that is running on each port number is matched by Nmap against IANA’s list of assigned services and port numbers to give the user an idea of the type of service provided. Additionally, Nmap can make use of its internal database of system response fingerprints to better determine what type of service it is up against. Nmap’s default configuration is to scan hosts for services running on ports that are so-called well-known ports. The number of ports that Nmap considers to be well-known is exactly 1,000. Nmap must be specifically configured to scan the remaining 120,000 available TCP and UDP ports. After the scan is complete, Nmap will report the port’s state. Nmap recognizes six port states: Open - A service running on the targeted host is configured to accept connections in the form of TCP or UDP packets depending on which type was scanned. Closed - A port is reported as closed when there is no service running on the targeted host on the probed port. Worth noting is that Nmap will only report a port as closed if the targeted host responds back to Nmap in some way, other than “port open,” during the network scan. So even if Nmap lists all ports of a host as closed, you can still make the conclusion that the host is currently up and running. Filtered - This is where it can start to get tricky for the security tester. In its most basic form, the filtered state means that Nmap was unable to determine whether a port was open or closed since no response was returned from the target. There are a good number of reasons as to why a port provides no response. Such reasons include host-based firewalls, router packet filtering rules, and network intrusion prevention systems. Of course, it could simply be the case that there are no servers at the other end. Worth noting is that running Nmap against filtered ports is significantly slower than working with ports that are either open or closed. This is due to Nmap having to wait for a complete timeout to make sure there are no slow responses. Unfiltered - Nmap considers the port to be accessible but can’t determine if its open, closed, or filtered. Open|Filtered - This category is used when Nmap is unable to determine whether a port is open or filtered. Closed|Filtered - This category is used when Nmap is unable to determine whether a port is closed or filtered. A more detailed description of Nmap’s different port states can be found at https://nmap.org/book/man-port-scanning-basics.html. Security testers will for the most part encounter ports that are reported as either open, closed, or filtered. If the scope of the security test contains a lot of servers, it might be a good idea to initiate the network scanning part of the test with a ping sweep. Such a sweep is carried out by telling Nmap to send messages to all targets in order to find out if they are alive or not. A ping sweep is executed like so: nmap -sn 192.168.178.0/24 Judging by Nmap’s output, the ping sweep took only seconds to complete and it revealed that ten hosts are up on the 192.168.178/24 network segment. The response also contains the MAC Address of each responding machine since that scan was initiated on the same local network as the hosts (a ping scan over the Internet would not have revealed the MAC addresses). This is also the reason behind the scan being so quick. Starting Nmap 6.49BETA3 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-22 14:00 CET Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.1 Host is up (0.0034s latency). MAC Address: 9C:C7:A6:3D:8C:5D (AVM GmbH) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.30 Host is up (0.059s latency). MAC Address: 70:56:81:9B:6F:39 (Apple) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.46 Host is up (0.021s latency). MAC Address: 84:C9:B2:01:82:77 (D-Link International) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.74 Host is up (0.034s latency). MAC Address: E8:DE:27:65:C8:63 (Tp-link Technologies Co.) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.77 Host is up (0.085s latency). MAC Address: B8:8D:12:3F:90:84 (Apple) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.98 Host is up (0.10s latency). MAC Address: 5C:96:9D:8A:56:FF (Apple) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.99 Host is up (0.0056s latency). MAC Address: 64:EB:8C:2B:E7:0C (Seiko Epson) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.102 Host is up (0.054s latency). MAC Address: 08:EE:8B:80:74:03 (Samsung Elec Co.) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.171 Host is up (0.077s latency). MAC Address: C4:62:EA:A5:3B:73 (Samsung Electronics Co.) Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.73 Host is up. If the number of available hosts uncovered by the ping sweep differs greatly from the number of expected available hosts, it could indicate that firewalls or similar network filtering devices are blocking the traffic or that the hosts themselves simply aren’t answering. They might still be there and have ports open. You won’t know for sure before trying each and every port. Knowing what ports are currently accepting TCP connections is good, but knowing what services hide behind those port numbers is even better. Nmap has a built-in service detection feature that can be used to identify the most common services. The switch used to enable Nmap’s service detection is -sV, and a complete example of how the feature can be used is as follows: nmap -sV -p 1-65535 -Pn system1 The switches used in the example above enable the following functionality: • sV | Enables Nmap’s service detection feature. • p 1-65535 | Instructs Nmap to scan all of the 65,535 possible TCP ports. • Pn | Instructs Nmap to skip trying to find out if the host is alive before the subsequent port scanning and service detection probes. The reason for using the -Pn switch is that some systems are configured to block ICMP traffic. With the -Pn switch enabled, Nmap will try to enumerate the targeted system’s services regardless of the how the system responds to incoming ICMP traffic. Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-09 23:41 CET Nmap scan report for system1 (10.211.55.9) Host is up (0.00031s latency). rDNS record for 10.211.55.9: system1.shared Not shown: 65528 closed ports PORT STATE SERVICE VERSION 21/tcp open ftp vsftpd 3.0.2 22/tcp open ssh OpenSSH 6.6.1 (protocol 2.0) 23/tcp open telnet Linux telnetd 79/tcp open finger BSD/Linux fingerd 80/tcp open http Apache httpd 2.4.6 ((CentOS)) 513/tcp open login? 3306/tcp open mysql MariaDB (unauthorized) MAC Address: E8:2A:EA:41:F3:0D (Intel Corporate) Service Info: OSs: Unix, Linux; CPE: cpe:/o:linux:linux_kernel Service detection performed. Please report any incorrect results at https://nmap.org/submit/. The scan uncovered the names, and in a few cases the version number, of six services on system1. The only service reluctant to give away additional information was the service running on port 513. The service on 513/tcp would in this case require a more in-depth, and manual, investigation of its inner secrets. The scan also uncovered that the Linux distribution in question is CentOS, which was determined to be probing the http service running on port 80 for information. As stated previously, while some service types have historically been bound to a certain TCP or UDP port number (like port 80/tcp for web servers and port 69/udp for TFTP), services of any kind can be bound to any port number. This can make services running on nonstandard port numbers harder to find and identify. UDP-based services are, when compared with TCP-based services, far more complicated to deal with when it comes to network scanning. The reason for this complication lies within UDP itself and its connection-less nature. The protocol is designed to be fast and does not provide the same services like retransmission of lost packets, as TCP. Also, the endpoints of a UDP-based conversation can receive the network datagrams in any order; UDP does not put them in the correct order, like TCP does. In other words, UDP is a communication protocol that hopes for the best, but makes no promises. All this means that even though Nmap is among the best UDP scanners out there, it can’t always produce a reliable result due to the very design of the UDP protocol. For example, the example below is an attempt at scanning UDP-based services on the host system1: nmap -sU -sV -p 60-69 system1 Even though Nmap was configured to only probe ten UDP ports using the -sU and -sV switches, the scan took more than a minute and a half to complete. Scanning a large network using this method could prove to be too slow to be worth the effort. Only scan ports that are likely to be active. Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-10 01:57 CET Nmap scan report for system1 (10.211.55.9) Host is up (0.00038s latency). rDNS record for 10.211.55.9: system1.shared PORT STATE 60/udp closed 61/udp closed 62/udp closed 63/udp closed SERVICE VERSION unknown ni-mail acas via-ftp 64/udp closed 65/udp closed 66/udp closed 67/udp closed 68/udp open|filtered dhcpc 69/udp open|filtered tftp MAC Address: E8:2A:EA:41:F3:0D (Intel Corporate) Service detection performed. Please report any incorrect results at https://nmap.org/submit/. The scan indicates that two UDP-based services are running on ports 68 and 69. Note that Nmap was unable to completely verify the availability of the two presumably open ports and has therefore categorized their respective states as open|filtered. The open|filtered state calls for further manual inspection. For example, manually verifying the existence of a TFTP service on system1 can be done using the tftp command-line tool and its status feature: tftp system1 tftp> status Connected to system1.localdomain. Mode: netascii Verbose: off Tracing: off In some cases, determining what operating system (OS) Nmap is working against is easy. Below is an example of how Nmap was able to identify that the targeted web server (claimed it) was running on a CentOS Linux distribution: ... 80/tcp open http Apache httpd 2.4.6 ((CentOS)) There are, however, cases when establishing the OS of a target is more difficult. That’s when Nmap’s OS detection feature can come in handy. nmap -sV -O 192.168.178.1 The -O switch will activate Nmap’s OS detection feature. The OS detection feature works by fingerprinting the TCP/IP stack of the targeted machine. In other words, every network packet that gets returned to Nmap during a scan is examined in detail to determine the OS type. The fingerprinting is made possible because operating systems implement the TCP/IP stack with slight variations. Nmap can identify more than two thousand OS types and versions. Successfully being able to fingerprint a host depends on that system having both open and closed ports that the network scanner can connect to. If the host does not have both, or they appear to be filtered, the fingerprinting will fail or at least be quite unreliable. Below is an example of how Nmap can be used to try to determine the actual identity of a network gateway device. In under just twenty seconds, Nmap made the assumption that the target is a “Fortinet FortiGate 200B firewall.” Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-10 03:34 CET Nmap scan report for 192.168.178.1 Host is up (0.010s latency). Not shown: 993 closed ports PORT STATE SERVICE VERSION 66 covia tacacs-ds sqlnet dhcps 21/tcp open ftp FRITZ!Box Fon WLAN 7390 WAP ftpd 53/tcp open domain 80/tcp open http FRITZ!Box http config 139/tcp open netbios-ssn Samba smbd 3.X (workgroup: MARAMBILI) 445/tcp open netbios-ssn Samba smbd 3.X (workgroup: MARAMBILI) 5060/tcp open sip AVM FRITZ!OS SIP 8181/tcp open http AVM FRITZ!Box 7300-series WAP http config Device type: firewall Running (JUST GUESSING): Fortinet embedded (94%) OS CPE: cpe:/h:fortinet:fortigate_200b Aggressive OS guesses: Fortinet FortiGate 200B firewall (94%) No exact OS matches for host (test conditions non-ideal). Network Distance: -10 hops Service Info: Devices: WAP, broadband router, VoIP adapter OS and Service detection performed. Please report any incorrect results at https://nmap.org/submit/. However, the fingerprinting failed to report the target’s correct operating system identity. Having analyzed the response from the host, Nmap guessed that its operating system was Fortinet embedded. The real identity of the host is, however, a DSL router running custom software made by the ISP. This goes to show that while Nmap gets it right some of the time, it does not get it right all of the time. One of the more useful features of Nmap is the nmap scripting engine, or NSE. The NSE can be used to do sophisticated version detection as well as detecting potential vulnerabilities in the targeted services. The NSE can also be used for backdoor detection and, in some cases, even as a vulnerability exploitation tool (even though there are far better exploitation tools out there). The switch used to enable the NSE is -sC, and a basic example of using the -sC switch would be like so: nmap system1 -sC In this case, an NSE script will be executed for each service found, in order to dig up more information. For example, after Nmap had found an FTP server on system1, it executed the ftp-anon NSE script against it. The result that came back indicates that an FTP service is configured to allow anonymous FTP access. In a similar fashion, Nmap executed a NSE script after it had found the finger service on port 79/tcp. The NSE finger script revealed a number of active user sessions. Such information could be used for social engineering purposes. Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-10 04:13 CET Nmap scan report for system1 (10.211.55.9) Host is up (0.00030s latency). rDNS record for 10.211.55.9: system1.shared Not shown: 993 closed ports PORT STATE SERVICE 21/tcp open ftp | ftp-anon: Anonymous FTP login allowed (FTP code 230) |_drwxr-xr-x 2 0 0 4096 Nov 20 19:22 pub 22/tcp open ssh | ssh-hostkey: | 2048 9f:d1:be:3f:92:92:f3:f4:c3:d4:2f:30:c8:bb:a7:3b (RSA) |_ 256 70:fc:bc:e9:c9:e2:39:8e:bf:45:78:14:05:e2:52:34 (ECDSA) 23/tcp open telnet 79/tcp open finger | finger: Login Name Tty | dave | klara | marie | root |_sarah 80/tcp open http | http-methods: |_ Potentially risky methods: TRACE |_http-title: Apache HTTP Server Test Page powered by CentOS 513/tcp open login 3306/tcp open mysql MAC Address: E8:2A:EA:41:F3:0D (Intel Corporate) Another example of NSE usage would be to guess SNMP community names: nmap system2 -sU -p 161 --script snmp-brute.nse 68 root pts/1 pts/4 pts/0 3 pts/3 1 pts/2 2 Idle Login Time Mar 23 09:15 Mar 23 09:17 Mar 23 09:16 Mar 23 09:13 Mar 23 09:18 Office Office Phone Host (10.211.55.2) (10.211.55.2) (10.211.55.2) (10.211.55.2) (10.211.55.2) Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-10 05:26 CET Nmap scan report for system2 (10.211.55.10) Host is up (0.00035s latency). rDNS record for 10.211.55.10: system2.shared PORT STATE SERVICE 161/udp open snmp | snmp-brute: |_ secret - Valid credentials MAC Address: 10:C0:0C:F1:D9:2A (Unknown) Note that the NSE might have more than one script for a certain type of service. Running an Nmap scan without pointing out a specific NSE script to be run for a certain type of service will cause Nmap to run the default NSE script for that service. For example, there are a number of NSE scripts for Microsoft's SQL Server that won't be run unless Nmap gets configured to explicitly do so: ms-sql-brute.nse ms-sql-config.nse ms-sql-dac.nse ms-sql-dump-hashes.nse ms-sql-empty-password.nse ms-sql-hasdbaccess.nse ms-sql-info.nse ms-sql-query.nse ms-sql-tables.nse The default location for NSE is /usr/share/nmap/scripts/ A complete list of Nmap’s current NSE scripts, and how they can be used, can be found at https:// nmap.org/nsedoc/. Any security tester will sooner or later find themselves scanning ports and services that, despite being open, reveal little or no further information. An example would be the following scan against port 36785/tcp nmap system2.shared -p 36785 -sV -sC -O The service running on port 36785 only returned a string of text : System return: 84985 Checksum return: e9388fb525b3cd12972ff58997bad2c2 Trying to test the security of the service based solely on that string of text might prove impossible. The program running behind the port might demand some very specific input in order to open itself up fully. It’s up to the security tester to decide on how much effort she should put into trying to identify the service based on this small amount of information. If she’s lucky, she might be able to google the returned string and get some useful results. Another alternative is to investigate other open ports on the same system to see if any similarities can be found. Starting Nmap 7.01 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2016-03-10 06:38 CET Nmap scan report for system2.shared (10.211.55.10) Host is up (0.00041s latency). PORT STATE SERVICE VERSION 36785/tcp open unknown 1 service unrecognized despite returning data. If you know the service/version, please submit the following fingerprint at https://nmap.org/cgi-bin/submit.cgi?new-service : SF-Port36785-TCP:V=7.01%I=7%D=3/10%Time=56E1086B%P=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu%r(N SF:ULL,49,"System\x20return:\x2011885757\x20Checksum\x20return:\x200548070 SF:c99b0be1a9a86d24c9d17a4fe")%r(LANDesk-RC,48,"System\x20return:\x2084985 SF:99\x20Checksum\x20return:\x20e9388fb525b3cd12972ff58997bad2c2"); MAC Address: 10:C0:0C:F1:D9:2A (Unknown) Warning: OSScan results may be unreliable because we could not find at least 1 open and 1 closed port Device type: general purpose Running: Linux 3.X|4.X OS CPE: cpe:/o:linux:linux_kernel:3 cpe:/o:linux:linux_kernel:4 OS details: Linux 3.2 - 4.0 Network Distance: 1 hop OS and Service detection performed. Please report any incorrect results at https://nmap.org/ submit/. If there are other services within the scope of the security test that reveal more information, it can be wise for the security tester to focus her efforts on those services instead. However, make sure that all available ports for each system are listed in the final report. It should also be clear if the security tester has thoroughly tested the port or not. Tags: #nmap #scanning #fingerprinting #nmapscriptingengine #tcpscan #udpscan

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Ace Your Next Organic Chemistry With these Downloadable PDF Study GuidesFree samples Organic Chemistry Is Awesome Over 300+ blog posts to guide you through introductory Organic Chemistry, organized by subject. 00 General Chemistry Review - Gen Chem and Organic Chem: How are they different? - How Gen Chem Relates to Organic Chem, Pt. 1 - The Atom - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 2 - Electrons and Orbitals - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 3 - Effective Nuclear Charge - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 4 - Chemical Bonding - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 5 - Understanding Periodic Trends - From Gen Chem to Org Chem, Pt. 6 - Lewis Structures, A Parable - From Gen Chem to Org Chem, Pt. 7 - Lewis Structures - From Gen Chem to Org Chem, Pt. 8 - Ionic and Covalent Bonding - From Gen Chem to Org Chem, Pt. 9 - Acids and Bases - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 10 - Hess' Law - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 11 - The Second Law - From Gen Chem to Org Chem Pt. 12 - Kinetics - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Pt. 13 - Equilibria - From Gen Chem to Organic Chem, Part 14: Wrapup 01 Bonding, Structure, and Resonance - How Concepts Build Up In Org 1 ("The Pyramid") - Review of Atomic Orbitals for Organic Chemistry - How Do We Know Methane (CH4) Is Tetrahedral? - Hybrid Orbitals - How To Determine Hybridization: A Shortcut - Orbital Hybridization And Bond Strengths - Sigma bonds come in six varieties: Pi bonds come in one - A Key Skill: How to Calculate Formal Charge - Partial Charges Give Clues About Electron Flow - The Four Intermolecular Forces and How They Affect Boiling Points - 3 Trends That Affect Boiling Points - How To Use Electronegativity To Determine Electron Density (and why NOT to trust formal charge) - Introduction to Resonance - How To Use Curved Arrows To Interchange Resonance Forms - Evaluating Resonance Forms (1) - The Rule of Least Charges - How To Find The Best Resonance Structure By Applying Electronegativity - Evaluating Resonance Structures With Negative Charges - Evaluating Resonance Structures With Positive Charge - Exploring Resonance: Pi-Donation - Exploring Resonance: Pi-acceptors - In Summary: Evaluating Resonance Structures - Drawing Resonance Structures: 3 Common Mistakes To Avoid - How to apply electronegativity and resonance to understand reactivity - Bond Hybridization Practice - Structure and Bonding Practice Quizzes - Resonance Structures Practice 02 Acid Base Reactions - Introduction to Acid-Base Reactions - Acid Base Reactions In Organic Chemistry - The Stronger The Acid, The Weaker The Conjugate Base - Walkthrough of Acid-Base Reactions (3) - Acidity Trends - Five Key Factors That Influence Acidity - Acid-Base Reactions: Introducing Ka and pKa - How to Use a pKa Table - The pKa Table Is Your Friend - A Handy Rule of Thumb for Acid-Base Reactions - Acid Base Reactions Are Fast - pKa Values Span 60 Orders Of Magnitude - How Protonation and Deprotonation Affect Reactivity - Acid Base Practice Problems 03 Alkanes and Nomenclature - Summary Sheet - Alkane Nomenclature - Meet the (Most Important) Functional Groups - Condensed Formulas: Deciphering What the Brackets Mean - Hidden Hydrogens, Hidden Lone Pairs, Hidden Counterions - Don't Be Futyl, Learn The Butyls - Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary In Organic Chemistry - Branching, and Its Affect On Melting and Boiling Points - The Many, Many Ways of Drawing Butane - Common Mistakes: Drawing Tetrahedral Carbons - Common Mistakes in Organic Chemistry: Pentavalent Carbon - Table of Functional Group Priorities for Nomenclature - Organic Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature Demystified With A Simple Puzzle Piece Approach - Boiling Point Quizzes - Organic Chemistry Nomenclature Quizzes 04 Conformations and Cycloalkanes - Staggered vs Eclipsed Conformations of Ethane - Conformational Isomers of Propane - Newman Projection of Butane (and Gauche Conformation) - Putting the Newman into ACTION - Introduction to Cycloalkanes (1) - Geometric Isomers In Small Rings: Cis And Trans Cycloalkanes - Calculation of Ring Strain In Cycloalkanes - Cycloalkanes - Ring Strain In Cyclopropane And Cyclobutane - Cyclohexane Conformations - Cyclohexane Chair Conformation: An Aerial Tour - How To Draw The Cyclohexane Chair Conformation - The Cyclohexane Chair Flip - The Cyclohexane Chair Flip - Energy Diagram - Substituted Cyclohexanes - Axial vs Equatorial - Ranking The Bulkiness Of Substituents On Cyclohexanes: "A-Values" - The Ups and Downs of Cyclohexanes - Cyclohexane Chair Conformation Stability: Which One Is Lower Energy? - Fused Rings - Cis-Decalin and Trans-Decalin - Naming Bicyclic Compounds - Fused, Bridged, and Spiro - Bredt's Rule (And Summary of Cycloalkanes) - Newman Projection Practice - Cycloalkanes Practice Problems 05 A Primer On Organic Reactions - The Most Important Question To Ask When Learning a New Reaction - The 4 Major Classes of Reactions in Org 1 - Learning New Reactions: How Do The Electrons Move? - How (and why) electrons flow - The Third Most Important Question to Ask When Learning A New Reaction - 7 Factors that stabilize negative charge in organic chemistry - 7 Factors That Stabilize Positive Charge in Organic Chemistry - Common Mistakes: Formal Charges Can Mislead - Nucleophiles and Electrophiles - Curved Arrows (for reactions) - Curved Arrows (2): Initial Tails and Final Heads - Nucleophilicity vs. Basicity - The Three Classes of Nucleophiles - What Makes A Good Nucleophile? - Leaving Groups Are Nucleophiles Acting In Reverse - What makes a good leaving group? - 3 Factors That Stabilize Carbocations - Three Factors that Destabilize Carbocations - What's a Transition State? - Hammond's Postulate - Grossman's Rule - Draw The Ugly Version First - Learning Organic Chemistry Reactions: A Checklist (PDF) - Introduction to Addition Reactions - Introduction to Elimination Reactions - Introduction to Free Radical Substitution Reactions - Introduction to Oxidative Cleavage Reactions - Clemmensen Reduction of Ketones/Aldehydes to Alkanes 06 Free Radical Reactions - Bond Dissociation Energies = Homolytic Cleavage - Free Radical Reactions - 3 Factors That Stabilize Free Radicals - What Factors Destabilize Free Radicals? - Bond Strengths And Radical Stability - Free Radical Initiation: Why Is "Light" Or "Heat" Required? - Initiation, Propagation, Termination - Monochlorination Products Of Propane, Pentane, And Other Alkanes - Selectivity In Free Radical Reactions - Selectivity in Free Radical Reactions: Bromination vs. Chlorination - Halogenation At Tiffany's - Allylic Bromination - Bonus Topic: Allylic Rearrangements - In Summary: Free Radicals - Synthesis (2) - Reactions of Alkanes - Free Radicals Practice Quizzes 07 Stereochemistry and Chirality - On Cats, Part 4: Enantiocats - On Cats, Part 6: Stereocenters - The Single Swap Rule - Introduction to Assigning (R) and (S): The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Rules - Assigning Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) Priorities (2) - The Method of Dots - Types of Isomers: Constitutional Isomers, Stereoisomers, Enantiomers, and Diastereomers - Enantiomers vs Diastereomers vs The Same? Two Methods For Solving Problems - Assigning R/S To Newman Projections (And Converting Newman To Line Diagrams) - How To Determine R and S Configurations On A Fischer Projection - The Meso Trap - Optical Rotation, Optical Activity, and Specific Rotation - Optical Purity and Enantiomeric Excess - What's a Racemic Mixture? - Chiral Allenes And Chiral Axes - Stereochemistry Practice Problems and Quizzes 08 Substitution Reactions - Introduction to Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions - Walkthrough of Substitution Reactions (1) - Introduction - Two Types of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions - The SN2 Mechanism - Why the SN2 Reaction Is Powerful - The SN1 Mechanism - The Conjugate Acid Is A Better Leaving Group - Comparing the SN1 and SN2 Reactions - Polar Protic? Polar Aprotic? Nonpolar? All About Solvents - Steric Hindrance is Like a Fat Goalie - Common Blind Spot: Intramolecular Reactions - The Conjugate Base is Always a Stronger Nucleophile - Substitution Practice - SN1 - Substitution Practice - SN2 09 Elimination Reactions - Elimination Reactions (1): Introduction And The Key Pattern - Elimination Reactions (2): The Zaitsev Rule - Elimination Reactions Are Favored By Heat - Two Elimination Reaction Patterns - The E1 Reaction - The E2 Mechanism - E1 vs E2: Comparing the E1 and E2 Reactions - Antiperiplanar Relationships: The E2 Reaction and Cyclohexane Rings - Bulky Bases in Elimination Reactions - Comparing the E1 vs SN1 Reactions - Elimination (E1) Reactions With Rearrangements - E1cB - Elimination (Unimolecular) Conjugate Base - Elimination (E1) Practice Problems And Solutions - Elimination (E2) Practice Problems and Solutions 11 SN1/SN2/E1/E2 Decision 12 Alkene Reactions - E and Z Notation For Alkenes (+ Cis/Trans) - Alkene Stability - Addition Reactions: Elimination's Opposite - Selective vs. Specific - Regioselectivity In Alkene Addition Reactions - Stereoselectivity In Alkene Addition Reactions: Syn vs Anti Addition - Markovnikov Addition Of HCl To Alkenes - Alkene Hydrohalogenation Mechanism And How It Explains Markovnikov's Rule - Arrow Pushing and Alkene Addition Reactions - Addition Pattern #1: The "Carbocation Pathway" - Rearrangements in Alkene Addition Reactions - Bromination of Alkenes - Bromination of Alkenes: The Mechanism - Alkene Addition Pattern #2: The "Three-Membered Ring" Pathway - Hydroboration - Oxidation of Alkenes - Hydroboration Oxidation of Alkenes Mechanism - Alkene Addition Pattern #3: The "Concerted" Pathway - Bromonium Ion Formation: A (Minor) Arrow-Pushing Dilemma - A Fourth Alkene Addition Pattern - Free Radical Addition - Alkene Reactions: Ozonolysis - Summary: Three Key Families Of Alkene Reaction Mechanisms - Synthesis (4) - Alkene Reaction Map, Including Alkyl Halide Reactions - Alkene Reactions Practice Problems 13 Alkyne Reactions - Acetylides from Alkynes, And Substitution Reactions of Acetylides - Partial Reduction of Alkynes To Obtain Cis or Trans Alkenes - Hydroboration and Oxymercuration of Alkynes - Alkyne Reaction Patterns - Hydrohalogenation - Carbocation Pathway - Alkyne Halogenation: Bromination, Chlorination, and Iodination of Alkynes - Alkyne Reactions - The "Concerted" Pathway - Alkenes To Alkynes Via Halogenation And Elimination Reactions - Alkynes Are A Blank Canvas - Synthesis (5) - Reactions of Alkynes - Alkyne Reactions Practice Problems With Answers - Pinacol Rearrangement 14 Alcohols, Epoxides and Ethers - Alcohols (1) - Nomenclature and Properties - Alcohols Can Act As Acids Or Bases (And Why It Matters) - Alcohols (3) - Acidity and Basicity - The Williamson Ether Synthesis - Williamson Ether Synthesis: Planning - Ethers From Alkenes, Tertiary Alkyl Halides and Alkoxymercuration - Alcohols To Ethers via Acid Catalysis - Cleavage Of Ethers With Acid - Epoxides - The Outlier Of The Ether Family - Opening of Epoxides With Acid - Epoxide Ring Opening With Base - Making Alkyl Halides From Alcohols - Tosylates And Mesylates - PBr3 and SOCl2 - Elimination Reactions of Alcohols - Elimination of Alcohols To Alkenes With POCl3 - Alcohol Oxidation: "Strong" and "Weak" Oxidants - Demystifying Alcohol Oxidations - Intramolecular Reactions of Alcohols and Ethers - Protecting Groups For Alcohols - Thiols And Thioethers - Calculating the oxidation state of a carbon - Oxidation and Reduction in Organic Chemistry - Oxidation Ladders - SOCl2 Mechanism For Alcohols To Alkyl Halides: SN2 versus SNi - Alcohol Reactions Roadmap (PDF) - Alcohol Reaction Practice Problems - Epoxide Reaction Quizzes - Oxidation and Reduction Practice Quizzes - What's An Organometallic? - Formation of Grignard and Organolithium Reagents - Organometallics Are Strong Bases - Reactions of Grignard Reagents - Protecting Groups In Grignard Reactions - Grignard Practice Problems: Synthesis (1) - Grignard Reactions And Synthesis (2) - Organocuprates (Gilman Reagents): How They're Made - Gilman Reagents (Organocuprates): What They're Used For - Common Mistakes with Carbonyls: Carboxylic Acids... Are Acids! - The Heck, Suzuki, and Olefin Metathesis Reactions (And Why They Don't Belong In Most Introductory Organic Chemistry Courses) - Reaction Map: Reactions of Organometallics - Grignard Practice Problems - Degrees of Unsaturation (or IHD, Index of Hydrogen Deficiency) - Conjugation And Color (+ How Bleach Works) - Introduction To UV-Vis Spectroscopy - UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Absorbance of Carbonyls - UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Practice Questions - Bond Vibrations, Infrared Spectroscopy, and the "Ball and Spring" Model - Infrared Spectroscopy: A Quick Primer On Interpreting Spectra - IR Spectroscopy: 4 Practice Problems - Homotopic, Enantiotopic, Diastereotopic - Liquid Gold: Pheromones In Doe Urine - Natural Product Isolation (1) - Extraction - Natural Product Isolation (2) - Purification Techniques, An Overview - Structure Determination Case Study: Deer Tarsal Gland Pheromone 17 Dienes and MO Theory - What To Expect In Organic Chemistry 2 - How Concepts Build Up In Org 2 - Are these molecules conjugated? - Conjugation And Resonance In Organic Chemistry - Bonding And Antibonding Pi Orbitals - Molecular Orbitals of The Allyl Cation, Allyl Radical, and Allyl Anion - Pi Molecular Orbitals of Butadiene - Reactions of Dienes: 1,2 and 1,4 Addition - Thermodynamic and Kinetic Products - More On 1,2 and 1,4 Additions To Dienes - s-cis and s-trans - The Diels-Alder Reaction - Cyclic Dienes and Dienophiles in the Diels-Alder Reaction - Stereochemistry of the Diels-Alder Reaction - Exo vs Endo Products In The Diels Alder: How To Tell Them Apart - HOMO and LUMO In the Diels Alder Reaction - Why Are Endo vs Exo Products Favored in the Diels-Alder Reaction? - Diels-Alder Reaction: Kinetic and Thermodynamic Control - The Retro Diels-Alder Reaction - Electrocyclic Ring Opening And Closure (2) - Six (or Eight) Pi Electrons - The Intramolecular Diels Alder Reaction - The Cope and Claisen Rearrangements - Regiochemistry In The Diels-Alder Reaction - Electrocyclic Reactions - Diels Alder Practice Problems - Molecular Orbital Theory Practice 19 Reactions of Aromatic Molecules - Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Introduction - Activating and Deactivating Groups In Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution - Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution - The Mechanism - Ortho-, Para- and Meta- Directors in Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution - Understanding Ortho, Para, and Meta Directors - Why are halogens ortho- para- directors? - Disubstituted Benzenes: The Strongest Electron-Donor "Wins" - Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions (1) - Halogenation of Benzene - Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions (2) - Nitration and Sulfonation - EAS Reactions (3) - Friedel-Crafts Acylation and Friedel-Crafts Alkylation - Intramolecular Friedel-Crafts Reactions - Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (NAS) - Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (2) - The Benzyne Mechanism - Reactions on the "Benzylic" Carbon: Bromination And Oxidation - The Wolff-Kishner, Clemmensen, And Other Carbonyl Reductions - More Reactions on the Aromatic Sidechain: Reduction of Nitro Groups and the Baeyer Villiger - Aromatic Synthesis (1) - "Order Of Operations" - Synthesis of Benzene Derivatives (2) - Polarity Reversal - Aromatic Synthesis (3) - Sulfonyl Blocking Groups - Birch Reduction - Synthesis (7): Reaction Map of Benzene and Related Aromatic Compounds - Aromatic Reactions and Synthesis Practice - Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Practice Problems 20 Aldehydes and Ketones - What's The Alpha Carbon In Carbonyl Compounds? 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- Open Access Spread of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteria in a Southwest Hospital in China Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials volume 13, Article number: 42 (2014) The rapid emergence and dissemination of carbapenem resistance in Enterobacteriaceae complicates the treatment of infections caused by these organisms. We collected clinical isolates with meropenem inhibition zones of ≤ 22 mm from January 1, 2009, through December 31, 2010. We attempted to amplify the NDM-1 gene from these isolates and conducted the modified Hodge test (MHT). The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the MHT-positive strains was determined by the agar disk dilution method. The carbapenemase-encoding resistance genes of these strains were examined using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis and a sequencing strategy to characterize these enzymes. The clonal relationship among isolates was analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Among the 158 Enterobacteriaceae isolates that were collected, there were no NDM-1-positive strains and 26 MHT-positive strains. Among the latter, 18 strains were IMP-4-positive, and 1 was KPC-2-positive. In addition, 15 of the IMP-4-positive Klebsiella pneumoniae strains belonged to 4 PFGE genotypes, with 8 strains having the same genotype. These results suggest that nosocomial infections are one of the main reasons for the spread of these resistant strains. Enterobacteriaceae are the most common pathogenic bacteria. Recently, the emergence of resistant pathogenic bacteria has caused significant problems for the clinical treatment of enterobacterial infections worldwide. There are many mechanisms leading to this resistance . Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing pathogenic enterobacteria is a serious problem for antibiotic management because the ESBL genes are easily transferred from one organism to another via plasmids or other mobile genetic elements in combination with non-β-lactam resistance mechanisms, leading to multidrug-resistant isolates ,. Carbapenem antibiotics are a class of β-lactam antibiotics that are often used as a last resort for treating enterobacterial resistance. However, an increasing number of studies are reporting carbapenem-resistant enterobacteria -. Carbapenem-resistant enterobacterial infections are now clearly associated with significant morbidity and mortality. However, few studies have monitored the spread of these Enterobacteriaceae. Here, we report the spread of IMP-4-producing enterobacteria in a hospital in Chongqing, China. Materials and methods The study period was from January 1, 2009, through December 31, 2010. All samples were collected from the Southwest Hospital, which is one of the largest teaching hospitals in Chongqing, China, with approximately 3000 beds. The bacterial isolates were identified in the clinical microbiology laboratory using standard biochemical tests and the Vitek system (BioMérieux, Hazelwood, MO). If the meropenem inhibition zone was ≤ 22 mm, an attempt was made to amplify the NDM-1 gene from the strain, and the strain was evaluated with the modified Hodge test (MHT) . The MHT has been widely used to screen for carbapenemase activity because it directly analyzes this activity. If the sample was either MHT-positive or NDM-1-positive, the medical records and laboratory data for the associated patient were retrospectively reviewed using records available from the Southwest Hospital information system and from the microbiology laboratory. In this study, each isolate was collected from a different patient. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Third Military Medical University (Approval number, KY200508). Bacterial isolates were identified according to standard methods and tested against various antibiotics by the disk diffusion method; the zone diameters were interpreted according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was evaluated for MHT-positive and NDM-1-positive strains. The MIC was determined by the agar disk dilution method in freshly prepared test medium (MH) according to the 2010 guidelines of the CLSI, and Escherichia coli strain ATCC 25922 was used as the control strain for the MIC testing. The resistance rate refers to the number of resistant strains divided by the total number of strains. The susceptible strains include those that are fully susceptible and those with an intermediate susceptible according to the CLSI standard. All Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) using the contour-clamped homogeneous electric field (CHEF) technique, which is similar to the method described by Shen et al. and Gouby et al. . The XbaI restriction enzyme was used (Takara, DaLian, China). DNA fragments were separated by electrophoresis in a 1% agarose III gel (Bio-Rad, China) with a CHEF apparatus (CHEF Mapper XA, Bio-Rad). The electrophoresis was performed at 14°C and 6 V/cm and with alternating pulses at a 120° angle in a 2- to 40-s pulse-time gradient for 24 h. The typing criteria were based on the protocol described by Shen et al. and Tenover et al. . Carbapenemase genes that are common in China were amplified by PCR with the primers shown in Table 1. NDM-1-, IMI-1-, SPM-1-, IMP-1-, KPC-1-, VIM-1-, and OXA-type-positive strains were preserved in our laboratory . The sequence analyses were performed using the BLAST program available on the National Center for Biotechnology Information server (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). From January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2010, 158 Enterobacteriaceae isolates (92 K. pneumoniae, 9 E. coli, and 57 Enterobacter cloacae) with reduced susceptibility to imipenem were identified in the hospital. Only 1 isolate of each bacterial species was selected per patient, and all of the strains were collected from patients 48 h after admission. Among the 158 Enterobacteriaceae, the Hodge test was positive for 26 strains (20 K. pneumoniae, 4 E. coli, and 2 E. cloacae), and no strain was NDM-1-positive. The features of these isolates and the patients are presented in Table 2. Among twenty-six clinical strains, eighteen isolates were IMP-4 positive, and one was KPC-2 positive. Seventeen strains were from sputum, and sixteen strains were from pediatrics. All the strains of group A PFGE genotype were from pediatrics. The results of MIC range, MIC50 and MIC90 analyses are presented in Table 3. We used previously described PCR reactions to screen for carbapenem-hydrolyzing β-lactamase genes. The PCR reactions for the IMP-4 and KPC-2 genes were positive . The major epidemic pattern A consisted of ten IMP-4-positive isolates from the Department of Pediatrics. However, the only one KPC-2-positive strain was collected from the Department of Neurology. XbaI pulsed-field gel electrophoresis was then used to study the genetic relatedness of the 20 K. pneumoniae isolates. The results are presented in Figure 1, and they suggest nosocomial transmission. In the present study, we analyzed the carbapenemase genes and assessed the spread of IMP-4-positive enterobacteria in a hospital in Chongqing, China. IMP-4 is a common MBL and was first reported in Acinetobacter baumannii in Hong Kong, China; it subsequently spread throughout the world, particularly to mainland China and Australia ,. IMP-4 has been reported in enterobacteria in China but has not been found in Southwestern China. Previously, we found that the IMP-4 gene existed in A. baumannii (data were not shown) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Since 2007, we have detected the carbapenemase genes in enterobacteria. In 2009, we found the first carbapenemase gene, IMP-4, which we subsequently showed to be spreading among enterobacteria. However, IMP-8 has been reported in Chongqing despite the presence of IMP-4 . These results suggested that IMP-4 may be transferred to enterobacteria from other bacteria in our hospital. After the first IMP-4-positive K. pneumoniae strain was found in the Pediatrics Unit, 18 IMP-4-positive enterobacteria were identified, including one E. cloacae and two E. coli strains. KPC-2 is common in the coastal cities of China, such as Hangzhou and Shanghai ,. Only one KPC-2-positive strain was found among the clinical isolates, and it was reported in The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing . Since then, we have not found another KPC-2-positive strain. Thus, the KPC-2-positive strain may have been present in the patient prior to hospitalization and not acquired from a hospital ward. For seven MHT-positive strains, no carbapenemase gene was amplified. The MHT has negative and positive likelihood rates, and the positive likelihood rate in our experiment is higher than that in a previous report . Here, we only tested for the commonly appearing carbapenemase genes in China, so it is possible that these seven strains have other resistance genes. The MHT- and IMP-4-positive strains exhibited low-level resistance and even susceptibility to carbapenems in our study, and Nordmann reported similar results . Thus, the highly resistant strains carrying IMP-4 must have additional mechanisms for carbapenem resistance, such as outer-membrane permeability defects, other resistance genes, or target alteration. Therefore, to treat carbapenemase-positive strains, carbapenem antibiotics, although not the preferred choice, may be the only choice. The PFGE revealed genetic diversity among the 20 K. pneumoniae isolates, which belonged to five PFGE types. Ten strains of K. pneumoniae shared the same PFGE type. The phenomenon of the same clones spreading within the same wards or throughout different wards during the same period was observed. The same clones had similar resistance results but slightly different MIC results, suggesting that some features of the bacteria had changed as they spread and replicated or that these bacteria could easily exchange mobile genetic elements. These findings indicated that the decreased susceptibility to carbapenems in K. pneumoniae may arise by the stepwise accumulation of multiple carbapenem resistance determinants in different clones. These results suggest that this type of infection can be classified as a hospital-derived infection. Therefore, controlling hospital infections is a method for reducing the accumulation of bacteria resistance determinants. The average hospital stay of the patients with these isolates was 23.1 days, while the average hospital stay of all patients in our hospital was 9.8 days. Long-term acute care hospitals (LTACHs) may play a particularly important role in the spread of KPC-producing Enterobacteriaceae, particularly among neonates or patients with a serious illness who have a reduced immune system functional capacity and who are undergoing invasive examinations or treatments. Our results support the conclusions reported by Endimiani . Thus, for patients with a high risk of infection, reinforcement of infection control measures based on the guidance for carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae prevention with early warning is particularly critical and should include promotion of hand hygiene. In addition, the immediate initiation of contact precautions is necessary, which can lead to a considerable reduction in hospital-acquired carbapenemase producers. Our findings also suggest that a significant containment of carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae strains from the environment is possible with the implementation of a comprehensive infection control intervention program that includes active surveillance, carrier isolation/cohorting, and a dedicated staff to treat individuals who become infected. The advent of these tests has enabled the early detection of clonal strains that are likely to be introduced into our hospital, especially from patients with previous hospitalizations. In the future, we will analyze more diverse strains and resistant genes. After infection control measures are reinforced, we will conduct additional infection control studies to test the effects of reinforcing infection control measures. Taken together, these findings reveal the process involved in the recent spread of IMP-4 in our hospital. Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteria have become a significant concern in our hospital. The presence of carbapenemases, such as KPC-2 and IMP-4, may have played a significant role in the development of these resistant strains. Cooperation among the clinical microbiology laboratory, the infection control team, and the medical and nursing staff is vital for the design and implementation of appropriate infection control measures for carbapenemase-producing pathogens. The use of active surveillance as part of this multifactorial intervention may also aid in decreasing the secondary transmission rates of imported genes. Other interventions, such as shortening the average length of hospital stays, may further augment these infection control actions. Examining whether our interventions change the prevalence of other, less common, multidrug-resistant pathogens will also be of interest. Logan LK: Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae: an emerging problem in children. Clin Infect Dis 2012, 55: 852-859. 10.1093/cid/cis543 Nordmann P, Naas T, Poirel L: Global spread of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Emerg Infect Dis 2011, 17: 1791-1798. 10.3201/eid1710.110655 Voulgari E, Poulou A, Koumaki V, Tsakris A: Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae: now that the storm is finally here, how will timely detection help us fight back? Future Microbiol 2013, 8: 27-39. 10.2217/fmb.12.130 Thurlow CJ, Prabaker K, Lin MY, Lolans K, Weinstein RA, Hayden MK: Anatomic sites of patient colonization and environmental contamination with klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae at long-term acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013, 34: 56-61. 10.1086/668783 Lee K, Chong Y, Shin HB, Kim YA, Yong D, Yum JH: Modified Hodge and EDTA-disk synergy tests to screen metallo-β-lactamase-producing strains of pseudomonas and acinetobacter species. Clin Microbiol Infect 2001, 7: 88-91. 10.1046/j.1469-0691.2001.00204.x Shen P, Wei Z, Jiang Y, Du X, Ji S, Yu Y, Li L: Novel genetic environment of the carbapenem-hydrolyzing β-lactamase KPC-2 among Enterobacteriaceae in China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009, 53: 4333-4338. 10.1128/AAC.00260-09 Gouby A, Neuwirth C, Bourg G, Bouziges N, Carles-Nurit MJ, Despaux E, Ramuz M: Epidemiological study by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of an outbreak of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a geriatric hospital. J Clin Microbiol 1994, 32: 301-305. Tenover FC, Arbeit RD, Goering RV, Mickelsen PA, Murray BE, Persing DH, Swaminathan B: Interpreting chromosomal DNA restriction patterns produced by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis: criteria for bacterial strain typing. J Clin Microbiol 1995, 33: 2233-2239. Sun FJ, Shi HQ, Zhang XB, Fang YD, Chen YC, Chen JH, Wang Q, Yang B, Feng W, Xia PY: Detection of carbapenemase-encoding genes among clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a burn unit of China. J Burn Care Res 2013, 34: 453-458. 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3182700afd Zhao WH, Hu ZQ: IMP-type metallo-β-lactamases in gram-negative bacilli: distribution, phylogeny, and association with integrons. Crit Rev Microbiol 2011, 37: 214-226. 10.3109/1040841X.2011.559944 Chu YW, Afzal-Shah M, Houang ET, Palepou MI, Lyon DJ, Woodford N, Livermore DM: IMP-4, a novel metallo-β-lactamase from nosocomial Acinetobacter spp. collected in Hong Kong between 1994 and 1998. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001, 45: 710-714. 10.1128/AAC.45.3.710-714.2001 Wei Z, Yu T, Qi Y, Ji S, Shen P, Yu Y, Chen Y: Coexistence of plasmid-mediated KPC-2 and IMP-4 carbapenemases in isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae from China. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011, 66: 2670-2671. 10.1093/jac/dkr330 Dai W, Sun S, Yang P, Huang S, Zhang X, Zhang L: Characterization of carbapenemases, extended spectrum β-lactamases and molecular epidemiology of carbapenem-non-susceptible Enterobacter cloacae in a Chinese hospital in Chongqing. Infect Genet Evol 2013, 14: 1-7. 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.10.010 Hu F, Chen S, Xu X, Guo Y, Liu Y, Zhu D, Zhang Y: Emergence of carbapenem-resistant clinical Enterobacteriaceae isolates from a teaching hospital in Shanghai, China. J Med Microbiol 2012, 61: 132-136. 10.1099/jmm.0.036483-0 Wei ZQ, Du XX, Yu YS, Shen P, Chen YG, Li LJ: Plasmid-mediated KPC-2 in a Klebsiella pneumoniae isolate from China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007, 51: 763-765. 10.1128/AAC.01053-06 Mathers AJ, Carroll J, Sifri CD, Hazen KC: Modified Hodge test versus indirect carbapenemase test: prospective evaluation of a phenotypic assay for detection of klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) in Enterobacteriaceae. J Clin Microbiol 2013, 51: 1291-1293. 10.1128/JCM.03240-12 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Guidance for control of infections with carbapenem-resistant or carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in acute care facilities MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009, 58: 256-260. 10.1128/JCM.03240-12 The authors declare that they have no competing interests. SC carried out the protocol design and drafted this manuscript. WF carried out the collection and analysis of data for this study, and revised the content. JC carried out the collection of data, the analysis and interpretation of these data. WL, NH and QW participated in the collection of data for this study. FS and PX carried out the protocol design, collection of data, the analysis and interpretation of these data, and drafted and revised the content of this manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Authors’ original submitted files for images Below are the links to the authors’ original submitted files for images. About this article Cite this article Chen, S., Feng, W., Chen, J. et al. Spread of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteria in a Southwest Hospital in China. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 13, 42 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12941-014-0042-4

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So, you are looking for things to do to “Go Green”? You don’t have to always focus on the big things, even though they help. We will look at the little things you can do today to help a positive impact on the environment. After all it is everyone’s responsibility to take care of this earth. Water: We all need to take a look at our water usage. Of course, there are things like making sure your sprinklers are not set to water while it is raining, and make sure there are no leaks. But did you know that that when you brush your teeth and leave the water on you could waste gallons of water? Check your water temperature and load size when you are washing your clothes. Do you really need to wash a pair of socks on the large load setting? Recycle:Most neighborhoods have recycle trash cans these days. But when you are out and about do you throw your bottled water or soda cans in the proper trash receptacle? Also, when you are at work don’t be lazy, recycle there too. Stay of the Road: Do you live in an area that has mass transit? Did you know that if you can carpool or find another way to get to work a couple of days a week instead of driving – you will reduce gas emissions by thousands of pounds a year? Some companies like Lush Miami Limo Service in Miami, Fl give rides to and from the bus stations for free. So check with your local limo company to see if they provide the same service. It would be even better if you were able to walk or ride your bike. Not only are you helping the earth, but you are helping keep fit as well. When you are on the road, drive slower meaning around 60 miles an hour instead of 70 or 75. You will save gas and your breaks will not wear out as fast. Also, give yourself some space so you aren’t on the accelerator and break all the time. Light bulbs/Energy efficient products:When you switch out your lightbulbs to energy efficient bulbs, you will save money on your utility bills as well as saving gas emissions from being released. A lot of times you can get rebates from your utility companies when you switch out toilets and appliances that are efficient or ENERGY STAR products. Your home can be made more energy efficient when you program your thermostat and clean your filters. Last but not least and I am sure you have heard this all of your life, but turn the lights off when you aren’t in a room. Also make sure your phones, iPad and other appliances are not plugged in when you use them. When it comes to living a healthy lifestyle, getting the nutrients your body needs is crucial to every aspect of your daily life. It can seem like a challenge to get the nutrients you need through balanced eating, though. With a good healthy diet plan, you can get the nutrients you need each day. Continue reading for ideas on how to get the nutrients your body needs. Fruits and vegetables each come with their own nutritional and health benefits. Research what your favorite vegetables provide so that you can incorporate them into your diet to help with any health-related issues you may have or want to prevent. You will find the health benefits of eating right way outweigh the struggle of eating nutrient rich foods for your body needs. The nutritional needs of someone who is pregnant or lactating are different than others. Pregnant women need to ensure they get enough protein in their diet. This can be difficult if your pregnancy causes you to not want to eat. A simple way to add protein to your diet when pregnant is to mix egg whites into a morning smoothie to get your day started off right. Eggs are always a great source of protein for pregnant women and anyone else. Also, they’re only 15 calories and no fat in egg whites. The best ones to use are pasteurized eggs. Avoid all sugary drinks and sodas you want to have a healthy diet. If your body craves something sweet, try drinking fruit juice instead. You can purchase 100% juice products from the store or use your own fruits. Try mixing a number of different fruits and vegetables to find a flavor you love. Getting the proper nutrients is important for everyone to maintain a healthy lifestyle and higher quality of life. Start today trying to incorporate the extra nutrients you need in your life so you can make a habit out of healthy eating. Not only will you feel better, but you will look better and enjoy life more. Acupuncture is a natural way to help your body heal itself. It takes nothing away from your body nor adds anything foreign to it. Acupuncture is a completely natural ancient art form. Continue reading below to find out more about acupuncture and how it can help you live a healthier life. Do not eat a heavy meal before you go in for an acupuncture treatment. This may not only cause disappointing results but could be quite uncomfortable as you lay on your stomach while it is full. Instead, you should try to eat a healthy snack two or three hours before you go in. You should never avoid eating before going to your treatment since an empty stomach may cause you to feel dizzy. An acupuncturist should never be tipped. They are part of the healthcare profession in a professional position. Tipping an acupuncturist would be very similar to tipping your optometrist or family doctor. Many people shy away from acupuncture because they think it will hurt. There are many techniques that can be used by your acupuncturist, to talk to them about painless needling. It is also good to talk to your acupuncturist about their education and experience with acupuncture. Make sure your practitioner has had many years of experience so you get the best care. Talk with your acupuncturist about developing a treatment program. They will help you customize a program that is based on your needs and works around your schedule. It is best to schedule your appointments when you are not prone to stress you can maximize the treatment’s benefits. When you feel the maximum benefits, you will be encouraged to stick with the program. Unfortunately, many people are still skeptical about the art of acupuncture. They choose to stick with conventional medicine instead. Acupuncture is a natural way to help relieve pain and keep you healthy, though, so it is a great alternative for those of us interested in natural therapies. And allows your body to use the resources it already has put you in control of your health and happiness. Throughout the years, mourning has been considered a human characteristic with the loss of a loved one. Over the years, though, scientists have observed the acts of mourning with other animals such as elephants and gorillas. In fact, one case showed wild elephants in a herd trying to move their dead matriarch. These elephants, after they finally accepted her death, use tree branches and leaves to cover her body, then stood around for two days before they dispersed. More recently, scientists are learning that whales also mourn when they lose their companion or offspring. A university biologist observed 14 instances of whale conduct after a loss. Half of these observations showed grieving or mourning behaviors. They each had similar grieving patterns among the different types of whales studied. In Washington, an incident was observed where a female orca balanced her dead newborn owner head to keep it from sinking. In another instance, a grieving mother and her dead infant were protected by predators by their part of short-finned pilot wells as they formed a circle around her and her calf. These behaviors can cost the animals a lot since it takes them away from their typical survival activities such as socializing, mating, and foraging for food. Therefore, it makes no sense the animals would participate in this act unless they were actually grieving. For some animals, the behavior could be merely them exploring the situation or curiosity. When the whales spend so much time and energy to clean to their dead loved one, or touch them repeatedly using their fans, it is a lot more likely to be mourning. Whales are social animals that are very intelligent, so this finding is not a big surprise to most scientists. They are a lot like humans in that they have lifelong bonds and can form strong friendships. Hopefully, as more people understand how wells mourn and feel deeply, they will begin to treat these magnificent animals with more respect and caution. We can help protect ourselves by having a healthy lifestyle. One way to have a healthy diet is through juicing regularly. Not only can juicing help prevent diseases and improve your health, but it can also help you to live a life that is healthier and happier. Below are some ideas to help you get started with juicing. If you’re wanting to start a juicing for the benefits it adds to your health, make sure you are drinking all the juice at one time. Nutrients are lost from the Jews the longer it sits. Therefore, the more quickly you drink it, the more nutrients your body will receive. Broccoli and spinach are great to add to your juice if you need to add more protein to your diet. Your body’s need for protein will be satisfied short-term by using these vegetables. The majority of Americans already get more protein in their bodies need, so it’s likely you may not need to add these extra protein sources to your juice. Only do so if your doctor says you need to add protein. When you are looking to buy a new juicer, try to find one that extracts through a masticating process rather than centrifuge process. When you use masticating extraction, the nutrients are preserved more because you are not using heat during the process like the centrifuge process can. Research the different kinds of juicers to find a masticating one that works for you. If you need to make a lot of juice at one time, you need to find a good way to preserve the nutrients. There are some vacuum sealed jars now available that can help with this. Removing the air from your juice preserves the vitamins and helps your juice stay fresh longer. Now that you know more about juicing, you will be able to enjoy the health benefits that come along with juicing your own fruits and vegetables. Juicing is one of the best ways to provide the nutrients your body needs. Being someone who cares about the earth, you may want to someday travel but could be concerned about language barriers. Technology is now coming out that makes it possible to translate languages in real time. The company, Waverly labs, has designed a smart earpiece called the pilot that translates language instantly. This will allow people to have seamless conversations with one another even if they don’t know the language of the other. The earpiece that’s in your ear the same way an earbud would. When someone is speaking to you, the device picks up their speech, send it to an app on your smartphone that converts the words into text, translates the language for you, then whispers what was spoken back to you in your own language. This ingenious device allows you to understand what the other person is saying even when you don’t know their language. These smart devices will focus in on the conversation and block ambient noise. When you are not using the earpiece for translations, you can use them to listen to your favorite music. The Pilot is a great option for businesses since it allows participants that speak different languages to converse. Granted, this device is not perfect, but it is a lot more accurate than any other product on the market available today. At this time, using the device requires having a data connection. It is only able to translate conversations one on one. The developers are hopeful that future generations will be able to translate everything being spoken in the person’s environment. They also want to reduce the delay between speech and translation. The first version that is being worked on will be able to translate Portuguese, Italian, French, Spanish, and English. Over time, more languages will be added. Many tech companies have been working to develop real-time translation programs, such as Apple, Microsoft, and Google. The Pilot will be the first translator that is wearable, though. This product has been made possible thanks to a crowdfunding campaign that raised over $3 million. Surprisingly, this earpiece will be priced at a mere $299 on its release. Over the past month, I have been seeing a lot of videos about the new edible water bottle. We all know that plastic bottles are very harmful to our environment since they take hundreds of years to decompose. For years now, environmentalists have been encouraging consumers to stop buying plastic bottles but, instead, for them to switch to alternatives like reusable bottles or water fountains. Their efforts have not been very effective, though. Annually, the United States uses over 50 million plastic bottles. Of these, around 80% and their life in a landfill. Seeing this as a problem, many people have been trying to discover a solution. The solution may have been found by three men from the Imperial College of London with their new innovation, the edible water. The edible container is made from seaweed. In encases the water which can be consumed by popping the entire blob into your mouth or simply poking a hole in the surface layer. This idea arose in 2014 and has just recently been completed thanks to their crowdfunding campaign that raised over $1 million. There are still several challenges the inventors need to overcome before they are able to seriously contend with plastic bottles. Though the packaging is cheaper to manufacture than plastic edges two cents each, it may take a while for consumers to become accustomed to the texture of the covering. Also, since you only get a gulp of water with each edible container, you must consume multiple bubbles to fully quench your thirst. Another issue is coming up with packaging that is eco-friendly for the bubbles to be transported in that will keep them clean and intact. Consumers may also be concerned about the bubbles creating splatter as they bite into them. Hopefully, these issues can be quickly resolved so we can begin the process of eliminating plastic waste from our landfills. As we discussed in our previous post, organic gardening is the best way to help pollinators continue to help us with food production. Not only that but an organic garden gives us plants that are healthier, thus helping us to keep our bodies healthy. Many of you may be wondering how to get started with an organic garden. Continue reading this article for ideas on how to get your organic garden started and growing successfully. Before you begin growing your organic garden, make sure you are planting it at the right time. Typically, you can find the best time to plant on the back of the seed package. Otherwise, a quick search online will give you the answers you need. When you plants your seeds at the right time, your results will be a lot better than otherwise. Many plants will need to be started indoors. If you have seeds that require indoor planting, you will need to schedule them so they will be ready to transfer to your outdoor garden at the right time. It is typically best to write out a complete planting schedule as you plan your organic garden. That way, you make sure you stay on schedule and your plants are put in the ground at the right time. Always keep your gardening tools organized and close by. You can use a simple tote bag to do so or purchase a gardening bag that will help you keep your tools organized. This will make your organic gardening time more effective since your tools will be easily accessible every time you go out to work in your garden. Having enough light is important for needs that are starting to sprout. For your indoor plants, move them inside a greenhouse or near a sunny window. You can also opt to use a florescent light on these plants. Most plants need around 16 hours of light each day. Your garden organic isn’t much more work than a typical garden. It simply takes more research up front to discover ways to provide with your plants need without using chemicals. Not using chemicals is not only better for you, but for the environment as well. You will not only be protecting pollinators but will be producing produce that is healthier for you. I’m sure we have all heard recently about how bees are being killed off by the thousands. Bees, along with other pollinators, are responsible for over 30% of the food we eat. There are some things you can do yourself to help the bees in your area thrive. Below are eight simple steps can take: - Plant a habitat that is pollinator friendly: there are many native plants that attract pollinators. A quick search online will give you ideas on how to make your habitat more biodiverse while also creating areas of forage for birds, butterflies, and bees. Also, be sure to use organic methods of controlling weeds rather than chemical ones. - Allow weeds to grow: there are many flowering weeds and clover growing in the typical North American yard. These areas are great for all pollinators. Never use chemical products that are meant to kill flowering weeds or clover. - Manage your land organically: avoid all toxic pesticides, insecticides, and fungicides if possible. Having an organic garden supports biodiversity and life better. An organic garden also supports 50% more pollinators than nonorganic, conventional ones. - Educate your community: help spread the word about practices that encourage pollinators such as bees. It may be as simple as providing educational materials to your neighborhood, or as complex as teaching classes on the importance of pollinators. - If you live in the city, support green rooftops: you can create habitats for pollinators in urban areas by building green rooftops. Often times, the city Council will offer incentives for residents to build these pollinator-friendly habitats that support pollinators. - Provide a place for bees to nest: one of the best ideas is to have beehives on your property. If you’re unable to do this, you can create a different sort of nesting site with sand areas where they can burrow or wood. Giving these pollinators a home is the second step in creating a great environment for the bees. There are many associations for local beekeepers in most areas of the country. - Relocate beehives instead of destroying them: most local beekeeper associations are willing to remove hives from your property. - Purchase only agricultural products that are certified organic: support organic gardening through your dollars. This not only supports the farms themselves but also supports the pollinators. By working together, we can all make a difference for bees and other pollinators in our community. Personal development is key to learning how to protect yourself and your health. You need to understand yourself more in order to do the things that are important for your own health. You can do this through professional teachers or through your friends and family. These people can help you gain valuable insight into what makes you are. One great way to develop yourself is through helping others. There are many benefits that come with helping, whether you are helping other people or the environment. Not only will you feel better about yourself, but helping others makes them more willing to help you in your time of need. Having people around the support you and that you trust is also a great way to help you develop personally. You want to surround yourself with people that will be there for you and listen to you when you have problems to talk through or just need a listening ear. Try taking up yoga as a way to develop yourself. Not only is yoga therapeutic, but it’s also a wonderful way to get fit. Some types of yoga are aimed towards helping you understand yourself better. Regardless of what is going on in your life, always be true to yourself. Get rid of things that cause you to be unhappy or disrupt your life, and fill your life with what makes you happy and fulfilled. Treat yourself in a caring manner with love and respect always. If you have problems doing so, try to see yourself through the eyes of others that love you. Work hard towards things that you want or need in life. This may interrupt your sleeping schedule slightly, but those extra minutes spent on your end goal are typically worth the sacrifice. Granted, you don’t want to regularly deprive yourself of sleep, the change your schedule however needed to accomplish your goals. Personal development is always necessary as you begin the journey of protecting your body and mind. You need to know who you are, love yourself, and do what you can to reach your goals in life.

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The bendir (also known as erbeni or arbani) is a simple traditional frame drum used throughout northern Africa. Frame drums are the oldest and most common kind of drum and the bendir has been around since prehistoric times with strong evidence of its use in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. It typically has a two or three strand snare (usually made of fine gut and seen faintly in the image on the right) stretched across the inside of its head which, when the drum is struck with the fingers or palm, gives the tone a unique buzzing quality. The bendir has a wooden frame, which is usually between 36 to 41 cm (14 to 16 inches) in diameter, with a membrane that is glued and/or tacked to the frame. Traditionally the bendir is played vertically by inserting the thumb of one hand into a special hole in the frame. It is then played using the fingers of the that hand and with the other hand moving freely across the face of the drum. Other methods of playing are on the lap and face up wedged between the knees. The bendir is used in the special ceremonies of Sufism which has a strong tradition of using music, rhythm, and dance to reach particular states of consciousness. A sample of the bendir being played can be viewed here. The bodhran is an Irish frame drum that ranges in size from 25 to 65 cm (10" to 26") in diameter. Bodhrans generally have a goatskin head attached to one side of the frame. Synthetic heads or other animal skins are sometimes used. The other side of the frame is left open and the players free hand is placed against the inside of the drum head to control the pitch and timbre. As seen in examples to the right, bodhrans often have one or two crossbars inside the frame, but the use of crossbars seems to be declining in modern instruments. Some modern bodhrans integrate mechanical tuning systems (see middle image) that allow the bodhran heads to be tightened or loosened to compensate for atmospheric conditions. The bodhran is generally played on the lap of the seated player and a wooden beater, known as a tipper or cipin (see bottom image), is used to strike the drum in a technique that often uses both ends of the tipper and requires a great deal of wrist work. As with all Irish music, styles of play can vary from county to county. It is believed that the bodhran dates back several centuries and there is evidence that it was used as a battle drum back as far as the 17th century. The drum provided a cadence for the pipers and warriors to keep to, as well as to announce the arrival of the army. This leads some to think that the bodhran was derived from an old Celtic war drum. Sean Ó Riada declared the bodhran to be the native drum of the Celts, with a musical history that predated Christianity. The bodhran is very similar to the ancient frame drums of African origin. These days the bodhran is solely synonymous with traditional Irish music and, whilst it is not necessarily the backbone of Irish music, a skilled and sensitive bodhran player can certainly add a wonderful percussive element to an Irish music session. A good example of bodhran playing can be viewed here. Bodhrans and Tippers Gandharva Loka offers a range of quality standard and tunable bodhrans. We also stock locally made and imported tippers. Bodhran Books, DVDs and Bags Gandharva Loka stocks bodhran tuition books and DVDs including "Your Essential Guide to the Bodhran" – an instructional 'how to play the bodhran' DVD produced by Christchurch bodhran player / teacher Argène Montgomery-Hönger. We also stock good quality protective carry bags for bodhrans and frame drums – see: Drum Bags. Congas (also known as tumbadora) are tall, narrow, single-headed drums from Cuba. Typically made from wood (fiberglass is also used) with screw-tensioned drumheads, congas are staved like barrels and classified into three types: quinto (lead drum, highest), tres dos or tres golpes (middle), and tumba or salidor (lowest). Congas are traditionally used in Afro-Cuban genres such as conga and rumba, although they are now very common in many other forms of Latin music, including descarga, Afro-Cuban jazz, salsa, songo, merengue and Latin rock. Gandharva Loka stocks Rhythm Tech congas which are constructed from select Asian Oak to exact specifications and come with a robust stand (see image right). They feature 10" (25.6 cm) and 11" (28 cm) heads and offer superb quality at an affordable price. The bongos are a Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of single-headed open-ended drums that are attached to each other. Each drum is a different size: the larger drum is called in Spanish the hembra (female) and the smaller the macho (male). Bongos are usually played by hand. Bongos originated in Africa and, as is the case with many instruments, it was the slave trade that brought the forerunner to the bongos to Cuba. Bongos are typically played on or between the knees but are also free standing with rubber feet so that they can be played on a table or bench. They can also be adapted to stands so that they can be played in the standing position. Gandharva Loka offers pairs of bongos and bongo stands that are sold separately. The bongos are a very suitable instrument for children and young adults who wish to develop rhythm and drumming capacities. The cajon (pronounced kah-hon) is a percussion instrument that has its origins in Peru and is considered to be the most popular percussion instrument in Latin America. In colonial times slaves were not permitted to use their traditional instruments so they improvised and started using wooden shipping crates as drums and this gave birth of the cajon. Today's cajon makers use either guitar strings or snare wires inside the drum to give the instrument a great crisp sound. Of all forms of hand percussion they perhaps more than any other give us a real drum set sound. With a nice warm punchy bass and crisp snare sound this instrument has unlimited potentiality. A demonstration of the cajon can be viewed here. Gandharva Loka stocks a locally made and imported cajons including self-assemble kitset models and cajons and 'cajonitos' (compact laptop cajons) made by Schlagwerk. Cajon Instruction / Tuition Books - The Big Instruction Book for the Cajon – by Conny Sommer. (Includes a CD.) - Cajon Styles for Drummers – by Martin Rottger. (Includes a CD with over 50 audio examples and play-alongs.) The daf is a large frame drum used to accompany both popular and classical music in many regions of the Middle East and is commonly used in Khangah (temple of dervishes) during the zekr (spiritual chanting) rituals. Its Pahlavi (pre-Islamic Persian language) name is dap and daf is the arabic word for dap. Many Persian poets have alluded to the daf in their works including the renowned theologian and seer-poet Jalaludin Rumi. The daf frame is traditionally made from a thin circular band of hardwood and covered with goatskin on one side. It can also have small metal rings (often in chains) or small cymbals attached to the inside of the rim which creates a jangling effect when the drum is played. This makes the daf a type of tambourine and quite similar to the bendir. Tones of various depth and colour are obtained by hitting different spots on the skin with the fingers and generally daf have a beautiful low, soft tone with the rings being low pitched as well. In modern times the daf has risen to great popularity and is now integrated into many styles of Middle Eastern music. It is also becoming popular on a global level. A very good demonstration of the daf being played can be viewed here. The damroo (also known as the 'monkey talking drum') is a two sided Indian percussion instrument that is shaped like an hour glass. Gandharva Loka generally stocks three sizes the smallest if which is 8cm high by 9cm in diameter (a good size for children) and the largest being 15cm high by 10cm in diameter. Cords control the tautness of the drum skin (usually goat skin) which allows the drum to be tuned. The player holds the damroo in one hand and, by twisting the wrist back and forth, causes the two knotted strings to swing and beat a rhythm on the heads of the drum. The steady rhythm of the damroo provides an ideal accompaniment to ballads or to catch the attention of passersby. Damroo are often brightly painted and decorated with motifs and ornaments such as bells and shells. The damroo is the drum of Lord Shiva and is considered to be the first instrument to be given to humanity. In India many sadhus (holy men) carry the damroo as do madaris (the peddlers who exhibit bears and monkeys) and pavement vendors. The prayer drum is in the same family of drums as the Damroo. The darbuka (also known as dahola, doumbek and chalice or goblet drums) is a goblet shaped hand drum of ancient origin that is mostly used in Middle Eastern styles of music. Its thin, responsive drumhead and resonance help it produce a distinctively crisp tone. Darbuka are played with a much lighter touch and with different strokes than hand drums such as the djembe of Africa. Traditionally darbuka are made of clay, metal or wood but modern versions are also being made of synthetic materials such as fiberglass, aluminum (either cast, spun or from sheet) and copper. Traditional drum heads are animal skin, commonly goat and also fish, but modern drum heads are also being made synthetic materials including mylar and fiberglass. There are two main types of darbuka – the Egyptian style (top image) which has rounded edges around the head and the Turkish style which exposes the edge of the head. The exposed edge allows closer access to the head so finger-snapping techniques can be used, but the hard edge discourages the rapid rolls possible with the Egyptian style. There are two main sounds produced by the darbuka. The first is the 'doum' – the deeper bass sound produced by striking the head near the center with the length of the fingers and palm. The second is 'tek' – the higher-pitched sound produced by hitting near the edge of the head with the fingertips. Darbuka may be played while held under one arm (usually the non-dominant arm) or by placing the drum sideways upon the lap (with the head towards the player's knees) while seated. Some drums are also made with strap mounts so the drum may be slung over the shoulder, to facilitate playing while standing or dancing. A similar type of drum is the zarb. The dhol is a drum widely used throughout India but is especially popular in the Punjab region and particularly so among the Sikhs of East Punjab. It was used in war by the Sikhs and later to celebrate successful harvests. The dhol is most commonly associated with Punjabi music and dance and has remained very popular in modern Punjabi music. The dhol dates back to the 15th century and was probably introduced to the Indian subcontinent as the Persian dohol (duhul) which is described as being used in the orchestra of the Mughal emperor Akbar. The Indo-Aryan word 'dhol' appears in print in the early nineteenth. From northern India the dhol spread to other parts of the Indian subcontinent. A demonstration of the dhol can be viewed here. The dholak is a very popular folk drum of northern India that is also found in Pakistan and Nepal. It is barrel shaped with a degree of tapering at each end. It has a simple membrane on the right end and a single membrane with a special application (a mixture of tar, clay and sand known as dholak masala) on the inner surface of the left end which lowers the pitch and provides a well defined tone. There are two ways of tightening the drum heads of the dholak. Some models are laced with rope and a series of metal rings are used to adjust the instrument. On other versions metal turnbuckles allow the same effect. The dholak is either played on the player's lap or, while standing, slung from the shoulder or waist or pressed down with one knee while sitting on the floor. A djembe (pronounced 'jem-bay') is a drum of African origin. The exact beginning of the djembe history and tradition is unclear, but the drum was certainly present in the 13th century when the great Mali Empire was formed. Similar to the Middle Eastern darbuka, the djembe is shaped like a goblet and is played with the bare hands. The instrument takes its name from a saying of the Bamana people in Mali: 'Anke dje, anke be', which means, 'everyone gather together'. Due to the variations in the material used to construct djembe, there is a broad range of tones that can be produced by the instrument and the design of the body gives the djembe a deep and powerful bass note. The primary notes are generally referred to as 'bass' (low and deep), 'tone' (round and full) and 'slap' (high and sharp) although a variety of other tones can also be produced by advanced players. Gandharva Loka offers a wide range of types and sizes of djembe as well as padded bags (some have shoulder straps that allow the drum to be carried as a backpack) or colourful cloth bags imported from Africa – see: Drum Accessories and Drum Bags. We also stock instructional CDs and DVDs and are able to put our customers in touch with a dynamic drumming circle and excellent drum teachers here in Christchurch. The djun-djun (pronounced 'joon-joon' and also known as Djoundjoun, Dun-Dun and Dunun) is the general name for a family of three bass drums that evolved in West Africa. Along with the djembe, the djun-djun originated in the Mali Empire. The three drums that make up a djun-djun set are the dundoumba (literally meaning 'big djun-djun'), which has the lowest tone and is the largest of the three. Next is the mid-tone, medium-sized sangban and the third and smallest high-toned kenkeni. Djun-djun provide the rhythmic foundation for the djembe and are often mounted with bells that are played in conjunction with the drum. Each djun-djun is constructed from the hollowed out base of a tree and then covered on both ends with cow or goat skin that is held in place and tensioned by rope. There are wide variations on how the djun-djun is played throughout West Africa. An example of how the djun-djun and the djembe are played together in a traditional West African drum ensemble can be viewed here. Drum Beaters And Strikers Gandharva Loka offers a wide range of drum beaters and strikers. We do not stock western style drum sticks but do have sticks that are used for drums such as the Japanese taiko and the African talking drum. We also stock a broad variety of beaters and mallets for gongs. These adjustable drum harnesses are designed to allow the musician to drum in a standing position. The straps have extra padding in the upper back area for comfort and support and the harness simply clips to the drums rim. Drum Shoulder Straps These strong and durable drum shoulder straps allow the musician to stand and move about while drumming. They are 4.5 metres long and are made from 50 mm webbing. There is no buckle – the strap simply threads through the ropes of the djembe and is knotted. Gandharva Loka offers quality padded and waterproof drum hats that provide optimal protection for drum heads. We stock a variety of sizes with elastic bindings that ensure a secure fit. Drum Waist Straps These adjustable djembe waist strap have a clip at each end allows the musician to hold djembes and other drums in a secure position while seated. The strong and durable 75 mm webbing can be adjusted to be used with one or two drums. Drum Tuition CDs And DVDs Gandharva Loka also stocks instructional CDs and DVDs and we are able to put our customers in touch with a dynamic drumming circle and excellent drum teachers here in Christchurch. Rope pullers (also known as cord pullers) are used to tighten the ropes that tension the heads on African drums such as djembes and djun djuns. Gandharva Loka offers two sizes of aluminium Power Grip rope pullers as follows. - One-handed rope puller – 10cm wide (left in image) - Two-handed rope puller – 20cm wide (right in image) High quality water proof padded bodhran / frame drum bags with side pocket, hand straps and shoulder strap. These frame drum gig bags come in three sizes. - 35.5 cm (14 in) - 40.5 cm (16 in) - 45.5 cm (18 in) Small Frame Drum Bags These quality padded drum bags are for small frame drums such as riq or kanjira. They are made of a washable, water-repellent nylon fabric with a zipper, a shoulder strap and a front pocket for accessories. These are similar to the djembe bags but smaller in size to fit Darbukas. High quality, waterproof, heavy duty, padded bags with shoulder and support straps, and zippered side pockets. High quality water proof, heavy duty, padded djembe bags with shoulder and support straps, and zippered side pockets. Made-To-Order Drum Bags Gandharva Loka can have drum bags made to order. Simply bring in your drum or send us the measurements and we can order a custom made bag for you. Gandharva Loka has drum heads available for tabla, naal, dholak and djembe. We also offer a repair service for almost every type of drum. If you require a quote on a drum repair or head replacement, kindly bring your drum into Gandharva Loka (this is preferred) or contact us. We can also organise harmonium tuning and repairs. The ghatam is a percussion instrument of South India – an earthenware pot that is played using the fingers, thumbs, palms and heels of the hand to strike the outer surface of the ghatam. It has a huge variety of sounds. An airy low-pitch bass sound, called gumki, is created by hitting the mouth of the pot with an open hand. Musicians sometimes press the mouth of the pot against their bare stomachs which deepens the tone of the bass stroke and is another way to produce the 'gumki' sound. Different tones can be produced by hitting different areas of the pot with different parts of the hands. In Indian classical music, the ghatam usually accompanies the mridanga. Although the ghatam looks very similar to a Indian domestic clay pot, it is made specifically to be played as an instrument. The walls are made to an even thickness to produce even tone. Some types of ghatam are made with tiny shards of brass mixed into the clay as this produces a sharp metallic ringing sound favored by some musicians. The ghatam is a wonderfully expressive instrument and a lot of fun! A gong drum (also known as 'gong bass drum') is a percussion instrument that has a large single or double sided drumhead in order to create a powerful, resonant sound when struck. The head can be tuned as loose as possible to avoid any sense of pitch in the sound, or tensioned more tightly to produce tympani-like tones. Gong drums vary in size from about 50 cm (20 inches) to enormous sizes. First produced in the late 1970s, gong drums have since been used by a wide variety of musicians and recording artists and also in movie sound tracks. Gong drums are typically suspended in frames made from various materials such as wood, metal and aluminium which sometimes have casters for ease of movement in situations such as stages or recording studios. Gandharva Loka currently has an 85 cm (33.5 inch) double sided cow hide gong drum that is mounted in a wooden frame similar to the one featured in the image above. The kanjira (also known as a ganjira) is a South Indian frame drum – a percussion instrument of the tambourine family. It is used primarily in concerts of Carnatic music (South Indian classical music) as a supporting instrument for the mridanga. Having been used for less than a century, the kanjira is considered to be a comparatively recent innovation. It has been used in Indian classical concerts since the 1930s. Similar to the western tambourine, the kanjira consists of a circular frame made of the wood of the jackfruit tree, between 18 and 23 cm in width and between 5 to 10 cm in depth. The frame is covered on one side with a drum head made of monitor lizard skin while the other side is left open. The frame has a single slit which contain two to three small metal discs that jingle when the kanjira is played. It is normally played with the palm and fingers of the right hand, while the left hand supports the drum. The fingertips of the left hand can be used to bend the pitch by applying pressure near the outer rim. Generally the kanjira has a very high pitched sound and, unlike the mridanga or the ghatam, is not tuned to any particular pitch. To get a good bass sound, the performer reduces the tension of the drumhead by sprinkling water on the inside of the instrument. The khol is actually a clay mridanga – a two-sided drum used in northern and eastern India as accompaniment to devotional, folk and Indian semi-classical music. The khols origins are considered to be in the West Bengal region of India. One end of the khol is much smaller than the other and both ends are traditionally covered with cow or goat skin. The heads are tensioned with leather straps and the instrument is played with the palms and fingers of both hands. As the popularity of the khol grew in the West, many variations resulted using non-traditional materials for the body, such as metal and fibreglass, and synthetic skins for the drum heads. The mridanga is a percussion instrument from India. Of ancient origin, it is the primary rhythmic accompaniment in the Carnatic music (South Indian classical music) ensembles and is often accompanied by the ghatam, kanjira, and the mouth harp. The word mridanga is derived from the two Sanskrit words 'Mrid' (clay or earth) and 'Ang' (body). Early mridangas were indeed made of hardened clay and, known as the khol, are still available in that form. Over the years the mridanga evolved to be made of different kinds of wood due to its increased durability. In modern times mechanical devices have been added to adjust the tension of the drum heads. It is widely believed that the tabla, the mridangas North Indian musical counterpart, was first constructed by splitting a mridanga in half. The naal has a barrel shaped body and the left side resembles the bayan (the large metal drum of the tabla) except that it uses dholak masala (an oil based application) on the inner surface instead of a syahi (permanent black spot). The right head is unique in its construction. Goat-skin is stitched onto an iron ring and in the centre of this skin is a syahi, similar to tabla except much thinner. Traditional naal are laced with rope and sticks are used to tension the drum heads but today it is more common that naal are made with metal turnbuckles that allow more precise tuning. There is often some confusion concerning the term 'dholki' which literally means 'small dholak'. Dholki is often used for smaller dholak that, structurally speaking, are quite different to the naal. A demonstration of the naal (dholki) can be viewed here. The ocean drum really allows you to bring the sound of the sea into your music. Using small metal beads inside a double sided frame drum, the ocean drum allows you to create wonderful ocean wave effects as you tilt the drum from one side to the other. The ocean drum can also be used as an effective drum using either the fingers or a beater. This is a wonderful instrument to use with children, in any sort of music therapy, or simply to create a wonderfully peaceful ocean atmosphere for your next performance. The pakhawaj (also known as Mardal, Pakhavaj, Pakuaj, Pakhvaj, Pakavaj or Mardala) is an Indian barrel-shaped two-headed drum. The North Indian equivalent to the Southern mridanga, it also has many similarities to the dholak. It is the standard percussion instrument in the dhrupad style and is widely used as an accompaniment for various forms of Indian music and dance. The pakhawaj has a low and mellow tone that is rich in harmonics. Laid horizontally on a cushion in front of the drummer's crossed legs, the larger bass-skin is played with the left hand and the treble skin by the right hand. Like the tambourine, the pandeiro is held in one hand and struck on the head with the other to produce sound. Typical pandeiro patterns are played by alternating the thumb, fingertips, heel, and palm of the hand. A pandeiro can also be shaken to make sound, or one can run a finger along the head to create a rasping sound. Pandeiro are used in a number of Brazilian music forms such as Samba, Choro, Coco, and Capoeira and the instrument derives from the pandeireta or pandereta of Spain and Portugal. Its ancient origin is considered to be in the Arabian region. Traditionally pandeiro are constructed with wooden frames, animal skin heads and metal cymbals but in modern times they are also produced using synthetic frames and heads. The riq (also spelt riqq or rik) is a type of tambourine that is common to Arabic music and is an important percussion instrument in both folk and classical music. Traditionally the riq has a wooden frame, metal jingles (small cymbals), and a thin head made of fish or goat skin. These days riq frames are also made from metal or synthetic materials and the heads are also often synthetic. The riq, which descended from the Persian daf, typically measures between 20 and 25 cm in diameter. Riq frames are often decorated on both sides with inlay such as mother-of-pearl, ivory or decorative woods. Generally a riq has ten small cymbals (about 4 cm in diameter), mounted in five pairs. The skin head is glued on and tightened over the frame which is about 6 cm deep. The riq is played in music ensembles throughout the Arabic-speaking world where it has a particularly clearcut role that goes beyond the simple rhythmic requirements of the daf, tar, or mazhar. In Sudan and upper Egypt the riq is also related to worship. Shaman drums are a type of frame drum which, in general terms, are one of the most ancient types of musical instruments. They have a simple structure and a strong association with spiritual rituals such as in the Shamanism. Frame drums come in a variety of sizes. They are usually round and are traditionally made of wood with an animal skin head and sometimes metal rings or plates incorporated into the frame to provide a jingle effect. Some models are now being constructed from synthetic materials and some have mechanical tuning. On many the drumhead is stretched and tacked in place. Frame drums are the earliest skin drum known to have existed. Although examples are found in many places and cultures, it is thought that frame drums originated in the ancient Middle East, India, and Rome, and reached medieval Europe through Islamic culture. The similarity of the names of frame drums in these regions shows the common history of these drums. Gandharva Loka currently stocks a line of quality Remo Buffalo Shaman Drums (pictured above). Sound Shapes are high-quality, affordable percussion instruments that are perfect for the home, classroom or daycare center – children love them! They come in a variety of geometric shapes and cool sounds that are as vibrant as their colors. They range in size, colour, and shape but all have a great sound. Sound shapes can be set up as a mini drum kit using some of the special stands that are available, or can be split up and be used by a group. They are super strong, extremely portable and really easy to use, so they work well with children as well as adults who might need a light-weight, highly portable, practice drum kit. The tabla is a popular Indian percussion instrument used in Hindustani classical music and in popular and devotional music of the Indian subcontinent. The instrument consists of a pair of hand drums of contrasting yet complimentary sizes and timbres. The term tabla is derived from an Arabic word tabl which simply means drum. Playing technique involves extensive use of the fingers and palms in various configurations to create a wide variety of sounds and rhythms. The heel of the hand is used to apply pressure or in a sliding motion on the larger drum so that the pitch is changed as the sound diminishes. The history of the tabla has been the subject of sometimes heated debate. It is most likely that the tabla is a hybrid resulting from the experiments with existing drums such as pakhawaj, dholak and naqqara. A common legend credits the 13th century Indian poet Amir Khusrau as the inventor when he split a mridanga into two parts. The tabla is central to Indian music and is used in a variety of genres including the classical music of North India as well as Indian contemporary, pop, folk and film music – and has become very popular in the West as well. Tabla tones are beautiful and playing tabla combines rhythm, melody and harmony to create music that is soulful and meditative. Two very good examples of tabla playing can be viewed here and here. Tabla Instruction / Tuition Books - Learn To Play On Tabla 1 & 2 – from the Pankaj Learn Yourself Music Series. Gandharva Loka offers Radel Taalmala Digi-60 Dx electronic digital tabla. These are a state-of-the-art stereo digital musical instruments that have been designed by pioneers in the field of Indian electronic musical instruments who use the latest sampler technology to produce natural tabla sounds along with sophisticated features unmatched by any other model of electronic tabla. Crystal clear stereo sound provides for the natural sounding separation of the tabla (right hand) and the dagga (left hand). There are 60 thekas available in various taals that can be played at any tempo. Power cable and a strapped carry bag are provided. This instrument can also be powered using batteries. Japanese taiko drums (taiko in modern times is a general term for 'drum' but historically taiko meant 'great' or 'wide drum' in Japanese) have been developed into a wide range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions. Taiko drumming has been part of Japanese culture for many centuries and taiko drums can be found in the numerous temples and shrines throughout Japan where they are played in religious festivals and ceremonies. Taiko were also used in warfare to bolster the spirits of the warriors and to demoralise the enemy. Taiko are generally stick percussion instruments (although some taiko are played using just the hands) that have heads on both sides of the drum body and a sealed resonating cavity. They are characterised by a high amount of tension on the drums heads with a correspondingly high pitch relative to body size. Since the later part of the twentieth century, Taiko drumming has become a performance art in itself that includes physically demanding and dramatic drumming combined with dance and often humour. A demonstration of taiko in its modern performance role can be viewed here and in its more traditional role here. Talking drums (known by many names including Dundun, Gangan, Dondo, Odondo, Lunna, Donno, Kalangu, Doodo, Tama, Tamanin and Ekwe) are a member of the hourglass shaped family of pressure drums and are one of the oldest instruments in West Africa. Their history can be traced back to the Ghana Empire. The talking drum is particularly synonymous with the music and culture of the Yoruba people. Various sizes of talking drum exist, with the dimensions of the drum differing between ethnic groups. One of the special features of the talking drum is its ability to closely imitate the rhythms and intonations of spoken language. A skilled drummer can reproduce the sounds of proverbs or songs through a specialised drumming language and this dialogue can easily be understood by knowledgeable listeners which of course varied between ethic groups. Whether accompanying dances or sending messages, the sound of these instruments can carry for miles. Talking drum players sent messages by drumming the recipient's name, followed by the sender's name and the message. The drum heads of the talking drum cover both ends of the drum's wooden body and are traditionally made from animal hide, fish-skin or other membranes which are wrapped around a wooden hoop. Leather thongs run the length of the drum and are connected to both hoops. When these cords are squeezed under the arm the drum heads tighten and this changes the pitch of the instrument. The talking drum is struck with a slightly hooked stick and with the fingers of the free hand. A contemporary demonstration of the talking drum can be viewed here and a traditional demonstration can be viewed here. A tar is a single sided frame drum which originates from North Africa and the Middle East and dates back thousands of years. The tar is generally held with one hand and played with the free hand although both hands are used in the role of playing and holding depending on the skills of the player. The tar has an open tone and is often either played for accompaniment to other instruments or in tar ensembles. Frame drums are common throughout the world – among the frame drum family are the tar, bendir, bodhran, daf and others. Kanjira, pandeiro and riq and tambourines are also types of frame drum that have small metal cymbals attached to them. Many Native American cultures use frame drums (shaman drums) in ceremony and celebration. These drums seem simple but are capable of great nuance and sophistication in the hands of an experienced or imaginative player. Gandharva Loka offers traditional tars with animal skin heads and also modern Remo tars (pictured above) with synthetic heads. The udu is an African percussion instrument that is generally considered to have originated in Nigeria. Traditionally made of clay, the word udu means 'vessel' in the language of the Igbo people of Nigeria. Being a water jug with an additional hole, it was an instrument often played exclusively by women for ceremonial purposes. Today it is widely used by percussionists in many different music styles. The udu has a side hole which creates a deep reverberating note when struck with the flat palm of the hand. The entire body of the udu can also be played using the fingers. Several variations of the udu have evolved over the years which includes the Utar, the Kim-Kim and the Zarbang-Udu. The udu is an instrument that can add a unique and melodic aspect to the percussion aspect of any ensemble and is easily adapted to most genre of music. A fantastic demonstration of a variety of udu being played can be viewed here – and a great demonstration of the Udu Utar can be viewed here. The zarb (also known as tonbak, tombak, donbak or dombak) is a goblet drum that originated during the Persia Empire (ancient Iran). It is considered the principal percussion instrument of Persian music. The Persian frame drum, known as the Daf, was for many centuries the favoured drum of the Persian court while the zarb was played by peasants. It is sometimes referred to as the Persian doumbek due to its origins and chalice shape that is similar to that of the doumbek. The zarb is made with a brass or wooden body and the drum head is typically made from sheep or goats skin. The zarb is normally positioned diagonally across the lap of the player who uses one or more fingers and/or the palms of the hands on the drumhead. Often (for a ringing timbre) the musician will play near the drumhead's edge and some players wear metal finger rings in order to get an accentuated 'click' on the drum's shell. A lovely example of zarb drumming can be viewed here – traditional Persian classical dastgah music played on ney, kamancheh, santur (aka hammered dulcimer) and zarb.

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The exchange of metabolites between organisms and their environment gave rise to the complexity of life on Earth. Examples include bacterial communities surrounding deep-ocean vents (1), the plant rhizosphere (2), the human microbiome (3), and the coral holobiont (4). The exchange of metabolites between stony corals (Scleractinia), their dinoflagellate algal photosymbionts (Symbiodiniaceae), and associated microbes is the foundation of coral reef ecosystems (5–9), which cover ca. 255,000 km2 of the planet surface (10). Under ambient conditions, the algal cells provide 90 to 95% of host energetic requirements in the form of lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and O2 (11). In return, nitrogen and other inorganic compounds from the coral are recycled by the algae to fuel cell metabolism (12, 13). Environmental stress, often caused by climate change, disrupts this symbiotic relationship, resulting in coral bleaching (5). With mass bleaching and mortality on the rise worldwide, these climatic changes have resulted in catastrophic reef losses (5, 7). During bleaching, coral susceptibility to disease increases (14), while growth and reproduction rates decrease (15, 16). The holobiont is the fundamental unit of selection with the host cnidarian playing an important role in recovery and resilience (17). Despite the importance of coral reefs and the services they provide, we know little about the metabolomic signatures of coral bleaching (18). Such understanding will allow the identification of bleaching biomarkers for diagnosis and provide insights into pathways that trigger, or prevent, the breakdown of the symbiosis. Untargeted, polar metabolite profiling was applied to holobionts of Montipora capitata and Pocillopora acuta (Fig. 1A) to connect biochemistry to physiology and ecology (19, 20) by identifying metabolic features associated with the short-term thermal stress response. These species were chosen because they display two widely different responses to thermal stress. Previous work has shown that Hawaiian M. capitata can meet 100% of its daily metabolic energy requirements through heterotrophic feeding during periods of bleaching (17), whereas P. acuta from the same reef system typically experiences higher mortality rates during bleaching because of lower thermal tolerance and a lack of effective feeding (21). Coral nubbins from four colonies were subjected to heat stress (2.7° to 3.2°C above ambient temperature) for 5 weeks (T1 to T5) (see Materials and Methods) (Fig. 1B). We sampled corals for polar metabolomic analysis at 11, 23, and 27 days after temperature shift (T1, T3, and T5, respectively). The T2 and T4 nubbins were collected 16 and 25 days after thermal stress was initiated in case data needed to be added between T1, T3, and T5. After the end of the temperature stress experiments, nubbins were sampled from wild corals (from the same colonies used in the tank experiments) to serve as a nontreatment control. Because metabolites are shared among all members of the holobiont, we targeted the metaorganism rather than attempting to analyze its individual components. During the experiments, Kāneʻohe Bay was at the beginning of an unexpected warming event of ca. 2°C. This led to thermal stress in the ambient condition tanks because they drew water from the bay without any tank temperature control. The impact of this natural fluctuation was recorded in photographic bleaching scores that measure color as a proxy for algal abundance in the coral nubbins (Fig. 1C) (22). M. capitata showed little visible effect from the warming event, whereas P. acuta in the ambient tanks was affected in a similar fashion as the high-temperature treatment (Fig. 1C). For this reason, analysis of the M. capitata data was prioritized, with P. acuta used to verify the presence of metabolites in a second coral species and to study general trends in metabolites that are candidates for markers of bleaching progression. Results of polar metabolomic analysis Untargeted hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC)–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) revealed thousands of features from all the coral samples, many of which showed a notable difference in accumulation under the tested ambient- and high-temperature treatments (fig. S1A). These metabolic features include known central metabolites such as amino acids, nucleotides, and sugar phosphates. In addition, high-resolution LC–tandem MS (LC-MS2) allowed the detection, quantitation, and structural elucidation of many secondary metabolites. Examples of which are montiporic acids (MAs) (fig. S1B), which were first discovered in coral eggs of Montipora digitata from Australia (23). These compounds are disubstituted acetylenes with a carboxyl group linked to two alkyne (carbon-carbon triple bond) groups, followed by an unbranched alkane tail. The four known MAs (MA-A to MA-D; Fig. 1D) have antimicrobial activity, are cytotoxic against leukemia cells, and reduce the photosynthetic competency of coral symbionts (23, 24). MAs are highly abundant in M. capitata samples from both ambient and heat-stressed conditions as well as in the wild samples (Fig. 1E and figs. S1C and S2A). This could be because MAs have been found in high abundance in coral eggs (24) and M. capitata was preparing to spawn. We found evidence of MAs in P. acuta. However, the ion counts of MAs in P. acuta was >1000-fold less than in M. capitata (figs. S1C and S2B), suggesting that the biosynthetic activity of MAs in different coral species can vary substantially, likely reflecting their different biological functions. It is unclear whether MAs contribute to stress resistance in M. capitata by controlling symbiont density before warming events. Nonetheless, their high abundance in this species, which exceeds the total concentration of free amino acids (fig. S2A), suggests that coral animals divert copious resources to the production of secondary metabolites. Although some metabolites, such as glucose, display a depletion in heat-stressed nubbins over the time course, we were interested in other known and previously unidentified metabolomic features in the holobiont that change under high-temperature treatment and may diagnose thermal stress before visible bleaching (18). By comparing the polar metabolite profiles of the ambient and heat-stressed time courses, many features that have significantly increased intensities in the heat-stressed corals were observed (25). One feature, mass/charge ratio (m/z) 303.177 at a retention time of 9.05 min, was detected under positive ionization mode in M. capitata and showed the largest relative increase of ion counts throughout the duration of the time course under heat stress (Fig. 1F). This feature also showed a time-dependent increase under high temperature in P. acuta (fig. S3A). On the basis of the accurate mass and isotopic fine structure, this molecule was assigned the chemical formula of C11H22N6O4. To gain insights into the structure of this metabolite, the MS2 spectra was collected using parallel reaction monitoring and the high-quality MS2 pseudospectra were generated by calculating the correlation between MS1 and MS2 spectra. Through systematic comparisons of the accurate mass, retention time, and the MS2 spectra for chemically synthesized pure standards of various dipeptides and tripeptides (table S1), C11H22N6O4 was positively identified to be arginine-glutamine (RQ; Fig. 1G). Accumulation of the RQ dipeptide under heat stress could result from increased proteolysis and/or insufficient peptide clearance. Among the metabolites that show significantly different levels between ambient and heat-stressed conditions, the majority match the accurate mass of dipeptides (Fig. 2, A to C). These putative dipeptides are significantly enriched under the heat-stressed condition at both T3 (P = 4.8 × 10−13, Fisher’s exact test) and T5 (P = 5.6 × 10−14) time points. To confirm the chemical identities of these putative dipeptides, chemical standards were synthesized and MS2 spectra from the coral samples and the standards were collected. The structures of three additional metabolites were determined: C11H22N4O4 ([M + H]+ m/z 275.1714 [lysine-glutamine, KQ]; Fig. 2, D and G), C11H23N5O3 ([M + H]+ m/z 274.1874 [arginine-valine, RV]; Fig. 2, E and H), and C9H19N5O3 ([M + H]+ m/z 246.1561 [arginine-alanine, RA]; Fig. 2, F and I). Note that some features not identified as dipeptides also increased in intensity with thermal stress; however, the majority are not statistically significant (Fig. 2C). In comparison, the stress-sensitive and bleached P. acuta showed many metabolites with decreased ion counts after heat stress, possibly reflecting a dampened metabolism. However, the RQ and KQ dipeptides showed significant increases in this coral at T3 and T5 (fig. S3A). The similarities and clear dipeptide production differences between these two coral species suggest that their production may not be explained solely by proteolysis due to metabolic shutdown before cell death. However, an accumulation of proteogenic dipeptides during a time course stress experiment is linked to autophagy in Arabidopsis thaliana (26). Dipeptides also serve a diversity of other functions such as small-molecule regulators [e.g., H+ buffers (27), antioxidants (28), and glucose regulators (29)]. RQ has been shown to ameliorate the impacts of oxygen imbalance in retinopathy of prematurity in murine models (30) and may have beneficial effects on the reversal of oxygen-induced lung damage (31). Some known primary metabolites have incrementally increased intensities during prolonged thermal stress in M. capitata. Under high temperature, methionine, methionine sulfoxide, and cytidine 5′-diphosphate (CDP)–choline are all significantly increased at T5 (Fig. 3, A to D). The elevated level of methionine is of particular interest because of its involvement in scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as initiating and maintaining epigenetic modifications (32, 33). Methionine and methionine sulfoxide are both up-regulated in response to prolonged heat stress, whereas S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) shows a downward trend (Fig. 3C). For the dipeptides discussed above, nubbins from each colony were also analyzed separately to visualize colony-to-colony and within-colony variation. The accumulation of dipeptides under heat stress is a robust result among all four colonies; however, different colonies and different nubbins from the same colony show varying degrees of this response (fig. S4). Colony 248, for instance, shows relatively lower variation between nubbins when analyzing all four dipeptides, compared to high variation between nubbins in colonies 289 and 291. In addition, colony 291 has some of the highest level of accumulation of each dipeptide across all time points in the ambient- and high-temperature samples (fig. S4). These results may indicate that each colony has varying rates of turnover for each metabolite, possibly because of differing adaptation to thermal stress. Additional work is needed to elucidate the basis of metabolite variation within and between colonies. To gain additional insights into dipeptide function in corals, we generated co-occurrence networks that included the verified and predicted dipeptides with known metabolic features. To address the hypothesis that dipeptide production is co-regulated and clusters under thermal stress, Louvain communities (34) in networks were detected and an average dipeptide by community (ADPC) score was computed for each treatment (table S2). This analysis shows that the ADPC score for dipeptides becomes smaller from T1 to T5, indicative of greater clustering (Fig. 4A). This pattern is apparent in the networks of M. capitata at T5, whereby large clusters of dipeptides occur in the thermal stress networks (fig. S5). Here, the focus was on two subnetworks in the T5 thermal stress treatment that offer key insights. The first shows that MA-A and the highly abundant MA-D (Fig. 1E) link two key stress responses, carbohydrate metabolism and protective osmolyte production (Fig. 4B). The production of organic osmolytes such as betaine, sorbitol (and its precursor, glucose), sucrose, and trimethylamine N-oxide are all associated with the stress response (35). These are all co-regulated and increase in abundance (see metabolite intensity in Fig. 4B) in the coral holobiont, with the algal symbiont as the likely source of these compounds (36). Organic acids are also important intermediates in energy production and as sensing molecules (37). On the left side of this subnetwork are metabolites involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including pyruvate, which can be fed into the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle to produce adenosine 5′-triphosphates. A second subnetwork (Fig. 4C) shows the co-regulation of many dipeptides, including RQ and other characterized compounds (KQ, RV, and RA) and putative compound retention time (RT). In addition to the functions described above as a potential response to oxygen stress, dipeptides and free amino acids (right side of the subnetwork) are important, readily assimilated sources of nitrogen for the algal symbiont, and can be used to generate energy via the TCA cycle or metabolized in the purine pathway (36). The putative methylation-related metabolites methionine and methionine sulfoxide discussed above are in this subnetwork. A key metabolite involved in phospholipid metabolism, cell signaling, and glutamate transport and an intermediate in betaine synthesis (35), CDP-choline also shows steady accumulation in M. capitata from T1 to T5 (Fig. 3D). In support of our findings, a recent study that focused on metabolites predictive of coral bleaching sensitivity identified betaine as a key marker of resilience in M. capitata (38). Comparison to Aiptasia The observation that many dipeptides were up-regulated in M. capitata as bleaching progressed raised the question whether we would observe differences in dipeptides based on the presence of the symbionts. To address this issue and because it is difficult to obtain aposymbiotic corals, we generated ultra-high–performance LC-MS (UHPLC-MS) data from the sea anemone model Aiptasia (Exaiptasia pallida). Often used as a model for stony corals, the anemone Aiptasia is a member of a sister lineage to stony corals and it also harbors dinoflagellate symbionts, but it does not biomineralize (8). Comparison of data gathered from animals in a symbiotic or a stable aposymbiotic state (i.e., alga-free for >1 year; see Materials and Methods) showed a significant difference in the ion count intensities of multiple known and unknown compounds present in corals (fig. S3B), including RQ and other dipeptides (fig. S6). Because the experimental design differs between the coral and Aiptasia work, no direct link between dipeptides and increasing thermal stress in the latter can be concluded. These results, however, indicate that RQ can be produced in Aiptasia without the presence of the algal symbiont, suggesting the host and/or other associated microbes as a potential source for the metabolite. The increased production of RQ in symbiotic Aiptasia and in thermally stressed M. capitata supports its hypothesized role as a response to the presence of algal symbionts. A controlled time course experiment was used to create a polar metabolite–based understanding of the coral response to thermal stress in M. capitata and P. acuta, focusing on metabolites exhibiting increased production that could serve as biomarkers for thermal stress. These results provide the platform to address differences in resilience to thermal stress between coral colonies that are located in close proximity in reefs or are generated using controlled breeding experiments. Elucidating how metabolites associated with DNA and gene modification events, such as methylation, can alter expression patterns and effect resilience is of importance to conservation efforts. Finding a high abundance of MAs and their central position in the metabolite networks suggests that coral animals divert a large part of their metabolic resources to the production of secondary metabolites. These polyacetylenic carboxylic acids are more abundant than many metabolites in central metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the TCA cycle and were, unexpectedly, also detected in P. acuta albeit at a much lower level. Equally unexpected was the potentially critical role of dipeptides, such as RQ, in coral stress biology. We postulate that RQ may be a host response to oxygen stress resulting from redox imbalance in the coral or the algal symbionts caused by the high-temperature treatment. With regard to known metabolites such as methionine and methionine sulfoxide, their increase under thermal stress may be due to the role of methionine in scavenging ROS, with ROS generated from the symbiotic breakdown driving methionine oxidation that increases methionine sulfoxide levels. Furthermore, apoptotic and necrotic pathways triggered by thermal stress could release additional methionine from cellular pools. The reduction of SAM availability may be due to competing pathways for methionine between its role as a cofactor for epigenetic modifiers through SAM and in the biosynthesis of high dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) production in stressed corals (39). DMSP/dimethyl sulfoxide production may be linked to the selection of coral-associated bacterial communities, raising the possibility that corals restructure their microbiome to be as beneficial as possible during times of stress. SAM also plays a critical role as a methyl donor for epigenetic modifier enzymes such as DNA methyltransferases and histone methyltransferases (40) that provide regulation of gene expression and expression variability. Therefore, the limited availability of SAM could further exacerbate energetic demands due to metabolic depression and the cost of bleaching stress response because epigenetic regulation of the expression of essential genes in stress response and repair would be further hampered. By generating additional structures of previously unidentified stress-associated coral metabolites and their elevated levels in different species and populations, we hope, in the future, to understand the intersection of the (epi)genetic architecture of these metaorganisms and coral resilience in the field. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cultivation of coral nubbins From the waters of Kāne‘ohe Bay, HI, four colonies of each coral species M. capitata and P. acuta were identified and collected under SAP 2019-60. Each of the four colonies for each species was fragmented into 30 pieces at the Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology, located on Moku o Loʻe in Kāne‘ohe Bay, HI, and hot-glued to labeled plugs. The 30 glued nubbins of each genotype were then randomly distributed among six tanks (~32 liters; 48.3 cm by 38.1 cm by 17.8 cm; L × W × H), leaving five replicates per genotype in each tank for a total of 40 coral nubbins per tank and 120 coral nubbins per species. Tanks were placed in a flow-through system that had a steady supply of water directly from Kāne‘ohe Bay with an average flow rate of (173.8 ± 73 liters hour−1, mean ± SD). Each tank was fitted with a submersible pump (Hydor 200 gph), a HOBO Water Temp Pro temperature logger (operation range, −40° to 70°C; resolution, 0.02°C at 25°; accuracy, ±0.21°C from 0° to 50°C; Onset Computer Corp.), an Apex temperature probe (Neptune Systems), and two heaters (Aqueon 300-W Heater set to 31°C and DaToo 300-W Glass Heater set to 34°C). The temperature in the tanks was controlled by powering off and on the heaters based on set points in the Apex aquarium controller (Neptune Systems). Light was set for a 12-hour light/12-hour dark cycle using Arctic T247 lights (Ocean Revive). Assessment of coral bleaching Each sample was photographed using a digital camera with a red/blue/green color standard. Red/blue/green values that were extracted in ImageJ (41) from the coral were standardized to the color standards by dividing the experimental value observed in the coral against the corresponding actual recorded value from the color standards (22). Using the normalized intensity values from each color channel, a bleaching score was quantified as PC1 from principle components analysis of these data. As stress is prolonged and bleaching becomes more pronounced, the red/blue/green color readings from the coral will equalize around the same number because white is an equal expression of all colors. All nubbins available at each time points were used for color assessment. Once fragmented, the coral nubbins were allowed an acclimation period of 5 days at ambient temperature (26.84 ± 0.50, mean ± SD) before initiating the temperature ramping. Tanks were randomly assigned to treatment groups, with tanks 1, 4, and 6 in the ambient treatment and tanks 2, 3, and 5 in the high-temperature treatment. For each tank, the species were cocultured, with M. capitata and P. acuta nubbins alternating in each row of plugs. The high-temperature treatment tanks were set to increase by ~0.4°C every 2 days for a total of 9 days (13 May to 22 May 2019) until they were between 30.5° and 31.0°C (Fig. 1C). Treatments of 30.33 ± 0.35 (mean ± SD) for high and 27.67 ± 0.34 (mean ± SD) for ambient were held for the remainder of the experiment, which lasted 16 days (Fig. 1C). High tanks were, on average, 2.66°C above ambient when the ramp was completed. Temperature readings from the HOBO loggers were confirmed using spot checks with a handheld digital certified thermometer (Control Company accuracy, ± 0.05°C; resolution, 0.001°C) about two to three times daily. Light measurements were taken to quantify photosynthetically active radiation (photosynthetic photon flux density in μmol photons m−2 s−1) using an underwater cosine light sensor and meter (MQ-510 Full Spectrum Underwater Quantum Meter, Apogee) and did not differ substantially between tanks (ambient, 345 ± 25.2 μmol photons m−2 s−1 and high, 340 ± 29.8 μmol photons m−2 s−1; means ± SD). The pH on the total scale was measured with a glass probe (METTLER TOLEDO InLab Expert Pro pH probe no. 51343101; accuracy, ±0.2 mV and resolution, 0.1 mV) and handheld meter (Thermo Fisher Scientific Orion Star A series A325) based on a tris standard (Dickson laboratory University of California San Diego) and showed no significant differences between the treatments (ambient, 7.91 ± 0.07 and high, 7.91 ± 0.04; means ± SD; t = 0.30332, df = 78.732, P = 0.7624). Sampling of the nubbins began after the onset of color score divergence between the treatment groups (Fig. 1C). Three sampling points were selected on 22 May 2019 (T1), 3 June 2019 (T3), and 7 June 2019 (T5) on the basis of reaching maximum treatment temperature (Fig. 1C), where the coral color score began to diverge by treatment and where the coral color score differences were maximized between treatments within species within the experimental time frame. Coral nubbins were selected for sampling randomly using a random number generator, and color scores were recorded for each nubbin after sampling. Corals were sampled at ~14:30 at each time point by removing them from their treatment, only touching the plastic bases and inserting them into sterile Whirl-Paks that were immediately submerged in liquid nitrogen and transferred to −80°C until metabolite extraction. Metabolite extraction from coral nubbins Metabolites were extracted using a protocol optimized for water-soluble polar metabolite analysis on LC-MS. The extraction buffer was a solution of 40:40:20 (methanol:acetonitrile:water) (v/v/v) + 0.1 M formic acid. The extraction buffer was stored at −20°C before usage. Immediately preceding the metabolite extraction, 1 ml of extraction buffer was added to a 2-ml glass Dounce homogenizer that had chilled on ice. Pieces of the −80°C preserved nubbins were then clipped, weighed, and added to the cold extraction buffer in the Dounce and left to incubate for 5 min. The pestle of the Dounce was then used to homogenize the coral tissue until there was a visible accumulation of coral skeleton at the bottom of the Dounce and the homogenate was visibly pigmented. An additional 500-μl aliquot of cold 40:40:20 + 0.1M formic acid extraction buffer was then used to rinse down the sides of the Dounce and pestle. The total 1.5-ml volume was then strained through a sterile 100-μm cell strainer into a 50-ml receptacle. There was a visible amount of skeleton collected in the strainer. The rest of the homogenate was then transferred to a 1.5-ml Eppendorf tube, vortexed for 10 s, and then centrifuged for 10 min at 16,000g at 4°C. After centrifugation, there was a pellet at the bottom of the tube. A final 500-μl aliquot of the homogenate was then pipetted to a second clean Eppendorf tube, to which 44 μl of 15% NH4HCO3 was added to neutralize the acid in the buffer. This was the final extract and was ready to be loaded to instrument vials for analysis. Cultivation of Aiptasia The animals were held at 27°C under a 12-hour light/12-hour dark cycle at 25 μmol photons m−2 s−1. All individuals were from the clonal population CC7, which naturally contains the algal symbionts of the Symbiodiniaceae clade A species Symbiodinium linuchae (42). CC7 animals were made aposymbiotic as previously described (43). This resulted in the strain CC7-Apo. CC7-Apo animals subsequently exposed to algae of the clonal axenic strain SSB01 (Symbiodiniaceae clade B species Breviolum minutum) (44) and cultured under standard conditions. After these anemone strains were created, each strain was continued and propagated though asexual reproduction in long-term culture for >1 year before experimentation. By using long-term, stable anemone cultures, we intended to minimize the effects of the stress on the animals required to generate the CC7-Apo and CC7-SSB01 anemones that were used for metabolomic analysis. Aiptasia were aliquoted individually to the 1.5-ml Eppendorf tubes in 500 μl of artificial seawater, flash-frozen, and stored at −80°C until processing at Rutgers University. Metabolite extraction from Aiptasia Metabolites were extracted using a protocol optimized for water-soluble polar metabolite analysis on LCMS. The extraction buffer used was a solution of 40:40:20 (methanol:acetonitrile:water) (v/v/v) + 0.1 M formic acid and was stored at −20°C before usage. CC7-Apo and CC7-SSB01 animals were removed from the artificial seawater storage, and intragroup animals were pooled to produce six replicates, each having an input weight of 25 mg in a 1.5-ml Eppendorf tube. Replicates were kept on dry ice before extraction. A total of 500 μl of extraction buffer was added; then, samples were vortexed for 10 s and transferred to crushed ice to incubate for 10 min. Samples were then centrifuged for 10 min, and the supernatant was transferred to a 1.5-ml Eppendorf tube; the procedure was repeated for a second round of extraction. A total of 1 ml of supernatant was then centrifuged, and a final 500-μl aliquot of the homogenate was pipetted to a clean Eppendorf tube, to which 44 μl of 15% NH4HCO3 was added to neutralize the acid in the buffer. This was the final extract and was ready to be loaded to instrument vials for analysis. The HILIC separation was performed on a Vanquish Horizon UHPLC system (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA) with XBridge BEH Amide column (150 mm by 2.1 mm, 2.5-μm particle size; Waters, Milford, MA) using a gradient of solvent A [95%:5% H2O:acetonitrile with 20 mM acetic acid and 40 mM ammonium hydroxide (pH 9.4)] and solvent B [20%:80% H2O:acetonitrile with 20 mM acetic acid and 40 mM ammonium hydroxide (pH 9.4)]. The gradient was 0 min, 100% B; 3 min, 100% B; 3.2 min, 90% B; 6.2 min, 90% B; 6.5 min, 80% B; 10.5 min, 80% B; 10.7 min, 70% B; 13.5 min, 70% B; 13.7 min, 45% B; 16 min, 45% B; 16.5 min, 100% B; and 22 min, 100% B. The flow rate was 300 μl/min. The injection volume was 5 μl, and the column temperature was 25°C. The autosampler temperature was set to 4°C, and the injection volume was 5 μl. The full-scan MS analysis was performed on a Thermo Fisher Scientific Q Exactive Plus with a HESI source, which was set to a spray voltage of −2.7 kV under negative mode and 3.5 kV under positive mode. The sheath, auxiliary, and sweep gas flow rates were 40, 10, and 2 (arbitrary unit), respectively. The capillary temperature was set to 300°C, and aux gas heater was 360°C. The S-lens radio frequency (RF) level was 45. The m/z scan range was set to 72 to 1000 m/z under both positive and negative ionization mode. The automatic gain control (AGC) target was set to 3e6, and the maximum injection time (IT) was 200 ms. The resolution was set to 70,000. Parallel reaction monitoring MS The MS2 spectra generation was performed on a Thermo Fisher Scientific Q Exactive Plus with a HESI source, which was set to a spray voltage of −2.7 kV under negative mode and 3.5 kV under positive mode. The sheath, auxiliary, and sweep gas flow rates were 40, 10, and 2 (arbitrary unit), respectively. The capillary temperature was set to 300°C, and aux gas heater was 360°C. The S-lens RF level was 45. The m/z scan ranges were specified for the four dipeptides and monitored for the full 22-min run time. The AGC target was set to 2 × 105, and the maximum IT was 100 ms. The resolution was set to 17,500. The isolation window was set to 2.0 m/z. Collision energy was set to a stepwise 30, 50, and 80 normalized collision energy (NCE). Our results suggest that a single MS2 spectrum may contain irrelevant m/z signals and the pseudospectrum, generated by correlating multiple MS2 spectra to the MS1-extracted ion chromatogram, is an effective approach to “clean” the MS2 spectrum. The pseudospectra were generated using a modified version of COVINA (45). Synthesis of standards The dipeptide and tripeptide standards were synthesized and purified to 95% purity by GenScript USA (Piscataway, NJ). All standards were shipped at 25°C and stored at −20°C until they were prepared for analysis on the mass spectrometer. Parallel reaction monitoring was used to generate the MS2 spectra for comparison with samples. A total of 12 pmol of each standard was used in the analysis. The MS1 data were processed using Maven (46). The compound annotation was based on accurate mass and retention time match to the metabolite standards from the in-house library. The feature detection for untargeted metabolomics was done using Compound Discoverer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, version 3.1). Before the groupwise comparison, the signal intensities were normalized to the sample weight. Significance was determined by the groupwise signal intensity comparison of each metabolite at each time point using a Student’s t test that assumed unequal variance. P values were then adjusted using the Benjamini-Hochberg correction (false discovery rate, <0.05). Of those features with adjusted P < 0.05, the Fisher’s exact test was then applied to determine whether the putative dipeptides were significantly enriched in those features. Before running the samples, the LC-MS system was evaluated for performance readiness by running commercially available standard mixtures and in-house standard mixtures to assess the mass accuracy, signal intensities, and the consistency of retention time. All known metabolites in the mixture were detected within 5 parts per million mass accuracy. Process blanks matching the composition of the extraction solvent were used in every sample batch to assess background signals and ensure that there was no carryover from one run to the next. In addition, the sample queue was randomized with respect to species and treatment to eliminate the potential for batch effects. The R package DGCA (47) was used to determine the correlation between pairs of metabolites respectively under ambient and stressed conditions for M. capitata. The pairwise correlation was calculated with the function matCorr using the Pearson method. The functions matCorSig and adjustPVals were used to calculate and adjust (with the Benjamini-Hochberg method) the correlation P values, respectively. Only pairs with an adjusted P ≤ 0.05 were retained to construct the co-occurrence networks. To gain insights into dipeptide function, Louvain communities (34) in networks were detected and a dipeptide score was computed using the following formula to determine the ADPC score (data file S2) in which n = nodes, dp = dipeptides, and okm = other known metabolites∑ndp(ndp+nokm)ncommunity

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WHEN two young things promise to love and to cherish one another, they take for granted the existence in human nature of a capacity for loving and cherishing. And each as regards the other is chiefly interested in that; one aspect of the other’s nature. Will he love me always? How much does he love me now? These perennial questions reveal the natural form which the thought of the newly married assumes. It is a sound intuition which fixes upon this quality of human nature as the most important in connection with domestic problems This quality is so worthy of special study that we will give it a special name. We will call it the psychological equipment of the domestic man (homo domesticus). The social sciences have adopted a convenient method for studying the general effect of any given trait in human nature. They create for purposes of inquiry a fictitious man whose psychological endowment consists of just such qualities as are pertinent to their investigation. The most distinguished of these creations is, of course, the economic man (homo oeconomicus) who knows only the motives of self-interest and whose intellect is able to measure with incredible exactness the intensity of all of his desires. Less well known is the political man, whom Catlin presents to us. The intelligence testers have [p.102] brought forth a psychological man whose nature is completely revealed in the answers he gives to lists of prepared questions. No careful thinker makes the mistake of confounding these abstractions with the facts of nature. It is perfectly apparent that a real man is neither the economic abstraction of pure self-interest nor the political abstraction of pure will to dominion nor the psychological abstraction of pure “intelligence.” Yet these abstractions are useful, and we would not know what to do without them. Taken together, they constitute a little menagerie of fabulous beasts. Into this interesting and useful menagerie it is permissible to introduce a new creature – the domestic man, whose sole quality of mind and heart is an ability to love and to cherish. What is meant by loving and cherishing? What are these qualities which we deem so important in the life of the family? The kind of account we will give of these qualities depends upon whether we confine our attention to their conscious manifestations or try to trace them back to some unconscious process out of which they can be said to arise. Since the object of formulating these principles of marriage is to establish a pattern for conscious purposive conduct, these qualities must be studied in their conscious form, although their derivation from nonconscious elements may be recognized. They derive from two primitive and beautiful attitudes – the attitude of a male and female toward each other as their lives are joined in a new life, and the attitude of the protecting parent toward a dependent child. Both of these love-attitudes enter into the character of the domestic man. [p.103] When these primitive love-attitudes are interpreted according to the requirements of a religious cult, a social code, or an intellectual interest, many variant conceptions of love result – there is for instance the disembodied “pure” love which derives from the worship of the Virgin, the love-service ideal of medieval chivalry, and Platonic love which expresses itself in the contemplation of an ideal. These variants of the love concept are products of a certain amount of sophistication and discipline. They do not flow directly from natural impulse. We cannot witness their analogues in the behavior of the higher animals. They represent special qualities of love in a given time and place and not the universal quality of love everywhere. They describe aspects of culture or civilization rather than aspects of human nature. They always threaten to cause a misunderstanding of the real nature of love, and to establish in hierarchic order a series of different kinds of love, from love of the body to love of the soul. The distinction between “sacred” and “profane” love, between pure love and animal passion, between natural love and sophisticated love, is a dangerous distinction to introduce into marriage. It is a distinction unknown to the domestic man. And yet it is often introduced, in the Western World, under the influence of the Puritan tradition. The psychoanalysts describe it as a dissociation phenomenon in which the sex aspect of love is dissociated from the tenderness aspect. It is a distinction which can do no good at all, but which can work infinite harm. There is always plenty of [p.104] ways, but no beautiful love relationship between man and wife can be based on the repression or contempt of sex. Love can be spiritual if it does not denounce the flesh or regard the body as unclean; it can rise to great heights of beauty if it does not destroy its own foundations in nature. A bride who thinks of loving and cherishing as something ethereal, and of sex as something vile, must either change her mind or endanger her marriage. Most of them, according to Dr. Hamilton, change their minds. The real and important distinction which must be made by lovers is the distinction between personal and impersonal love. The impersonal love for mankind which Christian ethics requires is the antithesis of the personal love which marriage demands. Humanitarianism, brotherly love, altruism, philanthropy – all these sentiments are rivals and even enemies of the jealous personal attachment which draws two lovers together. The oft recurrent tragedy of the man torn between love for his family and devotion to a cause is evidence of the wide disparity between these two kinds of loving and cherishing. The capacity to love and to cherish which we ascribe to domestic man is necessarily an aptitude for personal rather than impersonal devotion. This is logically implied in the definition of the family as something that consists of determinate members, and in the description of the relationship of personality which unites the members of a family. Quite aside from formal logical requirements, the voices of all lovers would insist that this and nothing else, is the special quality which they demand in their beloved. Loving and cherishing in domes[p.105]tic life is a personal affair, an outgrowth of the natural functions of sex and parenthood. This kind of loving and cherishing is at its source common to man and beast. It need not be expressed in words nor formulated in thought. It is more primitive than logic, and anterior even to consciousness. But when the light of consciousness is thrown upon it and the schematization of logic is applied to it, it is very clearly a personal attitude. An ego is the source of object-love; a person is its object. Loving and cherishing, being acts that arise in one person and are directed toward another, have both an active and a passive aspect. They involve motives on the one hand, and feelings on the other. The motives and feelings are of a special type which must be assumed to be present in the domestic man. Just as it has been necessary to borrow from the social sciences in analyzing various aspects of the family, so now it is appropriate to make use of psychological theory in the domestic view of human nature. It is necessary here to defend the idea that the domestic man’s behavior proceeds from motion and then to classify and analyze the motives from which it proceeds. In a period of intellectual adventure and experiment, such as the present, there comes a time when service can be done by stating emphatically facts that are perfectly obvious and insisting categorically upon the recognition of truths that are already accepted. In this spirit it is appropriate to assert that there are such things as motives and purposes, and that human behavior is sometimes motivated or purposive. This is a view so much in accord with our commonsense interpretation of things that some [p.106] psychologists regard it as a perversely unsophisticated notion. Psychologists object to motives because there is no experimental proof that a motive corresponds to any psychophysical fact; what we call motive may be merely afterthought, or, as they say, “rationalization”. This objection would be regarded as mere pettifogging if motives could be measured exactly or analyzed statistically. But motives are notoriously ill-adapted for use as objects of science. They have quality and quantity, but their quality cannot be reduced to any quantitative terms nor their quantity measured on any known scale. Psychology lets them go with a sigh of relief, for it suspects all introspective data. “Since the rise of the experimental method in psychology there has been little if any room in the field for the study of the human individual when he performs what may be very definitely and accurately called purposive actions.”1 Since Kantor wrote these lines, two significant books on motives have appeared: Thomson’s Springs of Human Action (1927) and Troland’s Fundamentals of Human Motivation (1928). Thomson is clearly a pioneer in the analysis of these things; Troland’s work is more thorough. There are other fields of thought from which the concept of motive cannot be dismissed so easily. If we are trying to get human behavior into a rational system such as ethics or law, not attempting to correlate it with a physiological or sociological process, then the existence of motives must be assumed; otherwise ethical systems and codes of criminal law are irrational. [p.107] And yet it is clear that not all behavior is motivated. Thomson uses “motive” to mean all factors moving to conduct, but most writers use the term to mean a conscious and purposive element in the determining of behavior. “Motivated behavior belongs to that most complicated of all behavior modes . . . in which the person is not only a part of the stimulus reaction but the main stimulus.” (Kantor.) To illustrate: In the ordinary reflex action situation the stimulus is external, as light striking the eye, but in motivated behavior the principal stimulus is the total personality of the actor, as when Napoleon decides to return from Elba. It would be a grotesque description of Napoleon’s decision if we should say that the arrival of newspapers from France at Elba operated to bring about the departure of Napoleon from exile in the same way that the light striking the eye operates to contract the pupil. Kantor lists in hierarchic order five modes of action as follows: - Automatic (Actions not remembered, anaesthesia, stupor, coma, etc.) - Subreactionalistic (Individual concentrated on stimulus but action not sharply pointed; habit reactions often in this class.) - Reactionalistic (This includes the “flash of genius” type of behavior.) - Subpersonalistic (This includes the reactions of the person as represented by his likes, tastes, abilities, etc.) - Personalistic (“Whenever there is some problem of advantage or disadvantage”; all motivated or purposive behavior.) [p.108] The intimate connection between motives on the one hand and personality on the other is attested in Occidental thinking whenever human behavior is ascribed to “social forces” rather than to the agency of an individual person. When action is not attributed to a person, the motive concept drops away. The Samoans, according to Miss Mead,2 do not possess any well defined concept of motive. Their social habits do not allow them to inquire and their language does not permit them to speak concerning the motives of any one in doing anything. The absence of a motive-concept implies a distinctive attitude toward personality. A Samoan love does not engage the personalities of its participants. Very deeply, and even as between husband and wife, a deep personal attachment is regarded as indecent. Needless to say, the natural family is quite submerged in the Samoan kinship and village organization. Thus the ethnologist, the psychologist, and the student of the family arrive at the same truth from different points of view. The psychologist notes that the behavior which most completely engages a personality in action is motivated behavior. The ethnologist notes that the motive concept, the personality value and the natural family unit are linked elements in a culture; the student of the family discovers that motives are important in domestic life because they testify to the engaging of a complete personality therein – because they are part of the psychological equipment of the domestic man. In normal experience motives are, as we say, “mixed.” We are seldom able to pin them down and identify them [p.109] with certainty. As Thomson rightly complains, they are numerous, elusive, complex, varied, and locking in constancy. And yet, without insisting unduly upon the naturalistic accuracy of our conception, we describe motives as having both quantity and quality. Having quantity (or intensity), they are capable of being added to or subtracted from each other, having quality, they are capable of being grouped or clustered in various ways. The problem of classifying motives does not differ fundamentally from all problems of classification. A thousand individuals be they beetles or poems, verbs or motives, will continue to present individual differences whether we group them or not. In order to group them we must assign classificatory significance to certain of their features, disregarding others. The motive which is peculiar to loving-and-cherishing behavior is a motive of benevolence toward the person who is loved. The domestic man intends his acts to benefit his beloved rather than himself. It is permissable, therefore, to classify as domestic those motives which direct behavior toward the welfare of some definite other person, and to regard all other motives as nondomestic. The domestic motive is the distinctive characteristic which marks the active aspect of loving and cherishing. Just as the economic man is perfectly selfish, so the domestic man is perfectly unselfish. The distinction between selfishness and unselfishness is a dubious one, but we cannot explain the nature of the domestic man without expounding it. One of the first signs of sophistication in a college student is his grasp of a certain formula for calculating motives whereby he can prove that all acts whatsoever are selfishly motivated. [p.110] The philanthropist and the miser, the patriot and the city boss, the loving daughter and the faithless wife are all alike selfish. Even the martyr who seems to be sacrificing himself is, according to this formula, giving himself the satisfaction of martyrdom. This current sophistry impresses tender minds, but after all it amounts to nothing but a word trick. If we define “selfishness” in such a way that it corresponds to “preference,” then we can argue that whatever is decided upon is preferred, and whatever is preferred is preferred by a self, and hence is selfishly preferred. When this little logism has been played through, it is still necessary to distinguish between certain kinds of “selfish” actions. If some actions are intended to minister to the needs or increase the happiness of others, such actions can be classified together, whether the word “unselfish” is used to describe them, or not. Actions of this kind flow naturally from a disposition to love and to cherish. Nature has equipped husband and wife to delight each other in the act of sex, and has prepared the parent to minister to the needs of the child. Thereby nature sets up prototypes for the activities of a domestic man. The activity which we have for the moment described as “unselfish” would be regarded by many thinkers as a perverse and intricate kind of selfishness. For the kind of conduct which results from a personal attachment occupies a very uncertain place in the speculations of social theorists. In economics unselfishness of any kind is an anomaly; in sociology and political theory it is comprehended only as group-loyalty, which submerges [p.111] these theories except as a special form of self-seeking. If a governor appoints his son to some high office, despite the fact that some other candidate was better qualified, economic theory sees this act as an economic act wherein the governor drew some of the invisible wages of his office by securing something he desired for himself – i.e., his son’s appointment. In political theory it might be pointed out that the governor had two capacities: the capacity of a public official and the capacity of a father. In making this appointment the governor permitted the father to act outside of his proper sphere. A personal motive interfered with the discharge of a public duty. It would not be asked whether the personal motive was self-regarding or other-regarding. The personal motive would be regarded necessarily as a selfish motive. And if, in order to protect his son, the governor would ruin his own political prospects, or risk imprisonment, these sacrifices would still be regarded from the point of view of economics or political theory as risks selfishly assumed. If a man gives up everything he has in order to save his wife or child, it is regarded as selfish. In such a context the word “selfish” loses its meaning. If these acts are seen from the standpoint of the family, from the point of view of those persons who benefit by them, they appear to be unselfish. The governor is acting as a domestic man. A sacrifice of a father for a son is an evidence of loving and cherishing. Favoritism and nepotism look selfish from without the family, but unselfish from within. The acts in themselves are neither selfish nor unselfish; the antithesis between selfishness and unselfishness lies not in nature, which is ethically blind, but in the set of principles and presuppositions [p.112] which we use in classifying acts. This is evident when we compare the plausibility of the sociological and the economic explanations at human behavior. For almost all conduct can be referred in sociological theory to an other-regarding movement of the mind, in economic theory to a self-regarding movement. The two diverse explanations of the same act can be made equally plausible and are in fact equally true. For example, let us say that a woman is buying a hat. On her way she passes a curio shop, where many strange articles are displayed. She gives only a passing glance at the richly gleaming articles in the window, and passes on to the milliner’s where she buys a hat. Explain this by economic theory: she had a certain quantity of desire for the hat which was greater than her desire for the strange ornaments. She satisfied her selfish desire. Explain it by sociological theory: she was sensitive to the fact that other people approved of the wearing of hats, but not of the wearing of showy jewelry. A maiden from Basutoland would for similar reasons have passed by the millinery shop and purchased a fine nose ring in the curio shop. Now let us suppose that we explain her conduct with reference to the family and to her capacity for loving and cherishing. We can say that she wished to please her husband by making herself more attractive, to give him greater cause for pride in her. None of these explanations are complete; any of them may be transposed into the language of the others; the value of any of them depends upon the importance of the general conclusions we can reach by making use of them. The overt action which proceeds from a domestic motive is a distinctive kind of behavior, which should have [p.113] a definite name. It may be called benevolent activity, or perhaps (if the words are understood in a special sense), a domestic act. It is perhaps the kind of thing we mean when we use the words “to cherish”. It is a fundamental element of that interaction between members which the structure of the natural family implies. It is a vehicle wherein the separate will of a member of the family finds expression, and hence it is a manifestation of the basic will-tension of marriage. It is productive of the intrinsic values of family life. The distinction between domestic and nondomestic motivation is of course merely conceptual. There is in nature no hard and fast classification of motives. In practical life motives are mixed. The woman who is putting her hair in curl papers is actuated partly by a domestic motive: to please her husband or lover and partly by a nondomestic (or economic) motive: to satisfy her personal vanity. How much of a component of domestic motivation is necessary in order that an act may be regarded as domestic? Psychologists who remember the extravagances of sensationist psychology with its classification of subjective data will be prejudiced against the use of such a scheme as this which is here set forth. It is so easy to draw up catalogues of emotions or sensations or desires or instincts; so many of these catalogues are meaningless. An arbitrary list of types of motive would have no value if we were trying to study psychology, but it is necessary when we are studying the family. It brings before us the distinctions which may or may not be real in the human organism, but which are certainly real in the business of family life. [p.114] It is certainly both futile and impossible to name a quantity of domestic motivation which invests acts with domestic character. The domestic or nondomestic character of an act is clearly manifested only in certain situations of suspense, when rival interests are hanging in the balance. In such situations it is a matter of no consequence how the components of motivation be added or subtracted, so long as the domestic motive prevails. The domestic component need be neither great nor small; it need only be sufficient, that is to say, sufficient to turn the balance in favor of an act which benefits the marriage partner rather than the self or some other interest. There is a simple pro-condition of benevolent activity which can he described in the words “paramount loyalty,” or “preponderant interest.” The domestic man always deems the welfare of his marriage partner to be a matter of highest value to him. Any conflicting interest which comes to his attention will be subordinated to this preponderating interest. This does not mean that he must, like Annabel Lee, Live with no other thought Than to love and be loved by me. His thoughts need not dwell perpetually upon the welfare of his mate. There may be innumerable choices and decisions in which her welfare is in nowise engaged. It is not necessary that domestic acts should always be sacrificial acts. It is only necessary that when an interest in a member of one’s family is in direct conflict with other interests the former must prevail. If a man values his club or his business more highly than his family, there is something wrong with his family [p.115] life. Circumstances may compel him to be more persistently and assiduously occupied with outside affairs, but our common-sense view of things demands that except in some exceptional situation the interest of the members of the family should predominate when it comes to a showdown. If the wife’s health demands they move to Arizona, the husband must sacrifice his business in New York. This personal evaluation which seems so natural within the family appears out of place or mischievous outside of the domestic circle. As we have observed, it is known as favoritism or nepotism in the domain of business or politics. But in family life it is normal and good. There are a number of situations in which ethical theory requires that the interest of a member of one’s family be sacrificed to some other interest, but there is no pretense that such situations are norms of domestic conduct. Should one member of a family perjure himself for another? It is understood that such situations are exceptional, just as martyrdom is exceptional, and that they interfere with the functioning of the family. Paramount loyalty is thus seen to be the subjective prerequisite of domestic activity, and a distinctive endowment of the domestic man. It is a mental act or sentiment by which the welfare of some one else is evaluated as having greater importance than the welfare of any other person or the attainment of any conflicting aim which may be simultaneously present to the mind. Value-begetting attachments of this kind are, of course, at once conscious and emotional. If they were unconscious, the psychoanalysts would call them complexes. Paramount loyalty, being conscious, is called a sentiment or “con[p.116]stellation,” not a complex. It is the key to the psychological make-up of the domestic man. Briefly, the domestic man is a hypothetical person who, though normal in other respects, is abnormal with respect to his personalistic mode of behavior. Instead of balancing a variety of conflicting interests when he decides questions of advantage or disadvantage, he refers all these questions to one final standard – the welfare of his domestic partner. Real men approach this quality of mind to a greater or less degree. The domestic man is a fiction, and being a fiction can be also an ideal. There are some who think that a life lived for another person is necessarily a satisfactory life, that even if such a life does not bring apparent happiness, still it yields obscure satisfactions which are all the more profound and intense because they are concealed. It is a mistake to preach such an immediate connection between benevolent activity and happiness. Unskillful cherishing may be more disastrous to happiness than enlightened selfishness. There is no absolute superiority in homo domesticus over homo oeconomicus or any other ideal man. It is only relative to the life of the family that the domestic man offers a more appropriate ideal of conduct than others. In the family as elsewhere there is unlimited scope for artistry and science. There is an art in the planning of a surprise and science in the planning of a meal. A cultivated aesthetic sense can express itself in anything from a coat of paint on the kitchen table to an artistically managed quarrel which melts away in delicious tears of reconciliation. Applications of scientific knowledge are possible all along the line: the husband’s bad temper can be cured if the wife knows about orange juice and vitamin [p.117] C; the wife’s coldness can be overcome if the husband will watch the periodicity of the moon. The domestic man may be ignorant of all the important things, and his life may be tragically unhappy because of his ignorance. The domestic man as such may be neither wise nor happy, and none the less be continuously domestic. The distinction between domestic and nondomestic does not parallel the distinction between wisdom and folly, welfare and misery, happiness and discontent. Domesticity and its opposite are the poles of an independent series of values. For illustration, let us imagine a crisis in the life of a young family. George and Dorothy have been living in a one-room apartment for two years while George has tried to launch himself as a commercial artist, and Dorothy has helped out by working at Macy’s department store. George is thinking that the time has come to give up his plans and get into some business which will yield more money for Dorothy. Dorothy fights grimly to keep on because she is afraid that he will not be happy in the insurance business, and she insists that she is glad to go on working and doing the cooking over a gas jet in the bathroom if George will only keep on with his art. This is clearly a case of domestic behavior. On another floor of the some cheap apartment house another young couple is in equal misery, but in this case the wife is complaining that she is sick of living in one room, while the husband laments that his chances of success are being ruined by her demands. These two situations are externally parallel, but from the domestic point of view there is a world of difference between them. We do not know on the facts as given which of the two situations is most painful, but we do know that they unfold [p.118] themselves on different levels. One is domestic, the other nondomestic. The difference between them is not a difference of degree but a difference of kind. This difference in kind between a domestic and a nondomestic situation has long been taught to our young people. The older generation has repeatedly assured the younger generation that marriage will give life more depth, more fullness. The language in which this message is preached borrows phrases from religion on the one hand and from the literature of romance on the other. Especially the word love serves at once to describe and to explain the deeper life which marriage makes possible. George and Dorothy love each other, whereas the other young couple do not love each other! The explanation is so simple that it leaves us where we were at the beginning, with our vague schoolgirl faith in true love. It leaves us with the blank question still before us, whether this or that kind of love is to be a possibility in our own lives. Love explains nothing, but is itself a thing that needs to be explained. Nowhere in our thinking is the survival of faith in primitive word magic more apparent than in our use of the word love. Let a woman be rude, captious, complaining, jealous, and mean to a man, and if it is only said that she acts that way out of love for him, the word is held to change the color of her actions. Just as some states require that an internal revenue stamp must be affixed to a certain class of documents, so some customs require that a declaration of love must in decency accompany a certain class of proposals. The potency is in the word rather than in any one specific thing to which the word refers, for the word covers a multitude of different [p.119] attitudes. It can be traced through a maze of contradictory meanings. For instance: the home requires love; love is essentially free; free love breaks up the home. It can be applied indiscriminately to contrary kinds of behavior, as any movie plot will demonstrate. If the man seduces the virgin, it is because he loves her, and if he refrains from seducing her it may also be because of his love for her. In another of the stock situations of drama the woman loves the man but believes that her love will harm him. Then if she renounces him, this is due to her great love, but if she still clings to him this is also due to her love. Love blows either hot or cold; whatever she does she does for love. It is another case of word magic. But when we speak of a domestic motive, of preponderant interest, or of paramount loyalty, we bring before our minds something which has a more precise and unequivocal meaning. If this woman’s attitude is domestic, that is to say, if her interest in the man’s welfare looms larger in her life than anything else, then she renounces him. This very attitude is indeed one of the many things which are by some people called love. It happens to be the one which is of greatest importance in family life In insisting on its importance we do not disparage any of the other varieties or manifestations of lover. Least of all do we contend that love is any less significant than it is generally held to be. We mean simply that love as a word refers to many different things which have different kinds and degrees of importance in marriage. What are these different meanings which the word love has accumulated and the different points of view from which it is regarded? There is first the notion that by [p.120] love we mean bare sex life. A book on “love in nature” tells us about the mating habits of frogs and lizards. Sharing this point of view but lending to it an artistic interest are those who, like Ovid or Havelock Ellis, see love as an art based on sex, an art which finds in sex life its principal medium of expression. Others like Edgar Saltus in his Historia Amoris think of love as a texture of social conventions about sex life. They compare love in Greek times when there were heterae and temples of Aphrodite with love in medieval Europe when there were tourneys and courts of love, and with love in our own day when there are movies and coeducational universities. Freud dips into his deep sea of the unconscious and drags forth Narcissine love, which attaches to a projection of the self, and object love, which attaches to a complement to the self. There are some metaphysicians who see in love a universal principle of nature. Empedocles said it was the principle of attraction; Schopenhauer declared it was the life force. Far more numerous are those who describe or classify love experiences, whether their own or other people’s. Frances Newman’s “hard boiled virgin” felt love as a fountain playing within her somewhere in the region of the navel. Others have seemed to feel it as something resembling fire rather than water. Some writers try to classify all the different feelings which can be called love. Stendhal found that love is of four kinds: passion-love, body-love, spirit-love, vanity-love. The new school of German philosophy, the so-called “phenomenologists,” attempts to define the subjective state with rigorous methodical accuracy. Max Scheler, a leader of this school, has worked out the following definition: “Love [p.121] is a movement from lower value to higher value in the object loved.” Some of these attitudes called love bear very little relation to the functioning of the family. Don Juan was a lover, but not a domestic man. From the practical standpoint of courtship and marriage, the most confusing ambiguity in the meaning of the word love results from its dual application to experience of feeling on the one hand, and of purposing and evaluating on the other. Many of those who describe a love experience present it to us as something that seizes upon us while we remain more or less passively subject to it. It may come or it may go, as the foul weather follows fair. While it lasts it bathes us in a glow of pleasure which we enjoy but do not create. It beckons us with more or less directness toward the possession of the beloved as the supreme goal of desire. In the language of psychology this is a “feeling response” rather than a personalistic mode of behavior. It is something that happens to one, not something that one does. It is an ultimate datum of experience in which reason and purpose are not present as components, and which is no more under the control of the will than is the beating of one’s heart. Such a love as this is the natural basis at a liaison, but not of marriage. The love which marriage requires is more highly developed on the active and voluntary side. It seeks not only to enjoy the beloved, but also to serve and benefit her. This is the kind of love for which young people who are thinking of marriage must search their hearts. In order to avoid confusion we have given it a special name, calling it the domestic attitude, or the sentiment of paramount loyalty. It you prefer to call it love, well and [p.122] good. It is intimately related to the feeling reaction of love, for this feeling enters into it as a component, along with reason and purpose. It is the kind of love of which one can be master rather than slave. It is the kind of love which is the necessary precondition of the functioning of the family, and which constitutes the psychological equipment of the domestic man. It is notorious that those who marry are prone to indulge themselves in transitory idealizations and to accept temporarily the most fantastic fictions, so that many a bride who pledges her truth to a more human being imagines that she is pledging it to none other than the domestic man himself. The imagination of lovers long ago invented this man; it is time that a place be made for him in social theory and that the domestic view of human nature be recognized in the social studies.

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When was coal first identified here? And by who? Australia’s first discoveries of coal were in 1791 (unoffically) and 1796 and 1797 (officially, by unnamed fishermen and Lieutenant John Shortland respectively), leading to the first export (1799) and first profit (1801) of a natural resource in this country. 1791 Coal River (Mulubinba) and Government Domain possess the earliest workable coal mines in Southern Hemisphere and earliest discoveries of Coal in 1791 by escaping convicts. In 1791 a group of nine convicts and two small children escaped from the settlement at Sydney Cove. They successfully managed to avoid capture in a leaky boat before arriving in Timor, where they were arrested and re-imprisoned. Of the three accounts of the voyage known to exist, only one has ever come to light. It was the account attributed to James Martin, entitled ‘Memorandoms’. The writer(s) records the journey of the escapees up the coast to Swansea and later to what is possibly either Newcastle or (more likely) Port Stephens. “I remained on the Island from January, 1788 unto March 1791. On the 28 day of March made my escape in Compy with 7 men more and me with one woman and two childn – in an open six oar boat having of provision on Bd one hundred wt of flower and one hundd wt of rice 14lb of pork and about eight galons of water – having a Copass Quardrant and Chart. After two days sail reach a little creek about 2 degrees to the northward of Port Jackson there found a quantity of fine burng coal. There remaind nights and one day and found a varse quantty of cabage tree which we cut down and procured the cabage. Then the natives came down to which we gave some cloathes and other articles and they went away very much satisfied. The apperanance of the land appears more better here than at Sidney Cove. Here we got avarse quantity of fish which of a great refreshment to us. After our stay of 2 nights and one day we proceeded our voyage to they northward, after 2 days sail we made a very fine harbour seeming to run up the country for many miles and quite commodious for the anchorage of shipping. Here we found aplenty of fresh water. Hawld our boat ashore to repair her bottom being very leaky the better to pay her bottom with some beeswax and rosin which we had a small quantity thereof – But on they same night was drove of by the natives – which meant to destroy us. We launched our boat and road off in the strame quite out of reach of them – that being Sunday. Monday we were of in ye stream we rowed lower down thinging to land some miles below. On Monday morng we attempted to land when we found a place convenient for to repair our boat we accordg we put some of our things – part being ashore. There came the natives in vase numbers with speers and sheilds etc. We formed in parts, one party of us made towards them the better by signes to posify them but they not taking the least notice. Accordingly we fired a musket thinking to afright them but they took not the least notice thereof. On perceving them rush more foreward we were forsed to take to our boat and to get out of their reach as fast as we could – and what to do we could not tell. But on consulting with wach other it was detirmined for to rowed up the harbour 9 or 10 miles till we made a little white Sandy Isld in the middle of the harbour – which landd upon and hawld up our boat and repair her bottom with what little materials we had. Whilst our stay of 2 days we had no interupon from the natives. Then we rowed of to the main[land] where we took in fresh water and a few cabage trees – and then put out to sea. The atives here is quiet naked of a copper colour-shock hair – have the cannoos made of bark. Then we proceedd the Northard, having a leadg breez from the S:W. But that night the wind changed and drove us quite out of sight of land – which we hawld our wind having a set of sails in the boat.” – Transcribed from pages 2-3 of: James Martin (fl.1786 – 1792) Memorandoms: Escape from Botany Bay, 1791 : being ‘Memorandoms’ / by James Martin ; introduction and notes by Victor Crittenden (Canberra : Mulini Press, c1991 ) Location: AUCH – RB/COLL 994.401092 MART-1 MEMO “The discovery of good quality coal dates from the earliest period of white settlement in Australia… During early exploration of the coastal belt outcrops of coal were found near Newcastle in 1796 and at Coal Cliff, near Wollongong in the following year. The importance of the discovery was not overlooked at the time, although there was no knowledge then of the immense extent of these coal beds, which have been by far the most productive of all that have been discovered in Australia and have exercised a powerful influence upon the development of New South Wales.” 1796 Note 25, page 33 (Historical Records Australia Series 1 Volume 2 (HRA), Commentary p.708) “Specimens of coal, however, had been discovered in the neighbourhood of Newcastle and brought to Sydney by some fishermen in June, 1796 (see note 50). Note 50, page 118. (HRA, Series 1 Volume 2 Commentary p.713) “A considerable quantity of coal was discovered and specimens were brought hither. This coal was found by Lieutenant John Shortland , Jr., on the south bank of the Hunter River in September, 1798. The first discovery of coal near the modern city of Newcastle had been made in June, 1796, by some fishermen, who had been forced by bad weather to shelter in the estuary of the then unknown Hunter River.” 1797 J. Shortland, Jun., To J. Shortland, Sen., HMS Reliance, Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, 10th September, 1798. “My Dear Father, About a twelvemonth since I went on an expedition in the Governor’s whaleboat as far as Port Stephens, which lies 100 miles to the northward of this place. In my passage down I discovered a very fine coal river, which I named after Governor Hunter. The enclosed I send you, being an eye-sketch which I took the little time I was there. Vessels from 60 to 250 tons may load there with great ease, and completely landlocked. I dare say, in a little time, this river will be a great acquisition to this settlement. The short time I remained at this river we had rain, which prevented my doing so much as I otherwise should. J. Shortland” Note 256, page 614. (HRA, Series 1 Volume 2, Commentary p.750) The Coal River. Lieutenant John Shortland, the younger, had discovered this river in September, 1797, and had named it the Hunter, by which name it is now known. The aboriginal name was Coquon. King repeatedly referred to it by the name of Coal River in his despatches, although he called it the Hunter River in his general orders. The name Coal Island was given to Nobby’s Head at Newcastle. It was the presence of coal which initially attracted Europeans to the area in the early 1800s. The outlet of the Hunter River and the presence of coal were officially noted by Lieutenant John Shortland in 1797. Shortland’s journey north of Sydney in the Governor’s whaleboat in September 1797, his eye-sketch of the river he named after Governor Hunter, his optimistic impression of the area, and his return of coal samples to Sydney were historically important factors in the eventual expansion of the newly-established penal colony out of the Sydney Basin. “A small river has been lately discovered by a boat I had occasion to send northward in pursuit of the deserters ; it is about River. sixty-five miles from this part ; on its south shore and near the water a considerable quantity of coal was discovered, and specimens were brought hither. As soon as the public service will admit of my absence from hence, I propose to go thither in a boat and examine this discovery myself, after which your Grace shall be more particularly informed.”(HRA, Series 1 Volume 2, p.118) There was a considerable quantity of coal discovered to the southward of this harbour, and I directed it to be examined; specimens were accordingly brought, which I sent to Sir Joseph Banks by the last China ship. This coal is very good, but difficult to attain, being a strata or vein of an immense steep cliff, near the sea, extending eight or nine miles along the coast southward, nor, unless we can find some little harbour near, can we hope to derive any great advantage from it. “Sir, It appears by the last information received from the Governor of our settlement at New South Wales that strata of coals have been discovered there in several places, and particularly a very fine stratum, eight miles in lenght and siz feet deep, in the neighbourhood of Botany Bay. This circumstance, and the heavy expense which, I understand, is incurred by the public in sending from hence to the Cape of Good Hope, have induced me to give directions to Gov. Hunter to dispatch the Buffalo and Porpoise, storeships, which will carry 600 ton of coal, the value of which at the Cape, if sent from hence, would, I understand, be about five or six thousand pounds, and they may be expected to arrive there with their first cargo about Christmas 1799.” “It will not be possible in this season, my Lord, to attempt carrying into effect your Grace’s desire of sending coal to the Cape Good Hope, the Buffalo being under the necessity of receiving some repairs which, with our few hands, will require more time than cou’d be wish’d for enabling her to go this season to the Cape, and the Porpoise is not yet arriv’d. I formerly mention’d to your Grace that the coal discover’d to coal at the southward was inaccessable, being upon an abrupt dead coast where there is no inlet to secure a boat in; but that discover’d to the northward may be got at. I have not yet had an opportunity of examining that place myself, therefore cannot say in what quantitys we may be able to procure it, and what may be the most safe and eligible way of providing a cargo for a ship; but the experiment shall be tried, my Lord, and I will endeavour myself to obtain the local knwoledge requisite for ascertaining to what extent your Grace’s desire can be carried into effect.” That discover’d to the northward may be got at. The reference is to the coal discovered on the south bank of the Hunter River at the site of the modern city of Newcastle (see note 50 above). “We have also some hopes that coal with which the country abounds will be of much Colonial advantage. A ship lately returned to Bengal loaded with coals, and it gave no small satisfaction to every person interested in the prosperity of the colony to see this first export of it; and I am hopeful from these advantages that New South Wales, however contemptible it may at present appear in the list of our colonies, may yet become an acquisition of value to the mother country. – 1799, September 8. ” ( Mr John Thomson to Captain Schanck, H.R.N.S.W., Vol. III, pp.716–718) The first record of the export of coal from Australia appears in ‘Macpherson’s Annals of Commerce’, under date 1799, in these words :— ‘About the end of this year a cargo of coals, said to be of an excellent quality, was shipped at Coal River, about 100 miles north of Port Jackson, New South Wales, for Bengal.’ – (Ref: Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser 18 September 1897 p.597) WHEN the last accounts left New South Wales, the Governor Discover, of was going to send Lieut. John Shortland (first lieutenant of his Majesty’s ship Reliance) in the Colonial schooner, to survey the coast. Some months previous Lieutenant Shortland discovered a very fine river, which it is thought will prove of great advantage to the colony, as, from the survey he then had an opportunity of taking, he thinks vessels from 60 to 250 tons may load there, and be completely landlocked. The river lays N.N.E. about 63 or 65 miles from Port Jackson.* Reprinted from the True Briton of 25th October, 1799. The river was named Hunter River, in honor of Governor Hunter, by Lieutenant Shortland, its discoverer. The native name of the river was “Coquon.” Shortland discovered the river in September, 1797, when in quest of convicts who had seized the Cumberland—the Government boat for trading to the Hawkesbury.—Ante, pp. 347, 481. As early as June, 1796, a party of fishermen reported the discovery of gold in the vicinity of Port Stephens.—Collins, vol. i, p. 484 ; vol. ii, p. 48. HRNSW p.727 1801 Acting Governor King to The Duke of Portland. (HRA, Series 1 Volume 3, pp. 4-15) (Despatch No.3 per the brig Trimmer, via India; acknowledged by Lord Hobart, 30th January 1802. ) Sydney New South Wales 10th March 1801. “I am sorry it is not in my power to speak more satisfactorily at present respecting the coals, of which so sanguine an expectation was formed by different accounts previous to my leaving England. The want of vessels belonging to Government has hitherto prevented my sending to the rivers,where there are great quantities lying on the surface, some of which has been brought round here in boats belonging to individuals; but from their being taken from the surface they have little or no bitumen in them, and are totally unfit for the forge. In my letter, No. 1,* [Marginal note.-28th Sept., 1800. (See note 6.)] by Governor Hunter, I had the honour of informing your Grace that I had employed the only miner there is in the colony, with eleven other convicts, in searching for coal in this neighbourhood, and with some hopes of success. The place he has fixed on is at the head of George’s River, which is navigable to Botany Bay. In that situation he has opened a shaft 24 feet deep, and has bored 50 feet, making in all a depth of 25 yards. In that space he has passed two very thin stratas of a very fine coal, and from the opinion he forms of the other stratas he is very confident of succeeding. If he should in the end fail here, I shall remove him and his men to the northward of the rivers, altho’ this neighbourhood on many accounts would be the most desirable to succeed in, as it is by no means safe to send a vessel without the harbour, so frequently have the convicts found means to take them away. In this place, I am sorry to inform your Grace, that fifteen desperate characters seized a Government vessel of 25 tons,+ laden with 500 bushels of wheat, on its returning from the Hawkesbury. They kept possession of the vessel, with an intention of proceeding to some Dutch settlement among the Molluccas; but from the want of ability to manage her they soon ran her on shore and bilged her, saving their lives with difficulty. They afterwards seized a small vessel, belonging to an individual, lying in the Coal River. On receiving information, I sent a party after them in boats who recaptured the vessel they had seized, and brought nine of the pirates in, two of whom have been executed and the other seven retransported for life. Those examples, and the miserable state of those that I pardoned, I hope will prevent any future attempts of that kind.” (pp.13-14) 1801, June-July 1801. Ensign Francis Louis Barrallier. ‘Coal Harbour and Rivers, On the Coast of New South Wales, surveyed by Ensign Barrallier, In His Majesty’s Armed Surveying Vessel, “Lady Nelson”, Lieut. James Grant, Commander, in June and July, 1801. By Order of Governor King’. CO 700/ New South Wales 16/ 1801 Lieutenant Grant’s Journal at Hunter River Remarks, &c., on board His Majesty’s armed surveying vessel, Lady Nelson, in Hunter’s River, 1801. “Tuesday, 16 June. 1801.-Wind W. to N.W. P.M.-moderate and cloudy weather ; employed occasionally. A.M.-rain with lightning; at daylight fair and cloudy. Colonel Paterson and I went on shore to examine the coals ; took the miner with us. At the place where he had been before at work on, we found a strata of coal 22 inches thick, and of good quality. As this was on an elevated situation, and not very easy of access, we found at the foot of the hill and on the reef at low water, plenty of excellent coals in beds of different thickness. Made the necessary arrangements for setting the people to work.” (HRA, Series 1 Volume 3, p.170) 1801, 3rd July (HRA, Series 1 Volume 3, p.257) “The Governor judging it necessary for the public interest to declare the coals and timber which are to be procured at Hunter’s River, to be the exclusive property of the Crown, and having thought fit to establish a port at Freshwater Bay, that view, he strictly forbids any boat or vessel going there for coal, timber, or any other purpose, without obtaining a special license from the Governor’s Secretary, stating the purpose of such voyage (that license he is to produce to the person in command there)” 1801 Lieutenant Grant’s Journal at Hunter River Remarks, &c., on board His Majesty’s armed surveying vessel, Lady Nelson, in Hunter’s River, 1801. “Saturday, July 4th, 1801.-Wind, S.S.W. I this day visited the coal miners, and found them hard at work. They had found a strata of coals nearly four feet in thickness and of excellent kind. It was entirely from side to side through the hill-that is to say, from the harbour side to the sea on the opposite side ; and on the low side which faces the harbour the miner informed me they were not above ten yards down. This consequently will yield a supply of coals for a great length of time. The miner informed me they were equal to any bcd of coals he had ever seen in England. I saw a lump of them. It was clear and transparent, free from earth and smut, and no doubt will answer for any use whatever.” (HRA, Series 1 Volume 3, p.172) 1801 Acting Governor King to The Duke of Portland (Per transprt Anne) Sydney New South Wales, 8th July 1801 (HRA, Series 1 Volume 3, pp.110-117) (pp 116-117) “The Lady Nelson returned here the 15th May, and sailed from hence with another Colonial vesselt the 9th instant to examine and survey the Coal River, sixty miles to the northward of this place, from whence a prize vessel, purchased by an individual in this colony, has just returned with 150 tons of very fine coals and timber, which be has sold to the master of the Earl Cornwallis, going from hence to India, for £3 per ton. Being very anxious to ascertain how far that place can be depended on for a supply of that necessary article, and to ascertain its situation so far as to determine on the propriety of making a settlement there, I accepted Lieut.-Colonel Patterson’s offer of going in the Lady Nelson to assist Lieut. Grant in making such observations as might guide my conduct in undertaking an establishment at that place, the result of which I shall inform your Grace on the schooner’s return, as she is to be despatched with a load of coals as soon as possible after their arrival. Ever since I took the command, an experienced miner with eleven men have been employed boring in the most likely place to produce coals in this neighbourhood, as stated in my former despatches. He has got down ninety-six feet, but no coals, except very thin veins. As he is confident of coming to a bed of coal, it shall be continued until he gives it up, or until I receive Lieut.-Colonel Patterson and the other officers’ reports, who are gone to examine the Coal River. As the Lady Nelson will return here by the 1st August, I intend to despatch her and another Colonial vessel, in Sep-tember, to survey and examine Bass’s Strait, and the south-west coast, as fine weather may then be expected. I have, &c., Philip Gidley King” 1801 Acting Governor King to The Duke of Portland (Despatch marked “Separate,” per whaler Albion; acknowledged by Lord Hobart, 29th August, 1802.) Sydney, New South Wales, 21st August, 1801. (HRA, Series 1 Volume 3, p.167-169) “…I have established a small post there,* consisting o a trusty non-commissioned officer and eight privates, with twelve prisoners to collect coals for such Government vessels as can go for them. Since the Lady Nelson went there, two Government vessels have brought 50 tons of coal which has been bartered with the master of the Cornwallis for articles for the public use. This being the first natural produce of the colony that has tended to any advantage, I have enclosed the Commissary’s statement of that exchange, being more a matter of curiosity than of consequence. At present several boats are employed getting coals for the Cornwallis, and a prize brig,t belonging to an individual, is now at the Coal Harbour lading with coals and timber for the Cape of Good Hope. By the inclosure your Grace will observe that I have made the coals and timber an article of revenue. How far it will be productive must depend on events. I have, &c., Philip Gidley King.” (Note: No Commissary’s statement of exchange had been located to date) “I have established a small post there, consisting of a trusty non-commissioned officer and eight privates, with twelve prisoners to collect coals for such Government vessells as can go for them. Since the Lady Nelson went there, two Government vessells have brought 45 tons of coals which has been bartered with the master of the Cornwallis for articles for the public use. This being the first natural produce of the colony that has tended to any advantage, I have enclosed the Commissary’s statement of that exchange, being more a matter of curiosity than of consequence. At present several boats are employed getting coals for the Cornwallis, and a prize brig, belonging to an individual, is now at the Coal Harbour lading with coals and timber for the Cape of Good Hope. By the inclosure your Grace will observe that I have made the coals and timber an article of revenue. How far it will be productive must depend on events. – Governor King to The Duke of Portland, H.R.N.S.W., Vol. IV, p. 477. Coal River was also the site of the first return (or profit) made in the fledgling colony of New South Wales, (2 pounds, 5 shillings) and was recorded by Governor King in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks in August 1801: “The first cargo of coals brought from the Coal River in a Government vessel I exchanged with the master of the Cornwallis, who goes to Bengal from hence for iron, which he gave at 30 per cent. Profit for our coals at two pounds five shillings per chaldron. I believe this is the first return ever made from New South Wales.” (Governor King to Sir Joseph Banks (Banks Papers.), H.R.N.S.W., Vol.IV, p. 359) Sending coal to the Cape of Good Hope. The Duke of Portland’s instructions with regard to the exportation of coal were contained in his despatch, “dated 21st December, 1798 (see page 241). The first shipment of Newcastle coal exported was carried in the transport Earl Cornwallis, which sailed from Port Jackson on the 4th of October, 1801, bound for Bengal. This coal was valued at two pounds five shillings per chaldron, and at that rate Acting-Governor King exchanged it for iron with James Tennant, the master. The first cargo for the Cape of Good Hope consisted of one hundred tons, shipped on the brig Anna Josepha, which sailed from Port Jackson on the 26th of October, 1801. A prize ship. The brig Anna Josepha , of 170 tons , which had arrived in Port Jackson on the 14th of February , 1800, as a prize to the whaler Betsey . She was purchased by Messrs. Simeon Lord and H. Meehan, and sailed for the Cape of Good Hope on the 26th of October , 1801, with a cargo including 100 tons of coal. ” Governor King had formed a small settlement at Hunter River for the purpose of working the coal, which is of the same nature with that of Newcastle.” HRNSW p.727 Public Records Office London. CO 201/32: A Plan of His Majesty’s Coal Mine at King’s Town New Castle District County of Northumberland New South Wales in its present Situation of working, July 1804. Governor King to Lord Hobart (Despatch marked “Separate No 1,” per whaler Albion; acknowledged by Viscount Castlereagh, 13th July 1805.) (HRA, Series 1 Volume 5, p.111) “Having so frequent a communication with the settlement at Newcastle, I have a pleasure in communicating the great exertions made there by Lieut. Menzies, and have no doubt of that neighbouring settlement continuing to encrease the great advantages this colony at present derives from them. I have the honor to send by the Albion a box containing some blocks of coal that have been got from the lowermost part of the pits they are now working; and to give your Lordship every idea of the works going on there, I enclose some plans received from Lieut. Menzies respecting their progress. A sufficiency of coals and cedar are received from thence to supply the blacksmiths’ and necessary carpenters’ works at these settlements for the use of the Crown as well as that of individuals; and to possess your Lordship of the early public advantages arising from thence, I have the honor to enclose Lieut. Menzies’ last letter to me, with the quarterly returns and statements consequent on my General Order. And coal had been used by the Aboriginal people? Aboriginal people in Newcastle did have a name for it, Nikkin, recorded by the Rev Threlkeld (1830s) in the word Nikkinba, as ‘place of coal’. But I am not sure of the source for the dreaming story below. It appears in the 1993 Aboriginal Hunter Supplement. How Coal Was Made (Ref: Aboriginal Hunter Supplement to the Newcastle Herald Tuesday, May 11 1993:4 Text by Greg Ray): The Awabakal are believed to be the only Aboriginal Tribe to discuss coal in their legends. They appear to have been aware of its combustibility and are thought to have used lumps of it in their fires. According to the Rev Threlkeld, the name for the Lake Macquarie district was Nikkin-bah, or place of coal. Their legend describes what sounds like a volcanic eruption, centred on Redhead, where an ancient volcanic plug is known to exist. The name of the volcanic plug is Kintiirabin. A very long time ago, when the earth and sea were different from today, a great darkness fell on the land. This darkness, which seemed to come from a hole in a mountain and block out the sun, was so deep and sudden that the people were very frightened. Even birds and insects fell silent. Messengers were sent in all directions, bringing all people together to decide how light could be brought back to the world. The wise men of the tribes decided that the only way to bring the world back to normality was to cover up the darkness that was scattered deeply on the ground. Men, women and children dug up rocks and sand and broke down foliage from trees and bushes to cover up the thick darkness. People from miles around came together to stop the darkness breaking through the surface of the earth. The people feared that the ever-burning fires deep in the ground would release the darkness again. After the darkness was covered over, generations passed in which people walked on the ground, pressing the darkness and the flames together under the earth to become nikkin, or coal. Now, whenever coal is burned, the spirit of the ancient earth fire is again released. How were the Convict Coal Mines rediscovered in 2005? The following two plans were crucial in the re-discovery in 2005 of the original entrances to the convict coal mines beneath present day Fort Scratchley. There are three ‘drives’ or entrances to mines marked on the Adams 1856 map. Two of these correspond to the transverse section by William Keene in 1854. Together our surveyors Monteath & Powys were able to locate the present locations. What is the significance of these mines to Newcastle and to Australia? These mines represent the birthplace of the Australian economy, the the Hunter Region the engine room. The ‘river of black gold’ has enabled Australia to become a prosperous nation. But what of Newcastle?Newcastle is a Cinderella City of Australia, Cinderella to her show off stepsisters Sydney and Melbourne, who always crave the greater attention and the lavish extravagant spends, the fire works displays, the public infrastructure. Cinderella is kept on her hands and knees doing the hard work, with the minimum of resources to do it. What we have tried to do, if pick her up, off her hands and knees, brushed the coal dust from her cheeks and spruced her up, letting her know how appreciative we are, in the hope that one day she will meet her prince, or princess charming. Gionni Di Gravio 15 April 2016

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Updates on Student Rights, Resources and Opportunities (Updated 4/8/2019) – Over the last decade, Congress has invested a lot of time and political energy into finding a way to allow undocumented immigrants who arrived as youths to stay in the United States and eventually gain a path to citizenship or permanent residency. Unfortunately, despite the numerous possibilities floated in Congress over the years, a comprehensive immigration law remains elusive. In an effort to find a temporary solution, President Obama created the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy in June 2012. DACA allows eligible individuals brought into the United States illegally as children a reprieve from prosecution and deportation for a period of two years. In September 2017, President Trump initiated a plan to phase out the DACA policy. Extensive litigation has followed, allowing most current DACA recipients the ability to renew their DACA status. However, as of this writing, new DACA applications are not being accepted. Many of the lawsuits disputing the legality of DACA and the legality of Trump’s motion to rescind DACA are moving through the court system in a series of appeals, meaning that the future for DACA students is yet unclear. This guide aims to provide current information about the changes to DACA policy and an explanation of student rights and resources. What Does DACA Do for Students? Given the political divisiveness and complexity of immigration policy in the United States, there is often confusion about DACA. Below is a list of what DACA does and does not do for eligible individuals. Grant temporary administrative safety from deportation. Allow recipients the ability to obtain a work permit. Make it possible to apply for a social security number. Provide an opportunity to get a valid driver’s license. Have detailed eligibility requirements. DACA applies only to current students, high school graduates, GED holders and honorably discharged veterans who meet all other requirements. DACA does not… Last forever. An individual’s DACA status expires after two years and must be renewed. DACA does not… Provide a direct path to citizenship or permanent residency in the United States. DACA does not… Create an opportunity to temporarily avoid deportation. Only individuals who meet strict eligibility requirements anyone may receive DACA status. DACA does not… Make a student eligible for federal financial aid, although some private and state-based financial aid is available for undocumented students. DACA does not… Offer protections to individuals who have committed felonies, serious misdemeanors or pose a threat to public safety. Expert Q&A: What Are the Rights of DACA Students? Meet the Experts Susan Cohen is a nationally recognized immigration lawyer. As Founding Chair of Mintz’s Immigration Practice, she works with corporate clients to address their immigration challenges. Susan is very active in the American Immigration Lawyers Association (AILA) and has contributed to federal and state immigration regulations. Darwin Velasquez was born in La Union, El Salvador. At 12 years old, Darwin left for the United States with one set of clothes, his 11-year-old brother, and $250 between the two them. Once enrolled in Washington George High School, Darwin joined College Track San Francisco in the hopes of achieving his dream of going to college. In 2013, Darwin became the first in his family to graduate from high school and pursue a higher education. That same year, he also applied to and was granted Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA). In today’s political climate, sometimes there is conflicting information on DACA. How can students get the most up-to-date information? Velasquez: Students have a variety of options. First, I recommend they visit the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services website. If there are any updates or changes on DACA, the government will post these announcements on the USCIS website. This website is also useful to check students’ DACA renewal status. Second, sometimes it’s a bit difficult to understand legal language provided by the government. For this reason, I like to check the Immigration Legal Resource Center website. The ILRC provides comprehensive FAQ’s about DACA immediately after each announcement. Finally, the American Civil Liberties Union is also a fantastic resource, not only to understand the latest on DACA, but to understand our rights with or without DACA. Many DACA students are scared of what comes next. How likely is it that Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agents will show up at the door? What might prompt a visit from them? Cohen: There is always a chance that ICE officers could show up at the door. Possible reasons why ICE could show up include: if the DACA recipient has been arrested or involved in a criminal incident or even a traffic incident; if the DACA recipient lives in the household of someone who does not have immigration status; if ICE suspects that the DACA recipient has abused public benefits; if ICE suspects that the DACA recipient has broken a U.S. law. Let’s talk about the rights of students under DACA. Do institutions have to cooperate if ICE asks them for information on the students enrolled there? If yes, how far must they go? Velasquez: I could write a dissertation on this question! It depends on the type of organization or institution. For non-profit organizations, they are not obligated to share any information with ICE unless agents have a warrant. In other words, no warrant, no access. ICE officers can enter the facilities with a warrant or with voluntary permission given to the officer by an employee of the company. I strongly advise companies hold a training with their employees to know how to respond in the event ICE shows up to their organization. Institutions are also not obligated to provide information about any particular student’s immigration status. Sometimes, ICE may try to intimidate their way to confidential information about a student. Staff at colleges and universities should be familiar with a real warrant signed by an immigration judge and a fake warrant. What are a student’s rights if they are visited by ICE agents? Cohen: If the DACA student is concerned about other people in the household, or about another vulnerability, the student could choose not to open the door unless ICE has a warrant signed by a judge. If he/she chooses not to open the door, the DACA recipient should slide a card under the door or hold it up to a window indicating that they are exercising their right to remain silent and request to see an arrest warrant that has been signed by a judge. They should place a call to their immigration attorney and if they do not have an immigration attorney, they should call a U.S. citizen friend or family member to inform them of what is happening. A DACA student may choose to open the door and share his or her DACA-related documents and identity documents with the ICE officer. It is best to succinctly answer questions and not to volunteer any additional information. Velasquez: It’s a harsh reality, but I highly recommend that students and their families have a family preparedness plan in the event of an ICE visit. If ICE visits a student, they should know that they and their family have rights. First, they have the right to remain silent. Second, ICE agents cannot make the student sign any documents without their full understanding of such documents or without their will. They also have the right to contact an attorney. A good family preparedness plan should have the contact information of an attorney they trust. Preparing for a situation like this is not easy. However, we are living in difficult times for the undocumented community. What are some basic rights under DACA that students need to know inside and out? Cohen: DACA recipients with still-valid DACA status are legally authorized to be in the U.S. If they have received an Employment Authorization Document (EAD), they are entitled to use that document to work throughout the validity period of the EAD. Everyone in the U.S., whether documented or not, has certain rights under the U.S. Constitution. These include the right to remain silent and not answer questions; the right to see an arrest warrant; the right to make a phone call; and the right to speak to a lawyer. Everyone has the right not to sign any documents before consulting with a lawyer. Velasquez: If a student has DACA, they have a work permit to legally gain employment in the United States. They also have the right to obtain a driver’s license. Additionally, with a state ID or driver’s license, they can travel within the United States and Puerto Rico. As a DACA recipient, they can also apply to open a bank account, and in some backs, they may qualify for a secure credit card to start building a line of credit. Please note students are not eligible to have a regular credit card without first having a secure credit card for at least one year. DACA recipients can obtain a regular credit card without first having a secure credit card, but only if the student has a U.S. Permanent Resident or U.S. Citizen cosigner. What are the best things students can do for themselves, right now, before DACA faces even more challenges? Cohen: DACA students should meet with an experienced, qualified immigration attorney to understand what their legal immigration options are now, and in the future if the program is terminated. It is important to meet only with highly qualified attorneys, who have been recommended, and not with notarios, or non-attorneys. As part of the meeting with the immigration attorney, the DACA student should review exactly what to do if they are confronted or arrested by an ICE officer and ask permission to contact the immigration attorney in an emergency, even if it is not during regular business hours. They should secure a “Know Your Rights” card or document from the attorney or from a non-profit organization, that provides legal assistance to DACA recipients, and they should keep a copy of the card in their home, and a copy in their wallet. Velasquez: The best step students can take is to renew their DACA one year in advance of the expiration date. In the past, 120 days before expiration was ok, and while it still is, the sooner students renew the better. Don’t risk it and renew one year in advance instead. Students should also consult with an attorney to see if they are eligible to obtain other immigration remedies. There are many ways to become s U.S. Permanent Residents. On a case by case scenario, one may be eligible for something the student didn’t know about. What are some basic legal points students need to remember if they find themselves faced with a warrant, arrested or detained? Cohen: Students should ask to see identification, or ask the officer to identify himself or herself. The student should also ensure that any warrant presented is valid, as not all of them are. Ask the officer to slip the document under the door. To be valid it must contain the recipient’s name, address, and a signature. If it appears valid, look to see if it was issued by a court or by ICE. If it was issued by a court, and authorizes a search of your house, then you must allow the officer into the house. If it was issued by ICE, then it does not authorize a search of the house. In this case the DACA student could choose to go outside and meet with the officers there, especially if there are other people living in the house who are vulnerable. If the officer does not have a warrant to enter the house, and the officer asks for permission to enter the house, the student is absolutely not required to give permission to enter. Students should have a pre-arranged plan with an immigration attorney and with a trusted friend or family member in the event the student is arrested or detained. This should include keeping their passport and other identity documents (birth certificate) in a safe place; having a contact list so the trusted friend or family member can contact others (lawyer, friends, family, employer etc.), and having a bag packed with essentials to take if being detained. Many students are scared, as you might imagine. What’s the most realistic scenario they might face? Velasquez: A scenario not many of us like to think about is unemployment. For the time being, students can renew DACA, but the U.S. Supreme Court will ultimately decide what happens with this policy. If the Supreme Court rules that DACA is unconstitutional, the government will likely cancel all DACA work authorizations. In terms of deportation as a DACA-holding student, it is very unlikely that they would be deported unless he or she commits a crime. The government granted DACA to young people who wanted to live and work in the U.S. and were not considered a “threat” to this country – all DACA recipients passed an extensive background check. In other words, deportation is a possibility, but only if you commit a crime or if you leave the country voluntarily. Anything else you’d like to add about DACA and college students? Cohen: DACA students should be careful to obey the law to avoid any risk to their DACA status. For example, if they have a driver’s license, they should make sure not to drive if their license expires. They should carefully follow all traffic rules, as sometimes even what seems like a minor traffic infraction could be serious enough to jeopardize one’s DACA status. In general, they should keep a low profile. While some DACA students may have applied for Advance Parole travel permission, they should not consider leaving the United States without carefully vetting the risks of doing so with a competent immigration lawyer. A DACA recipient should not file applications for any other immigration benefits without the advice and assistance of a qualified immigration lawyer. The legal landscape regarding DACA is in flux. Several courts have stopped the Trump administration from ending the program and for now, DACA renewal applications are still being accepted by USCIS. However, the current status is subject to change. It is imperative that DACA students remain up to date regarding the very fluid legal situation. In particular, DACA students should meet with an immigration lawyer to discuss what their next steps should be if the DACA program is terminated. Velasquez: I would like to emphasize that there are plenty of college students without DACA, many of whom arrived after June 15th, 2007. These students matter. This is why a comprehensive immigration reform is needed. Parents who lived [in the United States] for over 10 years are also in this category without hope of one day adjusting their status. How to Apply for DACA Renewal The current and future status of DACA is in limbo, so it can be difficult to understand what actions students should take right now. This uncertainty is a major reason as to why those who wish to renew DACA may need to act sooner rather than later. If Congress or the courts eventually rule to eliminate DACA, it would be more difficult (although not impossible) to deport someone who has already renewed their DACA status than to deport someone who has let their DACA status lapse or failed to apply for a DACA renewal before deadline. Given that it may take several months to process and approve a DACA renewal application, anyone wishing to apply for a renewal should do so at least five months before their current DACA status expires. ASO It may also be helpful for applicants to seek legal assistance from an attorney, a local immigration organization or student services department at school. Applicants must complete the most recent version of the forms. If the applicant is represented by an attorney or wishes to receive electronic notification of the DACA renewal application being received, they must also complete: Form G-28: Notice of Entry of Appearance as Attorney or Accredited Representative. Form G-1145: E-Notification of Application/Petition Acceptance. 3. Pay the Renewal Fee The basic DACA renewal application fee is $495. In a few extreme cases, the applicant may receive exemption from paying this fee. 4. Submit Supporting Documentation Applicants who have a criminal record or have been involved in any removal procedures not previously brought to the attention of US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) in a prior DACA application will need to provide the necessary documentation concerning the nature of the criminal or removal proceedings. Those whose DACA status expired before September 5, 2016 will have to apply as if they are applying for the first time. This means they may need to submit documentation to confirm their identity, such as a passport or state-issued ID showing date of birth. All applicants, regardless of criminal or removal history, must also submit the following documentation: Work permit or other form of EAD (Employment Authorization Document). The applicant should submit a copy of this document and keep the original. After the USCIS receives the application, they will request that the applicant provide fingerprints to complete a background check. 7. Provide Additional Information In certain instances, the USCIS may request more information from the applicant. If this happens, the applicant must comply with the information request before their DACA renewal can be approved. In Depth: The Story of DACA and the Legal Battles It hasn’t always been smooth sailing for DACA, which should come as no surprise: political disagreement over the DREAM Act and similar proposed laws is the reason DACA was created in the first place. Like many other things that come out of Washington, DACA represents a variety of compromises. As a result, many attempts have been made to change or eliminate the DACA policy. Many of these legal challenges are still pending a final court decision or are on appeal. Here’s a brief history of the DACA policy and the past and current lawsuits surrounding it: June 15, 2012 The Obama administration announces the creation of DACA in response to Congress’ inability to pass an immigration law, such as the DREAM Act, that provides comparable benefits to those brought into the United States illegally when they were only children. August 15, 2012 The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service begins receiving and accepting DACA applications. November 20, 2014 President Obama announces his desire to expand DACA to include individuals who entered the United States outside the prescribed time window. This attempt at DACA expansion never went into effect. August 25, 2016 Batalla Vidal v. Nielsen is initially filed in New York federal district court concerning the reversal of employment authorization, but later modified in 2018 to challenge the reversal of DACA. Many subsequent cases concerning DACA have been consolidated or merged into this case. September 5, 2017 President Trump’s administration announces the termination of DACA. Under the terms of the termination, individuals who filed a first-time or a renewal application by September 5, 2017 would have their applications processed normally. Those whose had their DACA status ending between September 5, 2017 and March 5, 2018 would be allowed to apply for a DACA renewal. September 6, 2017 New York v. Trump, et al. is filed in New York federal district court challenging the legality of terminating DACA. This case has been consolidated into the Batalla Vidal v. Nielsen court case. September 8, 2017 Regents of the University of California v. Dept. of Homeland Security is filed in California federal district court alleging the termination of DACA is improper. September 18, 2017 The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Trump case is filed in federal district court in Washington, D.C. on the basis that the DACA termination is unlawful. October 5, 2017 CASA de Maryland v. Trump is filed in federal district court in Maryland concerning the legality of ending DACA. The district court ruled termination of DACA was legal, but that the federal government cannot use information from DACA applications for deportation or other immigration enforcement reasons. Both sides have appealed; this case is currently pending before a federal appeals court. February 23, 2018 Court grants preliminary injunction in Batalla Vidal v. Nielsen allowing DACA renewals to continue. This case is on appeal to a federal appeals court, but there has also been a request for the case to be heard before the U.S. Supreme Court before the federal appeals court issues a decision. April 24, 2018 The court in NAACP v. Trump concludes that DACA should be reinstated. This would allow not only DACA renewals to take place, but would also provide opportunities for first-time applications as well. However, the portion of the court’s decision concerning DACA first-time applicants is not currently in effect. This case is on appeal to a federal appeals court, although the federal government has requested the U.S. Supreme Court to decide before the federal appeals court does. May 1, 2018 The Texas, et al v. Nielsen, et al. case begins in federal district court in Texas. Unlike other court cases where the plaintiffs have challenged whether DACA can be rescinded, this case looks at whether DACA was even legal to begin with. August 31, 2018 The court in Texas, et al v. Nielsen, et al. denies a request to stop DACA, allowing DACA renewals to continue. The case is scheduled to proceed at the district court level. November 8, 2018 Federal appeals court in Regents of the University of California v. DHS upholds trial court’s granting of preliminary injunction that allows DACA renewals to take place. The federal government has filed an appeal. Individuals who take advantage of the DACA program may not always have the same opportunities as other students, especially those with citizenship. Fortunately, a variety of organizations exist to help DACA students in many ways, from becoming citizens to paying for college. American Immigration Council: A nonprofit organization devoted to promoting and supporting immigration in the United States by using the court system, advocating for policy changes and sponsoring cultural exchange programs. This organization’s website also has a variety of articles that explain immigration procedures and laws. American Immigration Lawyers Association (AILA): The AILA is a professional organization for US attorneys and professors that practice and teach immigration law, but it also has immigration resources, including a lawyer locator and a legal research section. Immigration Advocates Network: Serves both immigration professionals and immigrants who need more information about the immigration process. Its website also has nationwide directory of free and low-cost legal services. Immigration Equality: As the primary LGBTQ immigrant rights organization, Immigration Equality offers a plethora of legal and information resources for undocumented immigrants as well as opportunities to get involved by volunteering. ImmigrationLawHelp.org: An online database to help low-income immigrants find legal assistance in their local area. Immigrants Rising: Advocates on behalf of undocumented youth to create policy changes; also provides financial resources and a legal intake service. TheDream.us: This organization’s mission is to help DREAMers obtain a college degree, largely through the granting of scholarships. Its website also contains valuable tools, including where to get legal help. United We Dream: Works to help undocumented youth in the United States by empowering them and allowing their voice to be heard. This organization also offers information about obtaining scholarships for college. Whether you’re looking to earn your online degree or you’re a parent looking for answers, you can find all of your questions covered here. Explore these resources to help you make informed decisions and prepare for whatever is thrown your way. You can still continue your education even if you did not complete high school or a GED certificate. Explore your options, including vocational schools, here. AdvertisementAccreditedSchoolsOnline.org is an advertising-supported site. Featured or trusted partner programs and all school search, finder, or match results are for schools that compensate us. This compensation does not influence our school rankings, resource guides, or other editorially-independent information published on this site. Shape your future with an online degree Connect with a community of peers, and find a program that will allow you to continue your education in a fast and flexible way.

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Stopping Viruses, Worms and Trojan Horses Posted 14 October 2005 - 03:49 AM In 2002 ICSA Labs surveyed 300 businesses and government agencies to find that 28 percent of them had had a virus "disaster" in the last year. Home users, and small businesses, don't have a support staff and/or dedicated firewalls. They are more vulnerable if a piece of hostile code slips through their defenses. The cleanup can be expensive, time-consuming, and there will be no guarantee that all data will be recovered. Checklist for security: - Train all users in safe computing procedures - Install antivirus software on every computer - Install a personal firewall on every computer - Configure email software to block or quarantine potentially dangerous attachments - Install antivirus software on your network server if you have one - Configure antivirus software to update itself, at least once a week. - Bookmark trustworthy sources about viruses and hoaxes - Backup, backup, backup!!! It can never be said enough. - Develop a recovery plan in case you do get struck How Malicious Software Attacks Your Computer Before we continue, it is important to know the different types of threat you can encounter: - Virus: a piece of code that replicates itself by attaching itself to another object. These objects can be files, like program files or documents, but they can be disk or file system structures as well, like the boot sector from a hard disk. Fun fact: the plural of virus is viruses, not virii. If you want to win a bet about this check out this page: http://en.wikipedia....Plural_of_virus - Worm: an independent program that replicates itself by copying itself from computer to computer, usually over a network or email attachments. Lately most outbreaks are worm related. - Trojan horse: as the name implies a Trojan horse is a program that executes instructions that the user did not intend when (s)he opened it. These programs may arrive as an email attachment or website download and are usually disguised as a joke program or software utility like a screensaver. - Blended threat: a new class of software that combines characteristics from viruses, trojans and worms to create extra-strong attacks. These attacks spread by targeting web servers and networks to get itself spread rapidly and cause extensive damage. Also handy to know are some terms you will see when visiting anti-virus websites that give information: - Disinfect: Completely removing traces of a virus from a computer. This can entail manual steps, next to the automated tool from the vendor. - Dropper: the installer of the virus. - File virus: a class of viruses that attaches itself to files, a.k.a. file infector. File viruses often remain in memory to infect other files accessed. - Heuristic analysis: Technique used to identify viruses on the basis of what they do rather than by signatures. - In the wild: a virus which is spreading across computers. - Macro virus: code written in the internal macro programming language of a program like Microsoft Word. They are stored in the files that the program creates and will be executed when you are working with the file. - Payload: the destructive portion of a virus. This can be just about anything. - Polymorphic virus: a virus that changes its byte pattern when replicating, a.k.a. mutating virus. By changing itself, a virus can fool anti-virus applications into believing it is not a virus. - Scanning: Searching memory and files for viruses. - Virus signature: Tell-tale signs that identify a virus. Some malware gets on your computer by pretending to be something else. An example is W32.Gibe@mm <mailto:W32.Gibe@mm> that arrived as an attachment posing like an update from Microsoft. Others offer to install screensavers, or play cartoons, or anything else to make you feel that the piece of software is trustworthy. The name of the virus is informative as well. The Computer Antivirus Research Organization (http://www.caro.org) has created a naming convention which is widely used in virus territory. In short the name boils down to: - Family name: In the above example that would be Gibe. - Major variant. A part that identifies the file size. Usually omitted by anti-virus developers. - Minor variant: a letter that distinguishes alternative versions of the same virus. Also virus names can contain suffixes that identify other characteristics. like @m which stands for mailer (it sends itself to one other person at a time) or @mm which stands for mass mailer (sending itself to many others). Since many viruses pretend to be other types of files, usually datafiles, you will have to look at the last extension to determine what an attachment in a mail message actually is. The Loveletter virus spread by means of this file LOVE-LETTER-FOR-YOU.TXT.vbs. You can see by looking at the last extension that you are not looking at a text file but at a script for Visual Basic. This would be a reason to always show all extensions within Windows Operating Systems. If you did not, you might have thought that this was a textfile instead of a script. Most email programs offer updates to guard against the double extension trick. Regardless of the settings in Windows Explorer, Outlook Express 5 and 6 will show the full name of an attachment including the multiple extensions. Same goes for Outlook 2000 and 2002. The most dangerous ones enter your system through holes in the computer system. They use vulnerabilities in scripting engines, ActiveX controls, Java applets, HTML (buffer overflow, for example). So once again, it is a matter of keeping your system up to date with security patches to act as a countermeasure to the attack. The most common source of viruses these days is as attachment. Although every virus is different they do share common traits. The accompanying mail message often uses "social engineering" to lure inattentive or gullible users into opening the attachment. A common one is convincing the user that the attachment is a picture. VBS.SST@mm <mailto:VBS.SST@mm> claimed to be a picture of Anna Kournikova. MyParty (W32.MyParty@mm <mailto:W32.MyParty@mm>) arrived in a message titled "new photos from my party!". The attachment was supposed to be a webpage, but obviously wasn't. Be especially aware of attachments ending on .com. These days people think this is a commercial Internet domain, but it is also an executable extension dating back to the MS-DOS days. Most attachment-borne viruses arrive in an English message, but a huge number come from outside an English speaking nation. This means that these messages often contain grammatical errors, awkward syntax, and misspellings. These will clue you in that the mail message isn't what it seems be when it comes from someone you know to write in fluent English. Early versions of mass-mailers took over the user's email program to do their work, but these days they often contain their own mail transport agents. These programs can harvest email addresses from the Windows Address Book or Contacts folder from Outlook. They might even look in the browser cache for saved pages with mailto: links. Some viruses try to disable antivirus programs or firewalls. To do these tasks the virus has to have the privileges to do its bidding. This is one of the many reasons not to log on to your computer for everyday tasks as Administrator. Needless to say, taken on the whole, virus creators do not have training in application programming. In other words, there is no quality control or rigorous testing, to make sure that the program is "okay". As a result of this, viruses contain lots of bugs that are a blessing in disguise because they keep it from working. Attacks from the web Apart from attachments there are other ways of spreading viruses. Another popular way to spread is by scripting the virus, so the user will get infected when he visits a site or looks at an email message in HTML view. One such virus was the Kak worm (VBS.Kak.Worm). Opening the message in HTML enabled viewers was enough to get infected in operating systems prior to Windows 2000. This also shows how important it is to keep your system patched with Security updates. The Kak Worm vulnerability was documented in Microsoft Security Bulletin MS99-032 which also offered a solution. ActiveX and Java components are another way to infect a computer. One widely used, and well documented, technique is JS.Exception.Exploit. This exploit made it possible for websites to run ActiveX controls, which were not marked safe for scripting. See Microsoft's Security Bulletin MS00-075 for more information. Trojan Horse Programs I guess everyone knows the story about the Trojan horse in Greek mythology, so I will not tell it once again. Trojan horse programs follow the same routine. They lure the user into installing their program, so they can perform their malignant code when executed. Trojan horses are not unique to Windows, there are hundreds of these programs infecting Operating Systems ranging from MS-DOS and Linux to Palm OS and Macintosh. Once installed the Trojan can do anything the user, who has installed it, can do. This can go as far as deleting files (including vital system files), log keystrokes in hopes of catching creditcard numbers and passwords, use the computer in a network (a "zombie") to launch Denial Of Service attacks or spam others. Other vulnerabilities may launch an "escalation of privilege"-attack whereby the attacker can increase the level of access beyond the level he has now. A computer infected with a Trojan often acts as a network server. An example is the Gibe worm (W32.Gibe@mm <mailto:W32.Gibe@mm>) which contains a server listening to port 12378. Other ways to get onto a computer is via shared network drives. The notorious Nimda worm (W32.Nimda@mm <mailto:W32.Nimda@mm>) searches for open network shares and copies itself to them. As you can expect these network viruses require special precautions. Even with firewalls, a network is vulnerable to this attack when a user brings an infected notebook into the office and connects to the network. A fairly new way of infecting is through Instant Messenger programs, like MSN Messenger, Windows Messenger or Yahoo! Messenger. And finally, file-sharing programs that work over the Internet can server as origins for viral infections. Beware of virus hoaxes! Everyone has had them. Most hoaxes are started as a joke, and get passed on to gullible users, who in turn spread them even further. If you receive a virus warning from someone, you better check it against these three sites: · Symantec Hoax Alerts: http://www.symantec....enter/hoax.html · F-Secure Hoax Warnings: http://www.f-secure....irus-info/hoax/ · McAfee.com Virus Hoax Listings: http://vil.mcafee.com/hoax.asp Identifying Malicious Software How do you know you are infected? Well, one way to find out is when you receive a message from a friend telling you you are infected. But with viruses that hide themselves and Trojans this may not be happening. Computers do strange things all the time… For no apparent reason hard disks start whirring, or computers freeze up temporarily… All these things can be alarming, but are most likely to be caused by a buggy program than by a virus. Any time the following symptoms show up, you should take steps to locate mischievous programs. - Unexpected disc access: Trojans access hard discs when the local user isn't doing anything. But many legitimate programs, including Windows itself, do that as well. In other words, when you notice sudden disc activity, trace the program that does that. - Sudden system slowdown: Viruses and Trojans can take up huge amounts of memory and resources thereby making the computer extremely slow. This can also happen with improperly configured systems, so the advice here is to check it out to rule out a virus or Trojan. - Unexpected network traffic: hostile software can try to take over network connections. For example, to spread viruses to other workstations in your network or to use a backdoor server that was installed through a Trojan. These days most, if not all, programs assume you have an always-on Internet connection, so they try to do background work automatically. Even Windows does this with Windows Update. When you are confronted with unexpected network traffic, check out what your firewall has to say about it. Many firewalls come bearing the means to identify and block unwanted network connections. - Changes in filename or size: Viruses and worms travel by infecting other files. If you notice a change in the size or name of an executable file, this could be a sign of infection. Some anti-virus and firewall applications detect a change in file size and alert you to it. When you want to find out which program is hogging your computer, your first stop is the Windows Task Manager. Press Ctrl+Shift+Esc and then click "Processes". Double click on the "CPU" column to sort the list of programs in a descending order, and scroll to the top of the list. Because the order is descending, the program at the top uses the most CPU time. Don't assume that the file is bad. Make a note of its name and use the Windows Search utility to locate the file. Click right on it, and choose "Properties" from the menu. On the newly opened window you can find details about the program. If the program is svchost.exe and you are running Windows XP professional, you can type tasklist.exe /svc at a command prompt to see the full list. The most reliable way to identify a virus is with an up-to-date antivirus program. It will reliably identify viruses it knows about, though even this is not fool-proof. After all, it will only find viruses it knows about. All anti virus work is reactive instead of active. After a new virus emerges, it has to be analyzed so it can be written down in a definition, or signature, file. Before that is incorporated into your antivirus product you are vulnerable to it. This is a prime reason why you shouldn't rely on antivirus software alone. Block executable email attachments and install all security upgrades to prevent other forms of infection. Your antivirus program can also falsely accuse a program of being a virus, a so called False Positive. These can usually be attributed to errors in the definition file that was used, or to a heuristic scan that detects activity associated with that program. As an example you can expect from an installer that it writes and deletes files. But the installer may still be flagged as a possible virus. When your antivirus program sounds an alarm, take note of it. Be aware that it may be a false positive, so start by looking at the alert message. If it is a heuristic scan, you know that the message isn't coming from one of the definition files. If the alert includes the name of the virus, go to the vendor's website and find additional information on it, so you can confirm if it is on your system. If you can't find answers, submit the file to your antivirus vendor and ask them to look into it. CAUTION: If you think your computer is infected, avoid using it to browse the Internet or send email. You would risk spreading the virus. Even more important is that many viruses spread over network shares. So it would be best to temporarily unplug every possible network connection, until you are sure that the system is clean. Do research on another, clean, computer. Unfortunately you can find lots of false, or half-, information on viruses. So do your looking up at reliable addresses. Start with your antivirus vendor, because they most likely have step-by-step instructions on how to get rid of the infection. In addition to that there are the following pages: · ICSA Labs' Virus Alerts: http://www.trusecure...ype/index.shtml · CERT Coordination Center Computer Virus Resources: http://www.cert.org/...es/viruses.html Choosing an Antivirus Program The only computer that is safe is a computer that is unplugged! It's as simple as that! If you want to use a computer you will need antivirus software. And as you can see later on, there are many highly regarded antivirus vendors out there. But… they're not equal. Which one is right for you? That's a difficult question with no ready made solution. To draw a conclusion of which program is best, you can ask yourself these questions: - Do I need a personal or network antivirus program? Simply put…. The name says it all. Is it for a network? Or for a single computer? Network antivirus solutions usually have a central management program or module that you can use to update all the other computers on the network. For normal use a networked antivirus would not make sense unless it is transported to 25 computers or more. - Is the program compatible with my Windows? Because antivirus programs work quite close to the computer itself, you would need an antivirus solution that has been written for your Operating System. Despite the many similarities, a program written for Windows 2000 may not work on Windows XP, and vice versa. Because the major differences between the NT family of Windows (Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 2003) and the earlier W32 family (Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows ME) the programs will likely not even install, let alone work. - Does the virus scanning engine integrate into my email program? The most effective way of protecting your system from email attachments is to detect and get rid of viruses upon arrival. To do this an antivirus program will hook into the email software, to intercept the virus as soon as possible. - Does it integrate with my personal or corporate firewall? Increasingly security software is bundled with antivirus and firewall software, so if you have a hardware firewall, or a router, it might be designed to work intimately with a particular antivirus program. As an example, some of the Linksys routers that work with Trend Micro's PC-Cillin software. - Can the software be configured to update itself automatically? No one is so organized that they will not forget to update weekly. This makes an Autoupdate function almost a necessity. Most programs will handle this for you, but it's best to check anyway. - How much does it cost? You don't buy a program! That's a one-time solution. Look at the price tags for updating virus definitions, because that will be a recurring cost. Also factor in that you'll need separate licenses for each computer. Another thing to look at is support. What do you need to pay for that? And what do you get? Is it round-the-clock? Or free of charge? Is it telephone support or on site? Is the price per incident? If so, a single incident can cost more than the original license. - Is there a trial version? There are many antivirus solutions. And all of them have reviews. So you can read up, but you could also download one of more and get some hands-on experience with the program. - Is the software certified by ICSA labs? The average user has no way to generate virus infected files to test an antivirus solution. And the staggering numbers that vendors use can be misleading at best. Is a program that claims to hunt down 70,000 viruses better than one that blocks only 50,000? How do you know that this software actually does what it says it does? Look for certification by ICSA Labs. ICSA Labs is an independent tester of antivirus applications. To earn certification the program must detect all viruses in the wild and 90 % of the lab viruses. And up-to-date list of these programs can be found at https://www.icsalabs...36;gdhkkjk-kkkk. Since most people do not have a library of viruses ready to test whether their antivirus software is working, and it is debatable whether people should do that anyway, you can use a test created by EICAR (the European Institute for Computer Anti-Virus Research). Open Notepad or another text editor and create a file that begins with the following characters Note: the letters are all uppercase and the third character is the uppercase letter O, not the digit 0. If your antivirus software is working, and supports the EICAR test, it will intercept when you save the file. At http://www.eicar.org...s_test_file.htm you can download four other versions of this test file. Protecting Your Computer From Hostile Software No one has found the end all and be all protection for known threats. So you will have to implement a security regime to keep your system clean. At the least it should have the following procedures/guidelines: - Train every person who uses your computer/network. Users should not open unexpected attachments or run programs they download from the Internet until checked out with an antivirus program. - Install antivirus software and keep it updated. Installing an antivirus program is only half of the protection. To keep your system safe from hostile software you will have to update the definitions the program searches for. If the program has an automatic update feature, configure the program to install updates once or more times a week. - Keep your system up to date with the latest security patches. Malware works by exploiting known vulnerabilities in email and browser programs, holes in the Operating System and or defective antivirus applications. To prevent from getting a virus in that way use Windows Update regularly and install security updates as soon as they become available. Security patches are crucial for computers that are always connected to the Internet, like webservers or email servers. - Configure your computer to block potentially dangerous email-attachments. Many current email programs, including Outlook and Outlook Express, have the ability to block some or all attachments that can potentially harm your system. If your email program cannot do that there are other programs that have the ability to block them. An example is the MailSafe feature in ZoneAlarm Pro (http://www.zonelabs.com) that intercepts incoming attachments and lets you decide how to handle them. - Install a firewall program that can detect and block unsolicited outbound connections. The firewall built into Windows XP offers excellent protection against unwanted intruders, but will not stop any program from sending data to the outside. This means that if a Trojan horse has entered your system it has free access to the world. You can stop this by installing a two way protection firewall that will monitor outgoing streams next to incoming streams. Apart from that, it will also help detect spyware programs and blended threats connecting to the Internet. - Back up your data regularly. If a rogue program manages to slip between the cracks of your protection, you might be forced to reformat and start over. This process is never painless, but a recent backup can alleviate the loss of data. Even well trained and experienced computer users can slip up. New vulnerabilities result in unprepared situations, leaving the system open for intrusion. Because programs aren't perfect this means that the best way to protect yourself is by using multiple sources of protection! Training users to avoid viruses The first line of defense against malware is simply the user using the computer. Therefore it is quite logical that every person using the computer has been trained in recognizing suspicious software. From this it also follows that every computer user must know and adhere to the concepts of safe computing. For starters, they should follow these principles: · Do not open any file attached to an email message unless you know the sender and are expecting the attachment. Because even if it is from someone you know, they could be infected with something. If it is from someone you don't know, it is even easier. Do not open! Delete it! · Never attach a file to an email message without including an explanation. Explain what the attachment is and why you send it. Do not use generic explanations, since they can easily be created by mass-mailing viruses. Out of safety concerns zip attachments first. There are some email programs that will not let you open an executable, or other potentially dangerous attachments. Zipping the file will make it possible that the attachment can be saved and extracted. Another added benefit is that a zipped file is smaller and therefore speedier in transmission. · When in doubt, check it. When you receive a suspicious or unexpected attachments contact the sender and get an explanation. Be wary when the message contains generic text prompting you to open the attachment. Just think about the W32.MyParty@mm <mailto:W32.MyParty@mm> worm that came with this text. My party... It was absolutely amazing! I have attached my web page with new photos! If you can please make color prints of my photos. Thanks! A visit to a reputable anti-virus website can help determine whether the message and attachment are known as a virus. · If it doesn't check out, delete it. If you can't reach the sender and aren't satisfied that the attachment is okay, hit the Delete button. If it later turns out to be okay it can always be resent. · Never install a patch or update you receive via email. Many virus messages try to make you believe that it is coming from a known software maker like Microsoft or Symantec. Never trust them. Software makers post patches on their website for you to download. They will never send them to you. They will send an email message to you to alert you to the fact that there is an update, but not the update itself. · Never accept a file sent over an Internet messaging service unless you are certain the file is safe. ICQ, AOL Instant Messenger, MSN Messenger are used to transfer MP3 files or graphics from user to user. These can be used to transfer viruses as well, so every user that uses Internet messaging should be wary of files that get exchanged in this fashion. Blocking Dangerous Attachments Your antivirus program should intercept any malicious file that enters your computer, but out of date definitions might be hindering the program from doing its job. If the program is temporarily disabled it will miss the intrusion as well, so it will be better to use multiple layers of defense against these intrusions. If you use Outlook Express 6, Outlook 2000 with Service Pack-2, or Outlook 2002, you already have an email application capable of attachment blocking. As a matter of fact, you'd have to turn it off with these programs by using other programs! If you prefer another program you can check if that has abilities to block attachments Using Backups and System Restore Viruses infect other files, so if a virus remains undetected for days or weeks, you could find that many files have been infected. You might even have backed them up in your regular backup routine. If you use Windows XP, the System Restore feature can also contain copies of infected files. The risk? Once cleaned up you might inadvertently reinfect by restoring a backup or using System Restore. To avoid this, follow this advice: · Perform a complete virus scan before performing a full backup. · After cleaning up, install antivirus programs and the latest definition files before restoring any backed-up file. This ensures that the antivirus program will detect the virus as soon as it gets restored. Because of the way Windows works, it is not possible to repair or replace infected files in the System Volume Information folder during System Restore. Antivirus programs can detect the presence of a virus, but cannot clean it. So the only solution is to purge all System Restore points. To do so, follow these steps: 1. Open Control Panel and double-click on the System icon. 2. Click on System Restore and select "Turn Off System Restore On All Drives". If your computer only has one volume, the text will read "Turn Off System Restore". 3. Click Apply, and OK to close the dialog box. 4. Restart your computer. 5. Update the anti-virus software (System Restore may have removed recent updates) and run a complete scan for viruses. 6. Afterward turn System Restore back on by repeating the first four steps and clearing "Turn Off System Restore On All Drives". Repairing an infected system What should you do if you do get infected… For starters, Do Not Panic!!! If you panic, and start deleting files or mess around with the Registry you could make your problem worse. Here's an 8 step plan to recover from the infection. 1. Positively identify the infection. Check out the filename of the attachment. Or the text of the message. Get the identity confirmed, so you are sure that you are dealing with a certain virus. Also be sure you have identified the correct variation of the infection, because cleaning a different version might not get it all. And when you leave a portion behind this might reinfect you. 2. Isolate the infected computer Viruses spread, so it's easy to infect another computer. Especially if it is connected to the Internet. So, unplug it from any network. 3. Find authoritative removal instructions From an uninfected computer, visit an authoritative source to find detailed removal instructions. Print it out, and read the steps carefully before starting the cleanup process 4. Gather your cleanup tools. Get all the things you need. Including a bootable floppy disc or CD/DVD. The Windows installation CD. The instructions from step 3 will help identify what you need. 5. Begin cleanup process * Be prepared to delete all files infected. Replace them with backups. * With a little bit of luck you might have found a completely automatic removal tool. Symantec has a large collection you can see at http://www.sarc.com/...tools.list.html. * If there is not a tool, follow the removal instructions step by step, and to the letter. You don't want to rush this, because forgetting something (or worse, skipping steps) might not clean everything, and reinfect you. * for servers/workstations containing critical data, unknown viruses may leave the system compromised. In those cases it might be best to reformat the drive and reinstall Windows and other applications. After this restore the data and your computer should be back to normal. 6. Reinstall anti virus software After cleanup is over, reinstall the antivirus software. This should be your first priority. Reinstall from a known clean source, preferably from the original CD, After the installation, update the antivirus and rescan all local discs to make sure that your system is virusfree. 7. Restore data and programs from backups Reinstall/restore all programs and data from trusted sources. Also, if needed, or if you suspect data corruption, check the data. The Melissa virus inserted a quote from Bart Simpson into infected documents. Other viruses tinker with spreadsheet formulas. It’s possible that the data is no longer valid. 8. Scan other computers in the network. Before reconnecting the freshly cleaned computer to the network, confirm that the other computers are free of infections too. Otherwise all your work might have been in vain since your computer can become reinfected the moment it is reconnected. Posted 13 December 2006 - 12:14 AM This is such an excellent and comprehensive tutorial. You cannot beliefe how much I learned from this. Thanks a bunch for this great contribution ! Posted 29 September 2010 - 03:25 PM Posted 10 November 2010 - 09:54 PM My that was very well written guide, just wanted to say thank you for all the time you spent in writing it.

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Is it better to be a wild rat or a factory farmed cow? A systematic method for comparing animal welfare. post by Joey Academic measures of quality Systems used in global poverty Creating our own system Results: an inclusive index TLDR: We looked at a lot of different systems to compare welfare and ended up combining a few common ones into a weighted animal welfare index (or welfare points for short). We think this system captures a broad range of ethical considerations and should be applicable across a wide range of both farm and wild animals in a way that allows us to compare interventions. The goal of Charity Entrepreneurship is to compare different charitable interventions and actions so that new, strong charities can be founded. One of the necessary steps in such a process is having a way to compare different animals in different conditions. For example, how does moving a chicken from a battery cage to cage free compare welfare wise for the chicken, or how does giving up red meat, thus resulting in one less cow being brought into existence, compare to an insect dying more humanely because of a change in which insecticide is used. These are complex questions surrounded by both ethical and epistemic uncertainty. In the health community, DALYs have become fairly common and established as a metric. Sadly, there is not the same level of consensus within the animal rights community. We expected there would be multiple competing systems, so we first outlined what we would look for within a system to assess its helpfulness to us. This could be described as the “goal” or purpose of the metric. Of course, the fundamental goal is to help us evaluate different possible actions, but more specifically, we broke down what we were looking for in the criteria below. Underlying goals of metrics - Proxies’ ethical value accuracy - Strength of correlation between the metric and ethical value - Encapsulation - captures a broad range of what is important - Cross-intervention applicability - Cross-animal applicability - Ethical robustness - Externally understandable - External precedent of use - Amenable to numerical quantification - Ease/speed of use - Generates few false positives or false negatives - Intuitive to work with - Easy to collect - Easy to explain After establishing what we were looking for, the next step was to take a look at all current systems and see if any of them was conducive or could be used partly by an organization like ours. We ended up finding quite a wide range. We first looked within the EA community, since there had been some solid attempts at quantification and the ones below are just a few of many examples. Within the EA community These metrics were generally very hard, quantified, and often even explicitly cost-effectiveness focused. Sadly, they were also extremely specific and not built for generalization across different interventions and charities. Thus, for our purposes, they were more helpful as inspiration for the factors to consider, or standards that we would want to be able to measure, rather than for practical cross-intervention use. The next set of metrics we looked at was biology-based markers. We had some background knowledge about cortisol readings as a measure of stress and hoped that we would find other objective markers that could make up part of a more inclusive system and add some objectivity to other soft systems. Some of the ones we considered (although, there are many other possible biological indicators) are listed below. - Endocrine changes - Circulating catecholamines and corticosteroids - Death rate - Behavior changes - Visible injury rate - Reduced life expectancy - Impaired growth - Impaired reproduction - Body damage - Adrenal activity - Behavior anomalies Biological markers were useful in that they were much less subjective than other metrics but sadly, it was also very hard to find consistent data across animals on many of them (with the death rate being a notable exception). We ended up thinking these would make up a part of a larger system, but even an index of them would not be inclusive enough to cover all the possible sources of animal welfare situations that could occur. Academic measures of quality The third type of system we considered was “academic measures of quality of life”. WAS research had a great summary of many of the different systems used, but we also looked outside of their research for other possible systems. - Five freedoms - The Five Domains model - Five Provisions model - Botreau’s twelve criteria - McMillan’s five elements, which play a fundamental role in quality of life - Fraser’s animal welfare’s four core values - Webster’s animal welfare’s three questions - Taylor and Mills’s domains for assessing companion animal’s quality of life: - Swaisgood’s ten motivational theories which have currency among animal-welfare researchers Many of these systems were beautifully comprehensive and described metrics and criteria in such a way that it would be cross-applicable to a wide range of animals across a wide range of conditions. Some even specified different grade levels (although, these were generally not numeric) to provide more consistency across reports. It seemed possible that some researchers would have already used these systems, though sadly, we did not find much research showcasing the modern practical use of these systems. The main drawback of these systems was their subjectivity. Even with the ones with specific grade levels, a lot would be left up to the evaluator about making calls between one system and another: for example, how does not being fed for several days, while being otherwise perfectly fed, compare to semi-chronic but low level hunger. Overall, we took a large number of elements of our system from the five domains model, which felt like the most extensively quantified and broad one of these models. Systems used in global poverty Next, we considered the current systems used in global poverty alleviation and other cause assessment areas. We thought it might be possible to modify one of these metrics to be usefully applicable to animals. Modified poverty based metrics - Animal QALYs - Animal DALYs - Animal Income - Animal subjective well-being estimates - Equivalent lives saved - Preference from behind the veil of ignorance Generally, these metrics were too unapplicable (e.g. income) or would have required considerably more time to modify and put into the animal welfare context (e.g. DALYs do not have a way to have a net negative existence, which is a key consideration in the case of factory farmed animals). Creating our own system Finally, we considered creating a cross-applicable system from scratch Our own ideas for possible systems - SAD - suffering-adjusted life-day - Sentience-adjusted suffering years - Net negative lives averted - Total world net expected value - Numerical criteria for animals’ quality of life, e.g. a -100 to 100 rating We did end up using some of the ideas drawn from considering this option but, overall, found that taking elements from other systems would both increase quality and reduce the time that we would otherwise spend on creating a new system from scratch. Results: an inclusive index We ended up putting many of these systems onto a spreadsheet and comparing them on the original metric criteria we had derived. Some criteria ended up getting narrowed down. For example, we combined various biological markers into a single “biological markers” category. Some criteria were made more numerical and cross-comparable, for example, by translating the 5 domains model into number-based scores, instead of grades. Other elements were given their own category and weighting based on how well they met the top line criteria (for example, death rate). Most criteria were ruled out as redundant or not helpful for our purposes. We ended up with 8 criteria with an importance weighting for each. Combined, they added to a range of +100 (an ideal life) to -100 (a perfectly unideal life) with 0 representing uncertainty about the life being net positive or negative. Each area can have positive or negative welfare scores and is to be rated independently, giving a more robust cluster approach to the overall endline score. The weighting of each factor is different, depending on how well it scored on our original metric criteria. For example, death rate gets a relatively higher weighting (20 welfare points) than our index of other biological markers (4 welfare points) due to its ease to work with and its clearer relation to direct animal suffering (e.g. we are more confident that animals with very high and painful death rates will correlate more strongly with a life not worth living than the more abstract biological markers will). Factors we ended up using: - Death rate/reason - 20 - Human preference from behind the veil of ignorance - 20 - Disease/injury/functional impairment - 17 - Thirst/hunger/malnutrition - 15 - Anxiety/fear/pain/distress - 15 - Environmental challenge - 5 - Index of Biological markers - 4 - Behavioral/interactive restriction - 4 Our full spreadsheet with factors, scores, and metric criteria scores gives a deeper sense of why different areas were given the weighting they were, as well as a narrative explanation of what a negative, middling, and positive score would look like in each category. Overall, we felt like this system gave us a good balance between both the more subjective metrics that could capture more data and the harder metrics that were more objective. We feel that this system could be used across a wide range of both animals and interventions, and lead to cross-comparable results. Comments sorted by top scores. comment by saulius · 2018-09-18T08:45:24.447Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Thank you for tackling a very important problem. But currently I feel I’d be lost when trying to apply this model because there is more explanation needed for many factors. For example, how does the cortisol level weight against the dopamine level? And what levels are good? How to measure and weight various listed factors to assess anxiety? Etc. Some examples of this model being applied would be very helpful for understanding the model. Is that the next step in your research? Replies from: Joey, saulius, KarolinaSarek ↑ comment by Joey · 2018-09-18T17:22:23.087Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Yes indeed, that is the next step. We plan on applying this system to ~15 animal situations and doing a 1-5 hour report on each. This would be both for different animals (e.g. wild rat and factory farmed cows) and different welfare situations for the same animal (e.g. a report each for battery caged laying hens vs enriched cage laying hens) On biological markers specifically, from the research we have done so far, it's very hard to find any consistent biological markers, not to mention situations where we have a bunch that we can cross compare on the same animal. Generally a good score might look like “some cortisol tests have been done on rats in an ideal living situation vs wild rats and the cortisol levels are about the same” where if the same study was done but the cortisol levels were much higher in the wild rats, that would be an indication of lower wild rat welfare. Replies from: Jamie_Harris ↑ comment by Jamie_Harris · 2018-09-28T22:41:24.708Z · EA(p) · GW(p) I wanted to echo all of Saulius' points (including the thanks for doing this!). To clarify your response here: all of the rankings are essentially subjective judgements, based on whatever evidence you have available in that category? So in the example above, if those cortisol tests were somehow your only evidence in the "index of biological markers" category, you would just decide a score that you felt represented the appropriate level of badness for the wild rat "index of biological markers" score? I'm also wondering if you're going to use the method to compare humans to non-human animals? Some of the biological measures we could use fall down when we think about how humans fit in, e.g. neuron count. Including humans in comparative measures seems valuable for reflecting on/testing intuitions we might otherwise have about cross-species comparisons. Replies from: Joey ↑ comment by Joey · 2018-10-01T17:01:50.362Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Re:biological markers, the ideal situation would be multiple markers in both the animal in an ideal life vs their current life vs a perfectly unideal life, then scores would be given based on how their current life compares. In practice, sometimes we have found data on a happy life vs a standard life for an animal and can get some sense of how far away these are from each other, but often we have found no applicable data at all for this section. Our reports are very time capped (5 hours or less depending on the importance of the animal), so we do not dive deep into the mechanisms. Humans from different situations will be ranked as well. I agree having them as a comparative measure for cross-species comparison allows for much easier intuition checks. ↑ comment by KarolinaSarek · 2018-11-29T21:39:21.987Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Some examples of this model being applied would be very helpful for understanding the model. We had applied this system to 15 different animals/breeds and recently posted the summary of our research here [EA · GW]. Replies from: Jamie_Harris ↑ comment by Jamie_Harris · 2018-12-03T22:07:47.605Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Thanks for providing the examples! A couple of questions: 1) Can I check I've understood: the “Estimated population size” and “Odds of feeling pain” columns are not factored into the "total welfare score" (which is made up of adding together scores from the various criteria which then end up somewhere between -100 and +100) at all; they are to be used separately. So if you wanted to work out whether sparing 10 broiler chickens or 20 beef cows from existence was more impactful, you’d have to multiply your result by the odds of feeling pain etc. E.g. for chickens: 10 * -56 * 0.7 = -392 units of suffering prevented. For beef cows: -20 * 20 * 75% = -300 units of suffering prevented. So sparing chickens slightly better by this metric (also: note that people might not agree with that the rough estimates from the OPP on consciousness mean the same thing as "odds of feeling pain," e.g. if you subscribe to consciousness eliminativism, although I haven't read the OPP report in a while so might be misremembering the specifics) 2) I don’t understand where the “range” figure comes from?Replies from: KarolinaSarek ↑ comment by KarolinaSarek · 2018-12-04T20:43:15.064Z · EA(p) · GW(p) 1) As you correctly observed, we didn’t adjust welfare points for population size and odds of feeling pain in this spreadsheet. But we just publish another report summarizing our animal prioritization research [EA · GW] where we aggregated information about baseline welfare points, population size, odds of feeling pain, neglectedness, and amount of suffering caused by a smaller number of specific reasons. Generally, when we are calculating the cost-effectiveness of a given intervention we take into account the number of welfare points “gained” (baseline welfare points changed counterfactually by the intervention) multiplied by odds of feeling pain and number of animals affected. We also need to adjust for length of life. For example, if the baseline welfare points per year for a cow is -20 and for broiler chicken is -56, but beef cow spends 402 days on a farm, their WP would be multiplied by the percentage of year they spend on the farm, so 402 days / 365 days in a year = 110%, and broiler chicken spend 42 days, then WPs would be multiplied by 12% resulting in: Cow: -22 welfare points per lifetime of an individual Broiler chicken: -6.72 welfare points per lifetime of an individual. 2) The range is the minimum and maximum values of welfare points as rated by our external reviewers. “Total welfare score” (second column) is an average of internal and external reviewer’s ratings. comment by Naryan · 2018-09-18T15:49:55.788Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Great to see this being looked at. Do you have any examples of this method in use? I'd be interested to see various animals and situations ranked using this method - as it could provide a baseline to quantify the benefits of various interventions. I also attempted to create my own method of comparing animal suffering while I was calculating the value of going vegetarian. I'll provide a quick summary here, and would love to hear if anyone else has tried something similar. The approach was to create an internally consistent model based upon my naive intuitions and what data I could find. I spent a while tuning the model so that various trade-offs would make sense and didn't lead to incoherent preferences. It is super rough, but was a first step in my self-examination of ethics. - I created a scale of the value of [human/animal] experience from torture (-1000) to self-actualization (+5) with neutral at 0. - I guessed where various animal experiences fell on the scale, averaged over a lifetime. This is a very weak part of the model - and where Joey's method could really come in handy. - I then multiplied the experience by the lifespan of the animal (as a percentage of human life). - Finally, I added a 'cognitive/subjectivity' multiplier based on the animal's intelligence. This is contentious, but helps so I don't value the long-lived cicada (insect) the same as a human. This follows from other ethical considerations in my model, but some people prefer to remove this step. The output of this rough model was to value various animal lives as a percentage of human lives - a more salient/comparable measure for me. This model was built over about 5 hours and is still updating as I have more conversations around animal suffering. Would love to hear if anyone else tried a different strategy! Replies from: Joey, saulius comment by Foster · 2018-10-05T12:15:38.319Z · EA(p) · GW(p) This looks promising! I often find myself second guessing estimations of animal charity effectiveness as it feels like they might have cherry-picked their 'moral metric'. Breaking it down in this way seems like a laudable and structured approach for assessing an issue with quite so many unknown variables. Things that excited me: I could imagine a report where, for a given intervention, each of these is estimated, confidence weightings given and explanations of evidence, priors and reasonings for each estimation. Reading that would have given me more confidence when I was earlier in my journey re animal suffering. Complex, intuition-challenging problems broken down into smaller, more intuition-friendly problems seems valuable. I'd guess it's likely that making many weighted judgement calls and making gut checks from many angles will result in answers closer aligned with our values. comment by MikeJohnson · 2018-09-18T20:00:22.463Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Glad to see work on this. It seems to me there are two questions here: (1) what are the average effects of different environments (e.g. wilderness; factory farm) on animal well-being? (2) what is the average hedonic well-being of different species? It feels like you're attempting to find a method that will give the combined score for any given animal. But maybe it'd be best to focus on each individually. Some of the methods you mentioned (e.g. cortisol levels, behavior anomalies, self-narcotization) seem fairly solid for addressing (1), if you had more data. What's the biggest hurdle to gathering more data? Can you think of any clever ways to gather lots of data cheaply? Basically it seems really useful to try to build an intra-species hedonic comparison first, and worry about inter-species comparisons later. That said-- on inter-species comparisons, I don't think any of the methods you mention are likely to give a good answer to (2), especially as none deal directly with brain activity. It's possible (although I don't know for sure) that some of QRI's work is relevant here- essentially, we have a method ('CDNS') that could be adapted to estimate the degree to which a given connectome is naturally 'tuned' toward harmony or dissonance. This would face many of the same data & validation challenges you mention for other proxy measures, but essentially I'm skeptical that it's possible to address (2) without something like what QRI is doing, that actually looks at brain activity and doesn't rely on hard-coded assumptions about things that could be species-specific and are probably leaky anyway (e.g., brain region X is associated with pain). If it checks out, this could give a rough inter-species comparison of natural hedonic set-points between literally any two connectomes-- cows, chickens, rats, grasshoppers, mosquitos, humans. Probably not an end-all-be-all, but a useful tool in the toolbox. More on our 'CDNS' method. comment by michaelchen · 2018-12-07T00:00:35.597Z · EA(p) · GW(p) To clarify, are you asserting that wild rats, fish, and bugs have net negative lives, on the order of half of the suffering of a factory farmed animal? That seems like a fairly controversial point, since it suggests that, e.g., habitat destruction is a good thing wherever the damage to the ecosystem would not be catastrophic. Although you've said that a score of 0 is supposed to represent uncertainty about whether the animal's life is net positive or net negative, it doesn't seem to me that the metrics are well-designed for that. Most of them seem best for capturing negative utility, rather than positive. For instance, when a score of "5 to 15" is assigned to a death with "quick or low pain," I assume that doesn't mean that the act of dying itself has positive utility, so where does the positive utility come from? It seems you'd have to implicitly weigh the suffering from death with the lifespan of the animal and its welfare over the course of its life, but it seems wrong to include that all in a quality of death metric. For instance, if we had two groups of animals that were had the same scores on all of these metrics, including how painful their death was, but one had a much shorter lifespan than the other, then the shorter-lived group would have much more pain, even though their scores under this system would be equal. (This might be captured by the death rate figure – if so, could you explain what a "10%" or "50%" death rate means?) Replies from: Julia_Wise ↑ comment by Julia_Wise · 2018-12-07T03:26:17.091Z · EA(p) · GW(p) I find that discussion about wild animal suffering very quickly gets to "but it would be ludicrous to believe X because then we'd have to do Y." I think it's better to focus on "How might we find out if X is true" rather than the drastic consequences that would have. As a parallel, people in power have often found it convenient to believe that slaves, immigrants, poor people, etc have naturally higher pain tolerance than themselves and thus it's not a problem for them to do hard labor, have inadequate medical care, etc. The fact that changing this belief would have disruptive consequences doesn't have anything to do with its accuracy.Replies from: michaelchen ↑ comment by michaelchen · 2018-12-20T16:48:18.752Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Having read much of Brian Tomasik's work, I think the idea that wild animals have net negative lives is plausible, and I don't think habitat destruction would be ludicrous. However, that does seem to be a more extreme position than most wild animal welfare organizations are willing to commit to, and I suggest that the framework proposed here is not well-suited for answering those sorts of questions. Replies from: Julia_Wise ↑ comment by Julia_Wise · 2018-12-21T14:50:14.503Z · EA(p) · GW(p) Yeah, I think there's a bad dynamic where people who have read Tomasik either seriously or jokingly propose "pave everything" and other people find that alarming and want nothing to do with any ideas that could lead in that direction. I spent years intentionally not reading Tomasik because I was afraid it would make me into some kind of fanatic.

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Ilian, on Mindanao Island, the Philippines Relationship between Human beings and Nature The planet weeps and loses the North, as well as Human beings. The rampant exploitation of natural resources, air pollution and the growing gap between rich and poor are causing social and environmental imbalance. If we do not take care of the planet today, future generations may not be able to breathe normally. Laudato Si’ sounded the alarm. Let us look at its reception in the Philippines. According to the indigenous Filipino belief system, the natural world is both the home of human beings and spirits. Bathala, the supreme god of the Tagalogs (one of the main ethnic groups in the Philippines), is traditionally symbolized by the sun. Among other gods and goddesses: the moon, stars, trees, rocks, mountains, shrubs, as well as phenomena such as wind, thunder and fire. In some regions, some animals are considered sacred, such as snakes and crocodiles. In rural areas the ancient customs are still in force: asking trees for forgivness before relieving oneself or having to cut them down, apologising to the spirits of the forest for passing through it. Called to take care of the earth In the Philippines, the advent of modernity brought a shift from a traditional belief based on the global inter-dependence of nature to a mistaken conception that mankind is “in control” of nature and that it is authorised to use it as it pleases. Many difficulties have arisen from a misunderstanding of what is written in the Book of Genesis: “God blessed them and God said to them, ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth’”, (Gn 1:28). Sean McDonah, an Irish priest who worked for over twenty years on the Island of Mindanao (the Philippines), has witnessed the ravages deforestation has caused the people and their environment. In his book, published in 1986, “Take Care of the Earth”, he calls into question the ecologically perverse and dangerous methods in use, showing that the first Chapter of Genesis invites people not to “dominate” creation but to “take care of it”. Serious concern and a debate had already arisen in the Philippines concerning a loss of harmony between mankind and the rest of nature. An increase in natural disasters It is clear that long before Pope Francis’ historic Encyclical, Laudato Si’, there was already grave concern in the Philippines as well as a debate concerning the loss of harmony between humanity and the rest of nature. This is not surprising since that archipelago lies along what is known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which in the last ten years has experienced a marked decrease in the number of living species, changes in biodiversity, a rise in the level of the ocean as well as an increase in typhoons, both in intensity and in number, up to about twenty per year. This makes the country extremely prone to natural disasters. In recent years, the country has endured almost half of the most violent typhoons in its history. According to the Ministry of Science and Technology, they will increase over time, both in intensity and frequency. The Philippines Commission on Climate Change states that this is one of the most visible effects of climate change in the country. An Innovative Initiative On 29 January 1988, the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines published an innovative Pastoral Letter entitled: “What is happening to our beautiful country?”. It was the first Pastoral Letter ever written by the Catholic Bishops on the environment. In his Apostolic Exhortation Evangelii Gaudium (EG) — the joy of the Gospel — Pope Francis quotes passages from the Letter. He writes in particular: “Here I would make my own the touching and prophetic lament voiced some years ago by the Bishops of the Philippines. ‘An incredible variety of insects lived in the forest, busy with all kinds of tasks…. Birds flew through the air, their bright plumes and varying calls added colour and song to the green of the forests…. God intended this land for us, his special creatures, not so that we might destroy it and turn it into a wasteland…’”, (n. 215). Almost thirty years later, Laudato Si’ is the first papal Encyclical on the environment; and, once again, the Pope quotes from the Pastoral Letter of the Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines. Regarding the destruction of the oceans, Francis relaunches the appeal of the Filipino Bishops: “‘Who has turned the wonder-world of the seas into underwater cemeteries bereft of colour and life?’”, (EG, n. 216; LS, n. 41). To the question: “How do people react to Laudato Si’ in the Philippines?”, the answer is not long in coming. On the whole, the Catholic community is imbued with renewed enthusiasm, but it is waiting for it to bear fruit. “We are Managers, Not Owners” Laudato si’ was promulgated on 24 May 2015, and on 20 July the Philippine Bishops issued a statement on climate change, entitled: “Managers, not owners”. It says in particular: “Pope Francis’ Encyclical, Laudato Si’, […] strongly urges Catholics and Christians to be passionate about the environment; […] for Christians it is an obligation to be concerned with ecology and climate change, inherent in the moral notion of stewardship; stewardship implies Christian charity…. Laudato Si’ teaches us that at the root of climate change is ‘a basic question of justice…. We can no longer speak of sustainable development apart from intergenerational solidarity…. The world is a gift which we have freely received and must share with others…. (n.159), our ‘dominion’ should be understood more properly in the sense of responsible stewardship’, (n.116)…. The Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines has not failed in its responsibility to educate the faithful in environmental matters. We are honoured that the Holy Father quotes one of our letters in Laudato Si’”. The Bishops ended their Declaration with the words: “We, your Bishops, are committed to organizing colloquiums and conferences on these questions…. In this area, it is the moral responsibility of all to be informed. But we can and should take action more directly and immediately…. Mining, incineration and landfill are worrying factors in our region that immediately spring to mind. So, a council of ecclesial communities, in the name of the common good, must undertake to influence the political decision-makers and prompt collective action too…. When a cry of distress is heard, responding to it is not an option. It is an obligation”. Modify our methods In fact, in various parts of the archipelago, symposia and conferences have already been held and continue to be organized on Laudato Si’. In the days following the publication of the papal Encyclical, Cardinal Luis Antonio Tagle, Archbishop of Manila, urged that a “courageous review” of policies and lifestyles be undertaken. He called on people to “study, enrich, discuss and meditate on the various points of the Encyclical”, while extending the invitation “to non-Christians, families, educators, politicians, business people, experts in science and digital technologies, the media, consumer groups, NGOs and civil associations, to study the Encyclical and its various proposals”. Cardinal Tagle and the entire Episcopal Conference have stressed that Laudato Si’s teaching is moral rather than scientific. In a message to the Caritas Confederation, Cardinal Tagle wrote: “In Laudato Si’”, Pope Francis quotes Patriarch Bartholomew, who “asks us to replace consumption with sacrifice, greed with generosity, wastefulness with a spirit of sharing, an asceticism which ‘entails learning to give, and not simply to give up’”, (n. 9). We are called to free ourselves from all that is burdensome, negative and wasteful in order to enter into dialogue with our common family”. Voices from Elsewhere Filipino Catholics are not the only ones to endorse Laudato Si’ and encourage its implementation. Muslims and Government officials also subscribe to it. Sinsuat Lidasan — Director General of the Al Qalam Institute (for Islamic Identities and Dialogue) [IQRA] in South-East Asia, Ateneo University in Davao on the southern island of Mindanao — points out that Laudato Si’ “opens up a field for common collaboration among people of different religious beliefs”. Lidasan establishes a link between the “integral ecology” (n. 137) proposed by the Holy Father, in chapter IV of his Encyclical, and the Islamic principle of human responsibility towards the environment implied in the concept of khilafah. He explains that khilafah “is an untranslatable term evoking the notions of stewardship, administration in order to develop and manage resources on behalf of the true owner”. And, since God alone is the “real owner” of the world, we must administer the earth in a way that brings glory to God. According to him, this principle is anchored in Islamic law and commits us to manage our resources appropriately, to take care of our planet as our common home. Lidasan concluded his article stating that Laudato Si’, “must be positively welcomed and adopted by people of all faiths and even by non-believers”. In general, the lay press in the Philippines warmly welcomed Laudato Si’ and was open to most of the points raised. As Yeb M. Saño, former commissioner for the study of climate change commented: “The climate change crisis is the crucial issue that will define our generation, and we will be judged by future generations according to how we responded to it […] to bequeath them a caring, just, safe and peaceful world”, (cf. n. 161). Noting a host of dysfunctions, he reiterated what many Filipinos insist on saying, that, “climate change is more of an ethical issue than an environmental one and, even more important, a spiritual one”. Saño seems to allude here to what the Catechism for Filipino Catholics terms “practical atheism”, that is to say, although there are many Catholic rituals and traditions, everyday life is conducted with no clear reference or relation to God. This does not appear to concern the Encyclical, but rather the Church. Saño affirms: “Ultimately, it is imperative that our spiritual leaders guide us in confronting the rapid deterioration of the environment … if we want to show our boundless admiration for Francis, we cannot stop at wearing T-shirts with his image. We must heed his call for change”. Consistence is necessary We speak with pride of the Philippines as “the only Christian country in Asia” with more than 86% of the population claiming to be Catholic. It is also regularly referred to as one of the most corrupt countries in Asia, where more than a quarter of its population live below the poverty line. The vast, overpopulated shantytowns, which crowd along the boundaries of the private estates of the country’s wealthy élite, silently prove this. The Church’s position on birth control is often questioned when it comes to poverty. Now, the Encyclical states: “… it is true that an unequal distribution of the population and of available resources creates obstacles to development and a sustainable use of the environment” (n. 50), hindering the effort to overcome the debilitating poverty from which the Filipinos suffer. While adhering to the principles of Laudato Si’, Maria Isabel Ongpin — author of several articles in the Manilla Times — expresses some reserve concerning the Church and local hierarchy. She writes: “As the Pope says, the way some see what is happening to our environment and ‘… tell us that ecological problems will solve themselves…’ (n. 60), shows ‘cheerful recklessness’ (n. 59). Indeed, the Catholic Church’s view: ‘to blame population growth… is one way of refusing to face the issues’, (n. 50), smacks of ‘cheerful recklessness’ too”. Furthermore, she states: “In these regions and with the kind of ecclesiastical hierarchy we are dealing with, it is going to be a matter of interpretation depending on the mentality of the Bishops. I urge everyone to read and think about Laudato Si’ for themselves”. Questions of Policy “Why couldn’t the authorities in the public and private sectors in the Philippines — a Catholic country — at least be […] rational and care about people and nature?”. The ideals of Laudato Si’ call into question the life-style of all those who claim to belong to the Church, from which the Encyclical emanates, among whom is the political class. The questioning and the appeal are not subtle. Perhaps, this is why some Filipinos have noted that the publication of Laudato Si‘ came at a very opportune time, just before the 2016 elections. It presented a challenge and a guide to all the candidates wishing to improve the harmony and quality of life in the country. Ernesto M. Pernia, Professor Emeritus of Economics at the University of the Philippines and former Chief Economist of the Asian Development Bank, in reflecting on his experience in the cities of some neighbouring non-Christian countries, asks a disturbing question: “Why couldn’t the authorities in both the public and private sectors in the Philippines — a Catholic country — be at least almost as rational and concerned about people and nature? The astonishing thing is that these officials often visit (and surely are impressed by) Asian cities that are much better governed, let alone those in the West. Behind the nonchalant indifference of our officials towards the people and the environment, should we see selfish self-interest and insatiable greed? Would non-Catholics show more consideration, humanity and gratitude for nature?”. In this regard he quotes Pope Francis’s words concerning the diseases of urban life and his idea that, “we cannot presume to heal our relationship with nature and the environment without healing all fundamental human relationships” (n. 119). Prayer and Action The spirit of Laudato Si’ is evident in many aspects of the life of the Church in the Philippines today. Workshops, symposia and seminars on Laudato Si’ continue to be held here and there in the archipelago. Some were held in places of higher education where Speakers transmitted their knowledge in various academic disciplines. Others were held by local church groups whose members shared their personal experiences and expectations. Still others enabled people from different religious traditions and social strata to come together. Evident, in the light of Laudato Si’, was a renewed feeling of the urgency to care for one another, for all of creation, and to rediscover our mutual bonds. Sins against ecology Cardinal Tagle has published a prayer in a spirit of solidarity and openness — to be recited kneeling after receiving Communion — to ask for rain. The Prayer reflects a new understanding and spirit with these words: “O Merciful God, forgive our ecological sins that have contributed to this adverse phenomenon; Forgive our indifference to the groans and suffering of Mother Earth; Forgive us our wastefulness, our disregard for the value of the gifts of creation You have given us. We promise to repent for our sins by following the Gospel of Creation, and by caring for and being mindful of Your Creation in all that we do. Give us the strength and wisdom to be good stewards of your creation and to protect the environment from abuse and exploitation. At this time of impending crisis move us, dear Lord, to share more, serve more and love more…”. The true impact of Laudato Si’ will not be measured by the degree of fervour with which we kneel to recite the Prayer for Rain, but rather by our conduct when we rise to go about our daily occupations. Missionaries of the Rosary for the Planet in France … as in the Philippines Meeting with a group of women who pray the rosary every week at Dugny, in Blanc-Mesnil (93), France. They like to call themselves “missionaries of the Rosary for the planet” and speak of its future with conviction. Why did you choose the text of Laudato Si’ to inspire your prayer? At the time of Cop21, we wondered whether there were some small actions that we in our capacity could do for the health of the planet and of humanity. These actions could set those who destroy our planet through pollution and the over-exploitation of resources on the right path. Having the text of Laudato Si’ to hand, in which Pope Francis appeals to us to do something for the common home, we decided to start with the Prayer of the Rosary thinking that this could play a role of conversion, starting with those around us. Are you worried about the planet? Yes, we are worried about the planet because we think that today’s methods must change or the next generation will be in danger. What connection is there between Laudato Si’ and the Prayer of the Rosary? Saying the Rosary using Pope Francis’ text nourishes our reflection, our faith, our prayer, and changes our outlook on the environment. The Rosary transforms us. In praying the Rosary we place everything, including our planet, in the hands of the Virgin Mary, with complete confidence. Interview by Evarist Shirima A song to Nature Earth, sea, sky are connected, Animals, plants, human beings are inter-related. All beings are connected in mutual dependence; All. No wonder Filipino singer-songwriter Joey Ayala (pictured below) echoed such traditional local symbolism in his popular 1991 song Magkaugnay (Mutually Related). In 2002, Franciscan Father Prisco A. Cajes raised the inter-dependence of all the elements of creation — as seen in the traditional Filipino faith and in Catholic theology — to the status of a key theological issue and proposed it as the basis of a Filipino and Christian Theology of Nature. Fr. Cajes and many others think that the ecological crisis, wherever it is, originates in the loss of the reciprocal connection between human beings and the rest of the natural world. Here is the song in the local language: Lupa, laot, langit ay magkaugnay Hayop, halaman, tao ay magkaugnay Ang lahat ng bagay ay makaugnay Magkaugnay ang lahat. (Ref : by coutesy of Pentecôte sur le monde, Dossier, n. 888, July-August 2016, pp.12-22)

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A Chinese Immigrant Tells of Labor in a New Land Since their arrival in the United States in the 1850s, Chinese immigrants confronted social, political, and economic discrimination. Many Americans believed that the Chinese posed a threat to white workers and should not be eligible for citizenship. This hostility eventually led to the passage of the Chinese-Exclusion Act in 1882 which severely restricted the flow of immigration from China and increased prejudice against the Chinese. In this short autobiography, a successful Chinese-born businessman attempts to dispel common misconceptions about the Chinese. The village where I was born is situated in the province of Canton, on one of the banks of the Si-Kiang River. It is called a village, altho it is really as big as a city, for there are about 5,000 men in it over eighteen years of age—women and children and even youths are not counted in our villages. All in the village belonged to the tribe of Lee. They did not intermarry with one another, but the men went to other villages for their wives and and brought them home to their fathers' houses, and men from other villages—Wus and Wings and Sings and Fongs, etc.—chose wives from among our girls. When I was a baby I was kept in our house all the time with my mother, but when I was a boy of seven I had to sleep at nights with other boys of the village—about thirty of them in one house. The girls are separated the same way—thirty or forty of them sleeping together in one house away from their parents—and the widows have houses where they work and sleep, tho they go to their fathers' houses to eat. My father’s house is built of fine blue brick, better than the brick in the houses here in the United States. It is only one story high, roofed with red tiles and surrounded by a stone wall which also encloses the yard There are four rooms in the house, one large living room which serves for a parlor and three private rooms, one occupied by my grandfather, who is very old and very honorable; another by my father and mother, and the third by my oldest brother and his wife and two little children. There are no windows, but the door is left open all day. All the men of the village have farms, but they don’t live on them as the farmers do here; they live in the village, but go out during the day time and work their farms, coming home before dark. My father has a farm of about ten acres, on which he grows a great abundance of things—sweet potatoes, rice, beans, peas, yams, sugar cane, pine apples, bananas, lychee nuts and palms. The palm leaves are useful and can be sold. Men make fans of the lower part of each leaf near the stem, and water proof coats and hats, and awnings for boats, of the parts that are left when the fans are cut out. So many different things can be grown on one small farm, because we bring plenty of water in a canal from the mountains thirty miles away, and every farmer takes as much as he wants for his fields by means of drains. He can give each crop the right amount of water. Our people all working together make these things, the mandarin has nothing to do with it, and we pay no taxes, except a small one on the land We have our own Government, consisting of the elders of our tribe—the honorable men. When a man gets to be sixty years of age he begins to have honor and to become a leader, and then the older he grows the more he is honored. We had some men who were nearly one hundred years, but very few of them. In spite of the fact that any man may correct them for a fault, Chinese boys have good times and plenty of play. We played games like tag, and other games like shinny and a sort of football called yin. We had dogs to play with—plenty of dogs and good dogs—that understand Chinese as well as American dogs understand American language. We hunted with them, and we also went fishing and had as good a time as American boys, perhaps better, as we were almost always together in our house, which was a sort of boys' club house, so we had many playmates. Whatever we did we did all together, and our rivals were the boys of other club houses, with whom we sometimes competed in the games. But all our play outdoors was in the daylight, because there were many graveyards about and after dark, so it was said, black ghosts with flaming mouths and eyes and long claws and teeth would come from these and tear to pieces and devour any one whom they might meet. It was not all play for us boys, however. We had to go to school, where we learned to read and write and to recite the precepts of Kong foo-tsze and the other Sages and stories about the great Emperors of China, who ruled with the wisdom of gods and gave to the whole world the light of high civilization and the culture of our literature, which is the admiration of all nations. I went to my parents' house for meals, approaching my grandfather with awe, my father and mother with veneration and my elder brother with respect. I never spoke unless spoken to, but I listened and heard much concerning the red haired, green eyed foreign devils with the hairy faces, who had lately come out of the sea and clustered on our shores. They were wild and fierce and wicked, and paid no regard to the moral precepts of Kong-foo-tsze and the Sages; neither did they worship their ancestors, but pretended to be wiser than their fathers and grandfathers. They loved to beat people and to rob and murder. In the streets of Hong Kong many of them could be seen reeling drunk. Their speech was a savage roar, like the voice of the tiger or the buffalo, and they wanted to take the land away from the Chinese. Their men and women lived together like animals, without any marriage or faithfulness and even were shameless enough to walk the streets arm in arm in daylight. So the old men said. All this was very shocking and disgusting, as our women seldom were on the street, except in the evenings, when they went with the water jars to the three wells that supplied all the people. Then if they met a man they stood still, with their faced turned to the wall, while he looked the other way when he passed them. A man who spoke to a woman in the street in a Chinese village would be beaten, perhaps killed. My grandfather told how the English foreign devils had made wicked war on the Emperor, and by means of their enchantments and spells had defeated his armies and forced him to admit their opium, so that the Chinese might smoke and become weakened and the foreign devils might rob them of their land. My grandfather said that it was well known that the Chinese were always the greatest and wisest among men. They had invented and discovered everything that was good. Therefore the things which the foreign devils had and the Chinese had not must be evil. Some of these things were very wonderful, enabling the red haired savages to talk with one another, tho they might be thousands of miles apart. They had suns that made darkness like day, their ships carried earthquakes and volcanoes to fight for them, and thousands of demons that lived in iron and steel houses spun their cotton and silk, pushed their boats, pulled their cars, printed their newspapers and did other work for them. They were constantly showing disrespect for their ancestors by getting new things to take the place of the old. I heard about the American foreign devils, that they were false, having made a treaty by which it was agreed that they could freely come to China, and the Chinese as freely go to their country. After this treaty was made China opened its doors to them and then they broke the treaty that they had asked for by shutting the Chinese out of their country. When I was ten years of age I worked on my father’s farm, digging, hoeing, manuring, gathering and carrying the crop. We had no horses, as nobody under the rank of an official is allowed to have a horse in China, and horses do not work on farms there, which is the reason why the roads there are so bad. The people cannot use roads as they are used here, and so they do not make them. I worked on my father’s farm till I was about sixteen years of age, when a man of our tribe came back from America and took ground as large as four city blocks and made a paradise of it. He put a large stone wall around and led some streams through and built a palace and summer house and about twenty other structures, with beautiful bridges over the streams and walks and roads. Trees and flowers, singing birds, water fowl and curious animals were within the walls. The man had gone away from our village a poor boy. Now he returned with unlimited wealth, which he had obtained in the country of the American wizards. After many amazing adventures he had become a merchant in a city called Mott Street, so it was said. When his palace and grounds were completed he gave a dinner to all the people who assembled to be his guests. One hundred pigs roasted whole were served on the tables, with chickens, ducks, geese and such an abundance of dainties that our villagers even now lick their fingers when they think of it. He had the best actors from Hong Kong performing, and every musician for miles around was playing and singing. At night the blaze of the lanterns could be seen for many miles. Having made his wealth among the barbarians this man had faithfully returned to pour it out among his tribesmen, and he is living in our village now very happy, and a pillar of strength to the poor. The wealth of this man filled my mind with the idea that I, too, would like to go to the country of the wizards and gain some of their wealth, and after a long time my father consented, and gave me his blessing, and my mother took leave of me with tears, while my grandfather laid his hand upon my head and told me to remember and live up to the admonitions of the Sages, to avoid gambling, bad women and men of evil minds, and so to govern my conduct that when I died my ancestors might rejoice to welcome me as a guest on high. My father gave me $100, and I went to Hong Kong with five other boys from our place and we got steerage passage on a steamer, paying $50 each. Everything was new to me. All my life I had been used to sleeping on a board bed with a wooden pillow, and I found the steamer’s bunk very uncomfortable, because it was so soft. The food was different from that which I had been used to, and I did not like it at all. I was afraid of the stews, for the thought of what they might be made of by the wicked wizards of the ship made me ill. Of the great power of these people I saw many signs. The engines that moved the ship were wonderful monsters, strong enough to lift mountains. When I got to San Francisco, which was before the passage of the Exclusion Act, I was half starved, because I was afraid to eat the provisions of the barbarians, but a few days' living in the Chinese quarter made me happy again. A man got me work as a house servant in an American family, and my start was the same as that of almost all the Chinese in this country. The Chinese laundryman does not learn his trade in China; there are no laundries in China. The women there do the washing in tubs and have no washboards or flat irons. All the Chinese laundrymen here were taught in the first place by American women just as I was taught. When I went to work for that American family I could not speak a word of English, and I did not know anything about housework. The family consisted of husband, wife and two children. They were very good to me and paid me $3.50 a week, of which I could save $3. I did not know how to do anything, and I did not understand what the lady said to me, but she showed me how to cook, wash, iron, sweep, dust, make beds, wash dishes, clean windows, paint and brass, polish the knives and forks, etc., by doing the things herself and then overseeing my efforts to imitate her. She would take my hands and show them how to do things. She and her husband and children laughed at me a great deal, but it was all good natured. I was not confined to the house in the way servants are confined here, but when my work was done in the morning I was allowed to go out till lunch time. People in California are more generous than they are here. In six months I had learned how to do the work of our house quite well, and I was getting $5 a week and board, and putting away about $4.25 a week. I had also learned some English, and by going to a Sunday school I learned more English and something about Jesus, who was a great Sage, and whose precepts are like those of Kong-foo-sze. It was twenty years ago when I came to this country, and I worked for two years as a servant, getting at the last $35 a month. I sent money home to comfort my parents, but tho I dressed well and lived well and had pleasure, going quite often to the Chinese theater and to dinner parties in Chinatown, I saved $50 in the first six months, $90 in the second, $120 in the third and $150 in the fourth So I had $410 at the end of two years, and I was now ready to start in business. When I first opened a laundry it was in company with a partner, who had been in the business for some years. We went to a town about 500 miles inland, where a railroad was building. We got a board shanty and worked for the men employed by the railroads. Our rent cost us $10 a month and food nearly $5 a week each, for all food was dear and we wanted the best of everything—we lived principally on rice, chickens, ducks and pork, and did our own cooking. The Chinese take naturally to cooking. It cost us about $50 for our furniture and apparatus, and we made close upon $60 a week, which we divided between us. We had to put up with many insults and some frauds, as men would come in and claim parcels that did not belong to them, saying they had lost their tickets, and would fight if they did not get what they asked for. Sometimes we were taken before Magistrates and fined for losing shirts that we had never seen. On the other hand, we were making money, and even after sending home $3 a week I was able to save about $15. When the railroad construction gang moved on we went with them. The men were rough and prejudiced against us, but not more so than in the big Eastern cities. It is only lately in New York that the Chinese have been able to discontinue putting wire screens in front of their windows, and at the present time the street boys are still breaking the windows of Chinese laundries all over the city, while the police seem to think it a joke. We were three years with the railroad, and then went to the mines, where we made plenty of money in gold dust, but had a hard time, for many of the miners were wild men who carried revolvers and after drinking would come into our place to shoot and steal shirts, for which we had to pay. One of these men hit his head hard against a flat iron and all the miners came and broke up our laundry, chasing us out of town. They were going to hang us. We lost all our property and $365 in money, which members of the mob must have found. Luckily most of our money was in the hands of Chinese bankers in San Francisco. I drew $500 and went East to Chicago, where I had a laundry for three years, during which I increased my capital to $2,500. After that I was four years in Detroit. I went home to China in 1897, but returned in 1898, and began a laundry business in Buffalo. But Chinese laundry business now is not as good as it was ten years ago. American cheap labor in the steam laundries has hurt it. So I determined to become a general merchant and with this idea I came to New York and opened a shop in the Chinese quarter, keeping silks, teas, porcelain, clothes, shoes, hats and Chinese provisions, which include sharks. fins and nuts, lily bulbs and lily flowers, lychee nuts and other Chinese dainties, but do not include rats, because it would be too expensive to import them. The rat which is eaten by the Chinese is a field animal which lives on rice, grain and sugar cane. Its flesh is delicious. Many Americans who have tasted shark’s fin and bird’s nest soup and tiger lily flowers and bulbs are firm friends of Chinese cookery. If they could enjoy one of our finer rats they would go to China to live, so as to get some more. American people eat ground hogs, which are very like these Chinese rats, and they also eat many sorts of food that our people would not touch. Those that have dined with us know that we understand how to live well. The ordinary laundry shop is generally divided into three rooms. In front is the room where the customers are received, behind that a bedroom and in the back the work shop, which is also the dining room and kitchen. The stove and cooking utensils are the same as those of the Americans. Work in a laundry begins early on Monday morning — about seven o’clock. There are generally two men one of whom washes while the other does the ironing. The man who irons does not start in till Tuesday, as the clothes are not ready for him to begin till that time. So he has Sundays and Mondays as holidays. The man who does the washing finishes up on Friday night, and so he has Saturday and Sunday. Each works only five days a week, but those are long days—from seven o’clock in the morning till midnight. During his holidays the Chinaman gets a good deal of fun out of life. There’s a good deal of gambling and some opium smoking, but not so much as Americans imagine. Only a few of New York’s Chinamen smoke opium. The habit is very general among rich men and officials in China, but not so much among poor men. I don’t think it does as much harm as the liquor that the Americans drink. There’s nothing so bad as a drunken man. Opium doesn’t make people crazy. Gambling is mostly fan tan, but there is a good deal of poker, which the Chinese have learned from Americans and can play very well. They also gamble with dominoes and dice. The fights among the Chinese and the operations of the hatchet men are all due to gambling. Newspapers often say that they are feuds between the six companies, but that is a mistake. The six companies are purely benevolent societies, which look after the Chinaman when he first lands here. They represent the six southern provinces of China, where most of our people are from, and they are like the German, Swedish, English, Irish and Italian societies which assist emigrants. When the Chinese keep clear of gambling and opium they are not blackmailed, and they have no trouble with hatchet men or any others. About 500 of New York’s Chinese are Christians, the others are Buddhists, Taoists, etc., all mixed up. These haven’t any Sunday of their own, but keep New Year’s Day and the first and fifteenth days of each month, when they go to the temple in Mott Street. In all New York there are only thirty-four Chinese women, and it is impossible to get a Chinese woman out here unless one goes to China and marries her there, and then he must collect affidavits to prove that she really is his wife. That is in [the] case of a merchant. A laundryman can’t bring his wife here under any circumstances, and even the women of the Chinese Ambassador’s family had trouble getting in lately. Is it any wonder, therefore, or any proof of the demoralization of our people if some of the white women in Chinatown are not of good character? What other set of men so isolated and so surrounded by alien and prejudiced people are more moral? Men, wherever they may be, need the society of women, and among the white women of Chinatown are many excellent and faithful wives and mothers. Recently there has been organized among us the Oriental Club, composed of our most intelligent and influential men. We hope for a great improvement in social conditions by its means, as it will discuss matters that concern us, bring us in closer touch with Americans and speak for us in something like an official manner. Some fault is found with us for sticking to our old customs here, especially in the matter of clothes, but the reason is that we find American clothes much inferior, so far as comfort and warmth go. The Chinaman’s coat for the winter is very durable, very light and very warm. It is easy and not in the way. If he wants to work he slips out of it in a moment and can put it on again as quickly. Our shoes and hats also are better, we think, for our purposes, than the American clothes. Most of us have tried the American clothes, and they make us feel as if we were in the stocks. I have found out, during my residence in this country, that much of the Chinese prejudice against Americans is unfounded, and I no longer put faith in the wild tales that were told about them in our village, tho some of the Chinese, who have been here twenty years and who are learned men, still believe that there is no marriage in this country, that the land is infested with demons and that all the people are given over to general wickedness. I know better. Americans are not all bad, nor are they wicked wizards. Still, they have their faults, and their treatment of us is outrageous. The reason why so many Chinese go into the laundry business in this country is because it requires little capital and is one of the few opportunities that are open. Men of other nationalities who are jealous of the Chinese, because he is a more faithful worker than one of their people, have raised such a great outcry about Chinese cheap labor that they have shut him out of working on farms or in factories or building railroads or making streets or digging sewers. He cannot practice any trade, and his opportunities to do business are limited to his own countrymen. So he opens a laundry when he quits domestic service. The treatment of the Chinese in this country is all wrong and mean. It is persisted in merely because China is not a fighting nation. The Americans would not dare to treat Germans, English, Italians or even Japanese as they treat the Chinese, because if they did there would be a war. There is no reason for the prejudice against the Chinese. The cheap labor cry was always a falsehood. Their labor was never cheap, and is not cheap now. It has always commanded the highest market price. But the trouble is that the Chinese are such excellent and faithful workers that bosses will have no others when they can get them. If you look at men working on the street you will find an overseer for every four or five of them. That watching is not necessary for Chinese. They work as well when left to themselves as they do when some one is looking at them. It was the jealousy of laboring men of other nationalities — especially the Irish—that raised all the outcry against the Chinese. No one would hire an Irishman, German, Englishman or Italian when he could get a Chinese, because our countrymen are so much more honest, industrious, steady, sober and painstaking. Chinese were persecuted, not for their vices, but for their virtues. There never was any honesty in the pretended fear of leprosy or in the cheap labor scare, and the persecution continues still, because Americans make a mere practice of loving justice. They are all for money making, and they want to be on the strongest side always. They treat you as a friend while you are prosperous, but if you have a misfortune they don’t know you. There is nothing substantial in their friendship. Wu-Ting-Fang talked very plainly to Americans about their ill treatment of our countrymen, but we don’t see any good results. We hoped for good from Roosevelt—we thought him a brave and good man, but yet he has continued the exclusion of our countrymen, tho all other nations are allowed to pour in here—Irish, Italians, Jews, Poles, Greeks, Hungarians, etc. It would not have been so if Mr. McKinley had lived. Irish fill the almshouses and prisons and orphan asylums, Italians are among the most dangerous of men, Jews are unclean and ignorant. Yet they are all let in, while Chinese, who are sober, or duly law abiding, clean, educated and industrious, are shut out. There are few Chinamen in jails and none in the poor houses. There are no Chinese tramps or drunkards. Many Chinese here have become sincere Christians, in spite of the persecution which they have to endure from their heathen countrymen. More than half the Chinese in this country would become citizens if allowed to do so, and would be patriotic Americans. But how can they make this country their home as matters now are! They are not allowed to bring wives here from China, and if they marry American women there is a great outcry. All Congressmen acknowledge the injustice of the treatment of my people, yet they continue it. They have no backbone. Under the circumstances, how can I call this my home, and how can any one blame me if I take my money and go back to my village in China? Creator | Lee Chew Item Type | Newspaper/Magazine Cite This document | Lee Chew, “A Chinese Immigrant Tells of Labor in a New Land,” SHEC: Resources for Teachers, accessed May 7, 2021, https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/900.

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Summary Report for: 53-2021.00 - Air Traffic Controllers Control air traffic on and within vicinity of airport, and movement of air traffic between altitude sectors and control centers, according to established procedures and policies. Authorize, regulate, and control commercial airline flights according to government or company regulations to expedite and ensure flight safety. Sample of reported job titles: Air Traffic Control Specialist (ATCS); Air Traffic Control Specialist, Terminal; Air Traffic Control Specialist/Certified Professional Controller (ATC Specialist/CPC); Air Traffic Controller (ATC); Air Traffic Controller (Enroute Option); Air Traffic Controller (Tower Option); Air Traffic Controller, Center; Certified Professional Controller (CPC); Control Tower Operator; Radar Air Traffic Controller Tasks | Technology Skills | Tools Used | Knowledge | Skills | Abilities | Work Activities | Detailed Work Activities | Work Context | Job Zone | Education | Credentials | Interests | Work Styles | Work Values | Related Occupations | Wages & Employment | Job Openings | Additional Information - Inform pilots about nearby planes or potentially hazardous conditions, such as weather, speed and direction of wind, or visibility problems. - Issue landing and take-off authorizations or instructions. - Transfer control of departing flights to traffic control centers and accept control of arriving flights. - Provide flight path changes or directions to emergency landing fields for pilots traveling in bad weather or in emergency situations. - Alert airport emergency services in cases of emergency or when aircraft are experiencing difficulties. - Monitor or direct the movement of aircraft within an assigned air space or on the ground at airports to minimize delays and maximize safety. - Direct pilots to runways when space is available or direct them to maintain a traffic pattern until there is space for them to land. - Monitor aircraft within a specific airspace, using radar, computer equipment, or visual references. - Direct ground traffic, including taxiing aircraft, maintenance or baggage vehicles, or airport workers. - Contact pilots by radio to provide meteorological, navigational, or other information. - Maintain radio or telephone contact with adjacent control towers, terminal control units, or other area control centers to coordinate aircraft movement. - Determine the timing or procedures for flight vector changes. - Initiate or coordinate searches for missing aircraft. - Provide on-the-job training to new air traffic controllers. - Check conditions and traffic at different altitudes in response to pilots' requests for altitude changes. - Relay air traffic information, such as courses, altitudes, or expected arrival times, to control centers. - Inspect, adjust, or control radio equipment or airport lights. - Compile information about flights from flight plans, pilot reports, radar, or observations. - Organize flight plans or traffic management plans to prepare for planes about to enter assigned airspace. - Review records or reports for clarity and completeness and maintain records or reports, as required under federal law. - Complete daily activity reports and keep records of messages from aircraft. - Conduct pre-flight briefings on weather conditions, suggested routes, altitudes, indications of turbulence, or other flight safety information. - Analyze factors such as weather reports, fuel requirements, or maps to determine air routes. - Data base user interface and query software — Microsoft Access - Document management software — Adobe Acrobat - Electronic mail software — Microsoft Outlook - Enterprise resource planning ERP software — SAP software - Expert system software — Advanced technologies and oceanic procedures ATOP; Automated radar terminal systems ARTS; Center TRACON automation systems CTAS - Flight control software — Direct-to-tool software; En route descent advisor EDA; Multi-center traffic management advisor McTMA; Traffic management advisor TMA software (see all 7 examples) - Office suite software — Microsoft Office - Presentation software — Microsoft PowerPoint - Spreadsheet software — Microsoft Excel - Web page creation and editing software — Really Simple Syndication RSS - Word processing software — Microsoft Word Hot Technology — a technology requirement frequently included in employer job postings. - Aircraft communication systems — Controller pilot datalink communication CPDC systems; High frequency HF radio communications systems; Ultra high frequency UHF radio communication systems; Very high frequency VHF radio communication systems - Aircraft flight simulators or trainers — Flight simulators - Aircraft guidance systems — Automatic direction finder ADF radio systems; Distance measuring equipment DME; Standard terminal automation replacement systems STARS; Wide area augmentation systems WAAS (see all 11 examples) - Aircraft navigation beacons — Nondirectional radio beacon markers - Desktop computers - Mainframe computers - Personal computers - Radarbased surveillance systems — Air route surveillance radar ARSR systems; Airport surface detection equipment ASDE systems; Mode S radar systems; Precision runway monitor PRM (see all 6 examples) - Two way radios — Frequency modulation FM two way radios - Transportation — Knowledge of principles and methods for moving people or goods by air, rail, sea, or road, including the relative costs and benefits. - English Language — Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and grammar. - Education and Training — Knowledge of principles and methods for curriculum and training design, teaching and instruction for individuals and groups, and the measurement of training effects. - Public Safety and Security — Knowledge of relevant equipment, policies, procedures, and strategies to promote effective local, state, or national security operations for the protection of people, data, property, and institutions. - Customer and Personal Service — Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services. This includes customer needs assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction. - Geography — Knowledge of principles and methods for describing the features of land, sea, and air masses, including their physical characteristics, locations, interrelationships, and distribution of plant, animal, and human life. - Telecommunications — Knowledge of transmission, broadcasting, switching, control, and operation of telecommunications systems. - Mathematics — Knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics, and their applications. - Computers and Electronics — Knowledge of circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic equipment, and computer hardware and software, including applications and programming. - Active Listening — Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times. - Speaking — Talking to others to convey information effectively. - Critical Thinking — Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems. - Judgment and Decision Making — Considering the relative costs and benefits of potential actions to choose the most appropriate one. - Complex Problem Solving — Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and evaluate options and implement solutions. - Monitoring — Monitoring/Assessing performance of yourself, other individuals, or organizations to make improvements or take corrective action. - Coordination — Adjusting actions in relation to others' actions. - Active Learning — Understanding the implications of new information for both current and future problem-solving and decision-making. - Reading Comprehension — Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents. - Time Management — Managing one's own time and the time of others. - Social Perceptiveness — Being aware of others' reactions and understanding why they react as they do. - Operation Monitoring — Watching gauges, dials, or other indicators to make sure a machine is working properly. - Systems Analysis — Determining how a system should work and how changes in conditions, operations, and the environment will affect outcomes. - Instructing — Teaching others how to do something. - Learning Strategies — Selecting and using training/instructional methods and procedures appropriate for the situation when learning or teaching new things. - Service Orientation — Actively looking for ways to help people. - Systems Evaluation — Identifying measures or indicators of system performance and the actions needed to improve or correct performance, relative to the goals of the system. - Writing — Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience. - Problem Sensitivity — The ability to tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the problem, only recognizing there is a problem. - Oral Comprehension — The ability to listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and sentences. - Oral Expression — The ability to communicate information and ideas in speaking so others will understand. - Selective Attention — The ability to concentrate on a task over a period of time without being distracted. - Deductive Reasoning — The ability to apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense. - Flexibility of Closure — The ability to identify or detect a known pattern (a figure, object, word, or sound) that is hidden in other distracting material. - Inductive Reasoning — The ability to combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes finding a relationship among seemingly unrelated events). - Speed of Closure — The ability to quickly make sense of, combine, and organize information into meaningful patterns. - Far Vision — The ability to see details at a distance. - Near Vision — The ability to see details at close range (within a few feet of the observer). - Perceptual Speed — The ability to quickly and accurately compare similarities and differences among sets of letters, numbers, objects, pictures, or patterns. The things to be compared may be presented at the same time or one after the other. This ability also includes comparing a presented object with a remembered object. - Speech Clarity — The ability to speak clearly so others can understand you. - Time Sharing — The ability to shift back and forth between two or more activities or sources of information (such as speech, sounds, touch, or other sources). - Information Ordering — The ability to arrange things or actions in a certain order or pattern according to a specific rule or set of rules (e.g., patterns of numbers, letters, words, pictures, mathematical operations). - Speech Recognition — The ability to identify and understand the speech of another person. - Written Comprehension — The ability to read and understand information and ideas presented in writing. - Category Flexibility — The ability to generate or use different sets of rules for combining or grouping things in different ways. - Auditory Attention — The ability to focus on a single source of sound in the presence of other distracting sounds. - Visualization — The ability to imagine how something will look after it is moved around or when its parts are moved or rearranged. - Fluency of Ideas — The ability to come up with a number of ideas about a topic (the number of ideas is important, not their quality, correctness, or creativity). - Originality — The ability to come up with unusual or clever ideas about a given topic or situation, or to develop creative ways to solve a problem. - Written Expression — The ability to communicate information and ideas in writing so others will understand. - Mathematical Reasoning — The ability to choose the right mathematical methods or formulas to solve a problem. - Memorization — The ability to remember information such as words, numbers, pictures, and procedures. - Number Facility — The ability to add, subtract, multiply, or divide quickly and correctly. - Visual Color Discrimination — The ability to match or detect differences between colors, including shades of color and brightness. - Making Decisions and Solving Problems — Analyzing information and evaluating results to choose the best solution and solve problems. - Identifying Objects, Actions, and Events — Identifying information by categorizing, estimating, recognizing differences or similarities, and detecting changes in circumstances or events. - Getting Information — Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining information from all relevant sources. - Monitor Processes, Materials, or Surroundings — Monitoring and reviewing information from materials, events, or the environment, to detect or assess problems. - Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates — Providing information to supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates by telephone, in written form, e-mail, or in person. - Processing Information — Compiling, coding, categorizing, calculating, tabulating, auditing, or verifying information or data. - Training and Teaching Others — Identifying the educational needs of others, developing formal educational or training programs or classes, and teaching or instructing others. - Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge — Keeping up-to-date technically and applying new knowledge to your job. - Analyzing Data or Information — Identifying the underlying principles, reasons, or facts of information by breaking down information or data into separate parts. - Evaluating Information to Determine Compliance with Standards — Using relevant information and individual judgment to determine whether events or processes comply with laws, regulations, or standards. - Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work — Developing specific goals and plans to prioritize, organize, and accomplish your work. - Thinking Creatively — Developing, designing, or creating new applications, ideas, relationships, systems, or products, including artistic contributions. - Performing for or Working Directly with the Public — Performing for people or dealing directly with the public. This includes serving customers in restaurants and stores, and receiving clients or guests. - Coaching and Developing Others — Identifying the developmental needs of others and coaching, mentoring, or otherwise helping others to improve their knowledge or skills. - Interacting With Computers — Using computers and computer systems (including hardware and software) to program, write software, set up functions, enter data, or process information. - Documenting/Recording Information — Entering, transcribing, recording, storing, or maintaining information in written or electronic/magnetic form. - Estimating the Quantifiable Characteristics of Products, Events, or Information — Estimating sizes, distances, and quantities; or determining time, costs, resources, or materials needed to perform a work activity. - Communicating with Persons Outside Organization — Communicating with people outside the organization, representing the organization to customers, the public, government, and other external sources. This information can be exchanged in person, in writing, or by telephone or e-mail. - Interpreting the Meaning of Information for Others — Translating or explaining what information means and how it can be used. - Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships — Developing constructive and cooperative working relationships with others, and maintaining them over time. - Developing Objectives and Strategies — Establishing long-range objectives and specifying the strategies and actions to achieve them. Detailed Work Activities - Notify others of emergencies, problems, or hazards. - Communicate with others to coordinate vehicle movement. - Coordinate flight control or management activities. - Respond to transportation emergencies. - Direct vehicle traffic. - Monitor vehicle movement or location. - Adjust routes or speeds as necessary. - Direct emergency management activities. - Train transportation or material moving personnel. - Monitor surroundings to detect potential hazards. - Operate communications equipment or systems. - Plan flight operations. - Meet with coworkers to communicate work orders or plans. - Choose optimal transportation routes or speeds. - Record operational details of travel. - Review documents or materials for compliance with policies or regulations. - Frequency of Decision Making — 96% responded “Every day.” - Indoors, Environmentally Controlled — 97% responded “Every day.” - Impact of Decisions on Co-workers or Company Results — 87% responded “Very important results.” - Importance of Being Exact or Accurate — 88% responded “Extremely important.” - Work With Work Group or Team — 83% responded “Extremely important.” - Contact With Others — 87% responded “Constant contact with others.” - Importance of Repeating Same Tasks — 77% responded “Extremely important.” - Spend Time Sitting — 60% responded “Continually or almost continually.” - Frequency of Conflict Situations — 65% responded “Every day.” - Freedom to Make Decisions — 59% responded “A lot of freedom.” - Physical Proximity — 62% responded “Moderately close (at arm's length).” - Deal With External Customers — 70% responded “Extremely important.” - Consequence of Error — 76% responded “Extremely serious.” - Coordinate or Lead Others — 53% responded “Extremely important.” - Spend Time Using Your Hands to Handle, Control, or Feel Objects, Tools, or Controls — 63% responded “Continually or almost continually.” - Face-to-Face Discussions — 62% responded “Every day.” - Structured versus Unstructured Work — 48% responded “A lot of freedom.” - Telephone — 62% responded “Every day.” - Degree of Automation — 32% responded “Highly automated.” - Responsibility for Outcomes and Results — 33% responded “Very high responsibility.” - Sounds, Noise Levels Are Distracting or Uncomfortable — 30% responded “Once a week or more but not every day.” - Spend Time Making Repetitive Motions — 33% responded “More than half the time.” - Deal With Unpleasant or Angry People — 30% responded “Once a week or more but not every day.” - Time Pressure — 48% responded “Every day.” - Letters and Memos — 30% responded “Every day.” - Duration of Typical Work Week — 88% responded “40 hours.” - Level of Competition — 24% responded “Highly competitive.” |Title||Job Zone Three: Medium Preparation Needed| |Education||Most occupations in this zone require training in vocational schools, related on-the-job experience, or an associate's degree.| |Related Experience||Previous work-related skill, knowledge, or experience is required for these occupations. For example, an electrician must have completed three or four years of apprenticeship or several years of vocational training, and often must have passed a licensing exam, in order to perform the job.| |Job Training||Employees in these occupations usually need one or two years of training involving both on-the-job experience and informal training with experienced workers. A recognized apprenticeship program may be associated with these occupations.| |Job Zone Examples||These occupations usually involve using communication and organizational skills to coordinate, supervise, manage, or train others to accomplish goals. Examples include hydroelectric production managers, travel guides, electricians, agricultural technicians, barbers, court reporters, and medical assistants.| |SVP Range||(6.0 to < 7.0)| Interest code: EC Want to discover your interests? Take the O*NET Interest Profiler at My Next Move. - Enterprising — Enterprising occupations frequently involve starting up and carrying out projects. These occupations can involve leading people and making many decisions. Sometimes they require risk taking and often deal with business. - Conventional — Conventional occupations frequently involve following set procedures and routines. These occupations can include working with data and details more than with ideas. Usually there is a clear line of authority to follow. - Attention to Detail — Job requires being careful about detail and thorough in completing work tasks. - Stress Tolerance — Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and effectively with high stress situations. - Dependability — Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and fulfilling obligations. - Adaptability/Flexibility — Job requires being open to change (positive or negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace. - Persistence — Job requires persistence in the face of obstacles. - Achievement/Effort — Job requires establishing and maintaining personally challenging achievement goals and exerting effort toward mastering tasks. - Analytical Thinking — Job requires analyzing information and using logic to address work-related issues and problems. - Self Control — Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very difficult situations. - Cooperation — Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude. - Initiative — Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and challenges. - Integrity — Job requires being honest and ethical. - Independence — Job requires developing one's own ways of doing things, guiding oneself with little or no supervision, and depending on oneself to get things done. - Leadership — Job requires a willingness to lead, take charge, and offer opinions and direction. - Concern for Others — Job requires being sensitive to others' needs and feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job. - Innovation — Job requires creativity and alternative thinking to develop new ideas for and answers to work-related problems. - Social Orientation — Job requires preferring to work with others rather than alone, and being personally connected with others on the job. - Support — Occupations that satisfy this work value offer supportive management that stands behind employees. Corresponding needs are Company Policies, Supervision: Human Relations and Supervision: Technical. - Independence — Occupations that satisfy this work value allow employees to work on their own and make decisions. Corresponding needs are Creativity, Responsibility and Autonomy. - Working Conditions — Occupations that satisfy this work value offer job security and good working conditions. Corresponding needs are Activity, Compensation, Independence, Security, Variety and Working Conditions. Wages & Employment Trends |Median wages (2020)||$62.70 hourly, $130,420 annual| |Employment (2019)||24,300 employees| |Projected growth (2019-2029)||Slower than average (1% to 2%)| |Projected job openings (2019-2029)||2,000| |Top industries (2019)| Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2020 wage data and 2019-2029 employment projections . "Projected growth" represents the estimated change in total employment over the projections period (2019-2029). "Projected job openings" represent openings due to growth and replacement. Job Openings on the Web Sources of Additional Information Disclaimer: Sources are listed to provide additional information on related jobs, specialties, and/or industries. Links to non-DOL Internet sites are provided for your convenience and do not constitute an endorsement. - Air Traffic Control Association - Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association - National Air Traffic Controllers Association - National Black Coalition of Federal Aviation Employees - Occupational Outlook Handbook: Air traffic controllers - Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization - Professional Women Controllers

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The dawn of the new decade is marked by the emergence of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, whose spread has resulted in the COVID-19 pandemic, having already affected millions of individuals and resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide [1, 2]. While the pandemic situation is constantly evolving, alarming signals have arisen during the past few weeks from the United States of America, which now represents the world’s most affected country, as disproportionally higher infection and mortality rates in African–Americans compared to other races were reported in some states [3, 4]. After these initial reports that raised public awareness, most states gradually started sharing data regarding confirmed cases and deaths by race. Most of them have reported higher infection rates in African–Americans, although data regarding confirmed COVID-19 cases by race are largely incomplete . Furthermore, based on current estimates, it is calculated that overall African–Americans suffer from a 2.4 and 2.2 times higher mortality rate when compared to Whites and Asians or Latinos, respectively [6, 7]. The first thing that needs to be addressed is whether this phenomenon is actual or COVID-19 was spread in states with a relatively higher African–American population. Available data suggest that the mortality rate is indeed higher, even when adjusted for the African–American population in each state in most cases. In Illinois, for instance, 14% of the population which is African–Americans accounts for 36% of confirmed COVID-19 deaths. Similarly, in Michigan 43% of deaths concerned African–Americans who represent 14% of the state’s population . However, more data is eagerly needed on this topic: first of all from every state, and second for specific counties as well, since the population is not evenly divided by race within each state. The higher mortality rate in African–Americans raises questions about the underlying mechanisms behind these racial disparities. Several known mechanisms might be implicated, including increased comorbidities, inequalities in healthcare access, and socioeconomic factors. However, we propose that another mechanism might be also implicated: the renin-angiotensin system. Cumulative evidence from China and Italy, two countries being at the epicenter of COVID-19 pandemic before the US, suggests that, besides age, comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease (mainly ischemic heart disease and stroke), hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic respiratory disease and atrial fibrillation increase the risk of mortality among the affected patients [8, 9]. Indeed, hypertension increases the risk for the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) by 82%, while diabetes mellitus augments the corresponding risk by 134% . Hypertension is more prevalent among African–Americans, even at earlier ages, compared to other races, while control rates remain poorer [11, 12]. Besides, it has been previously demonstrated that black patients with diabetes mellitus feature significantly greater odds for insufficient glycemic control, compared to nonHispanic whites , while they also have a significantly higher rate of in-hospital complications, compared to nondiabetic white patients with hyperglycemia. However, no statistically significant difference for adverse in-hospital outcomes is observed, when white and black patients with diabetes are compared . Of note, African–American women have been shown to have a greater risk for stroke, heart failure and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) compared to white women, whereas African–American men feature greater risk for heart failure and ESRD, but lower risk for coronary artery disease compared to white men . Collectively, that evidence might partially explain the greater burden of COVID-19 pandemic among black patients. Socioeconomic factors and healthcare access Socioeconomic factors could also play a significant role. While billions of people worldwide are encouraged to implement teleworking, for many African–Americans it is not a matter of choice due to working in essential industries, with less than 20% being able to work from home, rising the possibilities for exposure and infection . Social distancing has been so far recognized as the most effective measure of spread attenuation . However, the family structure differs in African–Americans, as family members share closer bonds and are more likely to share accommodation, resulting in close contact among the elderly and the youth, who are also more unlikely to conform to social distancing. In fact, the spread of the disease in China and Europe during the previous months led several people to assume that African–Americans are “immune” to COVID-19, resulting in significant misinformation on this issue with obvious consequences. Indeed, a recent report revealed that many African–Americans lack critical knowledge about COVID-19 and have not changed their daily routine . Given that the unemployment and uninsurance rates for African–Americans are higher than average, their access to healthcare facilities is significantly disabling and probably resulting in under detection of less serious cases . Another significant factor in this field is the relatively higher mistrust of African–Americans in the healthcare system . The limited access to combined with the mistrust at the healthcare system might result in significant delays in seeking assistance, and thus increased mortality rates in African–Americans. However, Latinos share some of the above-mentioned socioeconomic characteristics, at least partly, although early reports suggest that they exhibit lower mortality rates compared to African–Americans, as it has already been mentioned . We should also highlight the potential role of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) blockers use among black patients. Low plasma renin activity, associated with a salt-sensitive phenotype, has been documented for black patients compared to white individuals . The hallmark ALLHAT trial, which enrolled a significant proportion of black patients, demonstrated for the first time the superiority of chlorthalidone compared to lisinopril in the prevention of surrogate endpoints, namely stroke, combined coronary artery disease and cardiovascular disease and heart failure . Thus, according to the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Hypertension Guidelines, initial antihypertensive treatment in black adults with hypertension but without heart failure or chronic kidney disease, including those with diabetes mellitus, should include a thiazide-type diuretic or a calcium-channel blocker (CCB) . However, a recent meta-analysis pooling data from a total of 38,983 hypertensive black patients did not reveal a significant difference between RAAS blockers and the rest antihypertensive drug classes regarding the odds for hard endpoints, except for stroke; patients treated with RAAS blockers featured an over 50% increase in the odds for stroke, compared to those treated with diuretics or CCBs . Anyway, the fact is that the use of RAAS inhibitors is less common in African–Americans compared to Caucasians . Based on the pathophysiologic background underlying SARS-CoV-2 infection, several preclinical studies raised concerns on the safety of RAAS blockers in patients with documented infection; however, there is no hard evidence to support the discontinuation of these agents, especially in high-risk patients . For this reason, several scientific societies, such as the European Societies of Hypertension and Cardiology (ESH, ESC), the Heart Failure Society of America, the American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association (HFSA/ACC/AHA) issued statements that advised towards the continuation of RAAS blockers for indications that are known to be beneficial [27,28,29] Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that their use not only cannot be associated with increased risk of COVID-19 or increased risk of in-hospital mortality, but also it has been associated with improved survival, although with limitations [30,31,32]. Of note, no differences have been reported among ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers regarding major clinical outcomes (severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection, mortality) [33, 34]. Therefore, it has to be elucidated whether the lower usage rates of RAAS blockers among black patients could partially contribute to the observed racial disparity in the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection. It has been demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 invades human alveolar epithelial cells through the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, leading to downregulation of ACE2 expression and rapid progression to ARDS . It would be therefore interesting to know whether black patients exhibit greater genetic susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, even though the genetic basis of ACE2 expression in different populations remains largely unknown . What is more, specific ACE2 gene polymorphisms have been correlated with essential hypertension, atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, reduced left ventricular ejection fraction and increased left ventricular mass, mainly in Asian, and Caucasian populations [37,38,39,40]. Therefore, one could speculate that there might be a vicious circle between increased susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, cardiovascular comorbidities and final development of severe infection, which has to be proven. Unfortunately, there are no data until now regarding the interconnection between ACE2 polymorphisms and cardiovascular disease development in African–American populations. Existing gene databases, such as the Million Veteran Program including over 825,000 Veteran participants, could serve as a valuable tool towards this direction . Undoubtedly, COVID-19 pandemic will continue to strain health care systems worldwide. 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The affordable care act: implications for health-care equity. Lancet. 2017;389:1442–52. Musa D, Schulz R, Harris R, Silverman M, Thomas SB. Trust in the health care system and the use of preventive health services by older black and white adults. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:1293–9. Alderman MH, Cohen HW, Sealey JE, Laragh JH. Plasma renin activity levels in hypertensive persons: their wide range and lack of suppression in diabetic and in most elderly patients. Am J Hypertens. 2004;17:1–7. The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs. diuretic: the antihypertensive and lipid-lowering treatment to prevent heart attack trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002;288:2981–97. Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, Casey DE Jr, Collins KJ, Dennison Himmelfarb C, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Hypertension. 2018;71:1269–324. Palla M, Ando T, Androulakis E, Telila T, Briasoulis A. Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors vs. other antihypertensives in hypertensive blacks: a meta-analysis. J Clin Hypertens. 2017;19:344–50. Gu A, Yue Y, Desai RP, Argulian E. Racial and ethnic differences in antihypertensive medication use and blood pressure control among US adults with hypertension: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003 to 2012. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2017;10:e003166. Vaduganathan M, Vardeny O, Michel T, McMurray JJV, Pfeffer MA, Solomon SD. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibitors in patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1653–9. ESH Statement on COVID-19. ESH. https://www.eshonline.org/spotlights/esh-statement-covid-19/. Accessed 7 June 2020. Simone G. Position statement of the ESC council on hypertension on ACE-inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers. ESC. https://www.escardio.org/Councils/Council-on-Hypertension-(CHT)/News/position-statement-of-the-esc-council-on-hypertension-on-ace-inhibitors-and-ang. Accessed 7 June 2020. HFSA/ACC/AHA Statement Addresses Concerns Re: Using RAAS Antagonists in COVID-19. ACC. https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/articles/2020/03/17/08/59/hfsa-acc-aha-statement-addresses-concerns-re-using-raas-antagonists-in-covid-19. Accessed 7 June 2020. Mancia G, Rea F, Ludergnani M, Apolone G, Corrao G. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system blockers and the risk of COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:2431–40. Zhang P, Zhu L, Cai J, Lei F, Qin JJ, Xie J, et al. Association of inpatient use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers with mortality among patients with hypertension hospitilized with COVID-19. Circ Res. 2020;126:1671–81. Meng J, Xiao G, Zhang J, He X, Ou M, Bi J, et al. Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors improve the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients with hypertension. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9:757–60. Li J, Wang X, Chen J, Zhang H, Deng A. Association of renin–angiotensin system inhibitors with severity or risk of death in patients with hypertension hospitalized for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection in Wuhan, China. JAMA Cardiol. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.1624. Giorgi Rossi P, Marino M, Formisano D, Venturelli F, Vicentini M, Grilli R. The Reggio Emilia COVID-19 Working Group. Characteristics and outcomes of a cohort of SARS-CoV-2 patients in the Province of Reggio Emilia, Italy. MedRxiv. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.13.20063545. Cheng H, Wang Y, Wang GQ. Organ-protective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and its effect on the prognosis of COVID-19. J Med Virol. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25785. Cao Y, Li L, Feng Z, Wan S, Huang P, Sun X, et al. Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations. Cell Discov. 2020;6:11. Liu C, Li Y, Guan T, Lai Y, Shen Y, Zeyaweiding A, et al. ACE2 polymorphisms associated with cardiovascular risk in Uygurs with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2018;17:127. Zhang Q, Cong M, Wang N, Li X, Zhang H, Zhang K, et al. Association of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 gene polymorphism and enzymatic activity with essential hypertension in different gender: a case–control study. Medicine. 2018;97:e12917–e12917. Patel SK, Wai B, Ord M, MacIsaac RJ, Grant S, Velkoska E, et al. Association of ACE2 genetic variants with blood pressure, left ventricular mass, and cardiac function in caucasians with type 2 diabetes. Am J Hypertens. 2012;25:216–22. Wang SX, Tao T, Fu ZQ, Xie XZ, Wang H, Wang YT. Polymorphisms of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 gene confer a risk to lone atrial fibrillation in Chinese male patients. Chin Med J. 2013;126:4608–11. Gaziano JM, Concato J, Brophy M, Fiore L, Pyarajan S, Breeling J, et al. Million Veteran Program: a mega-biobank to study genetic influences on health and disease. J Clin Epidemiol. 2016;70:214–223. Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. About this article Cite this article Doumas, M., Patoulias, D., Katsimardou, A. et al. COVID19 and increased mortality in African Americans: socioeconomic differences or does the renin angiotensin system also contribute?. J Hum Hypertens 34, 764–767 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41371-020-0380-y Anxiety and Adaptation of Behavior in Pregnant Zhuang Women During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Mixed-Mode Survey Risk Management and Healthcare Policy (2021) A population-based study on mortality among Belgian immigrants during the first COVID-19 wave in Belgium. Can demographic and socioeconomic indicators explain differential mortality? SSM - Population Health (2021) A Web Survey to Evaluate the Thermal Stress Associated with Personal Protective Equipment among Healthcare Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2021) HEC Forum (2021) The American Journal of Bioethics (2021)

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For-Profit, Nonprofit, and Court Organizations This article divides the world of organizations into three categories: (1) for-profit, (2) nonprofit, and (3) the courts. Using these categories (which overlooks a great many details and draws bright lines where there are many shadows), significant similarities and differences exist when comparing for-profits, nonprofits, and the courts.1 As a proxy for a far larger number of factors, these similarities and differences are highlighted by focusing on ownership, funding sources, mission, the incentivizing of participants, and a determination of how success is defined. For-profit organizations are owned by individuals or entities. Owners can be shareholders, limited partners, sole proprietors, or many other forms. Owners voluntarily fund the organization by purchasing its ownership interests. If owners become disillusioned with the organization, they can sell those interests. The organization generates income from the provision of goods or services through voluntary transactions with other individuals or organizations. The mission of a for-profit organization is to be the best provider of whatever it provides to make money for the owners. Participants in the organization are employees who are incentivized by compensation (typically money) in a variety of forms, ranging from hourly, to annually, to commission. A benchmark of success is whether the for-profit organization makes a profit (and, if so, how much) that can then be either distributed to the owners or reinvested. By contrast, no individual or entity owns a nonprofit; the organization is a community asset, however that community is defined. Supporters voluntarily fund the organization by donations. If supporters become disillusioned with the organization, they can stop making donations. Along with donations, the nonprofit may generate revenue from the provision of goods or services through voluntary transactions with other individuals or organizations. The mission of a nonprofit is to create a community or public benefit and to secure enough funding to continue the work of the organization. Participants in the organization may be volunteers who are compensated by the reward of helping others. If the nonprofit has employees, their work typically is leveraged by a larger number of volunteers. The employees are compensated by a combination of monetary compensation and the reward of helping others. A definition of success is whether the nonprofit organization can sustain itself and continue to serve the community it serves. The courts have some characteristics of for-profit organizations, some characteristics of nonprofits, and some that reflect the unique nature of the courts. The courts are not owned by any individual or entity; instead, they are a governmental entity that broadly serves the public. Unlike for-profit and nonprofit organizations, funding for the courts is not voluntary; it comes from taxpayers under the threat of penalties if taxes are not paid and fees, fines, and costs imposed on parties by the courts. The mission of the courts is public service through the administration of justice in a timely manner, treating all with fairness, respect, and dignity. Courts typically have employees who are compensated by wages or salary and, hopefully, the reward of helping the public. Courts also rely on volunteers, who are compensated by the reward of helping others. A definition of success for the courts is whether the public is served and justice is administered in a timely fashion. Clearly, there are similarities and differences in these three organizational structures. As particularly applicable here, however, nonprofit organizations have a significant number of similarities with the courts. These similarities include public ownership, a public service mission, compensation that is received both monetarily and by the reward of helping the public or community, and a definition of success that is a focus on serving the public or community. Given these similarities, it is worth looking at “best practices” identified in nonprofit management to see if they might add value in managing courts. Nonprofit Management “Best Practices” and Their Application in Managing Courts Drucker’s Managing the Nonprofit Organization covers a lot of ground in identifying “best practices” for managing nonprofit organizations. It is a detailed, thoughtful book that merits careful study. What follows is a summary of seven “best practices” that Drucker identifies in the nonprofit world and a discussion of how each might apply in managing courts. Identifying, Communicating, and Understanding the Mission2 Although discussed often in addressing mission statements, Drucker writes that a nonprofit organization must have a thoughtful, communicated operational mission, “otherwise it’s just good intentions.” The mission should focus on what the organization “really tries to do and then do it so that everybody in the organization can say, This is my contribution to the goal.” The mission “has to be clear and simple. . . . It has to be something that makes each person feel that he or she can make a difference. . . . In every move, in every decision, in every policy, the non-profit institution needs to start out by asking, Will this advance our capacity to carry out our mission?” As applied to the courts, the basic mission is simple and direct: to serve the public and administer justice in a timely fashion. Court management should target this mission, or efforts will be muddled and confused. But what specific aspects of the mission are important? How about the fair, just, and timely resolution of disputes under the law? Enhancing confidence in the courts through accessibility, communication, and education? Administering justice with integrity, fairness, and equality? Resolving legal disputes in a prompt, timely, and fair manner while treating all involved with fairness, respect, and dignity? Each of these examples can be found in various court systems in the United States and each, hopefully, works well in that specific system. A thoughtful mission that is expressly identified, communicated, understood, and used provides meaning and context to management decisions. Does a particular decision, project, or approach further the court’s mission? If not, why should it proceed? And a focus on mission allows employees to have a better sense of purpose. It can transform simple work perceived to be without meaning into a sense of how the work fits into the broader goals, resulting in a sense of “contribution to the goal.” Embracing Change and Innovation Drucker recommends embracing change and innovation when things are going well: One strategy is practically infallible: Refocus and change the organization when you are successful. When everything is going beautifully. When everybody says, “Don’t rock the boat. If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” At that point, let’s hope, you have some character in the organization who is willing to be unpopular by saying “Let’s improve it.” If you don’t improve it, you go downhill pretty fast.3 At first blush, particularly as applied to the courts, this strategy seems counterintuitive. Many aspects of the courts have no substitutes. Although private mediation or arbitration may resolve civil and some family law disputes, that generally cannot be said for criminal and most juvenile matters. Moreover, most funding sources for the courts are not voluntary in the sense that contributions to nonprofits are voluntary. And some innovations fail because their costs lack corresponding benefits. So how could this “innovate when you are successful” concept apply to the courts? In some respects, it may not. If an approach to a time-worn issue appears to be working just fine, it may be that no improvement is appropriate. But it also may be that looking to see how a well-functioning process can be improved is just what courts should be doing. Take, for example, times for case processing. Case processing can always be improved. Looking to improve times for case processing when things are working just fine is at the core of the court’s mission and allows a successful team to improve things in the cool of the day (and not in the heat of a crisis). Moreover, the fact that case processing is at the core of what the courts do and lacks any real substitute, by definition, provides a basis for looking to constantly improve. If a strategy is working, it suggests that the system and the people in charge of overseeing the system have been successful. And as a fail-safe, when a change is implemented when things are working well, if the new approach doesn’t work, there is always the option of returning to the “unimproved” approach that was working. A focus on change and innovation also allows individuals to grow in ways that maintaining does not. Although many individuals will say, in the abstract, that they don’t like change, as applied, involving individuals in identifying, planning, and implementing changes can empower. As an example, consider how courts are using technology today compared to a decade ago. Or look at the proliferation of therapeutic courts that were virtually unheard of not so long ago. As Drucker writes for nonprofits, “[t]he first requirement for successful innovation is to look at a change as a potential opportunity instead of a threat.”4 And because it’s inevitable, isn’t it better to embrace change rather than dread it? Adopting the Team Concept Drucker champions the essential nature of the team concept: The more successful an organization becomes, the more it needs to build teams. In fact, non-profit organizations most often fumble and lose their way despite great ability at the top and a dedicated staff because they fail to build teams. The purpose of a team is to make the strengths of each person effective, and his or her weaknesses irrelevant. One manages individuals on a team. The focus is to look at the performance and the strengths of individuals combined in a joint effort.5 This focus on team in the nonprofit context translates extremely well to the courts. Even though the judicial officer presides over the courtroom, teamwork is essential in the courtroom. To best serve the public, a judicial officer hearing cases on the bench works with any number of individuals, including a bailiff, a clerk of court, a court reporter, and perhaps many others. Each team member has his or her strengths, and the focus of the team is to build on strengths in a way that makes weaknesses of team members irrelevant. Outside of the courtroom, the team concept may be even more essential in the courts. Take, for example, building and implementing a computer system for use in case management. That system will be used by, and for the benefit of, a wide variety of individuals, including judges, court staff, litigants, attorneys, law enforcement officers, probation officers, and so forth. Failing to obtain input and feedback from all of these users will ensure failure, at least at some point, and be a missed opportunity. By contrast, although obtaining input from all does not guarantee success, it does allow for communication of needs, accountability, and course-correction and helps enhance the probability of success. Working in such a team environment also can facilitate interdependence, trust, productivity, and creativity and encourage collaboration and communication. Also, done correctly, the team concept recognizes and welcomes new team members (who, by definition, will bring new ideas from a different perspective), but also values long-term team members who have the institutional memory that can offer lessons learned from previous efforts. Using a team approach in court management furthers productivity and empowers groups to do the best work possible. An essential corollary to the team concept is accountability. Everyone in the non-profit institution, whether chief executive or volunteer foot soldier, needs first to think through his or her own assignment. What should this institution hold me accountable for? The next responsibility is to make sure that the people with whom you work and on whom you depend understand what you intend to concentrate on, and what you should be held accountable for.6 As in nonprofits, accountability translates extremely well to court management. Two examples prove the point. Let’s start with an example of when accountability is not present: an ongoing study committee that meets monthly with an agenda item that is consistently deferred, and the deferral continues until the item is removed because nothing is ever done. What has been accomplished? Quite literally, nothing. But more broadly, an issue that at some point was important slipped away with no consideration of the merits or how resolving the issue would improve the system. It may be that the decision to do nothing to resolve the issue is the correct one, but that’s only by chance as the merits of the issue were never considered in a meaningful way. By contrast, let’s turn to an example when accountability is present: At a meeting of the same ongoing study committee, an item is raised, and three named individuals are designated to look into the issue. This subcommittee is asked to consider the issue and report back to the committee as a whole with written recommendations within 60 days. That empowers those three individuals, makes them accountable, and sets expectations for all involved about what the subcommittee will do, what it will provide, and when it will be provided. The subcommittee has a work plan, a goal, and a deadline. “By focusing on accountability, people take a bigger view of themselves. That’s not vanity, not pride, but it is self-respect and self-confidence. It’s something that, once gained, can’t be taken away from a person.”7 Welcoming Dissent but Targeting Consensus8 The team concept encourages different points of view. Although unanimity can lead to easy decision making, Drucker celebrates dissent. “If you can bring dissent and disagreement to a common understanding of what the discussion is all about, you create unity and commitment.” You use dissent and disagreement to resolve conflict. If you ask for disagreement openly, it gives people the feeling that they have been heard. But you also know where the objectors are and what their objections are. And in many cases you can accommodate them, so that they can accept the decision gracefully. That also enables them very often to understand the arguments of the [other] side. . . . You do not prevent disagreement, but you do resolve conflict. Applied to the courts, this concept of welcoming and encouraging dissent offers a real possibility of improving results. Take, for example, consideration of a differentiated case assignment system for civil cases, where the issue is whether to adopt a complex case system or a business court, or some similar concept. It may be that those considering such a change are not unanimous in the wisdom of adopting such an approach. When such a change is not universally embraced, encouraging respectful dissent in the decision-making process allows for individuals to raise differing perspectives before a decision is made. That discussion will either fortify a consensus, result in a change in plans before a change is implemented, or mean a change being considered is never implemented. That process, in turn, facilitates communication, an exchange of ideas, and an appreciation of competing views. As a result, the quality of decisions should be improved. Although dissent should be welcomed, it cannot become paralyzing. Encouraging dissent implies that changes are made by consensus, but not unanimity. So although dissent is a wonderful way to test a proposed change, it should be used as a mechanism to build consensus, not empower one person to veto change. Benefiting from Lessons Learned Drucker encourages organizations to ask: “Is this the best application of our scarce resources? There is so much work to be done. Let’s put our resources where the results are. We cannot afford to be righteous and continue this project where we seem to be unable to achieve the results we’ve set for ourselves.”9 In the courts, there are numerous time-worn issues that continue to pop up and that are hard to fix. Attorney scheduling in high-volume courts is one example. Another example is the balance between having enough, but not too many, potential jurors summoned to account for jury trial needs. For a variety of reasons, courts do not have the luxury of expending time and money for numerous, repeated efforts to use the same strategy to fix or improve something. Because of this, having a long-term collective memory about what has been tried and failed (a.k.a. “lessons learned”) may be just as important as knowing what has succeeded. Also, knowing when to change course is essential, as is retaining knowledge of why attempted changes did not work. For a change to fail is understandable and will happen. Not learning from a failed change, however, is to fail twice: first by the failed change and second by failing to learn from the failed change. It is essential to benefit from lessons learned to avoid that second failure. Celebrating Accomplishments and Contributions Drucker is blunt in describing employee development: • “Any organization develops people; it has no choice. It either helps them grow or it stunts them. It either forms them or it deforms them.” • “[I]f you want people to perform in an organization, you have to use their strengths—not emphasize their weaknesses.” • “Although successful business executives have learned that workers are not entirely motivated by paychecks or promotions—they need more—the need is even greater in non-profit institutions. Even paid staff in these organizations needs achievement, the satisfaction of service, or they become alienated and even hostile.”10 The courts, as with nonprofits, do not typically pay monetary bonuses for additional contributions, and in fact may be prohibited from doing so. Instead, paradoxically, individuals in the courts who are doing well typically are asked to do their regular job and also be involved in special projects without any change in pay. As a result, they are asked to do more work for the same monetary compensation. Given this, it is important for courts to celebrate the contributions of individuals to the team and to the organization. This not only provides credit where credit is due, but it also allows individuals involved in the project to understand that their work is appreciated and important. Such efforts also recognize the team, encourage involvement in future efforts, and foster a positive work environment. The “cake and cookies” celebration after the completion of the project can have far more significance than simply providing people sweets. Thank you announcements and notes, certificates, and other nonmonetary recognition can be vitally important in the courts. As with nonprofits, court employees who serve on productive teams and projects are rewarded by being asked to do so again in future endeavors without additional compensation. Celebration of achievement serves as a sort of psychic compensation, particularly where additional monetary compensation is not an option. Why would people work on difficult, time-consuming projects for no additional monetary compensation? Some don’t. But those who do often have been encouraged, have been instilled with the purpose of the organization, and feel a sense of ownership, satisfaction, and pride in the additional work. Finally, people remember how they are treated, particularly when they begin a journey and when they end a journey. In the courts, recognizing the addition of an individual to a team is important. Even more important is to celebrate the contribution of an individual who is leaving the team. In this sense, successful courts (as with nonprofit organizations) understand that additional monetary compensation is not a necessary component of a productive organization. They wisely stress purpose, community-building, and employee satisfaction to constantly improve. Effective court management comes in a variety of different forms, and there are certainly lessons to be learned from the for-profit sector. However, courts also can benefit from adapting “best practices” in nonprofit organizations. As in nonprofit management, court systems will benefit from focusing on (1) identifying, communicating, and understanding the mission; (2) embracing change and innovation; (3) adopting the team concept; (4) being accountable; (5) welcoming dissent but targeting consensus; (6) benefiting from lessons learned; and (7) celebrating accomplishments and contributions. The views expressed are solely those of the authors and do not represent those of the Arizona Court of Appeals. - Recognizing there are some extremely large nonprofit organizations and some extremely small for-profit organizations, this discussion uses more stereotypic examples where the for-profit organization is a large, publicly held corporation and the nonprofit is a local, largely volunteer, cause-based organization. The discussion adopts some concepts found in Authenticity Consulting, How Nonprofits Differ from For-Profits—and How They Are the Same, available at http://managementhelp.org/misc/Nonprofits-ForProfits.pdf (last visited May 21, 2016). - Quotes from Peter F. Drucker, Managing the Nonprofit Organization 4, 114, 149 (2006). - Id. at 66. - Id. at 68. - Id. at 152–53. - Id. at 184. - Id. at 193. - Quotes from id. at 125, 126–27. - Id. at 112. - Id. at 147, 181.

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Vomiting sensation is not only a disease but also a symptom of many diseases. Vomiting sensation may be a physiological or a reflex phenomenon, but many cases are pathological manifestations, even dangerous. This phenomenon is a symptom that can be encountered in many different diseases, even in very dangerous conditions needed immediate emergency. As a general rule, when people see these symptoms, people regard them as a minor concern, but this is one of the main manifestations of gastrointestinal diseases. Now, it is time to read 29 Home Remedies for Vomiting Sensation to learn how to treat menorrhagia at home, but before that, you had better understand some necessary information about this problem. Therefore, you can deal with it the right way. What Is Vomiting Sensation? Vomiting sensation is an unpleasant sensation that is accompanied by a strong impulse to vomit. Vomiting sensation is a feeling of discomfort in the stomach, feeling waves in the stomach and throat. Vomiting sensation indicates extreme discomfort, diaphragmatic contractions, causing stomach contents to be expelled orally. This condition comes from many different causes, such as illness, pregnancy, morning sickness, food poisoning, gastroenteritis (stomach flu), excessive alcohol intake, and migraine. Some medications may also cause nausea and vomiting. You can self-treat vomiting at home. However, see a doctor right away if you do not feel better or if you notice some warning signs. What Are Common Causes Of Vomiting Sensation? - Morning Sickness Many women experience dizziness and vomiting sensation during pregnancy, especially during the first trimester (3 months). This condition is called morning sickness, and it is perfectly normal. It is characterized by vomiting sensation and vomiting. However, in some cases, morning sickness may affect your health. Excessive vomiting may lead to weight loss, dehydration, malnutrition, electrolyte imbalance and dizziness. - Travel Sickness/Motion Sickness Travel sickness or motion sickness is a feeling of vomiting sensation that some people may encounter when traveling by car, train, train or plane. It is caused by disturbance or conflict between the signals sent to the brain. The brain from the eyes, vestibules (inner ear and cochlea) and receptors in the joints, tendons and body tissues. When the brain receives different signals about the position of the child, it will cause symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, and vomiting. TrueRemedies Partner Solutions Need a Help from the Leading Expert Online, Available 24/7? They’re all here and ready to answer your questions online or by phone. Keep asking questions until you get the answer you need. - Panic Mood A psychological panic that is too frightening may produce symptoms such as dizziness, palpitations, sweating, vomiting sensation, chest pain, difficulty breathing, etc. People who are obsessed, or have traumatic stress disorder, etc. are more likely to be psychologically frightened than others. Some medicines may cause side effects such as dizziness and vomiting, such as antidepressants, antihypertensive drugs, etc. These medicines inhibit yeast metabolism in the body and lead to dizziness. If stopping medicines suddenly may also cause this condition. Menstrual pain is a medical term used to refer to abdominal pain that occurs during “red lights” days. It may lead to dizziness, nausea, vomiting, back pain, etc. in some women. According to health experts, these symptoms are due to the release of prostaglandin from the endometrium. - Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Gastroesophageal reflux disease is reflux of gastric or esophageal reflux of the stomach or esophagus, causing vomiting sensation and vomiting. Patients will feel very uncomfortable because the vomit will contain discharge stomach. - Digest Problems Vomiting sensation and vomiting are some of the most common symptoms of digestive problems like diarrhea, food poisoning, and gastroenteritis. These are the reactions of the body due to digestive disorders cause. Severe vomiting may lead to dehydration, electrolyte imbalance in the body, increased levels of dizziness, and possible harm to the body . - Heart Problems People who have frequent cardiac problems, such as irregular heartbeats, arrhythmias, heart attacks, sudden hypotension, may not be able to provide enough blood and oxygen to the brain. This condition may lead to loss of consciousness and affect the brain tissue. In addition, congestion of blood vessels leading to the brain may also lead to dizziness. People who have hypertension may also give rise to headaches, dizziness, vomiting sensation and be sweating more than others. - Respiratory Disorders Respiratory disorders and infections in the respiratory tract may lead to shortness of breath. Dyspnea is one of the reasons for the limited intake of oxygen and the resulting dizziness and vomiting sensation. Some of the respiratory disorders that cause this condition include obstructive pulmonary disorders, asthma, pulmonary edema, etc - The Problem In The Ear The ear is an essential organ of the body. It plays an important role in maintaining a sense of balance. Infections, inflammation, fluid buildup or tissue damage in the ear also make you feel unbalanced resulting in dizziness and vomiting sensation. - Other Causes Some other causes of dizziness, vomiting sensation may be allergy, fatigue, sinusitis, headache and migraine, nutritional deficiencies or too low blood sugar, etc. If you have frequent vomiting sensation and dizziness, check with your doctor to find out the exact cause of the condition. What Dangerous Diseases Go Along With Vomiting Symptoms? - Gastroenteritis And Duodenal Ulcer With symptoms such as vomiting sensation after eating, abdominal distention or a heavy eating feeling, and heartburn. Sometimes, you feel as burning in the upper abdomen when you are hungry and even after you eat. You should carry out gastroscopy, blood tests, and biochemical tests, as well as a test of antibodies to Helicobacter pylori virus (HP) that cause stomach and duodenal ulcers. You need to change diet and menus to stay away from fatty, spicy and sour foods that will help you neutralize excess acid in your stomach in the shortest amount of time. - Gallbladder Problem You feel vomiting sensation even in the meal because you are feeling full and do not want to eat. In addition, there is a pain in the upper right side of the abdomen accompanied by a bitter taste or metallic odor in the mouth and heartburn in the stomach. In order to deal with this condition, you need an ultrasound, and it depends on your doctor’s diagnosis: it may be a gall bladder dysfunction due to stones in it, cholecystitis. Besides, you also need to do liver tests. If in the bad case, the gallbladder may be removed. After eating, you feel uncomfortable and irritable. After that, you feel the ache emerging on the right upper abdomen, a bitter taste in the mouth and also discomfort in the intestines. In this case, doctors also recommend the use of anti-inflammatory drugs. And most importantly, you have to break down your meals during the day. You feel nauseated but not due to food, making you want to vomit. First, you feel pain in the upper abdomen and then gradually down to the right lower abdomen. Also, you feel a slight fever. When the pain begins to attack more aggressively, you need to call for emergency help, absolutely not to use painkillers because it will make doctors challenging to diagnose. After that, a surgery to remove the infected part of the appendix is needed. - Problems With The Vestibular System You feel vomiting sensation and dizziness when you change your position. Other symptoms include loss of balance, tinnitus, and flutter. This disease is not dangerous and can be treated successfully, it is necessary to review the operation of the hearing and vestibular organs. - Blood Pressure And Heart Feelings of vomiting sensation may cling to you all day long, especially in the morning. You will feel tired very quickly and may have a swollen, blush face. If you feel nausea and pain in the upper abdomen, then spread to the left arm, lower jaw, in addition to a stuffy nose, dull skin, or chest pain, you should pay attention to heart problems. For people over 45 years, physical stress and mental retardation should be reduced to avoid the risk of cardiovascular disease. The initial symptom is nausea and vomiting. Then high fever from 38-40o C may be accompanied by pain. The first is a dull pain, then traumatic pain, back pain. They may go gaunt and no self-control. To solve this problem, you need to carry out urine, blood and biochemical tests, ultrasound of the kidney or examination of the endocrine system and urinary system. Dietary adjustments are recommended. Antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs are recommended to avoid the risk of infection and even surgery to improve the situation. When To See A Doctor? There are many causes of your vomiting sensation. In some cases, you can treat this condition at home. If you cannot eat or drink anything for 12 hours or more, or if you are continually vomiting for more than 48 hours, it is best to see a doctor. Look for emergency medical assistance if the following symptoms also happen to you when you have vomiting sensation: - Severe abdominal pain, cramping or feeling uncomfortable chest pain - Dizziness or see the illusion - Tired or even fainting before and after vomiting - Cold, sweaty and pale skin - High fever - Pain throughout the body or headache - Signs of dehydration (such as dry throat, falling into a coma, and dry mouth) - Vomiting is as green as coffee grounds, or even blood - There is waste included in vomiting - Vomiting after head injury There, you have discovered some information about vomiting sensation, it is time to find out what the best natural remedies for vomiting sensation are. After that, we also have more home remedies for other diseases, so please visit our Home Remedies Page. Top 29 Effective Home Remedies For Vomiting Sensation There is no science-based evidence for the following homemade recipes. The recipes we've focused on are traditional home remedies, so always consult your doctor and check out your health condition regularly to know if a remedy is working for you. This is the first method in the list of natural home remedies for vomiting sensation. Ginger is considered one of the most effective vomiting treatments because it prevents vomiting by strengthening the digestive health, reducing acid in the stomach which causes vomiting . Moreover, the taste of ginger is also stimulated to excite other unpleasant odors. There are three methods to use ginger in overcoming vomiting sensation: Method 1: Fresh ginger - Cut a few slices of ginger thin, then chew ginger and swallow - Drink extra water to keep from choking and let the ginger go down the stomach - Put ginger freshly washed in the blender to pure - Remove the ginger from the blender, extract about five drops of ginger juice - Mix ginger juice into a glass of water, add a little honey and drink it every morning until the vomiting sensation expires Method 3: Ginger tea - Make ginger tea by boiling a fresh ginger root with a cup of water within 10 minutes - Then filter the ginger residue, add a little honey to the ginger juice was cooked as step and drink slowly - Drink 1 – 2 cups of ginger juice every morning to effectively treat the best vomiting sensation Method 4: Drink ginger pills - In cases of vomiting sensation after chemotherapy, the recommended dosage is 1,000-2,000 mg of capsules per day for the first three days - For vomiting sensation in early pregnancy, take 250mg ginger, four times a day - Ginger has also proven to be effective in treating vomiting sensation after surgery. You must tell your doctor if you want to drink ginger because ginger may increase blood flow during surgery. Drink 500-1,000 mg of ginger before surgery for one hour - For vomiting sensation related to food poisoning, gastroenteritis, and most other non-serious causes, take 250-1,000 mg of ginger, four times a day - Do not give children under 12 months drink ginger pills Lemon juice has the effect of curing vomiting by overcoming unpleasant odors that cause vomiting sensation. That is why it is listed as one of the effective home remedies for vomiting. In addition, vitamin C in lemon is also perfect for health. There are three ways to use lemon to overcome vomiting sensation: Method 1: Lemon And Honey - Squeeze a lemon into the cup, remove seeds. - Pour water into the cup, then add honey. - Use a spatula to stir lemon juice, water, and honey. - Drink lemon juice every morning to prevent vomiting sensation. Method 2: Lemon Essential Oil - Pour a small amount of lemon essential oil into a handkerchief - Cling your nose to the position of lemon essential oil on your handkerchief and take a deep breath, then you will not feel the feeling of nausea and discomfort anymore. Method 3: Lemon Peel Always bring a lemon with you, smell the lemon peel regularly to prevent odors that may make you vomiting sensation. Besides lemon, orange or grapefruit essential oils are also very pure, pleasant and effective for treating vomiting sensation. Like ginger and lemon, mint works to treat vomiting sensation very effectively by calming the stomach. There are many ways to use mint to improve vomiting sensation, but the following two ways are said to be most effective: Method 1: Mint And Honey - Add one tablespoon of dried mint leaves to a cup of tea. - Pour hot water to the mouth of the cup. - Put the lid on and leave for 5-10 minutes. - Filter tea, add a little honey or sugar, stir and drink as soon as the tea is hot. Method 2: Peppermint oil - Pour a small amount of peppermint oil into a handkerchief. - Clench your nose with peppermint oil on a towel and take a deep breath, then you will not see vomiting sensation and discomfort anymore. Note that if you do not like the smell of mint, you should choose other herbs like lemon or ginger. If not, the mint is the cause of more vomiting sensation. 4. Rice Water Rice water alleviates vomiting sensation, especially caused by gastritis. Prepare rice water by using white rice, not brown rice because it is starch-rich and quick to digest. - Cook white rice with a 2: 3 ratio of rice and water - Filter white rice water - Use rice water when you have vomiting sensation Method 1: Cinnamon Juice - Prepare one cup of water with three cinnamon sticks - Pour a glass of water into the pan, then add three cinnamon sticks and boil water for 10 minutes. - Turn off the stove and filter out residue, pour water into the cup to warm. - Drink Cinnamon Juice Method 2: Cinnamon Juice With Ginger - Prepare one small slice of ginger, two pieces of cinnamon, one teaspoon and one cup of water - Pour water in a pan with cinnamon and ginger and turn on the stove to boil for 15 minutes - Turn off the stove, filter the ginger and cinnamon - Take water into the cup and add honey to stir and enjoy Method 3: Cinnamon And Ice Water - Prepare two pieces of cinnamon, one orange peel, one tea bag, a 1/2 tablespoon of ginger, one spoon of fresh mint, one tablespoon of honey and ice - Pour water into the pan along with cinnamon, orange peel, and tea bag and boil for 10 minutes - Filter the ingredients to get water into the cup, let cool and add honey, mint, and ice and enjoy Method 4: Cinnamon Juice With Lemon - Prepare one tablespoon fresh lemon juice, two pieces of cinnamon, one clove, one teaspoonful, and one glass of water - Pour water into the pan with cinnamon and cloves and boil for 10 minutes - Filter water and add honey with lemon juice, stir well and enjoy 6. Apple Cider Vinegar Apple cider vinegar, one of the most effective home remedies for vomiting, will produce alkaline, increase the pH level in the blood to the natural level, help restore the ability to fight off germs and diseases. Thanks to that, apple cider vinegar helps prevent vomiting sensation caused by delayed gastric emptying. - One kilogram of apple salted in salt water slightly salted about 15 minutes to disinfect and then removed to drain - Add the apples to the whole grain, add three liters of boiling water and warm with two bananas, put in glass jars, covered with cloth - After a month, use filtered apple juice gradually - Vinegar has an excellent membrane. Seeing that the mosquitoes fly out is broken vinegar, have to do again - Wash the green banana clean and then slice it into thin slices to dry the sun or you can dry - Dry the powder into fine powder and add the glass vial to cool the refrigerator - When using, take two tablespoons of green banana powder mixed with warm water and drink - Use twice a day before meals to help reduce the disease effectively 8. Vitamin B6 According to doctors, Vitamin B6 is abundant in brown rice, banana, avocado, fish, corn, and nuts. This vitamin balances your digestive system, so there is one of the effective home remedies vomiting, especially morning sickness. Moreover, this vitamin is also not harmful to the fetus and is considered safe for mothers in the future. - The appropriate dosage for you to take this vitamin is 25mg, three times a day - However, pregnant women should not take any medications without a doctor’s prescription. Ask your doctor before taking medicine, including vitamin B6 Apples are rich in fiber and may remove the chemicals causing nausea from the body. They also replenish your lost energy and control the feeling of vomiting sensation. Specifically: This is one of the trees you can eat the shell (remember to wash carefully before eating). So with other plants, maybe apples are listed as the cheapest. This is a common type of scattered tree that can be found in any country, wading under a variety of photo food: apple pie, apple juice, apple candy, etc. 10. Chrysanthemum (TanacetumParthenium) This is a little known suggestion among home remedies for vomiting sensation. Tanacetum parthenium is another treatment for nausea that has been used as a tea for centuries. Chrysanthemums may be particularly useful when used to treat nausea associated with migraine. Do not drink aromatic Chrysanthemum if you are allergic to chrysanthemum powder, marigold, Roman chrysanthemum, grass or white daisies. These herbs may have cross allergies. - To make these teas, you can soak one teaspoon of dried flour or leaves in a cup of boiling water - Pour honey or hay (and lemon) for more flavor - This herb has been used to treat vomiting sensation for a long time and is considered safe 50 compounds isolated from the leaves and basil plants may resist bacteria, helping to prevent foodborne illness. Basil is also a good source of iron, calcium, potassium, vitamin C and K for the body. This vegetable is useful for indigestion, vomiting sensation, stomach upset, diarrhea, and flatulence. - You can mix basil with honey, water or fruit juice for the day - Besides, you can also make three tablespoons of yogurt mixed with basil and a little salt - Eat three or four times a day until symptoms disappear - Those who are using blood thinners should limit their intake of basil because it enhances the blood-thinning properties of the medication and leads to serious complications - People with high blood glucose levels often use basil to lower blood glucose levels to a safe level. But patients with diabetes or a history of hypoglycemia, using basil leaves will lead to low blood sugar levels - Pregnant women overeat basil can negatively affect the health of mother and child. It may also trigger reactions in pregnant women - This food stimulates uterine contractions in pregnant women, leading to complications during delivery or negative effects on the menstrual cycle 12. Bread Or Biscuits When you have vomiting sensation, chewing bread or biscuits will help reverse this feeling more quickly because the cake contains more starch will absorb acid in the stomach. You should avoid fried foods, greasy foods, sweets. Salty cakes, pies may absorb acid in the stomach, preventing stomach pain. Other foods to eat are noodles, rice, grilled chicken, fish, potatoes, etc. 13. Make Some Quick Changes Method 1: Avoid Unpleasant Smells And Cigarette Smoke. Regarding home remedies for vomiting, the best step to do is to stay away from stimulations of vomiting sensation and vomiting. Cleanup unpleasant odors and smoke by opening windows. Or you can go outside with fresh air. Method 2: Ice Pack - Hot temperatures contribute to vomiting sensation, especially when the heat of the body starts to rise too high. - You try to use an ice pack to cool your forehead. Avoid high temperatures and humidity if possible. - Heat exhaustion may cause vomiting sensation and is usually accompanied by symptoms such as dizziness, fatigue, headache, sweating, and some other symptoms. - Get out of the heat and go to a cool room. Method 3: Taking a rest Try to sleep through nausea. It also helps control stress, anxiety, and tension that may cause nausea. Rest and relax as much as possible. Method 4: Keep Your Body Stable Movement may increase the feeling of vomiting sensation. Limit your movement as much as possible. Try lying in a dark and quiet room. Method 5: Use Food And Soft Drinks Use food and soft drinks. Include crackers made from whole grains, rice or sesame crackers, brown rice, and whole grain toast. Or skinless chickens. - You can also try chicken or broth with vegetable - Start eating in small quantities - Fatty and spicy foods may make nausea worse. Many people feel nauseous eating tomatoes, acidic foods (like orange juice, pickles), chocolate, cream, and eggs Method 6: Try The Brat Menu The BRAT menu includes bananas, rice, applesauce, and toast. This is the recommended diet for vomiting sensation. Method 7: Drink Plenty Of Cold Water - Make sure you drink as much water as you can. Dehydration will make you feel uncomfortable. - For vomiting sensation, the temperature of the drinking water is equal to room temperature is the most tolerant. - Slowly sip water. Drinking too much water may cause a feeling of disturbance in the stomach. Method 8: Try Practicing Breathing Exercises Breathing may help you reduce the vomiting sensation. - Place the pillow under your legs and your neck for comfort - Place your hands on your abdomen, just beneath your skeleton. The fingers of two hands touch each other so you can feel them split when doing the exercises - Inhale deep, long and slow by puffing up your belly, just like your baby breathes this is to make sure you are using your diaphragm to breathe, not your ribs. The gravitational force attracts more air into the lungs than the ribs - The fingers of both hands placed on the abdomen should be separated when breathing - Breathe this way for at least five minutes The natural home remedies for vomiting we have mentioned above are claimed to be able to reduce vomiting sensation well. Although the home remedies are quite time-consuming and slow-acting, their results are surprising. Choose some of them and alternate them in your treating to see how effective they are. However, all content provided is for informational & educational purposes. We recommend you consult a healthcare professional to determine which method is appropriate for you and to avoid the side effects when applying these methods. In addition, asking for healthcare professional’s advice may help you know that you have to take medicine or not, especially for children, pregnant or breastfeeding women. If you have any contributing ideas about our article of “Top 29 Natural Home Remedies for Vomiting Sensation” introduced in Home Remedies Category, do not hesitate to drop your words below this post. We will answer as soon as we could.

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One of these is agriculture. Proper animal waste management can reduce the huge bulk of it, making it easier to use. Agricultural air pollution comes mainly in the form of ammonia (NH 3), which enters the air as a gas from heavily fertilized fields and livestock waste. Pollution may muddy landscapes, poison soils and waterways, or kill plants and animals. The agriculture sector is one of the biggest drivers of anthropogenic – meaning human-caused – climate change. I am certainly not advocating factory farming, but in terms of the methane exhaled by cows, extensive farming tends to be much worse, even when you take into account the emissions produced from the feed. Although animal agriculture is critical to the subsistence of smallholders in some poor countries, the global detrimental impact of animal farming is now both well documented and overwhelming. A lot of people don’t seem to be alarmed when they hear that the planet is warming. How E-Cigarettes and Vaping Damage the Environment and Your Health, 12 Foods to Help You Survive Winter Allergies, Colds and The Flu. In order to accommodate the 70 billion animals raised annually for human consumption, a third of the planet’s ice-free land surface, as well as nearly sixteen percent of global freshwater, is devoted to growing livestock. Secondly, factory farming is designed to fatten the animals (or make them produce milk) in the fastest possible way. The many products of animal agriculture are important to American consumers of that there can be no question. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. rotational grazing in areas that can benefit from the manure and spur on reforestation; see the documentary film "Kiss the Ground" for more information) should be a priority for those who can afford to do so. L’activité agricole est également concernée par les préoccupations émergentes relatives à la qualité de l’air. Agriculture and Air Pollution Key Points Recent research indicates that the contribution of global agriculture to greenhouse gas emissions, including livestock production and the grains required for this sector, is even higher than the 30% figure previously cited by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Agricultural emissions (such as ammonia from animal husbandry and fertiliser) were the leading cause of premature air pollution deaths in the Eastern US, Europe, Russia, Turkey, Korea and Japan, followed by traffic and power generation emissions. I fact, most studies show that grass-fed cows, and generally cattle kept in more extensive (rather than intensive) production units, produce more rather than less methane per animal. Animal agriculture involves the production of livestock and animal by-products for human consumption. The byproducts of animal agriculture pollute our air and waterways. Urgent: Tell Your Senator to Protect our Air and Resources [PETITION]=. They say once you know truth, it’s your job to spread it. Cattle emit methane through belching and farting and from their waste (a mid-sized dairy farm with 200 cows produces approximately 24,000 pounds of manure every day, while poultry farms can release high levels of ammonia from the fermentation of feces in the litter. Air (and global warming) pollution. They can travel through the air for miles and turn the sky hazy near the factory farm. A 2019 report issued by the Natural Resources Defense Council puts the amounts into perspective, explaining that "an average broiler facility raising 90,000 birds at a time may release more than 15 tons of ammonia a year, causing respiratory problems and chronic lung disease as well as chemical burns to the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes of nearby residents.". Les pesticides utilisés en agriculture intensive polluent inexorablement notre air, affectent la santé humaine, animale et la biodiversité. Animal Feeding Operations Air Monitoring at Agricultural Operations. Agricultural air pollution comes mainly in the form of ammonia, which enters the air as a gas from heavily fertilized fields and livestock waste. But there are many other, less noticeable forms of air pollution that deserve our attention. By eating less meat (or giving it up completely), fewer animals need to be bred, raised, and slaughtered, which means less manure. Agricultural air pollution comes mainly in the form of ammonia (NH 3), which enters the air as a gas from heavily fertilized fields and livestock waste. Toxic chemicals that accumulate in top predators can make some species unsafe to eat. These “factory farms” or “CAFO”s (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations) are minimally regulated due to ag-gag laws, which has led to a whole host of health and environmental problems. As the world’s appetite for meat increases, countries across the globe are bulldozing huge swaths of land to make more room for animals as well as crops to feed them. But it doesn’t end there: livestock production also contributes to shortages of fresh water, land destruction and deforestation, air and water pollution, loss of … 2015. One of these is agriculture. Now, however, this sector’s impacts are being felt in the atmosphere – carrying troubling implications for every living thing on the planet. Agricultural crops can be injured when exposed to high concentrations of various air pollutants. Asthma can be a real concern, especially for children living near these farms. However, such practices emit large amounts of health-damaging black carbon and particulate air pollution. Studies have also shown that grass-fed cattle are responsible for more greenhouse gas emissions than those raised on grain feed — as much as 500 percent more — in addition to requiring more land and water per pound of beef. Grass-fed cows require a lot of grazing land, which could otherwise be reforested and thus store carbon. How animal agriculture causes pollution: The waste produced by the 70 billion animals farmed each year is typically stored in large lagoons where it emits toxic gases. The effects of pollution. Protect the Ocean, Justice for Abused Dogs, and Deplatform Lele Pons for Animal Cruelty: 10 Petitions to Sign this Week to Help People, Animals and the Planet! Livestock in the U.S. produces 500 million tons of excrement every year. Temperature, water vapour, movement, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have a direct effect on food and fibre production. Can’t Argue With - One Green Planet Animal farms may produce food, Emmanuelle Lavaine, Philippe Majerus et Nicolas Treich, « Health, air pollution and animal agriculture », TSE Working Paper, n° 20-1158, novembre 2020. The first article in this series was about animal agriculture’s connection to climate, land use, biodiversity loss, air pollution, topsoil erosion, and desertification. Air pollution The practices that are popularly used by the meat industry in The United States are not efficient in containing emissions of greenhouse gases. Agricultural air pollution comes mainly in the form of ammonia, which enters the air as a gas from heavily fertilized fields and livestock waste. 1Animal waste from all livestock – a leading source o… Most of the methane comes from cows on factory farms that are fed low-quality grains that their bodies were not made to digest, resulting in high levels of indigestion and flatulence. The environmental impact of this practice is detrimental to the land, air, and water and involves the unsustainable use of fossil fuels. Downloadable! Urban Air Pollution May Make COVID-19 More Deadly, 'Kiss the Ground' Shows How Soil Health Can Save Us From Climate Crisis, Food Companies Push UK Government for Tighter Deforestation Rules, 8 Guidelines for Buying Better Meat and Dairy, Personal Care Products and Cleaners Are a Major Source of Air Pollution, Where Does Particulate Pollution Come From and What Can I Do About It? Abstract. Industrialized animal agriculture is a major source of air pollutants and other emissions to the surrounding environment. By simply choosing more plant-based foods, you can effectively halve your personal carbon footprint and help mitigate some of the other negative impacts imbued by animal agriculture. Animal agriculture manure and farming fertilizers bring nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to the proverbial water pollution “table.” Advertisement Furthermore, a third of worldwide grain production is used to feed livestock. The nitric acid builds up in the atmosphere and then returns to the surface of the earth as acid rain, harming soil, forest habitats, and water ecosystems. It\’s terrible for the animals and generally for the environment, but in terms of the methane produced it\’s actually better for the climate. One of these is agriculture. It often leaks out or overflows , causing devastation to both land and waterways. The environmental impact of this practice is detrimental to the land, air, and water and involves the unsustainable use of fossil fuels. Mechanisms (Types) of Agricultural Pollution She holds a degree in English Literature and History from the University of Toronto. So in this case, it is up to you to share this article and educate others about the dangers of animal agriculture air pollution – and to look to solutions. Vehicles and farms are both responsible for similar types of air pollution. Yep id love to do that with you im also gay and love shoving nutrisious vegies up my anus!!! Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The best way to lower the amount of air pollution caused by animal agriculture is to go to the source. Animal agriculture is responsible for about 9% of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions globally. What Is the Issue and What Can We Do? Si l’on n’y pense pas au premier abord, l’agriculture joue aussi un rôle dans la pollution de l’air ou atmosphérique. From Spiced Turmeric Broth with Roasted Vegetables to West Coast Kale Salad: Our Top Eight Vegan Recipes of the Day! Sadly, many communities located near factory farms fall below the poverty level so they do not have the option to relocate to a place with cleaner air. Given all of this air pollution, it is not surprising that animal farming causes several serious health problems for farmworkers and local residents. Poultry litter emits particulate pollution and ammonia. Agriculture’s contribution to air pollution runs even deeper than what happens between crop seasons. (Besides Wearing a Mask All the Time), The Problem with Fast-Growing Broiler Chickens, The Worst Everyday Air Pollutants and What They Do to Our Bodies, Particulate Pollution Is Worse Than We Knew, and Is Damaging ‘Every Organ in the Body’, World's First Floating Dairy Farm Comes to Rotterdam. Sorry but I will argue! Animal agriculture has long left its mark upon the earth. Get your favorite articles delivered right to your inbox! Gratuit agriculture-et-pollution-air-primequal-vf.pdf. In addition, meat and other animal products have a huge carbon footprint due to the deforestation needed to grow feed and graze animals, as well as all the transportation involved in both feeding the animals and distributing the products to consumers. Agriculture is the biggest source of green house gas emissions in Ireland (see Issue 2 of Vegan Sustainability Magazine) and over 90% of all agricultural pollution is related to animal agriculture. Ripe vs. Unripe Bananas: Which are Better for You? Tetracycline antibiotics are used to treat pink eye and urinary tract infections, both of which are becoming more difficult to treat as bacteria develop resistance. Additionally, when factory farm waste decomposes, it releases airborne particulate matter along with the harmful gases. The above factors contribute to three primary types of agricultural pollution: land pollution, water pollution, and air pollution. Think about air pollution, and images of stalled traffic in a cloud of fumes and wildfires belching out dark smoke will likely come to mind. Air quality is … The large amounts of manure created, carry pathogens that are harmful for humans too. In this paper, we discuss the health impact of animal agriculture through air pollution. 2 It blows in over cities, reacts with emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and sulphur (SO 2 ) from traffic and industry, and leads to the formation of so-called secondary particles. By shunning animal products, vegans are de facto environmentalists. For example, roughly 80 percent of ammonia emissions in the U.S. comes from animal waste. Land Pollution. The animal agriculture industry is killing our environment and putting every species on this planet at risk of extinction. One Green Planet’s #EatForThePlanet movement. Releases of dangerous levels of hydrogen sulfide can cause sore throats, seizures, comas, and even death. Communities, Animal Agriculture and Air Pollution: Policy Issues and Options for the Future. Injury ranges from visible markings on the foliage, to reduced growth and yield, to premature death of the plant. Please support us! A stunning 100 percent of the samples tested positive for Monenisin, an antibiotic that is commonly used in human medicine. This then breeds bacteria, which combines with other pollutants in the air to form nitric acid. Huge tracts of land and millions of gallons of water are needed to grow, feed, and raise these animals. By 2050, consumption of meat and dairy prod… En effet, la mesure permet de lutter contrer la pollution de l'eau par les nitrates et de réduire la pollution de l'air, les déjections animales génèrent 75% des émissions agricoles. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), children raised in communities near factory farms are more likely to develop asthma or bronchitis. It blows in over cities, reacts with emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and sulphur (SO 2 ) from traffic and industry, and leads to the formation of so-called secondary particles. AEQAA Biofilters for Odor and Air Pollution Mitigation in Animal Agriculture: AQEAA Diet and Feed Management to Mitigate Airborne Emissions: AQEAA Covers for Mitigating Odor and Gas Emission in Animal Agriculture: An Overview: AQEAA Impermeable Covers for Odor and Air Pollution Mitigation in Animal Agriculture: A Technical Guide Abstract. Credit: iStock Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), where large numbers of animals are raised and often confined, are becomingly increasingly common as agriculture becomes more industrialized. Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) and industrial crop production can affect air quality on farms and in surrounding communities by releasing ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, pesticides and other airborne agriculture pollution. Reduced open burning of agricultural residues. Of the 330 million acres of agricultural land in the U.S., 260 million acres are used to produce feed for livestock. How Does Pollution from Animal Agriculture Compare to Vehicle Pollution? That includes an estimated 42 million cows that go through the factory farm system every single year. Lastly, being publicly-funded gives us a greater chance to continue providing you with high-quality content. Specifically, livestock accounts for an estimated nine percent of global carbon dioxide emissions, 35 to 40 percent of global methane emissions, and 65 percent of nitrous oxide emissions. hey guys just wanted to say that i agree to beastiality, i fuck my pet dog on a daily basis and i was looking for a larger animal to rape me such as a bear because i want to split my ass in half, if you have any suggestions call me at 0450609459 xx, For more Animal, Earth, Life, Vegan Food, Health, and Recipe content published daily, subscribe to the, 5 Alarming Facts About Cheese And Your Health, Homemade Coconut Sour Cream [Vegan, Gluten-Free], Magnesium: How to Get Enough and Which Foods Are Best, Milk Life? Feathers, bits of feed, and oceans warm as they absorb ever-more carbon in. Forest cover decreases, and even death of food during their lifetimes the U.S. 260. Carry pathogens that are vital parameters of life to grow, feed, raise. 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BIOLOGICAL CONTROLThe bacterium, Pasteuria penetrans, has been long recognised as a potential biocontrol agent for root-know nematodes. Staff-only pages Place the samples in separate plastic bags, seal them, and place a label on the outside with your name, address, location, the current and previous crop, and the crop you intend to grow. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) The symptoms caused by SCNs can go easily unrecognized by farmers. Root-knot nematodes. The two nematode classes, the Chromadorea and Enoplea, have diverged so long ago, over 550 million years, that it is difficult to accur… Stem nematode feeding may also injure the alfalfa crowns, creating entry wounds for fungal and bacterial pathogens (such as Phytophthora or Fusarium) that can cause crown rot and reduced yields. Screening is ongoing to identify alfalfa varieties with resistance to lesion nematodes, but currently there are no commercially certified varieties with lesion nematode resistance. storage roots. Impact on the root system includes reduced root growth and black or brown lesions on the root surface. Please read the application instructions carefully to get the most out of these amazing microscopic worms. Meloidgyne incognita is recorded from American Samoa, Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Papua new Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.. Certified seed is well cleaned to remove alfalfa debris and stem nematodes and then tested for the presence of stem nematode before seed sales. CSIRO Publishing. Note that the damage is on the young buds, and that the decay has probably occurred in storage. Distribution. Lesions may fuse to cause the entire roots to appear brown. 146). Alfalfa infection caused by Meloidogyne species may be confined to localized areas of a field or extend throughout an entire field. In cart: $0.00 Subtotal Current Hours, Operations and Safety Info. Contact webmaster. Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California 3), lettuce, melon, potato, tomatoes, yam), Phaseolus bean. RESISTANT VARIETIESThere are root-knot nematode-resistant varieties of tomato, bean and sweetpotato. It is the most destructive pathogen of soybeans in North America and yield loss estimates from SCN have been measured between $100s of millions to over $1 billion annually. However, it only occurs in localized areas of the state. Collect the remains of the crop and debris and burn it. $48.99 $ 48. The term is most often applied to smaller nematodes that are either free-living or parasitic in plants. UC ANR Publication 3430, B. If you have a variety of pests, give them the old one-two punch with the Hb/Sc and Hb/Sf combinations. 1, galls of Meloidogyne sp. Sheep become infected by ingesting the larval stage with pasture resulting in roundworms living in the stomach or small intestine where they can cause an infection of the gut known as parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE). The nematode life cycle typically includes an egg stage, four larval stages, and an adult stage. They are found in all Damage is If laboratory analysis is not available, select plants at random from across the field, shake out the soil, and estimate the level of galling as an indication of the nematode population. As alfalfa plant dieback occurs, weeds often invade the open areas. Ideally, soil samples should be taken to determine whether nematodes are present and in sufficient numbers to cause damage. Nematodes move relatively short distances on their own (a few inches per year), but they are easily spread long distances by soil movement (wind, farm equipment, etc. Stem nematode is easily identifiable under a dissecting scope. 69. Worldwide. 1999). Control volunteer alfalfa plants in subsequent crop rotations. Study Flashcards On Nematodes - Common & scientific names at Cram.com. Many of these are toxic chemicals that are now restricted or banned. ), irrigation water, nursery stock, seed, and debris in seed and hay. Add water until the stem pieces are submerged. Nematodes are among the most abundant animals on Earth. They are so named because of the whiplike shape of the body. The nematodes (UK: / ˈ n ɛ m ə t oʊ d z / NEM-ə-tohdz, US: / ˈ n iː m-/ NEEM-Greek: Νηματώδη; Latin: Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-parasitic nematodes being known as eelworms. Common Name. Of the two species of root lesion nematode listed, P. penetrans is more pathogenic.           Meloidgyne incognita is recorded from American Samoa, Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Papua new Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.. Another typical sign of a stem nematode infection is the presence of "white flags", which are individual alfalfa stems and leaves that turn white, especially during spring months (typically after the first cutting). The red ring disease of coconuts and African oil palms is caused by the nematode Bursaphelenchus cocophilus.It is also identified in literature with an alternative scientific name Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus.The common name, the red ring nematode, is derived from its distinguishing symptom. Nematode, also called roundworm, any worm of the phylum Nematoda. Identification. Unlike D. dipsaci, it does not form 'eelworm wool'. A tolerance threshold of 2-3 nematodes/250 cm³ soil is used … common name: a stubby-root nematode scientific name: Trichodorus obtusus Cobb (syn Trichodorus proximus ) (Nematoda: Adenophorea: Triplonchida: Diphtherophorina: Trichodoridea: Trichodoridae) Root crops, Look for plants that are growing poorly and wilt readily even though they have adequate nutrition and water. The number of nematodes/500g of soil were well correlated with the number/50 g of harvested onion seeds (Seinhorst and Koert, 1971). While most members of Aphelenchoides are fungivorous (feed on fungi), these three species have populations that are facultative plant-parasites an… Plants do not recover and eventually die. Meloidogyne incognita and other species. This can be done using a high-pressure washer or blower, or by cutting grass hay prior to moving back into alfalfa. Specialist advice is required to determined what, if any, chemicals are permissable for home or commercial use. FREE Shipping by Amazon. Root knot nematodes are damaging to cotton as a single pest problem and as part of the Fusarium wilt race 1 and race 4 disease complex. The soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, is the most devastating pest to crop yields in the U.S., targeting the roots of soybean and other legume plants.When infection is severe SCNs cause stunting, yellowing, impaired canopy development, and yield loss. Entomopathogenic nematodes occur naturally in soil environments and locate their host in response to carbon dioxide, vibration and other chemical cues (Kaya and Gaugler 1993). A microscope is needed to see root-knot nematodes; the active stage, the "larvae" or "juveniles", are about 0.5 mm long, and they are too small to be seen by the naked eye. After traveling a short distance inside the root, they stop, and their presence causes the formation of giant cells, upon which they feed, and which form the characteristic galls. Lesion nematodes have a very wide host range, and more than one species may occur in a field, making crop rotation ineffective for lesion nematode management. carrot, cucumbers, eggplant, ginger (Photo This nematode causes tiny galls that can easily be missed if roots are not examined carefully. Losses are often heavy, especially in warm regions with long growing seasons. A. putorii is rarely reported in North America. fruit (banana, papaya, peach, pineapple, strawberry) and ornamentals Be careful not to freeze samples, allow them to dry or leave them in direct sunlight. roots of the two plants on the left with smaller root mass compared to the healthy It is critical to know the nematode species present and the density of their populations to make management decisions. Android Edition The life cycle from egg laying to maturity takes about 30 days. There are several nematode genera that feed on plant stems and foliage, including Aphelenchoides, Bursaphelenchus, Anguina, Ditylenchus, andLitylenchus. 3.9 out of 5 stars 180. At crop emergence, heavy infestations of root lesion nematodes cause areas of poor growth with stunted, yellowish, wilted, weak plants. If nematode species have not previously been identified, take soil samples and send them to a diagnostic laboratory (PDF) for identification. Meloidogyne sp. Leathercraft (4/15) Yield: Sheep Wool x 1 Wind Crystal 2 x Sheepskin 35 Wool Thread 75 Wolf Felt 65 57 15 Royal Squire's Bunk None None Lamb - Possible reward from choosing to Collect items from monster. If symptoms of stem nematode are evident, such as stunted growth and open patches in the field. The nematode is a major problem on yam (field and storage) in parts of Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. CHEMICAL CONTROL A wide range of chemicals has been used for the control of root-knot nematodes, e.g., fumigants (methyl bromide, metham sodium, chloropiocrin), liquids and granules (fenamiphos, oxamyl, furadan). They occur as parasites in animals and plants or as free-living forms in soil, fresh water, marine environments, and even such unusual places as vinegar, beer malts, and water-filled cracks deep within Earth’s crust. Grape Nematodes Scientific names: Root knot nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria, M. hapla and M. chitwoodi Dagger nematodes: Xiphinema americanum and X. index Needle nematodes: Longidorus africanus Citrus nematode: Tylenchulus semipenetrans Root lesion nematode: Pratylenchus vulnus Ring nematode: Mesocriconema (=Criconemella) xenoplax Roundworms are estimated to cost UK sheep producers £84 million pounds per annum in treatment and lost productivity. Many vegetables (beans, capsicum, carrot, celery (see Fact Sheet no. 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Subject 5. Ethno-social and political processesUkrainian lands in the early twentieth century. Nationality, nation, the Ukrainian nation's modern political nation, the politicization of society, political party, autonomy 1900 1900-1903 biennium, 1902 1.Problemy formation and consolidation of the Ukrainian nation In the second half of the nineteenth century. after elimination feudal and feudal relations on the territory of Ukraine has intensified and accelerated the consolidation process Ukrainian nation on ethnic basis *. Nation (From Lat. Natio - people) - large community of people who are aware of their unity political, economic and cultural interests in the shaping of their Common areas of economic ties, language and nation state or mass struggle for its establishment. The consolidation of the Ukrainian nation – process that occurs under the influence of modernization and characterized great awareness of common human need to create your own national state on the basis of community boundaries and territory of residence formation and distribution of a common language and culture, strengthening economic ties. It manifested itself primarily in the development of national consciousness that became the unifying factor of the Ukrainian community. Decisive role in This process played a major part of Ukrainian lands, known as Main Dnieper Ukraine. That is, objectively formed on large base of ancient historical and geographical regions, was a compact integrity, without which there could be no Ukrainian nationality nor Ukrainian nation. Factors affecting the formation of the Ukrainian nation and caused the features of this process Further consolidation of the Ukrainian nation is closely linked to features of modernization processes that includes all areas of life society. She was accompanied by population growth throughout territory of the Ukrainian lands, which occurred both by natural gain and the displacement due to these lands, including representatives of other nationalities. In the early twentieth century population Ukrainian lands is becoming more multinational. According to researcher A. Ponomarev, most people in the Ukrainian lands were Ukrainian - 72%, there were Russians - 12%, Jews - 8% Germans - 2% Polish - 1,2%, Belarusians, and Tatars - by 0,9%, Moldova - 0,8%, Greeks and Bulgarians - by 0,3%, Czechs - 0,2%, Armenian - 0,05% Karaites and the Turks - on 0,03%, Gypsies, Estonians, Latvians - on 0,01%, representatives of other national groups - 0,5%. Moreover, ethnic composition of different regions was not uniform, explained that different historical destiny of the population of a region and the nature modernization processes. Under these conditions there was a question of becoming modern nation, as the person to be incorporated into the world, which quickly was updated, it was necessary to change the scope and samoutverdzhuvatysya, identifying himself not with a small local group (family, community, settlement), but with large communities such as the nation. The term "modern nation" became established in domestic political thought in the early twentieth century. Let us turn to sources In a modern day Ukrainian, as an ethnic nation, have become the driving force in building the nation state. In the early twentieth century. national movement embraced all strata of the Ukrainian population. Leaders This movement began to realize that Ukrainian modern political nation should be going not only ethnic Ukrainian, but also ethnic minorities living in Ukraine. However, the close relationship between the development of economy, culture and language and the process of consolidation at the turn of XIX-XX centuries. not happened. Politics ruling circles of Russia and Austria-Hungary led objectively to the denationalization of the Ukrainian population. Impediments to development national consciousness was and insufficient level of education. Finally the very existence of the Russian-Austrian-Hungarian border uskladnyuvala economic, social, political and cultural ties between western and eastern states. It created the strongest negative impact on the formation and consolidation of Ukrainian modern nation, which could be completed only if reunification Ukrainian lands into one state. 2. The politicization of Ukrainian society and the liberation movement What evidence of politicization of Ukrainian society and the liberation movement? In the early twentieth century. increased the politicization of Ukrainian Society *, which was conditioned by intensive development of economy, shifts in the social structure of society, growing protest potential in relation to power, the deployment of the national movement, development of parliamentarism. Existing internal contradictions strengthened contradictory processes of modernization of society, economic crisis worsening the lives of workers, exacerbating the agrarian and national questions *. The main force of the protest movement was the intelligentsia, which joined by workers and peasants. 1900-1903 years associated with massive speakers industrial workers. May 1, 1900 (Day celebration Labour), a mass demonstration workers in Kharkiv with the requirements of 8-hour workday and political freedoms *. In March 1901 mass demonstrations of workers and students took place in Kiev. U1902 was May Day demonstrations and strikes have already covered several large cities of Ukraine: Kyiv, Ekaterinoslav, Kharkov et al. Requirements protesters were: freedom of trade unions, strike, 8-hour day, abolition nadurochnih works increase salaries. Often the organizers of similar events were representatives of radical political parties. Especially large-scale strikes and demonstrations unfolded in July-August 1903, covering Kyiv, Nikolaev, Yelipavethrad, Ekaterinoslav, Kerch et al. They took part in 115 thousand workers of various industrial regions. Participants, in addition to traditional economic requirements and put forward the slogan "Down with autocracy!". The Imperial Government responded to the workers repression. Only 1903 in clashes with police and troops killed more than 100 workers, many protesters were injured, Over 2 thousand were arrested. Actively fought for their rights and workers of Western Ukraine. In 1900-1903 he Eastern Galicia was 42 strikes. The biggest strike was in Lviv builders, which was attended by five thousand workers. Police and gendarmerie have done over the bloody strikers massacre. Photo strike oil Borislav The implications of the polarization property and sharpening contradictions in the become a crisis and mass peasant movements. Unlike their workers performances for the most part had a spontaneous character. Peasants seized landlords' land and the land, opposed the division of land, destroyed landlords' crops and hayfields, forests cut down, spoke against the sale property for back taxes, refusing to pay debts and other charges required improvement leases and other conditions. However, increasingly and villagers resorted to a more acute forms of struggle. In 1902Dnieper in most mass was by peasants in Podolsk, Poltava and Kharkov provinces. Rural poor crushed 40 landlords' estates, burned the 2 plants, taken over about 2 thousand acres landed estates. In the years 1903-1904 in the villages was Naddniprianshchyna about 1 thousand poor performances. In defense of its interests were farmers and West lands. The largest scale peasants acquired protest summer 1902 Eastern Galicia, which was attended by over 500 villages and almost 200 thousand peasants. Although these performances were of massive, generally in the majority they were weakly organized, and claims the rebels - not formulated clearly and consciously. However, the government is not going to make concessions, but failed to repression. Police and troops used weapons against the peasants. Significant number of protesters ended up in jail. Peasants revolt areas were imposed heavy fines, loss of which recovered landowners. What is common and what you see is different between the workers and peasants' performances this time? Let us turn to sources From the striking workers of Odessa cards (July 1903) Our heavy fighting with government capital. But it is especially difficult in no rights in Tsarist Russia. Many fellow fighters have seized and arrested. The Army and the Cossacks, gendarmes and police are ready. Against We have not operated weapons, but who knows what will happen next? The mass demonstrations of workers and peasants had a significant performance impact on the most sensitive part of the revitalization movement of intellectuals - students. General political disempowerment of the people, the actual deprivation autonomy of universities, national oppression, police supervision displeased best part of the students that vylyvalosya in strikes, Pod Blach In 1900 Students organized a community assembly in Lviv Ukrainian students from different universities Austria-Hungary, which made a demand for open government in Ukraine Ukrainian university. In January 1901 in Kyiv University for participating in protests, the government has been given to 183 soldiers students. In response to the empire began an all student strike, which was attended by students of Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odessa. They were joined by high school gymnasiums, workshops, real colleges and technical schools. That same year, the requirements of lifting free cultural development of the Ukrainian people, human learn their native language by the students of Lviv National University. Students sought to unite their efforts to achievement of democratic freedoms and the rise of national consciousness Ukrainian society, creating a secret society in Kiev Chernihiv Lubnah, Odessa, Lviv and other cities. Then they started hold their meetings and endorsed resolutions put forward demands to the government carry out socio-economic and political reform. Given the intensification of reform sentiment in the community centers antimonarchical liberal opposition were zemstvos. The purpose of a liberal movement was the development of economic society on market principles by replacing absolute monarchy to constitutional. Members traffic develop projects for the reform of local empowerment government, constitution, welfare and cultural and educational standards, ensuring the protection of its health and sent them to the king and government officials. The main earthly power of the opposition movement were intellectuals, nobility and officials. Among the active leaders of the movement were zemskoye B. Grinchenko Kotsyubyns'kyi Lyzogub F., B. Martos and others. In 1903 Zemskov liberal intellectuals with founded the Union of Liberation ", which demanded a constitution and introduction of universal suffrage. That same year, liberal-minded landowners formed the "Union Zemstvo-Constitution. In the following years a series of county conventions, delegates will convene sought representative legislative body of the Russian Empire. Intensified at the beginning of the century and the liberation movement. Ukrainian public, reputable scientists, cultural workers launched a massive Company for cancellation and Valuev Ems Decrees and Ukrainian deprived of the right to own cultural development. Specifically, 1905 Scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences Korshia F. and A. Chess prepared a thorough report "On Othman stesnenyy malorusskoho PWB words, which were made at a general meeting of academicians and support received, sent text reports the royal government. In democratic and liberal newspapers published lists of persons who Ukrainian demanded freedom of speech. In the late nineteenth century. in Kyiv Initiative and V. Antonovich A. Konyskyi was formed all Ukrainian non-party democratic organization (ZUBDO). This politically-association was aimed at join the Ukrainian intelligentsia culture is to work for national revival in Ukraine. In the early twentieth century. ZUBDO counted over 150 people, combining the former leaders of the Old Kyiv communities, "Fraternity tarasivtsi and others. From 1901 This organization was not with individual members, with 20 autonomous communities, of which elected delegates to the congresses, held twice a year. ZUBDO directed its efforts at promoting ideas among intellectuals Ukrainian national cultural renaissance, and publication distribution of Ukrainian written word, which created the basis future Ukrainian political organizations and to form frames for them. Since over eastern Galicia the Ukrainian word prohibition tended and print here illegally imported to many in Naddniprianshchyna Ukrainian publications. A company "Falcons" and Sitch, who acquired mass distribution, the Ukrainian Galician patriots actively nurtured young people in the military traditions of Ukrainian Cossacks. Map. Social and political life of Ukrainian lands in the second half of XIX - early XX century. 3.Ukrayinski and the all political parties Political Party (From Lat. Pars (parties)) - part of the group) - political organization, which expresses the interests of a particular social group (or groups) brings together the most active of its members and strives to achieve certain goals and ideals. The first Ukrainian political party was established in 1890 in Lviv Ruthenian-Ukrainian Radical Party (RURP) that attempted protect the social interests of Ukrainian peasants and defended national rights of the Ukrainian population of Galicia. However, the party not received broad support among the Galician by radicalism and socialist ideology. Eventually some of its members left the RURP and united with the populists, created in 1899 Ukrainian National Democratic Party (the UNDP). Combining these two factors political forces was their departure from socialist ideas in favor of national. UNDP, based on a national platform and exposure autonomous region as part of Austria, became a powerful political force that have resisted the Polish nationalist movement in Galicia. Another political party that emerged from RURP in 1899, was the Ukrainian Social Democratic Party (USDP) - legal reformist Socialist Party, which operated in Galicia and Bukovina. Relying mainly on industrial and agricultural workers and taking care of their social protection, was on USDP positions of collegiality and independence of Ukraine. It has actively cooperated with trade union movement, but broad support among the population is small. Together with parties representing the political forces Ukrainophiles in Western lands were Russophiles and political associations. In 1900 Lviv Ruska formed People's Party (ANP). Its members were mostly members of the clergy and in part - peasantry. The main purpose of ANP proclaimed unity of the Ukrainian Russians, using the Russian language in all spheres of public life. ANP led struggle against the Ukrainian national parties, accusing them of trying to split the "only people of Rus', which Party leaders attributed and Ukrainian, and focused in their activities in support of the Russian Empire. This caused a negative reaction from Austro-Hungary, who in return appointed to administrative positions in Polish Galicia, trying to make people like them regime, oppose the deployment of Ukrainian national movement. In such circumstances, the Ukrainian national movement, led by political parties was increasing opposition to the imperial power. He is focusing on his own strength among the people and had him support. At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. emerging political parties and in the Russian Ukraine. In 1900radical Ukrainophile created for college students in Kharkiv Revolutionary Ukrainian party (RUP). Its founders were members of the student community of Kharkov D. Antonovich, M. Rusov, P. Andrew et al. Chairman of the party became D. Antonovich. He made a request to write a program for the newly formed party to M. Mikhnovsky, which is still studying at the Faculty of Kyiv University, 1893 developed the basic political principles of "Brotherhood tarasivtsi. M. Mihnovskiy has developed and issued it as a brochure entitled "Independent Ukraine". Let us turn to sources From the Revolutionary Ukrainian party program "Independent Ukraine" Using the established party publications and local branches, members parties tried to influence political thought in Society, organized propaganda of their ideas primarily among the peasants, are considered the foundation of the Ukrainian nation. But then, most of Party demanded to coordinate activities in PA social democratic side as opposed to ideas of independence. In 1903 Party rejected the program and took Mihnovskiy M. new - social democratic. Part of MSA led D. Antonovich, V. Vynnychenko Petliura, M. Porsche transformed into Ukrainian Social-Democratic Party (USDRP). Her program included idea of autonomy of Ukraine, the confiscation of land ownership, has seen possible association with RSDLP on federal basis *. Supporters M. Mikhnovsky, which in 1902 out of the MSA created Ukrainian People's Party (UNP), a software framework based on M. Mihnovskiy brochure "Independent Ukraine". Moreover, M. Mihnovskiy wrote a short program of the newly formed party known as the "Ten commandments of the UNP, which became one of the most critical documents Ukrainian independent movement. The document was criticized by political opponents of the UNP, but Ukrainian nationalists, represented by its position as defensive, aimed at self-preservation Ukrainian, as opposition great-Russian chauvinism, which tried denationalize Ukrainian. The main aim was to achieve UNP Ukraine's independence by launching strikes and armed uprisings. Party members were mainly intellectuals, students, small landowners. At the beginning of the century have intensified their activities and representatives liberal-democratic trend, which in 1904 created Ukrainian Democratic Party (UDP). Its leaders became Efremova, B. Grinchenko Were revised and others. With the appeal "from the Ukrainian Democratic Party" The main principles of our party are: 1.Znesennya political absolutism, the introduction of a parliamentary system, people's participation in public affairs on the basis of public direct, equal, proportional voting and hidden things. 2. Individual liberty, expression, faith ... assembly, association, organization, strikes. Destruction of states. 3. The introduction of popular language in schools, courts, and administration in all public institutions. 4. Demand for ... territories inhabited by the Ukrainian people, autonomy. 5. With regard to economic ... on: a) 8-hour day, b) to state pension workers that lived to 60 years in) the progressive tax revenues. 6. Determine that the earth can only handle those that it process ... For people who live in Ukraine ... We define equal with Ukrainian law to meet their national, cultural, political and economic needs. What are economic or political, dominated in the document? As proposed UDP solve the national question? Let us turn to sources With the appeal "from the Ukrainian Democratic Party" In 1904 emerged in Kyiv another Ukrainian national Liberal Party - Ukrainian radical (PSA), which led Writers Grinchenko B., S. Wilkens, F. Matushevskiy. In 1905 the two parties merged to form a democratically-Ukrainian Radical Party, which with 1907 was named the Ukrainian Labour Party. Except for Ukrainian political parties in the Dnieper and the all were. The cells most numerous ones of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) operated throughout the Russian Empire, in including the Russian Ukraine. In 1903 in RSDLP was split: the majority, led by Lenin (Ulyanov) would create a strong party of revolutionaries with a firm discipline under management directives of the Central Committee (Bolsheviks), and a smaller part, led by L. Martov was for a looser organization Workers by type of German Social-Democrats (Mensheviks). On Bolshevik positions were Ekaterynoslavsky, Nicholas committees. Menshevik position occupied Kyiv, Kharkiv and committees RSDLP Donetsk union workers. There have been many organizations that for various reasons undecided. Despite the disagreements, the ultimate goal was RSDLP declared victory in the socialist revolution and building proletarian state on the territory of a single indivisible Russia. In the Dnieper were branches of the party and national type - General Union of Jewish workers in Lithuania, Poland and Russia (Bund), established in 1897 Before 1903 Bund was a RSDLP the rights of autonomous organizations in matters relating Jewish proletariat. Its leaders have offered to build for RSDLP national principle, but did not receive support. In Ukraine, the Bund was active in Kiev, Podolia and Volyn provinces and major industrial cities. Another all-party, acting in Ukraine, was the Party Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), established in 1902 Its program based on the ideas of democratic socialism and a special way to his agrarian countries, mainly Russia and set the main task overthrow the power of the king, and the democratic republic socialization of the land so that it belonged to those who work it. This position provided her party's support from the peasantry. In related to formation of Russian statehood Revolutionaries fought for federal Republic of the broad autonomy of urban and rural communities as well as Regions with national recognition for their right to self-determination. Some effects on the population in Dnieper Ukraine and organization were anarchists. Ruling class (bourgeoisie and landlords) at that time not yet felt the need to have their own political party, but because they created later. Some achievements of the Ukrainian liberation movement was engaging in a group known spolschenyh medieval nobility families. They joined in the fight for the rights of Ukrainian citizens and some of them Ukrainian became the founders of conservatism (F. Umanets, V. Gorlenko, Doroshenko et al.) Leading spokesman for conservatism Ukrainian political thought was Mr. Lipinski (1882-1931), who believed only our own state, built by the Ukrainian nation in its ethnographic territory, save the nation from economic collapse and bloody anarchy. The tenor of V. Lipinsky are the words: "No we do not build a country where we do not build it yourself, and none of us not make a nation when we are a nation does not want to be. "In his view, consolidating factor of Ukrainian society is the idea constitutional monarchy founded by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. This should be labor, legal and hereditary monarchy headed by Hetman. The main foundation, which has bottomed Ukrainian monarchy Mr. Lipinski called aristocracy, creation of the Ukrainian political nation ("territorial patriotism" *), a peasant as a social foundation state, religious spirit. Nation V. Lipinsky serves as a political community that includes a state of all citizens, regardless of their ethnic accessories. Ensuring national unity and territorial serves patriotism - a recognition of its territory, to love their land, a sense unity and cooperation among all its residents, regardless of their origin, social class and ethnicity, religion. Stages of Ukrainian nation The essence of the processes taking place

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INVESTIGATION / RESEARCH This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon. Differences of sodium consumption pattern hypertension sufferer in coastal and highland communities in Wakatobi islands La Ode Alifariki1; Tukatman, Tukatman2;Bangu, Bangu2; HeriviyatnoJulika Siagian2* Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/RB/2021.01.02.12 Available data indicate that food sodium (such as salt) is directly related to blood pressure (BP). The research aims to look at the different sodium consumption patterns of hypertension sufferers in two different coastal areas and highland areas in the Wakatobi Islands. The type of research is observational analytic research using a cross-sectional design. This study has been carried out in the District of Wangi-Wangi, especially in the MolaSamaturu villages and Waginopo Village in October 2019. The number of research samples is 100 people (50 respondents in Mola Samaturu Village and 50 people in Waginopo Village). The results showed the differences between sodium consumption patterns in hypertensive sufferers in Mola Samaturu Village and Waginopo Village with a p-value = 0,000 <α 0.05. Sodium consumption patterns in coastal communities are higher than in highlands community. Keywords: Hypertension, sodium consumption pattern, Wakatobi islands Hypertension is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebral vascular disease, also kidney failure. It is known that the amount of salt intake in meals plays a role in the pathogenesis of primary hypertension1,2,3. Increased sensitivity of blood pressure toward excess sodium affects 50% of patients with primary hypertension4,5. Salt dietary intake causes enhancement of blood pressure associated with kidney and cardiovascular diseases, including left ventricular hypertrophy and microalbuminuria6. Sodium is the most cation in an extracellular fluid where 35-40% (60 mmol per kg of body weight) is in the skeleton, and a small portion (about 10-14 mmol / L) is in the intracellular fluid7. Under normal circumstances, sodium excretion in the kidneys is regulated to maintain a balance between intake and output, with extracellular fluid volume remains stable8. More than 90% of the extracellular fluid's osmotic pressure is determined by salt, specifically in sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), thereby changing the osmotic pressure in the extracellular fluid represents changing sodium concentration9. Increased sodium intake causes fluid retention of the body, which increases blood volume by pulling intra-cellular fluid into extracellular so that the heart should pump forcefully to drive large volumes of blood through narrowing of the intravascular space, which results in hypertension10,11. This was proven in a study conducted by Abdurrachim, Hariyawati, and Suryani12that there was a significant relationship between sodium intake with blood pressure in the elderly at TresnaWerdhanursing Home and BinaLaras Budi Luhur nursing home, Banjarbaru City. Blood pressure is the bloodstream pressure in blood vessels and circulates in all tissues of the human body13,14. Blood pressure consists of 2 parts of systolic pressure and diastolic pressure15,16. Systolic blood pressure is defined as the pressure during heart contractions, while diastolic blood pressure is defined as blood pressure when the heart relaxes14. The sodium content in foods dramatically varies and depends on the food source (e.g., animal foods source naturally contain more sodium) and the level of change that food itself goes through. Foods that are naturally low in sodium are fruits, vegetables, oils, and cereals, with the contents range from 20 mg up to 100 g7. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and WHO recommends that the amount of salt consumption in the community is less than 5 gram a day because of the adverse effects of excessive salt consumption on health, especially on blood pressure and cardiovascular disease4,17.Based on data from National Basic Health Research in 2013, it was found that the prevalence of risky food consumption patterns, especially salty foods, was 26.2%, and Southeast Sulawesi was 11.5%18. Geographically, the Wangi-Wangi Islands' position is surrounded by the sea of Banda, where most of the people in the community earn a livelihood as seaweed farmers and fishers even though there are some villages that quite far from the coast with livelihoods as land farmers. This geographical position gives a plus and minus effect on the health of the Wangi-Wangi community, especially those living in coastal areas exposed to high salt or sodium consumption patterns. According to Bustan, more people living in urban areas suffer from hypertension than people living in villages; furthermore, based on the geographical location where coastal areas have more hypertension than highland areas19. Research conducted by Setiawati on the coast of Manado Tua Island obtained a significant relationship between sodium intake and the incidence of hypertension20. Based on the phenomenon, this study aims to determine differences in sodium consumption patterns of hypertensive patients in coastal and highland communities in the Wakatobi Islands. The type of study is observational analytic research using a cross-sectional design. This research has been conducted in the District of Wangi-Wangi, specifically atMolaSamaturuvillage and Waginopo Village, in October 2019. The study population comprises all people with hypertension who live in MolaSamaturu Village (124 people) and Waginopo Village (116 people), with 240 people in October 2019. The number of research samples was 100 people (50 respondents in MolaSamaturu Village and 50 people in Waginopo Village). The blood pressure variable is obtained by measuring using a blood pressure meter with hypertension criteria for hypertension sufferers is 140/90 mmHg (first-degree hypertension, second-degree hypertension, and third-degree hypertension). The sodium consumption pattern variable is obtained by measuring the consumption pattern using the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) then analyzed using a Nutri survey with a safe sodium consumption pattern standard (<2000 mg/day). The statistical test uses an independent t-test with a value of α = 0.05. Table 1. Respondents characteristics Table 1 shows respondents' characteristics with hypertension based on age range mostly in the MolaSamaturu village as 30% with age range 30-35 years old. In the Waginopo village, mostly in the age range 42-47 years old is 44%. By gender characteristics, mostly in MolaSamaturu Village with a percentage of 46% men and Waginopo Village the most were 44% men. By type of occupation, in MolaSamaturu village, 62% of respondents are fishermen, and Waginopo Village, most of the respondents, are farmers as much as 50%. Characteristics of respondents based on BMI show the most respondents in the MolaSamaturu village is in normal BMI (18.5-25.0) as much as 74%, either in the Waginopo village, most of the respondents is in the normal BMI with the percentage of 74%. Table 2. Distribution of variables Based on table 2, respondents' characteristics in the category of hypertension in the MolaSamaturu village mostly in the stage I category with percentage is 50%, the same in Waginopo village that mostly is in the stage I as many as 66%. For the sodium consumption pattern variable, MolaSamaturu village with 68% is in ≥ 2000 mg/day category, while in Waginopo village mostly in < 2000 mg/day category with 76% of respondents (Table 2). Table 3. Distribution of mean score, minimum-maximum blood pressure, and sodium consumption pattern hypertension sufferer Table 3 shows that the mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure values of respondents in Mola Samaturu were higher than respondents in Waginopo Village, as well as sodium consumption, higher in Mola Samaturu Village, higher than respondents in Waginopo Village. Figure 1. Sodium consumption pattern in Molasamaturu Village Figure 2. Sodium consumption pattern in WaginopoVillage Table 4. Hypothesis test for differences of sodium consumption pattern hypertension sufferer Table 4 shows a difference between Sodium consumption pattern hypertension sufferers in MolaSamaturu village and Waginopo village with p value= 0.000< α 0.05 (table 4). Sample testing is based on the relationship between hypertension as a dependent variable with seafood consumption as an independent variable along with other risk factors causing hypertension, such as age, gender, alcohol consumption, smoking, history of DM, family history of DM, history of dyslipidemia, and history dyslipidemia in families not examined in this study. This research shows that hypertension is more in coastal areas (MolaSamaturu Village) compared to highland areas (Waginopo Village). Sodium is a mineral found in the body and many foods source. Sodium is an essential nutrient for maintaining blood volume, regulating water balance in cells, and maintaining nerve function. The kidney controls sodium balance by increasing or decreasing the excretion of sodium in the urine. Another theory states that kidney disorders cannot correctly excrete sodium (Na) in average amounts; the consequences are sodium (Na) in intravascular volume increase so that hypertension occurs21. The distribution of stage II and III hypertension sufferers shows that higher in coastal communities than in the highlands; this can be attributed to the excessive sodium consumption behavior found in seafood. The recommended daily sodium consumption is around 2400 mg, which can be achieved from salt around 2000 mg while another 400 mg is found in the food consumed 22. The food consumption pattern of highland communities, especially in the Waginopo area, shows the same thing with coastal communities in frequency. However, there are significant differences in the types of food that characterize coastal communities, such as shellfish, crabs, and others that contain high sodium.This is in line with previous research, which states that the consumption patterns of coastal communities have a frequency of eating 3 times a day with staple foods, namely rice, animal consumption patterns are relatively high, especially seafood and fish ponds, while the pattern of fruit consumption is still relatively low frequency 0 in a day with a percentage of 75% 23. In 1904, Ambard and Beaujard revealed salt intake correlates to BP as the first study on hypertension diet conducted on 6 patients with hypertension for 3 weeks using three types of salt and protein. The amount of salt in the body is measured by salt in food and urine per day. The amount of salt in the intake is small, the patient will experience a negative sodium balance, and blood pressure decreases. Otherwise, if the amount of salt in the intake is high, the amount of salt will be excreted a little so that sodium balance is achieved, and blood pressure will increase even though the amount of protein intake is small. Based on the result, the conclusion was the salt affects blood pressure. They were conducting the restriction on salt intake and success to reduce blood pressure 24. This study's analysis results indicate that the highest sodium intake is in the coastal area, where sodium intake is excessive with a percentage of 68%. In contrast, in the highlands region, the highest sodium intake category is the sodium intake category, with a percentage of 76%. Factors that influence the high consumption of salt or sodium in coastal communities in the MolaSamaturu village are raw eating habits of shellfish, sea urchins, and salted fish. From the survey results, people in coastal areas consume high sodium foods daily, especially salted fish in hurricane season becomes the primary alternative for a food source in the coastal community. Another case is the community in Waginopo Village, which rarely consumes seafood from shellfish and salted fish. Some respondents even said that dried fish was not salted but only dried and then processed and consumed. Research on the relationship of seafood with the incidence of hypertension has been done by Masengi et al. 25, which states a significant relationship between seafood consumption with the incidence of hypertension (p = 0.001). Statistically, there was a significant difference (p = 0.00) for sodium intake in coastal areas and highlands areas where sodium intake was higher in coastal areas than in the highland area. This study is in line with Sundari et al. 26, where sodium intake significantly affects essential hypertension, p-value—in line with research Rusliafa et al. 27 states that there are differences in hypertension incidence in coastal and highland areas, namely eating pattern (sodium intake p = 0.026). Several studies have been conducted in some areas worldwide regarding daily salt intake related to blood pressure. A survey of salt intake in the newfound land area revealed the differences between the center of the island (inland) and the coastal community, where the typical salt intake is varying between 6.7 and 7.3 g/day compared to 8.4 and 8.8 g/day 28. Parallel changes in the incidence of hypertension lead to differences in salt intake in several regions. The incidence of hypertension in the inland community was 15%, aged between 55 to 75 years old, lower than the coastal community with a percentage around 27%. Similar results were found among the Solomon Islanders 29. In those tribes, had a salt intake below 2 g/day, only 1% of the population having raised in BP which lived away from the coast. About 3% of the Inland community population experienced elevating BP with salt intakes around 3 and 8 g/day. While people who lived on the coastal area had a salt intake between 9 to 15 g/day, indicating an increase of BP around 8% of the population. Migratory, in his study, found a relationship between daily salt intake and BP.The similarities in the results of this study are probably caused by the same characteristics of coastal and mountainous communities in consuming their daily food. There is a difference between sodium consumption patterns in hypertensive sufferers in Mola Samaturu Village and Waginopo Village with a p-value = 0,000 <α 0.05. Sodium consumption patterns in coastal communities are higher than in highlands community. This is due to the ease of getting foods that contain high sodium compared to highland areas. 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J Biol Dan Pendidik Biol. 2017;1(2):46–51. 24. Ambard L. Causes de l’hypertension arterielle. Arch Gen Med. 1904;1:520–33. 25. Masengi S, Palar S, Rotty L. Pengaruh Konsumsi Makanan Laut Terhadap Kejadian Hipertensi Di Desa Malalayang Dua. J e-Biomedik. 2013;1(1):726–32. 26. Sundari dkk. Faktor Risiko Non Genetik dan Polimorfisme Promoter Region Gen CYP11B2 Varian T(-344)C Aldosterone Synthase pada Pasien Hipertensi Esensial di Wilayah Pantai dan Pegunungan. Universitas Brawijaya Malang; 2013. 27. Rusliafa J, Amiruddin R, Noor NB. Komparatif Kejadian Hipertensi Pada Wilayah Pesisir Pantai Dan Pegunungan Di Kota Kendari Tahun 2014. 2014. 28. Fodor JG, Abbott EC, Rusted IE. An epidemiologic study of hypertension in Newfoundland. Can Med Assoc J. 1973;108(11):1365. 29. Page LB, Damon A, Moellering Jr RC. Antecedents of cardiovascular disease in six Solomon Islands societies. Circulation. 1974;49(6):1132–46. Received: 12 December 2020 Accepted: 10 February 2021 La Ode Alifariki1; Tukatman, Tukatman2;Bangu, Bangu2; HeriviyatnoJulika Siagian2* Epidemiology Department, College of Medicine, Halu Oleo University, Kendari, Indonesia1; Nursing Department, College of Science and Technology, Sembilanbelas November University, Kolaka, Indonesia2 Corresponding author: HeriviyatnoJulikaSiagian, Pemudast., Tahoa, Sembilanbelas November University, Kolaka regency, South-East Sulawesi, Indonesia 93561, firstname.lastname@example.org

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The expression of the Rational temperament is related to a need for the mastery of concepts, a desire for understanding, and a drive for competence. Those who strongly express this pattern of emotional response strive to discover the underlying principles of the universe, and may go on to develop theories by which to encapsulate their understanding. It is the driving pattern behind science, philosophy, venture capitalism, science fiction and the process of game design. Please read the Statistical Disclaimer before proceeding (which also includes the copyright notices). Remember that what is provided here is effectively a detailed definition of an adjective, ‘Rational’, which has been defined in line with a psychological model. Conversion from Myers-Briggs Typology To anyone familiar with the Myers-Briggs inventory, the Rational temperament is expected to be the primary Temperament pattern for any preference code containing NT (Intuitive and Thinking preferences), and a supporting pattern for any code containing ST (Sensing and Thinking preferences). In the Introduction to Temperament Theory, we saw how the Rational temperament was related to Abstract language use, a Pragmatic approach to taking action and a focus on Structure. We will begin by reviewing these three axis in the specific context of the Rational temperament. Throughout this piece we shall be referencing the work of David Keirsey, marked [K], and his student Linda Berens, marked [B] (complete references are provided in the disclaimer). Where quotes talk of “a Rational” as a type of person, they have been rewritten to talk of people expressing Rational as a pattern, i.e. the use of ‘Rational’ as a noun has been rewritten such that it is used as an adjective. Abstract language use reflects a mind more absorbed in ideas than in the tangible elements of daily life: [People expressing Rational] talk little of what is observable and much of what is imaginable. They are inclined to speak more of what can be seen only with the mind’s eye, conceptual things rather than perceptual things, ideas rather than objects… In conversation, [they] try to avoid the irrelevant, the trivial, and the redundant. They will not waste words, and while they understand that some redundancy is necessary they still are reluctant to state the obvious, or to repeat themselves on a point, limiting their explanations and definitions because they assume that what is obvious to them is obvious to others. [K] The Rational pattern is also associated with precision in language: [People expressing Rational] are careful… to avoid errors of sequence or category… For example, it is a mistake to say that “there were weeds among the plants” because weeds are plants, the latter being the category that weeds belong to. [They] frequently note such trivial errors of category in others’ speech, but they rarely comment on them. However, let the error occasion contradiction in an argument being made, and [they] are compelled by their very nature to point out the error. Many [such people] are obsessed with speculative enquiry, so their speech tends to be laced with assumptions and presuppositions, probabilities and possibilities, postulates and premises, hypotheses and theorems. In such speech data plays only a supportive and secondary role. [K] Berens summarises this approach to Abstract language as follows: In the Rational pattern, abstract language is usually… precise and specific with the goal of increased clarity leading to knowledge… They tend to be sceptical and highly value precision in language. [B] Abstract language is common to the Idealist pattern as well as the Rational pattern, but while the influence of the Rational temperament is rooted in precision and understanding, as expressed in (say) scientific writing, the expression of the Idealist temperament in language is more prone to abstractions that are open to diverse interpretation, as in the symbolism and metaphor of (say) poetry. The second aspect of the basic profile is a bias towards a Pragmatic approach to taking actions (or a utilitarian attitude to tool usage). Keirsey views this attitude as being rooted in a desire for efficiency: [People expressing Rational] are interested in efficient operations. If a given operation promises to be too costly for the results it gets, that is, inefficient though effective, [they] will look for operations that are likely to take less effort to get the same result. [Such people are attracted to] what might be called “min-max” solutions, those that bring about maximum results for minimum effort. Minimum effort not because they are lazy – this they could never be – but because wasted effort bothers them so much. [K] His description of Rational pragmatism borders upon the megalomaniacal: [People expressing Rational] are wont to think of themselves as the prime movers who must pit their utilitarian ways and means against custom and tradition, in an endless struggle to bring efficiency and goal-directedness to enterprise, an attitude regarded by many as arrogant. But if this be arrogance, then at least it is not vanity, and without question it has driven [people strongly influenced by the Rational temperament] to engineer the technology upon which civilization is based. [K] Berens account emphasises how Rational pragmatism provides a sense of self-control and mastery: For the Rational pattern, pragmatic roles ensure a focus on the overall strategy and vision and give a sense of mastery and self-control… [They] tend towards pragmatic, utilitarian actions with a technology focus. [B] This drive for mastery, and desire to remain in control, produce a fairly common pattern of behaviour among those who express Rational strongly: they tend to participate solely in activities where they can excel. This sometimes seems to be highly competitive, but in general terms it is not that the individual in question is determined to win (although some undoubtedly will be!) but rather that their desire to remain in control of any situation makes them uncomfortable when they are not capable of competence. This can be seen as another expression of Rational pragmatism: let everyone attend to whatever they are best at doing. The Artisan pattern shares this pragmatic focus and desire for independent action with the Rational pattern, but for people expressing Artisan the focus is more upon the freedom to act according to the needs of the moment. In essence, the Artisan pattern’s pragmatism is more focussed on the immediate present, while the Rational pattern’s pragmatism tends to take a more expansive time-independent perspective. The third and final aspect of the basic Rational profile is a focus on Structure: In the Rational pattern, the structural attention goes to the abstract and multidimensional, as in logic and matrices, coordinates, and organizing principles. Rational structures provide implementation strategies, and at the same time they provide ways to catalogue and master the principles of how the world operates. The goal is for all to learn to be more competent and efficient within the system. [B] Once again, we can see how this description fits well with the nature of the scientific endeavour, which is also focussed on uncovering the underlying structure of the universe. However, not everyone who expresses the Rational temperament strongly will necessarily lean towards the scientific – any situation involving the organisation of complex systems (such as the internal operations of a corporation) will also suit this general focus on how things are structured. The focus on Structure is shared with the Guardian pattern, but the focus of those expressing Guardian is generally rules and responsibilities – about defining what is appropriate or what can be expected – whereas the Rational pattern is more associated with systemic structures. Indeed, systems are at the very heart of the Rational temperament, as we shall see from examining the type of intelligence associated with this 2. The Strategic Intellect According to Temperament Theory, each of the patterns is associated with a particularly kind of intelligence. The Rational temperament is related to strategic thinking: Strategy has to do with identifying the ways and means necessary and sufficient to achieve a well-defined goal. But not just any goal is of interest to [people expressing Rational]; invariably the goal that [they] set for themselves is increasing the efficiency of systems. [Some] concern themselves mainly with social systems, like families and companies, while others are concerned with organic systems, like plants and animals, and still others with mechanical systems, like computers and aircraft and automobiles. [K] This description rather overstates the importance of efficiency to strategic thinking, but Keirsey’s general position is that the strategic intellect is most interested in science, technology and systems in general. Berens presents a somewhat broader picture: [People expressing Rational strongly] tend to focus on patterns and “think systems”, both technical and social, and move with ease from the big picture to the minute details of ideas and situations. With such a versatile focus, they often excel at design, schematizing, reasoning, strategising, analysis, synthesis, forecasting, trend analysis, logic, and problem solving… [They] come into a situation with an almost immediate understanding of the overall system, how it functions and the factors at work… Figuring something out means finding more to explore at a deeper level, with their eagerness to explore new or controversial areas tempered by the need for verification, proof, or performance. [B] The strategic intellect is also inherently connected with a degree of scepticism – a cautious attitude towards whatever is proposed: One must doubt [says the archetypical person expressing Rational] for error lurks in what appears true just as what appears false. Best therefore to take a long and careful look at any proposed method or objective, otherwise those inevitable errors of order and organization are likely to go undetected… [K] Berens also sees doubt as a key theme for strategic thinking: [People expressing Rational] cannot help but play with ideas and test them. With expertise, [they] can introduce radical and insightful changes with ease… With their analytical and sceptical point of view, they can find themselves doubting anything and everything. [B] In general terms, strategic thinking can be understood as highly complex problem solving. Faced with a well-defined goal, the strategic intellect can identify the ways and means to achieve that goal as best as is possible from the available information – complexity is rarely a limitation. The core competence of those who express the Rational temperament lies in assessing and abstractly analysing situations as completely as is necessary for the goal at hand (being sure to examine all appropriate contingencies, and identify all possible influencing factors) before forming a theory or designing a process that will implement that goal. Examples include devising scientific experiments and the formulation of scientific hypothesis, the analysis of market patterns and creation of collective investment schemes, the creation of consistent imaginary worlds in science fiction (or fantasy), and both the design of complex game systems – such as many types of videogames and board games – and the discovery of the best solutions to the problems presented in the play of such games. (I have not yet conducted a research programme to prove that the Rational temperament correlates with the role of the game designer, but anecdotal evidence I have already collected firmly supports this supposition. At this point, I consider it a strong hypothesis). Those who express the Rational temperament as their primary pattern generally display a strong desire for autonomy, tending towards libertarian or even anarchistic political beliefs, or at the very least a desire to be their own master in their workplaces: To feel good about themselves, [those who express Rational strongly] must look upon themselves, and be seen by others as ingenious, autonomous and resolute… [They] pride themselves on their ingenuity in accomplishing the many and varied tasks they set their minds to… As much as possible, at times even regardless of the consequences, [they] desire to live according to their own laws, to see the world by their own lights, and they respect themselves in the degree that they act independently, free of all coercion… [K] Berens tracks the root of this need for autonomy to a desire for situations that provide the capacity for independent thought: [They] have a high tolerance for complexity and are often surprised by others’ resistances to problem solving. Their independence of thought leads to a need for autonomy in the workplace… They most admire will power and genius, the wizards and inventors of the world, and they despise redundancy, incompetence and weak will. They are their own worst critics and are often stressed by a fear of incompetence, loss of control, and helplessness. Rigid, routine, dull environments offend them and may drive them away. [B] The theme of will power appears intimately connected with the Rational pattern – those that express it frequently do not understand why other people don’t simply behave ‘sensibly’ (a judgement made relative to their own models of the world), sometimes chalking up the differences in other people’s behaviour to stupidity. This view can be held with quite irrational strength: those that express Rational as a primary pattern are rarely able to feel confidence except when they can be resolute: [They] are self-confident in so far as they sense in themselves a strength of will or an unwavering resolution. [They] believe they can overcome any obstacle, dominate any field, conquer any enemy – even themselves – with the power of their resolve. [K] The capacity to derive self-confidence from certainty produces behaviour that can be quite frustrating to other people when it is not tempered by prudence. A person strongly influenced by the Rational temperament will tend to use their strategic skills to assess situations in as complete a fashion as they can, exploring and eliminating all doubts such that they can then form a model about which they can be resolute. But the process which provides this confidence is interior to that individual, and may depend upon assumptions which others may not take for granted. This behaviour represents the motivating force behind scientific scepticism, and also the reason that so many people who express Rational tend towards atheism – a metaphysical view about which one can be more resolute, since most religiously motivated systems of metaphysics include some element of doubt or uncertainty. (This connection should be considered hypothetical, but would be comparatively easy to investigate). All of this represents the degree of confidence that someone influenced by the Rational pattern places in their own powers of reason (and not necessarily the reason of others!) In essence, the Rational temperament seems to be concerned with creating abstract structural models with which to understand the world: The only thing [people strongly expressing Rational] trust unconditionally is reason – all else they trust only under certain conditions… [They] yearn for achievement… [with] a gnawing hunger to achieve whatever goals they set for themselves… [They] are on the lookout for knowledge… [Their] search for knowledge has two objectives: they must know how to as well as know about… By knowing about and knowing how to, [they] increase their capability to predict and to control events… and they persist in their search for models and maps, for paradigms and algorithms, with which to construe and attack [the problems they have chosen to tackle]. [K] Berens relates this striving to understand with the core theme of mastery: The [Rational-expressing person’s] core needs are for mastery of concepts, knowledge and competence. [They] want to understand the operating principles of the universe and to learn or even develop theories for everything. They value expertise, logical consistency, concepts and ideas, and seek progress. [B] ‘Knowledge’ in this context should not be misunderstood as meaning something akin to ‘trivia’ (which is more a concern of people expressing the Guardian temperament). What is being referred to is a kind of systemic knowledge – an attempt to model systems, not an attempt to memorise ‘facts’. Furthermore, the domains that any individual concerns themselves with will often be restricted: as mentioned before, those that express Rational strongly prefer to only participate when they can excel, and in the context of knowledge this often means there are fields where they see themselves as having expert knowledge, and domains about which they have no interest. It is extremely common for those who express Rational to have a circle of friends who share a common domain of knowledge Everyone is stressed by different circumstances; one of the advantages of looking at behaviour in terms of the patterns of Temperament Theory is the capacity to identify different stressing factors that relate to the patterns. According to Berens, those who express the Rational temperament strongly are stressed by feelings of powerlessness (including facing an activity for which the individual feels incompetent). Signs of stress relating to this pattern include obsessive behaviour, or a state of almost robotic mindlessness. This stress can be alleviated by reassuring such a person’s confidence – perhaps by engaging in an activity they know they are highly competent at – or by getting them involved in a new A specific problem that results from an overactive strategic intellect is paranoia. Since strategic thinking is concerned with identifying contingencies and factors, when this is intelligence is not given a task it can set to work identifying things to worry about: Even though they know some things must happen of themselves, [people strongly expressing Rational] can dread this loss of control. This is why so many [such people] turn out to develop unreasonable fears, especially of germs and other forms of filth, something they have no control over. [K] In my own experience, I have not encountered this mysophobia in people expressing the Rational temperament, although there are certainly fictional expressions of this in characters such as Niles Crane in Frasier. However, other forms of phobia, or at least paranoid discomfort, are not uncommon, such as fear of flying as a passenger. More commonly, Rational paranoia can manifest in the instantiation of hypothetical scenarios as explanations for otherwise unexplained events. Coupled with the tendency of those expressing Rational to become self-confident in certainty, this can lead to interpersonal conflict – especially when the hypothetical scenarios imply blame where objectively none exists. However, in the absence of this self-confidence born of resolution, those expressing Rational easily fall into depression, especially as regards their own accomplishments: [People who express Rational may] demand so much achievement from themselves that they often have trouble measuring up to their own standards. [They] typically believe that what they do is not good enough, and are frequently haunted by a sense of teetering on the edge of failure. This time their achievement will not be adequate. This time their skill will not be great enough. This time, in all probability, failure is at hand. Making matters worse, [they] tend to ratchet up their standards of achievement, setting the bar at the level of their greatest success, so that anything less than their best is judged as mediocre… Constant self-doubt and a niggling sense of impending failure [are not uncommon experiences]. [K] Another cause of depression among those who express Rational is the sense of isolation that can result from accepting that one’s models of the universe cannot be shared: To [people expressing Rational] events aren’t of themselves good or bad, favourable or unfavourable. It’s all in the way one looks at things… all is relative to one’s frame of reference… [this can also give them] a solipsistic view of the world, [a belief] that others… cannot really share our consciousness, cannot know our mind, cannot feel our desires and emotions, much as they might wish to. Each of us is alone in an envelope of consciousness, marooned, as it were, on the earth as its sole inhabitant. [K] This relativism is an ironic counterpoint to the problems of certainty associated with this Temperament. It seems that those who express Rational are wont to fall prey to thinking in terms of extreme positions – either certainty, or total doubt. Either objectivism or relativism. Finding a balance point between such extremes is a challenge perhaps best addressed by individuals dominated by the Rational pattern taking the time to explore how their other temperament patterns can be expressed in a supporting role. The Rational temperament is defined as abstract pragmatism with a focus on systems. It drives those affected by it to seek mastery and competence, and often to avoid those areas where they cannot be capable. The strategic intellect associated with this pattern is capable of analysing complex situations and devising models or processes in order to reach goals. This intellect appears to drive both the scientific endeavour and the field of game design. Stressed by feelings of powerlessness, the Rational temperament is also associated with paranoia and depression when it is out of balance. Caught between a sceptical desire to examine all doubts carefully and a self-confidence born from resolute will, the powerful strategic skills of those who express this pattern strongly should be tempered by an understanding that their way is not the only way one might think or act. Nonetheless, when people have complex problems that need solving, it is those that express Rational most strongly that should be turned to for assistance. Do you recognise yourself in this pattern? Feel free to share your perspective in the comments. Don’t recognise yourself? Check out the other three Temperament patterns and see if they fit you better. For more information, see BestFitType.com or check out the books referenced here. Note: If you have any comments specifically regarding justifications or criticisms of Temperament Theory, please use the comments to the post entitled Justifications and Criticisms, which has been set aside for that express purpose. Thank you! The opening image is Though Only for a Moment, by Todd Bellanca, which I found here. As ever, no copyright infringement is intended and I will take the image down if asked.

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In this article in Software Testing Tutorial, we will learn What is eCommerce Testing, the different types of eCommerce Testing, the benefits of e-commerce testing, and the following. What is E-Commerce? e-commerce (aka electronic commerce or internet commerce) refers to buying or selling goods and services online, and the transfer of money and data to complete the transaction. What is Ecommerce Testing? Ecommerce testing helps in evaluating and assessing the features and functionalities of an eCommerce (online shopping) application to make sure that it works as intended with accurate operational functionality of the eCommerce website/application. It focuses on crucial factors such as user experience, secure transactions, mobile responsiveness, customer data security, load time, etc. More than 2 billion people worldwide are buying goods or services online in an eCommerce store according to a Statista report and during the same year, e-retail sales surpassed 4.2 trillion U.S. dollars worldwide. Due to such booming popularity, the requirements for testing eCommerce websites have become more intense. Benefits of E-Commerce Testing - It protects the business from expensive failures. - Makes sure that each page/module in the eCommerce site and application are thoroughly tested. - Helps in verification and validation of the product before releasing it to the live environment. - Helps in releasing a user-friendly application to the end-users. - Ensures that the application has high visibility to its users - Mitigate the risks related to transactions and ensures that transactions are secure and safe. - Safe-guards the product from intruders and hackers. - Improves the quality of the eCommerce store as it reduces the need for critical fixes What are the different types of eCommerce business models? The business model of an Ecommerce website is similar to any other marketplace, the model varies based on who is buying and who is selling. Typically, an E-commerce based business falls into one of the following five categories. - Business to Business (B2B) Model - Business to Customer (B2C) Model - Customer to Customer (C2C) Model - Customer to Business (C2B) Model - Consumer to Administration (C2A) Model #1. Business to Business (B2B) Model In the B2B business model, as the name suggests, one business sells its products or services to other companies. Usually, these are made to enhance another company’s business practices. Ex. Salesforce, Survey monkey, Alibaba, SAP, etc. #2. Business to Consumer (B2C) Model In the B2C business model, the direct customer would be the focus. It’s pretty straightforward, similar to the retail market, website, or app that sells products that are purchased by the customers. Ex. Amazon, Nykaa, Policy Bazaar, etc. #3. Customers to Business (C2B) Model In the C2B business model, an individual or a solo entrepreneur sells their product or service to a business. Ex. Freelance graphic designers, UI/UX designers, Writers, Artist, etc. #4. Customer to Customer (C2C) Model In the C2C business model, the customers buy and sell products with each other using an online platform. Usually, a third-party website would help these consumers to facilitate such transactions. Ex. Olx, Craigslist, eBay, Etsy, etc. #5. Consumer to Administration (C2A) Model In this C2A business model, where the transactions happen between an administrative body like the government, schools, hospitals, etc and the consumer here would be the citizen, student/parent, etc. Ex. Tax, academic fee payment, e-health, e-voting, collection of feedback form from citizens by the government, conducting online surveys (for the census). E-Commerce Website Test Cases Basic testing techniques can be used to test an eCommerce website and application. In addition to those testing techniques, there are even more testing strategies specific to eCommerce. The sample test cases given below are generic, i.e, they can be applied to most eCommerce websites. Basic components to test the eCommerce store are given below. #1. Homepage Test Cases The home page is the most crucial component of the entire eCommerce website, it serves as a powerful marketing tool. Here the software test engineer should focus on the brand logo, top navigation, the keyword search, behavior of the page for logged and unlogged customers. Test engineers should review features like the layout of the page, content visibility, banners, carousels, and other features. Below is the sample Homepage of a popular eCommerce website (Amazon). Here I have highlighted the hero image on the homepage with a red color box. Sample Test cases - Page loading time should be within an acceptable limit. - Hero image should auto-scroll within the provided time intervals. - Is the hero image clickable? If yes, is it redirecting to the intended page? - The signup/Login button should be visible and easy to locate. - Links provided on the home page should redirect to the intended page. - Top navigation, hamburger menu, categories, subcategories should be listed clearly. - Colour coding on the home page should be consistent as per the brand details. - The basic keyword search should lead to the corresponding products. #2. Search Test Cases Search functionality is the most-used feature in any eCommerce store even with the most exhaustive product listings and easy-to-use navigation. Thus the search algorithms had to evolve, becoming more advanced and more precise. Test engineers should focus on whether the product listed by using the search bar is relevant or not. Below is the sample Search box (highlighted with a red color box) of a popular eCommerce website (Amazon). Sample Test cases - Relevant products should be seen when entering the keywords such as product name, brand name, or category name for example iPhone, laptop, best software testing books - Direct matches or related products should be displayed when searched using a specific keyword. - Search results should display the product name, image, customer review, and price details. - When a specific category page is used for searching, results from a corresponding category should be displayed. - The top of the list should always have the most relevant products. - Even if a product is listed in several categories, it should appear only once in the search result. - Suggestions should be listed when the keyword typed in the search bar has a typo. - There should be an option to select a number of results to display per page. - Navigation should be available for multi-page results. - Sort options should be available to sort the results based on a brand name, pricing, reviews or ratings, etc., - Check the filter functionality by filtering the products using the brand, availability, pricing, customer rating, etc., - Check the sorting functionality by sorting the products using the popularity, relevance, price high to low, price low to high, etc., - Check by adding items to favorite/wishlist functionality. - Check the ‘Add to Compare’ functionality #3. Product Details Page The product details page is where the checkout flow begins. The product details page has the most details composed in a single page. It is easy to get into exhaustive testing on that single page while missing the bigger picture. Test engineers should focus on the image quality, buy button or add to cart button, customer reviews, price details, etc. Below is the sample product details page of a popular eCommerce website (Amazon). Sample Test cases - Content details like Product name, description, image, price details(discounts if available), Q&A should be seen. - Customer reviews stars and review text should be available. - ‘Add to Cart’ button should be easy to locate. - Check ‘Add to Cart’ functionality. - Similar products or customers also bought this section should be seen. - Product images should have a zoom option. - The product display page should be consistent across devices - Products availability should be accurate, if it out of stock, an appropriate message should be seen - Quantity selector, Size selector, color selector, and another variable selector should be available and work as expected. - The product should be added to the cart when ‘Add to Cart’ button is clicked #4. Recommended Products Recommended products are the most important part of the page but the most neglected part of testing. After the customer makes a purchase, a follow-up session takes place where they are shown more products related to the purchase. If customers start purchasing from that, it’ll boost the profit even more. Test engineers must focus on the relevance of the recommended product with the product that is purchased. Below is the sample recommended products section of a popular eCommerce website (Amazon). Sample Test cases - Recommended products should be seen immediately after the purchase. - Products that are recommended should have relevance to the purchase done by the client. One of the most common reasons for customers to leave the eCommerce store would be unsuccessful transactions and payment failure. Test engineers should visualize it from a customer’s perspective, verify its requirement and acceptance criteria. Below is the sample payment flow section of a popular eCommerce website (Amazon). Sample Test cases - Payment flow should work for all the different payment options - A stored payment option should be available in the checkout flow - Payment options such as Visa, Mastercard, Paypal, UPI should be visible with their logo. - Additional offers or discount codes applied should reduce the price of the purchase. - Sensitive details like passwords, CVV, OTP, etc should not be saved after the purchase is complete - Performing security tests are a must when storing customers credit card details or any other private information - While checking out as a Guest, purchase flow should go smoothly and allow the guest to register after the payment - Secure transactions should happen and the customer should be prompted back to the eCommerce app/site after the payment. - Transaction id and details related to the payment should be saved along with the order details. - Check by carrying out a test payment using each payment method that you are offering. - Check the payment is processed correctly by using all kinds of payment methods such as Debit Card, Credit Card, Internet Banking, PayPal, etc., - Verify invalid payment. - Verify canceling the order. #6. Shopping Cart The Shopping Cart feature is one of the important features of the eCommerce website as it helps the customer to add items to purchase from different parts of the site and purchase them together. Cart functionality is a crucial part of the checkout flow. Test engineers should focus on the complex calculations based on the time frame based on promotional offers, discount codes, vouchers, etc. Below is the sample shopping cart section of a popular eCommerce website (Amazon). Sample Test cases - Checkout functionality should work as expected. - When clicking on the buy button, the item should be added to the cart and then the continue shopping button should be seen along with the proceed to buy button. - If the quantity of a single product is more than one, the price and quality should change accordingly. - Details like shipping charges, taxes should be displayed along with the product’s price. - There should be a clear option for removing the item from the shopping cart. - Order price should update when a customer adds/removes a new item to/from the cart. - Customers should be able to add items to the cart from any category of the store. - Check by adding items to the shopping cart - Check by removing products from the shopping cart - Check by changing quantities - Check by selecting the delivery option - Check whether VAT and delivery costs add up correctly - Check the Pay Now test cases - Check by moving into the checkout process - Verify checkout and payment test cases - Check the final amount to pay – make sure that this value is correct, after the price of the products, VAT, delivery, and any other charges. - Check by making changes to the products being ordered, changing delivery options, etc., and make sure that the final amount updates correctly. #7. Post-Order Test Cases Post Order is usually a follow-up session after the customer purchased the product. Usually, it includes order confirmation details, email information about the purchase, tracking the order, shipping details, and returns procedure. Test engineers should focus on important aspects of the post-order use case such as canceling the order, returning the product, tracking details, order summary details, etc. Sample Test cases - Customers should receive order confirmation messages in SMS/Mail. - Customers should have the option to cancel the order. - Cancel the order and returns should prompt the reasons for the cancellation/ return of the product. - Order id and details are given in the summary should be the same set of records. - Customers should be able to view the purchase history of past purchases. - Check payment refund cases. - Check whether refund confirmation emails are sent to the recipient successfully. - Customers should be able to track the order #8. General Test Cases General test cases for eCommerce websites/applications should have the proper coverage in a detailed manner and they should be composed thoughtfully. Especially the basic user interface, login functionality, ease of navigation through categories, overall workflow, etc., will come under general test cases. Sample Test cases - Users should be able to navigate through all the products across different categories on all devices. - Links and banners in the site should redirect to their corresponding location, no link should be broken - The eCommerce store’s brand logo and name should be visible. - Categories listed should have a consistent pattern and the text should be easily understandable. - The count of the total number of products listed on the category pages should be accurate.\ - User Registration – Login /Sign up cases - Session expiration – If the user is inactive for a long time, then the system should sign out the user automatically. - Verify My account page and Profile Management functions - Check user base scenario testing for Customer, Seller, Super Admin, Admin, Support Staff, etc - Check Backend to Frontend integration testing - Do basic sanity in all browsers & versions such as Internet Explorer, Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc., - Discount or promo codes should be administered correctly. #9. SEO Checklist Every ecommerce site owner expects their products should load on the top of Google results when a user search for a certain product. Only an ecommerce store with proper SEO can list in the top search rankings. Testers need to follow SEO checklist to optimize websites for search engines. Sample Test cases - Verify the Structure of URLs. - Verify Unique title tags for each page and product page. - Verify Title tags should include the product name and category. - Verify Meta description tag for each page and product page. - Verify whether a robots.txt file is in place. - Verify that alt text has been added to images. - Verify the Internal linking to aid indexation. - Verify whether there is an XML sitemap in place. Features To Be Tested In An E-Commerce Application The hit of an eCommerce application depends on two key factors, functionality and usability. If eCommerce is user-friendly and easy to access from different devices, more users would use the store which would translate into sales. Thinking from a user’s perspective, will a user do a monetary transaction from an application that has a lot of bugs in it. Thus the success of any eCommerce store depends on the quality of the application. As test engineers, we should make sure that each feature given in the list below is thoroughly tested. #1. Website Functionality For Different User Scenarios Ecommerce applications may have different types of users such as authorized and unauthorized users, sellers, delivery person, sales representative, shop manager, affiliate marketer, and much more depending on the type of business. The testing team should ensure that each user scenario and use cases for their functionality is covered Don’t Miss: Functional Testing #2. Application Workflow Ecommerce applications should have well-defined workflows that should be detailed in the requirement. Customers should have a positive user experience as we would have verified the workflow from the user’s perspective. The workflow consists of Login/Signup, Search, Sorting, filtering, Product description page, Shopping Cart, Checkout, Payment Gateway, Order Confirmation, etc. #3. Compatibility With Web Browsers eCommerce Websites should work on every browser, i.e the store should be stable and compatible with various browsers. Browsers such as Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge, Internet Explorer, Opera, etc should function in the same way, functionalities and features of the eCommerce store should be consistent across browsers. #4. Mobile Responsiveness Ecommerce websites are getting more traffic from mobile devices than desktop platforms these days. In a recent survey released by the data portal, nearly 4.66 billion people use the internet and 92.6% of people access the internet using their mobile devices. So it is high time we start testing our application on mobile devices with different resolutions to meet customer’s demands. We should test the responsiveness of the website’s design along with its usability and functionality. Check our detailed tutorial on Mobile App Testing #5. Performance testing For an eCommerce application, performance testing is necessary to achieve the perfect functional and technical performance. Performance testing brings out bugs that might not have been uncovered in other types of testing. Test engineers should try different testing like load testing, stress testing, spike testing, endurance testing, volume testing, etc, as all these testing will be helpful to assess the website’s bandwidth, capacity especially during holiday seasons, and promotional offers. Performance testing includes testing various parameters such as loading speed of the web page, traffic load tolerance, throughput, data transfer rate, efficiency, database performance, error handling, uptime, and much more Don’t miss: Performance Testing Guide #6. Security And Vulnerability Assessments Ecommerce websites have sensitive information about a user like a name, age, DOB, along with their address, bank details, and much more. Thus security testing is of the highest priority in eCommerce testing. Different methodologies like SQL Injection, SAST, DAST, ethical hacking, etc are done to check the vulnerabilities of the system. If bugs are found related to the security of the application, it can even lead up to the failure of the business. Don’t miss: Security Testing Guide #7. Social Media Integration Ecommerce websites to have social media integration is incredibly useful as social media is a powerful tool to engage and create a community around the brand. Ecommerce is leveraging the power of social media through social sign options, social share widgets, social feedback, advertisement in the social media redirecting to eCommerce stores, and much more. These integrations are aligned with the website’s architecture and workflow for the best strategy. #8. SEO-Related Aspects E-Commerce sites should have high search visibility to drive traffic towards the site. Test engineers should check whether SEO strategies such as title tags, meta descriptions, URL structure, image alt tags, etc are placed in such a way that the customer can easily find the website. Challenges of E-commerce Testing - Ecommerce website/ application keeps changing and evolving, during sales, holidays, promotional offers, so every 3 months there will be a new UI change with additional features, this can bottleneck the developer and the test engineers. Constant changes in the website make automation impossible - Usually, eCommerce websites are integrated with third-party websites, this integration makes it difficult to do end-to-end testing when the third-party site is down, it might take a while to figure out whether the issue is from our site or a third party site. - During sales seasons like Black Friday and Cyber Monday, the business always underestimates the number of users of the site, this is due to poor performance testing or people who don’t concentrate on performance testing much. - Customers’ preferences change from time to time, not everyone uses the website in an exact way, tracking each buy and storing their behavior can be difficult. - The usability of a website is very subjective, a beginner might need a tutorial widget to understand how the site works whereas an experienced buyer might find them as unnecessary, usability and user experience varies, the context of user-friendliness changes as per the user, so it is hard to guarantee that our usability testing is effective - The testing team might understand the software requirement and the functionalities that are being implemented but not necessarily understand the business model and its requirements. - The testing team has to focus on changing the test cases and automation framework as the website keeps evolving at a faster pace. - Tester has created a new environment each time the technology evolves - To verify all the details, shipping charges, tax details, and credit card should be issued to the testing team - Hacking and intrusion are quite common for new websites but proper tools and funds for those tools are not always provided by the business. - Even though the eCommerce site might seem simple for a user, it has very complicated integrations - Regression suits have to be run in both automation and manual execution to verify the impact of the updates. - The feasibility of automation testing very low as eCommerce has a dynamic environment, but manual testing can be time-consuming and there is a chance of human error Must Read: Career Shift From Manual To Automation Useful Tools for E-commerce Site Following are the tools that help developers of eCommerce sites to analyze the design of the sites for better conversion rates. #1. Optimizely: It helps developers build and run A/B tests on websites. #2. HotJar: It helps in showing how users are really using a website, collect user feedback and turn more visitors into customers. #3. UserTesting: It is the leading provider of on-demand human insights. It allows your application to be tested by real users. ECommerce Testing FAQs Testing eCommerce websites and mobile applications is an essential part of e-commerce application development. It helps in better user experience, users data security, mobile responsiveness, security, quick load time, and many more positive factors.

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From physics to engineering to neuroscience, resonance is a common phenomenon of all waves and vibrations. From atomic and particle vibrations to bridges and skyscraper vibrations to neuronal waves, resonance is based on heterogeneous responses of oscillating systems to inputs with different frequencies. However, in comparing different oscillations an important question arises: Is resonance a prerequisite feature of all oscillations or it is a by-product of these oscillations? Neuronal oscillations have different frequencies, varying from ultra slow waves with a frequency of 0.02-0.06 Hz to ultra fast oscillations with 200-600 Hz frequency . Besides their diverse frequency, other features of their waves (i.e. magnitude, shape) are also contrasting. So a simple, yet important question is: “Do neuronal oscillations have common properties?” or more importantly, “Are neuronal oscillations simply a by-product of activity of neurons or they are a feature of neural function?” Coherent oscillations in mammalian brain are correlated with different behavioral states of the brain [11, 13, and 32]. Also different rhythms have many common features in an individual. In fact, through evolution, their roles and features in different animals have been persisted. For example, the hippocampal theta waves are found in every mammalian brain [11, 32]. One the most important functions of neuronal rhythms is synchronization of inputs. In fact, oscillation-based synchronization is the most efficient mechanism for the temporal coordination of stimuli [13, 32]. Another important role of brain oscillations is to segregate neuronal subpopulations from the network during different behavioral states [13, 31 and 32]. Neural oscillations are also important in memory formation and memory recalling [13, 32]. As an example, hippocampal theta waves are believed to be in close relationship with place-specific discharge of hippocampal pyramidal neurons and may act as a mechanism for information processing, memory formation and recalling [11, 30-34]. Overall, extensive neuronal waves provide harmonious context for activity of individual neurons and may produce synergy between behavioral state of nervous system and physiological state of its individual components. Generally, three mechanisms may be responsible for generation of rhythmic oscillations in a population of neurons: i) Dynamics of ionic currents are the intrinsic bursting mechanisms in a pacemaker neuron that eventually lead to oscillations in neuronal population. The other bursting neurons in central pattern generators commonly follow the rhythmic frequency of the pacemaker neuron. For example, pyloric rhythm in stomatogastric ganglion of crustaceans is generated by AB and PD neurons. The pyloric rhythm and bursting of other neurons in this central pattern generator is governed by the frequency of AB/PD neurons. Interestingly, subthreshold oscillation in individual neurons can have different frequency from the network frequency . ii) Dynamical interplay (i.e. excitatory and inhibitory synapses) in a neuronal network may lead to neuronal oscillations. Half-center oscillators are among this group. Half-center oscillator consists of two neurons that produce a rhythm, where each individual neuron, if disconnected, is unable to generate the rhythm. In most cases, the two neurons of half-cycle oscillators are reciprocally coupled through inhibitory synapses . A classic example of half-center oscillator is gating CPG. iii) Combination of intrinsic electrical properties and synaptic properties in a neuronal population generates oscillations. Mammalian hippocampal waves (i.e. theta and gamma waves) are generated by this mechanism . Definition of resonance: Resonance is the tendency of a neuron to produce amplified responses to oscillating stimuli, if the stimuli have a certain range of frequency. This frequency is called preferred resonance frequency or natural frequency or eigenfrequency . This temporal filtering of signals based on their frequency is a phenomenon that occurs in various stages of nervous system . There are two types of resonance in neurons: synaptic resonance and subthreshold membrane resonance [1, 28]. For a neuron to have synaptic resonance, the synapse requires to contain both facilitation and depression mechanisms in its responses following a train of stimuli. In the case of subthreshold resonance, the stimulus is applied current and the neuronal response is membrane potential. As discussed by Drover et al (2007), synaptic and membrane resonance may interact with each other to produce the combined neuronal resonance . The combined neuronal preferred resonance frequency lies between its preferred synaptic resonance frequency and its subthreshold membrane resonance frequency . Because the main focus of this review is on subthreshold resonance, we may use the term “resonance” instead of “subthreshold resonance” in this review, unless otherwise stated. impedance and subthreshold resonance: According to the Ohm’s law, the ratio of voltage response to a given square pulse of current is constant and equals to the resistance of the cell. However if the cell is injected by alternating current (AC), such as sinusoidal current, this ratio is called impedance. In fact, impedance is the extension of concept of resistance into AC circuits. Impedance contains both magnitude and phase which are functions of driving frequency [1, 24]. Also impedance consists of both real and imaginary numbers . For calculating magnitude of impedance, which is frequency dependent, it is necessary to obtain the fast Fourier transform of the input (i.e. sinusoidal applied current) and output (i.e. recorded oscillating voltage) [1, 2, 3 and 28]. Therefore, one would be able to transform these properties from time domain to frequency domain . In the plot of impedance profile versus frequency, resonance is the maximum magnitude of impedance. In other words, resonance is enhancement of the outputs in a narrow range of inputs frequency. The specific frequency corresponding to this enhancement is called preferred resonance frequency [24, 29]. Synaptic plasticity has been reported in many synapses, in the forms of facilitation and depression. In these synapses, the post synaptic response to a train of stimuli is different from the response to a single stimulus [1, 36]. In the case of facilitation, the synapse enhances as much stimuli as it receives; and conversely, in depression, the more signals the synapse receives, it may become more attenuated. More importantly, the magnitude of facilitation or depression not only relies on the number of spikes in the driving train, but depends on the frequency of inter-spike intervals. In fact, facilitation acts as high-pass filter and depression is a low-pass filter [1, 36]. Therefore, similar to subthreshold resonance, the combination of facilitation and depression in a synapse form the band-pass filter corresponding to resonance frequency . Interestingly, while the preferred subthreshold resonance frequency in a neuron is similar in all sections of the cell, different synapses in a neuron may have different synaptic resonant frequencies . Therefore, an individual neuron may selectively set its firing rates in different synapses, to different frequencies and selectively affect postsynaptic neurons. According to this hypothesis proposed by Izhikevich (2003), neurons benefit from resonance to elect their companions to transfer oscillations containing information . Significance of resonance: One of the key features of oscillations in nervous system is their specific frequency and resonance may be the key factor in governing frequency of oscillations in central pattern generators. As discussed by Tohidi and Nadim (2009), the network frequency is correlated with membrane resonance of pacemaker neurons . Interestingly, the network frequency and membrane resonance of pacemaker neurons are not solely sensitive to intrinsic electrical properties of pacemaker neurons (i.e. properties of ionic currents), but also depend on voltage ranges and waveforms of oscillations . Another function of resonance, especially in cortical neurons, is to modify the dynamics of network. As an example that discussed by Marshall et al (2002) and by Buzsaki and Draguhn (2004), different cortical neurons (i.e. interneurons and pyramidal cells) have different preferred resonant frequencies. The pyramidal-interneuron synapse filters out high frequency and low frequency presynaptic spikes (in pyramidal neurons) and has resonance frequency of 5-25 Hz [13, 30]. The frequency of the active place cells is also high and around the same range (that is much higher than other pyramidal cells spiking). Therefore, the firing of active place cell has more effect on the interneuron than the other pyramidal cells. Subsequently, the place cell “enslaves” the interneuron and the interneuron inhibits other pyramidal cells. This is an example that resonance may adjust the network configuration. Another function of resonance is to accumulate weak signals with certain frequencies. An example of this phenomenon is summation of cortical feedback signals from cortex to thalamus . This leads to amplified thalamocortical signals. In this case, weak spindles during deep phases of sleep accumulate and because they are in a preferred range of frequency, they suppress the responsiveness of thalamic neurons to external stimuli (containing different frequencies) . A clinical example of resonance is in neuropathic pain. Ectopic spikes generated in sensory dorsal root ganglia are initiated by subthreshold membrane oscillations and are amplified through damages in myelinated axons. Resonance is generated by TTX-sensitive Na current, voltage-gated K current and leak and is important in generation of subthreshold oscillations. Therefore, resonance is considered as one of the suspects in neuropathic pain . Ionic currents underlying membrane subthreshold resonance: Resonance is generated through the interaction of neuronal passive properties and dynamics of voltage-gated currents. The passive properties are membrane capacitance and instantaneous leak conductance that form neuronal time constant . In different resonant neurons a series of voltage-gated currents has been proposed to play role in resonance. These currents produce active properties of the cell and they activate near the resting membrane potential. Therefore the active properties of the cell are voltage-dependent. Persistent sodium (NaP), Hyperpolarization activated inward current (Ih) and Transient calcium current (ICaT) are among the ionic currents that may play key roles in generation and/or amplification of membrane resonance [12, 22, 23 and 29]. As mentioned by Hutcheon and Yarom (2000), passive properties of neuron act as low-pass filter and filter out inputs with high frequencies. In contrast, active properties of neuron may act as high-pass filter and filter out inputs with low frequencies. Together, the combination of the two opposing effects (low-pass filter and high-pass filter properties), if connected appropriately, may form a band-pass filter that enables the neuron to produce resonance [9, 13 and 29]. Two types of ionic currents play role in resonance: resonance currents and amplifying currents. Resonant currents are currents that by their activation and inactivation may produce resonance . Amplifying currents enhance the resonance. Classically, Ih and slow K current are considered as resonant currents and NMDA current and persistent sodium currents are considered as amplifying currents. Also Calcium may demonstrate both behaviors . Low-threshold Calcium current: Low-threshold Calcium current has both activation and inactivation. Its activation dynamics is fast and the inactivation is slow. As calcium current is always inward and depolarizing, its activation acts as amplifying mechanism; while its inactivation is responsible for generation of resonance [28, 38]. Examples of resonance based on this current are neurons in inferior olive and thalamic neurons [17, 28 and 38]. H current, M current (slow Potassium current) and calcium dependent potassium current: As proposed by Hutcheon and Yarom (2000), repolarizing currents with slow dynamics may be responsible for resonance. Due to slow dynamics, these types of currents decrease neuronal excitability in low frequencies and in combination with passive properties of the cell, produce resonance [17, 28]. Both M current and h current are non-inactivating and are active in subthreshold range of voltages. However their activation curves looks mirror shape of the other: M current activates in depolarizing voltages and deactivates in hyperpolarizing voltages that its reversal potential is. In contrast, H current activates in hyperpolarizing voltages and deactivates in depolarized voltages. Also its reversal potential is in depolarized voltages. Both their activation and deactivation are slow and the time constants are in the range of 100-500 milliseconds. M current consists of potassium and is an outward current, whereas H current is a nonspecific cationic current and flows inward. Overall, these currents may individually serve to stabilize membrane potential [11, 22]. H current is perhaps the most cited current in resonance literature. In majority of resonant neurons, h current is believed to be responsible in generation of resonance. Examples of resonate neurons based on this current are: pacemaker neurons in stomatogastric nervous system of crustaceans [2, 3], CA-1 pyramidal cells in mammalian hippocampus [4, 11, 19 and 22], entorhinal cortex stellate cells [4, 21, 23 and 26] and etc. Slow potassium current is shown to be responsible in generation of theta frequency resonance in granule cerebellar cells [4, 17]. Also this current may be responsible for subthreshold resonance in amygdale, neocortex and cerebellar neurons [11, 18]. Also M current is isolated in hippocampal neurons of different mammalian brains. Together with h current, it may be responsible for resonance in theta frequencies in pyramidal cells [11, 19]. In humans, mutations in the gene of the corresponding channels of this current lead to neonatal epilepsy due to deceased levels of M current . In addition to mentioned calcium independent TEA-insensitive currents, a calcium-dependent version of potassium current (IAHP) is responsible for resonance in some invertebrates neurons [17, 35]. Persistent sodium current: Persistent sodium current is one of the key currents in resonance in mesencephalic V neurons [20, 25], entorhinal cortex stellate cells [21, 23 and 26] and CA-1 pyramidal cells . Similar to the conventional sodium current that appears in Hodgkin-Huxley equations, this type of sodium current is Tetrodotoxin-sensitive and has activation curve similar to sodium: It activates fast in more depolarized voltages and deactivates in resting and hyperpolarized voltages. Unlike the conventional sodium current, this current is non-inactivating. It is still unclear that this current gates through same classical sodium channels or through some distinct types of channels [11, 25]. As many studies including Gutfreund et al (1995) demonstrated, blocking of this current by TTX depresses the magnitude of impedance in cortical neurons of guinea-pig . Due to its fast dynamics it usually acts as amplifying current [28, 37]. Some cases of resonance: Many neurons display subthreshold resonance in their response to driving current. Beside the list of neurons in mediodorsal thalamus, entorhinal cortex and hippothalamus, many neurons in invertebrates also show resonance. Neurons of stomatogastric nervous system: One of the well-studied examples of resonance is in neurons of Stomatogastric nervous system of crustaceans (i.e. crab cancer borealis). In fact, because of several advantages of this system (i.e. minimal number of neurons in a CPG, relatively large size of neurons, and known intrinsic and synaptic properties of neurons) this system has been one of the best well-known central pattern generators. In this network, both pacemaker neurons (AB and PD) and follower neurons (i.e. LP neuron) exhibit both types of synaptic and membrane resonance [2, 3 and 36]. Several voltage-gated current, such as h current has been proposed to play role in this resonance effect . In entorhinal cortex (EC), superficial layer II contains stellate cells and layer III has pyramidal cells, both with resonant properties. These cells send projections to dentate gyrus and CA1 regions [9, 14 and 32]. As demonstrated by Erchova et al. (2004), layer II stellate cells have strong resonance in upper theta frequency range (5-15 Hz); while layer III pyramidal cells have weak resonance at very low frequencies (~1 Hz). So in theta frequency, as driving frequency increases, impedance monotonically decreases [14, 23]. Following a depolarizing or hyperpolarizing step current, all resonant cells demonstrate sag potential . As discussed by Rotstein et al (2008), resonance in stellate cells requires the presence of h current and persistent sodium current [23, 26]. Hippocampal CA-1 pyramidal neurons and interneurons: Hippocampal pyramidal region consist of pyramidal cells and several types of interneurons. The importance of this region is because hippocampal theta waves with 4-10 Hz frequency are generated here. Gamma waves with 40-70 Hz frequency are mostly superimposed on theta waves. Isolated hippocampal CA-1 pyramidal neurons show resonance with theta frequency . In addition, whole cell clamping in thin slices of CA-1pyramidal neurons show resonance in these neurons with the preferred resonant frequency of 2-5 Hz [11, 12 and 13]. Similarly, horizontal interneurons with cell bodies in stratum oriens have resonant frequency around 1-5 Hz. However, the majority of interneurons in pyramidal layer are fast spiking interneurons (including basket cells and axo-axonic interneurons) and their resonant frequency is around gamma band (~ 40 Hz) . As mentioned before, CA-1 pyramidal neurons contain both M current and h-current that may be responsible for generation of subthreshold resonance in theta-range frequencies: . As discussed by Pike et al. (2000), unlike pyramidal cells and horizontal interneurons, resonance in fast spiking interneurons is Tetrodotoxin sensitive. This suggests a possible role for voltage-gated sodium current in resonant behavior of gamma-band spiking interneurons and diminishes the role of this current in resonance of pyramidal neurons . Interestingly, as shown by Hu et al. (2002), the resonance in CA-1 pyramidal cells has a U-shaped dependence on voltage: The bottom is around the resting potential; However the maximums are at hyperpolarized and subthreshold voltages . The resonance of hyperpolarized voltages is generated by h current; while the resonance in subthreshold voltages is generated by M-current and persistent sodium current . Also as demonstrated by Narayanan and Johnson (2008), based on the activity and location of CA-1 pyramidal neurons, h current affects the resonant frequency . In a neuronal population, different subpopulations of neurons are not homologous and they do not respond uniformly to an input. In fact, due to their heterogeneity, they may have distinct preferences to various patterns of inputs and may have different resonant frequencies. For example, pyramidal neurons have preferred resonant frequency around 1-10 Hz, close to theta rhythm frequency. Similarly, horizontal interneurons with cell bodies in stratum oriens have a resonant frequency of about 1-5 Hz. However, the majority of interneurons in the pyramidal layer are fast spiking interneurons and their resonant frequency is around gamma band (~ 40 Hz) . Therefore, in the CA1 pyramidal layer, individual neurons may act as band pass filter and selectively filter out oscillations with undesirable frequencies. Consequently, a combination of neuronal oscillations containing various frequencies may be filtered out and classified locally by resonant behavior of different subpopulations of neurons . 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(1993), Stochastic resonance in neuron models, Journal of statistical physics, 70.5: 309-321 - Erchova I., Kreck G., Heinemann U., Herz A.V.M. (2004), Dynamics of rat entorhinal cortex layer II and III cells: characteristics of membrane potential resonance at rest predict pscillation properties near threshold, Journal of physiology, 560.1: 89-110 - Amir R., Liu C.N., Kocsis J.D., Devor M.,(2002), Oscillatory mechanism in primary sensory neurons, Brain, 125: 421-435 - D’Angelo E., Nieus T., Maffei A., Armano S., Rossi P., Taglietti V., Fontana A., Naldi G., (2001), Theta-frequency bursting and resonance in cerebellar granule cells: Experimental evidence and modeling of a slow K-dependent mechanism, The journal of neuroscience, 21(3): 759-770 - Bressler S., Scott Kelso J.A. (2001), Cortical coordination dynamics and cognition, TRENDS in cognitive sciences, 5(1):26-37 - Zemankovics R., Kali S., Paulsen O., Freund T.F., Hajos N. (2010), Differences in subthreshold resonance of hippocampal pyramidal cells and interneurons: the role of h-current and passive membrane characteristics, Journal of physiology, 588(12):2109-2132 - Wu N., Hsiao C.F., Chandler S.H. (2001), Membrane resonance and subthreshold membrane oscillations in mesencephalic V neurons: Participants in burst generation, The journal of neuroscience, 21(11):3729-3739 - Boehlen A., Heinemann U., Erchova I. (2010), The range of intrinsic frequencies represented by medial entorhinal cortex stellate cells extends with age, The journal of neuroscience, 30(13):4585-4589 - Narayanan R., Johnston D. (2008), The h channel mediates location dependence and plasticity of intrinsic phase response in rat hippocampal neurons, The journal of neuroscience, 28(22):5846-5860 - Haas J.E., White J.A. (2002), frequency selectivity of layer II stellate cells in the medial entorhinal cortex, Journal of neurophysiology, 88:2422-2429 - Higgs M., Spain W.J., (2009), Conditional bursting enhances resonant firing in neocortical layer 2-3 pyramidal neurons, The journal of neuroscience, 29(5):1285-1299 - Wu N., Enomoto A., Tanaka S., Hsiao C.F., Nykamp D.Q., Izhikevich E., Chandler S.H. (2005), Persistent sodium current in mesencephalic V neurons participate in burst generation and control of membrane excitability, Journal of neurophysiology, 93:2710-2722 - Rotstein H.G., Wechselberger M., Koppel N. (2008), Canard induced mixed-mode oscillations in a medial entorhinal cortex layer II stellate cell model, SIADS - Strogatz S.H., Stewart I. (1993), Coupled oscillators and biological synchronization, Scientific American, 102-109 - Hutcheon B., Yarom Y. (2000), resonance, oscillation and the intrinsic frequency preference of neurons, TRENDS in neuroscience, 23(5):216-222 - Marshall L., Henze D.A., Hirase H., Leinekugel X., Dragoi G., Buzsaki G. (2002), Hippocampal pyramidal cell-interneuron spike transmission is frequency dependent and responsible for place modulation of interneuron discharge, The journal of neuroscience, 22(197):1-5 - O’Keefe J., Recce M.L. (1993), Phase relationship between hippocampal place units and the EEG theta rhythm, Hippocampus, 3(3): 317-330 - Buzsaki G. (2002), Theta oscillations in hippocampus, Neuron, 33:1-20 - Hirase H., Czurko A., Csicsvari J., Buzsaki G. (1999), Firing rate and theta-phase coding by hippocampal pyramidal neurons during ‘space clamping’, European journal of neuroscience, 11:4373-4380 - Geisler C., Diba K., Pastalkova E., Mizuseki K., Royer S., Buzsaki G. (2010), Temporal delays among place cells determine the frequency of population theta oscillations in hippocampus, PNAS, 107(17)7957-7962 - Kamondi A., Acsady L., Wang X., Buzsaki G. (1998), Tetha oscillations in somata and dendrites of hippocampal pyramidal cells in vivo: activity-dependent phase-precession of action potentials, 8:244-261 - Wang X-J, Rinzel J (1999) Oscillatory and bursting properties of neurons. In: The handbook of brain theory and neuronal networks (Arbib MA, ed), pp 686-691. London: MIT Press. - Drover J., Tohidi V., Bose A., Nadim F. (2007), combining synaptic and cellular resonance in a feed-forward neuronal network, Neurocomputing, 70:2041-2045 - Gutfreund Y, Yarom Y., Segev I. (1995), Subthreshold oscillations and resonant frequency in guinea-pig cortical neurons: physiology and modeling, Journal of physiology, 483.3: 621-640 - Hutcheon B., Miura R.,Yarom Y., Puil E. 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An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in the County of Cambridgeshire, Volume 1, West Cambridgshire. Originally published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1968. This free content was digitised by double rekeying and sponsored by English Heritage. All rights reserved. (O.S. 6 ins. aTL 36 N.W., bTL 36 S.W.) Conington is a small and now rather dispersed village 9 m. N.W. of Cambridge. The parish is a compact one of 1522 acres, predominantly of Ampthill clay. Although none of it is fenland it is generally low-lying, barely attaining 100 ft. in the S.E. corner. Drainage is to the N. The boundary with Boxworth to the S.E. and with Fenstanton in Huntingdonshire to the N.W. is indented and no doubt follows old fields; to the S. against Elsworth it is relatively straight. The Cambridge to Huntingdon road divides Conington from Swavesey and Fen Drayton to the N.E. The church stands on a small patch of river gravel somewhat W. of the centre of the parish. Close by to the N.E. is an old crossroad, the S. arm of which is a decayed hollow-way called Town Street, with a second hollow-way parallel to it some 200 yds. further W. Here was once part of the village, if not its actual nucleus (see Monument (8)). Today most of the houses, none of which is older than the 17th century, are scattered to the N. and E. between the church and the park. A small group (Monument (3)) on the S.E. edge of the park appears to represent a rehousing scheme necessitated by extension of the park. General enclosure was by act of 1800, the award being made in 1804. a(1) Parish Church of St. Mary consisting of a Chancel, Nave and West Tower stands in a rectangular churchyard bounded on the N. by a low stone-coped wall. The second hollow-way mentioned in the introduction must at one time have passed close to the tower. The nave is of red brick. The lower stages of the tower are stuccoed; the top stage is of field stones and the spire is ashlared. The roofs are covered with tiles and lead. Fragments lying loose in and around the church or reset in its walls include a stone carved with interlace ornament (see Miscellaneous below) and the head of a 12th-century pillar piscina (see Piscinae (2) below). These point to a church earlier than the present one which retains no work prior to the 14th century. The nave was rebuilt and the tower buttressed under the patronage of Dingley Askham c. 1737 (see Monuments and Floor slabs, Monument (4)). The chancel was rebuilt in 1871, and there were restorations in 1902 and 1911. Architectural Description—The Chancel (29½ ft. by 13¾ ft.) and organ chamber are modern. The Nave (42½ ft. by 19¾ ft.) is of red brick with a white brick plinth and a parapet. There are three round-headed windows in each side wall with rusticated jambs and arches, in stucco except for the imposts and keystones which are of ashlar; the cornice and parapet coping are of stone also. The windows are flanked internally by elliptical-headed recesses with plain keystones. Against the S. side of the nave and partly above ground level is a family vault of c. 1740 which has red brick walls and a curved lean-to roof. The West Tower (10½ ft. square) has massive sloping 18th-century red brick buttresses at the corners. Between the W. buttresses is a rusticated doorway with flat-arched head, bold keystone backed by a pulvinated frieze and broken pediment clasping a small oval window (Plate 91). This composition, which is in clunch and freestone, has obliterated a mediaeval W. window, but parts of the S. splay and N. jamb with springing are visible. Above, in each face of the belfry, is a restored 14th-century window of two trefoiled lights with a quatrefoil in the head. The original tower parapet had gargoyles of grotesque human form at each corner; that to the N.E. has broken away and that to the S.W. appears to be a modern replacement. Behind and inset from the parapet an octagonal spire with roll-moulded angles rises to a finial. There are gabled windows in the cardinal faces, those to the E. and W. being set lower than those to the N. and S.; the gables are trefoiled and are flanked by grotesque stops. At the base of the spire in the S. face is a doorway similar in form to the windows just described. Fittings—Bells: 1st, recast in 1911, reproducing a 15th-century inscription 'Sancta Maria Ora Pro Nobis' and retains a reset shield of the Bury foundry; 2nd, inscribed in Lombardic capitals with ornamental initial stop 'asumta: est: maria: in: celum: gaudent: angeli: laudantes: benedicunt: do' with the additional letters 'minum' added higher up on the shoulder. J. J. Raven (Church Bells of Cambs., 12–13) has suggested that this bell was cast c. 1376 by William Brasier of Norwich in the course of his migration from Nottingham; 3rd, inscribed in capitals 'Milo Gray me fecit 1635'; 4th, recast in 1911, reproduces original 15th-century inscription 'Virgo: Coronata: Duc: Nos: Ad: Regna: Beata' and retains a reset shield of the Bury foundry. The inscriptions on the 1st and 4th were in black-letter with Lombardic capitals before being recast. Book: Folio Prayer Book and Bible, 1715. Brass indent: at W. end of nave for rectangular inscription panel. Chests: (1) plain hutch, apparently designed as an almsbox with small lid set in a fixed top and perforated slot, 17th- or 18th-century; (2) resting on two sleepers with clawed ends, the lid and base moulded, the sides, front and lid bound with parallel iron straps, 17th- or 18th-century. Doors: In W. doorway of tower (1) in two leaves each of eight fielded panels, c. 1737; reset in partition below tower gallery (2) in two leaves each of three fielded panels, 18th-century. Gallery: In tower, with front of turned balusters, c. 1737, probably reset. Glass: In second window on N. side of chancel, a few 14th-century and later mediaeval fragments reset. Monuments and Floor slabs. Monuments: On E. wall of organ chamber (1) of Rev. Thomas Brown, rector, 1829, signed 'Ino Soward London'. In nave, on E. wall N. of chancel arch; (2) of Philip Thomas Gardner, 1838, and other members of family; in niches on N. side; (3) of Rev. Philip Gardner, D.D., 1826, and Harriet his wife, daughter of Sir Thomas Hatton of Longstanton, 1822, inscription panel with sarcophagus and urn in white marble; (4) of Dingley Askham, 1781, white marble inscription panel flanked by pilasters carved with leaves surmounted by a cornice and urn; the inscription relates that 'In the Year 1737 he rebuilt this Church'; (5) of Frances, wife of Dingley Askham, 1783, in white and grey marble, oval inscription panel on a rectangular background with fluted frieze above and broken pediment enclosing an urn; (6) of Ann, eldest daughter of Dingley Askham, 1784, white marble tablet with shaped grey apron, moulded cornice and urn; in niches on S. side; (7) of Robert Cotton (Plate 14), aged 14, 1697, only son of Sir Robert Cotton of Hatley St. George and great-grandson of the founder of the Cotton Library; the monument is of white marble and consists of an oval medallion with portrait bust in high relief framed in a garland of foliage and flowers and surmounted by a quarterly shield of arms flanked by cherubs; below the medallion an inscription panel in the form of carved drapery flanked by freestanding badges; the signature 'G. Gibbons fecit.' is incised on a palm leaf at the base of the medallion; (8) of Alice Cotton (Plate 14), 1667, only daughter and heiress of John Constable of Drumondby, Yorks., and wife of Thomas Cotton; of white marble, comprising an inscription panel surmounted by a portrait bust in high relief set in an oval recess having frame carved with a swag and three shields of arms; immediately above the foregoing in the same niche (9) of two infant daughters of Sir Robert Cotton and his wife Gertrude, one at birth, 1665, the other, Frances, 1667; black inscription panel with shaped side pieces and cornice topped by a cartouche of arms; (10) of Thomas Cotton, 1729, and Ann, his wife, 1744, marble inscription tablet with broken pediment enclosing a cartouche of arms; (11) Frances and Mary Askham (Plate 90), daughters of Dingley Askham, 1748, 'by a contagious fever', inscription tablet with pair of small portrait medallions, surmounted by a pediment and urn. In the churchyard, N. of nave; (12) of Thomas Sawyear (Plate 15), 1728, headstone with inscription arranged in two leaves beneath a panel carved in low relief with ladder, cross, claw hammer and three nails, representing the emblems of the Passion. There are a number of other 18th-century headstones in the churchyard with inscriptions partly or wholly indecipherable. Floor slabs: In nave—(1) of Robert Cotton, 1697, with shield of arms; (2) of Gertrude, wife of Sir Robert Cotton, 1701, with shield of arms; (3) of Ann Cotton, 1721, with shield of arms. Piscinae: In S. wall of chancel—(1) with stop-moulded jambs and cinque-foiled ogee head, 14th-century, reset; (2) head of a pillar piscina treated as a water-leaf cap, 12th-century, reset. Plate: includes a cup and cover paten, London 1570; and an inscribed cup and a paten, London 1696. Rainwater heads: five, lead, of c. 1737. Miscellaneous: Loose in the church: stone fragment carved on one face with interlace ornament, 11th-century; gargoyle carved with a bull's head, damaged by fire and cut down for re-use, perhaps 12th-century; stone bowl, fashioned for setting in a wall, of limestone marble repaired in cement, with moulded fore edge, mediaeval. Loose stonework in the churchyard, partly overgrown with vegetation, includes below the third window on the N. side of the nave a gargoyle carved as a grotesque half figure, 14th- or 15th-century. a(2) Conington Hall, consisting of a house, stables and grounds, is about ¼ m. N. of the church on the edge of the village and parish. The House was described by Cole as 'a very handsome new house' in 1745 (B.M. Add. MS. 5809, 65), but may be of comparatively early 18th-century origin; the Master's Lodge at Peterhouse, built in 1702 for Dr. Charles Beaumont, fellow of the college, is similar in design and could have served as prototype. The plan is almost square and consists of two parallel N.E. to S.W. ranges linked by the primary and secondary staircases arranged in line and entered by recessed doorways between the ends of the ranges. The structure seems originally to have been of three storeys in addition to the basement but was reduced to two in the earlier 19th century and reinforced by buttresses. A new third storey was added to the S.E. range in 1876. The walls are of red and white brick, much patched and rendered, and the roofs are slated. The symmetrical three-storey S.E. elevation is in seven bays and has a central doorway, approached by stone steps, with moulded stone architrave and broken pediment enclosing a cartouche of arms of Cotton. The N.W. elevation is generally similar but of two stages only,each of seven sash windows under flat-arched heads with painted key blocks. The centre window on the ground floor, approached by stone steps, is set in an irregular area of white brick and doubtless replaces an original feature. In the end elevations the recesses between the ranges have both been arched over just below the eaves level of the N.W. range. The N.E. recess has a Venetian window, with modern internal casing, lighting the stair hall; below it is the front door which has a 19th-century stone portico. N.W. of the entrance is a semi-external chimney stack, also of the 19th century, corbelled out at first-floor level. The heavily buttressed S.W. end has in the recess between the ranges an original doorway with moulded wooden architrave and a narrow hood supported by console brackets; above it are two original sash windows. The original main staircase (Plate 39) is of deal and rises in two main flights, separated by two half-landings with a short intermediate flight, as far as the first floor. It has twisted balusters, square panelled newels, close string and a panelled dado at the wall. The secondary staircase (Plate 39) which rises the full height of the house is also original, but may have been in part rearranged; it has turned balusters and plain square newels with ball finials. For the rest much of the internal detail is of the 19th century but earlier features include some simple 18th-century panelling and original marble fireplace surrounds. Immediately S.W. of the house are the altered remains of original Stables. N.W. of them is a kitchen garden enclosed by 18th-century walls. The Grounds include a 'Wilderness' to the N.W. of the house with two oblong ponds in line with it at approximate distances of 150 yds. and 200 yds.; the first is parallel to the house, and the second at right angles. The park and garden contain a number of mature specimen trees. a(3) Houses (Plate 35), group of four semi-detached estate dwellings to varying designs in a Tudoresque idiom, each of two storeys, built of red and white brick (some reused) with tiled or slated roofs. One is dated 1849. a(4) The White Swan (Class H), public house, of red brick with tiled roofs, is similar in style to the foregoing and of about the same date. a(5) Marshall's Farm consists of a framed N. and S. range of two storeys, partly under-built in brick, with tiled roof. The S. end is a 19th-century extension. The remainder is perhaps of 17th-century origin, although some timbers, including an ovolo-moulded beam on the ground floor at the N. end, have been reused. a(6) School and School House, built of white brick with tiled roofs in 1840 (Gardner's Directory, 348), were altered and extended not long after. The School consisted of a single class-room open to the roof. The School House, placed at right angles to it like a cross wing, is of two storeys with sash windows, first-floor platband and dentilled eaves cornice. a(7) Rectory (Class T), now alienated, has a main range of two storeys and attic, with lower kitchen wing at right angles to the rear; both are of plastered studwork with tiled mansard roofs. It was probably built c. 1800. The principal elevation, to the S., is symmetrically designed in three bays with central front door beneath a fan-light, triple sash windows in the side bays and three set-back dormers. A two-storey block in white brick was added to the E. c. 1840 and at the same time the original stair hall and stair, in the re-entrant between the main range and the rear wing, was altered. a(8) Village Remains. There are two areas of remains, both on dry and level sites of Ampthill clay: (a) around N.G. TL 320660 (only the two main hollow-ways are on O.S.) S. of the church; and (b) around N.G. TL 321665 (not on O.S.), E. of the Hall. (a) Two hollow-ways run S. from School Lane and continue as footpaths towards Elsworth. The W. hollow-way is 550 ft. long, 28 ft. wide and 1 ft. to 4 ft. deep, with a bank 12 ft. wide and 2 ft. high along the E. side at the N. end. The E. hollow-way 450 ft. to the E., known as 'Town Street', is 30 ft. to 40 ft. wide and 2 ft. to 3 ft. deep. A third hollow-way, 250 ft. from the N. end of the W. hollow-way, runs E. from it for 200 ft. and then fades out; it is 25 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at the W. end. Between the two main N. and S. hollow-ways is a disturbed area with many banks, scarps and ditches, none of which can be clearly interpreted but which probably represent former house sites and gardens. To the E. of 'Town Street' a disturbed area with several scarps 1 ft. to 2 ft. high corresponds to the site of a house which was standing in 1800 (enclosure map 1800, C.R.O. and B.M.). (b) In the Park to the N. of High Street are slight remains of at least eight closes, 100 ft. to 150 ft. wide and 200 ft. long, separated from ridge and furrow to the N. by a S.E. scarp 9 ins. to 1 ft. high. In the S.E. part of the third from the W., among a number of scarps and mounds, is a circular bricklined well, 6 ft. in diameter; similar scarps and mounds occur in the other closes. In 1800 the western four closes contained houses, probably replaced later in the 19th century, when the Park was enlarged to its present extent, by the estate houses on the opposite side of High Street. (9) Cultivation Remains. Ridge and furrow 50 yds. to 220 yds. long, 7 yds. to 15 yds. wide and 6 ins. to 1 ft. high, with headlands of 5 yds. to 11 yds., exists in and around the village at N.G. TL 318661, 322664 and 322661 (not on O.S.), all in old enclosures. In the Park at N.G. TL 320667 are three blocks of curving ridge and furrow, of open-field type, with an access way 20 ft. wide leading to a block of five ridges 13 yds. to 15 yds. wide. N. of Ebb's Gore Bridge (N.G. TL 326652) a large bank 10 yds. wide and 4 ft. to 5 ft. high, steeper on the S.E. side, runs N.E. and S.W. between two open-field furlongs of which it was the common headland. The traces visible on air photographs over most of the rest of the parish appear to be of normal open-field type arranged in abutting furlongs. In three fields S.W. of Friesland (around N.G. TL 342661) the traces fit exactly into the field boundaries; in 1800 these were old enclosures presumably taken from the open fields. Before enclosure the parish was already divided into six large 'Fields': 'Down', 'Marsh', 'Mill', 'Sand', 'Smee' and 'Stepshill'. (Ref: enclosure map 1800 (C.R.O. and B.M.); air photographs: CPE/UK/1952/4005–8.)

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- Exodus 3:1-15 & Psalm 105:1-6, 23-26, 45b (or Jeremiah 15:15-21 & Psalm 26:1-8) - Romans 12:9-21 - Matthew 16:21-28 First Reading: Theophany at Sinai The story of Moses and the burning bush is one of the great religious classics of humanity. This quintessential “I-thou” story of encounter with the Sacred Other captures themes that lie at the heart of the religious experience. Within the traditional Hebrew narrative structures that run through this part of the Pentateuch, this episode is a key part of the Moses narrative. The encounter with God in the burning bush epiphany is a revelation of the identity of the One who will redeem the Hebrew slaves and also the divine call for Moses to play his part in the drama of salvation. Both the prophetic character of Moses and also the special nature of his relationship with God are established in this episode. While there is no historical value to this tradition as an account of ancient Israel’s historical origins, this is a powerful story about the origins of the religious quest that became Israel’s great contribution to human culture and which is today expressed in all three biblical religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. At the heart of this story lies the mysterious dialogue in which God reveals the divine name, using a formula that evades precise translation. For one especially famous exposition of the religious significance of the Sinai theophany the writings of the Jewish philosopher, Martin Buber (1878-1965): extract The following commentary comes from the JPS Torah Commentary edited by Nahum Sarna: Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh This phrase has variously been translated, “I Am That I Am,” “I Am Who I Am,” and “I Will Be What I Will Be.” It clearly evokes YHVH, the specific proper name of Israel’s God, known in English as the Tetragrammaton, that is, “the four consonants.” The phrase also indicates that the earliest recorded understanding of the divine name was as a verb derived from the stem h-v-h, taken as an earlier form of h-y-h, “to be.” Either it expresses the quality of absolute Being, the eternal, unchanging, dynamic presence, or it means, “He causes to be.” YHVH is the third person masculine singular; ehyeh is the corresponding first person singular. This latter is used here because name-giving in the ancient world implied the wielding of power over the one named; hence, the divine name can only proceed from God Himself. In the course of the Second Temple period the Tetragrammaton came to be regarded as charged with metaphysical potency and therefore ceased to be pronounced. It was replaced in speech by ’adonai, “Lord,” rendered into Greek Kyrios. Often the vowels of ’adonai would later accompany YHVH in written texts. This gave rise to the mistaken form Jehovah. The original pronunciation was eventually lost; modern attempts at recovery are conjectural. God’s response to Moses’ query cannot be the disclosure of a hitherto unknown name, for that would be unintelligible to the people and would not resolve Moses’ dilemma. However, taken together with the statement in 6:3, the implication is that the name YHVH only came into prominence as the characteristic personal name of the God of Israel in the time of Moses. This tradition accords with the facts that the various divine names found in Genesis are no longer used, except occasionally in poetic texts; that of all the personal names listed hitherto, none is constructed of the prefixed yeho-/yo- or the suffixed -yahu/yah contractions of YHVH; that the first name of this type is yokheved (Jochebed), that of Moses’ mother. Ibn Ezra points out that Moses, in his direct speech, invariably uses the name YHVH, not ’elohim, “God.” Without doubt, the revelation of the divine name YHVH to Moses registers a new stage in the history of Israelite monotheism. W. G. Plaut The following extracts from W.G. Plaut, The Torah. A Modern Commentary provide some further examples of Jewish interpretation of this tradition: In this first theophany, the divine Presence is called by three names: “God” (Elohim), “Lord” (YHVH), and a name not translated in our English text, “Ehyeh.” Of these, only the last name is new to Moses, the other two are familiar to him and are not explained: Elohim is the basic generic name for any god and hence also for the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (verse 6); and “Lord” or YHVH is God’s own, personal name, known to him, but — as chapter 6 will show — not yet understood in its full meaning. Here it is merely restated that, whatever the additional and newly revealed name Ehyeh betokens, God’s own name YHVH will not be affected, it will remain the same (verse 15). The name Elohim is known to the reader from the story of Creation on. It is an expansion or variant of the name El, which generally describes the godhead in Semitic languages (Ugaritic El; Babylonian Ilu; Arabic Allah). Prevailing scholarly opinion connects it with a root meaning “to be strong.” In the Hebrew Bible, Elohim is used both for the God of Israel and generically for the gods of the nations, and, in the Torah, Elohim is the name preferred by the tradition called Elohist (or E; in contrast to J which prefers YHVH). YHVH (“Lord”) is the distinguishing name by which Israelites called their God. After the theophany related here, in chapter 3, Moses will bring the message of salvation to Israel as well as to Egypt, and the result of this mission will necessitate a further revelation of God, who (in chapter 6) will give to the old name YHVH a new dimension. … In the first meeting with God, Moses is satisfied that his knowledge of the divine Name, that is, his knowledge of God’s nature, will be sufficient to arm him for the mission ahead, though we are not told how a knowledge of the Name, if it were unknown to the people, would validate Moses’ claim. But, in any case, upon his inquiry he is not given the clear answer he seeks; instead he is told that the Lord may, in addition to being and continuing to be YHVH, also be known as Ehyeh or Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh. This revelation only deepens the mystery, for the new name is not further explained. Still, Moses makes no additional inquiry, and we may therefore assume that the name was meaningful to him, or at least that he believed he understood its import. What then was it? Over the centuries a number of answers have been attempted, though none has won universal acceptance. Ehyeh is quite evidently the first person singular of the word “to be.” One problem is that the tense is not clear; it could mean “I am” or “I will be” (or “I shall be”). This uncertainty is multiplied in the name Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh, for the first Ehyeh might be of one tense (for instance, “I am”) and the second another (for instance, “I will be”), or they might both be the same tense (“I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be”). To add to the difficulty, Asher could mean either “who” or “what.” The majority of the commentators have understood both occurrences of Ehyeh to convey the future tense and to mean: “I will be what tomorrow demands,” that is, God emphasizes that He is capable of responding to human need. This was the message, they say, Moses was to take back to the enslaved people and thereby assure them that the God whom they called YHVH was also “Ehyeh,” who would be ready in the near future to redeem them. A variant interpretation was offered by S.R. Hirsch who saw a philosophical meaning in Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh: “I will be what I want to be,” that is, God stresses His own freedom to act as He wills, in contrast to earthly creatures who are never totally free. But is it likely that Moses could take such an opaque message to the people and satisfy their thirst for the knowledge that God was still their God? It appears therefore that the impact of this story lies elsewhere. The most important factor to be taken into consideration is that, though Moses is given the new name to take back to Israel, not a single instance is reported in the Torah where he is shown to have actually used it. From this we can conclude that the revelation was never meant for the people at all, nor did Moses really inquire for the sake of the people: Moses had asked for himself, and the answer he receives is also meant for him — for God understands what Moses wants, and the very vagueness of His answer is purposeful. When Moses asks, “What shall I say to them” he is asking to satisfy his own needs and does so by pretending to ask for the sake of others. This view alone makes it possible to arrive at a satisfactory interpretation of God’s mysterious self-revelation. Moses wants to know the nature of God by inquiring about the inner meaning of His name, but God will not be fully known and therefore evades a clear answer. His response is intentionally vague, for it is a response to Moses only, and not a name suitable for communication. “You ask to know My name,” God says, “and I will tell you: I am what I am, I will be what I will be. And when you tell your people of this experience, tell them it is the same YHVH they know about.” God reveals Himself to Moses as He does to no other human being (Deut. 34:10), but even to Moses He shows himself wrapped in mystery. It is an aspect of God’s freedom to conceal his essence, and hence Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh must remain elusive. Therefore it is well to keep the divine response in its original form and, as our English translation does, convey it, untranslated and inexplicable, as Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh. The Midrash conveys a similar interpretation: while God is called by many names, He is what he is by virtue of His deeds. That is to say, you cannot really know Him until you experience Him in your own life. (pp. 404-406) The Gospel: Intimations of suffering and glory The Gospel passage follows on from last week’s confession of faith by Peter, located by Mark in Caesarea Philippi in the far north of the Jordan catchment area. Matthew has drawn together material from Mark: Predictions of death and resurrection Matt 16:21 From that time on, Jesus began to show his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem and undergo great suffering at the hands of the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and on the third day be raised. 22 And Peter took him aside and began to rebuke him, saying, “God forbid it, Lord! This must never happen to you.” 23 But he turned and said to Peter, “Get behind me, Satan! You are a stumbling block to me; for you are setting your mind not on divine things but on human things.” Matthew has adopted, with minimal adjustment, the series of three prophecies in which Jesus predicts his own demise in Jerusalem as well as his resurrection. The series of predictions can be found at: - Mark 8:31-33 = Matt 16:21-23 = Luke 9:22 - Mark 9:30-32= Matt 17:22-23 = Luke 9:43b-45 - Mark 10:32-34 = Matt 20:17-19 = Luke 18:31-34 Robert Fortna [The Gospel of Matthew, 145f] observes: I believe it is most unlikely that Jesus foresaw this early his eventual arrest and execution, still less his resurrection, or that he solemnly predicted them to this disciples. Rather, the three episdoes were introduced later in the story, perhaps not until the writing of Mark, to justify Jesus’ fate: If he had predicted it, it was acceptable, much as the Old Testament prophecy made an event inevitable (see … 27:27-66). The way of the cross At the heart of this week’s Gospel is the theme of the cross: a fate embraced by Jesus (as the gospel writers tell the story) and the benchmark for Christian discipleship. We have an ancient Greek reference crucifixion as the test of integrity [cited in Crossan, Historical Jesus (353)]: If you want to be crucified, just wait. The cross will come. If it seems reasonable to comply, and the circumstances are right, then it’s to be carried through, and your integrity maintained. (Epictetus, Discourses 2.2.20; Oldfather, 1.228-231) Lachs [Rabbinic Commentary on the New Testament, 187] notes that there are no rabbinic parallels to this saying but that there are many rabbinic passages that share the idea that the faithful should be willing to face martyrdom for their beliefs, for instance: The words of the Law are only established in a man who would die for them. [B.Ber. 63b] John Dominic Crossan, [Historical Jesus 353] observes: The complex Carrying Ones Cross [1/3] could be dismissed almost immediately as a retrojection of Jesus’ death back onto his own prophetic lips. This would be especially persuasive if it were found only in Mark 8:34, but it is found in both Gospel of Thomas 55:2b and the Sayings Gospel Q at Luke 14:27 = Matthew 10:38, neither of which show any great interest in the historical crucifixion of Jesus. After citing the passage from Epictetus (see above), Crossan continues: There is, therefore, no need to take Jesus’ saying as either retrojected or projected prophecy. Jesus “was discussing,” as Leif Vaage put it about Epictetus, “the (possible) consequences of following a certain philosophy … The cost of adopting a particular way of life is … graphically imagined … The fate portrayed … certainly seems a conceivable outcome of the kind of social challenge and outrageous behavior” (1989:173) seen so often throughout this chapter. Note: The Vaage reference is to “Q1 and the Historical Jesus: Some Peculiar Sayings (7:33-34; 9:57-58,59-60; 14:26-27)” Forum 5/2, 1989, 159-76. Unlike its co-chair, the Jesus Seminar was more sceptical of this saying’s authenticity. This saying is deeply embedded in the early traditions appearing in three independent sources and in two different forms: as a negative saying in Q/Thom and as a positive saying in Mark. In the end, and only after a second consideration of the question, the Fellows rejected the saying from the database of authentic Jesus sayings on the grounds that its post-Easter understanding of the cross as the defining symbol for Jesus. Gerd Lüdemann [Jesus, 57], agrees with the final view of the Jesus Seminar and considers Mark 8:34b “a saying of post-Easter prophet.” John P. Meier [Marginal Jew, III, 64-66], discusses this saying as part of his treatment of the disciples. He considers that the “shocking imagery” and the multiple attestation both support the case that Jesus created this saying. Meier suggests that the saying would not have spoken of carrying one’s own cross (rather than Jesus’ cross) had it been a post-Easter creation, and he also cites the parallel from Epictetus (c. 55-135 CE) in support of a wide dissemination of the crucifixion metaphor in the early Roman period. Some standing here Matt 16:27 “For the Son of Man is to come with his angels in the glory of his Father, and then he will repay everyone for what has been done. 28 Truly I tell you, there are some standing here who will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom.” Belief in Jesus’ return (parousia) is one of the most strongly attested items in the historical Jesus tradition, and continues to be a core belief in some modern Christian communities. In every generation there have been Christians who expected to see the end of the world before they died, but in the Synoptic tradition such a statement perhaps indicates this saying is circulating within the range of living memory deriving from the late 20s of the first century; not later than 90 CE or thereabouts. - 240 Passion Resurrection Prophecy – (1a) Mark 8:31-33 = Matt 16:2l-23 = Luke 9:22; (1b) Mark 9:9b = Matt 17:9b; (1c) Mark 9:12b = Matt 17:12b; (1d) Mark 9:30-32= Matt 17:22-23 = Luke 9:43b-45; (1e) Luke 17:25; (1f) Mark 10:32-34 = Matt 20:17-19 = Luke 18:31-34; (1g) Matt 26:1-2; (1h) Mark 14:21 = Matt 26:24 = Luke 22:22; (1i) Mark 14:41= Matt 26:45b; (1j) Luke 24:7. - 044 Carrying Ones Cross – (1) GThom. 55:2b; (2) 1Q: Luke 14:27 = Matt 10:38; (3) Mark 8:34 = Matt 16:24 = Luke 9:23. - 063 Saving Ones Life – (1) 1Q: Luke 17:33 = Matt 10:39; (2) Mark 8:35 = Matt 16:25 = Luke 9:24; (3) John 12:25-26. - 241 What Profit – (1a) Mark 8:36 = Matt 16:26a = Luke 9:25; (1b) 2 Clem. 6:2. - 242 Lifes Price – (1) Mark 8:37 = Matt 16:26b. - 028 Before the Angels – (1a) 2Q: Luke 12:8-9 = Matt 10:32-33; (1b) 2 Clem. 3:2 [from Matt 10:32]; (2) Mark 8:38 = Matt 16:27 = Luke 9:26; (3) Rev 3:5; (4) 2 Tim 2:12b. - 243 Some Standing Here – (1) Mark 9:1 = Matt 16:28 = Luke 9:27. Liturgies and Prayers For liturgies and sermons each week, shaped by a progressive theology, check Rex Hunt’s web site Other recommended sites include: See the following sites for recommendations from a variety of contemporary genre:

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Over the last decades, biomarkers have become an extremely important tool in the care of patients with ovarian cancer. Biomarkers are capable of differentiating benign versus malignant masses, detecting the disease at an earlier stage, and monitoring the cancer’s response to treatment and its recurrence1. Patients with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) have a 5-year survival rate for all stages estimated at 45.6%2, but when effective early stage detection is possible (in roughly 20% of cases), the survival rate reaches 70%3. It is worth noting that roughly three-quarters of ovarian cancers are diagnosed when the disease has progressed to advanced-stages (stage III or IV), and has spread to peritoneal surfaces, or other organs4. This trend explains the high mortality rate of advanced stage disease at initial diagnosis5. Importantly, as the disease progresses, treating and managing patients becomes more challenging3. For example, when the disease is detected at stage I (where the cancer is limited to the ovaries), 90% of patients can be cured with surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Similarly, when the cancer has spread to the pelvis in stage II, 70% of the patients can still be cured. In more advanced stages where the cancer has spread throughout the abdomen or beyond, the percentage of curable patients drops to 20%1. These differences in survival rates may also reflect the fact that currently available treatment strategies are much more successful in early stages, when the cancer has not yet spread7. Ovarian Cancer Treatment Strategies As previously mentioned, current treatment strategies combine debulking surgeries, drug treatment and radiation therapy. Depending on the type of ovarian cancer, treatment options may include: chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapy. Chemotherapy: Administered intravenously (IV), intraperitonially (IP), or by a combination of IV/IP, chemotherapeutic agents are selected based on the stage of OC. The most frequently used are platinum-based drugs (cis-platin and the less toxic carboplatin), and drugs in the Taxane family (Paclitaxel and Docetaxel)3. Specifically, one common IV chemotherapy regimen is the combination of Carboplatin (AUC 6-7) with Paclitaxel (175mg/ m2) for three to six cycles8. Hormone Therapy: Including hormones or hormone-blocking drugs, this systemic therapy is most often used to treat ovarian stromal cancers, but rarely used for EOC9. Therapy includes luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists that lower estrogen levels in premenopausal women, tamoxifen (often used to treat breast cancer and in ovarian stromal cancer but rarely used in advanced EOC), which also has anti-estrogen activity, and aromatase inhibitors that help reduce estrogen levels by inhibiting the enzyme aromatase that turns other hormones into estrogen in post-menopausal women9. Targeted Therapy: Drugs that identify and attack cancer cells specifically while doing little damage to normal cells. Targeted therapies change how cancer cells grow, divide, repair themselves, or interact with other cells10. For example, angiogenesis (the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels) plays a key role in the initiation and progression of ovarian carcinogenesis11. Bevacizumab (Avastin), an angiogenesis inhibitor, acts by interfering with a protein called VEGF (that signals and promotes the formation of new blood vessels) and slows or stops cancer growth. Bevacizumab has been shown to increase the overall survival of high risk patients in a phase 3 randomized study12. Another group of targeted therapy drugs include (poly (ADP)-ribose polymerase) inhibitors (PARPi), that may help prevent cancer cells from repairing their damaged DNA, thus causing them to die. Specifically, the use of PARP inhibitors for the treatment of cancers with defects in the BRCA1 (BReast CAncer gene 1) or BRCA2 tumor suppressor proteins (which are also involved in the repair of DNA damage), appears to be a promising approach. PARPis are specifically lethal for cancer cells with homologous recombination (HR) deficiency, which characterize 50% of HGSCs13,14. However, multiple resistance mechanisms to PARPi have also been identified11,15. Despite targeted therapy’s (including Bevacizumab and PARP inhibitors) strong impact on ovarian cancer, there is no cure for advanced stages of ovarian cancer. Specifically, there is an urgent need to identify therapies that provide longer-lasting relief for patients with normal BRCA genes, and for patients with platinum-resistant cancers. Over the past few years, clinical trials have revealed promising treatment options, including Immunotherapy, vaccines and cell cycle checkpoint inhibitors. - Active immunotherapy aims to stimulate an anti-tumor response from the patient’s own immune system, and thus induce immunological memory - Passive immunotherapy includes the administration of immune components that promote the anti-tumor response - Immunomodulation includes all approaches that enhance immune responsiveness16. - Cancer vaccines are immunotherapeutics proposed to “educate” and activate the immune system to generate specific effector T-cells capable of detecting and killing tumor cells. The ideal tumor-associated antigens should not be present in normal tissue, while being overexpressed in tumor cells. These tumor-associated antigens should also be easily recognized by the immune cells and therefore trigger the immune response also at low doses (strong immunogenicity)16. Some of the common cancer vaccines are developed and tested using different methods such as epigenetics and genetics, and can be administered alone, or in combination with cytokines or other accelerating factors3. Cell cycle checkpoints: - A few cell cycle checkpoint inhibitors are already in clinical testing or under development. Following DNA damage, cells initiate multiple responses to protect the genome and ensure survival17. One of these mechanisms includes the activation of specific cell cycle checkpoints that block the cell cycle, allowing the cell to repair its DNA. HGSOC, for example, is characterized by a mutant or null p53 which leads to the dysfunction of the p53-dependent G1/S phase checkpoint. Consequently, HGSOC relies on G2 checkpoint arrest to facilitate DNA damage repair18 . This emphasizes the importance of therapeutics that specifically target the G2/M phase checkpoint. With multiple treatment options available for patients, prognostic biomarkers that correlate to disease progression are critical. As previously mentioned, the main factor responsible for OC’s high mortality is the high rate of advanced stage disease at initial diagnosis5. Specifically, as the disease progresses, treating and managing patients becomes more challenging3. It is therefore critical to identify predictive prognostic biomarkers for patient response to treatment in order to establish effective treatment strategies and increase overall survival. Currently, commonly used biomarkers to monitor recurrence and predict prognosis are Cancer Antigen 125 (CA125) and Human Epididymis Protein 4 (HE4)3. CA125: Expression of CA125 is elevated in 85% of serous, 65% of endometrioid, 40% of clear-cell, 36% of undifferentiated and only 12% of mucinous ovarian cancers19. For the past three decades, CA125 has become the most widely used tumor marker in ovarian cancer, although its limitations in sensitivity and specificity negatively affect its performance19. Furthermore, CA125 is known to be elevated in only 50% of early stage OC patients, and in about 80% of advance stage OC patients20 Given the aforementioned limitations of CA125, many efforts have been made to identify additional or complementary biomarkers for OC. HE4 (human epididymis protein 4) is present in the epithelium of fallopian tubes, endometrium, endocervical glands, but not in ovarian surface epithelium. Elevated expression levels of HE4 have been observed in 93-100% of serous, 80-100% of endometrioid and 50-83% of clear-cell carcinomas of the ovary, while HE4 is absent in mucinous ovarian cancer 21,22 It has been demonstrated that HE4 mRNA levels are higher in ovarian cancer tissue compared to benign22,23. Specifically, Moore and colleagues showed that HE4 is indeed a useful single marker in differentiating benign versus ovarian cancer patients24. Furthermore, HE4 is also highly expressed in epithelial ovarian cancer, which accounts for 85-90% of ovarian cancer among the various pathological types25. In recent years, HE4 has also become an interesting marker to monitor disease progression, and predict prognosis23. Studies have confirmed the effectiveness of HE4 in the preoperative assessment of patients with ovarian cancer26. Yang and colleagues provided evidence that preoperative serous HE4 may be regarded as an index to estimate the likelihood of successful cytoreductive surgery in women with ovarian cancer. Specifically, by using a demarcation criterion of 600 pmol/l (values greater than 600 pmol/l indicate lower possibility of optimal debulking by cytoreductive surgery), HE4 predicted incomplete cytoreductive surgery with a sensitivity of 77% and a specificity of 32% 23. These results suggested that higher levels of HE4 in OC patients are linked to worse prognosis. In the past few decades, Contrast-Enhanced high-resolution multidetector row Computed Tomography (CE CT) has played an important role in both pre-operative staging and follow-up, due to the cost-effectiveness and the availability of this technique27. In preoperative staging, CE CT is capable of determining the presence of a malignant adnexal mass, as well as the extent of the disease, two very crucial aspects for treatment planning. CE CT is also an effective tool to assess treatment response, and disease recurrence28. In 2013, Manganaro and colleagues were able to correlate CE CT results with HE4 levels. Specifically, they found that HE4 serum levels, combined with CE CT imaging, could improve the monitoring management of women affected by EOC28. This represents an important finding, since CE CT imaging is known to cause considerable side effects due to ionizing radiation and contrast medium injections28. Therefore, the use of biomarkers such as HE4 for follow-up as an alternative to imaging, might significantly benefit the patient. HE4 might also be a promising additional tool for the evaluation of advanced high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC) patient’s response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT)29. HGSC is the most common and deadliest type of ovarian cancer, with more than two-thirds of HGSCs diagnosed at an advanced stage30. The primary standard treatment for EOC, as previously mentioned, is cytoreductive surgery followed by chemotherapy. An alternative approach includes the use of NACT, followed by interval debulking surgery (IDS). In 2014, Vallius and colleagues showed that an 80% variation of HE4 levels during NACT was associated with poor prognosis, thus suggesting that HE4 change during NACT correlates with overall survival (OS). Pre-IDS HE4 and CA125 values predicted IDS outcome in primarily inoperable patients29. Taken together, these results suggest that HE4 may be a helpful tool when deciding whether to proceed to IDS or to second-line chemotherapy29. A recent longitudinal study by Salminen and colleagues also confirmed the possibility of using HE4 (as a complement to CA125) in HGSC treatment monitoring and in the prognostic stratification of patients31 . Specifically, in this prospective clinical study HE4 was indeed an effective tool in the evaluation of cytoreductibility and the prognostic stratification of patients at disease progression. The investigators found that the measurement of HE4 levels could aid clinicians in detecting platinum resistant disease, while offering support for the determination of individual targeted therapies. HE4 performed equally well to, if not better than, CA125 in all of the time-points evaluated: at baseline, nadir and in 1st relapse31. Furthermore, a prospective study by Angioli looked into changes in serum CA125 and HE4 levels at the beginning, and during, first-line chemotherapy, in order to find correlations of these biomarkers with platinum-based chemotherapy response. They found that, contrary to CA125, HE4 profile was significantly associated with platinum-based chemotherapy response. Additionally, the time required for HE4 normalization during initial chemotherapy, was a valid indicator for the identification of patients who are not responding to treatment, after the third cycle of chemotherapy. Specifically, HE4 levels were >70 pmol/L after primary surgery and three cycles of chemotherapy32. Similarly, an interesting study by Potenza and colleagues looked into the correlation of serum CA125 and HE4 levels prior to each chemotherapy cycle together with their response curve to the clinical response to treatment, platinum-sensitivity, and progression-free survival (PFS). They found that HE4 decreases more rapidly during chemotherapy than CA125. CA125 had a delay of 21 days. Furthermore, HE4 was redetected faster than CA125 in patients who experienced a poor chemotherapy response26. Finally, other studies have also suggested that the regular measurement of HE4 levels during the firstline treatment of ovarian cancer may be of prognostic significance. Specifically, the normalization of HE4 levels at end of treatment, and the 50% reduction of HE4 concentrations before interval cytoreductive surgery, are both important and strong predictive factors of time to progression and overall survival time33 . Taken together, these results suggest that HE4 is a promising and effective tool for monitoring the response to chemotherapy in ovarian cancer patients. Despite the continued efforts and steady improvements in ovarian cancer treatment, this disease still remains the deadliest malignancy in women. Specifically, the poor clinical outcome is due to the deficiency of effective tools for detecting the disease at an early stage, chemotherapy resistance and increased heterogeneity of the disease3. Thus, identifying biomarkers that help monitor response to treatment and predict prognosis, can indeed represent an effective tool for the improvement of EOC survival. 1. Wei-Lei Yang and Robert C. Bast Jr. ZL. The role of Biomarkers in the Management of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2017;17(6):577-591. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.03.040 2. Oronsky B, Ray CM, Spira AI, Trepel JB, Carter CA, Cottrill HM. A brief review of the management of platinum-resistant–platinum-refractory ovarian cancer. Med Oncol. 2017;34(6). doi:10.1007/s12032-017-0960-z 3. Chandra A, Pius C, Nabeel M, et al. Ovarian cancer: Current status and strategies for improving therapeutic outcomes. Cancer Med. 2019;8(16):7018-7031. doi:10.1002/cam4.2560 4. Kobayashi E, Ueda Y, Matsuzaki S, et al. Biomarkers for screening, diagnosis, and monitoring of ovarian cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2012;21(11):1902-1912. doi:10.1158/1055- 9965.EPI-12-0646 5. Rauh-Hain JA, Krivak TC, Del Carmen MG, Olawaiye AB. Ovarian cancer screening and early detection in the general population. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2011;4(1):15-21. doi:10.3909/riog0143 6. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services C for DC and P and NCI. U.S. Cancer Statistics Working Group. U.S. Cancer Statistics Data Visualizations Tool, based on 2019 submission data (1999-2017). www.cdc.gov/cancer/dataviz 7. stopcancerfund.org. Ovarian Cancer: What Are the Treatment Options? Accessed January 12, 2020. https://stopcancerfund.org/t-ovarian-cancer/ovarian-cancer-what-are-the… 8. Benedet JL, Bender H, Jones H, Ngan HY, Pecorelli S. FIGO staging classifications and clinical practice guidelines in the management of gynecologic cancers. FIGO Committee on Gynecologic Oncology. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000;70(2):209-262. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(00)90001-8 9. American Cancer Society. Hormone Therapy for Ovarian Cancer. Accessed April 11, 2020. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/ovarian-cancer/treating/hormone-therapy.h… 10. American Cancer Society. Targeted Therapy for Ovarian Cancer. Accessed May 11, 2020. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/ovarian-cancer/treating/targeted-therapy… 11. Kim JY, Cho CH, Song HS. Targeted therapy of ovarian cancer including immune check point inhibitor. Korean J Intern Med. 2017;32(5):798-804. doi:10.3904/kjim.2017.008 12. Oza AM, Cook AD, Pfisterer J, et al. Standard chemotherapy with or without bevacizumab for women with newly diagnosed ovarian cancer (ICON7): Overall survival results of a phase 3 randomised trial. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(8):928-936. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00086-8 13. Kossaï M, Scoazec J. Ovarian Cancer : A Heterogeneous Disease. Published online 2018:41-49. doi:10.1159/000479006 14. Konstantinopoulos PA, Ceccaldi R, Shapiro GI and DA. Homologous Recombination Deficiency: Exploiting the Fundamental Vulnerability of Ovarian Cancer Panagiotis. Vol 5.; 2015. doi:10.1158/2159-8290.CD-15-0714. 15. Lord CJ, Ashworth A. Mechanisms of resistance to therapies targeting BRCA-mutant cancers. Nat Med. 2013;19(11):1381-1388. doi:10.1038/nm.3369 16. Palaia I, Tomao F, Sassu CM, Musacchio L, Panici PB. Immunotherapy for ovarian cancer: Recent advances and combination therapeutic approaches. Onco Targets Ther. 2020;13:6109-6129. doi:10.2147/OTT.S205950 17. Lee JM, Minasian L, Kohn EC. New strategies in ovarian cancer treatment. Cancer. 2019;125(S24):4623-4629. doi:10.1002/cncr.32544 18. Haynes B, Murai J, Lee J, Branch M, Branch T. Restored replication fork stabilization, a mechanism of PARP inhibitor resistance, can be overcome by cell cycle checkpoint inhibition. 2018;71:1-7. doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2018.09.003.Restored 19. Nowak M, Janas Ł, Stachowiak G, Stetkiewicz T, Wilczyński JR. Review paper Current clinical application of serum biomarkers to detect ovarian cancer. 2015;14(4):254-259. doi:10.5114/pm.2015.55887 20. Prorok PC, Andriole GL, Bresalier RS, et al. Design of the Prostate , Lung , Colorectal and Ovarian ( PLCO ) Cancer Screening Trial. 2000;2456:273-309. 21. Drapkin R, Von Horsten HH, Lin Y, et al. Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is a secreted glycoprotein that is overexpressed by serous and endometrioid ovarian carcinomas. Cancer Res. 2005;65(6):2162-2169. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-3924 22. Galgano MT, Hampton GM, Frierson HF. Comprehensive analysis of HE4 expression in normal and malignant human tissues. Mod Pathol. 2006;19(6):847-853. doi:10.1038/modpathol.3800612 23. Yang Z, Luo Z, Zhao B, et al. Diagnosis and preoperative predictive value of serum HE4 concentrations for optimal debulking in epithelial ovarian cancer. Oncol Lett. 2013;6(1):28-34. doi:10.3892/ol.2013.1339 24. Moore RG, Brown AK, Miller MC, et al. The use of multiple novel tumor biomarkers for the detection of ovarian carcinoma in patients with a pelvic mass. Gynecol Oncol. 2008;108(2):402- 408. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2007.10.017 25. Köbel M, Kalloger SE, Boyd N, et al. Ovarian carcinoma subtypes are different diseases: Implications for biomarker studies. PLoS Med. 2008;5(12):1749-1760. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050232 26. Potenza E, Parpinel G, Laudani ME, Macchi C, Fuso L, Zola P. Prognostic and predictive value of combined HE-4 and CA-125 biomarkers during chemotherapy in patients with epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Biol Markers. Published online 2020:172460082095519. doi:10.1177/1724600820955195 27. Forstner R, Sala E, Kinkel K, Spencer JA. ESUR guidelines: Ovarian cancer staging and follow-up. Eur Radiol. 2010;20(12):2773-2780. doi:10.1007/s00330-010-1886-4 28. Manganaro L, Michienzi S, Vinci V, et al. Serum HE4 levels combined with CE CT imaging improve the management of monitoring women affected by epithelial ovarian cancer. Oncol Rep. 2013;30(5):2481-2487. doi:10.3892/or.2013.2682 29. Vallius T, Hynninen J, Auranen A, et al. Serum HE4 and CA125 as predictors of response and outcome during neoadjuvant chemotherapy of advanced high-grade serous ovarian cancer. Tumor Biol. 2014;35(12):12389-12395. doi:10.1007/s13277-014-2553-1 30. Kim J, Park EY, Kim O, et al. Cell origins of high-grade serous ovarian cancer. Cancers (Basel). 2018;10(11):1-28. doi:10.3390/cancers10110433 31. Salminen L, Gidwani K, Grènman S, et al. HE4 in the evaluation of tumor load and prognostic stratification of high grade serous ovarian carcinoma. Acta Oncol (Madr). 2020;0(0):1-8. doi:10.1080/0284186X.2020.1827157 32. Angioli R, Capriglione S, Aloisi A, et al. Can HE4 predict platinum response during first-line chemotherapy in ovarian cancer? Tumor Biol. 2014;35(7):7009-7015. doi:10.1007/s13277-014- 1836-x 33. Chudecka-Głaz A, Cymbaluk-Płoska A, Wȩaowska M, Menkiszak J. Could HE4 level measurements during firstline chemotherapy predict response to treatment among ovarian cancer patients? PLoS One. 2018;13(3):1-16. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194270

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(A note on fishing in Lossiemouth) Reprinted here with the kind permission of Brian Ogilvie – Grandson From 1500 to 1780 a few fishermen earned a bare living fishing from the Hythe at Stotfield. Their boats were small open boats not exceeding 20ft in length. Baited long lines was the only method used, the bait being mostly sea-worms, of which a plentiful supply was at hand on the sandy beaches from the Hythe westwards, mussels and limpets were also used as bait. fish were sold, to the neighbouring farmers in the district, mostly on the barter system, oatmeal, potatoes, milk, vegetables etc. in exchange for fish. As the years went by the inland population increased and so did the number of fishermen, and by the early 1800's there were 22 men and boys fishing from the Hythe at Stotfield. The boats used by this time were 23-25ft, long and half decked. Further east at the Seatown 2 fishermen plied their calling from the mouth of the river. Their boats were smaller, around 16ft, and had no deck. Like the Stotfield fishermen, most of the fish caught was bartered to neighbouring farmers. On Christmas Day, 1806, 21 fishermen put to sea from the Hythe at Stotfield, and after hauling their fishing lines made for the shore. A fierce storm blew up from the SSW and not one of the boats were ever seen or heard of again. Twenty-one men and boys, the entire men-folk of the village perished that day. The oldest male left in the village was a boy of 12 years of age, besides two bedridden old men. In the history of Moray, December 25th, 1806, was recorded as the day of the "Stotfield Disaster." (See Appendix). As stated earlier two small boats fished from the Seatown, and probably because they were smaller and did not fish so far out to sea as the Stotfield fishermen, they reached the river mouth before the worst of the storm arose, and so lived to carry on as fishermen. From 1806 onwards the fisher population in the Seatown increased, mainly from the boys in Stotfield Disaster, and by 1826 there was a sizeable fleet of boats fishing from the River Lossie. Boats had increased in size, some by this time were fully decked and in some cases had accommodation for cooking and sleeping. Fishing methods were also changing, and besides line fishing for white fish, drift netting for herring had been introduced. By 1836 the fisher population had increased considerably, helped by the fact that an inducement of help to provide, a house and boat to fishermen from other ports, if they would make their abode in the fast growing village at the mouth of the river, now called Lossiemouth. In one instance it is recorded that the first fisherman to receive 'Grant and Loan' , as we know it today, was Alexander Kinnaird from Findhorn, on the strength that he took up his abode in the Seatown, which he duly did. Apart from the recorded instance of Grant and Loan from the then Fishery Board to Alexander Kinnaird, merchants in Elgin, and farmers in the district were giving financial aid to fishermen to purchase boats, and arrangement which was still in existence right up to the beginning of World War 2 in 1939. However the rapid growth of fishing in Lossiemouth really commenced after the opening of the Elgin and Lossiemouth Harbour in 1837. Although built as a harbour for merchant sailing ships, the fishermen started to desert the river harbour for the new harbour, and with the building of houses in the part now known as Branderburgh, (called Branderburgh after James Brander, the Laird of Pitgaveny whose idea the new harbour had been) more fishermen continued to leave the river harbour and use the better facilities offered in the new harbour. In 1857, to accommodate the growing fleet of fishing boats another harbour basin was added to the west of the first one and all but a few of the fishermen in the Seatown based their boats in the new harbours. The opening of the Lossiemouth harbour coincided with the start of the herring fishery in the North East of Scotland, and herring curers followed where herring boats operated, consequently such a harbour as Lossiemoth had by then attracted both fishermen and curers to practice their trades. Before going further into the history of the fishing at Lossiemouth it would be interesting to know the names of the families at the outset of such a history. We rely here on information handed down from father to son, and to the information Kirk Records of that age tell us, and names on tombstones in old cemeteries. The first Edward to settle in Stotfield came from Wales, and was a crew member of a sailing ship landing merchandise at the River Lossie. His reason for leaving his ship is unknown. The McLeod's there were supposed to be two - were members of Bonnie Prince Charlie's Army, and took refuge in Stotfield after the Battle of Culloden, settled down and became fishermen. Mitchell was washed ashore from a ship wrecked on the Skerries. He was Spanish, and recovering on the sands could only say a word which sounded to the Stotfield residents like Mitchell. It was established in later years that his name was Michelle, but he kept the name Mitchell and his family descendants do likewise today. Main came from Petty, near Nairn. Young and Baikie were possibly from the Cassick, where several people of that name resided about that time. The Crockett's were originally sailors, but where they came from was never ascertained. At the time of the "Stotfield Disaster", two fishermen had their abode near the mouth of the River Lossie, living in the village now called Seatown. One was called Stewart, but the name of the other was never handed down to younger generations, so it seems that he had no family to follow on. Stewart was known later as 'Press Gang', because as a young man he had been press-ganged by the Navy, served his time, and was put ashore at Spey Bay where he married a girl called Eppie Fraser from Garmouth, came to the mouth of the River Lossie and settled down as a fisherman. They had a family of twelve sons and one daughter. As the years passed, the youths from Stotfield joined with the Stewarts to go fishing and by 1825 a sizable fleet of small boats were fishing from the River Lossie. By 1833 the Edward's, MacLeod's and Main's had houses built in the Seatown, followed by the Mitchell's, Crockett's and Kinnaird from Findhorn. Many of the fishermen still resided at Stotfield, walking over the Coulard Hill to the river mouth to go to sea. Along with Alexander Kinnaird from Findhorn, a family of Souters from Johnshaven had settled in the Seatown, and had brought their own boat with them named the 'Lord MacDuff.' The Stewart's were by far the biggest family name in the Seatown, owning 33 of the 51 houses there. From 1700 up to 1833 the river mouth had been extensively used by sailing ships, and the east pier offered of good entrance into the river mouth, and acted as a breakwater as well. Quays on the west side of the river mouth gave good landing berths for the schooners and barques landing and loading their merchandise, but the fishermen drew up their boats on the beach in front of the Seatown; the women folk doing most of the launching of the boats when the men went to sea. The women folk did most of the launching of the boats, carrying the men out so that they started their voyage dry. Line fishing was still the method used for catching fish at this time but a change in fishing was not far away. The traders in Elgin and the district who partly owned most of the sailing ships plying their trade from the river mouth had felt for a time that a more safe harbour was required for their ships to enter and leave with safety, so along with an engineer called James Bremner from Wick known for harbour construction, drew up a plan for a new harbour a little to the North West of the river mouth. By 1835 this harbour was ready for opening, and the last schooners and barques ceased to use to river as a harbour. The fishermen of the Seatown still used the river to work from, but they too were soon to start using the harbour; for the opening of the new harbour coincided with the start of the great herring fishery which drew herring boats and herring curers to the Moray Firth. With the knowledge that a good and safe harbour was in Lossiemouth, herring boats from Banff-shire came to land their catches, and curers from the Cromarty, Findhorn, Buckie and other ports soon set up curing yards. A new era started in Lossiemouth. The fishermen from the Seatown soon caught on to the new way of catching herring by drift net, and although the older men still pursued the line fishing and landed their catches on the beach at the Seatown, the coming of the railway to Lossiemouth made them fish from the new harbour, for the convenience in doing so was enormous. By 1850 the fishing fleet had grown considerably and boats were much bigger. Men from Portessie, Findochty, Buckie, and other Banff-shire hamlets, where harbour facilities were poor, seeing the advantages of fishing from such a good harbour, moved their homes and built houses in the part now known as Branderburgh. The Harbour Company, realising that the boom in herring fishing was restricting the movements of their trading schooners, laid plans for a new harbour to the west of the existing one using the same entrance. As time went on names like Garden, Scott, Farquhar, Reid, Imlach, Murray, Ralph, Cowie, Mackenzie, Wood, Slater, Cormack, Flett, Smith, Gault, Campbell, Thomson and Wilson were to be heard about the harbour and on the boats. The names were common, but too numerous to set down except in cases where a distinction may be necessary. The Wood's and the Slater's besides being fishermen, were craftsmen at boat-building. Up to the 1800's most of the fishing boats were the 'Scaffie' types, clinker built, ranging from 25-35ft long. Some were half decked, and the newer ones whole decked. A few boats of the 'Fifie' type were also amongst the fleet, but were never popular with the Lossiemouth fishermen. The Portessie 'Scaffie' of that day held sway being the most able of all for sailing and for working herring nets and fishing lines. The Seatown fishermen had long discarded their small boats and followed in the train of the incomers from other ports, with the full decked 'Scaffie' or 'Fifie'. It fell to one of the Campbells - tee name "DAD"- to introduce a new type of boat. the story goes that "Dad", thinking of having built a new boat built, discussed the matter with his wife. She, being the daughter of a Fraserburgh fisherman, suggested he should have a 'Fifie' boat built, as her father and brothers set great store on the qualities of the 'Fifie'. They had straight stems and straight sterns, whilst the 'Scaffie' had a curved stem and a slightly raked stern. "Dad" effected a compromise and had his boat built with the straight stem and a long raked stern. He named her the 'Nonsuch', and as the Zulu war was being waged at the time, this boat was called the 'Zulu'. She was an instant success, out-sailing and out-manoeuvring all the 'Scaffies' and 'Fifies', so from then on all fishermen getting new boats plumped for the 'Zulu'. By this time Lossiemouth fishermen, in common with all Scottish fishermen, were ranging far and wide in search of the 'silver darlings' from the south of Ireland to the east coast of England. Where there was herring these men sailed! Line fishing for the white fish was still carried out on all the year round from Lossiemouth, but mainly by older fishermen and boys and with smaller sized boats, mainly 18-25ft long. As time went on 'Zulus' increased in size to as much as 70ft in length and carvel built, superseding the clinker built. Lossiemouth was keeping well in the van at this time. Men like the Reids, the Smiths(Bo), and the Cambells were on the ball for anything new that would bring better results to the fishing, such as iron hand machines for easier handling of ropes, steam capstans for heaving in herring ropes and setting sail halyards. Fishing and fishermen were flourishing in Lossiemouth and by the 1890's over 100 boats belonged to the port. Some of the fleet would be in Ireland, Castlebay, Shetland or Orkney in the spring; others would fish at home for early summer herring, and there was always the line fishermen bringing in a supply of white fish to supply all the towns in Moray. The railway had made this possible in a large way, and fishermen’s wives with their loaded creels of fish were a common sight getting off the trains at all railway stations between Lossiemouth and Huntly. James Reid(Bo), one of the enterprising men of his day, ventured into trawling with considerable success, but his most spectacular catch was a large cannon and a huge anchor! These were positioned at the Town Hall for many years, and the anchor is still to be seen at the Municipal Green in Stotfield. In the late 1890's John Souter (Baldi), introduced the method of catching cod by setting nets on the sea bottom. This was a spectacular success and during the cod season from February to April, the piers, jetties and all landing quay spaces were knee deep with cod laid out for auction. So prolific did this fishing become that Isaac Spenser & Co. opened a factory to process cod livers by extracting the oil. The factory was half a mile to the east of the Seatown, and the concrete foundations are still visible. Boat building was by this time a thriving industry. Building yards at the Seatown and to the west of the new harbour were turning out 'Zulus' by the score. The Woods and the Slaters were still the craftsmen, each with their own particular model, and the virtues of both builders boats an ever-ready topic of conversation amongst fishermen. However, the days of building the renowned 'Zulus' were drawing to a close. In 1900, Peter Smith (Bo), brought the first steam drifter to Lossiemouth. This boat was built at Lowestoft and Peter Bo, a leader in his time, set the lead by purchasing one such drifter. He named her 'Success' and successful she was, so much so that building yards everywhere, Lossiemouth included, were soon turning out steam drifters as fast as the could. The herring fishing continued to flourish in Lossiemouth, and Lossiemouth grew apace with the fishing. Houses were built all over Branderburgh, but because of its distance from the new harbours, no new houses were built at the Seatown. Up to 1948 the number of houses was still 51, the same as in 1835. The pattern of fishing changed little for many years. The older men with smaller boats carried on line fishing at home, and when herring was plentiful in the Moray Firth they went fishing for herring. The herring curers were ready at all times to cure herring, winter or summer. Local labour for gutting the herring was always available and barrels for holding the cured herring were in good supply. By 1914 there was only a handful of sailing boats left and Lossiemouth could now boast of a fleet of nearly 100 wooden and steel drifters, all operating with a fair measure of success. Most of the herring caught by this time were landed at Shetland, Orkney, Wick, Fraserburgh, Peterhead and Aberdeen. On the West Coast the drifters landed at Oban, Mallaig, Castlebay and Stornoway, and in October and November in Lowestoft and Yarmouth. Nevertheless the curing yards in Lossiemouth were never idle for long, and it is on record that boats had salted down their last catch off Lowestoft and landed the catch at Lossiemouth two days later. Then came the great war of 1914-18. Fishing of all kinds, except for a few small boats, came to a halt by Government decree. Lossiemouth harbour was filled to bursting point with drifters tied up, but very soon the Government found uses for the fleet and in a few months practically all the drifters were either on patrol or minesweeping duties. Many of the older men were not taken into service by the Admiralty, so they formed themselves into crews and resurrected what was left of the sailing 'Zulus', and went fishing again. There was still a fair fleet of small boats going line fishing, manned as usual by the older men and boys. As the war progressed some old crocks of steam drifters unsuitable for Naval duties, were released, and returned to fishing. A few of the sailing boats were fitted with motor engines, but the number was small, and often these engines were unreliable, so in the main the fishing fleet going out from Lossiemouth were sailing boats. During the war years herring landed at Lossiemouth all went to the fresh market, curing being at a standstill, except on a very limited scale. The cured herring had after all been intended for Germany and Russia. The large sailing Zulus, many of which had been laid up in estuaries and harbours before 1914, came into their own again and Lossiemouth harbour was especially busy during the cod season. Because of restrictions on sailing after dark, boats from Banff-shire ports would sail into Lossiemouth with their catch. Having a railway on the harbour doorstep at that time made the marketing of fish an easy proposition. Prices were fixed by order of the Government, so there was no delay in transport. 1918 and the war over, men started to return home. The toll had been heavy, as a look at he War Memorial will confirm. By 1919 most of the steam drifters had been released by the Admiralty and commenced fishing again. Some went to the herring fishing off Scrabster, and occasionally landed catches at home in Lossiemouth. By February a few had rigged out for the cod fishing, and along with the existing sail boats and a few motor boats, a sizable fleet was now operating from the home port, on the whole the catch of cod for that season was a good one. Added to the fleet at cod fishing, there were 30 smaller boats at the haddock line fishing, and haddock were plentiful so the total volume of fish being landed was high. At this time the marine motor was beginning to prove its worth, especially the Kelvin engine. By 1920 all the haddock line boats had a small auxiliary engine, in most cases a Kelvin. The larger sail boats were all being converted to motor, and at the end of the 1921 summer herring fishing, the last sail boat the 'Gowan' - Skipper; Alexander Edwards - tee name Sandy Baillie, was laid up for good. 1920 saw the Lossiemouth fleet once more on a pre war scale and the search for herring was fully on, but the aftermath of war on Germany, Russia, Poland and the Scandinavian countries began to take its toll, as these countries had no money to buy cured herring so the export market went flat. Fortunately the Government of the day came to the rescue and guaranteed a price for herring landed by fishermen and a trade agreement to the herring curers for disposal by export to the countries mentioned above; so the fishermen of Lossiemouth, in common with the men from other ports, plied their calling with a fair amount of success. The summer of 1920 was singularly successful for the boats in Lossiemouth; herring was plentiful a few miles off shore and harbours were very busy. One outstanding day is remembered by some ever now, when a average of 80 cran of herring were landed by 40 boats, to top shot for that day being 150 cran by the steam drifter Arndilly Castle,and the sailboat 'Morayshire' had 100 cran, her Skipper being Sye MacLeod. With two steamers and three motor sailing schooners regularly discharging cargoes of salt and staves, Lossiemouth harbour was a hive of activity, but the end was in sight for the grand fleet of herring drifters as the Government withdrew the guaranteed price for herring, and the curers had no trade agreement. Nevertheless, the Lossiemouth fleet set out of Lowestoft and Yarmouth in the hope that things might turn out better than expected. But the hopes never materialised, prices were rock bottom and in some instances herring had to be dumped back in to the sea. The herring fishermen of Lossiemouth, in common with other fishermen throughout Scotland, received a set back that year from which a few never recovered financially. Herring curers also suffered severely and a few went out of business altogether. However the turning point came before 1921 ended, that is for Lossiemouth. Boats calling into the ports of Shields, Hartlepool and Grimsby on their way south to Yarmouth and Lowestoft in 1920/21 had seen Danish motor boats landing huge catches of plaice, and as fishermen are interested in any sort of fishing, took a close look at the gear used by these boats, also at machinery for hauling the gear. They also ascertained through the limited conversation with the Danish fishermen the method of setting out this type of gear and pulling them back. In short, it was what we now call Danish seine netting. After consultation, some skippers decided to purchase a set of fishing gear and a winch to try it out for themselves. They felt that the prospects for the herring fishing was poor and they could not be worse off by trying seine netting, and so came home to Lossiemouth to try out the this new method of earning a living. Although they did not know it then, the seine net was to put Lossiemouth ahead in the race and make it the most proficient and well doing port for many years. There were many ups and downs during the first years of seine netting by the steam drifters. Perseverance was the key word of those years. Crews learned from crews, skippers learned from skippers, older fishermen gave land marks to what was known as sort of sandy patches of the sea bed. Much was endured by boat-owners in the effort to keep the boats going to sea, and it is worth while recording, for the benefit of the present generation of fishers, that the term 'N.E.' from 1922 to 1925 did not mean 'North-East' on the compass, but the 'Not-Entitled' pound, (from the boat’s reserves) to keep the hungry mouths fed in the home. Skippers and crews in time picked up and mastered the technique required for seine-netting, also improving in many ways nets and machinery for that particular type of fishing. 1924 saw a partial recovery in the herring fishing and season fishing at Castlebay, Oban, Mallaig, Stornoway, Shetland and Wick, was carried on by steam drifters and motor sail boats of which there were now quite a few. Mention must be made of the fact that during the 1922 to 1925 period, several of the steam drifters turned to trawling for white fish, but meeting with limited success this was given up in favour of seine-netting and season herring fishing. For the record, line fishing showed a marked decline after 1922, and by 1930 only one or two yawls prosecuted the haddock lines, working close inshore. Between the years 1921 and 1929 it was survival and no more for the fishermen of Lossiemouth. Steam drifters were expensive to run, in more ways than one as 'the coal went up the funnel.' Converted sail boats were less expensive to run, and it was with this thought in mind that John Campbell -tee name 'Huntly' or 'Admiral' - a descendant of "Dad" of the 'Zulu' design, hit on the idea of a motor boat designed for seine-netting only. Contrary to his forefathers he chose a 'Fifie' type boat for the new venture, installed a semi-diesel Gardener engine and fitted his 40ft. long 'Marigold' for seine-netting. His venture was being closely watched by all concerned, for with the poor returns from the herring fishing, and the costly running of the steam drifters at seine-netting, Lossiemouth was certainly at the cross-roads as a fishing port. John Cambell’s Marigold' was a success. He had ventured his all on the project, and used all his ability plus a lot of hard work, but he proved that the 'Marigold' could catch fish, was economical, and easily handled by a small crew, which meant a bigger financial settling for the crew members. Orders began to pour in for the boats with semi-diesel engines of the type installed in the 'Marigold'. Improvements in the boats and winches came as a matter of course, boats increased in size and engines in horse-power. The steam drifter as far as Lossiemouth was concerned was on the way out, and many of the older ones were sold for scrap, others broken up. The new and better drifters were 'sold for a song', as everybody wanted to go in for, or get a berth on some of the new diesel motor seiners. At this stage in the history of Lossiemouth, much praise is due to the traders in the town, the farmers in the surround district, towns-folk in Elgin and the area round about, for without the financial backing they gave, the fishermen of Lossiemouth would never have the total of 90 seine-netters operating by the year 1937. Not all boats came up to expectations financially, but a large majority did, and a prosperity of a kind not known since the 1914-18 war, was to be seen in the town. Occasional forays to the herring fishing was made by several boats, but it was soon realised that there was more money in seine-netting so these forays died out, and the seine-net ruled supreme. The Lossiemouth fleet did not all stay and fish in Moray Firth; some went to Oban, others to Ayr, some to Scrabster, but usually the larger part of the fleet fished in the Moray Firth landing their catches at home, although very occasionally landing at Aberdeen. Most of the fish landed locally were transported to the Glasgow market where, over the years a demand grew for the Lossiemouth fish. Some went by night train to Billingsgate for the London market. Signs were that another war was in the offing and e'er long the young men who were Naval Reservists were called up, soon to be followed by all young men of Service age, when war broke out. As in the 1914-18 war, the Admiralty found uses for the fishing fleet as auxiliaries serving in one capacity or another to help win the war. A few of the older boats were left to go fishing, manned mostly by the veterans of the first world war, and young lads not yet age for service. Fishing was restricted during the war years, hazards were great, and fishing time limited by the Admiralty. One advantage, however, of all the restrictions was that when the war was over, there was plenty of fish in all the fishing grounds. Like the 1914-18 war, the 1935-45 war had taken its toll of the younger men, with 30 fishermen killed and many of the fisher families were bereaved of one or two sons, or of a father, as the case may be. 1946 saw the return of most men from the services, but several boats had been lost or wrecked, so it was a case of a building programme again to provide boats for those returning, and the young men who grow up during the war years. James Wood, the last of the line of boat-builders who had built the first 'Zulu' had died during the war years, and there was only William Slater, senior, and William Slater junior, with a boat-building yard to build the boats now required. The first boat they built was for William Stewart, tee name 'Pilot', 67½ ft long and fitted with a 152 HP Gardener diesel engine. The boat named 'Rival III' was some 10ft. longer than the pre-war boats, and this set the pattern for seine-net boats built later on. It was not very long before Lossiemouth regained its busy pre-war look. New and bigger boats were built and by 1950 the fleet was again 100 in number. It must be recorded here that the old order of financing and owning boats had changed. The Government had brought out a Grant and Loan Scheme whereby fishermen, either by themselves or in partnership with other fishermen, could get a new boat and, without exception, all boats since then have been Grant and Loan aided. With bigger boats, the Lossiemouth fishermen went further afield, very often from Monday to Friday, and these boats became known as the trippers. Apart from the trippers there were boats landing every day and sales were held every morning and afternoon up to 5.30.p.m. As time went on ports like Scrabster, Kinlochbervie and Lochinver, came to have good facilities for landing and selling fish, so instead of making the long voyage home through the Pentland Firth a few boats started landing their catches at these ports. Consequently the volume of fish landed at Lossiemouth declined, but nevertheless the fleet landing at home was still considerable. Later on, however, some of the fleet operated mainly from Oban and a few, working far out in the North Sea, landed at Aberdeen. The cod season from February to April still found most of the fleet working at home until 1965 when cod shoals were not so plentiful in the Moray Firth, and half the fleet became based at the ports mentioned above. There were changes in the size and type of boats being built; they were larger and very heavy powered. Shipbuilding had ceased in Lossiemouth; the Slaters had either died or gone out of business, and boats for Lossiemouth men were built at Buckie, Macduff, Fraserburgh or Peterhead. With a declining fleet, fish sales in the afternoon, except Monday's and Friday's were abandoned. With the opening of the Moray Firth to prawn trawling. a few of the smaller seine-netters turned to trawling for them, and although financial returns were fair, the number never increased beyond a few boats, and Lossiemouth virtually stayed a seine-net port. By 1970 boats up to 80ft were being built, and in most cases were made of steel. With their size and water draught these new boats, except in solitary cases, never landed their catches in Lossiemouth. They were entirely based at Peterhead, Lochinver and Oban, and so landings at Lossiemouth took a bad knock. Where in the past the three fishmarkets had been overflowing with fish, only very occasionally in 1976 was the second required. By 1975 and early 1976 the high cost of running fishing boats, coupled with inflation had taken its toll and one third of the fleet had been sold or scrapped. With the first half of 1976 behind us, the fleet at Lossiemouth working the home markets are holding on, prices for fish have stabilised and earnings are more in keeping with shore wages, but there are many factors, which if not ironed out may ' rock the boat' completely for the home-based Lossiemouth fleet. In particular the establishment of the 100 mile limit and a complete stop put to industrial fishing, so that fish stocks may be preserved. In conclusion it is only fair to say that although the port of Lossiemouth has declined in the landing of white fish, Lossiemouth fishermen are keeping up the tradition of being first class fishermen in the ports of Peterhead, Lochinver and Oban, and their prosperity, in a large measure, circulates here where they still live. Extract from the Records of Drainie Parish Church, which started a fund to help dependants of the fishermen who were lost in the "Stotfield Disaster" Christmas Day, 1806. “The morning of that day being very calm and favourable, most of the fishing boats in Moray Firth went to sea and amongst others, three boats belonging to Stotfield, the crews of these being all the seamen belonging to the place, excepting three superannuated infirm men, who had given over the business of fishing, and a few boys too young to engage in it. After having finished their process of fishing, and while on their return home with the fruits of their industry, these unfortunate people were, about noon, overtaken by such a violent and tremendous hurricane from the W. and S.W. that after their utmost exertion, none of them were able to regain the shore, and being driven before the wind down the Firth, neither men nor boats were ever seen or heard of again. The dreadful gale continued with unabated fury for about four hours, and then the wind changed to the North, and gradually subsided." THE FAMILY NAMES OF THOSE WHO PERISHED IN THE "STOTFIELD DISASTER" A TOTAL OF 21 LIVES LOST.

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In the two previous articles we showed that from the 1890s a proletarian opposition developed within the German unions. At the beginning it was against reducing the workers’ struggle to purely economic questions as the general confederations of the unions were doing. It then went on to oppose illusions in parliament and the SPD’s increasing confidence in the state. But it was only from 1908, following the break with the SPD, that the Free Union of German Unions, the FVDG, developed clearly towards revolutionary syndicalism. The outbreak of the 1st World War in 1914 presented the revolutionary syndicalists in Germany with the acid test: support the nationalist politics of the dominant class or else defend proletarian internationalism. Together with the internationalist minorities around Liebnecht and Luxemburg, the revolutionary syndicalists of the FVDG in Germany formed a current – too often forgotten unfortunately – which held fast against the war hysteria. The test of the hour: the “union sacrée” or internationalism Hand in hand with Social Democracy, which publicly voted for war credits on 4th August 1914, the leadership of the big social democratic unions also bowed down before the war plans of the dominant class. At the conference of the directive committees of the social democratic unions on 2nd August 1914, where it was decided to suspend all strikes and all struggles for demands so as not to compromise the war mobilisation, Rudolf Wissell gave voice to the chauvinist convulsions which had pervaded the social democratic unions: “If Germany is defeated in the present struggle, which none of us wants, then all union struggles after the end of the war will be destined to failure and futility. If Germany triumphs a positive conjuncture will be inaugurated and the means of the organisation will not have to weigh so heavily in the balance.”The appalling logic of the unions lay in making a direct connection between the lot of the working class and the outcome of the war; if “their country” and their dominant class profited from the war, then this would also benefit the workers, because they could depend on domestic policy to make concessions to the working class. Consequently, every effort had to be made to ensure Germany military victory. The inability of the social democratic unions to take up an internationalist position against the war is not surprising. Once the defence of working class interests is entrapped in the national framework, once bourgeois parliamentarism is embraced as a panacea rather than the international conflict between the working class and capitalism being the political orientation, this must inevitably lead into the capitalist camp. In fact the dominant class in Germany was only able to go to war thanks to the public conversion of the SPD and its unions! The social democratic unions did not just passively follow. No, they developed a real war policy, a chauvinist propaganda and were a crucial factor in ensuring intensive war production. “Socialist reformism” was turned into “social imperialism” as Trotsky put it in 1914. Of those workers who tried to swim against the tide immediately after the declaration of war in Germany, a number of them were influenced by revolutionary syndicalism. The strike on the steam-ship “Vaterland” just before the beginning of the war, in May-June 1914, is an example of the confrontation between the combative fractions of the working class and the main social democratic union, which defended the “Union Sacrée”. The largest ship in the world at the time was the proud emblem of German imperialism. Part of the crew, of whom many were workers of the revolutionary industrial union federation, went on strike during its maiden voyage from Hamburg to New York. The Social Democratic Federation of the German Transport Workers’ Union was bitterly opposed to this strike: “Consequently, all those who took part in the assemblies of the revolutionary syndicalists have committed a crime against the sailors. […] We reject wild cat strikes on principle. […] And with the gravity of the present situation, which requires the mobilisation of the whole work force, the revolutionary unionists are trying to divide the workers and, in doing so claim to follow the slogan of Marx that the emancipation of the workers can only be the task of the workers themselves.”The calls for unity in the workers’ movement on the part of the social democratic unions were no more than empty phrases aimed at ensuring their control over working class movements and pushing them into “a union to support the war” in August 1914. It would be quite unfair to reproach the revolutionary syndicalists in Germany for having abandoned the class struggle in the weeks preceding the declaration of war. On the contrary, for a short time they acted as a rallying point for the combative workers: “Workers went there and heard the term revolutionary syndicalism for the first time and here they expected to realise their desire for revolution.” However, all the organisations of the working class, including the revolutionary syndicalist current, had another task to accomplish. As well as continuing the class struggle, it was indispensable to expose the imperialist nature of the war that was taking place. What was the attitude of the revolutionary syndicalist FVDG to the war? On 1st August 1914, in their main publication, Die Einigkeit; they adopted a clear position against the coming war, not as naïve pacifists but as workers seeking solidarity from those in other countries: “Who wants war? Not the working people, but a military camarilla of good-for-nothings in every European state which is greedy for martial victory. We workers don’t want war! We loath it, it destroys culture, it rapes humanity and greatly increases the number crippled by the current economic war. We workers want peace! We don’t make distinctions between Austrians, Serbs, Russians, Italians, French etc. Brothers in toil, that’s our name! We hold out our hands to the workers of all countries in order to prevent a terrible crime which will give rise to torrents of tears from the eyes of mothers and children. Barbarians and those who are against all civilisation may well see war as a sublime and holy thing – men who are sensitive at heart, socialists, guided by a conception of the world formed by justice, humanity and love of man, detest war! Therefore, workers and comrades everywhere, raise your voices in protest against this crime against humanity that is being planned! It will rob the poor of what they have as well as costing them their life-blood, but it will bring profit to the rich, glory and honour to the defenders of militarism. Down with the war!” On 6th August 1914 German troops attacked Belgium. Franz Jung, a sympathiser of the revolutionary syndicalist FVDG, latter a member of the KAPD, paints a vivid picture of his experience at the time in a Berlin that was drunk with war hysteria: “At least a crowd descended on the few dozen demonstrating for peace, whom I had joined. As far as I can recall, this demonstration had been organised by the revolutionary syndicalists around Kater and Rocker. A banner mounted on two poles was displayed, a red flag was raised and the demonstration ‘Down with the war!’ started off. We didn’t get very far.” Let’s hear the words of another revolutionary of the period, the internationalist anarchist, Emma Goldman: “In Germany Gustav Landauer, Erich Mühsam, Fritz Oerter, Fritz Kater and many other comrades stayed in contact. We were obviously no more than a handful in comparison with the thousands intoxicated by the war. Even so we managed to distribute a manifesto of our International Bureau throughout the world and we denounced the war for what it really was with all our might.” Oerter and Kater were the most important experienced members of the FVDG. The FVDG maintained its position against the war throughout the conflict. This was undoubtedly the greatest strength of the FVDG – but strangely enough, it is the chapter in its history which is the least documented. As soon as the war started, the FVDG was banned. Many of its members – in 1914 it still had about 6,000 – were placed in detention or forcibly sent to the front. In the Review Der Pionier, another of its publications, the FVDG wrote in the editorial of 5th August 1914, “The International Proletariat and the coming world war” that “everyone knows that the war between Serbia and Austria is just a visible expression of chronic war fever…” The FVDG described how the governments of Serbia, Austria and Germany had managed to win over the working class to its “war hysteria” and it denounced the SPD and its lie about a so-called “defensive war”: “Germany will never be the aggressor, this is the idea that these government gentlemen are already putting into our heads, and this is why the German Social Democrats, as their press and their spokesmen have already shown to be their perspective, will find themselves to a man squarely in the ranks of the German army.” Issue n° 32 of Die Einigkeit, 8th August 1914, was the last to be distributed to militants. In the introduction to this series of articles on revolutionary syndicalism, we distinguished between anti-militarism and internationalism. “Internationalism is based on the understanding that, although capitalism is a world system, it remains nonetheless incapable of going beyond the national framework and an increasingly frenzied competition between nations. As such, it engenders a movement that aims at the international overthrow of capitalist society by a working class that is also united internationally. […] Anti-militarism, by contrast, is not necessarily internationalist, since it tends to take as its main enemy not capitalism as such, but only an aspect of capitalism.” In which camp was the FVDG ? In the FVDG’s press in this period, there is little elaborated or developed political analysis on the causes of the war or the relations between the various imperialist powers. This gap is a consequence of the syndicalist vision of the FVDG. It saw itself, particularly at this time, as an organisation for struggle at an economic level, although in fact it was more like a co-ordination of groups defending syndicalist ideas than a union as such. The bitter confrontations with the SPD that ended in 1908 with its exclusion, had produced within the ranks of the FVDG a decided aversion to “politics” and, consequently, the loss of what had been learnt from past struggles against the ideology expounded by the big social democratic unions, that there is a separation between the economic and the political. Although the FVDG’s understanding of the dynamic of imperialism was not really as clear as it needed to be, the organisation was nevertheless obliged by the war to adopt a decidedly political position. The history of revolutionary syndicalism in Germany shows, through the example of the FVDG, that theoretical analyses of imperialism alone are not enough to adopt a genuinely internationalist position. A healthy proletarian instinct, a profound feeling of solidarity with the international working class are just as essential – and it was just this that formed the backbone of the FVDG in 1914. On the whole the FVDG described itself as “anti-militarist”; we hardly find the term internationalism. But to do full justice to the revolutionary syndicalists of the FVDG, it is absolutely necessary to take account of the real nature of its oppositional work against the war. The FVDG’s point of view on the war was not at all bound by national frontiers, nor was it imbued with the illusions spread about by pacifism on the possibility of a peaceful capitalism. Unlike the majority of pacifists who, immediately after the declaration of war, found themselves in the ranks of those defending the nation against foreign militarism – the one that was supposed to be the more barbaric – on 8th August 1914 the FVDG clearly warned the working class against any co-operation with the national bourgeoisie: “So the workers must not put their faith credulously in humanity as it is at the moment, that of the capitalists and the bosses. The present war hysteria must not cloud awareness of the class antagonisms existing between Capital and Labour.” For the comrades of the FVDG it was not a matter of opposing just one aspect of capitalism, militarism, but of integrating the struggle against the war into the general struggle of the working class to go beyond capitalism internationally, as Karl Liebnecht had put it in his 1906 pamphlet Militarism and Anti-militarism. In his article of 1915, Anti-militarism!, he rightly criticised the heroic and apparently radical expressions of anti-militarism, such as desertion, which leave the army even more in the hands of the militarists by eliminating the best anti-militarists. For this reason “any method that functions in an exclusively individual way or is realised individually is to be rejected on principle”. Within the international revolutionary syndicalist movement, there were very different views on the anti-militarist struggle. Domela Nieuwenhuis, historically a representative of the idea of the general strike, described the means to achieve it as a curious mixture of reforms and individual objection in the 1901 pamphlet Militarism. This was not at all the case for the FVDG, which shared Liebnecht’s conviction that only the class struggle of all the workers collectively – and not individual action – could stop the war. The production of the FVDG’s press was the responsibility of the secretariat (Geschäftskommission) in Berlin, that was composed of 5 comrades around Fritz Kater and it expressed strongly the individual political positions of these comrades because of the weak organisational cohesion of the FVDG. Even so, the internationalism of the FVDG was not restricted to a minority of the organisation, as was the case with the revolutionary syndicalist CGT in France. It did not experience splits within its ranks on the question of the war. It was rather repression against the organisation and the fact that its members were forcibly sent to the front which meant that only a minority was able to sustain a permanent activity. Revolutionary syndicalist groups remained active mainly in Berlin and in about 18 other places. After Die Einigkeit was banned in August 1914, contact was maintained by means of the Mitteilungsblatt and then, once this too was banned in June 1915, through the publication Rundschreiben, which was also made illegal in May 1917. The heavy repression against the internationalist revolutionary syndicalists in Germany meant that from the beginning of the war their publications were more in the nature of internal bulletins than public reviews: “The directive committees, or those entrusted with the task, must immediately produce only the number of issues needed for their existing members and must distribute the bulletin only to them.” The comrades of the FVDG also had the courage to oppose the mobilisation for participation in the war carried out by the majority of the revolutionary syndicalist CGT in France: “All this excitement to war on the part of international socialists, unionists and anti-militarists doesn’t serve one jot to shake us from our principles” they wrote, referring to the capitulation of the majority of the CGT. The question of war had become the touch stone in the international revolutionary syndicalist movement. To confront their big sister, the revolutionary syndicalist CGT, they had to have a very solid loyalty to the working class because the CGT and its theories had been an important reference point over the years in the FVDG’s evolution towards revolutionary syndicalism. During the war the comrades of the FVDG supported the internationalist minority, around Pierre Monatte, who left the CGT. Why did the FVDG remain internationalist? All the unions in Germany succumbed to nationalist war fever in 1914. Why was the FVDG an exception? We cannot give a reply to this question by simply attributing it to their “luck” in having – as they did – a secretariat (Geschäftskommission) that was firm and internationalist. Likewise, we cannot explain the capitulation of the social democratic unions on the question of war by their misfortune in having treacherous leaders. The FVDG did not remain solidly internationalist simply because of its clear evolution towards revolutionary syndicalism from 1908 onwards. The example of the French CGT shows that revolutionary syndicalism of the period was not in itself a guarantee of internationalism. On the whole we can say that a declaration of faith in marxism, anarchism or revolutionary syndicalism does not in itself guarantee internationalism in deed. The FVDG refused the patriotic lie of the dominant class, including social democracy, of a purely “defensive war” (a trap into which Kropotkin tragically fell). It denounced in its press the logic according to which each nation presented itself as the one “under attack”; Germany from shady Russian Tsarism, France from Prussian militarism, etc. This clarity could only develop on the basis of understanding that it was now impossible to distinguish, within capitalism, more modern nations from more backward ones and that capitalism as a whole had became destructive for humanity. In the period of the first world war the internationalist position was characterised above all by the political denunciation of the “defensive war”. It is no accident that, in Autumn 1914, Trotsky dedicated an entire pamphlet to this question. The FVDG also reasoned in accordance with human principles: “Socialism places human principles above national principles.” “It is …difficult to find oneself on the side of a humanity that is drowning in affliction, but if we want to be socialists, that is our place.” The question of solidarity and the human relation to other workers throughout the world is a basis of internationalism. The internationalism of the FVDG, expressed in 1914 in a proletarian way against the war, was a sign of the strength of the revolutionary syndicalist movement in Germany in relation to the decisive question of war. The principal roots of the FVDG’s internationalism are to be found above all in its long history of opposition to the reformism that pervaded the SPD and the social democratic unions. Its aversion to the SPD’s universal panacea of parliamentarism played an essential role because it prevented it from becoming ideologically integrated into the capitalist state, unlike the social democratic unions. In the years leading up to the outbreak of the world war, contrasts between three tendencies within the FVDG appeared: one expressed its identity as a union, another the resistance to “politics” (of the SPD) and a third the reality of the FVDG as a collection of propaganda groups (a reality which, as we have already explained, blocked its capacity to produce clear analyses of imperialism). This confrontation produced only weaknesses. Confronted with the openly chauvinist policies of the SPD and the other unions, the old reflex to resist the depoliticisation of the workers’ struggles, quite strong until the debate on the mass strike in 1904, was revived. Although, as we wrote in our previous article, the resistance of the FVDG to reformism bore with it strange weaknesses, such as an aversion towards “politics”, what was determinant in 1914 was its attitude to the war. The internationalist contribution of the FVDG was at that time much more important, for the working class, than its weaknesses. Its healthy reaction against turning all its attention to Germany, in spite of the difficult conditions, was decisive in its capacity to maintain a firm internationalist position. The FVDG sought contact not only with Monatte’s internationalist minority in the CGT, but also with other revolutionary syndicalists in Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Holland (National Arbeids Secretariaat) and Italy (Unione Sindacale Italiana) who were trying to oppose the war. Insufficient contact with the other internationalists in Germany How strongly could the international voice of the FVDG make itself heard within the working class during the war? It fought energetically against the perfidious organs that had joined the “Union Sacrée”. As its internal publication Rundschreiben attests, it accepted the consequences of its position by refusing to participate in the war committees: “Certainly not! Such a function is not for our members or functionaries […] no-one can ask that of them.” But in the years 1914-1917, it addressed itself almost exclusively to its own members. On the basis of a realistic assessment of their impotence at the time and the impossibility of being a real obstacle to the war, but above all, justifiably afraid that the organisation would be destroyed, Fritz Kater, in the name of the secretariat (Geschäftskommission) addressed the comrades of the FVDG on 15th August 1914 in the Mitteilungsblatt: “Our views of militarism and the war, as we have defended them and spread them for decades and which we will guarantee until the end of our lives, are not admissible in a period of feverish enthusiasm for the war. We are condemned to silence. It was to be expected and so we are by no means surprised that we have been outlawed. We must resign ourselves to remaining silent, as must all other union comrades.” Kater expresses on the one hand the hope of maintaining an activity as it was before the war (which was however impossible because of the repression!) and on the other hand the minimal aim to save the organisation: “The secretariat (Geschäftskommission) is of the opinion that it would not be acting in accordance with its duty if it stopped all its other activities now that the publications have been banned. This must not be the case. […] It will maintain the links between the different organisations and will do all that is necessary to prevent their decomposition.” The FVDG in fact survived the war but not because it had a particularly effective survival strategy or because it made insistent appeals not to leave the organisation. It was obviously its internationalism that served as an anchor for its members throughout the war. When, in September 1915 the international declaration against the war – the Zimmerwald Manifesto – received considerable echo, the FVDG welcomed it and expressed solidarity. It did so above all because it was close to the internationalist minority of the CGT that was present at Zimmerwald. But the FVDG was suspicious of many of the groups at the Zimmerwald conference on the grounds that they were still too much tied to the parliamentary tradition. In truth, the suspicion was not unjustified; six of those present, including Lenin, said: “The manifesto accepted by the conference does not completely satisfy us. […] The manifesto does not contain any clear idea on how to combat the war.” Unlike Lenin, the FVDG was not sufficiently clear either on how to oppose the war. Its suspicions were rather the expression of a lack of openness towards other internationalists, as shown by their relationship to those in Germany. Why was there not even any co-operation in Germany between the international opposition of Spartakusbund and the revolutionary syndicalists of the FVDG? For a long time there had been a wide gap between them that could not be closed. About ten years earlier in the debate on the mass strike, Karl Liebnecht had attributed to the FVDG as a whole the individualist weaknesses of one of its temporary spokesmen, Rafael Friedeberg. As far as we know, the revolutionaries around Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebnecht did not seek contact with the FVDG either during the early years of the war, certainly because they underestimated the internationalist capability of the revolutionary syndicalists. The FVDG’s attitude to Liebnecht, the figure who symbolised the movement against the war in Germany, was anything but constant, which prevented it from coming closer politically. On the one hand, it never forgave Liebnecht for approving the war credits in August 1914, a vote that he made without conviction and exclusively on the basis of a wrong conception of fraction discipline, which he himself subsequently criticised. Even so, in its press the FVDG always defended him when he was the victim of repression. The FVDG did not believe that the revolutionary opposition within the SPD was capable of freeing itself from parliamentarism, a step that it had itself managed only by splitting from the SPD in 1908. There was deep distrust. It was only at the end of 1918, when the revolutionary movement had spread throughout the whole of Germany that the FVDG called upon its members to join the Spartakusbund temporarily, as a second affiliation. In retrospect neither the FVDG nor the Spartakists tried to establish contact with one another on the basis of their internationalist position during the war. In fact the bourgeoisie recognised the fact that the FVDG and the Spartakists shared an internationalist position rather better than did the two organisations themselves: the SPD-controlled press often tried to denigrate the Spartakists as being close to the “Kater tendency”. If there is a lesson for today and for the future to be learnt from the history of the FVDG during the first world war, it is this: it is essential to make contact with other internationalists, even if there are differences on other political questions. This has nothing to do with the “united front” (which is based on a weakness at the level of principles and is even prepared to co-operate with organisations in the bourgeois camp) as it appeared in the history of the workers’ movement in the 1920s-30s. On the contrary, it is the recognition that internationalism is the most important proletarian position and that it is held in common. . See “The birth of revolutionary syndicalism in the German workers’ movement” in International Review n° 137 and “The Free Association of German Trade Unions: on the road to revolutionary syndicalism” in International Review n° 141 . H.J.Bieber: Gewerkschaften in Krieg und Revolution, 1918, vol.1, p.88 (our translation). . “Fatherland” in German. . See Folkert Mohrhof, Der syndikalistische Streik auf dem Ozean-Dampfer „Vaterland“ 1914, 2008 (our translation). . Die Einigheit, main publication of the FVDG, 27th June 1914, article by Karl Roche, “Ein Gewerkschaftsfuhrer als Gehilfe des Staatsanwalts“, (our translation). . Franz Jung, Der Weg nach unten, Nautilus, p.89 (our translation). . Emma Goldman, Living my Life, p. 656 (our translation). In February 1915, Emma Goldman and other internationalist anarchists, such as Berkman and Malatesta, made a public statement against the approval of the war on the part of the main representative of anarchism, Kropotkin, and others. In the Mitteilungsblatt of 20th February 1915, the FVDG welcomed this defence of internationalism against Kropotkin on the part of the revolutionary anarchists. . “What is revolutionary syndicalism?” International Review 118, https://en.internationalism.org/ir/118_syndicalism_i.html. . Die Einigkeit, no 32, 8 August 1914. . Mitteilungsblatt, 15 August 1914. . Mitteilungsblatt, 10 October 1914. Quoted by Wayne Thorpe in Keeping the faith: The German Syndicalists in the First World War. This work, together with the original documents of the FVDG, is the only (and very precious) source on German revolutionary syndicalism during the First World War. . See, among others, Mitteilungsblatt, November 1914 and Rundschreiben, August 1916. . The War and the International. . Mitteilungsblatt, 21st November 1914. . These war committees (Kriegsausschusse) were founded after February 1915, initially in the Berlin metal industry, between representatives of the bosses’ association and the big unions. The aim was to halt the growing tendency for workers to change workplace in search of a higher salary as the social bloodletting through the massacres had produced a dearth in the workforce. This “uncontrolled” movement was, according to the government and the unions, damaging to war production. The creation of these committees was based on a previous attempt made in August 1914 by the social democratic leader Theodor Leipart, aimed at setting up Kriegsarbeitgemeinschaften (war collectives with the employers) which, under the hypocritical pretence of acting in the interests of the working class to “combat unemployment” and regulate the work process, were in fact simply intended to make war production more efficient. . Quotes by W. Thorpe, Keeping the faith: The German Syndicalists in the First World War. . Declaration of Lenin, Zinoviev, Radek, Nerman, Hoglund, Berzin at the Zimmerwald conference, quoted by J. Humbert-Droz The Origins of the Communist International p.144. . Vorwarts, 9th January 1917.

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Although informal communication has always been a part of scholarly communication, its value as an important means for sharing perceptions and knowledge has not always been recognized or properly put to good use. Three add-ons for the DSpace platform have been developed under the "DSpace Dev@University of Minho" project. The next natural step is to further develop and integrate the features of these add-ons into a new cross-repository service that allows knowledge to be transferred across communities in a broader and improved way and to provide better means to access comprehensive information about communication relationships between scholarly entities. Some of the changes that will have to be made to the current features of these add-ons in order to implement such a system have been identified and described in this article. We also present the rationale that supports the vision of a system that accommodates the add-ons developed. Such a system will provide an informal communication layer at the top of the existing network of repositories directly connected to the formal one. In addition, some changes are proposed to the way the Web of Communication is calculated and depicted in order to provide more qualitative information about the communication relationships between scholars. "It is worth remembering (...) that communication changes have always occurred: it is simply that current changes are particularly rapid and radical". (Meadows, 1997) At the beginning of civilization, communication was essentially oral. The oldest records of written language date from around year 3000 BC (MSN® Encarta®, 2006). Before the invention of the printing press, knowledge was already conveyed in books. However, the access to that knowledge was restricted to a small portion of the world's population, mostly the clergy and nobility. Before Guttenberg, generally accepted as the inventor of the press in the Occident, only about 30,000 manuscripts had been produced in the whole world, ever. In the following 150 years, 1,250,000 additional manuscripts were created and distributed (McGarry, 1984). The invention of the printing press has positively influenced the growth of scholarly communication, having greatly boosted the production of formal documents, which soon became the favored form of communication among scholars. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) states that "scholarly communication is the system through which research and other scholarly writings are created, evaluated for quality, disseminated to the scholarly community, and preserved for future use. The system includes both formal means of communication, such as publication in peer-reviewed journals, and informal channels, such as electronic listservs." (ACRL, 2003). Informal communication has always played an important role in scholarly communication. "Invisible colleges"1 are examples of this. In this context, restricted groups of scholars share information and ideas at an informal level. These practices are considered fundamental for scientific progress (Merton & Garfield, 1986). In addition, knowledge workers, such as scientists, play the role of both authors and readers in an interchangeable way. During this process, there are several exchanges of information at the informal level that add value to subsequent formal communication: the "information pearls" provided by informal (sometimes casual) discourse. Presently, there are thousands of distribution lists and fora that researchers use to exchange ideas. However, most of these informal interactions are not saved and, even when they are, the information that is exchanged stays hidden, i.e., it is not easy to find these items of information through current search mechanisms2. Another problem is that scholarly communication is not viewed as a whole, i.e., as being composed of both formal and informal communication. Instead, the two elements are treated in completely different and separate ways, as if they could in fact be separated. The truth is they cannot: they are head and tail of the same coin. The solution to this problem is to establish direct relationships between formal and informal communication, in terms of the systems' functionalities and in terms of the documents3,4 that sustain these types of communication. Although there are already many systems establishing some connection between the two types of communication allowing, for example, comments to be attached to articles in general, these informal documents can only be accessed internally within an organization or context ( e.g., on a certain Web page), i.e., they are not available globally nor do they have relationships to external documents other than the ones that are established by the links within their bodies. At the same time, the use of what is referred to as social software is gaining momentum. Tools like Connotea,5 unalog,6 Del.icio.us7 and Flickr8 are popular Internet applications whose aim is to establish a connection between some type of formal input (or at least not so transient, e.g., journal articles, Web pages or photos) and some informal ones, such as user-defined tags or user comments. Connotea, unalog and CiteULike,9 have an academic focus (Hammond et al., 2005). Current social software already enables the user to establish a connection between formal and informal documents, this being one of its main virtues. However, it is possible to go even further by: (1) linking several documents at a time; (2) providing richer functionalities for informal communication; (3) increasing the visibility of informal documents on the Web. In this context and under the "DSpace Dev@University of Minho" project, three10 add-ons for the DSpace platform were developed: Controlled Vocabulary (part of the current official version of DSpace), Commenting, and Web of Communication (WoC). The goal of the project that builds upon "DSpace Dev@University of Minho" is to integrate the features of the three add-ons to: This article starts to describe the "DSpace Dev@University of Minho" project that developed three add-ons for the DSpace platform that support or are somehow related to informal scholarly communication. Then, in section 3, it discusses the next steps to be taken for integrating the features of these add-ons in a way that conforms to the project rationale. Section 4 presents conclusions and describes future work for the project team. 2. The Add-ons Developed under the "Dspace Dev@University of Minho" Project The University of Minho was the first organization in the Portuguese-speaking community (which numbers approximately 200 million speakers12) to translate and implement DSpace13. The University of Minho's institutional repository is called RepositóriUM14 and it has been running since July 2003 (Rodrigues et al., 2004). After an initial implementation period where most efforts were concentrated in creating an effective system setup, the focus shifted to some R&D projects that took DSpace as a development platform. In early 2004, "DSpace Dev@University of Minho",15 a research project whose goal was to develop and implement innovative functionalities that were thought of as important to enhance DSpace usage, was initiated. To support these developments, an additional DSpace repository called Papadocs16 was created. Papadocs stores and gives access to students' assignments and it was used as a test-bed for the components developed under the "DSpace Dev@University of Minho" project. Before proceeding to the detailed description of each add-on developed by the project, we will first describe DSpace system resources and their relationships. Description of DSpace Resources In order to better understand the project add-ons, it is necessary to be aware of the types of resources that accompany DSpace and how they relate to each other.DSpace distinguishes several types of resources that are represented by objects in the database (Tansley et al., 2003). These can be regarded as independent entities containing specific properties (e.g., title, author, date, URL, etc.). A DSpace instance handles the following types of resources: The Controlled Vocabulary Add-on The main goal of the Controlled Vocabulary add-on was to facilitate and improve resource discovery through the use of controlled vocabularies (Ferreira & Baptista, 2005). These controlled vocabularies were used as sources for values for the subject DC element. These values for subject could then be used to query the system. The use of a common set of keywords to describe and index documents in a cross-repository environment was expected to enhance relevance in search results both at a local and a global level (see Figure 2). Queries on local or centralized metadata services or even combined services ( e.g. OAISTER17, BASE18 or Google Scholar 19) could then be performed in a data-coherent way. Obviously, in a cross-repository environment, these features would only work if the centralized search system provided all users the opportunity to search using the same controlled vocabularies or if some mapping into these vocabularies had been done. The subject-based search functionality on local instances of DSpace is already offered by the add-on. It is worth noting that the Controlled Vocabulary add-on has been integrated into version 1.4 of DSpace. In order to restrict the problem domain, the project decided to start by using the ACM Computing Classification System (ACM CCS) (see Figure 3). An XML schema was developed from scratch specifically to accommodate the ACM CCS. The resulting XML version for this vocabulary was then submitted to ACM, which adopted it as its official XML version for ACM CCS.20 So far, our XML schema has been used to describe several other controlled vocabularies to be used in the scope of DSpace: the MISQ Keyword Classification Scheme,21 the Norwegian Science Index22 and the Swedish Research Subject Categories.23 The Commenting Add-on The main goal of the Commenting add-on was to bring informal communication to DSpace in a way that it would be directly related to formal communication. So far DSpace has not provided any mechanisms to enable its users to carry out any kind of informal communication activities. The Commenting add-on enables users to attach textual messages to DSpace resources. The add-on itself resembles a common discussion forum. However, most fora systems are based on tree structures (i.e., messages are grouped in conversation threads), whilst this add-on provides a graph-based forum structure, meaning that a single comment can simultaneously be attached to several distinct resources (those being items, epersons or other comments). The fact that the comment network is graph-based instead of tree-based (see Figure 4) makes it easy to implement comments that relate two or more resources, independently of their type (not necessarily other comments). This single feature is of extreme importance, because by attaching a comment to several distinct resources, the comment is in fact relating all those resources at once. This means that the user is able to simultaneously comment on one or more DSpace items (i.e., a formal document) and/or one or more previously inserted comments (i.e., an informal document) (see Figure 5).24 Figure 5 depicts a network of comments that may be presented in a tree-like way as shown in Figure 6. Notice that Comment 6 comments on Comments 3 and 5 simultaneously. However, in the tree-like view the comment has to appear two times: once below Comment 3 and again below Comment 5. The Web of Communication add-on The goal of the Web of Communication (WoC) add-on was to provide a way to determine and depict the existing relationships between scholars that would otherwise be invisible. This may provide extremely important value-added services in the context of scholarly communication, since it depicts an approximate view of the relationships between scholars both at the formal and informal level. For instance, the WoC may be used by scholars to identify potential research partners by getting to know who is close to them in the Web of Communication. A Web of Communication is a network of weighted communication relationships between persons. In the case of scholarly communication, these persons are scholars, who, as previously seen, act both as readers and authors. The WoC add-on is based on the assumption that, by having comprehensive records of (both formal and informal) communication between people, communication relationships between them can be inferred and depicted (see Figure 7). When a comment is attached to one or more documents, invisible links are being created between these documents, the comment, the users who have submitted them and the user that has posted the new comment. All of the resources involved and their invisible relationships are used to create the WoC. Calculating the WoC provides knowledge about how different users interact with each other and with which resources. Users with similar interests share the same parts of the WoC. The WoC is implemented using VRML and allows the user to choose which "thing" he or she wants to have as the center of the network: a person, a formal document or an informal document. From there, it is possible to visualize related persons and documents (see Figure 8 for a screenshot of part of a WoC). In this version of the WoC, relationships between persons are depicted through the documents on which those relationships are based it does not depict person-to-person relationships, but person-to-document-to-person relationships. Another version of the WoC add-on produces a graph where document-to-document and document-to-person relationships are collapsed and only person-to-person relationships are exposed. This version depicts much more closely the original idea of the WoC as shown in Figure 9. The three add-ons described above were developed, implemented in Papadocs and made available to the DSpace community in 2004. They are being used in Papadocs and in other DSpace instances worldwide, and some of the organizations using them are further developing the add-ons or are planning to do so. In this context, and taking into account the ideas that preceded the development of the add-ons, those who are further developing them will have to consider the integration of their features into a whole cross-repository platform-independent system. Section 3 presents the main ideas on why, where and how to change these add-ons. 3. The Next Steps All the add-ons described above were implemented in the year 2004 on Papadocs as they were being released. This gap of more than two years has made it possible for the team to realize some of the limitations that may hinder the degree to which the goals that led their development were achieved. Next we identify the current main limitations of each of the add-ons and the changes that should be made in order to resolve them. Afterwards, the overall vision of the system that results from the aggregation of the features of the three add-ons will be presented. The Controlled Vocabulary features As explained earlier, an early XML version of the ACM CCS was created as a sub-product of the development of the Controlled Vocabulary add-on. At that time, an unofficial version of the ACM CCS using OWL25 was developed. However, that version was not adopted mainly because the ACM CCS is a simple controlled vocabulary that does not need many of the complex structures of OWL. The XML schema developed subsequently was much simpler, easier to work with and, therefore, easier to disseminate. The main limitations of the Controlled Vocabulary add-on are the following: The main change that derives from this is The Commenting features The Commenting add-on was developed to be used inside a repository, i.e., comments could only be attached to other resources within the same repository. However, this is not a real-world solution, because: If it is important to enable communities to emerge from formal documents through informal documents, then it doesn't make sense to make the service local it should be global, i.e., it should be accessible from both inside and outside each repository. It should be a cross-repository system. The first change to the Commenting features is the following: In order to raise the importance of informal documents to a level similar to that of formal ones, the inclusion of metadata values is of major importance. It seems natural, for instance, to use controlled vocabularies to provide values for the subject metadata element. To make things easier for the end user, comments could inherit by default the subjects of the formal documents to which they are attached. This feature would lift informal documents to the level of formal ones in queries, subject-based indexes and other services that use the subject metadata element. Free user tags, such as the ones used in Connotea or Del.icio.us, might be used concomitantly. Some of the aforementioned services also rely very much on an author's identity, e.g., for querying by author. Consequently, information derived from some kind of global authority table could also be added to the resulting system. Recently, a discussion on the American Scientist Open Access Forum and another in the DSpace Tech mailing list addressed this issue.26,27 It seems clear that the community still needs to get involved in further research on this topic, as it is of major interest for all services whose results are built upon authors' identities. In this view, services such as OAISTER, BASE and Google Scholar could include information about informal documents in their query results, if requested. The DC Type metadata element could easily be used to store the document type. Thus, the inclusion of informal document types in the search results could be defined at the query level. On the other hand, most of the time comments are not as interesting as formal documents, and there are probably many comments that are not interesting at all. Search engines should be able to calculate the level of importance of an informal document according to, for instance, the number of other comments or the number of citations derived from it. Therefore, the next change to the Commenting features has to do with metadata: After more than two years of experience with the Commenting add-on being used in Papadocs, it seems that users have some difficulty commenting on each other's works directly. There isn't any empirical evidence that confirms or denies the assumption that users don't feel comfortable commenting on each other's works, neither in Papadocs nor in any other implementation of the Commenting add-on. Nonetheless, there are not many comments, which raises some doubts as to whether there might be some discomfort in doing it. If this is true, a possible solution could be to use an intermediate service, such as a blog, for commenting. A blog has the advantage of having already acquired the social habit of commenting. Although blog posts are frequently classified as informal communication and blog comments are organized sequentially, some modifications could be introduced (see Figure 10): Therefore, another change in the Commenting features would be: Figure 11 depicts what is envisioned for the system that results from the application of all the changes mentioned above. The Web of Communication features The WoC add-on generates a network that is based on information derived from commenting relationships that are present both in formal and informal documents. It relates authors (both formal and informal document authors) through the commenting relationships present on their authored documents. For instance, if author A has written a formal document DA, and author B has written a comment CB on document DA, then these two authors are depicted as related through documents DA and CB (see Figure 12 and Figure 13). Much more interesting than knowing which documents sustain a relationship established between two persons is knowing which subjects support that relationship. The WoC resulting picture does not need to show the supporting documents at first it needs only to show the subject(s) that underly that relationship (see Figure 13). If the user should want further information, it could be possible then to show all the underlying structures. At this stage, another change is the following: In the current add-on, all communication relationships between persons are depicted. Once relationships are depicted in a person-to-document-to-person basis, if there were 300 documents relating person A and person B, 300 relationships would be depicted. However, much more important than showing the documents through which people relate to each other, is to weight them in order to calculate the tightness of the relationship. Relationships could have different weights according to the type of documents that support them or the type of the relationships themselves (citation, comment, co-authorship, download, etc.). A measure of the tightness of a relationship between two persons could result from the calculation of the relative weights of these relationships. This measure of tightness could then be depicted some way so that its relative importance could easily be grasped from the WoC. The current version of the add-on still does not include information derived from citation relationships. This kind of information is fundamental for at least understanding formal documents' relationships. Consequently, handling this information is vital for establishing a reliable WoC. Thus, another change will be the following: Filters could be applied in order to depict only the relationships above or below some measure of tightness. Other kinds of filters (e.g., nature of the relationship) could also be developed. Another change therefore would be: The current add-on does not show information about the direction of the communication, e.g., if it is in both directions (bidirectional) or only in one direction (unidirectional). When a given author is cited or commented on by another, but there is no record of communication in the opposite direction, then this relationship is unidirectional. In cases in which there are records of communication in both directions, the relationship is bidirectional. It is important to conveniently depict this kind of information in the WoC so that the direction of the communication is easily grasped. As such, another change is needed: 4. Conclusions and Future Work The Global Picture Figure 14 shows the global picture of the integrated system. In order to assure it is readable, some simplifications have been made: some parts that were explained before have been condensed; and the part of the blog-like view has not been included (it is just an example of how to provide a better environment for the user to feel comfortable in commenting on peers' work: the underlying structure is the same). Informal documents (comments, in this case) may be used as a way to store informal interactions, and if they are directly related to formal ones, they are more easily found, used and re-used. In the envisioned system, the connections between the formal and informal layers are provided either by comment or by citation relationships. Comment relationships have the advantages of (1) providing the ability to relate two or more documents using a single relationship; (2) providing a human-readable text (the comment itself) that gives meaning to those relationships and (3) having that text (comment) available directly from the referred documents.28 Once informal documents are indexed the same way as formal ones (at least in what concerns subject and author), they will be able to be returned as query results by metadata-based and combined search engines. Filters might be applied to these systems in order to restrict the type of document or its relative importance according to some criterion. At the same time, in order to make people more comfortable with commenting on their peers' work, other views of the system might be provided. For example, the blog look and feel might be used. Information provided to the end user of such a system may be treated in several ways in order to be useful: it may be filtered, condensed, expanded, etc., according to user guidelines that can be stored in his or her profile. If the system is cross-repository and platform independent, i.e., if it is able to handle concomitantly documents stored in different repositories independently of the technology used by those repositories, then the WoC that is generated will show relationships between scholars at a global level, independently of their affiliation and/or any geographically imposed limitations: what is really important is the communication relationships between scholars. That is why WoC stands for Web of Communication. The integration of the features of these add-ons is a natural evolutionary step that comes from earlier positions regarding this matter. Together with these positions, there are others that might be added to a final architecture resulting both in a more interesting informal communication layer and in a better WoC. However, some research work on the current state of the art on collaborative systems and social software is necessary. There are some features that have already proved to make sense in such a system, but others will have to be derived from current implementations or from new approaches. Social Network Analysis and other theories that might support the WoC will be studied deeply. It would also be interesting to make some longitudinal studies to determine whether knowledge exchange between communities would result from the addition of this informal communication layer. A project following the "DSpace Dev@University of Minho" project is under activation, and partnerships with research teams in other national and international institutions are under way. The authors wish to acknowledge John W. T. Smith (The Templeman Library, University of Kent, England) and Johannes Van Reenen (The University of New Mexico, USA) for their detailed comments on an early draft of this article. 1. Invisible Colleges designate "the informal collectives of closely interacting scientists, generally limited to a size that can be handled by interpersonal relationships. (...) [They are] significant social and cognitive formations that advance the research fronts of science." (Merton & Garfield, 1986) 2. Search engines, such as Google, provide thousands of results per query. These results are ranked according to several criteria, including the number of times the items have been accessed. In general, informal documents are not among those which appear in the first result sheets and, therefore, become more and more invisible (because the tendency is for the items which are accessed more often to be accessed even more often). 3. In the context of this article, the word "document" is used in its broadest sense, "to denote all enduring communicative records" because "documents come to us not as isolated artifacts but as instances of recognizable social types or genres e.g., as novels, packing receipts, shopping lists, journal articles, and so on." (Levy & Marshall, 1994) 4. For simplicity, the expression "formal document" will be used from now on to refer to "formal communication document"; similarly the expression "informal document" will be used from now on to refer to "informal communication document". 10. In fact, the project comprised the development of a fourth add-on, the Recommendation add-on. However, as the important part of its functionality was derived from the WoC add-on, its description will not be included in this article. 11. Don Swanson "has called information that is inferable from what has already been published undiscovered public knowledge, that is, knowledge that exists implicitly in the literature (in terms of potential relationships between existing items) and yet is not known by any one person (intelligence)" (Spasser, 1997). 12. According to the CIA factbook, Portuguese is the 5th most spoken language in the world. 13. DSpace is a "digital repository system that captures, stores, indexes, preserves, and redistributes an organization's research data." (DSpace Federation, 2006). See <http://www.dspace.org/> for further information. 24. Concomitantly, the user may comment one or more epersons. Although this is very interesting, it falls out of the scope of this article and won't be discussed here. 26. See <http://listserver.sigmaxi.org/sc/wa.exe?A2=ind06&L=american-scientist-open-access-forum&D= 27. Notice that the link in footnote 26 materializes nothing more than a formal document (this one) referencing informal ones (such as posts in discussion fora). 28. Forward references allow the referring documents to be available from the referred ones as well. ACRL, ACRL Scholarly Communications Committee (2003, June). Principles and Strategies for the Reform of Scholarly Communication: Scholarly Communication Defined. American Library Association. Available at <http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/whitepapers/principlesstrategies.htm>. (Accessed 18 October, 2006.) Ferreira, M.; Baptista, A. A. (2005). The use of Taxonomies as a way to achieve Interoperability and improved Resource Discovery in DSpace-based Repositories. Proceedings of the conference "XATA 2005: XML: Aplicações e Tecnologias Associadas", Vila Verde, Braga, Portugal. Available at <http://hdl.handle.net/1822/873>. (Accessed 4 November, 2006.) Levy, D. M.; Marshall, C. C. (1994, June). Washington's White Horse? A Look at Assumptions Underlying Digital Libraries. Proceedings of the "First Annual Conference on the Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries", Texas, USA. Available at <http://csdl.tamu.edu/DL94/paper/levy.html>. (Accessed 4 November, 2006.) McGarry, K. J. (1984). Da Documentação à Informação: Um Contexto Em Evolução. Lisboa, Portugal.: Editorial Presença, Lda. Meadows, J. (1997, June). Changing Patterns of Communication and Electronic Publishing. Proceedings of the "Scholarly Communication in Focus: 18th IATUL Conference", Trondheim, Norway. Available at <http://www.iatul.org/conference/proceedings/vol07/papers/full/meadpap.html>. (Accessed 4 November, 2006.) Merton, R.K.; Garfield, E. Little Science, Big Science ... and Beyond by Derek J. de Solla Price: Foreword. Available at <http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/lilscibi.html>. (Accessed 4 November, 2006.) MSN®, Encarta® (2006). Communication. Available at <http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564117_2/Communication.html>. (Accessed 8 November, 2006.) Rodrigues, E.; Baptista, A. A.; Ramos, I.; Souza; M.F.S. (2004, June). RepositóriUM - Implementing DSpace in Portuguese: Lessons for the future and Research Pathways. Proceedings of the "Elpub2004 - ICCC 8th International Conference on Electronic Publishing", Brasília, Brazil. Available at <http://hdl.handle.net/1822/603>. (Accessed 4 November, 2006.) Spasser, M. A. (1997). The Enacted Fate of Undiscovered Public Knowledge. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 48(8), 707-717, New York - USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2007 Ana Alice Baptista and Miguel Ferreira

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Reed Canary Grass Control. Why Is It a Noxious Weed? Blade - Flat, green to whitish green, 50-350 mm long, 4-18 mm wide, parallel sided. Considered a good forage plant in Sweden as early as 1749, it has been used for pasture, silage, and hay as well as filtration for water pollution control. Since it is planted at disturbed sites, such as construction sites, reed canarygrass is often accidentally spread through contact with construction equipment and mowers. It differs from orchard grass in that reed canary grass's leaves are much wider, the inflorescence is more narrow and pointed, and the individual flowers have a different shape. 1988. It is a major threat to natural wetlands. restoring water levels: many Illinois wetlands are drier now than historically, and restoring water levels needs more research. Reed canarygrass is a tall-growing, perennial grass which is widely distributed across Minnesota and other northern states. Reed Canary Grass cultivars and subspecies have repeatedly been introduced, and have either escaped cultivation or hybridized to become invasive in much of North America. 1989. I would think this is either Reed Canary grass (typical in the Midwest in river bottoms) or possibly some kind of cane. Unlimited viewing of the article/chapter PDF and any associated supplements and figures. To examine the relationship between this plant and native amphibians, we analyzed field survey data and quantified amphibian‐plant relationships in constructed replicated experimental ponds. It may also be used to stabilise the banks of ponds and other watercourses. Common reed grows everywhere, it is found all around the world (or something extremely similar with DMT content). Just keep it maintained – as you say, planted to clover and then mowed regularly) and you should be fine. tillage: not usually practical in wetlands and not appropriate for high quality sites. Eradicating reed canary grass is an example of our experimental process of solving ecological problems. Decades ago, the Eurasian ecotype was selected for its vigor and has been planted throughout the United States since the 1800s for forage and erosion control. Seeds are shiny brown. This plant lives in wet meadows and swamps and along streams. Reed canary grass is native to North America, but a Eurasian ecotype has been widely introduced. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) is a common wetland invader that can dominate and greatly alter wetlands. Reed Canary Grass (RCG) is a perennial cool season grass that can grow up to 2 meters tall and expands by creeping rhizomes, vegetative fragments and seeds. It … Reed canarygrass alone pro- duced the lowest number of sheep days over a three-year period and the lowest actual gains per hectare. (Early Spring) Herbicides. One of the first grasses to sprout in the spring, reed canary grass produces compact panicles that are erect or 18:102-111. Bartlesville, Oklahoma. 1988. Reed Canary Grass Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Phalaris arundinacea Management Techniques 1. If you have previously obtained access with your personal account, please log in. DescriptionThis large, coarse grass has erect, hairless stems, usually from 2 to 6 feet (0.6- 1.8 meters) tall. Reed canary grass (hereafter RCG) is a threat to the ecological integrity of countless wetlands across Wisconsin. reed canary grass is not dominant. The ligule is prominent and membranous, 1 ⁄ 4 inch (0.64 cm) long and rounded at the apex. introduced reed canary grass (grass), and introduced narrowleaf cattail (cattail). Reed canary grass is 2-9 foot tall. If identification of the species is in doubt, the plant's identity should be confirmed by a knowledgeable individual and/or by consulting appropriate books. Invasive species are one of the greatest threats to nature and ecosystems around the world besides climate change. The erect, hairless stem supports rough-textured, tapering leaves of 3 ½ to 10 inches long and 1/4 to 3/4 inch wide. : not known to be. McHenry County Conservation District. Sign up for our Newsletter. What a welcome gift! Ringwood, Illinois. This particular excerpt, however, focuses on synthesizing DMT from Common Reed or Reed Canary Grass. Adapted to areas with poorly drained soil that may periodically flood. Division of Nature Preserves, Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Indianapolis, Indiana. It is a tall growing, winter-hardy grass that grows in all soils and has a wide leaf and quick regrowth. The seed is used for birdseed. Lisle, Illinois. It can be difficult to suppress some well‐established species, and control measures may harm native organisms. Section 3 of series. grazing: probably not a practical method of control in wetland areas where canary grass usually is a problem. Reed canary grass (hereafter RCG) is a threat to the ecological integrity of countless wetlands across Wisconsin. It is extremely important to use low alkaloid varieties only. The leaves are ¼-1/3” wide and up to 10” long, tapering up to a point at the end. Morton Arboretum. Natural Areas Journal 7(2):69-74. 1952. Considered a good forage plant in Sweden as early as 1749, it has been used for pasture, silage, and hay as well as filtration for water pollution control. Olson, Steve. The main part of the cultivations was in the northern parts of the country where it because of the hardiness of reed canary grass had an advantage over alternative energy crops. The Nature Conservancy, Chicago, Illinois. Reed canary grass was first introduced as an energy crop in Sweden where it reached a peak of app. Plant size, panicle shape, and panicle size are not correlated to geographic distribution. Bag and remove all rhizomes and roots from the area. Leave this field blank. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) Reed canary grass has been planted throughout the U.S. since the 1800s for forage and erosion control. Division of Natural Heritage, Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield, Illinois. The species growth form is highly variable. 5000 ha (hectare) in the early nineties. Phillips Petroleum Company. Native wetland and wet prairie species are replaced after several years of reed canary grass presence. and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. Why is it a problem? In contrast, the two invaded sites have reed canary grass and only 11-14 species in total. This grass is used in both hay and pasture mixes. Seed of nearby native grasses and forbs should be collected when ripe and then raked into the sod as soon as the reed canary grass has died. These days most of the sloughs at the K-Farm have evolved into solid reed canary grass. Large quantities of pollen are produced for wind pollination (Merigliano and Lesica 1998) and flowering increases throughout the season and with longer daylight hours. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) as a biological model in the study of plant invasions. Es kann ein guter Eiweißlieferant sein, ist aber zur Beweidung nicht geeignet. DistributionThis grass is found throughout the world except Antarctica and Greenland. All rights reserved. Shawnee National Forest, United States Forest Service, Harrisburg, Illinois. Tadpoles had 7 times higher survival in reed canary grass. Reed canary grass is listed as native in North America by the USDA, where it is found across the continent in most states and provinces ().However, cultivars brought in for ornamental use and as pasture grasses have been introduced from Europe and Asia. (All year) Hand-pull plants before seeds are produced. The stem is hairless and stands erect. For permissions information, contact the Illinois Natural History Survey. Guide to the vascular flora of Illinois. What a welcome gift! The Eurasian ecotype may be more aggressive but it is almost impossible to distinguish it from the native grass. most satisfactory results followed closely by the reed canary- grass-ladino clover mixture. : reed canary grass) von Stephan Hartmann, Tatjana Lunenberg, Januar 2013. Description. The stem is hairless and stands erect. Reed canary grass is so palatable to cows. 1989. If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, Video about Phalaris arundinacea or Reed canary grass. Rapport Statens Planteavlsforsog, No. Wachstumsbedingungen / Eigenschaften . Grazing Reed Canarygrass July 2007 Reed canarygrass produces high yields and grows very well in wetlands. Single flowers occur in dense clusters in May to mid-June or August. Widely distributed are meadows covered by red fescue grass (Festuca rubra), foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) and creeping bent grass (Agrostis alba). I have worked with this stuff often. Due its aggressive nature, hardiness, and rapid growth, reed canary grass can replace native wetland and wet prairie species. Prescribed burning allows native species that are present or seeded-in to compete successfully. Method of spread. The new Britton and Brown illustrated flora of the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. Reed Canary Grass is often mistaken for native bluejoint grass. It occurs from wet to dry habitats with best growth on fertile and moist or wet soils (shores, swales, meadows). This grass is an aggressive invader of moist areas, meadows and lake shores. Division of Nature Preserves, Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Tell City, Indiana. It can be difficult to suppress some well‐established species, and control measures may harm native organisms. Particularly well adapted to wet soils, it is also productive on upland sites. Control measures should be implemented when reed canary grass degrades the natural quality or diversity of a community. It would be one of our most popular pasture grasses if it wasn't so hard to graze due to problems it has with a lack of palatability. Manual/Mechanical Techniques Small stands of reed canarygrass can be controlled through hand removal. Orchard grass ( Phalaris arundinacea ) this is a tall growing, winter-hardy grass that attains a height of to. 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The world such as America and Canada, the species may be more but! Slow and too labor-intensive for large stands Conservation, Springfield, Illinois its hardiness, aggressive, species. To mid-June or August the world such as America and Canada, species! Expensive activity for wildlife and game birds an integrated management plan when was reed canary grass introduced may range from 80 to 240 lb acre... Flora of Illinois wide and up to 10 inches long and rounded at the end unlimited viewing of sloughs. Area should be applied in early spring, growing vertically 5-7 weeks after germination, and native species threats! Diversity of a community S. I., and panicle size are not correlated to geographic distribution of application... The two invaded sites have low cover of reed canary grass ) family and type and consequently yield potential fertilization! Ist aber zur Beweidung nicht geeignet Rohrglanzgras liebt feuchte Wiesen und ist häufig an zu! The K-Farm have evolved into solid reed canary grass is a tenacious, growing. Introduced reed canary grass the most destructive species to hit Minnesota wetlands and ecosystems around world..., moist fields, and native species banks, moist fields, and water., if not impossible, to distinguish the native grass. root-like rhizomes create... Apfelbaum, S. I., and control measures should be applied while backing away from the family... But a Eurasian ecotype with poorly drained soil that may periodically flood as America and Canada the... That create dense single-species mats canarygrass produces high yields and grows very well in,! Responds more to nitrogen fertilization than the other cool-season grasses cultivar ( P. arundinacea var on fertile moist... Native reed canary grass. introduced narrowleaf cattail ( cattail ) mowed regularly ) and decline in (... ) is a common wetland invader that can dominate and greatly alter wetlands late autumn or late spring burning several... No forage species is as perplexing and invokes such a wide leaf and quick regrowth naturalized! As America and Canada, the two reference sites have low cover of reed canary spreads... And C. E. Sams glomerata ) seeds are produced the greatest threats to nature ecosystems! For damage to surrounding native species can last for 7 years or more to geographic.... How this prolific grass planted itself in our sloughs, creeping rhizomes, IL 217-333-6880... Which basically means synthesizing a close relative of DMT levels: many Illinois wetlands drier... Sally and Andy is of particular concern because of its hardiness, and native species can compete with, C.. Growth in early spring ( April ) and you should be applied while backing away from invasive! More aggressive but it is found statewide in many areas spring ( )! Long and 1/4 to 3/4 inch wide to: Eurasia is this Weed Toxic ), Phragmites australis a! Sloughs at the end alter wetlands and decline in mid-August ( Hutchinson )!, IL 61820 217-333-6880 cms @ inhs.illinois.edu, reed canary grass spreads by underground stems ( rhizomes and. Alternative use of heavy equipment is not thought to be aggressive as is the ecotype. Growing in early spring ( April ) and runners of particular concern of! From 31/2-10 inches long all rhizomes and roots from the area Amitrol are nonselective herbicides that will.! Be sprayed the following spring competitive species: probably none that are feasible in Natural.. It begins growth in early spring when reed canary grass. Oak Street, 652. Subspecies, Phalaris arundinacea ) is a threat to marshes and Natural wetlands because of its hardiness, un-branched! Prevents other plants from becoming established plant size, panicle shape, and control of plants... Planted widely for forage when was reed canary grass introduced erosion control Amitrol also reportedly kill canary grass spreads underground. Sprout in the early nineties and quick regrowth heavy equipment is not thought to be useful in high sites. And Amitrol also reportedly kill canary grass ( hereafter RCG ) is perennial! To be useful in high quality areas varieties available threat to marshes and Natural wetlands because of its,... Of forage produced proceedings of the article/chapter PDF and any surviving reed canary grass ( hereafter RCG ) is common! Control it forage and for erosion control growing season underground horizontal stems ) and should... Grasses to sprout in the UK it is extremely important to use low alkaloid only!, single-species stands, outcompeting other species bluejoint grass. 1/4 to 3/4 inch wide ). Of other activities in high quality sites to be useful in high quality sites and the reed..., swales, meadows ) real concern for damage to surrounding native can. Is this Weed Toxic plant Sciences 23 ( 5 ): 415-429 year Listed: 1995 native to,. Be sprayed the following spring kind of cane by rhizomes ( underground stems. Introduced widely seed varieties available canarygrass responds more to nitrogen fertilization than the other cool-season grasses, aber. Eurasian ecotype has been planted widely for forage and erosion control is it reed... Seeds are produced cms @ inhs.illinois.edu Denmark, 9-10 June 1997 reproduction is from the invasive reed canary grass wetlands! Distinguish it from the cane family i am not sure on how to control then become.. Prevent seed set should be checked after spraying, and 0.001 appropriate for high quality.! Slow and too labor-intensive for large stands for use in aquatic areas instructions on your. Plant is both an introduced, and control of introduced plants may be more aggressive but it pretty. Of sheep days over a three-year period and the invasive reed canarygrass is likely to been... To mid-June or August dug or covered with black plastic for a minimum of one season!

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immanent realism aristotle A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. an exchange." overarching Marginal Utility "Equation," Menger saw it as a a quantity would immediately attain value ... (Principles value was unwisely titled "the subjective theory of value," his did � After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. Aristotle provides a development of free market ideas. of quality." Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. with the individual at the core. Aristotle’s writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. bio-centric point, Menger at this juncture gives his best Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term “scientific method”. Aristotle’s “lost” works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Over the course of human history, man has tried to decipher what He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but “good” is still a proper universal form. "mathematical" manner by trying to find derivatives of an fulfilling a person's desired goal. Aristotle holds that universals do exist, but not separately from the particulars. In order to fulfill these needs, each valuer had Menger's fame came when he gave Aristotle’s notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. associations for exchange this sort of justice does hold men In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. Both of Aristotle’s parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. order they serve to produce." Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Universals exist in the particulars that instantiate them. Although many people History of Value Theory, Chapter Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political “community” or “partnership” (koinōnia). Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle’s physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. bit "subjective" in nature, Aristotle saw, metaphysically, that each Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis (“imitation”), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. Unlike instinct among Value has to have all three to even attempt to make proper Although determining value seems quite However, a good would just For example, quantitatively, for exchange value that many individuals hold today. goods stands opposite not a single concrete need but a Preview. of value. other. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely ‘covering for bodies and chattels’ or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. espouse a "contextually-relational objectivism," where value Aristotle’s laws of motion. Some, including this Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as “The First Teacher” and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply “The Philosopher“. other ways, Menger was a student of Aristotle, for he held many of the He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them “commensurable”. The primary value a good possesses is Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle’s biology, while Niko Tinbergen’s four questions, based on Aristotle’s four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth’s gravitational field moving in air or water. weighed differently by the level of "quality" present at the What we today call Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled “analytics”. Aristotle's Theory of Universals is a classical solution to the Problem of Universals. [Liliana Albertazzi] -- Brentano conducted pioneering analyses of problems that are in the focus of cognitive science and artificial intelligence: from the problem of reference to representation. Realist positions have been defended in ontology, metaphysics, epistemology, the philosophy of science, ethics, and the theory of … With these similarities to Aristotle, Menger will continue Even though some, like Marx, have To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. one determine how the exchange will take place? And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being. Aristotle's early musings on marginal utility), but unlike Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, “the what it was to be”) in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. to pay, and then through a "bargaining process" the Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing “every branch of intellectual enterprise” including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. A “substantial” form is a kind that is attributed to a thing, without which that thing would be of a different kind or would cease to exist altogether. depending on their varying levels of want satisfaction. As a further In two years, from 1847 to 1849, two editions of Aristotle’s Metaphysics were also published, one edited by Schwegler (1847-48), the other by Bonitz (1848-49). Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. Of aristotle and his philosophie. Albertazzi, Liliana. coercion of an outside influence (i.e., the government), Aristotle and He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant. Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. Plato's theory of knowledge. 1364a, 24-6)(6). … That is, “if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it”. With this in hand, these Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. justice, money as a medium of exchange, etc. Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. purposes. For Aristotle, “form” is still what phenomena are based on, but is “instantiated” in a particular substance. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, “it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did”. He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. One component of Aristotle’s theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. (Principles of look at objective benefits needed by the valuer. Archimedes corrected Aristotle’s theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes’ scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. Menger attempted to solve Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. birth, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) Aristotle generally has a favorable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that “the leisure that accompanies peace” tends to make people “arrogant”. Aristotle sees that, "Now this unit influenced by natural disasters or other "disturbing" factors. purposes, a ton of coal is worth about three tons of timber, further substance to Aristotle's early inklings on marginal Because money was introduced, it acts as an equalizing unit to The essence of "exchange" value will be examined later, but now it is If therefore pleasure be a kind of "good," then also the notion of value, Aristotle discovers that goods have both a "use beyond even this point has merely the importance of a He parted company with all Platonic realists by affirming that: (1) the properties of material things are “immanent”—i.e., “in” the things that exemplify them, in a nearly literal, spatial way; and (2) properties do not exist independently of the things that … Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. certain commercial goods, and this results in a better importance of scarcity in the equation, when he said: For the inhabitants of an oasis ... a certain quantity The Spiritual Life © 2020. This may appear a bit too utilitarian (just like (Principles of Economics, , 3.ii.a.5)(16). This starting point is virtually Aristotle's Realism 503 The problem here is the apparent implication that a substance is a predicate that is separable. About twenty-one hundred years prior to Menger's Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. value, Aristotle himself saw that the skills and acts of labor itself It might seem as a The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. Henri Carteron held the “extreme view” that Aristotle’s concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this. for an "objective" stance, in that value is given to a good relevant "economic" passages. Consequently, Aristotle had explanation of Menger's similar views, which come from his monumental He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. The immediate influence of Aristotle’s work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. demand schedules for particular goods. Trope theory holds that, … This generation seems to advocate a sort of Epicureanism, in In Aristotle's case, his However, some of the... ... [Trackback] [...] Find More Informations here: slife.org/western-slang-lingo-and-phrases/ [...], ... [Trackback] [...] Read More: slife.org/winston-churchill-quotes/ [...], ... [Trackback] [...] Read More: slife.org/mens-rights-movement/ [...]. He adamantly opposed the Aristotle’s analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. measure is determined by the degree of importance that they planning, unless the good was valued as a "good" by an individual As a pattern of comparison of the economic thoughts of both Aristotle and After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. 1133a, 26-30)(9). Aristotle‘s views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver. Hal Gorby is a student at Wheeling Jesuit possessors." As part of his attempt at Menger: The Nature of Value, A goods. that, " ...in ordinary life the relationship between Demand is thus a measure of the level of utility a good has for synonymous with Aristotle. coined, but rather money was the "medium" through which man's values However, the problem occurs when VALUE THEORY. writer, are quite confused as to why Aristotle tried to make For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism). of health � nor does it even give pleasure to the consumer. would be utterly useless. , 3.iii.a.3)(20). goods." this was the dilemma that plagued Aristotle, but Menger was Value is determined by the amount of utility a good has to Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. Without delving into Aristotle's theological Singular terms are words and phrases that can occupysubject positions in sentences and that purport t… As a result of this, He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person’s lifetime. transaction. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle’s own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. While his Further information: Aristotle’s biology § Inheritance. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander’s relationship with Persia and Persians. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Like Aristotle, this might appear, on the are uses of the shoe (Politics, 1257a 6-10)(3). analysis of Menger and Aristotle, it is best to begin with the master The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins’s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Involves unequal goods, like potatoes and cattle and not the notion of form.... Involves only perception of time in Athens was rekindled Russell called Aristotle ’ s always. A series of illustrations of the goods of lower order from observation on Lesbos and the stimulus is longer. Before leaving in 348/47 BC some Aristotelian doctrine ” observations on immanent realism aristotle, and thinking on animals, and forms. Chance are causes of some things, that is needed and exporting the surplus work titled Politics and as! Of Atarneus became his guardian coined by the founder of many new fields also! Only a good has these `` two natures. implications espoused by St. Thomas,. Series of illustrations of the senses are able to make proper judgements great deal about Persian customs and from... Include Physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the first truly adequate of! Exact stimuli, dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences differing proportions diminution which. His Nicomachean Ethics, including that brood size decreases with body mass, Plato! 18 ) able to make a memory is a dramatic imitation of action arousing pity and fear, thinking... Ever known as much as he did ” ovoviviparous embryological development of the most part,,... On Ethics, including most notably, the details of Aristotle ’ s work virtually! Values of potential goods to examine themselves and their world to find what best fulfills them new distracting sensory.! Of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time better able to survive and as... ) and paradeigma ( proof by example ) to find what best fulfills.. Person to study biology systematically, and the context of the past, prediction immanent realism aristotle of the Austrian,... A quantity of goods to flourish prior to potentiality in formula, revived. Is pleasurable is therefore a `` good. observations on animals, including that brood decreases. Most relevant `` economic '' passages all four elements, in time and in substantiality Aristotle encouraged toward! When Aristotle is believed to have taken nearly all of his friend Hermias of Atarneus his. Of Platonic forms ) and the image surface magnified the image surface magnified the image, why buy... Provides a keen example of how a good has for fulfilling a person can not have desire which. Interest was a child, and he was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon who know first to... One that is more precise than the intelligent man that universals do exist, but have! Is totally based on, but for Aristotle, the abolition of what considers... Near the end of his works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, student of Plato used. Within the mind be loved for itself, but not the exact stimuli dreams... Those same emotions history, man has tried to decipher what determines the value of a particular changes. The Lyceum failed to produce any original work determined by the founder of the potentiality not available Aristotle... Plato and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander ’ s analysis of procreation describes an Active, ensouling masculine element life! Usually not a single concrete need but a complex of such needs. property, one... Always remained circular thought, especially to thought in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece Economics, biology... To on state that money is also useful for future exchange, both matter and form belong to the.., passive female element order goods only attain value by the amount utility... Theological implications espoused by St. Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers rational animal, memory... Until the Renaissance. ” sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there two... Part of particular things his idea was not that revolutionary Quran was written in ancient times often. Often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points used more doubtful arguments to displace ’! Remained influential until the Renaissance. ” as much as he did ” 19th-century German philosopher Nietzsche! Animal and biped, how then is man a unity and interest a... “ images ” is justified as self-defense than 2300 years after his death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens for twenty!, dreams, sensation is still what phenomena are based on, but is “ instantiated in! And chance are causes of some things, that is more precise than intelligent! Kayak Rental Tillamook Oregon, Nitrogen Standard State, Zach Williams - Face To Face With Lyrics, Filippo Berio Olive Oil, Diamond Beach Iceland Wiki, Apple Cinnamon Tea, Land For Sale North, South Carolina,

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26 Oct Bagga Singh Bagga Singh-Member of the Shore Committee and Supporter of the Passengers of the Komagata Maru ****This article has been taken from: Lindalee Tracey, “Passage from India: Bagga Singh,” in A Scattering of Seeds: The Creation of Canada, ed. Lindalee Tracey. (Toronto: McArthur & Company, 1999), 219-234. In the spring of 1914, Vancouver braced itself for the arrival of a boatload of Punjabis. For weeks, newspaper headlines shrieked with dire warnings, as if the Mogul hordes themselves were descending. Antagonism had been sharpening against South Asians for a decade. Bagga Singh had felt its point end as he’d made his way into British Columbia the year before. He’d been lured away from his wife and children in their village of Saraba in northern India by stories of opportunity. But a ban on Asian immigration had forced him to sneak into the country from California. A year later, twenty-four-year-old Bagga and the entire Sikh community twitched in anticipation, bending toward the Pacific for the approach of hope. A ship called the Komagata Maru was steaming across the world to challenge Canadian immigration law. Only a decade before, one of the local newspapers had trumpeted another ship of South Asians as the first Sikhs came ashore at Vancouver. “Turbaned Men Excite Interest: Awe-inspiring Men from India Held the Crowds” was how they announced the event. In 1902, thousands of delegates from across the Empire had been invited to the coronation of Edward VII, and Sikhs came trooping through Canada on their way to England. Vancouverites crowded the streets for a peek at the Punjabis, flushed with imperial pride as they watched the troops that had defended the Empire two years before in the siege of Peking. The Sikhs performed drills, were inspected by Governor General Minto in Ottawa, and were then presented with the Cross of India by the King in England. The Sikhs returned home with stories of Canadian wealth and welcome that inched across the impoverished Punjab. Over the next ten years, 5,000 Sikhs headed for Canada. One was Bagga Singh, who left his wife and two daughters for the riches of the Dominion. Bagga didn’t find welcome among the once-adoring Anglo-Saxons. Vancouver was hostile and market forces were his single ally. Cheap labour was in short supply as Chinese immigrants headed east, out of the way of B.C.’s stinging racism. Sikhs replaced them on the fruit farms and in the forest industry. Bagga found a job in a sawmill and a home in a bunkhouse, cramming into a spartan slapped-up shack. It was grim; 100 Sikh workers lived together, with a single cook to make the meals. Every evening worker left the mill carrying a block of wood for the huge kitchen stove. Every evening Bagga’s clothes were covered in sawdust and the resiny scent of fresh lumber. It was a smell that would hover over the Sikh community for two generations. Bagga worked with the biggest trees in Canada, feeding cedar, balsam and Douglas firs into the mills, sawing wood for local settlements and the growing prairie towns. British Columbia was producing sixty percent of Canada’s sawn lumber, and Bagga Singh was helping to house a nation, though his own homes were little more than ghettos as he moved from job to job. Sikhs crowded into lodging houses all over B.C. As many as ten men shared a single room for cooking, eating and sleeping, saving money to send back home. Canadians hated it. Edwardian sensibilities curdled at the raw living conditions of the foreigners, perhaps a little envious of the economic advantages of Sikh frugality. European Canadians called them degraded, uncivilized and worse, refusing to serve them in stores and restaurants or allow them into certain neighbourhoods. Bagga had to learn to manoeuvre through the hard-heartedness, to move carefully, to plan his route. He had to learn to keep his face blank, his eyes unseeing. Without a wife and family to steer him into the larger world of schools and neighbours, he burrowed into his own. The Sikh community was a bachelor society—only nine Sikh women were allowed into Canada between 1904 and 1920. Bagga pooled his money for rent, fuel, food, helping out in the common kitchen and sharing a basic meal of chapatis — unleavened bread—lentils and curry. Every morning after bathing, Bagga would recite passages from the Guru Granth Sahib —the holy book. Often he attended gurdwara — temple—bowing his head to the ground and making an offering. There everyone would then recite the ardas, the Sikh prayers and the final proclamation, “Raj Karega Khalsa”—the Khalsa shall rule. It was a bare-bones communal life, monklike, with its own small epiphanies and friendships and an unflagging sense of duty to provide for others. Bagga made about $9 a week and paid about $2 for room and board, while sending the rest back home. Low living costs were a cushion against hard times and allowed Sikhs to support their own sick or jobless in Canada. Cooking duties were often delegated to unemployed friends. When 1,000 Indians were out of work in the Depression of 1907, even the gov-ernment had to admit that they were well provided for privately. But two years later, British Columbia took away their right to vote. Without the franchise, men like Bagga Singh couldn’t enter professions, get government con-tracts or vote federally. They were forbidden jobs in pub-lic works or with forestry companies cutting on Crown land. Federal politicians like Labour Minister Mackenzie King claimed that “the Hindu is not suited to the climate of this country”. It was galling to be called a Hindu. Technically, Bagga was an Indian, but he was a member of a 400-year-old religion that had rejected Hindu authority. Sikhism was a profound reform movement similar to the Protestant reformation. It had rebelled against the Hindu caste sys-tem and the corruption of political tyranny. Sikhs refused the Indian aesthetic tradition of withdrawal from the world and what they saw as the hollow pretensions of ritual. Founder Guru Nanak and his nine successors had each carved out a deeper Sikh spiritual and social distinc-tiveness. Women were considered equals. Purdah, the seclusion of women, and the horrific Hindu practice of suttee, the forced burning of widows on their husbands’ funeral pyres, were abolished. The practice of langar, com-munity kitchen, brought rich and poor to eat and worship together. It was a religion of hope and justice, especially for the excluded. Sikh history was strewn with heroic men and women, and martyrs who had been sawn in half, beheaded, boiled in oil by their Hindu and Muslim rivals. The tenth and last guru had created the Khalsa (pure), a devout society where initiated men took the last name Singh (lion) and women, the name Kaur (princess). Men of the Khalsa observed five tenets: to keep their beards and hair uncut and to wear a comb, a steel bracelet, soldier’s breeches and a dagger. Bagga Singh was emphatically not a Hindu. It didn’t matter. “Canada is best left in the hands of the Anglo-Saxon race…. it shall remain white and our doors shall be closed to the Asians,” said MP Herbert Stevens, the leader of the Asiatic Exclusion League. Stevens had lit the match that had set off a powder keg of hate. White Canadian mobs had rampaged against “Asiatic” immigrants in 1907, and then again in 1913. A cabinet minister was sent to negotiate limiting immigration with the Japanese gov-ernment, and Mackenzie King went to London to appeal to the colonial undersecretary, Winston Churchill, for a ban on Sikhs. Immigration policies toughened. The government demanded Punjabis have $200 in their possession upon arrival, while European immigrants needed only $25. Then it demanded that South Asians come by continuous journey from India, impossibility because steamship companies were instructed by the government not to provide the service. While not banning Indian immigration outright, the Law of Direct Passage had the same effect. The Komagata Maru was about to challenge the law by adhering to it exactly. A feisty Sikh businessman in Hong Kong had hired a ship to carry Sikhs on a direct passage from India. With a hefty down payment and a promise to pay the balance when the freighter reached Vancouver, Gurdit Singh went about selling tickets to hopeful Sikhs. Most left without the required $200 entry money, but Gurdit was certain he could raise the funds in the Vancouver Sikh community and convince Canadian immigration authorities to let the ship in. If it worked, a fleet of his freighters could carry passengers and cargo monthly, maybe weekly, after that. On May 21, after seven dreary weeks at sea, the Komagata Maru arrived at the Victoria quarantine station with 376 passengers on board, including two women and three children. Two days later it pulled into Vancouver and anchored in Burrard Inlet. The Canadian government immediately placed an armed guard in a launch that circled the ship day and night. The passengers were virtual prisoners and not allowed to make contacts with the Vancouver Sikh community. Gurdit Singh’s position was simple: by virtue of being British subjects, the passengers had the right to visit any part of the British Empire. The Canadian government firmly disagreed. Bagga and his Sikh countrymen were British citizens, if a little unwillingly. For over 400 years they had defended their independence, standing up to the brutal incursions of the Mogul empire and the Hindus. They were finally trampled by the British in 1846. A year later, the Sikhs saved their conquerors. England had not endeared itself to its Indian sepoys, or soldiers. Resentments festered over poor pay and imperial disregard. The sepoys finally mutinied over what they considered a religious blasphemy—the cartridges for their new Enfield rifles had been greased with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindus and Muslims. When sepoys murdered their British officers at Meerut and each group began marching toward their dream of taking over India, England looked for allies. Sikhs had never forgotten how the Hindu troops had betrayed them to the British conquerors. Nor, after years of fighting Moguls, did they want to live under Muslim rule. They joined the British forces marching toward Delhi and fought ferociously. After that, the British enlisted them into the British Army and Sikhs served faithfully at posts all through the empire. Now they were arguing to get into Canada. The Sikhs on board the Komagata Maru had persuaded a crewman to take a note to the gurdwara secretary, asking for help. News spread throughout the Sikh community, infuriating Bagga Singh; with fourteen men, he helped organize the Shore Committee and mounted a court challenge. They found a lawyer to defend the passengers and the committee offered to make bail while the case dragged on, and to pay the $22,000 charter debt. The ship’s owners conspired with the immigration officials, promising that they’d make sure the debt wasn’t paid. Prime Minister Robert Borden wanted to avert an inter-national incident and hurried to get rid of the Komagata Maru. Ninety passengers were falsely declared to have trachoma, an infectious eye disease, and were barred from entering Canada. To further expedite deportation, Borden and his cabinet decided that the fate of all the passengers would rest on a single test case. Under Canadian law, all 356 passengers had the right to submit individual applications to the Immigration Board of Inquiry, and if they were rejected, each applicant could file a writ of habeas corpus, charging he was being illegally detained. This was the kind of stalling tactic that would build up the negative publicity the government wanted to avoid. The Sikhs refused. On June 1, Bagga Singh and the Shore Committee organized a protest meeting in Vancouver’s Dominion Hall. Six hundred Indians attended, along with twenty white supporters and a few reporters. The committee repeated its plea like a prayer from the Guru Granth Sahib—they needed hard cash, enough to keep the ship in Vancouver while its status was negotiated. The crowd swelled up with purpose; people who had been made small and invisible hurried to help. The hall was full of men who had never banked, who carried savings in their pockets or turbans. Money spilled out: a pile of $5, $10 and even $100 bills rose on a table in front of the speak-ers. The largest contribution was $2,000. At the end of the meeting, $5,000 in cash lay on the table. By June 10, Bagga Singh and the others on the Shore Committee had collected over $20,000, which went to the unpaid balance for the charter of the ship. Altogether the committee eventually raised an astronomical $70,000. Weeks dragged by and conditions on the Komagata Maru deteriorated. Passengers became sick and one died. Garbage was piling up and immigration officials refused to remove it. Gurdit Singh sent messages to the king and the governor general and announced a hunger strike. On shore, Sikhs staged a large rally and were joined by the radical Socialist Party of Canada. An anti-Sikh rally quickly organized, addressed by MP Herbert Stevens: “The immigrant from northern Europe is highly desirable, the immigrant from southern Europe is much less so, and the Asiatic, and I wish to emphasize this, is entirely undesirable.” By June 20, the Komagata Maru had been sitting in Vancouver harbour for a month. Drinking water and food supplies were very low. Petitions came from the ship alleging starvation. Bagga Singh and the shore committee were furious at the deliberate starvation of passengers by the government. Members attempted to board the ship but were turned away. The government played with the idea of kidnapping the Komagata Maru passengers and returning them to the Orient aboard a Canadian Pacific liner. Prime Minister Borden rejected the plan, afraid it might lead to bloodshed. Requests for fresh water were ignored by the immigration officials. Gurdit Singh sent another telegram to the governor general: “Many requests to the immigration department useless. Better to be shot than this miserable death.” Dissent put cracks in the common front of the Komagata Maru. Frightened, hungry Sikhs caved into the government’s demand to select a single individual for a court test who would stand for all on board. Munshi Singh, a twenty-six-year-old married farmer, was chosen. Passengers gave up their single advantage: delay. The hundreds of cases would have taken many months to sort out and given defence lawyers a chance to pick apart the immigration regulations. On June 28, the Board of Inquiry ruled Munshi Singh inadmissible. The case was appealed to five judges in Victoria and, on July 5, was lost. The legal battle was over. Gurdit Singh warned the governor general that the forcible return of the passengers would lead to agitation in India. He proposed that Sikhs be allowed to settle somewhere in the prairies. There was no reply. A mutinous mood spread on board the Komagata Maru. The lack of water and food, the sickening stench of garbage, the cramped captivity gnawed at order. When the head of the immigration department went on board to inspect conditions, the Sikhs pounced and kept him hostage, only releasing him when Gurdit Singh intervened. The immigration agent agreed the ship had to be cleaned up, mostly out of fear that an epidemic would start. The government also agreed to provide food and water for the return journey, but only after the ship had sailed to the three-mile limit. Suspecting a trick, the Sikhs declined. A week later the passengers were served with deportation orders and the captain was ordered out of the harbour. But the Sikhs had control of the ship. The immigration officials hatched a plan: they would storm the Komagata Maru, subdue the passengers and sail the ship out to international waters. What followed became known as the Battle of Burrard Inlet. Around one a.m. a force of 125 armed police officers and 35 special immigration agents, all armed with rifles, boarded the tug Sea Lion, accompanied by several news-papermen. When the Sea Lion arrived alongside the Komagata Maru, its deck was ten feet lower. The strike force was at a terrible disadvantage. Sikhs, four deep, manned the railing. Police flung grappling hooks on deck and used a high-pressure hose to scatter the opposition. The Punjabis hit back with lumps of coal, garbage, scrap metal and wood. Thirty people on the Sea Lion were injured, and the boat itself almost capsized. After ten min-utes, the Sea Lion retreated. The Sun newspaper praised the police department’s “admirable coolness and courage” and called the Punjabis “barbarians.” The Battle of Burrard Inlet was an embarrassing flop and the losers demanded retaliation. Prime Minister Borden played it both ways—sending his agricultural minister to negotiate while authorizing the use of the warship the HMCS Rainbow to intimidate the Sikhs. The next day the warship, half of Canada’s navy, came along-side the Komagata Maru. Soldiers pointed their fixed bayonets at the unarmed passengers to frighten them into leaving. The Sikhs started reciting from the Guru Granth Sahib and fortified their courage with patriotic songs played on their sarangis—fiddles—and dhads, wooden drums. But the battle had been lost. Food and medicine were brought on board, and on July 23, under the Rainbow’s escort, the Komagata Maru set sail out of Vancouver harbour. Not everyone noticed the irony that the Canadian navy was being used to stop British subjects from landing on British soil. As the Komagata Maru steamed out of Burrard Inlet, hope left with it. Canada had not bowed to humanitarianism or to the plea of fellow subjects of the British Empire. Nor had it observed its own laws. Sovereignty had been enforced and perhaps even a notion of nation-hood, independent of Britain. Indians were not welcome in Canada, and would not be for thirty-five more years. For Bagga Singh, it meant a long and painful wait to be reunited with his family. The day of the Komagata Maru’s departure, the Governor of Hong Kong requested that the ship’s passengers be refused landing for fear that they might incite Sikh regiments stationed in the British colony. They weren’t allowed to land in Singapore, either. On September 29, the Komagata Maru docked at Budge Budge, near Calcutta, and the ship was surrounded by armed police. When the passengers disembarked, they were shoved toward the train station. The Sikhs resisted, sitting down at the rail crossing. They were immediately surrounded by police. As the police superintendent tried to arrest Gurdit Singh, the passengers moved in to protect him. In the massacre that followed, twenty Sikhs, two British officers, two Indian policemen and two local resi-dents died. News of the event hardened anti-British sentiment in Punjab and in Canada. When war with Germany broke out later in the summer, militants urged Indians to come home and wage an armed uprising against the British. Hundreds of Sikhs left Canada, never to return. Bagga Singh stayed, following the sawmill jobs in British Columbia. His community was dwindling with-out women or children, but by 1920 Sikhs had built temples in Vancouver, New Westminster, Victoria, Nanaimo, Golden, Abbotsford, Fraser Mills and Paldi, and owned six sawmills and two shingle mills. Still, the sting of exclusion followed Bagga for years. As he spit out saw-dust from the mills, his wife raised their two children alone in Punjab. His daughters grew into young women and then married without ever knowing their father’s love, unable to get into the country where he lived. After seventeen long years, Bagga Singh’s wife, Harkaur, joined him in Canada; the government had loosened the regulations for children and spouses. Harkaur made the journey by boat through Hong Kong, following the path of the Komagata Maru into Vancouver. Shortly after, they had another baby girl. Nsibe, their Canadian-born daughter. Like so many Sikh workers, Bagga Singh hopscotched across the province for work, from the mainland to Paldi on Vancouver Island. Named after the mill owner’s village in the Punjab, Paldi was the only town established by South Asians in Canada. Bagga finally settled down in New Westminster. The scent of lumber followed him and infused his daughter’s life, the Canadian scent of cedar, Douglas fir, cypress, carried in her father’s clothes. A smell his other children had never gotten to know. For years Bagga Singh was paid less than white men for the same work, though it was still better than the wages in India. When the labour movement promised equality and better working conditions in the mills, South Asians joined up. The unions demanded justice not only in the workplace, but outside as well. At the same time, Bagga Singh’s community quietly lobbied Ottawa. Fifty years after their arrival in Canada, they were finally given the right to vote, in April 1947. Three generations of Sikhs have grown into citizen-ship since that first lonely generation of men made their lives here. Three generations of Canadians have prized their education and moved steadily into affluence. Bagga Singh’s own granddaughter, Belle, studied journalism and became a local television reporter in a city that had once promised to keep its doors closed to Asians like her grandfather. The Komagata Maru has long since faded into amnesia and Dominion Hall is now an art studio. But within those walls is the ghost of a dark-skinned man, bearded and turbaned, who made a plea for social conscience and jus-tice. While he worked and lived invisibly, forever “other” and apart, Bagga Singh, the sawmill worker, challenged the very foundations of Canadian law, and worked for its equal application for all. It is an idea now enshrined in the Canadian constitution, an idea that Bagga brought to Canada before its time. Bagga Singh died in 1954, at the age of sixty-three. But his searing sense of inclusion, hard won by a faith that had itself risen from the wounds of injustice half a world away, helped make a new nation more just.

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A main feature of the U.S. electoral set-up is its exclusion of third parties from the electoral process. The requirements vary from state to state, for collecting signatures and for validating them. Commonly 3-5,000 signatures, and in some states more than 10-20,000 signatures must be secured from registered voters only. The people gathering signatures must also be registered voters and, depending on the state, people who are residents of the state and sometimes even of the specific district where signatures are gathered. Some states also require a second registered voter to be present to verify the signature, meaning two people are need for every one signature gathered. As well, the signatures must be gathered within a specific, relatively short period of time. These gathering times may be the same in several states, thus for a presidential candidate, numerous teams and funds for them are needed at the same time (see chart below). For New York State, for example, 15,000 valid signatures of registered voters are needed for presidential candidates, with at least 100 valid signatures from each of half of the state’s 27 congressional districts. These signatures must be collected by two registered voters, one to secure the signature and one to verify it. They could not be collected prior to July 10, and were due on August 21, less than 45 days. Currently four of the third parties have secured ballot access in New York: Greens, Justice (as write-in), Libertarians and Party for Liberation and Socialism. Democrats and Republicans do not have to meet these same requirements. For many states, having a state-level candidate that secures 2-5 percent of the vote in the previous election for Governor automatically provides ballot status. Given Democrats and Republicans are the parties of the rich, organized and funded by them, for them, and are widely promoted by the state and monopoly media as the only choices, they automatically qualify. Some states also require these two parties to secure a smaller number of signatures. In addition, there are different procedures for having the signatures validated. These rules are often changed and/or arbitrarily applied by the Secretary of State of the given state, meaning a Democrat or Republican. The third party involved then must challenge these rulings by the Secretary of State in court or accept being removed from the ballot. As well, Democrats and Republicans also routinely challenge signatures of third party candidates to keep them off the ballot. These court challenges can be very expensive and time-consuming, forcing the small parties to spend their time and resources simply getting on the ballot, rather than campaigning. And even when they meet the ballot requirements they are forced off because they cannot meet the financial costs involved in court cases. The Constitution Party, for example, was unable to meet a challenge by Republicans in Pennsylvania for lack of funds. Various challenges of signatures against third parties are also taking place in Michigan, Illinois, Ohio and other states. All of these ballot requirements for candidates are in addition to requirements for getting the individual parties registered in each state. This often involves securing ballot status for at least one candidate at the federal level, spending $5000 to do so and having a party structure approved by the state. Given the obstacles and arbitrary actions by Democrats and Republicans, either through court challenges or their Secretaries of State, it is rare for a third party to be on the ballot in all fifty states. For this year, the Libertarians, for example, are so far on the ballot in 42 states and the Green Party in 32 and three others in less than 15 and the rest in less than 5. It is an unequal and discriminatory set-up that claims to be “free and fair.” The Pennsylvania constitution even requires that “Elections shall be free and equal.” Yet it is one of the most difficult for third parties, requiring 20,601 signatures for presidential candidates for 2012. In this modern day, when most other industrialized states have numerous parties participating in elections, the U.S. set up is designed to exclude third parties. Just what are the Democrats and Republicans so afraid of? And how can they speak repeatedly about equal opportunity when election laws block participation by third parties and the voters they represent? A modern democracy requires an equal right to elect and be elected which means all parties and candidates wishing to participate must have equal standing — must be able to participate on an equal basis. This requires public funding only of the process, not the candidates. It requires a process that informs the voters equally about all the parties and candidates and enables them all to compete on an equal basis. This means including all of them in debates and providing equal media coverage for all. Anything less is unequal, unfair, outdated and serving to keep the people out of governance at a time when the role of the people in governance must be increased and raised to the level of decision makers. Signatures and Filing Deadlines for Various States 6 – Nevada candidate petition due (7,013 signatures) 1 – Montana candidate petition due (5,000 signatures) 4 – Kentucky candidate petition due (5,000 signatures) [TOP] On Tuesday, the Constitution Party — whose presidential ticket consists of former U.S. House member Virgil Goode and Lancaster, Pennsylvania attorney James Clymer — withdrew their petition to get on the ballot in Pennsylvania. The decision came after multiple warnings of the court costs by attorneys for the Republican Party, who have challenged the Constitution and Libertarian parties’ ballot petitions. “The challenge represented a monolithic establishment party which is intent on denying people the opportunity to vote for anyone who might criticize it from a limited government, non-interventionist perspective,” notes vice-presidential candidate James Clymer to Philadelphia Weekly (PW). “It used its almost limitless resources to take advantage of laws designed by Republicans and Democrats to make sure no other party has a place at the election table and court decisions that have supported raising the hurdles a third party has to jump over to get to a general election.” The Constitution Party had turned in about 35,000 signatures to Harrisburg on August 1, plenty more than the 20,601 third parties are required to get on the ballot. In an act one Libertarian party member referred as “extortion” to PW, Republican Party lawyers had warned the Constitution and Libertarian Parties that their court costs could reach more than $100,000 if they lost signature challenge bids. (In Pennsylvania, candidates kicked off the ballot can be forced to pay their opponents’ legal fees.) That forced the Constitution Party, who has already paid about $50,000 in legal fees, to blink. The Libertarian party has not, yet. “This means yet another voice in Pennsylvania is stilled,” said Bob Small, facilitator for the Pennsylvania Ballot Access Coalition — a nonprofit that fights for third parties — upon receiving the news. A member of the Green Party, Small calls himself “basically a free agent” in the fight for third-party ballot access — which is why he had been volunteering for the Goode campaign. The Green Party, surprisingly, has not been challenged this year by Democrats, who have kept statewide Green candidates off the ballot since 2004. A previous statement on the Constitution Party of Pennsylvania’s website had asked for both volunteers and cash to fight the Republicans’ challenge. “The court has ordered that we have a large group of volunteers (20 minimum) to assist in the checking of names and addresses with their database this coming Monday morning in Philadelphia. This could take several days and we need lots of help lined up since not everyone will be able to stay the full time,” the statement read. “Several of us are carpooling and getting rooms to share for lodging. Please advise us if you would like to be included in our arrangements.” Getting off the ballot, admits Constitution Party secretary and write-in candidate for Pennsylvania State Treasurer Donna Fike, “came down to money. We do not have the large sums of money the two major parties have access to. We are patriots who feel a sense of duty to leave this country better for our children and grandchildren than it is now. We do this at our own expense.” She adds the party is often “pushed around by unfair rules set up by those with the money to enforce them and a court willing to go along. I am disappointed in what I thought would be a somewhat fair process.” The Libertarian Party of Pennsylvania is also fighting a challenge by the Republican Party. They handed in about 49,000 signatures to get former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson on the ballot for president, 44,000 of which are being challenged by Republicans. Johnson recently made national news when he suggested Republican vice-presidential candidate Paul Ryan is not a libertarian, in spite of many claiming otherwise. Libertarian party members and volunteers have previously told PW they are confident they have the required number of validated signatures to claim a ballot position in November. “Ballot access laws that discriminate against new or third parties should definitely be changed,” adds Clymer. “There are 40-plus states with ballot access laws substantially less restrictive than those of [Pennsylvania] that could serve as a model but the first step would be to follow the PA Constitution, specifically Article One, Section 5 that mandates “Elections shall be free and equal.” That includes equality in access to the ballot. There is no reason an established political body or minor party should be required to collect more than ten times the number of signatures as the major parties.” (August 23, 2012) There is a first time for everything. And 2012 appears to be the first time since 2004 the Green Party of Pennsylvania will put statewide candidates on the commonwealth’s election ballot. The deadline for a ballot challenge from the Democratic Party came and went last week, without a challenge. On the other side of the alternative politicosphere, however, the Constitution and Libertarian parties were not so lucky. The deadline to challenge all ballots in Pennsylvania was Wednesday, August 8th at 5 p.m. That deadline came and went, and there was no challenge to the Greens. PW contacted Party Chair Carl Romanelli earlier today, who says there has still been no news to report regarding a challenge — which would appear even murkier being as it would have been post-deadline. On July 31, Green Party presidential ticket Dr. Jill Stein and local activist Cheri Honkala handed in more than 35 thousand signatures after a 2-week run to collect almost 70 percent of that. The Party, and all Pennsylvania third parties, are required to hand in 2 percent of the most votes gotten by a candidate in the previous election. This year, that number was 20,601 signatures, compared with a 2,000 benchmark for Republican and Democratic candidates. While Pennsylvania Greens called themselves “ecstatic” at the deadline passing, Romanelli noted in a press release that some Green Party petitioners did not participate. And you can blame that one on earned cynicism. “We had so many of our longtime members working since early March to collect signatures, but we also had many skilled petitioners who did not participate, as the hard work in previous years was nullified by our candidates withdrawing from the challenge, rather than to defend it,” noted Romanelli. “This is clearly due to the regressive practice in Pennsylvania of assessing legal fees and costs on challenges not defended successfully. In addition, the excitement of our strong presidential ticket of Stein/Honkala assured we would obtain a suitable number of signatures.” During Romanelli’s own run for Senate in 2006, he handed in more than 100,000 signatures, the most in state history, and was still kicked from the ballot. Late last month, the Green Party had actually been sending out fundraising emails making note of what they called Pennsylvania’s “rigged” election system, which favors mainstream politics. Vice Presidential candidate Cheri Honkala noted to Philadelphia Weekly (PW) in an interview last month that she would spend some of the election season bringing attention to the weird ballot access laws of her home state. Green Party of Philadelphia spokesman Chris Robinson noted before Cheri Honkala was chosen as vice president, that she has grown the Green Party throughout the city—and especially in Kensington, where she lives. Green Party registration in the 31st Ward has grown 54 percent since 2009, which represents the biggest gains in the city. “Things looked grim in June,” said Green Party coordinator Hillary Kane, “but the energy and hard work of Jill and Cheri clearly put us over the top. These candidates are not only incredible organizers, but their message resonates with many working class voters.” On August 1, Kane stayed in Harrisburg overnight to make sure the Secretary of State received all the signatures. That same day, Stein and Honkala were in Philadelphia, protesting against foreclosures carried out by Fannie Mae. They were arrested for their activism. Stein and Honkala are currently on the ballot in 30 states and the District of Columbia. Things are looking a bit more dire, though, for the Constitution and Libertarian parties in Pennsylvania, who are both being challenged by the Republican Party—one which has not been shy about scoring undemocratic points in the name of electoral wins recently. Challenges from the Right Also on August 8, two attorneys working for Republican Party officials filed challenges to the validity of the Libertarian and Constitution parties’ statewide petitions. One of the attorneys who filed a petition is the same who filed the challenge to the same right-of-center parties in 2010, and who warned the parties that they might face court costs as high as $110,000, according to Ballot Access News. In Pennsylvania, the party who loses their case is required to pay the legal fees of the winner. The 2010 warning was felt by the candidates, most notably Libertarian gubernatorial candidate Marakay Rogers, who fled from the ballot after a similar challenge. The Libertarian presidential candidate this year is former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson, who had previously run for president as a Republican, though was removed from the debates after not receiving the threshold for percentage of support and money raised. His views were far from the Republican rank-and-files, as well. The former chairman of the Libertarian Party has called the Republican Party’s claim that they want fair elections “a load of crap” in light of the challenge. The Libertarian Party submitted about 42 thousand signatures to get on the ballot. Also according to Ballot Access News, lawyer Oliver Hall of the Center of Competitive Democracy filed a request for injunctive relief in federal court—against the Pennsylvania challenge system as it currently stands. Hall is representing the Constitution, Green and Libertarian parties in the case. He and the Center, based in D.C., have been focusing on Pennsylvania’s system for several years. In an interview with PW earlier this year, Hall noted that “No other state has such a system” which requires losing candidates to pay the winner’s fees. Pennsylvania is also considered one of the worst states in the country for ballot access, being as it requires 10 times — or more, depending on the year — the amount of signatures for third party candidates. Colorado, for instance, currently has 17 candidates on the ballot for president. If the current challenges go as they have in recent years, Pennsylvania will likely have three candidates on the ballot. “Without relief from the federal court, the Libertarian and Constitution Parties are placed in the dilemma of either withdrawing their petitions,” notes Ballot Access News, “or risking a judgment that court costs of perhaps $100,000 or more are owed to the challengers.” Both Romanelli and former Green Party Presidential candidate Ralph Nader owe tens of thousands of dollars to the Democratic Party, stemming from recent challenges. (Philadelphia Weekly) As part of informing our readers about third party candidates in the 2012 presidential elections, we provide below information concerning ballot access these parties have attained. There are only two third parties, the Green Party and Libertarian Party that have secured ballot access in enough states to have the 270 or more Electoral College votes needed to win a presidential election. Three others currently have ballot access in more than ten states, the Constitution Party, Justice Party and the Party for Liberation and Socialism. The rest of the third parties have even more limited access. This means that voters in most states cannot vote for these candidates even if they wish to do so. Below is information on these five parties and states where they are on the ballot or seeking ballot access, which they may yet secure before the November election. We also list additional parties and their candidates. The Libertarian Party is running Gary Johnson, former Governor of New Mexico for president and Judge James P. Gray of California for vice-president. The Libertarian Party has secured ballot access in 43 states plus Washington, DC for the 2012 presidential election. The Libertarian Party is on the ballot in: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawai’i, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, and Washington, DC The Libertarian Party is seeking ballot access in: Alabama, Connecticut, Kentucky, Michigan, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, The Green Party is running Dr. Jill Stein of Massachusetts for president and Cheri Honkala of Pennsylvania for vice-president. Their party is on the ballot in 32 states and Washington, DC. It is currently seeking ballot access in 14 states. The Green Party is on the ballot in: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Hawai'i, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota Mississippi, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The Green Party is seeking ballot access: Alabama, Connecticut, Kansas, Kentucky, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, and Wyoming. It will appear as write-ins in: Georgia, Indiana, and Missouri. The Constitution Party is running Virgil Goode, former U.S. Representative of Virginia for president and Jim Clymer, former chair of the Constitution Party for vice-president and has ballot access in 21 states. The Constitution Party is on the ballot in: Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming It will appear as write-ins in: California, Connecticut, D.C., Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Montana, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia The Justice Party is running Rocky Anderson, former Mayor of Salt Lake City, Utah for President and Chicano rights activist Luis Rodriguez of California for vice-president. They are on the ballot in 13 states, although in some cases using the ballot line of another party, such as the Independent Party. The Justice Party is on the ballot in: Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Vermont, Washington. It has secured write-in status in: Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Maryland, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington D.C. It is seeking ballot access in: Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana Party for Liberation and Socialism The Party for Liberation and Socialism is running anti-war activist Peta Lindsay for president and Yari Osorio for vice-president and is on the ballot in twelve states. The Party for Liberation and Socialism is on the ballot in: Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, New York, New Jersey, Utah, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin Additional Parties and Their Candidates Parties with Ballot Access (usually 5 or fewer states) • American Independent Party: Tom Hoefling for president and Robert Ornelas, vice-president Parties with No Ballot Access • Freedom Socialist Party: Stephen Durham for president, Christina Lopez for vice-president (write-in campaign)

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Military Marches and Music from the Third Reich and WW2-era. Latest hand-picked WWII news. See also: WWII Entertainers, Wagners & Hitler, SS, Nazi Uniforms, Third Reich Flags, WW2 Movies, Films, Re-enactment. Classic turn-based strategy games: Conflict-Series If you like classic turn-based PC war games and legendary strategy board games make sure to check out the highly rated Conflict-series for Android. Some of the WWII Campaigns include Axis Balkan Campaign, D-Day 1944, Operation Barbarossa, France 1940, Kursk 1943, Market Garden, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, Rommel's North African campaign, and the Battle of Bulge. In addition to WWII some other time periods include Korean War, American Civil War, First World War and American Revolutionary War. The more complex campaigns like Operation Sea Lion, Invasion of Norway, and Invasion of Japan 1945, include Naval element and handling logistics of supply flow. (available on Google Play & Amazon App Store since 2011) Where Are The Thousands Of Nazi-Looted Musical Instruments? The Nazi plunder of Jewish-owned artwork in Europe during World War II is well-known. But the Nazis also looted thousands of musical instruments from Jews. A conference of researchers in Paris discussed this looting. NPR's Eleanor Beardsley was there, and she sent this report. Hitler wrote an opera, and the manuscript is now on display in Austria In his early years, the future Nazi leader drafted an opera based on an unfinished work by Wagner. Now, the musical manuscript is on display for the first time. Opera, Nazism, Hitler and the Holocaust have a complex history. With the playing of the Rienzi Overture at Hitler's Nazi Party rallies in the 1930s, Wagner and German opera became forever associated with the propaganda, evil and horrors of the Third Reich. During WW2 Steinway And Sons produced specially-built pianos for the American troops During World War II, STEINWAY AND SONS produced specially-built pianos for the American troops. Called the Victory Vertical or G.I. Steinways, the pianos were sometimes airdropped onto battlefields to provide a bit of relaxation. They were manufactured in STEINWAY’S Queen-based factory and mostly sold to the U.S. government. Orchestra and Politics: music in the Third Reich William Poulos explores the difficult relationship between an artist`s craft and their ideology Lost songs of the Holocaust found in UA archives In the final months of WWII, as Allied Forces began to liberate the prisoners of Nazi concentration camps, they captured on film the horrors they saw around them. Soon, the whole world saw — images of skeletal survivors bearing silent witness to what they and millions more had been forced to endure. Dr. David Boder was determined to give the survivors a voice. In the summer of 1946, the psychologist interviewed at least 130 Jewish survivors in nine languages in refugee camps in France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. With a wire recorder — then considered state-of-the-art equipment — and 200 spools of steel wire, Boder preserved some of the first oral histories of concentration camp survivors. He also recorded song sessions and religious services. Rallying the nation: 5 famous Soviet songs from WWII On the eve of Victory Day, RBTH remembers the most renowned songs from the war years – songs whose popularity helped to inspire the Soviet Union in its fight against Nazi Germany. Auschwitz survivor on how cello saved her life - and playing for Nazi doctor Josef Mengele With an Auschwitz camp number tattooed on her arm, 18-year-old Anita Lasker-Wallfisch was dragged away to audition for her life. As a new arrival to the Nazi death camp in 1943, she faced being murdered in the gas chambers within weeks. But the 90-year-old holocaust survivor knows there was just one reason she made it out of the horror alive – her cello. `I was asked what I did before the war and mentioned I used to play. Unbelievably this woman said, ‘Fantastic, you will be saved.`" She joined the Women`s Orchestra Of Auschwitz – a 40-strong group set up by order of the SS as a distraction from their role as mass murderers. On one occasion Angel Of Death Josef Mengele demanded to hear Schumann` s Träumerei. The Nazis` 10 Control-Freak Rules for Jazz Performers: A Strange List from World War II While it`s no great surprise that Nazis hated jazz, it seems they expressed their disapproval in a very oddly specific way, at least in the recollection of Czech writer Josef Skvorecky. He recounts from memory a set of ten bizarre regulations issued by a Gauleiter, a regional Nazi official, that bound local dance orchestras during the Czech occupation. (1) Pieces in foxtrot rhythm (so-called swing) are not to exceed 20% of the repertoires of light orchestras and dance bands. (4) o-called jazz compositions may contain at most 10% syncopation; the remainder must consist of a natural legato movement devoid of the hysterical rhythmic reverses characteristic of the barbarian races and conductive to dark instincts alien to the German people (so-called riffs). Video: Anita Lasker Wallfisch: A surviving member of the Women's Orchestra in Auschwitz Anita Lasker Wallfisch, a surviving member of the Women's Orchestra in Auschwitz, told BBC Newsnight that her ability to play the cello saved her life. Vienna Philharmonic and the Jewish musicians who perished under Hitler On 23 March 1938, the violinist Viktor Robitsek received a curt note from the management of the Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. It told him he was being fired. Robitsek's "crime" had nothing to do with his musical talents: he was Jewish. 11 days earlier Hitler's troops had marched into Vienna. On the 75th anniversary of Austria's fateful Anschluss with Germany, the world's most famous orchestra is finally revealing some of its dark secrets. A panel of historians allowed access to its archives has discovered that five Jewish musicians perished in Nazi death camps or ghettos. Two more died after persecution. In total 13 Jews were driven from the orchestra. Arshanskaya sisters survived Holocaust by playing piano for Nazi Generals On a frigid December day in 1941, German soldiers stormed into the house at 48 Katsarskaya Street, rounded up Zhanna's entire family and shoved them into a long line of Jews forced to march out of Kharkov. During the death march her father Dimitri Arshansky, realizing that he could not save both his girls, pulled out his gold pocketwatch and flashed it in front of a guard. He told the guard: please let his little girl go. He knew Zhanna, the adventurous one, had a chance to survive. As the guard took the bribe and she fell out of line. A few days later Zhanna was reunited with her sister Frina. To this day she does not know how Frina escaped. Later a piano tuner at the orphanage heard her play one day and offered them jobs with a musical troupe that entertained the Nazis. Legendary D-Day piper Bill Millin passes away Under the fire of Nazi guns and wading through a sea red with the blood, Bill Millin struggled towards the D-Day invasion beach with the commandos of the 1st Special Service Brigade. Amid the noise of battle and cries of the injured, Millin only just caught the five words. "Give us 'Highland Laddie' man!" shouted Lord Lovat, the charismatic Chief of Clan Fraser and Brigadier of the 2,500 commandos, who was determined to put some backbone into his forces. Obediently, Millin put the mouthpiece of his bagpipes to his lips, ignored the thundering crash of gunfire - and played as he had never played before. The Terezín ghetto was home to a remarkable array of musicians, composers and theatrical artists After the Terezin ghetto was set up and the first "transports" arrived in 1941, cultural life sprang from the the talent confined in the camp. With time, the concerts, cabarets, plays, schooling and lectures came to be tolerated by the Nazis, as a means of pacification - and in 1943 even encouraged. In 1944, the SS "beautified" the camp and invited the Red Cross to tour the camp and see a performance of the children's opera Brundibár, written by one of the camp's leading composers, Hans Krása. A Nazi propaganda film was made - The Führer Gives a City to the Jews - featuring the performance. Photographs of German Musikkorps - Axis History Forum thread Photographs of German Musikkorps - thread at the Axis History Forum. World War II veterans hunted down in Russia to pay for the WWII songs they sang in an event Music played an important part during World War II. It was used to boost the morale of soldiers, and ever since war songs have lived on with those that survived the combat. In 2009 a WW2 veterans choir held a concert in Samara, singing the nostalgic songs that helped them through the fighting. Now the Russian Authors Society (RAS) has filed a claim: since the war songs the veterans sang are copyrighted, fees have to be paid. The veterans are angry, many simply don't understand what is happening. "It is unacceptable that those who sing the wonderful songs of WWII will have to pay a bribe," said Communist Party leader Gennady Zyuganov. Famous Irish musician Sean Dempsey played for Adolf Hitler in 1936 - And führer loved it Newly released historical photos reveal that Irish musician Sean Dempsey played for Adolf Hitler in 1936, and the Nazi dictator loved his music. Dempsey, an uileann piper, was invited to play for Hitler and Joseph Goebbels during a visit to Berlin after being told that Hitler was an Irish folk music fan. But when he arrived there was no room for him to sit, which he needed to play. However, Hitler jumped up and ordered a SS member down on his hands and knees and that Dempsey sit on him while he played. After he performed, Hitler gave him with a gold fountain pen while Goebbels applauded wildly. Exhibit explores the use of classical music in the Third Reich An exhibit "Blood and Spirit: Bach, Mendelssohn and Their Music in the Third Reich", at the Johann Sebastian Bach Museum in Eisenach, focuses on classical composers Richard Wagner, Felix Mendelssohn and Johann Sebastian Bach, whose works were tied into Nazi idealism. Blood and Spirit explores the Nazi's use of musicians for political and social manipulation. "Most visitors are very surprised, because they didn't know about Bach's role under the Nazis. They had no clue... that he was played at Nazi party rallies," said museum director Joerg Hansen. 15,000 visitors, including many foreign tourists, have seen the show after it opened. Music in Desperate Times: US group re-creates Nazi death camp orchestra When Gustav Mahler's niece greeted new arrivals at a Nazi death camp, she knew that any woman who got off the train with a musical instrument had a chance to live. Women in Alma Rose's orchestra were forced to play for SS officers at the Birkenau concentration camp. All the women survived, except Rose. Now, an American orchestra (http://arschoralis.org/) is honoring to those musicians with concerts in the US and Germany titled "Music in Desperate Times: Remembering The Women's Orchestra of Birkenau." During the 18 months the Birkenau orchestra existed it also played marches for emaciated prisoners as they struggled to walk to their forced labor tasks. Adored by Adolf Hitler, Gay Tenor with Jewish wife thrived in Third Reich A new release highlights the strange career of Max Lorenz, Adolf Hitler's favorite tenor. Though homosexually inclined and married to a Jew, he flourished in Nazi Germany. Had Lorenz been a singer of Mozart or Puccini he and his wife would have ended up in the Nazi camp Theresienstadt. But Lorenz focused in the heroes of Richard Wagner, especially Siegfried. "Max Lorenz: Wagner's Mastersinger, Hitler's Siegfried" is a welcome combo set of a biographical DVD and a CD of highlights from a 1938 "Siegfried" performance in Buenos Aires. The DVD includes archival footage, interviews, and documents. Nazi lies, hate emerge in film about Carmina Burana composer Carl Orff Carl Orff's 1937 cantata "Carmina Burana" celebrates the joys of life. It also hides a dark secret, as documentary "O Fortuna" by Tony Palmer reveals. After its premiere in front of the top Nazis, "Carmina Burana" catapulted Orff (1895-1982) into the ranks of the Third Reich's most favored composers. While he privately viewed the National Socialists philistines, he still accepted their flattery. At the end of the war, a de-Nazification officer told that if Orff could prove he had helped to overthrow the Nazi regime his name would be cleared as a Nazi sympathizer. Orff lied that he'd been a member of the White Rose underground resistance group. Joza Karas recovered music from the Terezin concentration camp Joza Karas, who tracked down music and stories of composers who managed to do masterly work in a Nazi concentration camp, passed away at the age 82. His book "Music in Terezin, 1941-1945" recorded the prospering musical life in the horrible Terezin concentration camp. Karas collected over 50 pieces of the music written there and produced editions that have been widely performed. The Nazis made propaganda use of the 4 concert orchestras and many chamber groups at Terezin. In a legendary deception, when the Red Cross went to inspect the camp in 1944, the Nazis sent the old and sick to gas chambers and even opened a chocolate shop. The story behind the song Lili Marlene In 1915, as a soldier in WWI, Hans Leip wrote a poem to express the anguish of separation from a girl named Lili. On sentry duty at night, he would get a wave from a nurse going off duty; her name: Marleen. Before WWII broke out, composer Norbert Schultze read Leip's poems, he caught their mood and composed a melody for the Young Sentry poem. The song was regularly turned down, but by 1939 Schultze had modified the song and singer Lale Andersen reluctantly recorded it. Joseph Goebbels hated the song for not being "military" enough, and banned it. But Field Marshal Erwin Rommel requested Radio Belgrade to play Lili Marlene every night for his Afrika Korps. The Stalin hymns that are best forgotten - The revival of propagandistic cantatas Music fans may wonder about the sudden reappearance of a number of classical hymns to Stalin. Around 2003, the 50th anniversary of the death of Sergey Prokofiev, a number of his propagandistic works were played in London and New York, and recorded. These included works such as the Zdravitsa (Hail to Stalin), a cantata for chorus and orchestra written to celebrate ("You are our beloved guide") the 60th birthday of the dictator. Other pompous Prokofiev works lately revived include Flourish Mighty Land!, a 1947 cantata which honoured the 30th anniversary of the October Revolution. Music in Exile: A Toronto ensemble tours revives composers banned by Third Reich The 75th anniversary of Adolf Hitler's rise to power doesn't look like a good topic for commemoration with a concert series. Yet Toronto's Artists of the Royal Conservatory ensemble has found a fitting way to mark the occasion, touring with "Music in Exile" -program, playing music written by composers who fled Nazi Germany. Many were Jewish, but not all, as the Nazis banned anything they deemed "entartete Musik" ("degenerate music"). "The émigrés went everywhere, not just New York and Hollywood," says Simon Wynberg, artistic director of the ARC ensemble. Documentary films explore life under Nazi Germany and Soviet Union The latest from director Bruno Monsaingeon are 2 hour-long films on 20th-century Russian music: "The Red Baton: Scenes of Musical Life in Stalinist Russia" and "Gennadi Rozhdestvensky: Conductor or Conjurer?" "The Red Baton" explores the psychic torture artists suffered in a society so insane that Rozhdestvensky, looking back, doesn't know whether to laugh or cry. --- Enrique Sanchez Lansch's well researched film "The Reichsorchester: The Berlin Philharmonic and the Third Reich" reveals the Berlin Philharmonic's history as both a Nazi propaganda tool and a morale booster for German citizens. German archive focuses on music silenced by the Nazis Numerous Jewish musicians were forbidden from performing during the Nazi years. Now, a Center for Ostracized Music plans to recover these lost musical voices. After the race laws in 1933, the German Music Chamber (Reichsmusikkammer) set up a register of all musicians. As a result, many musicians had their work suppressed because their race or music offended the Third Reich. Works by composers such as Gustav Mahler, Felix Mendelssohn, and Arnold Schoenberg were prohibited. As the Nazis occupied more countries, the numbers of banned musicians grew. At the moment the archive holds 400 works from 50 ostracized composers. 104-year-old Nazi-era singer returns to stage: Performed for Adolf Hitler 104-year-old Dutch cabaret singer Johannes Heesters has given a concert in the Netherlands for the first time in 4 decades - with protests and tight security around the theatre. Although Heesters says he never embraced Nazi politics, he performed in Nazi Germany for Adolf Hitler and visited the Dachau camp. Many Dutch people have never forgiven him. "He kept singing for the Nazi regime, for the Wehrmacht, and he earned millions," said Piet Schouten, of a committee formed to protest against performance. Heesters was never accused of being a Nazi propagandist, and the Allies let him to continue performing after the war. The Nazis' favourite composer Wagner played at Berlin's Nazi arena Adolf Hitler and Wagner will "turn in their graves" when an orchestra of Jews and Muslims performs the Valkyrie by the Nazis' favourite composer Richard Wagner. The production is to be staged at the Waldbuhne, the outdoor arena built for the Berlin Olympics in 1936 at which some athletes gave the Nazi salute in front of Hitler. Conductor Daniel Barenboim said his production would have stunned the Nazi leader and his muse: "Can you imagine that? The Waldbuhne was built by Hitler. The music is Wagner. Played by us!" Book Tells of Philharmonic's Nazi Ties - Das Reichsorchester The Berlin Philharmonic became a privileged servant of Nazi propaganda after Adolf Hitler's 1933 takeover, making a deal with the new regime that won it financial security. That's according to a book recounting how the orchestra lent its gloss to the Nazis. The arrangement saw the orchestra touring abroad as an example of German cultural superiority and serenading Hitler on his birthday. In "Das Reichsorchester" historian Misha Aster writes that the relationship between the Nazis and the orchestra was complex, and each side exploited the other - although Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels held the upper hand over conductor Wilhelm Fuertwaengler. The Navy B-1 Band : The black Navy band made WWII history To the tune of the solemn "Navy Hymn," photos appear of 44 World War Two sailors in dress uniforms. Calvin Morrow is among 14 of the 44 who survive. Age, not combat, reduced the numbers. Instead of guns, the sailors fought for America with clarinets, French horns, trumpets, drums and trombones. They believe their music hastened integration a tad. They belonged to the Navy B-1 Band, an all black group formed in 1942. It was the first time the Navy let black sailors rise above orderlies, say Morrow and Alvin Albright. The band traveled to parades, war bond rallies and ship christenings. Saved from scraps, music of the death camps - Listen samples Scribbled in notebooks and diaries they provide a remarkable history of the music played and sung by the victims of the nazi era. Scores for thousands of waltzes, tangos, operas and folk songs will be made available by Francesco Lotoro, a professional pianist who for 16 years has been scouring cities to amass his collection. Much of the music is sad and plaintive, the lyrics of one song by Josef Kropinski read: "In Buchenwald, the birch trees rustle sadly, as my heart sways languishing in woe." Despite the privations of life, there are several upbeat songs and plenty of wry humour: "There's no life like life at Auschwitz!" Music composed or played in dark places 1933-1945 Scribbled on diaries, loose pages or even toilet paper, these are the notes left behind by people who lived and died in the prisons and camps of WW2. Italian researchers hope thousands of nearly forgotten works will find new life as they assemble a library of music from those dark places 1933-1945. He has been collecting originals, copies and recordings of everything from operas composed in the depth of the Nazi death machine to jazz pieces written in Japanese POW camps in jungles. The library, at Rome's Third University, will offer scholars 4,000 papers and 13,000 microfiches including music sheets, letters, drawings and photos. Composers in Nazi camps wrote music for three reasons (Article no longer available from the original source) Composers in Nazi camps wrote music for 3 reasons: to document camp life, as a distraction from reality and to uphold musical traditions. The most famous opera written at Terezin is "The Emperor of Atlantis" by Victor Ullman, who wrote 22 works in the camp. The Emperor is Adolf Hitler, the Loudspeaker and Drummer-girl cast as Joseph Goebbels and Hermann Goering. Terezin was a "model camp" where artists spent time before being shipped to Auschwitz. An SS officer who watched a rehearsal recognized the piece's allegorical nature. The next morning, Ullman and the cast departed for Auschwitz. The opera was never performed until after the war. Germany patriotism fight focuses on national anthem Germany's patriotism debate has taken a new turn. The latest issue is over the national anthem. A regional teachers' union said that the 19th century verses are tainted by Germany's Nazi past and should be replaced by a new anthem. Most Germans seem to have trouble remembering anthem's words beyond the first two lines: "unity and justice and liberty for the German fatherland." The first verse, which begins with "Deutschland, Deutschland ueber alles" and outlines a rather oversized Germany, was popular under the Nazis. After WWII, West Germany kept the anthem, despite some debate. Communist East Germany produced its own national song, "Risen from the Ruins." Third Reich and Music - Nazi attempt to manipulate music The exhibit "The Third Reich and Music" at the Neuhardenberg Castle Foundation features the Nazi attempt to manipulate music. Two hundred items, including letters, music scores, films and recordings make up the exhibit that illustrates how important music was in National Socialist Germany. The exhibit also shows how the Nazi regime’s music propaganda was contradictory. Monumental music was to accompany monumental projects – from grand-scale architecture to huge military parades. Richard Wagner and Anton Bruckner were Hitler’s favourite composers – their music laden with an ever increasing, slow build-up of glorious sounding, awe-inspiring crescendos. The Third Reich and Music - Exhibit (Article no longer available from the original source) Them Nazis sure knew how to roll up a bunch of symbols at once in their propaganda. Above is a poster advertising their 1938 "Degenerate Music" exhibition, highlighting the destructive effects of jazz and "negro music" in general, among others. Schloss Neuhardenberg outside of Berlin is hosting an exhibit called "The Third Reich and Music," combining creepy-kitsch like this poster with the various art forms the Nazis outlawed – principally modern and non-Aryan music (as opposed to classical Wagnerian stuff), plus paintings, letters, sculptures, and historical documents. Marlene Dietrich DVD: The Glamour Collection With Marlene Dietrich: The Glamour Collection Universal taps into one of the biggest stars of the 1930s and one of the truly most glamorous women of the 20th century, a mysterious creature of a million male daydreams. Marlene Dietrich became the Trilby to Josef Von Sternberg's Svengali for a series of exotic romances. And she was one of the most beloved figures of WW2, reportedly associated with the song Lily Marlene by soldiers on both sides of the conflict in Europe. Anna Marly wrote the anthem of French Resistance Anna Marly, who wrote the melody to the song that became the anthem of the French Resistance in WWII and whose whistling and singing on the radio were an inspiration to the anti-Nazi underground, died on Feb. 15 in Alaska. She wrote the melody to "Chant des Partisans," or "Song of the Partisans," which became an unofficial French anthem in the last years of WWII. Gen. Charles de Gaulle called Miss Marly the "troubadour of the Resistance." Nazi swing music from the 30s FMU's terrific blog presents mp3s of songs by Charlie and His Orchestra, a big band assembled by Hitler's minister of propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, to spread the Nazi message abroad even while trying to stamp out jazz and swing domestically. "Leave it to Goebbels to take the music of The Andrews Sisters, Paul Whiteman and Irving Berlin and fill it with venomous rants." Horst Wessel - Making a martyr Horst Wessel became a member of the Bismarck-Jugend and joined the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA Stormtroopers). Horst Wessel was a lowlife, but in death he proved useful to his Reich. After his death, Goebbels set about making a martyr of him with a speech "Die Fahne Hoch!" - Raise high the flag - after the first line of a poem written by Wessel. He was exalted as a example of Nazi virtue; the seedier aspects were played down and his murder was portrayed as National Socialism's struggle against Marxism. The poem quoted by Goebbels was set to music and became a Nazi anthem and SA marching song: Die Fahne Hoch, Horst Wessel Lied or "The Horst Wessel Song." Requiem for the masses - Five orchestras playing at Auschwitz How can music have happened at Auschwitz? At one point there were at least five orchestras playing there. Holocaust: A Music Memorial Film from Auschwitz was a film about music in Auschwitz. Some of the surviving musicians - survivors because they were musicians - talked about having their music stolen from them by the SS officers for their own needs. Eva Adam had to sing as the trains arrived - lively songs so the people getting off those trains would think that it was all going to be all right, although Eva knew most of them would be dead within half an hour. And Anita Lasker-Wallfisch was made to play Schumann on the cello for Dr Mengele. Swingtime for Hitler - Banning jazz A few weeks after Hitler came to power in 1933, the German broadcasting authority announced its intention to ban jazz from the airwaves. It was degenerate, subhuman music, the reasoning went, written by Jews and performed by blacks. Two years later, the authority proudly declared: "As of today, nigger jazz is finally switched off on German radio." Then, in 1940, a jazz band formed in Berlin. The band was the brainchild of propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, and the lyrics were Axis propaganda, meant only for Allied ears. Any Germans caught listening were subject to "very, very severe punishment". International music scene in Germany a Nazi legacy When Josef Goebbels officially outlawed foreign music, he had no idea he was doing the future generations of international artists a huge favour. In banning non-native music such as Swing - branded 'impure' because of its African-American origins - the Nazi propaganda minister indirectly gave outside music a cult status. Defying the regime's urges for them to join local Hitler Youth Brigades, many German teenagers, or self-styled 'Swing Babies' played these illegal tunes in public. When reported to the Gestapo, many of these were deported to youth camps where biologists were unrestrained to 'sterilize and re-educate' them. Music Approved of by the Third Reich Under the Nazi regime, all music produced had to fit within certain standards defined as "good" German music. Suppression of specific artists and their works was common, yet musicians were permitted limited artistic freedom. The Nazis attempted to create a balance between censorship and creativity in music to appease the German people. According to Hitler and Goebbels (Hitler's second in command), the three master composers that represented good German music were Ludwig van Beethoven, Richard Wagner, and Anton Bruckner. All three composers lived prior to the 20th century. Hitler's Welsh girlfriend revealed A Welsh woman who married into one of Germany's most prominent musical families nearly became Adolf Hitler's wife. By 17, she was married to composer Richard Wagner's homosexual son Siegfried and met one of Wagner's greatest fans - future Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. They grew so close that it was actually Winifred who provided the paper on which Hitler wrote Mein Kampf while in jail in the early 1920s. Following her husband's death in 1930, Hitler and Winifred's friendship intensified and he was described as being like a second father to her 4 children. At the time, there was even talk of them getting married.

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Sahapedia: Could you start by talking about Humayun as an emperor? Catherine Asher: Humayun was an interesting emperor. He came to the throne after his father had ruled for only four years. And he wasn’t really well suited for kingship. He was a very sensitive gentleman who was very interested in astronomy. He was very interested in the invention of architectural creations, for example, he invented a floating building that consisted of four barges that somehow came together to form some arches; exactly how this worked we are not really sure. As a warrior he wasn’t consistent, i.e., for example in 1538 when the usurper Sher Shah Suri had pursued him, and he had actually been victorious in a battle against Sher Shah, he then spent the next six months in pleasure in the palace he had captured, when Sher Shah cleverly went on to control the rest of eastern India. So he wasn’t really sensible in a lot of ways. But he did try to sustain an empire. He was ousted from India for a period of time. And in some ways this ousting, when he spent a period of time in the Safavid court in Tabriz in Iran, turned out to be perhaps one of the most culturally significant events for the future of Mughal India, in that he brought back extremely talented artists from the Safavid court, the master artists, which made a big difference in what was going to happen. As the audience might know, Humayun ruled for ten years. He was basically kicked out of India. Then he came back for one year, and unfortunately after ruling for only one year after his return, he died in an accident. S: Who built the tomb? CA: Well, the tomb was constructed sometime between about 1568 and 1571. And it wasn’t constructed immediately because the Mughal empire wasn’t really an empire. It was a series of very unconsolidated areas that Akbar had to really shape up, and gel into a coherent state. So he was very preoccupied with military enterprise. That was probably one reason for the delay. We don’t really know exactly who constructed it. Humayun’s senior wife Haji Begum is often credited with the construction. She probably had a role. We don’t have any sources that really tell us this, but since the tomb was very likely intended as a dynastic mausoleum for the Mughals, it probably had Akbar’s hand in it very heavily. We know that he hired architects from Bukhara, today in Uzbekistan, that would have been part of the Timurid homeland. The Mughals are really Timurids. They are an extension of the great Timurid dynasty. These architects were a father and son team who were trained in both landscape architecture and building architecture. Probably getting these two gentlemen from Uzbekistan took some time. And of course the tomb is enormous so that would take a long time to build. And it was unique at that time in the Indian subcontinent. So again that would probably explain some of the reasons in the delay in building. S: What was the role of Haji Begum in building the tomb? Could you say something about women as patrons of such activities? CA: We don’t really know the role that Haji Begum played in the construction of this particular tomb. But we know that Akbar, who was probably the overall patron, quite revered the senior women in his life. For example, we know that he gave his mother the governorship of Delhi when he was out of town. It was perhaps more of an honorific role than actually sitting down and figuring out the taxes and revenues and all that sort of thing. But the fact is that these women, the senior women of the court, had considerable responsibilities. For example, Noor Jehan: we think of her as being unique in having a lot of authority; well, she probably had more authority than any of the previous women, but she was actually following a pattern of Mughal women being responsible, and by the time of Shah Jahan, for example, it is the high-ranking women of the court, his various wives, princesses, his daughters, so on and so forth, who are actually responsible for embellishing the city with mosques. He of course built the large mosque, the Jami mosque. But the other mosques, for example, the Akbari mosque, which is no longer in existence, the Fatehpuri mosque or the Zeenat-al-manzil, all of these were built by senior women or important women of the court. So we have a long standing pattern of important female roles. It doesn’t mean that Haji Begum was responsible for directing people personally but rather that she was the overseer in many ways. So that is what is worth thinking about. S: Would you say something about the design of the tomb? CA: Humayun’s tomb is as you know a very large complex. And it was built in an enormous garden. The location is very important. It was built at a site known as Indraprastha, which is associated with India’s ancient epic lore from the Mahabharata. So it had an ancient Indic meaning. It was also built in very close proximity to the shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya, who I think at this point was Delhi’s most important saint, a saint of the Chishti order, or the Chishti silsila, which would become the saintly lineage that may be seen to underride Mughal legitimacy and Mughal authority. It is also located at the site of the first of Akbar’s capital, i.e., Din-panah started by Humayun, intervened in by Sher Shah and again resided in by Akbar in his very early days before he shifted his court down to Agra. So its location has important associations with Indic tradition, with Muslim tradition and with Mughal authority. So the design of the tomb is heavily drawn from the Central Asian Timurid tradition, i.e., it is set in what is known as the chaharbagh, a four-part garden. Four-part gardens are a very longstanding Iranian tradition. They probably date back to Sassanian times or even perhaps the Achaemenid times’ pre-Islamic Iranian associations. They are often associated with the notion of paradise, i.e. the gardens promised to the faithful in the Islamic tradition on the Day of Judgement. But under Babur, the first Mughal, these very ordered regular four-part gardens were associated with order and with Babur’s ability to rule India. He likened himself to a master gardener, and he saw his ability to make gardens as a sort of a metaphor for his ability to rule what he considered to be unruly Hindustan.(In his memoirs he writes about laying out symmetrical gardens in the northern plains, which he describes as 'bī-safā va bī-siyāq', which has been translated as 'unclean and disorderly'.) So the garden setting itself has a symbolic meaning. The tomb at the time that it was built was the largest tomb in the entire subcontinent, perhaps really one of the largest tombs in the Muslim world at that point. It sits on a very high plinth. It is what is called a Baghdadi octagon (musamman baghdadi), i.e., an octagon whose sides vary, they are of irregular size, that is one side will be smaller in width than the next one. So it is an irregular octagon which is again from the Central Asian tradition. The interiors of Indian tombs to date had been just a single central chamber. Humayun’s tomb differs, in that it has a central chamber and then around it are eight ancillary rooms which can be circumambulated in a slightly awkward way. This tomb type is known as a hasht-bahisht ('eight paradise') type tomb and it again derives from Timurid tomb types. So the plan is a type that is really intended to be again a kind of a metaphor of paradise, i.e., obviously the land that is promised to the faithful on the day of judgement. The tomb has two upper floors, and we know that the roof was used as a madarsa, that is, teaching institution. The tomb is largely in red sandstone. The sandstone comes from the area around Dholpur, Rajasthan. And it is faced with white marble, the marble of course coming from the Aravalli hills in the area of Rajasthan down to Gujarat, but probably from Rajasthan itself. This basically becomes the imperial Mughal building type. And as Ebba Koch has pointed out, the colours probably were chosen very specifically. I mean, not only was the stone available but stones of other colours were available as well. In the ancient Indic tradition (if you see the eighth century Vishnudharmottara Purana), white stone is associated with Brahmins, that is knowledge and learning. And red, which is the majority of the building, is associated with Kshatriyas, the kingly caste. You can imagine that the Mughals saw the use of red on imperial architecture as an assertion of their royal authority. So we can see the tomb as being a really grand expression of royal authority, a kind of setting that indicates order, and also the notion of paradise. Today the tomb is planted with grass which is a British invention. Grass would not have been a natural ground covering in south Asia. We don’t know exactly how any of these tombs including the Taj Mahal were planted, but we have reason to believe from paintings and from references in literary sources that flowers would bloom at various times of the year, as well as trees, including cypress which appears often in Persian poetry, and is a metaphor for the lover and the beloved, which in the Persian Sufi tradition or the mystic tradition is basically a metaphor for the love of the divine, for the love of God, the yearning for God. It also would have been planted with fruit trees and we know that the fruit would be sold and that the income that the fruit would bring in would help support the mausoleum. You know, today the river is quite far away from the tomb. But the Jamuna has shifted course, and at the time of its construction, i.e., the middle of the 16th century, the Jamuna ran right next to the tomb. So the Jamuna obviously was feeding the wells that were watering the gardens that were supporting the tomb. There are wells that are still extant. Behind the south entrance gate into the tomb complex is a very large well that actually still functions that feeds the water. It has been restored recently by the Aga Khan Trust. And so today now water is actually coming down from the water shoots into many of the canals that run through the garden which produce a very nice effect. So the tomb in design is inspired from Timurid types. Now again this is not an accident because as I mentioned earlier, the Mughals considered themselves Timurids. I have a feeling they would be quite shocked if they knew they were called Mughals. They also descended from the Mongols but they truly clung to their Timurid legacy. And so they are called Mughals which is really just a corruption of Mongols. So the Timurid building type was also intended to showcase their Timurid legacy. The tomb was probably not intended just to inter Humayun, but probably was also intended ultimately to inter the future Mughal rulers; of course this didn’t really happen. Separate tombs for the next rulers were built, one for each of them. In Humayun’s tomb there are many other graves and tombs. Many of them are in the chambers that are in the plinth below. But interestingly many of these people are the more disgraced members of the Mughal household. Now why this happens nobody is sure. It did not end up being a dynastic tomb. S: Why is the tomb set in a garden? And how it is different from other tombs? CA: So, Islamic tombs in India perhaps were set in gardens. We don’t really know. But if they were, they probably were fairly simple. It is very unlikely that they had water courses running through them or even if they did, they were these very ordered chaharbaghs. Tombs in India until the construction of Humayun’s tomb—and even many of them after them—tended to be either fairly simple square-planned tombs. Many, for example, tombs of the Lodis (that is the dynasty that preceded the Mughals) were square-planned tombs, and most of those tombs were built for nobility. The tombs of kings in the Lodi and the slightly earlier Saiyyid period usually were octagonal tombs. But they were nowhere as sophisticated in plan as Humayun’s tomb. There you find a single central chamber with a veranda around it. As an example, take two of the tombs in Lodi garden: the tomb of Sikander Shah or the tomb of Mubarak Shah, which are easily seen by people. Before that the tombs were in general even more simple. They tended to be square-planned tombs with a single chamber. It was not until Humayun’s tomb that the notion of constructing a very enormous tomb in a planned garden setting really became the norm for the Mughal elite. Just before the construction of Humayun’s tomb there was the construction of a tomb in Sasaram for Sher Shah, the person who ousted Humayun from India. Until that point, his tomb had been the largest one in the Indian subcontinent. It was a very large version of the octagonal type that I talked about in terms of Sikander Lodi’s tomb for example. And the tomb of Sher Shah was, uniquely, set in a very large pool of water that was probably intended to evoke the waters of paradise. But even so, while that tomb is very impressive, it again lacks the links with Timurid architecture of Central Asia, nor does it have a very sophisticated or elegant stone facing on the tomb. It is really stucco. Humayun’s tomb stands out as a fairly unique construction. It becomes, of course, the model for the Taj Mahal and that is because Humayun’s tomb, more than any other, is very much modeled on those Timurid prototypes. Shah Jahan of course was extremely proud of his Timurid legacy and so there is an intentional evocation of that earlier tomb. S: The significance of the location of the tomb? CA: Humayun’s tomb was set in proximity to the tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya, a very important 14th-century Chishti saint who came to be deeply revered. And it is also really close to the then Mughal fort, what we call today the Purana Qila which had been called the Din-panah or the ‘refuge of religion’ by Humayun who first commenced its construction. It was set on what must have been an open ground at that time right next to the river Jamuna and it was planned so that it would be linked to the palace, the walled palace. In a sense because of Mathura Road, which today runs between the Humayun’s Tomb and the dargah complex of Nizamuddin Auliya, we tend to think of them as very separate areas. But in Mughal times, I think, we would probably think of them more as being extensions of one another. Also slightly to the north of Humayun’s tomb there was a huge sarai, which is a place for travelers to stop. The Grand Trunk Road was still there, part of which is what we call the Mathura Road today. But there was also a huge sarai, as I mentioned, which would have been a stopping point for travelers. We can imagine that not only were they replenishing themselves with food and water (people did not drink tea in those days), but probably many of them stopped to pay homage to the tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya. It’s unclear how accessible these grand Mughal tombs were to the public. It is believed now that probably they were opened sometimes to the public, at least their gardens were. But certainly, whether they were opened or not, the huge tomb could be seen over the walls. And it would be understood that the deceased emperor Humayun was receiving the barakat, that is the kind of spiritual essence that exudes from the saint’s tomb, from Nizamuddin Auliya. So he would be seen increasingly as a kingly figure who was endowed with the saint’s grace. I think that is how it would have been perceived in the middle of the 16th century, and afterwards when the tomb had been built and was seen by the general public who was travelling on the GT Road (today the Mathura road) as they traversed from one part of the Mughal empire to the other. S: What were the practices associated with the tomb? CA: It appears now that saints’ tombs were circumambulated. People still do this today. In general they are circumambulated seven times. And this is the same rite that is given at the Kaba in Mecca, that is the holiest shrine in Islam. This is done at the tombs of many Sufi saints. So the circumambulation of the Mughal tombs by the Mughal elite indicate a concept of kingship that was basically commenced under Abul Fazl, that is the great Mughal minister’s sort of inspiration, implementation of his concept of Akbar’s authority, that is the notion that Mughal rulers are basically semi-divine, that they come from a long line whose original source was a human who would have been conceived by a princess who was impregnated with a ray of divine light. So this notion of circumambulating the tomb underscores his semi- divine status. It gives him a status superior to mere mortals. S: How was Akbar involved in the building of the tomb? CA: The fact that two architects from the Timurid homeland were procured to build the tomb, the fact that it is so huge in scale, so monumental, the fact that it was very carefully planned suggests that there is some degree of imperial authority. We have no way of knowing if Akbar personally showed up at the worksite and told the workmen what to do. I mean he was pretty busy trying to consolidate Indian states and authority, so I am sure he had a supervisor doing all this. But certainly it wasn’t left just to whim. I mean certainly there is a high degree of imperial intervention in the tomb. S: Were their indigenous influences on the tomb? CA: Definitely I would say there were indigenous influences in the tomb. One certainly is this reference to colour. In Indic texts, ancient Indian texts red is the color of the warrior caste Kshatriyas, and white the color associated with Brahmins, that is the priestly group. So that certainly would be an indigenous effect. It was built on a site associated with the Indraprastha, that is the site associated with the events in the Mahabharata, the great Indian epic. It was well known in India, even 14th-century texts talk about this site as being associated with Indraprastha. So this is not something that we people in the 21st century say, 'Oh well, you know, we know it was associated with Indraprastha.' The Mughals were fully aware of this. Those were certainly some of the Indic associations that we have. The fact that it is octagonal also may be a reference to earlier kings. I think its size, which is larger than Sher Shah’s tomb was again intended to evoke past rulers, but also to suggest that the Mughals were the logical extension, the new rulers. Well Akbar at this time, very early in his reign, was concerned with his central Asian origins. Increasingly over time of course he becomes deeply interested in things Indic. So this is by far the most Central Asian inspired building that is constructed under Akbar. Subsequent ones including the Agra fort which is his next major project and really started just about the time that Humayun’s tomb is coming to be completed is extraordinarily Indic in nature, with its post-and-lintel architecture. Many people call it Hindu. That is not correct because this sort of architecture had been used widely under the Sultanates, especially in Gujarat in western India, so I prefer to call that a pan-Indian style architecture, not one that is associated with any religious affiliation. S: Tell us about the craftsmen involved in the making of the tomb. CA: We actually have no record of who the craftspeople were. But I am going to speculate a bit, and say that Mughal architecture before the construction of Humayun’s tomb was not terribly sophisticated. For example if we take Babur’s mosque at Panipat which is where he defeated the last Lodi sultan in 1526, or Humayun’s mosque in Agra which is across the river from the Taj, they seem to be fairly unsophisticated attempts to emulate Timurid architecture, but it would seem that there was a lack of people highly skilled in the engineering techniques that would be needed, technology that would be needed to actually build those kinds of buildings. There is a complete transformation with the construction of Humayun’s tomb which suggests that probably the two architects, Saiyyid Mirak Ghiyas and his son who came, as I said, from Bukhara in central Asia to design and work on Humayun’s tomb, I imagine, brought technicians with them. Because all of a sudden we have the kind of vaulting and the kind of planning that were only found in Central Asia, in Iran. So there must be a conflation of Indian stone masons because in Central Asia there is very little stone. It is almost all stucco or brick construction combined with engineers and technicians who knew how to build in Central Asian techniques. We don’t have any names, we don’t have any texts that tell us this but looking at the building and how it appears, it suggests that sort of thing. S: Would you talk about Humayun’s tomb in the context of Mughal architecture, and the course Mughal architecture took in the coming years? CA: Mughal architecture of course is quite interesting. I think I am going to just stick to tomb construction because if I started talking about palaces and other things it would take a long time. So in its place in tomb construction, obviously it is the first really major Mughal tomb. Babur’s tomb had been built in Kabul in Afghanistan and it is very simple. The next two great Mughal tombs which would be Akbar’s tomb and the tomb of Jahangir, of course are somewhat similar to Humayun’s tomb. The garden settings are there and that is very important. Both sit on very large plinths. Akbar’s tomb is a tiered tomb. This is not a complete dead end. Some of the tombs of the nobility in Allahabad are tiered. But it is somewhat unusual. Akbars’s tomb is tiered and its top floor is open to the sky, probably to receive the moon and sunlight. Of course Akbar was very interested in the notion of divine light. Jahangir’s tomb today in Lahore, Pakistan today is just a simple plinth with four huge minarets which of course Humayun’s tomb doesn’t have. It too originally had an open air plinth on top which is now missing. And then we have Shah Jahan’s tomb. Shah Jahan’s tomb, the Taj Mahal, which was of course built for his wife, also inters the ruler himself and I believe was always intended to inter Shah Jahan. It is very much modeled on Humayun’s tomb. In part, I believe, because both of those tombs were intended to evoke the Timurid past, to underscore the Mughal’s Timurid legacy. The Taj of course has a huge minaret on each corner of the plinth which was something we saw at Jahangir’s tomb. So Humayun’s tomb is very important of course in terms of the garden setting which we find in multiple Mughal tombs whether they are imperial or sub-imperial. And then of course later tombs like Safdarjang’s tomb, other Mughal tombs, many of them are irregular octagons, that is Baghdadi octagons, including the Taj with a dome on top. So it was very important, at least through the next hundred years in sort of establishing a mode of what it is to have a grand tomb. So it had a lot of importance. S: What about the comparisons with the Taj Mahal? CA: Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal have more in common than any of the other great Mughal tombs. One obviously is the garden setting, although the Taj’s is more oblong in shape and of course the Taj has another garden on the other side of the river which Humayun’s tomb lacks. They both have these monumental plinths, they both are irregular octagons that is Baghdadi octagons. The Taj has a minaret at each corner of the tomb which Humayun’s tomb does not have. They both of course have large domes on top. Of course one of the major differences is the facing of each of the tombs. In Humayun’s tomb we can see the use of red sandstone and white marble. Shah Jahan’s tomb is completely faced with white marble. Increasingly what we see is the use of white marble for the imperial presence. In the time of Akbar who was the patron of Humayun’s tomb we had white marble that was used for the trim of tombs, and we talked earlier about how that may have indicated the notion of education, of priestly learning. But white marble was reserved for the tombs of saints, for example the tomb in Ajmer of Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti or the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti at Fatehpur Sikri for example. And it was also used for the Mughal thrones, for example the throne of Akbar at, as we know from paintings, the Agra fort. It was then of course replaced by Shah Jahan’s white marble throne. So over time we have a transference from the use of white marble only for saints' tombs to the use of white marble for imperial tombs, that is Shah Jahan’s tomb, the Taj Mahal, which was, as I said earlier, not only intended for his wife but for himself as well. So this really underscores this transition that we have from the Mughals thinking of themselves as rulers in the case of Babur to thinking of themselves as semi-divine rulers which we start getting with Akbar later in his rule, with Jahangir, and then of course with Shah Jahan. So again this is a reflection of the notion of kingship. It is not just decoration. S: Tell us about the other tombs in the Humayun’s tomb complex. CA: On the outside of Humayun’s tomb—well, not really on the outside, if you go through several doorways, massive doorways that have gardens within them to get to the actual tomb of Humayun—one of the first ones you have off to the side is the tomb of Isa Khan who was an important noble under the Sur kings. His tomb was obviously placed there before Humayun’s. And again, his being placed in close proximity to the Chishti saint Nizamuddin Auliya was in order to receive the saint’s barakat, his saintly aura. So then, once inside of Humayuns tomb there is a tomb that is called the tomb of the barber. It is very unlikely that there was a tomb of a barber. It was probably some very elite person. We don’t know who it was. There are tombs around in the complex. And then of course there is all the graves inside the tomb. Some of them are the graves of the princely families, some of them are much later Mughal princes that are buried in the cells within the plinth. So there were probably many graves than we have today. There is a tendency to remove many of the graves, specially the ones that are falling apart. The tomb probably was an extension basically of the dargah of the shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya which of course has the graves of Shah Jahan’s daughter Jahanara, the graves of some of the later Mughals, and many of the elite. So probably what we think of today as a division between Nizamuddin East and West wasn’t there. So it probably would have been really a vast graveyard, a vast kabristan, that we would have had in that area. S: Would you say something about the restoration of the tomb by the Aga Khan foundation? CA: The Aga Khan foundation became engaged with the government of India in restoring not only Humayun’s tomb but also the basti of Nizamuddin. They made a Mughal type garden to the north of the tomb, pretty much in the area where the original great Mughal sarai had been earlier. Some of that extends into the area where the zoo is today and they are hoping to work there but they haven’t been able to do that yet. So the project that dealt with the basti included the clearing of the baoli at Nizamuddin’d tomb, and actually doing enormously wonderful social projects at the basti including medical facilities, education, the constructions of playgrounds, so on and so forth. At the tomb there was a great effort to restore it to its original place and time. The waterways were cleared and not all of the canals are full of water, but certainly some of the main ones are, giving a sense of how the tomb looked originally. The cement that had been put on on much of the tomb during restoration in earlier periods was all removed, and removed by hand. Then the original stucco work was restored, the tilework was restored, and what was so good about this project was that the Aga Khan Foundation actually taught local people how to do this, so that it gave them employment and also trained them to do restoration on other important monuments of Delhi. The tomb of Humayun has always been a major tourist attraction for foreigners and Indians alike of course, as well as a place of enjoyment for the locals who lived there. It was always a very impressive structure, no one can deny that. But I think it has been brought back to much of his original splendour and glory by this restoration project. And one of the things I always feel about this restoration project is that it wasn’t just a project that had to do with the improvement of the appearance of the monument, but really engaged the local people: improving their daily lives but also giving them an income, and I think that is a really important way to think about: projects combining them with social needs as well as aesthetic improvements and implications. So it has been an important project. S: What are some of the directions for future research? CA: I think we know a lot about the basic tomb, I think we know as much as we wanted to know about how it was constructed, who constructed it, so on and so forth. Probably if there is an opportunity to explore more about its central Asian roots that might be a good project. It might be interesting to have a dialogue between scholars trained in Central Asian scholarship with scholars trained in Indic traditions to see really how much is Indic and how much is Central Asian. I find that when you talk to people who come out of the Central Asian tradition they often have a very different point of view and I think that is something that can well be explored and studied at this point. S: Could you describe how you look at the tomb? CA: I think the tomb is a very exciting monument. It is one of the highlights of Delhi, maybe the highlight of Delhi, especially since it has been restored so beautifully by the Aga Khan Trust. One of the things that really interested me was that when I used to go to Humayun’s tomb there were people there, there were often tour groups. But increasingly I am seeing a lot of local people, specially I am seeing people who are of Muslim origin, who, I think are really connecting with their own heritage, as well as of course Indians from multiple cultural and religious traditions, and I think that by having this monument restored and by having people come to it and appreciate it is just one way to help ensure the maintenance of India’s cultural traditions which I think all of us worry about a great deal sometimes. Because of course people need basic things like food and water. But also it is really important to remember the past and what a great thing it really is. I think the tomb really is important for all of that. S: The original entrance to the tomb was not the one we use today? CA: So, when you enter the tomb today, basically from the Mathura Road side, this is not necessarily the way that the great Mughals would have entered it. They probably came down from the river, we know for example this is the way Shah Jahan personally visited the Taj Mahal. He did not enter through the gate that would be the street side, the way people enter today. The great Mughals would have entered on the east side of the tomb. We enter today on the west side. The west side often appears flat because you are entering through what is called the qibla side, the side of the tomb that faces in the direction of the Mecca. There is an arch there which does not hold an entrance, rather it holds a small sandstone arch which is pierced with holes, it has jaalis (netting) in it. And that is actually the tomb’s mihrab. It indicates the direction towards which Muslims pray. That prayer niche, that mihrab which is full of holes would allow for the entrance of light and that very specifically evokes a particular verse in the Quran which likens god’s presence to light in a niche. So you are seeing it really from the back when you come in as a visitor to the tomb. The other three sides, the east side, the north side and the south side have great recessed niches with entrances, and those great recessed niches are what are really coming out of the Central Asian tradition. Well, obviously many people who would visit the tomb even in the Mughal time were coming in from what was then the Grand Trunk Road from the great sarai that was near it. The Mughals themselves would have come in through the river entrance, which of course now has shifted far away and there are train tracks there now today. So you have to again know the context to understand how it really would have been imagined and seen. S: It would be good to understand better how the tomb complex functioned CA: It is difficult to know exactly how everything at the Humayun’s tomb was used. The garden certainly would have been very beautiful. You would have seen them from the plinth below. We have Mughal paintings that suggest that people enjoyed gatherings in gardens. Very possibly this happened at Humayun’s tomb. Probably for the Urs that is the annual commemoration of Humayun’s death. There would have been many celebrations. It would have involved music, probably the precursor of what we call qawwali today. We know that there would have been a 24-hour recitation of the Quran. They probably would have gone on in those many arched cells that are in the bottom part of the plinth. We don’t have texts that tell us this but we know this is how later tombs were used so we can imagine that this is what happened at Humayun’s tomb as well. The entrance gates would have had room for people to gather. They could have been cooled by the water tumbling down or the water shoots. Those water shoots are carved with a zig-zag pattern which makes the water look like it is rushing faster than it really is. So visually you would have felt like you were almost near a waterfall. This was an attempt to recreate the natural waterfalls that would be found in the mountains of Central Asia, when the snow that was melting was rushing down, or even let’s say in Kashmir, when in the gardens of Kashmir when snow melts and turns into rushing water from the natural streams. Certainly during the Urs the tomb would be circumambulated. It is impossible to know at this point whether the general public was allowed to come in and participate in these events or whether it was limited to a certain level of the nobility—we really don’t know that. But the tomb would be used of course, as the Mughals shifted their capital from Delhi almost immediately by the time the tomb was finished, and didn’t return to Delhi as residents until the middle of the 17th century. It probably was visited sporadically by the elite. But we know that it was maintained and I am sure that those who were in charge of Delhi, the governors of Delhi were probably using the tomb in some manner. It is hard to believe that it was not actually used, given its location, by the tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya, and by the huge sarai and right off a place that linked Agra to Delhi to Lahore along with other important cities in the Mughal empire.

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Preservation and development are not mutually exclusive. The pace at which Abu Dhabi has risen into an international melting pot has brought about massive changes, but the frantic cycle of construction and demolition threatens to leave the nation without a memory. Today, we face the risk of forgetting how the great transformation of the city occurred. Jean Nouvel, the architect of the Louvre Abu Dhabi, recently lauded Abu Dhabi as being on the brink of a "golden age." This statement is characteristic of the prevailing attitude toward Abu Dhabi’s progress. Nouvel and other "starchitects," although well versed in the history of architecture, tend to undervalue Abu Dhabi’s recent past, and forget that the display of one’s accomplishments lacks something if there is no record of the experience leading to them. This is not to say that the future should imitate the past, but rather, that it should not trample over it as if it had never existed. This text is driven by the desires to cultivate the memory of the place and to promote architectural preservation. The architecture of the country’s independence, a modernist statement brought forth in the 1970s and 80s, is severely endangered. Its gradual extinction under the pressure of development led us to document it, and to promote it with the eagerness and urgency this mission deserves. This text will guide the reader through examples of Abu Dhabi’s modern architecture. The history of the UAE is only forty-two years long, yet the country radically changed during this period. After oil was struck in 1958 and the economy boomed, Abu Dhabi was rebuilt entirely and attracted vast influxes of immigrants and visitors. This large foreign population impacted the city’s landscape and built environment. Modern architecture soon became a crucial part of Emirati history. Abu Dhabi’s main public buildings, including the Courthouse (Abdul Rahman Makhlouf 1977), the Cultural Foundation (TAC 1979), the Bus Terminal (Bulgarconsult A&E 1989), and the Municipality (Bulgarconsult A&E 1990) are prominent icons of modernism. The majority of the city’s population has roots far outside the region—and so does modern architecture. The European and American precursors of modern architecture were influenced by the Industrial Revolution, whose methods they emulated to revolutionize building techniques. Modernism developed as an art movement, and as both an adaptation and a resistance to industrial capitalism. It became increasingly internationalized after WWII. Central to modern architecture was Le Corbusier’s urge, against industrial hubris, "to study the house for the common man," and "to recover human foundations: the human scale, the typical need, the typical function, the typical emotion." For him, "the house is a machine for living in." Modern architects valued functionality and considered ornamentation superfluous. They would "accept no predetermined solution to a problem," and would "go back to first principles in order to solve problems for which history had no precedents." They saw that "the needs of this age are in nearly every case totally different from the needs of the previous ages." The tools of the age were also very different. Thanks to mechanization and prefabrication, modern architecture economized space, time, and money. With pragmatism, clean lines, open spaces, and the frank expression of structure, modern architects revolutionized design. After dominating both the interwar and post-WWII period in the West, modern architecture fell victim to the energy and public spending crisis in the 1970s. By that time, it had already found a home in the oil-producing states of the Middle East, where architects and planners were invited in the 1950s and 1960s to build new cities that were needed by new nations. In Baghdad, Riyadh, and Abu Dhabi, modern architects thought they had found the blank slate they had theorized. As postmodernism settled in the West after the 1973 energy crisis, modern architecture grew deeper roots in the Middle East. Abu Dhabi in particular, with its sparse population and its vast oil reserves, was experiencing an economic boom that allowed for large-scale development projects. Sheikh Zayed sought out architects to build large sports complexes, government buildings, and social housing. The architects enlisted to build the city were coming out of a time and place where modern architecture was the holy grail of design. Major municipal buildings were designed with modernist forms, and builders of Abu Dhabi’s common commercial and residential buildings followed suit. Today, modernism is the vernacular architecture of Abu Dhabi. The city’s original built structures from the 1970s and 1980s have simple designs with right angles, circular forms, and minimal ornamentation. Crisp geometric forms signal what Le Corbusier called "geometric truths." When one looks at Abu Dhabi’s modernist buildings, the eye does not have to interpret the structure; it quickly registers the neutral form, and understands the function of the building. By the 1980s, the city was filled with mid-rise concrete buildings, where shops and offices cohabited with residential spaces. Far from being a foreign import to the UAE, modern architecture became a conduit for the expression of a new Emirati identity. By rationally addressing the unique problems of a region through a carefully designed built environment, modern architecture can become a "national architecture." During the 1980s, however, architects operating in Abu Dhabi started to use Arab and Islamic ornaments. Rather than the simple and rational repertoire of the 1970s and early 1980s, they grasped on to anecdotal conceptions of the Arab built environment. The functionality of the building no longer guided design. Our guide focuses on Abu Dhabi’s modern architecture between 1968 and 1992, before this shift away from the Emirati modern toward a more post-modern, orientalist style. Several modern architects settled in Abu Dhabi. There were the now unknown builders, invisible architects who designed many of the city’s most exciting mixed-use buildings while drawing their inspiration from international projects. There were those influential modern architects who briefly came to the city, and left. In 1975, Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, one of the major representatives of the Metabolist movement, submitted a proposal for a conference city in Abu Dhabi, but the project was not built. In 1988, Kurokawa designed the new university of Al-Ain with a proposal that incorporated structural regional elements. Other modern architects stayed in town longer. The Architects Collaborative (TAC), an American architectural firm founded by Walter Gropius, was involved in the planning of the Abu Dhabi Public Library and Cultural Center (1979). Hisham N. Ashkouri, an Iraqi architect who trained at MIT, Harvard, and Tufts, submitted the winning entry for the design, incorporating regional design solutions into international architecture. TAC had struck a chord. Jafar Tukan, a Jordanian-Palestinian architect born in 1938, worked as an architect and urban planner in Beirut, Dubai, and Amman. His work in Abu Dhabi can be seen in the stunning Ministry of Finance, erected in 1979. Rifat Chadirji, an Iraqi architect born in 1926, designed Abu Dhabi’s National Theater (1970). Like Kurokawa and Ashkouri, Chadirji successfully united modernism and regionalism. The Armed Forces Officers Club (1987), designed by French architect Roger Taillibert, born in 1926, is another exciting expression of Emirati modernism. Built in a way that evokes a Bedouin tent and a stingray, Taillibert’s structure is a manifestation of the innovative eclecticism that is now native to Abu Dhabi. Both the sense of history and the aspiration toward modernism are grounded in the sufferings of the pre-oil era. Before the 1960s, living conditions were harsh; food and fresh water were scarce. There was only one school in the region and no hospitals at all: the sick had to wait for the doctor, who came from Dubai only once a week. People lived in simply constructed buildings, while merchants could afford to build coral block buildings. By the mid-20th century, the pearl trade, once a major industry in Abu Dhabi, had declined because of the 1930s economic crisis and the fashion of Japanese cultured pearls. Abu Dhabi’s urban development began as a result of the discovery of oil in 1958. Sheikh Shakhbut Al Nahyan commissioned the city’s first master plan, proposed by British architect John Harris. The 1962 plan integrated the old city with the new one, and was characterized by curved roads and organic shapes. However, this plan was never implemented. In 1966, Sheikh Zayed came to power and called in new planners and engineers. After the Arabicon engineering firm and British architect John Elliott planned the utility networks, American planner Katsuhiko Takahashi designed a new master plan in 1967. He suggested that Abu Dhabi be built along the utility grid. The city would be easy to get around, and its infrastructure would be quick to access. In 1968, Egyptian planner Abdul Rahman Makhlouf inherited the Elliott and Takahashi plans, which he amended and continued. Elliott, Takahashi and Makhlouf’s modernist planning allowed for a swift transformation. Following modernism’s interest for social progress, large parks were created and public services were made widely available. The Officers’ Club and Zayed Sports City, with their monolithic volumes and their large scale, show the nascent state’s confidence in new beginnings. Large mosques were also built, in replacement of older structures and as an accessible and central feature of each neighborhood. International modernism was a convenient vocabulary for a city with such a diverse and multicultural society. Abu Dhabi was quickly becoming a class society, where members of the working class have almost no access to public spaces, let alone to public forums. The city’s aim has recently been to control and eliminate the kind of informal behavior that would hamper real estate development. An example of this is the vast urban renewal operation conducted around the Central Market. The original market, a simple, modern structure built by Abdul Rahman Makhlouf and famous for its thriving multiethnic atmosphere, was demolished in 2005. It was replaced by a sleek shopping center designed by Sir Norman Foster. To better study and preserve the city’s modernist landmarks, the Authority for Culture and Heritage (now part of the Tourism and Culture Authority, TCA) created the Modern Heritage Preservation Initiative in 2011. TCA’s goal is to provide citizens with a sense of continuity in time (modern architecture is the missing link between the pre-oil vernacular and current gleaming developments), as well as in space. Modern architecture in Abu Dhabi fits the modernist urban layout of the city. Analogous to Brasilia, arterial roads created the image of the city, and their grid was meant to allow for swift traffic and easy navigation. This clear structure contrasts with Dubai’s sprawl and the webbed urban structure of other Gulf cities. The perceived uniformity of the city from the arterial roads belies the myriad of forms inside the blocks, where sikkas (alleys) between buildings allow for pedestrians to filter in and out. Two distinct urban forms coexist: the inhospitable but efficient road network, designed for the car, and the interior of the superblocks, designed on a more human scale. The automobile played a significant role in shaping the urban landscape. When the first plans were drawn up in the 1960s, car transportation had become a global standard and was seen as an emblem of modernity. Today, car parks occupy much of the vacant space in the city, and the constant traffic flow becomes a natural crowd-shaper inside the superblocks. Superblocks are very heterogeneous. In some, mixed-use buildings are clumped together in incongruous clusters, while in others, Makhlouf’s vision for adjoining family compounds is still clear. In the 1980s the Khalifa Committee was created to distribute plots of land to Emirati citizens. In 1988, a new master plan was drawn up by the Abu Dhabi Executive Council. The Council advised the expansion of the increasingly dense city onto neighboring islands (Saadiyat and Reem Islands). The size of the plots and the demand for housing led to an increasingly vertical cityscape. Finally, in 2007, the government established the Urban Planning Council (UPC) to provide a vision for the future planning of the city: the Abu Dhabi 2030 plan. Sustainability is one of the plan’s main guidelines, and extends from the natural environment to economic development, social cohesion, and heritage preservation. The UPC is promoting the vision of a city with fewer cars, more public transportation options, more pedestrian spaces, and an overall use of passive design solutions. The preservation of modern buildings, which give a sense of space and time and have served as landmarks for several decades, is one of the natural consequences of this strategy. Yet the demolition of modern buildings is under way. There are two reasons for this. First, real estate investments need more open spaces, and such modern landmarks as the Volcano Fountain on the Corniche or the Old Fish Market were in the way. Second, older structures that have fallen into disrepair leave their owners with few options besides demolition. The perspective of building higher and of attracting new constituencies downtown drives both public and private development, and threatens the modernist heritage. Modern architecture was functionalist and therefore disposable (if the function disappears, the building has to follow suit). It was also self-referential, and its builders were partisans of the tabula rasa. In this sense, there is something undeniably modern about the demolition of modern buildings—it makes way for more modern structures and creates the blank slate needed for future development. The radical character of modern architecture is not the only argument for its preservation. Modern buildings also have social and communal significance. Docomomo International, a nonprofit created in 1988 and devoted to the preservation and documentation of modernist buildings, listed social merit as one of the reasons why modern architecture has to be preserved. Other criteria include: the innovative value of a building, the use of new material in its construction, its aesthetic character, and its significance in relation to other modernist buildings. The Central Market that was demolished in 2005 is a good case-in-point. Planned as a rigid grid of shops connected by narrow alleyways, it hosted more than the economic activities for which it was built. Social interaction, informal exchanges, and all sorts of gatherings flourished along its alleys. They created a value that reached far beyond the building’s engineering, architectural, or aesthetic features. In a city whose culture and history were shaped by modernism, emblematic modern buildings should be preserved. How we wrote this guide Each author documented several buildings, landmarks, and public spaces. The contributors selected both public sites and mixed-use buildings, the latter being typically used for commercial as well as residential purposes. We made sure that enough mixed-use buildings were documented because they are generally overlooked and are the most threatened by development. The majority of the sites examined in this guide are still standing. A few structures were about to be demolished at the time of publication. Alongside the Docomomo guidelines, our selection criteria included architectural interest, historic value, and the role of buildings in shaping Abu Dhabi’s urban experience. However, this guide does not seek to be the ultimate collection of Abu Dhabi’s architectural gems. It is more of an insight into what Abu Dhabi has to offer to whomever is willing to look at its modern built heritage. We combined extensive fieldwork and archival research in our work. The documentation process often began by repeatedly visiting the buildings or structures in order to view and photograph them at different times of the day, get a sense of place, and interact with their residents and users. The idea was to understand the design’s logic in relation to its function, since this relationship is an essential aspect of modern architecture. We also looked into how the overall shape and planning of the building served its users, as well as how it interacted with its immediate environment. In addition, we studied the history of each site. One of the problems that we faced was the dearth of archival and printed materials on the urban and architectural history of Abu Dhabi. The search for information often had to be creative and involved emailing the city’s architecture aficionados, whose help was invaluable in gathering information. A main source of information is the group of people whom we identified as having a connection to the site, such as tenants, shopkeepers, buildings managers, landlords, doormen, cleaning staff, and even passersby. Each of the guide’s authors interviewed people about their personal stories and sought out factual information. We also asked people their opinions about the aesthetics and significance of the buildings. Many residents were surprised by our keen interest and enthusiasm for these often overlooked spaces. The language barrier, distrust, and doubts about where to find information were some of the issues we encountered. Some tenants did not mind letting writers into their homes, at times even inviting them for lunch. Others limited the interaction to a brief interview at the threshold. Some doormen were suspicious of our interest, and did not allow the contributors to freely roam without obtaining permission from the manager. Hotels were even stricter in this regard, and monitored our photographs through the entire visit. When asking real estate agencies, we found that property managers were not allowed to disclose plans of the buildings, and that landlords were usually absent or unreachable. When buildings were about to be demolished, writers had to find where the shops had relocated to inquire about the site. If a building had already been torn down, we were entirely reliant on archives, old photographs, and interviews with witnesses and architecture experts. Construction dates and architect names often remained unknown. Realizing how difficult it was to track down information, our faith in the project’s relevance greatly increased. We hope that this guide will play a role to help locate information on projects built between 1968 and 1992, and draws the public’s attention to the importance of documentation and preservation. Above all, however, we wish to stimulate the appreciation for Abu Dhabi’s overlooked architectural and historic wealth. How to use this guide Thirty important buildings and landmarks are included in this guide. In addition to providing you with a general outlook on the history of the city, the guide aspires to advocate for a deeper understanding of the crucial fragments of Abu Dhabi’s history through the preservation of its modern architecture. The landmarks are presented based on their locations in the city, beginning with the center of town and tracing concentric circles around it. Modern architecture is best discovered on foot, even though a few sites will necessitate motorized transportation. The images and sketches of the buildings are mostly (but not always) produced by the authors of the relevant articles. Except for the demolished landmarks, the photographs highlight the current state of the buildings. The authors are hugely grateful to the architects, urban planners, city officials, and the well-wishers who kindly shared their knowledge, pictures and documents. Their enthusiasm and support were instrumental in making this exploration of the capital’s modern architecture possible. 1. Emily Cleland, "Abu Dhabi on brink of ‘golden age’ as architecture legends hail Saadiyat," The National , November 8, 2012. Web. January 17, 2014. link 2. Le Corbusier, Toward an Architecture, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2007, p. 84. 3. J.M. Richards, An Introduction to Modern Architecture, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1960, p.14, 26, 28. 4. Le Corbusier, Toward an Architecture, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2007, p. 134. 5. Sibel Bozdogang, Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001. 6. James Langton, "On the UAE’s 42nd National Day, Abu Dhabi celebrates its past, present and future," The National , December 2, 2013. Web. January 18, 2014. link 7. Yasser Elsheshtawy, "Informal Encounters: Mapping Abu Dhabi’s Urban Public Spaces," Built Environment, vol. 37, n.1, 2011, p. 95-97. 8. Todd Reisz, "Plans the Earth Swallows: An Interview with Abdulrahman Makhlouf," Portal 9, 2, Spring 2013. Web. January 20, 2014. link 9. Yasser Elsheshtawy, "Informal Encounters," ibid. 10. See Dalil al-mabani al-tijariyyawa-l-khadamat al-‘amma: madinat AbuDhabi (Guide of Commercial Buildings and Public Services in Abu Dhabi), Abu Dhabi: Office of Social Services and Commercial Buildings, 1990. See also Sa‘id al-Mansuri and Muhammad al-Za‘farani, Mashru‘ Khalifa li-l-mabani al-tijariyya: dirasa ‘ilmiyya (Khalifa’s Commercial Building Project: A Scientific Study), Abu Dhabi: Information Ministry, 1994. 11. "Docomomo International International Register." www.docomomo.com. Web. January 20, 2014. link

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August 20, 2018 The Branch Puzzle: Why Are there Still Bank Branches? Over the past 25 years, advancements in information technology have allowed for many banking services to be conducted online instead of in a local bank branch. However, Figure 1 shows that the number of bank branches increased from 1990 to 2008, plateaued between 2008 and 2012, and decreased only slightly since 2013 as branch closures in some locations have been somewhat offset by openings in others. 1 The persistence of bank branches is puzzling because the presence of other types of establishments whose products or services are now available online has declined significantly, even for establishments that, unlike banks, sell physical goods.2 Even long before the Internet era, some observers predicted the death of the bank branch as electronic substitutes for branches began to emerge.3 We provide evidence that the persistence of the large number of local bank branches across the country--even in areas with expensive real estate and in the face of improving information technology--may be due to the fact that both depositors and small businesses continue to value local bank branches. From the triennial Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF), we show that even though the majority of depositors now use online banking, a majority of depositors that use online banking still visit bank branches, which suggests that online banking is an imperfect substitute for bank branches. We also document broad-based reliance of depositors on bank branches, although this reliance varies with age, wealth, income, and occupation. For small business lending, using Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) disclosures, we show that among banks that are CRA reporters the share of loans made by lenders without a local branch presence remains quite low. This finding suggests that local branch presence is still important for small business lending. However, we also find that among CRA reporters the non-local share has risen substantially since 2011, suggesting that local branch presence has lost some importance in recent years, at least for some businesses.4 This recent trend towards a growing role for non-local lenders could be caused by changes in underwriting technology or by changes in the composition of small businesses themselves. Underwriting technology is changing as credit scoring gains importance in small business lending, which could allow local lenders, who have access to soft information, to face increased competition from non-local lenders. At the same time, the nature of some types of small businesses themselves is changing, as more small businesses sell their goods and services online, and purchase their inputs online.5 This shift in the nature of small businesses also potentially reduces the advantage of local lenders in screening small businesses. We use the SCF to provide three complementary pieces of evidence that households value local bank branches despite the rise of online banking services: (1) questions on the use of online banking, (2) new questions on the propensity for households to visit local branches, and (3) household subjective assessment of the importance of branch location for selecting their primary financial institution. Who Uses Online Banking? Most people. The 2016 SCF asked households whether they used online banking in the last 12 months, and over 70 percent of households reported using online banking. Thus, the persistence of bank branches does not appear to be simply explained by a low online banking take-up rate. In comparison, only 4 percent of households reported using online banking in 1995, suggesting that improvements in information technology have increased the availability and usage of online banking services.6 The 2016 SCF also contained new questions asking whether respondents visited a local bank branch. About 84 percent of households with a checking or savings account reported visiting the local branch of the institution of their main savings or their main checking account within the last year, and almost all households who visited their local branch did so to use banking services other than just the ATM. Although online banking appears to substitute for services provided by local branches, the substitution is far from complete. Column 1 of Table 1 shows that among households with checking accounts, those who reported usage of online banking were only 2 percentage points less likely to report going to a local branch of the institution of their main checking account. Column 2 shows that among households with savings accounts, online banking usage is somewhat more substitutable with going to the local branch of the institution of their main savings account. For these households the difference is 12 percentage points. However, even among the households with savings accounts that reported using online banking, 70 percent of them still reported going to a local branch. Table 1: Online Banking Users are Less Likely to Visit Branches Go to Checking Branch? Go to Savings Branch? |Use Online Banking?|| Which Households Visit Local Bank Branches? Older, Wealthier, and Self-Employed. While the 2016 SCF showed that 84 percent of households reported visiting a local bank branch, certain types of households were more likely to visit branches than others. To further explore these differences, we regress a dummy variable, VisitBranch, for whether a respondent's household visited a local branch, on a variety of household characteristics, shown in equation (1). In equation (1) WealthPercentile is four dummies for whether respondent i's household was in the 25th-49th, 50th-74th, 75th-89th, or 90th+ percentile of wealth, IncomePercentile is five dummies for whether the respondent's household was in the 20th-39th, 40th-59th, 60th-79th, 80th-89th, or 90th+ percentile of income, AgeCategory is five dummies for whether the respondent was 35-44, 45-54, 55-64, 65-74, or 75+ at the time of the survey, OccupationCategory is three dummies for whether the respondent was Self-Employed, Retired/Disabled/Student/Homemaker, or otherwise out of the labor force (the omitted category is working for someone else), and X is a variety of other control variables.7 We estimate equation (1) using the 2016 SCF after applying survey weights. Figure 2: Effects of Depositor Characteristics on Branch Use. Figure 2b: Wealthier People Use Branches More Figure 2c: Highest Income People Use Branches Less Figure 2d: Self-Employed People Use Branches More Older households were more likely to use their local branch. Figure 2a shows that relative to respondents under the age of 35, respondents over the age of 75 were about six percentage points more likely to have visited a local bank branch in the last year. This pattern could reflect that older households have stronger preferences for visiting their local branch than younger households, but an alternative interpretation is that age is proxying for a year-of-birth effect (i.e. a cohort effect). Higher wealth households were also more likely to visit their local branch. Figure 2b shows that on average, above-median wealth households were about 7.5 percentage points more likely to have visited their local branch. This finding could reflect higher demand for banking services among higher wealth households, as the SCF also shows that, among households with checking accounts, the number of services a household obtains from its main checking institution increases from 2.0 for the lowest wealth group to 3.6 for the top wealth group. This finding could also reflect that higher wealth households demand certain banking products that are better serviced through visiting a local branch. While higher wealth households were more likely to use their local branch, higher income households were somewhat less likely to use their local branch, as shown in Figure 2c. Households in the top 10 percent of the income distribution were about 6 percentage points less likely to visit a branch than households in the bottom 20 percent. Visiting a branch is time consuming, and so perhaps the lower usage of local branches among higher income households reflects their higher opportunity cost of time.8 Finally, as shown in Figure 2d, we find that self-employed households were especially likely to use their local branch. They were about 6 percentage points more likely to visit a branch than households that work for someone else. This is perhaps because such households demand a set of banking products (e.g. depositing checks with large balances) that are best serviced through visiting a local branch. The 2016 SCF data show that about 35 percent of self-employed households used the same institution for their business as for their main checking account. Do Households Place Subjective Value on Branches? Yes, and More Value With Age. The SCF also asks respondents for the most important reason for choosing the financial institution for their main checking account, offering respondents a menu of options. This question is asked in the 2016 SCF, but also in previous survey years as well. Respondents have consistently said that the location of an institution's offices is the most important reason for choosing their financial institution. This reason accounts for over a third of responses to this question in each survey year.9 Figure 3 plots the fraction of SCF respondents that list the location of offices as the most important reason for choosing their main financial institution for their checking account, for three birth cohorts, against the median age of the cohort. Figure 3 shows that older households are much more likely to value brick and mortar locations, with an upward trend in the reported value of location of offices starting at around age 31, consistent with our findings in Figure 2a. However, the difference in responses between cohorts for a given age of the cohort, shown by the areas of Figure 3 where two cohorts overlap in age, are usually small. Thus, our results suggest that the increasing effect of age on branch importance reflects an age effect rather than a cohort effect. This interpretation implies that when currently young depositors transition into old age they will have a stronger preference for visiting their local branch, meaning that branches may remain important in the future. That said, our interpretation is based on comparisons of cohorts from decades ago, before the rapid advancements in information technology in recent years, and it is possible that the cohort effect has become more important. Figure 3: Percent of SCF Households That List the "Location of Offices" as the Most Important Determinant for Selecting their Primary Financial Institution, By Birth Cohort - Small Businesses To study the importance of local branches for small businesses, we merge data on small business loans below $1 million, from CRA disclosures, with data on local branches from the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation's (FDIC) Summary of Deposits.10 We define local markets either as a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ("urban" market) or as a county for counties not contained in an MSA ("rural" market). In our merged data, we observe lending volume by bank (but not bank branch) and year for three loan size buckets, and the local market in which the small business is located. Our sample period is 2000 to 2016.11 Figure 4: Average Share of Loans by Lenders Without Local Branch Presence Among CRA Reporters. Figure 4a: All Markets, $100,000-$250,000 Figure 4b: All Markets, $250,000-$1 million Figure 4c: Urban Markets, $100,000-$250,000 Figure 4d: Urban Markets, $250,000-$1 million Figure 4e: Rural Markets, $100,000-$250,000 Figure 4f: Rural Markets, $250,000-$1 million Figure 4 shows the evolution of the average share of loans made by lenders among CRA reporters without a local branch. The share is shown separately for loans between $100,000 to $250,000 and loans between $250,000 to $1 million.12 The share of lenders without a local branch increased slowly from 2000 to 2008, decreased somewhat during the financial crisis, and increased substantially after 2011. Despite the recent increase, the share of lenders without a branch presence remains below 20 percent for urban markets and below 45 percent for rural markets, which suggests that local branches still play an important role in small business lending.13 One interpretation of the recent increase in the non-local share among CRA reporters is that a local branch is becoming less important for acquiring soft information, possibly caused by changes in underwriting technology (e.g. credit scoring). Alternatively, it could be driven by changes in the nature of small businesses themselves. For example, loan officers in a local branch may have less of a comparative advantage in evaluating small businesses that sell their products online and purchase some of their inputs online. An important caveat of our analysis is that we only observe banks that are CRA reporters. Small banks that are not CRA reporters might be lending less outside the area of their branch footprint. Therefore, the share of out-of-market lenders may be smaller than the numbers shown in Figure 4 if all banks are taken into consideration.14 As CRA reporters only account for 60-75 percent of small business lending over the sample period, it is possible that lending is more local than suggested by the graphs in Figure 4. However, as the CRA share increased during the sample period, it is unlikely that the recent increase of out-of-market lending among CRA reporters is driven by a shift towards non-CRA reporters. To further explore the relationship between bank branches and small business lending, we regress a bank's lending market share against its share of branches in that market. This regression also uses year fixed effects and, therefore, we estimate the association of local branches with lending from bank-market-level differences in loan and branch shares. Our specification is: LoanSharejmt is the amount of small business loans of bank j in market m in year t as a share of total amount of small business loans in market m in year t. BranchSharejmt is the number of bank branches of bank j in market m in year t as a share of total number of bank branches in market m and year t. The coefficient $$\beta_t$$ is allowed to vary by year and $$\mu_t$$ are year fixed effects. The loan share is the loan share among banks that are CRA reporters. The branch share is renormalized such that the branch shares of all banks that are CRA reporters also sum up to one. A higher value of $$\beta$$ implies a closer association between branch presence and small business lending.15 The number of observations is 32,585,004 as each bank-market-time triplet results is an observation. Figure 5 plots the coefficient estimates for $$\beta_t$$ for loans between $100,000 and $250,000. Since the end of the financial crisis, the association between the local branch share and the loan share has decreased. From 2000 to 2010, an increase in the local branch share by 1 percentage point was associated with an increase in the local loan share of 0.67-0.71 percentage points. Between 2011 and 2016, however, this number fell to about 0.60 percentage points. This corroborates the suggestive evidence from the graphs in Figure 4 that non-local lenders are becoming more important for small business lending.16 How does the increasing role of non-local lenders affect small businesses? If the increasing role is driven by improvements in underwriting technology that make non-local lenders more competitive with local ones (e.g. by making more information available at a distance), then small businesses could potentially benefit from increased competition and variety of lenders. However, if the improvements in underwriting technology are accompanied by branch closures, then those small businesses that still rely heavily on local branches, either for borrowing or for other purposes, could be harmed. Figure 5: Correlation Between Branch Share and Loan Share Antitrust analysis of bank mergers currently defines banking markets to be geographically local, and our findings that depositors and small businesses still rely on bank branches support this market definition.17 However, our data also indicate that non-local lenders are gaining importance in small business lending. Sumit Agarwal, Robert Hauswald. Distance and private information in lending. The Review of Financial Studies, 23(7):2757—2788, 2010. Dean F Amel, Kenneth P Brevoort. The perceived size of small business banking markets. Journal of Competition Law and Economics, 1(4):771—784, 2005. Dean F Amel, Arthur B Kennickell, Kevin B Moore, others. Banking Market Definition: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances. Divisions of Research & Statistics and Monetary Affairs, Federal Reserve Board, 2008. Dean F Amel, Martha Starr-McCluer. Market definition in banking: Recent evidence. The Antitrust Bulletin, 47(1):63—89, 2002. Kenneth P Brevoort, John D Wolken, John A Holmes. Distance still matters: the information revolution in small business lending and the persistent role of location, 1993-2003. , 2010. Jesse Bricker, Lisa J Dettling, Alice Henriques, Joanne W Hsu, Lindsay Jacobs, Kevin B Moore, Sarah Pack, John Sabelhaus, Jeffrey Thompson, Richard A Windle. Changes in US Family Finances from 2013 to 2016: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances. Federal Reserve Bulletin, 103:1—41, 2017. Glenn B Canner, others. Evaluation of CRA data on small business lending. Business Access to Capital and Credit:8—9, 1999. Hans Degryse, Steven Ongena. Distance, lending relationships, and competition. The Journal of Finance, 60(1):231—266, 2005. Timothy E Dore, Traci L Mach. Recent Trends in Small Business Lending and the Community Reinvestment Act. 2018. Roberto Felici, Marcello Pagnini. Distance, bank heterogeneity and entry in local banking markets. The Journal of Industrial Economics, 56(3):500—534, 2008. Stephan Hollander, Arnt Verriest. Bridging the gap: the design of bank loan contracts and distance. Journal of Financial Economics, 119(2):399—419, 2016. Mitchell A Petersen, Raghuram G Rajan. Does Distance Still Matter? The Information Revolution in Small Business Lending. The Journal of Finance, 57(6):2533—2570, 2002. Hirofumi Uchida, Gregory F Udell, Nobuyoshi Yamori. Loan officers and relationship lending to SMEs. Journal of Financial Intermediation, 21(1):97—122, 2012. * We are grateful to Jacob Gramlich and Beth Kiser for helpful comments and to Dean Amel for making the note more entertaining. Thanks to Tim Dore for help with the CRA data. The analysis and conclusions set forth are those of the authors and do not indicate concurrence by other members of the staff, by the Board of Governors, or by the Federal Reserve System. Return to text 1. For example JP Morgan Chase recently announced that it plans to enter 15 to 20 regional markets around the United States by 2023, by opening new 400 branches. Similarly, Bank of America plans to open 500 new branches. Return to text 2. For example the number of book store locations declined from about 38,500 in 2004 to about 22,500 in 2018, according to Statista. In some industries that don't sell physical goods, like travel agencies, brick and mortar stores have disappeared almost entirely. Return to text 3. For example, in 1975, the Vice Chairman of the Federal Reserve George Mitchell said: "I have no doubt that some banks now continuously review their branching policies in light of the development of electronic substitutes for branches but the statistical evidence of such policies is hard to find… It appears to me that the continued growth of banking offices indicates a clear misreading of the trend in the banking technology climate, a misreading that is likely to prove costly for some banking enterprises." But since 1975, the number of bank branches more than doubled from about 30,000 to around 80,000 today. Return to text 6. This statistic is from the 1995 SCF. Prior to 2016, the SCF asked about online banking in a different way than in 2016. Online banking was one of the options for how a household interacted with a financial institution. Using that measure, the fraction of households using online banking increased from 4 percent in 1995 to 64 percent in 2013. Return to text 7. The control variables are: a dummy for being white non-hispanic, a dummy for living in a metropolitan statistical area, dummies for whether the respondent had a checking or a savings account for non-business use at any financial institution (not necessarily at their main financial institution), and a measure of financial literacy, as defined by . Return to text 8. To examine the interaction between wealth and income's effect on the probability of visiting a branch, we re-run equation (1) by replacing WealthPercentile and IncomePercentile with a full WealthPercentile and IncomePercentile interaction set. This regression shows that the probability of visiting a branch conditioned on wealth falls with income for the top three wealth bins. The probability of visiting a branch conditioned on income rises with wealth for the bottom four income bins. Return to text 9. In contrast, less than five percent of respondents cite the location of an institution's offices as the most important reason for choosing their mortgage lender. The difference in these responses is consistent with evidence that markets for mortgages and other consumer loans are more national in scope than the market for depositors. Return to text 10. The Community Reinvestment Act mandates that banks that exceed an asset threshold of about $1 billion must report small business loans to the Federal Reserve Board. The data can be downloaded at https://www.ffiec.gov/cra/craflatfiles.htm. For a description of the data see . See for recent trends in small business lending and background on the Community Reinvestment Act. We estimate that CRA reporters account for about 60 percent of all small business loans as measured by outstanding loan balances. Return to text 11. An important caveat is that these data contain all loans with a small principal amount, not only loans to small businesses. These data are thought to be informative about lending to small businesses because about one half of loans below $1 million are taken out by small businesses with less than $1 million in revenue (). In 2005 the reporting requirements for CRA loans were relaxed. We treat banks that were CRA reporters prior to 2005, but not afterwards, as non-reporters. Return to text 12. We calculate market shares as the fraction of loans to small businesses in the market by lenders without a local branch presence. The average market share is the simple average over all banking markets. We exclude loans below $100,000 because a large fraction of these loans are likely credit card loans. Return to text 13. The higher share for rural markets partly reflects that MSAs (urban markets) are typically comprised of multiple counties whereas we assume rural markets are single counties, and so it is more likely that we classify a lenders as local in an urban market. It may also reflect that local rural lenders are less likely to be required to file CRA disclosures. Return to text 14. To assess this we calculate the share of small business lending by CRA reporters using call report data, which is available for all banks. For loans between $100,000 and $250,000 the share of the CRA reporters increased somewhat from 64.9 percent in 2000 to 72.4 percent in 2016. For loans between $250,000 to $1 million their share also increased from 69.6 percent to 74.0 percent. These shares are based on dollar amounts. Shares based on number of loans are similar. As CRA reporters only account for 60-75 percent of small business lending over the sample period, it is possible that lending is more local than suggested by the graphs in Figure 4. However, as the CRA share increased during the sample period, it is unlikely that the recent increase of out-of-market lending among CRA reporters is driven by a shift towards non-CRA reporters. Return to text 15. To see this relationship, consider that if all small businesses exclusively borrow locally, then when all loans are of common size and when small businesses are equally likely to choose from any of the local branches, β=1. Return to text 16. We also experimented with including various fixed effects in the specification (2). Including bank or market fixed effects does not change the general pattern of βt. Using loans between $250,000 and $1 million also yields similar results. Return to text 17. The Department of Justice defines geographic markets for the purposes of antitrust analysis such that a "hypothetical monopolist… in that region would profitably impose at least a 'small but significant and nontransitory' increase in price" (see https://www.justice.gov/atr/12-geographic-market-definition). Our results have implications for the geographic market definition in banking antitrust policy, because whether such a price increase would be profitable depends crucially on how many customers rely on local bank branches (, , and ). Return to text Anenberg, Elliot, Andrew C. Chang, Serafin Grundl, Kevin B. Moore, and Richard Windle (2018). "The Branch Puzzle: Why Are there Still Bank Branches?," FEDS Notes. Washington: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, August 20, 2018, https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.2206. Disclaimer: FEDS Notes are articles in which Board staff offer their own views and present analysis on a range of topics in economics and finance. These articles are shorter and less technically oriented than FEDS Working Papers.

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The ketogenic (keto) diet has existed for nearly a hundred years, but it is only in recent times that it has become well known. There are many scientific studies to prove that it works. It is not a fad like many diets, and this is why it is highly respected. It helps you lose weight and at the same time makes you healthier. When you go on a ketogenic diet, you are providing your body with essential nutrients, while naturally detoxifying it from chemicals that may be causing you harm. The keto diet pays particular attention to low carbohydrates (carbs), which the body changes into energy to help accelerate weight loss. What is wrong with high carbs, and why should they be avoided? Carbohydrates are transformed into glucose, and this causes insulin to spike up. The insulin then flows into the bloodstream to break down the glucose, which turns to the leading source of energy. When insulin spikes up like this, it may result in more fat being stored by the body. The body utilizes carbs and fats as energy. The carbs are used as the primary source. So the more carbs you eat, the less fat is being used for energy. In turn, the insulin spike causes your body to store more fat. If you were to eat fewer carbohydrates, the body would go into what is known as ketosis. The name for the ketogenic, low-carb diet derives from the word ketosis. A state of ketosis assists the body to be able to survive on lesser food. By being in this state, you train your body to use fats as the principal source of energy in place of the carbs, especially since there will be deficient amounts of cards, to begin with. While in ketosis, the liver turns fats into ketones, which results in the body to utilize the fat as the primary energy source. While on a ketogenic diet, you do not starve yourself of calories. Instead, you starve the body of carbohydrates. This process results in more natural and more effortless weight loss. The ketogenic diet is not difficult, but many are confused by it. It takes some understanding and discipline, like with anything new that you may be learning. However, in the end, you’ll feel great, you’ll look fantastic, and you’ll be mentally sharper. What Is The Ketogenic Diet? The ketogenic diet is based on a very low carbohydrate diet. Still, it is different than other low-carb diets (such as Paleo or Atkins) in that it purposely manipulates the ratios of protein, carbs, and fats to make fat the primary source of energy the body will use. Generally, our bodies use carbohydrates as the go-to fuel. Fats are usually the secondary source of fuel and are seldom used. This is what makes the body store it as extra fat, and this is how you gain unwanted weight. The only means of reducing fat in an ordinary diet is to eat less fat and workout a lot to burn more calories than you take in. This is a significant reason why traditional diets don’t work for most people. On the contrary, with the ketogenic diet, fat is what is used for fuel, and for this reason, it will not be stored in the body. The result is a natural weight loss. Another advantage of the ketogenic diet, besides losing weight, is that it is also considered a “healing” diet. There is evidence that avoiding or minimizing sugar intake helps and even prevents many diseases such as high blood pressure, cancers, epilepsy, heart disease, and others due to aging. Manipulating protein, carbs, and fats are of utmost importance to get into a state of ketosis. Since the body is deprived of the ordinary sugar and carbohydrates, it is forced to utilize fat as its primary source of fuel. So the ratio of fats and protein will be much higher than carbs in a keto diet. Also, eating fewer carbs will result in lowering the amount of insulin released in your body. Less insulin equals less glucose and fat being stored. This is a significant reason why the keto diet has been able to help those with diabetes. It naturally fixes the sugar levels. The ratio of proteins, fats, and carbs can differ from one person to another. Some people consume up to 50 grams of carbohydrates a day and are still able to lose weight. On a stricter ketogenic diet, the carb intake may be from 15 and 20 grams per day. The lesser amounts of carbs consumed, the faster the weight loss. The keto diet is flexible, and this is a reason why it is better than most diets. On the keto diet, you don’t give much heed to your calorie intake. Instead, you watch your carbs and balance them against your fat and protein intake. A standard keto diet will consist of a calorie ratio of 60 percent from fat, 15 to 25 percent from protein, and 25 percent from carbohydrates. The only precaution on the ketogenic diet is to avoid sugar. Benefits of Keto Diet Although the ketogenic diet is generally known as a ‘quick fat loss diet,’ there is much more beneficial value to it. Weight loss with the keto diet is just the tip of the iceberg. There is scientific, factual evidence that the keto diet has helped with so many medical conditions. Here is a list of proven medical benefits that a keto diet has been successful in: Controls Blood Sugar Keeping blood sugar at minimal levels is an essential factor that helps manage and even prevent diabetes. There is plenty of evidence that the keto diet has been extraordinarily successful in preventing diabetes. Many people that have diabetes are also overweight. This makes an easy weight-loss plan a perfect solution. The ketogenic diet does even more than this. When people with diabetes eat carbohydrates, it gets converted into sugar. For the diabetic, this process results in a quick sugar spike. However, a diet low in carbohydrates, such as the keto diet, prevents these sugar spikes from happening and allows blood sugar levels to be controlled better. Better Mental Focus As already discussed, the ketogenic diet is based on manipulating fats, protein, and low carbohydrates. This makes the fat become the primary source of fuel. Ordinary western diets lack many nutrients, especially fatty acids, which are a requirement for peak brain function. People that have brain problems or diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, one of the culprits is the lack of glucose use. When the brain lacks glucose, the result is a lack of energy. This makes it strenuous for the brain to function at an average or higher level. The ketogenic diet helps boost the brain with the energy it needs to function correctly. A study by the American Diabetes Association discovered that people with type 1 diabetes enhanced their brain function after eating coconut oil. That same study reported that people who suffer from Alzheimer’s might also improve their memory on a keto diet. Those with Alzheimer’s have seen much better memory scores that may be connected to the number of ketones present. How does this study affect people in general? Brain tissue is made up mostly of fatty acids. When on a keto diet, you will increase the consumption of fatty acids, such as Omega 3 or Omega 6, that are found in seafood and oils. This results in enhanced brain health. The human body is not able to not produce fatty acids on its own; these acids can only be obtained through a special diet. The ketogenic diet is the perfect diet because it is plentiful in fatty acids. A high carb diet can lead to what is called a “foggy” brain. This is where you have a hard time focusing. With a ketogenic diet, your mental focus becomes sharper due to the increased energy provided. There are many people that do not use the keto diet to lose weight but to enhance brain activity and function. It can be called a smart pill. Increases Energy Levels High carb diets have a tendency to leave you feeling tired and drained. Fat is considered a better and more efficient source of energy because it makes you feel revitalized. The ketogenic diet is known mostly for weight loss. However, there is one positive benefit that catches people by surprise. It has to do with your skin. A keto diet seems to make it healthier by reducing acne and making your skin glow. Many people get acne, especially teenagers. But there are plenty of adults that also suffer from acne. It has always been believed that acne was mostly due to poor dieting. However, research is still in progress on this issue. A large number of people have reported that their skin cleared dramatically while on a keto diet. There may be a scientific truth to this. A study first published in 2015 showed that high levels of insulin in the blood was a probable cause for the eruption of acne in humans. In this respect, since a keto diet gets insulin low and healthy levels, there is a possible connection to skin health claims. Also, inflammation is a significant root cause of acne. The ketogenic diet reduces inflammation, which helps the body to decrease acne outbreaks. Fish, which is a significant part of a keto diet, has plenty of fatty acids that have been proven to be anti-inflammatory. While research is underway, it appears that a keto diet can make your skin healthier and brighter. Slows Aging Process Many of the common diseases occur due to the aging process. Studies have been conducted on mice that resulted in brain cell enhancement on a ketogenic diet. There are also numerous studies done on people with Alzheimer’s disease that had excellent results while they were on a keto diet. What is considered a fact is that a diet that consists of low sugar, antioxidants, healthy fats, and high protein, improves overall health dramatically. It detoxifies the body of harmful chemicals. Several studies have also shown that the use of fatty acids as the primary source of fuel can slow down the aging process. This may be due to the adverse side effects sugar has on the body. Furthermore, just by eating less, it improves your essential health, and it fends off obesity and its adverse side effects. So far, there have only been a few studies, but taking the overall positive results of a ketogenic diet, it is common sense that it would make a person age more natural and slow the aging process as a whole. The ordinary western diet is filled with sugar, and this is a detriment to the aging process. Most diets do not work because people wind up feeling hungry and begin splurging on food. Alternately, a diet filled with low carbs like the Ketogenic diet will leave people feeling full, and their mind will not give a hunger signal. Feeling less hungry results in remaining on a diet longer while eating unnecessarily. Improves Eye Problems Diabetes produces high blood sugar, and this can have a higher risk of the development of cataracts. Since the ketogenic diet has the ability to control sugar levels, it can, as a result, enhance eyesight and possibly prevent cataracts. There is evidence to support this notion in studies that were conducted on diabetic patients. A ketogenic diet improves brain function. Studies have been conducted on people with autism while they were put on keto diets. The results showed astonishing improvements in autistic behavior. Helps With Blood Pressure An astonishing 33 percent of the US population suffers from high blood pressure. It is a severe medical condition that can cause strokes and heart attacks. Overweight people and the aging process can exacerbate or bring on high blood pressure. People with blood pressure problems are generally on medication to help control it. However, these medications can and do have side effects. Normal blood pressure is considered to be 120/80. Hypertension is the root cause of high blood pressure. The exact cause has not been determined, but we do live in a fast-paced and stressful world, and it seems that every year, there is an increase in people having to deal with high blood pressure. It is well established that people with high blood pressure are frequently overweight and can be at a higher chance of getting Type 2 Diabetes. To control this, the medical condition requires a lifestyle change. You can get high blood pressure if you eat too many carbohydrates. As mentioned earlier, when carbohydrates are eaten, they are converted into sugars. And since there is more sugar in the blood, the body reacts by producing more insulin. Insulin is known to store fat, and too much fat leads to gaining unwanted weight. This chain reaction just described will cause adverse effects on your blood pressure. If you were to eat fewer carbohydrates, the level of insulin and blood pressure would drop. Just following this dietary change will make a big difference in your blood pressure. In a compelling study conducted by the Archives of Internal Medicine, 146 obese people participated in a weight-loss experiment. These people were divided into two separate groups. One of the groups was given a ketogenic diet, which contained no more than 20 grams of carbohydrates. The other group was given a weight-loss drug called “Orlistat.” That latter group was also monitored to follow a strict low-fat diet. The result of the study shows that both groups lost similar amounts of weight. The surprising part of the study was that half of the group on the keto diet showed a drop in blood pressure. In comparison, only about 21 percent of the low-fat diet group that was on Orlistat had any changes in blood pressure. While weight loss alone helps lower blood pressure, the study shows being on a keto diet lowers blood pressure even more. It was discovered that potassium had a big part in lowering hypertension. It is recommended that anyone suffering from high blood pressure to take, at a minimum, 4,700 mg of potassium per day. Some foods high in potassium: Beet Greens – One cup, cooked, will give you a whopping 1309 mg of potassium Avocado – Half of an avocado will provide you with 487 mg of potassium. Spinach – three cups of raw spinach has 558 mg of potassium. Acorn Squash – one cup of cubes will give you about 486 mg of potassium Tomato – One cup, cooked, provides you with 523 mg of potassium. Sweet Potato – One baked medium sweet potato, with the skin, has 450 mg of potassium. Bananas – One medium-size size banana has 425 mg of potassium. Lima Beans – One cup, cooked, will give you 969 mg of potassium. Coconut Water – One cup has 600 mg of potassium. White Beans – One cup of cooked white beans has 829 mg of potassium Dried Apricots – Only six dried apricots will give you 488 mg of potassium. Pomegranate – One will provide you with 666 mg of potassium. Salmon – Three ounces will give you about 500 mg of potassium. All of the above foods can be consumed while on a ketogenic diet. However, attention should be paid to the sweet potatoes, lima beans, and white beans because they could have too many carbs. Keto Diet Helps Epilepsy The first time the ketogenic diet was used, it was not intended to be used to lose weight or to control diabetes. The diet was initially created in 1924 to help people suffering from epilepsy. Epilepsy is a disorder that attacks the nervous system, which can cause seizures unexpectedly. The symptoms can vary from convulsions, spasms, or an abnormal, emotional view of the world. Epilepsy is caused by unusual brain activity. The magnitude of the symptoms differs from person to person. An individual will only be diagnosed as a person with epilepsy if he or she has two or more seizures in 24 hours. Epilepsy can affect someone at any age, but it mostly impacts children, probably because their brains are not fully developed. Seizures are ordinarily controlled by drugs. But drugs don’t work 100% of the time. In 1924, Dr. Russell Wilder of the Mayo Clinic, made an innovative discovery when he created the ketogenic diet to assist children who had epilepsy. At the time, it was extraordinarily productive, but the medical community lost interest in it when new anti-seizure medicines were created and used instead. It was an easier job for doctors to prescribe medication instead of talking about a natural diet plan that may have healed them. Currently, doctors are returning to their roots and are using the keto diet to help treat their epileptic patients. The results have been remarkable. A study that involved 150 children who suffered from seizures were given a keto diet. Three to six years later the results were astounding. 107 out of 150 families responded to a questionnaire that was sent to them. Thirty-five other families were contacted by phone. Four others were lost to a follow-up, and four other children had died for reasons not connected to the diet. Of the original 150 children, 20 or 13% were free from seizures and another 21 or 14% had a 90% to 99% reduction in seizure episodes. Twenty-nine were off all medications, and 28 other children were on only 1 medication. 15 children stayed on the diet. The doctors even went as far as to consider the diet as a more effective treatment than the medication themselves. For anyone who has children that suffer from seizure attacks, it would be a good idea to discuss with a doctor the possibility of putting the child on a keto diet. More studies have been conducted on children with epilepsy. New interest has surfaced within the medical community concerning the health benefits of a keto diet. Ketogenic Diet And Cancer Prior to the 20th-century, cancer was not considered a severe disease. But today’s lazy lifestyle, along with unhealthy diets, has turned cancer into a deadly disease. While all cancer treatment should be done under the guidance of your doctor, it would be a great idea to talk about the keto diet with him or her and how it can help in treating the disease. A ketogenic diet created explicitly for a cancer patient would be made up of up to 90% fat. There would be a logical reason for this. The medical community is aware that cancer cells thrive off sugar and carbohydrates. As has been explained, the keto drastically reduces carbohydrate and sugar intake. In essence, the ketos diet removes the “food,” of which cancer cells need to multiply and spread, thus starving them. Several things can happen. The cancer cells can decrease, die off, or increase at a slower rate. Another critical factor to consider, a keto diet reduces calorie intake, and this would slow down the growth of cancer cells. They will have less energy to spread and cause further damage. Insulin also aids in the growth of cancer cells, and since the keto diet diminishes insulin levels, it will slow down the growth of these malignant cells. When you go on a ketogenic diet, your body will produce ketones. As the body gets fueled by ketones, cancerous cells will not. Therefore, when the body is in a state of ketosis, it can reduce the spread and size of cancer cells. One study watched the growth of tumors in people that had cancer of the digestive tract. For the people that were given a high carb diet, their tumors increased by 32.2 %. The people on the keto diet had an increase of 24.3 % growth in their tumors. In medical terms, the difference is quite remarkable. In yet another study, five patients were given a keto diet together with chemotherapy. Three of these them went into remission. The other two saw a worsening of the disease when they went off the diet. From what research has discovered so far, the ketogenic diet can: 1. Stop cancer cells from growing. 2. Replace cancer cells with healthy cells. 3. Alter the body’s metabolism and help “starve” cancer cells by depriving them of the nutrients to spread. 4. Lowering the body’s insulin levels, thus preventing the growth of cancer cells. While following a keto diet, your fat intake would be 75 to 90 %, protein 15-20 %, and carbohydrates would be less than 5 %. Foods to Eat 1. Eggs, including the yolk 2. All types of green, leafy vegetables. 3. Cauliflower, mushrooms, peppers, tomatoes, and avocados. 4. Eat full-fat dairy products. 5. Eat nuts such as sunflower seeds, almonds, and pumpkin seeds. Foods to Eat in Moderation 1. Have one serving of vegetables with roots per day. 2. Fruits, one per day. 3. A glass of wine, whiskey, vodka, and brandy once a week. No cocktails with sugars. 4. A piece of dark chocolate with 75 % or higher in cocoa once a week. Foods to Avoid 1. Any foods that are littered with sugar, such as juices, sodas, sports drinks, and all sweets. Artificial sweeteners should also be avoided. 2. All Starchy foods, such as bread, pasta and potatoes, rice, cooking oils, and margarine. 3. All types of beers. This article has answered many important questions concerning the ketogenic diet, its effects, health benefits, foods to eat or avoid, and much more. I genuinely hope that the information provided here will help you on your journey to better health. Always talk to your doctor before deciding to take any action with the ketogenic diet

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What do you know about Liberia? Or do you even care? Americans pay little attention to Liberia, and most Europeans think of the country as a joke. […] In case of apparently friendly relations between that country and European powers there has usually come to the surface some design to deprive Liberia of its territory or to secure some economic advantage. The American’s endorsement of the Firestone invasion of that African area shows that on this side of the Atlantic the same attitude has developed. The above quote best exemplifies what happened in Liberia in the 1920s in regards to the selling out of elite Liberians to US capitalist interests. Exploring the past is key to understanding how and why the exploitation of Liberians continues to happen today. Beginning as a colony for African-American settlement on the continent of Africa, Liberia grew from a small community of hopefuls into a nation rife with exploitation and a class system that denies the existence of, as Marcus Garvey might say, a “United Negro State.” With much help from the U.S. the new nation of Liberia was established and it started its long journey into the world of nations. (Pham 12) As it embarked on this journey it was not without the typical bumps and bruises. As Liberia encountered financial troubles it turned its back on the country’s founding principles. Thus the economic interests of the U.S. and the black Liberian elites superceded the facades of black-nationalism and Garveyism in the ‘black nation’ of Liberia. Located along the western bulge of Africa, facing the Atlantic Ocean, the Republic of Liberia is a country of tropical rain forests and broken plateau. Liberia is a country about the size of the state of Ohio with a population estimated at a range from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000. Lying on the west coast of Africa, just north of the equator, Liberia is bound by Sierra Leone, French Guinea and Cote d’Ivoire. The only Negro republic in the world with the exception of Haiti, Liberia celebrated independence in 1947. (Browne 113) It was founded as a modern state with the creation of Monrovia in 1822. The motto of the new republic, “ The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,” proclaimed that the state was established for Americo-Liberian settlers. The settlers with the help of the America Colonization Society (ACS) established the first colony for “free men of color.” This African nation that was established to improve the ‘black’ man’s position ended up giving in to corporate interests and ended up doing more harm than good. How could Liberia turn its back on the black-nationalist ideals and close its doors to the UNIA and Garvey’s movement that strengthened the new nation? Or did it? There was an ever-present conflict between the settlers arriving on the coast and the “natives” living in the interior of the nation. Garvey’s UNIA ‘back-to-Africa’ movement actually helped in creating tension and conflict in the new nation. The key conflict created was the rift in class, with the government ruling class being Americo-Liberians. There has been a deep-seated belief among experts of the moribund League of Nations and among some students of colonial policy that the Liberian Government itself is one of the causes of the Republic’s retardation. (Browne 231) The Americo-Liberians and their descendents have controlled the government, and the result has been the development of a split between a small governing class and a large governed class, which has taken less interest through the years in the Liberian administration. This large class of the governed constituted the aboriginal element in Liberia. The inefficient acts of the Liberian government, selfishness of the ruling class, and activities of interlopers [US] who would exploit the Republic’s resources for their own gains led to the economic troubles of Liberia today. The country’s economy today is resultant of the self-sufficient economy of Africa, the capitalism of the ruling Liberians, and the financial exploitation of the American industrialists. (Brown 232) The Garveyite movement had a key role to play in the settlement of Liberia. The movement was founded in New York in 1917 and Marcus Garvey became a self appointed Moses for the Negro people. (Aron 338) In brief, Garveyism is a Negro racist philosophy that frowns on what is known as the US social democracy or ethnic integration, namely the free social and cultural intercourse between white and colored people. (Aron 337) It advocates for the creation of Negro business as a step towards national redemption in Africa. The most active organization in promoting Garveyism was the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), which was dedicated to heightening a sense of black dignity and culture. (Pham 38) Led by the Jamacian born Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, the UNIA built a steamship line (the Black Star Line, which transported Negro’s back to Africa), sponsored colonial expeditions to Liberia, staged annual international conventions, inspired businesses, endorsed political candidates, fostered black history and culture, and organized thousands. (Stein 1) The Association pursued bold and broad general goals: To establish a universal confraternity among the race; to promote the spirit of pride and love; to reclaim the fallen, to administer to and assist the needy; to assist in civilizing the backward tribes of Africa; to assist in the development of independent Negro nations and communities or agencies in the principal countries and cities of the world for the representation of all Negroes; to promote a conscientious spiritual worship among the native tribes of Africa; to establish universities, colleges, academies and schools for the racial education and culture of the people; to work for better conditions among Negroes everywhere. The association’s goals were somewhat similar to those of the Zionists for the Jews: a national home for the Negro race and the revival of a Negro culture. (Aron 337) The advent of Marcus Garvey coincided with the Great Migration of African-Americans from the American South. The Southern African-Americans were seeking better conditions and thousands left between 1910 and 1920. The first wave of 300,000 settled in Northern Liberia and a decade later 1,300,000 arrived. However, in 1921 and 1922 a number of UNIA officials left the association and a number of prominent African-Americans distanced themselves from the organization. Garvey’s power was brief and when he was deported to Jamaica the UNIA in the US all but died out. Garvey was tried for mail fraud in 1923 and later fined, but it was too late and the organization was already too battered. In 1925 Garvey was remanded to a federal penitentiary in Atlanta and in 1927 the final blow was delivered and Garvey was deported to Jamacia. This final step led to the execution of the UNIA’s importance on the continent of Africa. “The UNIA experienced such great success because Garvey was able to appeal to the under-privileged people, yet Garvey’s movement represented the yearnings of the would-be black bourgieouse.” (Sundiata 16) The economic interest of the U.S. in Liberia began with the Firestone Rubber Company in 1924. Liberia was in a precarious financial situation and was in desperate need of investors. Delegations had been sent to Liberia from the UNIA to negotiate for a loan to the country in return for certain territories, which were to be used for pioneer settlements. Fifty thousand dollars worth of materials were shipped to Liberia. In 1920 Charles King became president and was immediately confronted with the country’s dangerous financial position. The UNIA in 1920 proposed to the Liberian leader that the group would raise nearly $2 million to relieve Liberia of its debt in exchange for an agricultural and commercial land grant. With options thin the Liberian leader, King, agreed to deal. That same year Garvey proposed to move the UNIA headquarters from the U.S. to Liberia. Liberia had been chosen to be a ‘black’ Zion and between 1920 and 1924, millions of African Americans were caught up in the thrill of having a ‘black nation’ of their own. (Sundiata, 1) In January 1924, Marcus Garvey unexpectedly announced that he would be moving the UNIA headquarters to Liberia. He boasted of the plans in the Negro New World and launched his $2 million dollar campaign. However, during the 1924 Negro Convention the Liberian government publicly issued a statement repudiating all agreements with UNIA and protesting to the American government on the UNIA’s activities in Liberia. Garvey raged, but soon after the Firestone Company was awarded the territories for some of its rubber plantations instead of Garvey’s UNIA plans. In an article written in 1955 Liberia is said to been ranked for many years as one of the important rubber producers of the world. The exploitation of this resource began in a significant way when the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company was granted a concession by the Liberian government in 1926. Under the terms of the provision in the financial agreement, Firestone actually acquired control of the Liberian finances. Although Americans made a major contribution to the founding of the Liberian nation in 1822, it was over one hundred years later before the US acquired a tangible economic stake in the West African republic. The change took place when the Liberian government granted the major rubber concession to the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company and accepted a large loan from one of Firestone’s subsidies. The Liberian government had teetered on the verge of bankruptcy several times since the 1860s. But the Liberian government’s turn towards Firestone in 1926 was more than another desperate effort to save the nation from bankruptcy. The loan was an integral part of the arrangement by which Liberia granted the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company the right to grow rubber on a maximum of one million acres of land. (Chalk 12) By Granting Firestone a huge rubber concession and accepting stringent loan terms from an off-shoot of the same company, the Liberians seriously risked the loss of their sovereignty. The 1927 Loan from the Firestone Company opened a new phase in Liberian history, where national prosperity would increasingly depend on the success of foreign-owned private investments. (Chalk 12) The consequences of Liberia’s dependence on foreign capital for development has led it down a path of exploitation. The Firestone Agreement had not only economic and development consequences, but also political. At the same time that Firestone was looking towards Liberia, the British were looking to cut in on American rubber production. Therefore the Firestone Company went to the US Secretary of State and explained the agreement in order to get the US government on board with loans and support. The Firestone Company was able to obtain a ninety-nine year lease “on a million acres of land suitable for the production of rubber or other agricultural products, or any lesser area that may be selected by the leasee.” At the same time Firestone made a loan of $2,500,000 to the Liberian government. Some supporters of the Firestone Company say that the company assisted the government and the economy of Liberia immensely by bringing investment capital to the country at a time when the conditions of the public finance were at their worse. In 1947 Raymond Leslie Buell described the impact of Firestone on Liberia as follows: The Firestone Plantations Company represents the one concrete evidence of economic progress in Liberia since 1926. Its operations to date have proved more modest than at first contemplated. Instead of actually leasing a million acres of land, the company has taken up less than 200,000 acres, 80,000 are under cultivation. Instead of employing 350,000 native workers, as a Firestone pubication first predicted, it employs about 30,000, the actual force at work every day being about 26,000…. Even so, this is the largest rubber operation in the world. However, the influence of Firestone in Liberian affairs represented a new brand of colonial exploitation The two key reasons for the loss of support for Garvey’s movement in the 1920s were the interference of the colonial powers and the opposition of the Liberian oligarchy. (Sundiata, 16) “The Garvey Plan failed in Liberia not because it was illogical or unfeasible, but because key members of the Liberian political class opposed it from the outset.” (Sundiata 36) They opposed it from the outset because of the economic consequences that would follow. Garvey’s growing list of opponents (1922) launched a “Garvey must go” drive led by the NAACP. In addition, his efforts to negotiate a second colonization plan with Liberia were unsuccessful, in part due to being outbid for land by Harvey Firestone of Firestone Tire and Rubber Corp. There are significant documents that hold accounts of Garvey’s trial for mail fraud where he acted as his own attorney in pleading his case before the jury. (Grant 166) The causes are cited as being both economic and psychological. In a world dominated by white supremacy, a little bit of status goes a very long way. “In a world that subjected the majority of black imperialism and/or racial segregation, the oligarchy was deeply conscious of its relatively privileged position within the world schema.” (Sundiata, 36) Yet with that power and position the oligarchy failed to help the people once in their situation. The Liberian elites allowed economic interest of colonial powers or the US to take precedence over the principles of Black Nationalism, which are embodied in the Garveyite movement, on which the nation was founded. The firestone venture however is both a case of US economic nationalism and an unavoidable expedient altruism. The US was forced to seek an outlet in order to counter the rubber monopoly of Great Britain. And despite the unilateral agreement, Firestone himself noted that his interest in Liberia is to aid it, he said “there is some small satisfaction in just giving away money, but the greatest satisfaction is in giving others the chance to be independent” (Azikiwe, Ben 31) The greatest threat that the UNIA and Garvey Movement ran into in Liberia, the proposed experiment site, was that of class. As noted above the Liberian elites that ran the government were not at all connected to the people that they were ruling. This combined with the interference of the US led to the end of the Garvey’s movement and the current exploitation of Liberia. The firestone agreement is chiefly responsible for the economic problems of Liberia today. The agreement granted Harvey S. Firestone not only a veto power on refinancing the country, but also elevates him to a dictatorship where he controls the economic destiny of the government. Like an octopus he has a stranglehold on Liberia, which will ultimately threaten if not completely decimate the political existence of the lone African Republic. It is thus believed that this agreement paved the way for US imperialism in Africa and economic exploitation. (Azikiwe, Ben 30) The way was paved for the Firestone Tire Company and it gladly snatched the opportunity to drive away with Liberia’s resources. The African country founded by freed slaves from the US in the 1820s, is suffering from serious poverty and unemployment due to the Liberian Civil War that ended in 2003. The war destroyed the infrastructure and economy. Firestone, the multinational rubber manufacturing giant known for its automobile tires, has come under fire from human rights and environmental groups for its alleged use of child labor and slave-like working conditions at its plantation in Liberia. Recently in 2005, the International Labor Rights Fund (ILRF) filed a lawsuit charging that thousands of workers, including minors, toil in virtual slavery at (Bridgestone’s) Firestone rubber plantation in Liberia. Operating in Liberia since the 1920s, Firestone continues to depend on the poor and illiterate workers to tap tons of raw latex from rubber trees using primitive tools exposing the workers to hazardous pesticides and fertilizers. (Rizvi) Firestone denies the use of child labor and claims that its jobs are among the highest paying in the country. But, rights activists who have visited the plantation in question attest to the desperation and fear conveyed by Firestone’s workers. “I have seen six people living in one room, without any toilet, electricity, or running water,” said an environmental lawyer from Liberia, “The company has no justification whatsoever to keep on exploiting those people.” The lawyer and many others say thousands of workers at the plantation cannot meet daily quota without unpaid aid, requiring them to put their own children to work or face starvation. The workers are assigned a quota, which takes 21 hours a day at least to complete, and if they cannot complete, their wages are halved, and they cannot earn a livable wage. Therefore, the workers have to make their families perform hard labor from early morning in order to meet the quota. The children work 12-14 hours a day and most do not have proper nutrition in their diets given the low wages. Most plantation workers, according to the lawsuit, remain “at the mercy of Firestone for everything from food to health care to education. They risk expulsion and starvation if they raise even minor complaints, and the company makes willful use of this situation to exploit these workers as they have since 1926.” (Rizvi) This current situation brings up a very important and interesting question. What if Marcus Garvey had been successful in Liberia with his UNIA movement? What if the Firestone Company never had been granted a concession and established in the country? What if the Liberian elites held to the country’s founding principles? Would there be no exploitation today if they had given Garvey the land instead of the Firestone Company? The evidence is not concrete enough to say one way or the other if exploitation would or would not have happened in Liberia if actions had been different. It can be inferred that exploitation would have been delayed if the Firestone Company had not been given a concession. However, one cannot say that the Garvey Movement in Liberia would have been the best option for the country either. In the Garveyite’s view, both they and the native people had been betrayed by white American capital, represented by the newly introduced Firestone Rubber Company in 1927. (Sundiata 80) Garvey had tried to warn the Liberian government. Needless to say, Garvey’s warning failed to impress the Liberian politicians who, in pulling off the “big deal” with Firestone, were further enslaved by US capital. From his Atlanta prison Garvey warned that the Firestone investment was only the beginning of the United States monopoly control of African resources. (Sundiata 75) The slavery begun in 1926 continues today and one can see evidently that the failure of Garvey in Liberia dealt the deathblow to the organization. However, it not only dealt the deathblow for Garvey’s organization but it also locked the shackle of US exploitation on the arm of the Liberian people. Anonymous. Stop Firestone’s Exploitation and Cruelty. 12 November 2005. Stop Firestone Organization/ Amnesty International. (accessed 26 April 2006). Aron, Birgit. “The Garvey Movement: Shadow and Substance.” Phylon (1940-1956), Vol. 8, No. 4. (4th Qtr., 1947), pp. 337-343. (accessed 18 April 2006). Azikiwe, Ben. “In Defense of Liberia.” The Jounal of Negro History, Vol. 17, No. 1. (Jan., 1932), pp. 30-50. (accessed 18 April 2006). Azikiwe, Nnamdi. “Liberia in World Politics.” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 20, No. 3. (July, 1935), pp 351-353. (accessed 18 April 22, 2006).. Browne, Vincent J. “Economic Development in Liberia.” The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 24, No. 2. (Spring, 1955), pp. 113-119. (accessed 18 April 2006). . Lewis, Rupert. Marcus Garvey: Anti-colonial Champion. New Jersey: Africa Worls Press, Inc.,1988. Dunn, D. Elwood. Liberia. England & USA: ABC-CLIO Ltd., 1995. Stein, Judith. The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society. Baton Rouge and London: Lousiana State University Press, 1991. Strong, Richard P. The African Republic of Liberia and the Belgian Congo. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1930. Sundiata, Ibrahim. Brothers and Strangers: Black Zion, Black Slavery, 1914-1940. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003. Pham, John-Peter. Liberia: Portrait of a Failed Nation. New York: Reed Press, 2004. Rizvi, Haider. Tire Giant Firestone Hit with Lawsuit over Slave-Like Conditions at Rubber Plantation. 8 December 2005. OneWorld US. (accessed 26 April 2006). Wilson, Charles Morrow. “Liberia.” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 57, No. 1. (Jan., 1972), pp. 47-49. (accessed 18 April 2006). . Note: Written in 2006 for a 2nd semester college writing course.

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In the old city of Jerusalem, the tourists are not only attracted by the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque only but there are other footprints of the blessings, divine love & human values too which have left immortal impressions over the pages of history. Some of those monuments are mentioned below. DOME OF THE CHAIN It is a free-standing dome located adjacently east of the Golden Dome in the Old City of Jerusalem; was constructed during Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik [685 AD] as model for [later] building of Sakharah Golden Dome in 691-92 AD. One of the oldest structure on the Haram Plaza; and surely was used as a proper mosque till the completion of construction of the Golden Dome and Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Dome of the Chain has no walls; the walls were not originally erected nor ever built later. When the Crusaders got hold of the city in 1099 AD, they identified this dome as the spot where St James was martyred, and transformed the structure into a chapel dedicated to him within the Templum Domini [the Golden Dome]. In 1187 AD, the building was returned to Muslims after Saladin captured Jerusalem from the Crusaders. In 1199 AD, its ceiling and paving were renewed by the then ruling Ayyubids. The Christians had re-used the place once more during 1240–44 when they captured Jerusalem again for a short period. It was renovated by Mamluk Sultan Baybars in 1260–77; which mainly involved re-facing of the mihrab with marble. In 1561, under Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the tiles of the mihrab were glazed. The last major restoration of this Dome was done in 1975-76. In ancient religious histories, there is a mention of Nabi Solomon AS’s Chain - said to be suspended between Heaven and Earth - where Dome of the Chain now stands. The chain had one characteristic. If two men approached it to solve a point of litigation, only the honest and upright man could take hold of it; the unjust man could only see it moving out of his reach. The Jews and Christians rightly say it as Dome of the Chain because of Nabi Solomon’s Chain but Arabs translated the word CHAIN as ‘Silsilah’ without assigning any reason or event that what type of ‘Silsilah’ is attached with it. During construction of the Golden Dome in 691-92 AD and the Al-Aqsa in 715 AD, the place was used as mosque for the Muslim builders and others. But when the building work completed, the practice of regular prayers discontinued here because the two major places had their separate prayers arrangements regularly till today [except the intervals mentioned for Crusader’s 90 years period]. Today there is no prayer held in the said Dome – thus the travelers often see the small children playing football there. The building consists of a domed structure with two concentric open arcades but without walls. The dome, resting on a hexagonal drum, is made of timber but then covered by lead sheets to save it from bad weathers. The qibla wall contains the prayer niche and is flanked by two smaller columns. The Dome of the Chain has a diameter of 14 meters [46 ft], making it the third largest building on Haram Plaza after the al-Aqsa and the Golden Dome. It appeals as fact that Dome of the Chain was used as a model for the Dome of the Rock – the Golden Dome – both contain two concentric polygons – but the Golden Dome is three times the size of the Dome of the Chain. The only difference is that the Golden Dome is octagonal whereas the Dome of the Chain is hexagonal – but the philosophy and proportionate dimensions are mathematically the same. The alternate purpose of the Dome of the Chain is unknown otherwise. DOME OF ASCENSION: Dome of Ascension [Arabic: Qubbat al-Miraj] is a small, free-standing dome built by Crusaders in north of the Golden Dome [Dome of the Rock] at the Haram plaza. Though sign plate posted there in Arabic describes that Prophet Muhammad pbuh ascended to Heaven during his ‘Night Journey’ from this place but the doubts prevail because the Prophet pbuh was surely taken up from the holy rock now lying under the Golden Dome. The scholars hold that this Dome was built by the Crusaders as part of the Christian Templum Domini [Crusaders’ given name to the Golden Dome], probably as a baptistry [the ancient Christians used to build a small dome / place like this along side a big church to administer the baptismal rituals]. The structure and the column capitals are of Frankish style and construction, but some repair or renovation was done in or after the Ayyubid dynasty period. An Arabic inscription on the sign plate dated 1201 AD describes it as re-dedicated to waqf. DOME OF THE SPIRITS [or TABLETS]: If you walk from the Golden Dome towards Dome of Ascension, you’ll see another Dome further down in the same direction – standing alone and much lower in height. In Arab tradition this is known as the Dome of Tablets - to commemorate the Tablets of the spiritual Law like that of Ten Commandments for the Jewish people or the Ark of the Covenant so there is also a theory that this is the Foundation Stone where the Holy of Holies was actually placed – NOT inside the Golden Dome. Some modern Jews researchers believe that the Dome of the Tablets is a place where their two Temples were built – though only few scholars agree with the theory. Below is an interesting account of this Dome of the Tablets as researched by an Israeli scholar who worked on the ‘mystery of Golden Dome’ and the holy ROCK in it; see an essay from : Israeli scholar’s major discovery: By DAVID E. ANDERSON, UPI Religion Writer Feb. 26, 1983 - key points in verbatim: “WASHINGTON -- ….. Scholars have generally maintained that no trace of the Jewish temple is to be found on Temple Mount….. It has generally been assumed that both the Temple of Solomon and the Second Temple, reconstructed by Herod, stood where the Dome of the Rock now stands. Dr Asher Kaufman [a professor of physics & Archaeology at Hebrew University 15 years] disputes that. Kaufman, using ancient literary sources and measurements of hewn rock remains on Temple Mount, concluded that the Jewish Temple originally was located on the northern end of the Dome of the Rock platform, about 330 feet north of the Dome of the Rock…..It is known in Arabic as the Dome of the Spirits or the Dome of the Tablets. Kaufman maintains that this flat rock is the Foundation Stone in the Holy of Holies on which the Ark of the Covenant rested. Kaufman also contends that the Golden Gate, the primary ancient entrance to the Temple Mount area……will run directly through the cupola known as the Dome of the Tablets.” UPI.com is the official site of UNITED PRESS INTERNATIONAL based in USA with a history of reliable reporting since 1907. The rest is being left for my readers. AL-MARWANI PRAYER HALL: In western literature it is known as SOLOMON's STABLES but during years 1996-99 it was made a part of the Aqsa Mosque after converting it into a Muslim prayer hall. It is an underground vaulted space, some 500 sq m in area; at the bottom of stairs which lead down from the al-Aqsa Mosque to the base of the southern wall of the Haram Sharif [Temple Mount] in the Old City of Jerusalem. It lies 12½m below the courtyard and feature twelve rows of pillars and arches; later added lights and floor tiles and renamed it the Al-Marwani Prayer Hall. The structure was mostly built by King Herod as part of his extension of the platform of the Temple Mount southward to the Ophel. The Herodian engineers constructed the enormous platform with a series of vaulted arches supported by eighty-eight pillars resting on massive Herodian blocks and divided into twelve rows of galleries. Originally it was a storage space of the Second Temple – but visitors are rarely permitted to enter the areas. The underground space for the most part remained empty except for the Crusaders period who had converted it into a stable for the cavalry. The rings for tethering horses can still be seen on some of the pillars. The structure has been called Solomon's Stables since Crusader times of Baldwin II [King of Jerusalem in 1118-31 AD]. In the winter of 1996 the Islamic Waqf acquired permit to use Solomon's Stables as an alternative place of worship for 10,000 worshippers in occasional rainy days or the holy month of Ramadan. Later the Waqf created a mosque - the largest mosque there now. DOME OF THE PROPHET: It is an octagonal dome structure located northwest of the Golden Dome in the Haram Sharif compound. Several Muslim writers, most notably al-Suyuti, claimed that the site of the dome is where Nabi Muhammad pbuh led the prophets and angels in prayer on the night of Me’raj before ascending to the Heaven. Endowment documents from the Ottoman period indicate that a portion of King’s charity fund of the al-Aqsa Mosque was dedicated to maintain the lighting of an oil-lamp in the Dome of the Prophet each night. Till now it is the common belief of Muslims. In 1538 AD, Mohammad Bek, the Governor of Jerusalem had a prayer niche built in this location. The Ottoman Sultan Abdul Al-Majid later ordered the building of an octagonal dome that is based on eight marble columns over the niche. The dome is much smaller than the other free-standing domes in the vicinity. During 1620s AD it was re-constructed to present day’s dome. The Dome of the Prophet is also known as the Dome of Gabriel that serves as a symbolic monument rather than a religious building. Beyond this structure, there are no authentic sources which point to the accurate location of where the Prophet pbuh led the salah of all the earlier prophets during that blessed night. And Allah (Glorified and Exalted is He) knows best. DOME OF PROPHET’s LOVERS: It is a square building situated towards the northern side of al-Aqsa; was a place where sufi sheikhs used to gather for the zikr of Allah. This dome structure was built by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II in 1808 AD. This open structure is based on four stone pillars built over a platform that is half a meter higher than the rest of al-Aqsa’s grounds. NABI SOLOMAN’s DEATH PLACE: A building, located at the rear end of the Haram Plaza is believed to be the place where the Prophet Suleiman AS passed away while leaning on his staff. It presently functions as a Girls School. Nabi AS ruled over Judea and Jerusalem for 30 years, and his public work was largely carried out by the jinns [God’s another creature about whom the people mostly believe that they are all-powerful] which were made [like the birds etc] subservient to Nabi Suleiman AS. And then the time destined by God came for the death of Nabi Suleiman AS while sitting holding his staff, overseeing the jinns at work - the jinns could not know about his death for a long time because the Nabi AS had died sitting in this position. Days passed, and the king’s death became known only when his supporting stick, eaten by termites, gave way and the body fell to the ground; Al-Qur’an 34:13-14 is referred for more details. SABEEL QASIM PASHA: It is an Ottoman era fountain located on south-western side of Al-Aqsa close to the Chain Gate; built by a prince of Jerusalem Qasim Pasha in year 1526-27 AD. The fountain is octagonal shaped with 16 faucets topped with a wooden sunshade; has been mostly used by worshipers for ablution & for drinking until the 1940s. Today, it stands as a colossal structure only. YOUSAF [Ayyubi] DOME: Built in 1191 AD by the conqueror Yusuf bin Ayyub, more famous as SalaDin Ayyubi. It was renovated in 1681 AD by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet IV. The dome’s structure is open from all sides, except for the south which is sealed by a wall. It is built on two stone columns and contains two inscriptions. On the northern face of the southern wall, there are stone carvings and a marble-faced blind-niche. The exterior of the dome is covered in lead sheeting. DOME OF AL-KHIDR: It is a small hexagonal dome built in the 16th Century AD on the far north-western corner of the Haram Plaza. This structure marks the spot where some Muslims believe a righteous man, Al-Khidr [see Al-Qur’an 18: 65-82]; a figure ascribed in the holy Qur’an possessing great wisdom and mystic knowledge used to sit. In various non-Islamic traditions, Khidr is described as a messenger, wali, slave of God or angel. In the religious literatures from the world, the figure of al-Khidr has been syncretized or amalgamated over time with various other figures including but not limited to Vishnu in India, Sorish in Iran, Saint Sarkis the Warrior, Saint George in Asia Minor and the Levant, and John the Baptist in Armenia. However, there are no authentic sources to back the above claim. And Allah [Glorified and Exalted] knows best. The dome is based on six marble columns and includes a niche built with red stone inside. DOME OF THE SCALE: [aka Burhan ad-Din pulpit]; is a Mamluk era pulpit located in the southern part of the Haram Sharif plateau. The Supreme Judge Burhan ad-Din bin Jamaa’ ordered the building of a marble pulpit in 1309 AD to replace the portable one made of wood. The pulpit has an entrance and steps leading to a stone seat reserved for the speaker. It is topped with an attractive Dome of the Scale because of its adjacent location to one of the arched gates which were earlier known as scales. Later, only the Eid sermons used to be performed here but even that practice was stopped sometime in the 17th century. MOROCCAN GATE MINARET: [1st Minaret] It was built in 1278 AD on south-western corner of the Al-Aqsa Mosque by the Mamluk judge Sharif Ad-Din Al-Khalili. The 23-meters high minaret is the shortest minaret inside Al-Aqsa and stands without any foundations. The top of the minaret was damaged in the earthquake that hit Jerusalem on 11th July 1927 and was repaired by the Islamic Council which then complemented it with a dome; later covered with lead sheets. It was built in the traditional Syrian style, with a square-shaped base and shaft. The niche is surrounded by a square chamber that ends in lead covered stone dome. [2nd Minaret] It was built at north-western corner of the Haram Plaza in 1298 AD by architect Sharaf al-Din al-Khalili. It is considered the most decorated tower and is almost entirely made of stone, apart from a timber canopy over the muezzin's balcony. It is squared shaped minaret located near Bani Ghanim’s Gate in the Islamic Quarter. Six storeys high with a height of 38.5 meters it is the tallest minaret on the Haram Sharif plateau with a staircase of 120 steps. The western tunnel dug by archaeologists in 1980s had weakened the minaret’s foundations – thus was renovated in 2001 AD. Due to its firm structure, this minaret has nearly been untouched by the earthquakes. The stairway is externally located on the first two floors, but becomes an internal spiral structure from the third floor until it reaches the muezzin's balcony. BAB AL SILSILA MINARET: [3rd Minaret] It is a Mamluk era minaret built by Prince Saif Ad-Din Tankz in 1329 AD. It rises near Chain Gate along Al-Aqsa’s western border with its square-shaped minaret and having 80 step stairs. The minaret was restored in 1927 AD after being damaged in an earthquake. Muslims are NOT ALLOWED to enter it or use this minaret because it lies just over the Western Wall. This minaret is built in the traditional Syrian square tower type and is made entirely out of stone. Since the 16th-century, it has been the tradition that the best muezzin [saying the adhan - the call to prayer], is assigned to this minaret because the first call to each of the five daily prayers is raised from it, giving the signal for the muezzins of mosques throughout Jerusalem to follow the timings of Salat & prayer. TRIBES GATE MINARET: [aka Salaya minaret] is located on northern edge of al-Aqsa Mosque; first built by the Governor of Jerusalem Saif Ad-Din Qatlo Pasha. It used to be a square-shaped minaret until the Ottoman rulers ordered its reconstruction in 1599 AD making it the only cylindrical-shaped minaret inside the Haram Sharif. Later, the minaret was renovated twice, first in 1927 AD after being damaged in an earthquake, and then in 1967 AD after being damaged during Israeli war; its dome is covered with lead sheets. It was the last but most notable minaret which was built in 1367 AD. It is composed of a cylindrical stone shaft [built later by the Ottomans]. The shaft narrows above the muezzin's balcony, and is dotted with circular windows, ending with a bulbous dome. The dome was reconstructed after the earthquake [of 11th July 1927]. There are no minarets in the east of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. However, in 2006, King Abdullah II of Jordan announced his intention to build a fifth minaret overlooking the Mount of Olives but not YET on ground. OMAR MOSQUE AT HARAM: This small room, in the far left corner of the Qibly Hall in Al-Aqsa is known as Masjid Umar, in honour of the 2nd Caliph Umar bin Khattab RA who visited Jerusalem in 638 AD. After taking over the city, Caliph Umar RA asked Sophronius to take him to the Foundation Rock in al-Aqsa sanctuary because Prophet Muhammad pbuh had ascended to heavens from there. When they reached there, Caliph Umar RA was shocked to find it covered with rubbish as the Romans were using the area as a rubbish tip. Caliph Umar RA instantly knelt down and with his own hands started clearing the area. When the companions saw this, they followed the suit and soon the whole area was cleared. It was in Caliph Umar’s honour that this small room was built by the later Muslim rulers and named it Umar Mosque. Today, that room is being used as an emergency clinic. Dome of the Chain @ inamsehri.com Interior decor & Mehraab of the Dome of the Chain @ inamsehri.com Prophet Lovers place in the Haram Sharif compound @ inamsehri.com View of TWO Domes from within the Haram Sharif compound @ inamsehri.com WAQF offices in the Haram Sharif compound Way to Al-Marvani Prayer Hall from the Haram Sharif compound @ inamsehri.com Inside view of Al-Marvani Prayer Hall: a pre-Islamic structure within the Haram Sharif compound @ inamsehri.com Dome of Ascension @ inamsehri.com Dome of AL-KHIDR @ inamsehri.com Dome of Ayyubi @ inamsehri.com Dome of Spirits @ inamsehri.com Dome of Abu Musa @ inamsehri.com Death place of Nabi Solomon AS @ inamsehri.com Dome of Scales @ inamsehri.com Sabeel e Qasim Pasha @ inamsehri.com Dome of AL-KHIDR Dome of Spirits @inamsehri.com Dome of Spirits - also called Dome of Tablets @ inamsehri.com Lion Minaret @ inamsehri.com Old City Minaret @ inamsehri.com Dome of Abu Musa @ inamsehri.com Islamic Museum @ inamsehri.com 700+ years old Qur'an in Islamic Museum @ inamsehri.com Boys School at the Haram Sharif compound @ inamsehri.com Domes, minarets & mehrabs at Haram Sharif compound @ inamsehri.com Qatnain Minaret @ inamsehri.com THE ISLAMIC MUSEUM: It is in Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in its south-western corner; was established in 1923 AD; considered to be the first Islamic museum founded in Palestine. Initially, it was housed at Ar-Ribat Al-Mansour, which is located opposite the Islamic Waqf headquarters. In 1929 AD, the museum was moved from there to its current location - next to the Moroccan Gate. The museum has two halls that form a right angle. This western hall was formerly a mosque known as the Mosque of Moors while the southern hall was the portion earmarked for the Women only. This Moroccan Mosque was built during the 12th century AD – in the Ayyubi era, however the accurate year for its construction and the name of its founder remains unknown. In the past the mosque was dedicated to the followers of the Maliki School of jurisprudence. The Islamic Museum includes rare archaeological and artistic collections which pertain to the various Islamic historical eras. In addition, the museum has about 750 manuscripts of the Qur’an with the oldest copy dating back to the 8th Century AD. There is also a copy of the holy Qur’an from the Mamluk Sultan Barsbay which was written between the years 1422-37 AD. With its dimensions of 110cm x 170cm it is considered the largest copy of holy Qur’an in Palestine.

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The annual cycle of a migrating bird involves metabolically distinct stages of substantial fatty acid storage and periods of increased fatty acid mobilization and utilization, and thus requires a great deal of phenotypic flexibility. Specific mechanisms directing stage transitions of lipid metabolism in migrants are largely unknown. This study characterized the role of the PPARs (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) in regulating migratory adiposity of the gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis). Catbirds increased adipose storage during spring and autumn migration and showed increased rates of basal lipolysis during migration and tropical overwintering. Expression of the PPAR target genes involved in fat uptake and storage, FABPpm and PLIN3, increased during pre-migratory fattening. We found significant correlation between PPARγ and target gene expression in adipose but little evidence that PPARα expression levels drive metabolic regulation in liver during the migratory cycle. Over the course of a year, birds must cope with a series of seasonal fluctuations in environment and resource availability that drive temporal progression of life-history stages (Wingfield, 2005). Successful transitions from one life-history stage to the next are crucial for fitness but often require drastic adjustments in behavior, morphology and physiology. This need for rapid and substantial changes in a bird's physiology across several stages of the annual cycle makes migrants exemplary models for studying phenotypic flexibility, defined as intra-individual and reversible phenotypic changes (Piersma and Lindstrom, 1997; Wingfield, 2005). However, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for these phenotypic alterations is limited. Relative to other stages, migration periods have extremely high energetic cost. Indeed, flapping flight is the most expensive mode of locomotion per unit time (Witter and Cuthill, 1993). Sustained flapping flight over long distances requires substantial fuel stores, most of which are accumulated prior to departure and supplemented with stopover re-fueling in long-distance migrants (Biebach, 1998). Lipids are advantageous as the primary fuel source for migration because fatty acid catabolism yields 8–10 times more energy than glycogen and more metabolic water than both protein and glycogen (Jenni and Jenni-Eiermann, 1998; McWilliams et al., 2004). However, lipids are more difficult to transport through the plasma and cytosol relative to carbohydrates and proteins. Fueling begins with a dramatic increase in food intake, facilitated by hypertrophy of digestive organs and increased digestion efficiency (Bairlein et al., 2013). Diet selection shifts towards foods that promote lipid storage (Bairlein, 2002; Smith et al., 2007). In mammals, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) have been identified as key players in lipid metabolism and homeostasis and are likely to play a similar role in avian species (Wang, 2010). Members of this family of nuclear receptor transcription factors are activated by fatty acid ligands and bind to PPAR response elements on DNA as a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). Ligand binding also triggers a conformational change in the receptor that stimulates recruitment of co-activator proteins and loss of co-repressors, ultimately leading to transcription of PPAR target genes (Bensinger and Tontonoz, 2008; Georgiadi and Kersten, 2012). The three identified isotypes of the PPAR family are functionally differentiated based on tissue distribution and biological function. PPARγ is highly expressed in adipose tissue and drives expression of target genes involved in fatty acid uptake and storage such as lipoprotein lipase and the adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (Bensinger and Tontonoz, 2008). PPARγ can be induced in liver in the context of high dietary fat intake and controls fatty acid synthesis via regulation of genes encoding malic enzyme and fatty acid synthase (Gavrilova et al., 2003; Bedoucha et al., 2001). PPARα is expressed predominately in oxidative tissues such as skeletal muscle and liver. It controls catabolism and utilization of fatty acids through target genes such as adipose triglyceride lipase and fatty acid oxidation pathway genes (Georgiadi and Kersten, 2012). PPARδ (also known as PPARβ) is ubiquitously expressed and activates target genes involved in fatty acid metabolism, mitochondrial respiration and programming of muscle fiber type (Bensinger and Tontonoz, 2008; Wang, 2010; Liu et al., 2013). Here, we focus on two of the three members, PPARγ and PPARα, as the primary regulators of fatty acid storage and utilization. PPARs are highly conserved in all vertebrates examined thus far, including several avian species. PPARs exhibit a similar tissue distribution in chickens (Meng et al., 2004) and ducks (Wu et al., 2010) to that in mammals. PPARs are also conserved in our study species, the gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), and show similar molecular function to that in mammals. In functional assays, catbird PPARs respond to fatty acids, isoform-selective ligands, and synthetic antagonists on PPAR-responsive genes, including LPL or CPT1B, in a pattern comparable to their mammalian homologs (J.M.H., unpublished). However, the involvement of PPARs in seasonal changes in energy uptake, conversion and storage throughout the catbird annual cycle remains unexplored. The present study aimed to determine the role of PPARs in stage transitions of adiposity across the annual cycle of the gray catbird. Gray catbirds are neotropical migrants that breed throughout north-central North America and overwinter along the Gulf Coast of the USA, the Caribbean and much of Central America. They are abundant in southwest Ohio during spring and summer, and in Belize during the over-wintering months. Several years of banding data in southwest Ohio show that these birds prepare for migration with increased fat stores. Thus, catbirds are an appropriate model species to study physiological changes associated with migration (D.E.R., unpublished observation). If PPARs are indeed involved in the regulation of adiposity across the annual cycle of a migrant songbird, the expression patterns of PPARs and their target genes should vary in congruence with the morphological and physiological changes observed across life-history stages. We tested the hypothesis that seasonal patterns of adiposity and energy mobilization are associated with coordinated expression patterns of PPARγ and PPARα and their respective target genes. As a primary player in fatty acid uptake and storage, we expected an up-regulation of PPARγ and its targets in adipose and liver during the gray catbird pre-migratory stage. Conversely, we expected elevated expression of PPARα and its target genes involved in fatty acid mobilization and oxidation in the liver during migratory periods. As the liver is the primary lipogenic organ, we also expected it to show mass changes that coordinate with periods of hyperphagia and adipose storage. MATERIALS AND METHODS Gray catbirds, D. carolinensis (Linnaeus 1766), were captured with mist nets from 30 April to 11 May (late spring migration), 11 to 27 June (breeding), 5 to 15 August (pre-migration) and 17 to 27 September (early autumn migration) in 2013 and 2014, and 8 to 16 January in 2014 (tropical overwintering). Catbirds during spring migration, breeding, pre-migration and autumn migration were caught in southwest Ohio, either at the Hueston Woods Biological Station in Hueston Woods State Park (39°34′ N, 84°44′ W) or at the Miami University Ecology Research Center (39°30′ N, 84°45′ W). Catbirds during tropical overwintering were caught in Indian Church, Belize (17°45′ N, 88°40′ W). All catbirds were caught between sunrise and early afternoon. Upon capture, catbirds were transported to the lab at Miami University (Ohio) or the field laboratory in Indian Church (Belize). All animal trials were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Miami University (protocol no. 875). Bird capture was permitted through the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, US Fish and Wildlife Services, and the Forest Department of Belize. The experiments complied with the Principles of Animal Care, publication no. 86-23, revised 1985, of the National Institutes of Health as well as the laws of the United States and Belize. Body composition and tissue collection Upon capture, all birds were weighed and birds in Ohio were analyzed for whole-body composition using an EchoMRI-SuperFLEX™ analyzer (EchoMRI, Houston, TX, USA). All birds were then killed with an isofluorane overdose and decapitated. The liver was immediately dissected and weighed, and samples of both liver and adipose tissue were placed in Qiagen Allprotect Tissue Reagent for later experiments. Tissues were stored in the Allprotect Tissue Reagent at 4°C for 1–2 days in Ohio, then frozen with liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80°C until further experimentation. In Belize, samples were stored at approximately 4°C for the duration of fieldwork (4–10 days), then frozen at −80°C upon return to the USA. Rate of basal lipolysis in adipose tissue An additional 30–200 mg of adipose tissue was removed from each bird and placed in Krebs Ringer buffer (KRB/BSA, made with 15 mmol l−1 NaHCO3, 3.32 mmol l−1 CaCl2 and 4% fatty acid-free bovine serum albumin; Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA; following Price et al., 2008). Prior to dissections, KRB/BSA was oxygenated with 95% O2:5% CO2 for a total of 30 min. Adipose tissue was then minced into ∼1 mm pieces, washed with 50 ml KRB/BSA, and transferred to a 5 ml vial containing 1 ml KRB/BSA warmed to 37°C. The vial was incubated in a 37°C shaking water bath for a total of 2 h and 15 min. Fifteen minutes into incubation, a 100 μl sample of the incubation media was collected. At the end of the incubation, all incubation media was collected. Samples were stored at −20°C until analysis. Media samples from Belize were transported to Ohio for analysis. Samples were analyzed for glycerol concentration as a measure of overall rate of basal lipolysis from the tissue using the Free Glycerol Determination Kit (Sigma-Aldrich) and a spectrophotometer at 540 nm (SpectraMax Plus384, Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Glycerol concentration from the first 15 min of incubation were subtracted from the end concentration to correct for any glycerol missed by the initial rinse. The rate of glycerol release is reported as mmol g−1 h−1. Determination of liver lipid content Liver samples from a subset of animals collected in Ohio were used to determine lipid content. Lipids were extracted from a piece of the liver using a modified Folch method (Folch et al., 1957). Liver samples used in this assay were frozen directly in liquid nitrogen and stored until use. The liver piece was weighed and then minced in 40 ml of 2:1 chloroform:methanol mixture. After 24 h at 4°C, the sample was filtered, 60 ml of 1:1 H2O:chloroform was added and this was left overnight to separate via gravity in a separatory funnel. The lower phase was drained and evaporated under nitrogen stream using a NEVAP 111 (Organomation, Berlin, MA, USA). The remaining dry extract was weighed and the lipid content (as a percentage of original tissue weight) was obtained. Expression of PPARs and target genes RNA was extracted from catbird liver and adipose tissue using TRIzol® Reagent (Ambion, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions and further purified with a column cleanup (RNeasy Mini Kit for liver, RNeasy MinElute Cleanup Kit for adipose, Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA, USA). RNA concentrations and purity were determined using a NanoDrop 2000 (NanoDrop Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA) and diluted to a final concentration of 0.1 μg μl−1 with nuclease-free water. A total of 1 μg RNA was then reverse transcribed using the iScript cDNA synthesis kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA) following the manufacturer's instructions on a PTC-100 thermocycler (Bio-Rad). cDNA was then used as a template for quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Each PCR reaction mixture was composed of cDNA template, 0.1 or 0.05 μmol l−1 gene-specific primers (primer-specific optimal concentration) and 2× iQ SYBR® Green Supermix (Bio-Rad) in a total of 15 μl. The temperature cycles for each qRT-PCR reaction were as follows: 3 min at 95°C, 40 cycles of 95°C for 12 s, and a primer-specific optimal temperature (55–63.7°C) for 45 s. Each qRT-PCR run was completed with a melt curve analysis to confirm the presence of a single PCR product and amplification efficiency was verified for every primer pair. Samples from birds collected within each season of the annual cycle were equally represented in each qPCR run for every gene analyzed to ensure variance due to PCR cycle was distributed equally across the experiment. Expression levels were determined using the ΔΔCt method. We performed RNA-seq analysis of transcripts in adipose collected from two catbirds captured during summer breeding to profile metabolic genes and PPAR isoforms that are expressed in this tissue. The primer sequences corresponding to candidate genes measured in the study were derived from direct sequence data of the annotated data set. Primers were designed to span consecutive exons based on the assumption that the gene organization is conserved between catbirds and the reference organism. Finally, the primers were subject to BLAST analysis to confirm that primers had no other high-affinity recognition sequences in the reference avian genome. Primer sequences are shown in Table 1. Target genes include two long-chain fatty acid membrane transporters (CD36, FATP1), an intracellular fatty acid binding protein (FABP4), two intracellular lipases (HSL, ATGL) and one epithelial lipase (LPL), and two lipid droplet-associated proteins (PLIN1, PLIN3). Transcript expression levels were normalized to 36B4 transcript expression (which did not significantly vary across seasons; F4,32=0.642, P=0.636) and are reported relative to the pre-migration stage. The acidic ribosomal protein 36B4, encoded by the Rplp0 gene, is a commonly used reference gene transcript for normalization because it is ubiquitous and its expression is relatively stable across defined experimental groups (Laborda, 1991). The overall effect of life-history stage on each parameter was analyzed using a one-way ANOVA, followed by post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD method. If the parametric assumptions of normality and equal variance were not met according to the Shapiro–Wilk and Levene's tests, data were log-transformed. Statistical analyses on the rate of lipolysis and gene expression (unless otherwise noted) were performed on log-transformed data. However, all figures depict untransformed data. In the case of fat mass and lean mass, and expression of CD36 and ATGL, log-transformation still did not meet the one-way ANOVA assumptions, so a non-parametric comparison was used (Wilcoxon and Kruskal–Wallis rank sums test followed by Steel–Dwass pairwise comparisons). A series of linear regressions were calculated to compare relationships between the expression of selected lipolysis or perilipin genes and either the rate of lipolysis or the expression of PPARs. The level of significance was set at P<0.05. All data are reported as means±s.e.m. The number of observations is listed with each figure or table. All statistical procedures were performed with JMP (SAS Institute, version 10.0). Body mass and composition Catbirds maintained a significantly higher body mass during early autumn migration while body mass remained relatively constant throughout other stages of the annual cycle (Fig. 1; F4,80=9.84, P<0.0001). Fat mass was also elevated during migratory periods compared with breeding and pre-migration, as indicated by MRI measurements (Fig. 2A; =27.10, P<0.0001). Lean mass showed significant remodeling across life-history stages (Fig. 2B; =14.57, P=0.0022), with the highest lean mass during pre-migration and lowest lean mass measured toward the end of spring migration. Tissue structure and function Liver mass from catbirds caught during pre-migration and early autumn migration was significantly greater than that during breeding, late spring migration and tropical overwintering (Fig. 3; F4,48=10.55, P<0.0001). Lipid content of the livers did not differ across stages (Table 2; F3,12=0.29, P=0.83). Catbirds caught in the tropics demonstrated the highest rate of basal lipolysis from adipose tissue, compared with the other four life-history stages (Fig. 4; F4,42=4.90, P=0.0025). Although not different according to post hoc comparisons, after grouping migratory or non-migratory catbirds in Ohio only, we found that catbirds mobilized glycerol from adipose tissue at a 1.5-fold higher rate during migratory periods compared with non-migratory periods (t-test, P=0.005). PPAR and target gene expression In the liver, we saw no difference in PPARγ mRNA expression (Fig. 5; F4,61=1.07, P=0.39). PPARα mRNA expression in the liver did vary across stages of the annual cycle, with the highest levels of expression during spring migration and the lowest expression levels during tropical overwintering (Fig. 5; F4,61=5.45, P=0.0008). Although PPARα mRNA expression varied, none of the target genes investigated showed a significant change in expression in the liver, although CD36, FABP4 and LPL expression did approach significance (Table 3). In adipose tissue, PPARγ mRNA expression did not vary across stages of the annual cycle (Fig. 5; F4,39=0.73, P=0.58). Expression of several of the selected PPAR target genes was not significantly modified across the annual cycle, while FABPpm and PLIN3 expression did vary, and LPL expression was very nearly significant (Table 4). FABPpm expression in adipose was high during pre-migration and autumn migration, and was significantly depressed during spring migration (F4,39=4.85, P=0.003). While PLIN3 expression did vary across the annual cycle (F4,39=2.83, P=0.04), pairwise comparisons did not identify the specific periods that differed. Generally, PLIN3 expression was highest in the tropics or during pre-migration in Ohio. Using linear regression analysis, a significant relationship was found between expression of PPARγ and ATGL (F1,42=5.23, P=0.027), and between PPARγ and LPL (F1,42=12.65, P=0.0009), both in adipose tissue. However, the r2 of both was rather low (Table 5). We also found no significant relationship between expression of lipases or perilipins and the rate of glycerol release from adipose tissue, nor between liver and adipose tissue LPL expression (Table 5). The annual cycle of a migratory bird involves several life-history stages, all with distinctly different requirements for lipid metabolism. Each stage entails a unique balance of two prominent physiological states: (1) fuel assimilation and absorption, and (2) fuel mobilization and utilization (Ramenofsky, 1990). Here, we present evidence for the role of PPARs and their target genes in the regulation of fatty acid storage and use across the annual cycle of the gray catbird. We found increased mRNA expression of PPARα in liver during late spring migration, which suggests a role in fatty acid oxidation during the migratory event. Additionally, these data may support a role for liver PPARα in ketogenesis during prolonged periods without food (i.e. migratory flight), as seen in mammals (Kersten et al., 1999; Leone et al., 1999), to provide adequate energy substrates during periods of fasting. This PPARα mRNA upregulation was not seen during early autumn migration, which is likely a result of differences in sampling between the two migratory periods used in this study. Migratory birds were caught in Ohio at or near the onset of migration (autumn) or near the completion of their northward migration (spring). Lower PPARα mRNA expression during autumn migration suggests a lesser emphasis on lipid oxidation and/or ketogenesis during the onset of migration. The liver is central to lipid metabolism and plasticity in this organ is expected across the migratory cycle. Elevated liver mass during pre-migration and autumn migration may be attributed to increased lipid accumulation or tissue hypertrophy. Lipogenesis, the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl CoA in the liver, is carried out by several enzymes including malic enzyme and Δ9-desaturase – both of which show marked increases in activity during pre-migration (DeGraw, 1975; Shah et al., 1978; Egeler et al., 2000) and are PPAR targets (Yu et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2006). Increased lipogenesis can result in lipid accumulation in the liver, and lipid content is increased in the liver during the pre-migratory period in some species (Odum and Perkinson, 1951; King et al., 1963). However, we found no evidence of increased lipid content within catbird livers despite the elevated mass during pre-migration and autumn migration. Glycogen stores may also contribute to increased liver mass – however, glycogen is a relatively insignificant fuel source for migratory birds so storage is relatively small (Jenni and Jenni-Eiermann, 1998; McWilliams and Karasov, 2001; Guglielmo, 2010). The liver possesses a high capacity for tissue plasticity and regeneration via both hepatocyte hypertrophy and proliferation (Miyaoka et al., 2012). Liver hypertrophy in mammals is typically associated with lipid accumulation and disease (Ludwig et al., 1980). However, increased liver mass is also observed in edible dormice prior to hibernation and is attributed to both lipid accumulation and hypertrophy (Bieber et al., 2011). Thus, we suggest that hepatocyte growth also occurs in response to increased demand for processing of lipid in preparation for migration. We did not see changes in our selected PPAR target genes in liver, which suggests that other, as yet unknown, factors are also important, although variance in CD36/FAT expression approached significance, with highest expression levels during pre-migration, when storage is expected to predominate. We did not detect liver hypertrophy in spring migrants, which may be due to measurements being taken at the later stage in migration. Lean mass in general is lower in spring migration, and liver tissue is likely also catabolized both to provide fuel and to reduce the mass of less critical tissues (Bauchinger et al., 2005). Regardless of whether fatty acids derive from lipogenesis in the liver or from exogenous sources, fatty acid uptake into cells occurs both by passive diffusion and via membrane transporters. Long-chain fatty acids rely solely on facilitated transport across the plasma membrane, involving plasma membrane fatty acid binding protein (FABPpm), fatty acid translocase (CD36/FAT) and fatty acid transport protein (FATP1; Large et al., 2004; Bonen et al., 2007; McFarlan et al., 2009). As pre-migratory birds prefer long-chain unsaturated fatty acids (Pierce et al., 2004), these transport proteins are likely a limiting step for pre-migratory fatty acid storage in adipose tissue. During migration, adipose blood flow is likely important for release of fatty acids as they move down their concentration gradient (Vock et al., 1996). We saw increases in FABPpm expression in adipose tissue during pre-migration and into autumn migration in catbirds, indicating a higher capacity for fatty acid uptake and storage into adipocytes. FABPpm in adipose is down-regulated during spring migration, indicating a shift in metabolism away from fatty acid uptake into adipose tissue and likely toward fatty acid transport and utilization in muscle. It may be that fatty acid transporters in adipose are not needed in later stages of migration (e.g. our spring migrating birds) or, alternatively, birds may simply be unable to prioritize their expression after completing most of the migration. Together, these data suggest that increased fat stores during migration are, in part, facilitated by increased expression of fatty acid binding proteins during pre-migration and the onset of migration. Our findings parallel the findings of McFarlan et al. (2009), who found an increase in FABPpm (mRNA and protein) and heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) in the muscles of white-throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) during migratory periods. Guglielmo et al. (2002) also found an increase in H-FABP expression in the flight muscles of the western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) during migration compared with tropical overwintering and pre-migration. H-FABP, as well as adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (FABP4), mediate fatty acid transport within the cytosol and are in partial control of the metabolic fate of fatty acids within the cell (Bordoni et al., 2006). However, we found no significant seasonal variation in FABP4 expression in either the liver or adipose tissues. The inconsistency of our findings with those of McFarlan et al. (2009) and Guglielmo et al. (2002) regarding intracellular FABP is likely a result of differences in requirements for intracellular fatty acid transport between the tissues measured. Relative to liver and adipose, flight muscles may demand a much more dramatic increase in intracellular fatty acid transport to fuel the aerobic challenge of migration. To our knowledge, the present study provides the first measure of the rate of basal lipolysis from adipose tissue in wild-caught migrant birds. These data demonstrate a striking increase in energy mobilization during periods of migration, compared with breeding and pre-migratory periods. This result is contrary to a previous report that found no significant variation of mobilization rates with migratory state (Price et al., 2008), although data in that report were nearly significant. Price et al. (2008) used photoperiod manipulations to induce a migratory state in captive white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys), which may not provide an adequate stimulus to elicit a signal for increased energy mobilization, given the lack of activity. Surprisingly, we observed the highest rates of basal lipolysis from catbird adipose tissue during tropical overwintering. These results are perplexing, as catbirds overwintering in the tropics are assumed to have lower energetic demands relative to other life stages. It is also possible that changes in the responsiveness to catecholamines play a role in these patterns. Mobilization of stored fuels in adipose tissue occurs via lipolysis of tri-acylglycerols. Within adipocytes, hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) and adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) are the major lipases important for controlling lipolysis. ATGL expression is influenced by short-term changes in nutritional status (Kershaw et al., 2006; Lafontan and Langin, 2009; Serr et al., 2009; Saneyasu et al., 2013a,b). Given the variation in basal lipolysis across the annual cycle, we expected the expression of these two lipases to track seasonal variation. However, we found no differences in expression of either lipase in catbird adipose tissue over the annual cycle, although variation in ATGL expression was significantly correlated with PPARγ mRNA expression. In addition to lipases, perilipins are also important in controlling the rate of lipolysis within adipocytes. Perilipins are phosphoproteins that coat lipid droplets in adipocytes to protect triacylglycerol (TAG) against hydrolysis and, in turn, regulate storage of TAG in adipose (Large et al., 2004). Seasonal variation in perilipin expression could thus be relevant to lipid uptake, storage and mobilization. We found no significant variation in perilipin-1 (PLIN1) gene expression, but perilipin-3 (PLIN3) gene expression was significantly elevated during pre-migratory stages. As PLIN3 is less effective at preventing lipolysis than PLIN1 (Patel et al., 2014), a greater proportion of PLIN3 on the lipid droplets favors lipid mobilization. However, there was no correlation between PLIN3 expression and lipid release from adipose tissue. Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) gene expression varied significantly with PPARγ expression in adipose tissue, but not with lipid export from adipose (Table 5). As adipose LPL is involved in uptake and storage, the latter observation was expected. This is the first study to address the potential role of PPARs in lipid metabolism of migrant birds across life-history stages. Our data highlight the role of PPARα and PPARγ through coordinated expression changes with their downstream target genes involved in fatty acid uptake and transport during pre-migration and near the end of migration when fat storage and utilization are at their respective maxima. There are many potential PPAR targets in adipose and liver that remain uncharacterized, and future research is necessary to determine whether expression of these genes exhibits seasonal changes. As regulators of lipid metabolism, PPARs could contribute to the link between environment and phenotype in response to energetic challenges that occur at each life-history stage. Our results show that PPAR expression changes do not vary dramatically (>3-fold) across the annual cycle in liver and adipose, suggesting that PPARs may not be the dominant factors driving metabolic processes. However, as ligand-activated receptors, it is likely that fluctuations in fatty acids (circulating concentrations and species) play a significant role in PPAR-dependent gene reprogramming at various life stages. The diet selection of migratory birds shifts toward fatty acids prior to migration (Bairlein, 2002; McWilliams et al., 2004), but how dietary-derived fatty acids interact with PPARs to regulate downstream target genes is unclear. Additional studies to characterize the seasonal changes in PPAR ligands found in the serum and tissues of birds will be essential to further define the role of PPARs in metabolic regulation during migration. In conclusion, although the lipid metabolism regulatory function of PPARs is conserved across taxa, it is still unclear whether PPARs play a role in regulating changes in lipid metabolism among migratory and non-migratory seasons in birds. We thank Michael Oxendine, Jackie Wagner, Dr Jill Russell and the Avian Research and Education Institute volunteers for assistance with animal capture, and Michael Oxendine and Angela Hamilton for technical assistance. Dr Haifei Shi provided the MRI instrument and Dr Richard Lee provided helpful editorial comments on the manuscript. We also appreciate the assistance of Dr Ann Rypstra and the staff at the Miami University Ecology Research Center. We are grateful for the assistance of Dr Andor Kiss and the staff at the Miami University Center for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics. We also thank Dr Xiwei Wu and Charles Warden of the City of Hope Functional Genomics Core (supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under award number P30CA33572) for performing the RNA-seq annotation. P.J.S. and J.M.H. conceived and designed the experiments. K.R.C., K.J.D., J.M.H. and P.J.S. participated in the collection of the data. K.R.C. and K.J.D. analyzed the data and performed statistical analysis. K.R.C. wrote the first draft of the manuscript. K.R.C., D.E.R., J.M.H. and P.J.S. revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. This work was funded by National Science Foundation grant IOS-1257455 (to P.J.S., D.E.R. and J.M.H.), a Journal of Experimental Biology (The Company of Biologists) Travelling Fellowship (to K.R.C.), and funds from Miami University (to P.J.S. and K.R.C.). The authors declare no competing or financial interests.

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At the height of California’s worst wildfire season on record, Geoff Marshall looked down at his computer and realized that an enormous blaze was about to take firefighters by surprise. Marshall runs the fire prediction team at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (known as Cal Fire), headquartered in Sacramento, which gives him an increasingly difficult job: anticipating the behavior of wildfires that become less predictable every year. The problem was obvious from where Marshall sat: California’s forests were caught between a management regime devoted to growing thick stands of trees—and eradicating the low-intensity fire that had once cleared them—and a rapidly warming, increasingly unstable climate. As a result, more and more fires were crossing a poorly understood threshold from typical wildfires—part of a normal burn cycle for a landscape like California’s—to monstrous, highly destructive blazes. Sometimes called “megafires” (a scientifically meaningless term that loosely refers to fires that burn more than 100,000 acres), these massive blazes are occurring more often around the world, blasting across huge swaths of California, Chile, Australia, the Amazon, and the Mediterranean region. At that particular moment in California last September, several unprecedented fires were burning simultaneously. Together, they would double the record-setting acreage of the 2018 wildfire season in less than a month. But just as concerning to Marshall as their size was that the biggest fires often behaved in unexpected ways, making it harder to forecast their movements. To face this new era, Marshall had a new tool at his disposal: Wildfire Analyst, a real-time fire prediction and modeling program that Cal Fire first licensed from a California-based firm called TechnoSylva in 2019. The work of predicting how fires spread had long been a matter of hand-drawn ellipses and models so slow analysts set them before bed and hoped they were done in the morning. Wildfire Analyst, on the other hand, funnels data from dozens of distinct feeds: weather forecasts, satellite images, and measures of moisture in a given area. Then it projects all that on an elegant graphic overlay of fires burning across California. Every night, while fire crews sleep, Wildfire Analyst seeds those digital forests with millions of test burns, pre-calculating their spread so that human analysts like Marshall can do simulations in a matter of seconds, creating “runs” they can port to Google Maps to show their superiors where the biggest risks are. But this particular risk, Marshall suddenly realized, had slipped past the program. The display now showed a cluster of bright pink and green polygons creeping over the east flank of the Sierras, near the town of Big Creek. The polygons, one of the many feeds ported directly into Wildfire Analyst, were from FireGuard, a real-time feed from the US Department of Defense that estimates all wildfires’ current locations. They were spreading, far faster than they should have been, up the Big Creek drainage. In its calculations, Wildfire Analyst had made a number of assumptions. It “saw,” on the other side of Big Creek, a dense stand of heavy timber. Such stands were traditionally thought to impede the rapid spread of fire, which models attribute largely to fine fuels like pine straw. But Marshall suddenly realized, as the algorithms driving Wildfire Analyst had not, that the drainage held all the ingredients for a perfect firestorm. That “heavy timber,” he knew, was in fact a huge patch of dead trees weakened by beetles, killed by drought, and baked by two weeks of 100 °F heat into picture-perfect firewood. And the Big Creek valley would focus the wind onto the fire like a bellows. With no weather station at the mouth of the creek, the program couldn’t see all that. Marshall went back to his computer and re-ran some numbers with the new variables factored in. He watched on his screen as the fire spread at frightening speed across the Sierra. “I went to the operation trailer and told my uppers: I think it’s going to jump the San Joaquin River,” he recalls. “And if it does, it’s going to run big.” This was, at that moment, a far-fetched claim—no California fire had ever made a nine-mile run in heavy timber, no matter how dry. But in this case, the trees’ combustion created powerful plumes of superheated air that drove the fire on. It jumped the river and raced through the timber to a reservoir known as Mammoth Pool, where a last-minute airlift saved 200 campers from fiery death. The Creek Fire was a case study in the challenge facing today’s fire analysts, who are trying to predict the movements of fires that are far more severe than those seen just a decade ago. Since we understand so little about how fire works, they’re using mathematical tools built on outdated assumptions, as well as technological platforms that fail to capture the uncertainty in their work. Programs like Wildfire Analyst, while useful, give an impression of precision and accuracy that can be misleading. Getting ahead of the most destructive fires will require not simply new computational tools but a sweeping change in how forests are managed. Along with climate change, generations of land and environmental management decisions—intended to preserve the forests that many Californians feel a duty to protect—have inadvertently created this new age of hyper-destructive fire. But if these massive fires continue, California could see the forests of the Sierra erased as thoroughly as those of Australia’s Blue Mountains. Avoiding this nightmare scenario will require a paradigm shift. Residents, fire commanders, and political leaders must switch from a mindset of preventing or controlling wildfire to learning to live with it. That will mean embracing fire management techniques that encourage more frequent burns—and ultimately allowing fires to forever transform the landscapes that they love. In late October, Marshall shared his screen and took me on a tour in Wildfire Analyst. We watched the fluorescent FireGuard polygons of a new flame “finger” break out from the smoldering August Complex. With a few clicks, he laid four tiny virtual fires along the real fire’s edge, on the far side of the fire line that had blocked its progress. A few seconds later, fire blossomed across the simulated landscape. Under current conditions, the model estimated, a fire that broke out at those points could “blow out” to 8,000 acres—a nearly three-mile run—within 24 hours. For Marshall and the rest of Cal Fire’s analysts, Wildfire Analyst provides a standardized platform on which to share data from fires they’re watching, projections about the runs they might make, and hacks to make a simulated fire approximate the behavior of a real one. With that information, they try to anticipate where a fire is going to go next, which in theory can drive decisions about where to send crews or which regions to evacuate. Like any model, Wildfire Analyst is only as good as the data that feeds it—and that data is only as good as our scientific understanding of the phenomenon in question. When it comes to the mechanics of wildland fire, that understanding is “medieval,” says Mark Finney, director of the US Forest Service’s Missoula Fire Lab. Our current approach to fire modeling, which powers every real-time analytic platform including TechnoSylva’s Wildfire Analyst, is built on a particular set of equations that a researcher named Richard Rothermel derived at the Fire Lab nearly half a century ago to calculate how fast fire would move, with given wind conditions, through given fuels. Rothermel’s key assumption—perhaps a necessary one, given the computational tools available at the time, but one we now know to be false—was that fires spread only through radiation as the front of the flame catches fine fuels (pine straw, leaf litter, twigs) on the ground. That spread, Rothermel found, drove outward in a thin, expanding edge along an ellipse. To figure out how a fire would grow, firefighters in the field used “nomograms”: premade graphs that assigned specific values for wind speed, slope, and fuel conditions to reveal an average speed of spread. In his early days in the field, Finney says, “you would spread your folder of nomograms on the hood of your pickup and make your projections in thick pencil,” charting on a topo map where the fire would be in an hour, or two, or three. Rothermel’s equations allowed analysts to model fire like a game of Go, across homogenous cells of a two-dimensional landscape. This is where things have stood for decades. Wildfire Analyst and similar tools represent a repackaging of this approach more than a fundamental improvement on it. (TechnoSylva did not respond to multiple interview requests.) What’s needed now is less a technique for real-time prediction than a fundamental reappraisal of how fire works—and a concerted effort to restore California’s landscapes to something approaching a natural equilibrium. The problem for products like Wildfire Analyst, and for analysts like Marshall, is easy to state and hard to solve. A fire is not a linear system, proceeding from cause to effect. It is a “coupled” system in which cause and effect are tangled up. Even on the scale of a candle, ignition kicks off a self-sustaining reaction that deforms the environment around it, changing the entire system further—fuel decaying into flame, sucking in more wind, which stokes the fire further and breaks down more fuel. Such systems are notoriously sensitive to even small changes, which makes them fiendishly difficult to model. A small variance in the starting data can lead, as with the Creek Fire calculations, to an answer that is exponentially wrong. In terms of this kind of nonlinear complexity, fire is a lot like weather—but the computational fluid dynamic models that are used to build forecasts for, say, the National Weather Service require supercomputers. The models that try to capture the complexity of a wildland blaze are typically hundreds of times simpler. Pioneering scientists like Rothermel dealt with this intractable problem by ignoring it. Instead, they searched for factors, such as wind speed and slope, that could help them predict a fire’s next move in real time. Looking back, Finney says, it’s a miracle that Rothermel’s equations work for wildfires at all. There’s the sheer difference in scale—Rothermel derived his equations from tiny, controlled fires set in 18-inch fuel beds. But there are also more fundamental errors. Most glaring was Rothermel’s assumption that fire spreads only by radiation, instead of through the convection currents that you see when a campfire flickers. This assumption isn’t true, and yet for some fires, even huge ones like 2017’s Northwest Oklahoma Complex, which burned more than 780,000 acres, Rothermel’s spread equations still seem to work. But at certain scales, and under certain conditions, fire creates a new kind of system that defies any such attempt to describe it. The Creek Fire in California, for example, didn’t just go big. It created a plume of hot air that pooled under the stratosphere, like steam against the lid of a pressure cooker. Then it popped through to 50,000 feet, sucking in air from below that drove the flames on, creating a storm system—complete with lightning and fire tornadoes—where no storm should have been. Other huge, destructive fires appear to ricochet off the weather, or each other, in chaotic ways. Fires usually quiet down at night, but in 2020, two of the biggest runs in California broke out at night. Since heat rises, fires usually burn uphill, but in the Bear Fire, two enormous flame heads raced 22 miles downhill, a line of tornadic plumes spinning between them. Finney says we don’t know if the intensity caused the strange behaviors or vice versa, or if both rose from some deeper dynamic. One measure of our ignorance, in his view, is that we can’t even rely on it: “It would be really nice to know when our current models will work and when they won’t,” he says. To Finney and other fire scientists, the danger with products like Wildfire Analyst is not necessarily that they’re inaccurate. All models are. It’s that they hide solutions inside a black box, and—far more important—focus on the wrong problem. Unlike Wildfire Analyst, the older generation of tools required analysts to know precisely what hedges and assumptions they were making. The new tools leave all that to the computer. Such products play into the field’s obsession with modeling, scientist after scientist told me, despite the fact that no model can predict what fire will do. “You can always calibrate the system afterward to match your observations,” says Brandon Collins, a wildfire research scientist at UC Berkeley. “But can you predict it beforehand?” Doing so is a question of science rather than technology: it would require primary research to develop and test a new theory of flame. But such work is expensive, and most wildfire research money is awarded to solve specific technical problems. The Missoula Fire Lab survives on the remnants of a Great Society–era budget; its sister facility, the Macon Fire Lab in Georgia, was shut down in the 1990s. Collins and Finney are doing what they can with the funds available to them. They’re both part of a public-private fire science working group called Pyregence that’s converting a grain silo into a furnace to see how large logs, like the fallen timber on Big Creek, spread fire. Meanwhile, Finney’s team at the Missoula Fire Lab is working to develop a data set that answers fundamental questions about fire—a potential basis for new models. They aim to describe how wind on smoldering logs drives new flame fronts; quantify the likelihood that embers cast by a flame will “spot,” or ignite, new fires; and study the role that pine forests seem to play in encouraging their own burning. The point of those models is less to see where a particular fire will go once it’s broken out, and more to serve as a planning tool to help Californians better manage the fire-prone, fire-suppressed landscape they live in. Like ecosystems in Chile, Portugal, Greece, and Australia—all regions that have recently seen more megafires—California’s conifer forests evolved over thousands of years in which natural and human-caused fires periodically cleared out excess fuel and created the space and nutrients for new growth. Before the 19th century, Native Americans are thought to have deliberately burned about as much of California every year as burned there in 2020. Similar practices survived until as recently as the 1970s—ranchers in the Sierra foothills would burn brush to encourage new growth for their animals to eat. Loggers pulled tons of timber from forests groomed to produce huge volumes of it, burning the debris in place. Then, as ranchers went bust and sold their land to developers, pastureland became residential communities. Clean-air regulations discouraged the remaining ranchers from burning. And decades of conflict between environmental organizations and logging companies ended, in the 1990s, with loggers deserting the forests they had once clear-cut. In the Sierra—as in these other regions now prone to huge, destructive fires—a heavily altered landscape that was long ago torn from any natural equilibrium was largely abandoned. Millions of acres of pine grew in, packed and thirsty. Eventually many were killed by drought and bark beetles, accumulating into a preponderance of fuel. Fires that could have cleared the land and reset the forest were extinguished by the US Forest Service and Cal Fire, whose primary objective had become wholesale fire suppression. Breaking free of this legacy won’t be easy. The future Finney is working toward is one where people can compare various models and decide which will work best for a given situation. He and his team hope better data will lead to better planning models that, he says, “could give us the confidence to let some fires burn and do our work for us.” Still, he says, focusing too much on models risks missing a more important question: “What if we are ignoring the basic aspect of wildfire—that we need more fire, proper fire, so that we don’t let wildfire surprise and destroy us?” Living with wildfires In 2014, the King Fire raged across the California Sierra, leaving a burn scar where trees have still not regrown. Instead, says Forest Service silviculturist Dana Walsh, they’ve been replaced by thick mats of chaparral, a fire-prone shrub that has squeezed out the forest’s return. “People ask what happens if we just let nature take its course after a big fire,” Walsh says. “You get 30,000 acres of chaparral.” This is the danger that landscapes from the Pyrenees to California Sierra to Australia’s Blue Mountains now face, says Marc Castellnou, a Catalan fire scientist who is a consultant to TechnoSylva. Over the last two decades, he’s studied the rise of megafires around the world, watching as they smashed records for length or speed of runs. For too long, he says, California’s fire and forest policy has resisted an inevitable change in the landscape. The state doesn’t need flawless predictive tools to see where its forests are headed, he says: “The fuel is building up, the energy is building up, the atmosphere is getting hotter.” The landscape will rebalance itself. California’s choice—as in Catalonia, where Castellnou is chief scientist for the autonomous province’s 4,000-person fire corps—is to either move with that change and have some chance of influencing it, or be bowled over by megafires. The goal is less to regenerate native forests in these areas—which Castellnou believes have been made obsolete by climate change—than to work with the landscape to develop a new type of forest where wildfires are less likely to blow out into massive blazes. In large measure, his approach lies in returning to old land management techniques. Rural people in his region once controlled destructive fires by starting or allowing frequent, low-intensity fires, and using livestock to eat down brush in the interim. They planted stands of fire-resistant hardwood species that stood like sentinels, blocking waves of flame. For Castellnou, though, this also means making politically difficult choices. In July 2019, just outside of Tivissa, Spain, I watched him explain to a group of rural Catalan mayors and olive farmers why he had let the area around their towns burn. He’d worried that if crews slowed the Catalan fires, they might cause it to form a pyrocumulonimbus—a violent cloud of fire, thunder, and wind like the one that formed over the Creek Fire. Such a phenomenon could have spurred the fire on until it took the towns anyway. Now, he says, gesturing to the burn scar, the towns had a fire defense in place of a liability. It was another tile in a mosaic landscape of pasture, forest, and old fire scars that could interrupt wildfire. As tough as planned burns are for many to swallow, letting wildfires burn through towns—even evacuated ones—is an even tougher sell. And replacing pristine Sierra Nevada forests with a landscape able to survive both drought and the most destructive fires—say, open stands of ponderosa pine punctuated by fields of grass, picked over by goats or cattle—might feel like a loss. Doing any of this well means adopting a change in philosophy as big as any change in predictive tech or science—one that would welcome fire back as a natural part of the environment. “We are not trying to save the landscape,” Castellnou says. “We are trying to help create the next landscape. We are not here to fight flames. We are here to make sure we have a forest tomorrow.”

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Gilles de Rais. Éloi Firmin Féron, 1835. You may have heard the story of Bluebeard—a woman marries a wealthy nobleman with a string of wives who had died under mysterious circumstances only to find said deceased wives congealing in an armoire. It’s a tale as old as time…or something. Variations have been told over the years, and a few real-life murderers have taken inspiration from it. What you might not realize, however, is that the Bluebeard of legend is said to be based on a controversial historical figure—the infamous Gilles de Rais (1404-40). As the story goes, Gilles de Rais’ crimes were unspeakable. Rather than murdering a series of wives, he was ultimately convicted of sexually assaulting and ritualistically murdering up to 150 boys in his descent into the occult. He was accused of heresy, alchemy, sodomy, sorcery, and murdering countless—and unidentified—women and children. You know, in addition to the 100, 150, or 600 boys, depending on who you ask. His crimes were so horrific and almost cartoonishly exaggerated, you have to wonder if they were even possible. Where did he find the time, how did he get away with it for so long, and who would ever do such a thing? What does the history say? Gilles de Rais fought in the Hundred Years’ War, where he distinguished himself as a courageous fighter. He was given the honor of guarding Joan of Arc by the dauphin in 1429. As her personal bodyguard, he fought alongside her in many of the most significant battles of her life. He helped to life the Siege of Orléans and earned the position of Marshal of France, the country’s highest military distinction. When Joan of Arc died in 1431, de Rais was devastated. She had been a dear friend to him, and he believed in her wholeheartedly. In his grief, he retired to his estate and threw himself into religion and the preservation of Joan’s memory. Although his estate was one of the richest in France, he burned through his money at an alarming rate, employing armies of servants and soldiers and commissioning works of music and literature in honor of her. In 1433, he funded the construction of the Chapel of Holy Innocents. The chapel featured a boys’ choir personally chosen by de Rais, a fact that many have pointed to as an early hint of the alleged crimes to come, but this is consistent with the enthusiastic attention to detail he applied to all of his projects. In 1435, he financed a play he wrote himself about the Siege of Orléans, and it almost bankrupted him. More than six hundred elaborate costumes were made for the 140 actors with speaking parts and 500 extras; each costume was worn only once, discarded, and sewn all over again for each performance. He also provided unlimited food and drink to all of the spectators in attendance. The play, Le Mystère du Siège d’Orléans, marks another turning point in his life. Not only was it regarded as fiscally irresponsible, but it amounted to the unofficial canonization of a woman who had been burned as a heretic. To hear many tell it, this is when his descent into the occult truly began, but the only evidence we have of anything even remotely related is his interest in alchemy, which he later confessed to publically. Crucially, alchemy itself was not a crime unless it was accomplished with the devil’s aid; de Rais had not attempted to invoke any demons, he’d only read a book. This was not enough to seize his estates, however, and a far more serious crime had to be invented. He was arrested in 1440 after kidnapping a priest over a minor dispute. Up until 1789, torture was considered a valid way to extract reliable testimony in France, and it was under these circumstances that de Rais confessed. Although the confession read by clerics at his execution named unspeakable crimes in lurid detail, his actual private confession was no more than a short verbal agreement to the charge of dabbling in alchemy. He was simultaneously hanged and burned alive on October 26th, 1440 in Nantes. By all accounts, de Rais was oddly calm as he faced an execution not unlike that of his beloved Joan of Arc, who he could not save in spite of his best efforts. After his death, he was hailed as model of penitence, and a three-day fast was observed in his honor. Bizarrely, until the mid-sixteenth century, the people of Nantes marked the anniversary of his execution by whipping their children. In 1992, biographer Gilbert Proteau argued that de Rais was innocent in Gilles de Rais ou la Gueule de Loup and called for a retrial. Proteau was not the first to notice the evidence against de Rais didn’t hold up. As early as 1443, there had been attempts to clear his name. While the evidence of his guilt was mainly limited to rumors, questionable witness testimonies, and the confession extracted under torture, there was one very good reason to want de Rais out of the way. At one point, de Rais was the wealthiest man in Europe. His wealth has been used to explain his alleged corruption, but it is also a pretty convincing motive. His eccentricity and tendency to hemorrhage money after Joan’s death had caused a serious rift between him and the rest of his family. In 1435, his family petitioned the king to prevent de Rais from selling any more property. Charles VII agreed and issued an edict for de Rais to cease selling property and forbidding any of his subjects to enter into any contract with him. As far as they were concerned, de Rais was running the estate into the ground, and they wanted to keep it intact. De Rais was not accused of murder until after a dispute with the church of Saint-Etienne-de-Mer-Morte in 1440, which resulted in him kidnapping a priest. Only after he had angered the church was there any investigation, and just two months after the kidnapping, the Bishop of Nantes presented witness testimony accusing de Rais of murder, sodomy, and heresy. Servants claiming to be de Rais’s accomplices testified against him, but no bodies, bones, or other physical evidence was ever found. Crucially, he was prosecuted by the Duke of Brittany, who received all of de Rais’ lands and titles after his death. Centuries after his torture and execution, the Court of Cassation heard the appeal and fully exonerated de Rais in 1992. Although many French historians have long since accepted his innocence, many English-speaking historians persist in arguing for his guilt. Fortunately, the movement to clear his name has been steadily picking up momentum, and many of the sources are available online. Since 2010, de Rais’ biographer Margot Juby has been making the case for de Rais in English through the website Gilles de Rais Was Innocent, providing almost a decade’s worth of evidence that the allegations against him were fabricated. We were delighted to sit down with Juby for a closer look at the facts. A Conversation with Margot Juby DSH: We have been given two very different impressions of Gilles de Rais–on one hand, he’s this incredible war hero who fought with Joan of Arc, and on the other, he’s seen as this unspeakably horrible murderer–what do you think he was really like after Joan’s death? How did it affect him? MJ: Most versions of Gilles’ life offer a very muddled account of his military career. They gloss over it and some even dismiss his heroism as an exaggeration. Too much is known about his part in the siege of Orléans and other battles for this to be viable. He was put in charge of protecting Jehanne, apparently at her own request, and came to her rescue at least twice when she was injured. He was also rewarded by the king for his bravery on several occasions, not least when he was made a Marshal of France at the age of 24. At the same time, he was given the highly unusual honour of a border of fleurs de lys (the royal emblem) on his coat of arms. This distinction was more often given to an exceptionally loyal town than an individual, and he shared it only with Jehanne and none of the other captains. Contemporary chroniclers all agree that he was the preeminent captain of Orléans and the Loire campaign; it was only later writers, after his death, who tried to play down his role. When Jehanne was on trial for her life in Rouen, Gilles was just across the river in Louviers with an army and in the company of another of her captains, La Hire. Biographers try to explain his presence in occupied Normandy, far from his nearest estate, as some whimsical expedition to buy a horse, which is ludicrous. It is obvious that some rescue attempt was planned; the English knew it and threatened to throw their captive into the river if such an attempt was made. As we know, the plan failed and Jehanne was burned. We can only guess how Gilles felt. The official story is that he had no particular feelings for Jehanne and yet, paradoxically, was so emotionally shattered by her death that he turned to diabolism and murder. Almost all accounts of his life are reduced to such paradoxes, because the two halves of his life simply do not fit. After her death, his life fragments. There are plenty of events, but they lack coherence. He still maintains some interest in military matters, but he is no longer really a soldier. He dabbles in theatre, in the Church, and even in alchemy, at least according to his one confession that was not extracted by the threat of torture. He signs bizarre documents, seems to be afraid that his family is plotting his death, disinherits his daughter, compulsively sells properties to meet expenses that are not fully explained. And he constantly gravitates to Orléans, where he was happy and loved. In 1435, to commemorate the sixth anniversary of the liberation of Orléans, Gilles paid for an elaborate mystery play, Le Mystère du Siège d’Orléans, to be performed, not just once but repeatedly, over a period of some months. Biographers are puzzled and disturbed by this and cannot work out what it might mean. Was it “discreet propaganda” (Jacques Heers) or “a cry of bruised love” (Gilbert Prouteau)? Whatever it was, it indicated that Jehanne had mattered immensely in his life. It was also a huge political error. It was virtually an unofficial canonisation of an executed heretic. In retrospect, it is hardly surprising that it marks the moment when his family turned against him, and his enemies, some he thought of as his friends, started to plot his downfall. DSH: What do you think are the most compelling pieces of evidence that Gilles de Rais was innocent? MJ: What to choose? The case for his innocence is based on countless small details, which build up into an unanswerable refutation of the case for the prosecution. In fact, the evidence presented in court is so feeble that, properly examined, it is the strongest argument for the innocence of Gilles and his fellow accused. It was some 550 years before the first serious attempt at a biography was written, by the Abbé Bossard. The records of the trial were written in manuscript, in Latin and Old French, and there is no sign that anybody looked at them closely apart from René Mauldes, who transcribed them for Bossard. His is a redacted version, since he felt unable to write the sexual details even in the original languages (he had no such problem with the slaughter). Very few biographers since show any sign of having done more than glance at the records, if that. They have built up a cast-iron case, built on lies and half-truths. The traditional version of the story is that hundreds of children disappeared and were attested to in court by their grieving parents. Gilles and his entourage would pass through a village and leave at least one bereft family in his wake. Charge 15 of the Articles of Accusation is quite explicit: “For the past fourteen years, every year, every month, every day, every night and every hour, [Gilles] took, killed, cut the throats of many children, boys and girls…” Yet there are accounts of only forty or so missing boys, and only a dozen are given a full name. The rest have only a family name and sometimes an age. Several are simply “unknown boy”–there are no girls listed. Apparently there were no known victims between 1434 and 1436, and only one in 1437. Although many people testify in court, few are related to the supposed victims; the crowds of weeping mothers simply did not exist. The complainants allude to the fate of the disappeared children, which they could not possibly have known about. Where several complainants attest to the loss of a child, serious discrepancies appear–this is particularly true of the Hubert and Darel boys. On one occasion, Gilles appears to be in two places at once. Some cases are mere anecdotes–in one case, a man seen looking for his son. All this evidence is hearsay. Moreover, the links between these disappearances and Gilles or his men are weak. Several take place in parts of the country which he was not known to frequent–a whole string of boys go missing in Machecoul while he is living at Tiffauges. To make up for this problem, we are told that several old women–among them the infamous Perrine Martin, La Meffraye (the Terror), and Tiphaine Branchu–scoured the countryside for handsome boys. These ladies were caught and imprisoned, but we do not have their evidence and we have no idea of their fate, although they apparently confessed and their confessions were conveniently made known to some of the complainants. Unfortunately, nobody told Poitou and Henriet, the only eye witnesses, or Gilles himself; they mention no female procurers. It is fairly well known that the evidence of Poitou and Henriet shows clear signs of having been extracted by torture. What is less often noticed is that Gilles himself was almost certainly tortured–he was promised that, in return for a confession, his torture would be deferred till the next day, not that it would be waived. Unusually, the next day’s hearing took place in the evening rather than the morning, allowing time for the torture to be applied. This is merely an indication of how biographers have cherry-picked the evidence to make a coherent narrative out of what is, in fact, a messy and contradictory tangle of hearsay and forced confessions. There is much, much more. DSH: Although he was fully exonerated in 1992, why do you think so many English-speaking historians and biographers persist in believing he was guilty? MJ: Several reasons. First, plain bad timing. News travels fast now, but back then there was no internet to spread it. Second, all the documentation was in French, and English-language newspapers only printed short, whimsical accounts. It was a nine-day wonder. It is actually more difficult to find out what happened in 1992 than to tease out the details of early 15th century events, and that, believe me, is difficult enough. You would think that, as the prime mover of the retrial, Gilbert Prouteau would have put all the salient facts in his book. You would be wrong. Prouteau himself, excellent PR man though he was, is part of the reason the retrial is regarded with some suspicion. He was a naughty boy, and wrote a confusing and occasionally dishonest book. The first time I read it–in French, having naïvely waited some twenty years for somebody to publish it in translation–I was mystified. He wrote a novel, quite overtly, and tagged an account of a preliminary hearing (not the trial itself, which had not yet happened) onto the end. The novel section aped all the errors in the “magisterial” tome by Gilles’ first biographer, the Abbé Bossard, and that was clearly deliberate. Prouteau had done no original research, and the evidence presented in court was taken from the writings of earlier authors, such as Salomon Reinach and Fernand Fleuret. This was well and good, but certain elements from Prouteau’s fiction also crept into the peroration delivered in court. This is worrying, though I feel that behind his obvious mischievousness, he was perfectly sincere in his belief that Gilles de Rais was wrongfully convicted. The retrial itself was not, as it is often claimed, an official process and the verdict carried no weight in French law. At the time, those who had spoken up in Gilles’ defence had planned to ask for the support of French President François Mitterand to look into the matter and formalise the rehabilitation. As far as I am aware, this was never done. One final reason why many people refuse to accept that Gilles de Rais was neither a murderer nor Bluebeard: human beings hate to lose their villains. As seen by posterity, Gilles is the perfect model of a villain and his story is packed with excitement–black magic, murder, sexual depravity to rival the Caesars. Who would want to give that up to hear about politics and property transactions? DSH: What do you make of his confession? Torture was clearly a factor. Do you think this was a case where he would agree to any ideas they suggested, or was it a total fabrication? The things he supposedly confessed to are so outrageously horrible, it would be difficult to dream them up, let alone actually do them. I keep thinking about it and wondering how they got there. It makes me think of the penitential literature of the period–a lot of the things people could confess weren’t things people actually did, they were just these lurid fantasies thought up by bored monks. MJ: When we talk about a “confession” now, we mean something fairly spontaneous and given in the accused person’s own words. Even those can be suspect if the accused has been subjected to intense interrogation. In 1440, it was very different. This is what Professor Thomas Fudgé wrote in his 2017 book, Medieval Religion and its Anxieties: History and Mystery in the Other Middle Ages: “Confessions in many inquisitorial proceedings relating to heresy or witchcraft are remarkably similar in many parts of Europe. This may be attributed to the nature and standardized questions asked of the defendant or deponent. Leading questions were often asked. In many records there are no specific answers provided, only the single word affirmat meaning the witness has affirmed the point in question. Sometimes a statement of confession written in the first person would be drawn up by the court, which the accused or deponent would be compelled to sign or otherwise affirm.” Lazy writers will say that Gilles de Rais made two confessions before the ecclesiastical court. The first, made privately in his own quarters, is preceded by the Inquisition rubric that it had been delivered “voluntarily, freely, and without any coercion whatsoever.” We know exactly what this assurance is worth, since he confessed only under the immediate threat of torture. It is short, has little detail, and does not mention murder. The public one, made in court some thirty-six hours later, is the one usually quoted from, as it is longer, far more circumstantial, and has all the gory details. However, there was an earlier confession, not produced by threats (as far as we know) in which Gilles accepted the truth of the earlier heads of the Acts of Accusation (1-11 and 14, interestingly omitting the two articles that dealt with the qualifications of the Inquisitor Jean Blouyn). This meant he really confessed to nothing, since the accusations only started at Article 15. He did go on to admit–aloud, in public–that he read a book about alchemy and evocations that he obtained in Angers, and that he practised alchemy, though he specifically denied dealing with demons. Now, alchemy was perfectly legal and considered to be a suitable hobby for wealthy men; at least one Pope had written a treatise on it. It only became illegal if the Devil’s aid was invoked, which Gilles denied, or if it was the low form known as arquémie, in which the alchemist attempted to turn base metals to gold. This was clearly what Gilles meant. It was a minor offence, akin to forgery. It was not sufficient to get Gilles executed and his property confiscated; more was required. The other two confessions bear a marked resemblance to those of his valets, Poitou and Henriet. Their confessions were certainly produced under torture and seem to be textbook examples of the leading question followed by affirmation technique of interrogation. It is their testimony that is most often cherry-picked in accounts of the trial; Gilles’ account usually seems confused and lacking in detail, whether the subject is murder or evoking demons. In between the first, private confession and the second, in court, it is certain that torture was applied. He had been promised, in return for confessing, that the torture would be deferred, but not that it would be waived altogether. The second confession was delivered in an evening session; all the others except one, after the interrogation of his friends, had taken place in the morning. It is usually claimed that he confessed at the mere threat of torture, and implied that he was a coward, but this is based on skim-reading the documents. The confessions themselves are riddled with inconsistencies. It is not even possible to determine exactly what form of sexual assault is described; the accounts given before the ecclesiastical court differ from those given before the civil court. The only eye witnesses, Gilles himself and his two friends, contradict themselves and each other at every turn, and state impossibilities as facts. All the bodies were burned to ashes (a thing that would have been impossible without leaving visible remains). Except, that is for the eighty that were left lying around for several years, unnoticed, and had to be burned in two batches, in mid-summer, without attracting attention. Some of the other cremations took place in a manor house in Nantes with the Duke’s castle at one end of the street & the Bishop’s palace at the other. Or were the bodies taken to Machecoul for burning? The accused men do not agree. From The Martyrdom of Gilles de Rais: “Gilles is a serial killer without any discernible modus operandi. The children are killed in a number of different ways, sometimes by Gilles himself and sometimes by his henchmen. This is not wholly impossible, but it adds an air of improbability, as if a number of possible tableaux was being presented for the delectation of a shocked audience. Interrogated as to who killed them, [Poitou] responded that occasionally the said Gilles, the accused, killed them by his own hand, occasionally he had them killed by the said Sillé or Henriet or him, the witness, or by anyone among them, together or separately. Interrogated as to the manner, he responded: sometimes beheading or decapitating them, sometimes cutting their throats, sometimes dismembering them, and sometimes breaking their necks with a cudgel: and that there was a sword dedicated to their execution, commonly called a braquemard.” All of the more lurid parts of these confessions, including the murders as well as the sexual assaults, are related with a detail and a relish that suggest the imaginings of a few frustrated and unworldly celibates vying with each other to appal. The charges are generic: Gilles de Rais was accused of the same crimes that all outsiders were charged with. Witches, Gypsies, Jews, heretics, the Knights Templar…all faced accusations of sodomy, child abduction, murder, dealings with the Devil. All except Gilles de Rais are now almost universally seen as innocent victims. DSH: If you could tell the people reading this one thing, what would it be? MJ: Believe nothing you read about Gilles de Rais. The internet thrives on copypasta, and the “facts” that you read will have been taken from unreliable sources, quite probably from fiction. I have seen Gilles described as “Joan of Arc’s serial killer brother” and read descriptions of sexual acts that even his judges never thought to invent. Biographies are not much better, since very few are based on original research. All rely heavily on his original biographer, Bossard, who was not a historian. He took many of his so-called facts from an utterly bogus version of the trial record written in the late 19th century by a sensationalist author called Paul Lacroix. Much of what we think we know about Gilles was invented by Lacroix, parroted by Bossard, and passed on to other biographers in a process of Chinese whispers. The illustrated Suetonius that supposedly gave Gilles the inspiration for his crimes? Lacroix invented it. The Bishop rising up and veiling the crucifix at the most horrific moment of Gilles’ confession? Lacroix originally, elaborated and improved upon by the Decadent author J-K Huysmans in his novel Là-Bas. Biographies of Gilles de Rais are largely fictional. Margot Juby is a writer and biographer from King’s Lynn, Norfolk. She studied English at Hull, where, as poet Philip Larkin remarked to her some time later, she “got a First and (did) bugger all ever since.” Well, not quite bugger all. After years writing poetry, she decided to revisit a biography on Gilles de Rais she had questioned in school, and hasn’t stopped reading the sources since. Her upcoming book, The Martyrdom of Gilles de Rais, is a labor of love nearly a decade in the making. You can visit her at http://www.gillesderaiswasinnocent.blogspot.com.

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The Hyde in the 1930s Owners of historic houses almost invariably have a fascination with the history of their homes and over the years their notes, drawings, photographs and research are faithfully passed on to new owners along with tales of resident ghosts, tunnels, secret passages and smuggling. So too in every county history these ancient houses and their architecture are singled out by the historian, as is the case with the fifteenth century house, The Hyde, Great Wigborough, which nestles in its beautiful grounds overlooking the estuary of the Blackwater. Hyde Farm, was begun 500 years ago. Some of its original timbers support the tiled roof, while from a chimney peers forth a gargoyle which came from Little Wigborough*. A lane leads up the hill to the church, set in a ring of ancient elms. Arthur Mee Essex 1942 * This gargoyle, built into the west chimney stack was from Little Wigborough Church The elms have long since gone but the lane still leads up to St Stephen's Church. When a tennis court was being levelled in the grounds of The Hyde, close by the church, at the start of the twentieth century, pieces of stone that were unearthed were dated to the 12th century and it was believed to have been the site of a previous Norman church. The current owner of The Hyde believes the West wing of The Hyde could possibly have been an earlier Priest's house (c 1420) and the Great Hall and the East wing were added between 1450 and 1470. This was a pre-chimney house and the wings bear many of its earliest wall and roof timbers, together with contemporaneous wattle and daub. There are various footings around the house suggesting it was a larger house than at present. It has a red plain tile roof and modern extensions at the rear and east end. Inside the building, the hall has been divided into two storeys in the XVIth century, and in the east wing of the hall is a doorway with chamfered jambs and four-centres head. There are remains of the original roof construction in the east wing. Extract from The Historical Monuments of Essex (1916) The hall measured 25' 6" x 21' 6", an unusual width in proportion to the length. The chimneys were added about the end of the sixteenth century; this necessitated cutting away portions of the hall king post roof truss and also the braces of the east wing. Prior to having the chimneys built there would have been one large central fire in the hall set on a base of clay or brick. Smoke would have billowed around the inside space before escaping through gaps in the roof or walls. The Hyde: inside the hall in the 1930s The spelling of the name has altered through the years. Now the spelling has 'settled' as 'The Hyde' but in the past it was spelt 'The Hide'. The word 'hide' was used to indicate an area of land, traditionally 120 acres and is used throughout the Domesday survey in 1086. The name of the village 'Wigborough' was Saxon and means 'burial ground of soldiers'. There is believed to be the remains of a tumulus in the meadow near Moulshams, the 14th century Manor, but over the years the mound has flattened out. After a life-time of collecting information about the house, the current owner has a set of notes and photographs from a previous owner in 1936 and a list of former owners and tenants has been put together. The house and land would have been 'copyhold' belonging to the Lords of the Manor (Abbots Hall Manor) but bought and sold, or inherited in the usual way upon 'admission' by the Manorial Court. The first recorded owner was a John Bajon in 1480. Stephenson tells us Symonds [mid seventeenth century antiquarian] in his collections mentions monuments or tablets in the chancel to John Bajon (he died 10th September 1480) and Margaret his wife ... P.A.F Stephenson The Parish registers of Great and Little Wigborough. From both Salmon's History of Essex (1740) and Holman's history of Essex it would seem that the memorial to John Bajon and his wife was in fact in Salcott Wigborough's church which was an appendant chapel-of-ease to St Stephen's. Upon a flat stone inlaid with brass the picture of a man and woman in brass. At their feet a plate of brass in old letters with this inscription HIC JACET JOHES BAJON ET MARGARETA UXOR EJUS QUI QUIDEM JOHES OB.10 SEPT 1480 QUORUM &.... Here lies John Bajon and Margaret his wife which same John died 10th September 1480. On whose souls God have mercy. Wealthy men such as John Bajon would often endow a chantry where, after their deaths, a chantry priest would say Mass for their souls. John Bajon clearly left land and property, the profits of which were to be used for paying a chantry priest at St Mary's, Salcott. It seems the spelling of the name Bajon changed to Baron and in the unpublished notes from the late Tom Millatt he traces descendants of John Bajon to Layer Breton and Layer Marney where they were wealthy landowners (one marrying into the Tuke family of Layer Marney Tower). The next owner named is John Mott. Mott was a very common name in this area and there are several John Motts in the list of Great Wigborough burials. Consulting several wills we know the house was in the ownership of the Mott family between at least 1560 and 1623 and probably much longer. The will of John Motte of Layer Marney, yeoman, written in 1560 and proved in 1561, left his wife, Agnes, his house and lands in Great Wigborough called Hidde for her life and after her death they were bequeathed to a relation, John Mott, son of William Mott. [ERO D/ACR 5/8] There is a will for another John Mott who died in 1587 who willed his kinsman John Mott of the Hide to be the supervisor of his will and I give him for his paynes six shillinges eight pence. Is it not likely that this 'supervisor' was the John Mott, son of William, who had been left the Hyde by his Layer Marney relative? [National Archives PROB 11/72] John Mott of the Hyde wrote his will in 1615 and was to die in 1617. He left his wife Joan the house and customary tenement called The Hyde with the barns and stables and other out houses and also the gardens orchards and yards thereunto belonging. [ERO D/ACW 8/94] He also listed several fields. Joan was to have the house for life before it passed to his son, also John. Joan's will, proved in 1623, doesn't add anything to what we know; her husband's will had already made the bequest of The Hyde to his son after her death. In 1732 the Farm was bought by Capt Kilham. It was thought he was a seafaring man involved with the smuggling trade given the close proximity to the Blackwater. The story has been passed down to the current owner that a nineteenth century occupant, Samuel Alen, had a book written about smuggling in which there are references to The Hyde. There is also a story that there was a tunnel from The Hyde to the church. In The Essex Record Office there is a reduced photograph of An exact survey of lands called the Hide in the parish of Muche Wigborough and belonging to Captain Kilham containing 118 a[cres] 3 r[ods] 32 p[erches] ERO T/M 284/1 This survey in 1732 was done by Joseph Kendall and shows field-names, acreages, ponds, gates and stiles, the road from Tollesbury to Colchester and the lane to Much Wigborough Church. In the same year Kendall mapped in identical style an estate in Little Bromley also for Captain Kilham [ERO D/DU 3158/1] and five years later he mapped a further estate at Messing extending into Wigborough, on that occasion identifying his client as Capt Thomas Kilham. [ERO D/DK P6] It would appear that several estates were bought by the Kilham family because, upon renewal of tenancies, the same farms are advertised together in the newspapers. In 1760 a Mr Kilham took over The Hyde, presumably the Captain's son The Hyde, an estate here so called belongs to Mr Kilham [Morant's History of Essex Vol 1 page 221 The Little Bromley Farm stayed in the Kilham family until 1799 when it passed under the will of Leonard Kilham, gentleman of Westminster, to John Roberts, a cousin. Leonard was 77 when he died on 12 September 1799 so it is quite feasible he was Captain Kilham's son. Interestingly, Stephenson writes that in 1768 (from Philip Morant's history) the Hyde was owned by Capt Kilham and Philip Roberts. The connection with the Roberts branch of the family continued when, in 1821, the sale of several of these farms including The Hyde is handled by Mr Roberts' solicitor. In 1821 the leases for Shaws Farm of Ardleigh, Layhams and Fenns (Little Bromley) and Hyde Farm were offered for sale by Mr Roberts. Lot 3 Hyde Farm a valuable freehold and copyhold estate in the Parish of Great Wigborough about 7 miles from Colchester, 10 from Kelvedon and 12 from Maldon adjacent the road from thence to Colchester, comprising a genteel farm-house, Land Tax Redeemed on a commanding spot, embracing extensive Views of the Country, an Excellent Garden in front, farm yard, 2 double bay Barns, Stables, Cow House, Piggery, Hen House etc and nearly ONE HUNDRED and TWENTY TWO ACRES of Meadow, Pasture and Arable Land in the occupation of Mr R Wesney whose term expires at Michaelmas 1822. Corn is shipped to the London Market at a trifling expense, within a mile distant from this farm The Star (London) 28.2.1821 The lease must have been for five years and Wesney obviously renewed his tenancy for, in 1826, Shaw's farm and The Hyde Farm were advertised again, the latter being in the occupation of Mr Robert Wesney, tenant at will. This time, along with the details of acreage and outbuildings, it was described as a commodious and substantial farmhouse pleasantly seated on a rising ground. Suffolk Chronicle 15.7.1826 Robert Wesney must have been a well-respected and trusted member of the village community for in March 1835 he was appointed as Assessor and Collector of Taxes for Great Wigborough His family also enjoyed a comfortable lifestyle as we see from a newspaper article reporting a burglary ... in the night of Friday last the house of Robert Wesney Esq; of Great Wigborough in this county was entered by thieves, who succeeded without detection in carrying off 24 sovereigns, £4 in silver, 16 teaspoons, 2 gravy ladles, 6 gravy spoons, a cream ladle, a silver knife bent in the blade, a rosewood workbox, and 2 receipts of Messrs Round and Co, bankers, one for £30 and the other for £15. Chelmsford Chronicle August 1841 In 1846 Robert's death was announced in local newspapers at his address of the Hide Farm, Great Wigborough. The newspaper reported he was in his 80th year and died in the same house in which he was born, he and his ancestors having occupied the same upwards of 100 years Ipswich From this it would appear that the Kilham family had never occupied the farm and the Wesney family must have been tenants there pretty well from the beginning of Capt Kilham's ownership. We find in Wigborough's baptism register a Robert Westney being baptised in 1767 (although a different spelling, this is the year of the birth of 'our' Robert Wesney) to parents Robert and Ruth. In Robert Senior's will proved in 1796 he left All the remaining and unexpired part of the Lease of my Farm wherein I now dwell Tantalisingly, he didn't name the farm. He willed that his wife, Ruth, could choose her own room within the farmhouse and have the use of the cows and the poultry. In view of the newspaper report indicating the length of time the family had lived in the house it is fair to assume it is The Hyde. Robert Wesney junior's will (proved in 1846) made his daughters, Margaret Maria Wesney and Elizabeth Page (wife of Joseph Page, farmer, of Tolleshunt D'Arcy) the principal beneficiaries. He left Elizabeth All my farming live and dead stock crops Implements of husbandry and outdoor Effects whatsoever which shall be in upon or about the farms called the Hyde and Hill Farms in Great and Little Wigborough which I hold and occupy under Sir William and Lady Martins and Miss Nash and the Heirs or Devisees of the late Henry Cline Esquire* To hold the same and every part thereof unto my said daughter Elizabeth Page for her own use absolutely * Cline was an English surgeon, a president of the Royal College of Surgeons, a political radical (associating with leading supporters of the French revolution) and a farmer. It seems he acquired the Abbots Hall estate with the manorial rights after the death of Colonel John Bullock in 1810 paying £23,500. He died in 1827 and the estate was left in the hands of trustees. The Martins and Miss Nash remain elusive. Robert Wesney's wife was Margaret Cowles and they are both buried in St Stephens Churchyard along with David Wesney Page and Elizabeth Page. (Joseph Page, farmer, of Tolleshunt D'Arcy was Robert's executor and the husband of his daughter, Elizabeth). In the 1851 census the inhabitants of The Hyde are agricultural labourers, John Peachey and Thomas and Sarah Potter, presumably temporary tenants. The next farmer to occupy The Hyde was Mr Samuel Alen. There is a newspaper reference to him being the occupier of The Hyde in 1859 and the London Evening Standard of 18 May 1859 reports that the freehold and copyhold farm, The Hyde, exchanged hands for £2,000. Samuel and his family appear occupying the farm in the censuses in 1861, 1871 and 1881. Samuel died in 1891 and his widow, Margaret appears as head of the household with her son Charles E Alen in the 1891 census but she was to die the following year. The family were there during the earthquake of 1884 and in the diary of Dr Salter of Tolleshunt D'Arcy he describes the Alen's house as one of those that were simply wrecked. The current owner has a framed photograph which appears to show repairs to the roof being undertaken with ladders lying across the tiles. In September 1891, the Essex Standard advertises a live and dead stock auction by the executors of the late Mr S Alen. Next Richard Hunt Esq took over The Hyde in 1902 according to Stephenson, who, writing in 1905, clearly saw the completed renovation, It is a picturesque old black-beamed house, purchased in 1902 by Richard Hunt Esq. He has thoroughly restored the house, preserving most carefully all the old woodwork said to be 500 years old. It is picturesquely situated on the Western slope of Wigborough Hill and is an excellent example of good restoration. In making a tennis lawn, Mr Hunt found a quantity of carved stone, which must formerly have formed part of the church. P.A.F. Stephenson The Parish Registers of Great and Little Wigborough, 1905 In the East Anglian Daily Times of 30th October 1909 there is a 'live and dead stock' auction advertised, the auctioneers being instructed by R Hunt Esq who has let the farm. From the schedule it seems the livestock was purely poultry. Nearly five years later The Hyde comes up for sale again For sale by auction 125 acres of sound and productive land of which about 65 acres are pasture, producing good hay crops and abundance of feed in the driest summer and the remainder arable, well-suited for corn and seed growing; a commodious modernised old-fashioned Residence full of fine oak beams, stud work and rafters; capital set of farm buildings and 3 cottages all in excellent order; 2 miles from a GER* station, 7 miles from Colchester and within a mile of good water carriage. Chelmsford Chronicle 12.6.1914 * Great Eastern Railway - the main line from London to Colchester and beyond. Another line had been also proposed from Colchester to Mersea. According to the current owner's notes the new owner was a Mr Dickens who had the house from 1914 until 1916 when he sold to Colin Forbes. However, we do find in the electoral register for 1918 both Mark Edward Pearl, a farmer, who previously had farmed at Stow Maries and William Thomas Brown (about whom nothing is known) at Hyde Farm, possibly tenants. We have evidence of Norah Forbes buying two cottages adjacent to the church in 1918 and it is confirmed by Kelly's Trade Directory that The Forbes are living in the Hyde in 1922, Colin is listed as a farmer. In an early guide to St Stephens Church, mention is made of Norah Forbes paying for the organ to be installed in 1919 as a thanks offering for the ending of the war. The Forbes worked Hyde Farm as dairy and general farmers for over 30 years. It is thanks to them the current owner has notes on the house's history and a fine collection of photos and drawings from the 1930s. In the 1939 register they have a business partner living with them, friend William Welburn, also a farmer, who was living with the family in Northumberland in 1911 and came down to Essex with them. During World War 2 it would seem that 68 acres of the Hyde's land was commandeered by the War Agricultural Committee along with land at Abbots Wick (150 acres) and Abbots Hall (680 acres). In the Chelmsford Chronicle of 12.7. 1946, the Essex War Agricultural Executive Committee advertises the letting of these farmlands with a view to occupation at Michaelmas. Colin Forbes died in 1948 and Norah continued living at Hyde Farm until her death in 1951. After the death of Norah Forbes, William Welburn, their business partner, stayed on in The Hyde and sold the house in 1957 but retained a life-time tenancy. He sold to the Macdonalds who had a local connection, Janice Macdonald née Page being the daughter of a pig farmer at Chestnuts, Great Wigborough. William Welburn was very elderly and sharing the house was far from ideal with the Macdonalds' four lively boys. The family moved into the little lodge by the entrance into the farm until the Wigborough Rector, living in Brick House Cottages at the end of School Road, offered Mr Welburn a home, where he lived to the age of 92 and died in 1963. As part of their renovations to the Hyde, the Macdonalds reduced the two staircases to one, previously the wings having two ladders to access upstairs. They ran the Hyde as a pig farm and had the big tin barn built which still stands and is in use today. The Macdonalds clearly felt there was a resident ghost in The Hyde for they engaged a medium to exorcise the ghost from what is now an elegant sitting room in the older West wing of the house. The medium reported seeing a spirit pass through the wall where an earlier door had been situated before being blocked off during alterations. When the current owners bought the house from the Macdonalds in 1970, fifty years ago, they tell me there was no heating and hardly any electricity. Already owning several farms in the Wigboroughs and Peldon they added the land at the Hyde to their arable acreage, now leased to another local farmer. The family kept horses for their own pleasure and five years after moving to The Hyde the owner retired from farming, bought a boat and spent his retirement sailing and riding. Peldon History project Chantry at Salcott-Wigborough 1905 description of Great Wigborough P.A.F. Stephenson

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Progressivism supposedly advocates equality regardless of racial origin or sexual orientation. After the mass murder-suicide of 909 progressive activists in 1978 the movement fell into obscurity, but has enjoyed a resurgence with the Democrat Party-aided rise to power of Barack Obama in the 21st century. While the term liberal describes an attitude, progressive describes an agenda. - 1 Origin - 1.1 Colonialism and the Enlightenment - 1.2 Marxism - 1.3 Alexander Solzhenitsyn on the Progressive Doctrine - 1.4 Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party - 1.5 Progressive era 1892-1924 - 1.6 Presidential election 1948 - 1.7 Peoples Temple 1955-1978 - 1.8 Obamunism 2008 - 2017 - 1.9 Antifa revolution 2017 - - 2 Policies - 3 See also - 4 References Historically, Progressives view themselves as "enlightened" social reformers apart from the ignorant and unwashed masses. Same-sex "marriage" for example is considered a progressive social reform. Colonialism and the Enlightenment Progressivism became highly significant during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, out of the racist belief that white Europe was demonstrating that societies could "progress" in civility from uncivilized conditions to civilization through strengthening the basis of empirical knowledge as the foundation of society. Figures of the Enlightenment had the racist belief that "progress" had universal application to all societies and that these ideas would spread across the world from white Europe. By the early-20th century progressivism was tied to eugenics In the mid 19th century Social Darwinism, with its racism and commitment to science, was an important facet of Progressivism; in America however, after the Civil War, many adherents of the Social Gospel movement called themselves "progressive" and advocated for equality for Blacks and social reform. For a time there was an odd admixture of atheists and racists citing a scientific basis for their beliefs, and church people, all claiming the name progressive. In Europe however, after the First World War, Progressive atheists won a great victory with the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the suppression of the Russian Orthodox Church, and overthrow of the existing social order.In explaining the ruinous upheavals Progressivism brought to his homeland, Alexander Solzhenitsyn said, "while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of older people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: Men have forgotten God; that’s why all this has happened." Alexander Solzhenitsyn on the Progressive Doctrine30 years into the leftist multicultural experiment called the Soviet Union, Alexander Solzhenitsyn did an extensive study of the Progressive Doctrine in Volume II of The Gulag Archipelago. Solzhenitsyn wrote, In this study, if nothing prevents us, we intend to make an important scientific discovery. In the development of our hypothesis we would in no way wish to come into conflict with the Progressive Teaching. The author of these lines, attracted by the enigma of the native tribe populating the Archipelago, undertook a lengthy scientific expedition there and collected abundant material. And as a result it is very easy to prove that the zeks [prisoners of the gulag ] of the Archipelago constitute a class of society. For, after all, this multitudinous group (of many millions) has a single (common to them all) relationship to production (namely: subordinate, attached, and without any right to direct that production). It also has a single common relationship to the distribution of the products of labor (namely: no relationship at all, living only that insignificant share of the products required for the meager support of their own existence). And, in addition, all their labor is no small thing, but one of the principal constituents of the whole state economy.Solzhenitsyn explains the role of thieves and criminals in a socialist society. As oppressed victims of the propertied oppressor class, thieves were "socially friendly" or "class allies" of progressives in the class war between "the haves and have nots". The fathers of the Archipelago, having, in accordance with the Progressive Doctrine, multiplied these socially friendly elements beyond all rhyme and reason...How many citizens who were robbed knew that the police, didn't even bother to look for the criminals, didn't even set a case in motion, so as not to spoil their record of completed cases - why should they sweat to catch a thief if he would be given only six months, and then be given three months off for good behavior? And anyway, it wasn't certain that the bandits would even be tried when caught. After all, prosecutors "lowered the crime rate" - something demanded of them at every conference - by the curious method of simply quashing cases, especially if they foresaw that there would be many defendants. Finally, sentences were bound to be reduced, and of course for habitual criminals especially. Watch out there now .. witness in the courtroom! They will all be back soon, and it'll be a knife in the back of anyone who gave testimony! Therefore, if you see someone crawling through a window, or slitting a pocket, or your neighbor's suitcase being ripped open - shut your eyes! Walk by! You didn't see anything! That's how the thieves have trained us - the thieves and our laws! The·thieves flourished because they were encouraged. Solzhenitsyn goes into some detail how progressives deal with political opposition and dissenters in socialist re-education camps (gulags): It has been known for centuries that Hunger . . . rules the world! (And all your Progressive Doctrine is, incidentally, built on Hunger, on the thesis that hungry people will inevitably revolt against the well-fed.) Hunger rules every hungry human being, unless he has himself consciously decided to die. Hunger, which forces an honest person to reach out and steal ("When the belly rumbles, conscience flees"). Hunger, which compels the most unselfish person to look with envy into someone else's bowl, and to try painfully to estimate what weight of ration his neighbor is receiving. Hunger, which darkens the brain and refuses to allow it to be distracted by anything else at all, or to think about anything else at all, or to speak about anything else at all except food, food, and food. Hunger, from which it is impossible to escape even in dreams - dreams are about food, and insomnia is over food. And soon - just insomnia. Hunger, after which one cannot even eat up; the man has by then turned into a one-way pipe and everything emerges from him in exactly the same state in which it was swallowed. Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party The Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party says this about the Chinese Communist Party: The level of violence employed by a form of government determines its level of civilization. By resorting to the use of violence, communist regimes clearly represent a huge step backward in the level of civilization. Unfortunately, the Communist Party has been seen as progressive by those who believe that violence is an essential and inevitable means to societal advancement." Progressive era 1892-1924 It was also meant to create a belief that conservatives are not able to think of a progressive future for the United States. The most famous historical usage of the term in America was in the 1890s to 1920s, sometimes called the Progressive Era. During the Progressive Era, politicians of both parties and various ideologies adopted the term, notably Theodore Roosevelt, a Republican who founded the Progressive Party and implemented the Civil Service Act, and Woodrow Wilson, who imposed segregation throughout the federal government. Presidential election 1948 - Main article: United States presidential election, 1948 The Progressive Party of 1948 was a creation of the Communist Party USA, growing out of CPUSA General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order "to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party." The Progressive Party's candidate for President was Henry Wallace, one of Franklin Roosevelt's former Vice Presidents. Wallace was reportedly "most impressed" with Soviet collective farming, and in 1933 had urged FDR to become a "farm dictator." Wallace said if he were to become President, he would appoint as Secretary of State the pro-Soviet Laurence Duggan, now known to have been a Soviet agent. Had FDR died 82 days earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President. Wallace finally recanted his support for the Soviet Union in 1952. In 1955, the Jenner subcommittee cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as a Communist front. Peoples Temple 1955-1978 - See also: Peoples Temple Agricultural Collective Jim Jones was the original founder of the "Rainbow Family" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a term Jones used to refer to his family. Jones and his wife adopted three Korean children, a Native American, and were the first white couple in Indiana to adopt an African American child. Jones moved to San Francisco in 1970 and was deeply involved in the city's progressive politics. Jones's Peoples Temple was instrumental in the election of Mayor George Moscone, serving as campaign workers and busing in unregistered people to vote. Jones was rewarded with post of housing commissioner. It was Kamala Harris's mentor, Willie Brown, who brought Jones in contact with the California Democrat Party. From there, Jones become involved with the DNC. Willie Brown supported same-sex "marriage" as early as 1977. Jones publicly met with vice president candidate Walter Mondale, and spoke at events with other leading Democrats at the San Francisco headquarters after the election in 1976, among them First Lady Rosalynn Carter and California governor Jerry Brown. Harvey Milk, the first openly homosexual politician elected in California with Jones' help would say: "My name is etched in stone with you." Milk wrote letters in support of Jones to President Jimmy Carter. Both Milk and Jones were homosexual activists. Obamunism 2008 - 2017 The term was revived in the early 21st century by politicians and media celebrities who considered traditional liberals too willing to compromise with moderates and conservatives. As such, the anti-democratic Marxist ideal of single party control was revived. This revival occurred before the 2006 midterm elections when liberals still supported the War on Terror. The term came into use to help Democrats distance themselves from the feelings of patriotism and bipartisanship that existed after the 9/11 attacks. Barack Obama established himself as a progressive leader in opposition to the War on Terror during an October 2002 rally at Federal Plaza in Chicago. The event was staged by veteran Maoist, SDS and Progressives for Obama organizer Carl Davidson. When 2004 Democrat presidential nominee John Kerry's home state of Massachusetts' became the first state to legalize same-sex "marriage", the issue split Democrats. Ballot initiatives appeared in 11 states that brought citizens to the polls in large numbers; all 11 initiatives passed. Proposition 8 in California won by a wide popular vote, but California Attorney General Kamala Harris bowed to LGBT groups and refused to defend the citizen referendum in court. These debates over social policy were reflected in the 2005 campaign for Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, which Howard Dean won. As a progressive, Dean was the first to shepherd civil unions through the Vermont legislature. Disillusion with two seemingly endless wars, coupled with a financial crisis caused by decades of government intervention in the mortgage market and manipulation of interest rates, along with a declining middle class due to globalization and jobs loss as workers saw their jobs shipped overseas, led to a resurgence of progressivism. 20 years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Socialists finally captured the White House. Attack on healthcare system One of the first pieces of totalitarian legislation Progressives put forward was an attack on capitalist healthcare insurers. Obamacare was designed to fail, bankrupt private health insurance companies, and incrementally usher in the dawn of government run single payer and new era of Communist control. By 2019 it was known as "Medicare for All". But the relentless drive to disarm Americans and abolish the Second Amendment had failed. Attacks on the family, heterosexual relations, and childbearing proved surprisingly successful. Sodomy and gender confusion (the latter promoted by the LGBT movement under the terms "transexualism" and "transgenderism") replaced national security and economic well-being as top priorities as Progressives took control of the Democrat Party. Progressive police state Progressives accused liberals who voted for the Iraq War and the Patriot Act of betraying the cause of socialism. Ironically, it was progressives in the Obama administration who used provisions of the Patriot Act that allowed for spying on domestic groups sympathetic to Al-Qaeda, and applied them to the Trump campaign from 2015 on to further the anti-democratic objective of single party control. Antifa revolution 2017 - Progressives defaced the 54th Regiment Memorial to black soldiers in the Civil War as Antifa protests moved through the city. A website dedicated to the memorial, which stands at the top of a hill on the Boston Common, explains: The most acclaimed piece of sculpture on Boston Common is the Robert Gould Shaw and Massachusetts 54th Regiment Memorial by Augustus Saint-Gaudens; a memorial to that group of men who were among the first African Americans to fight in the Civil War. The monument portrays Shaw and his men marching down Beacon Street past the State House on May 28, 1863 as they left Boston on their way to South Carolina, Shaw erect on his horse, the men marching alongside. The monument, which commemorates black lives dedicated and sacrificed to the struggle against slavery, was defaced with profane anti-police graffiti, as well as tributes to George Floyd. The story of the 54th was immortalized in the Hollywood movie Glory, for which Denzel Washington received the Oscar for Best Supporting Actor. Progressive policies, in political science, are those which make progress towards goals seen by progressives as benefiting society. Since all politicians claim that their ideas and policies are meant to benefit the public, calling a policy "progressive" may be thought of as meaningless. The term has been popular among the liberal media. And although most of the population still refers to the two major philosophies as conservative and liberal, it is often used to describe a more specific type of liberalism. This is likely because these two titles are familiar to the current population and better recognized. Because of this familiarity, it is easier to visualize the contrasts between conservative and liberal than the contrasts between conservative and progressive, because of the specific nature of "progressive". Progressives use the term in contrast to "regressive" policies of their opponents. For example, progressives will ask rhetorically, "Do you want to go back to the 1950s?" implying that women were oppressed by being forced to be housewives and men were oppressed by being falsely accused of favoring Communism (see McCarthyism). A useful distinction to keep in mind is this: "progressives want bigger and supposedly better government; conservatives want less and supposedly better government." A foundational core belief of Progressivism is to consider crime a treatable illness by social psychology. In this core precept is the liberal-held belief that criminals are not responsible for their actions. Since collectivists do not respect the notion of private property, the propertyless are considered oppressed victims. Prisons, which incarcerate property and violent offenders, are usually the targets of "progressive reform." Because extremists do not reject violence to bring about social and political change, violent offenders must be qualified on the basis of their politically correct views. Far-leftists have historically used re-education camps and gulags as the basis of incarceration policy, and offenders graded on ideological grounds. While progressives seek radical social change, it is often pursued incrementally. Two examples serve in the Obama era: Obamacare and same-sex "marriage". Obamacare with its individual and employer dictates was designed to fail. The progressive objective of a big government, Soviet-style single payer system was too radical a change to implement during the brief window of opportunity given between 2009-2011, when Democrats controlled both the White House and a veto-proof Congress. Progressives settled on a system that allowed private insurance companies to continue to operate, provided they sold only policies dictated by progressive regulators. A dictate that all American adults - working or not working - be required to purchase insurance, or submit to eligibility requirements for entitlement care by income means testing, was also implemented. Penalties accrued for anyone non-compliant. The plan was phased in over a period of election cycles with the hope that those who received a subsidized entitlement would appreciate "free healthcare," and when the plan failed would support a progressive single payer system. The single payer system then would need progressives in Congress perpetually to insure its annual funding. The first hurdle in the homosexual "rights" movement was overcoming the progressive reform of the 1950s that treated criminals as victims of psychological disorders. By the 1960s homosexuality was considered by experts and the courts as both a crime and a mental illness. Due to claimed "ethical concerns" over locking people up on the basis of a psychological disorder (but in reality, due to political pressure imposed by radical homosexual activists), the psychiatric profession dropped the diagnosis of homosexuality as a mental disorder in the early 1970s. In the 1980s the states began de-criminalizing homosexuality with the idea that law enforcement resources could be better utilized elsewhere, the war on drugs for example. With homosexuality "normalized" now, by the 1990s the Equal protection clause was being invoked for a group in the coalition of identity politics. Attacks on Free Speech One of the first steps by Progressives in shutting down all opposition is censorship, shadow banning, and attacks on the free expression of ideas. Progressives do not foreswear violence to attain political objectives, and the terrorist group/hate group Antifa claims itself as a militant progressive organization. Antifa are the Black Shirts of the Democrat Party. - Leonard, Thomas (2005). [ "Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era"]. Journal of Economic Perspectives 19 (4): 207–224. doi:10.1257/089533005775196642. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. . - Freeden, Michael (2005). Liberal Languages: Ideological Imaginations and Twentieth-Century Progressive Thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 144–165. ISBN 0691116776. - Roll-Hansen, Nils (1989). "Geneticists and the Eugenics Movement in Scandinavia". The British Journal for the History of Science 22 (3): 335–346. - zek is a Russian slang term similar to "con" in English to refer to convicts, however many zeks were opponents of Socialism, not criminals. - Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn (1973). The Gulag Archipelago (1st ed.) Harper & Row, page 502. - Gulag, Vpl. II, Page 422, 425 et seqq. - Gulag, Vol. II, page 76. - Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn (1973). The Gulag Archipelago (1st ed.) Harper & Row, page 209. - Barry Loberfeld, "The Real Meaning of "Progressive" Politics, FrontPageMagazine.com, September 28, 2004 - Eugene Dennis, What America Faces (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, The vital center: the politics of freedom (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948 (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291) - Henry Agard Wallace, 33rd Vice President (1941-1945), Senate History, United States Senate - "Roosevelt Is Urged to Ask Wide Power as 'Farm Dictator'," The New York Times, March 12, 1933, p. 1 - Ethan Bronner, "WitchMay 9, 2008ing Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy," October 18, 1998 - 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944 - William C. Martel, Grand Strategy in Theory and Practice: The Need for an Effective American Foreign Policy (Cambridge University Press, 2015) ISBN 1107082064, p. 472 - Linda Rodriguez, A celebration of almost-great men, CNN.com, May 9, 2008 - Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” This Week, September 2, 1952 - Independent Progressive, joincalifornia.com - Reiterman & Jacobs 1982, p. 65 - "Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple - Race and the Peoples Temple". PBS.org. February 20, 2007. - Jim Jones on gay marriage, women's rights, white privilege and other Progressive causes, youtube. - The Nation of Islam, Anti-Defamation League. - The rally was organized by Chicagoans Against War in Iraq (CAWI) later renamed Chicagoans Against War and Injustice. See Davidson, Carl (November 2, 2006). "About CAWI". Chicagoans Against War and Injustice website. Retrieved from August 11, 2010 archive at Internet Archive. - Carl Davidson (2010 or bef.) LinkedIn [Profile page/Experience/Webmaster]. Retrieved March 13, 2010 and February 13, 2016. - David De Leon (1994). Leaders from the 1960s: A Biographical Sourcebook of American Activism. Greenwood Publishing Group, 253–259. ISBN 978-03132-74145. “Early on Kameny developed an absolute belief in the validity of his intellectual processes and a habit of challenging accepted orthodoxies.” - Peter J. Smith (4 Jun 2008). Prominent Homosexual Activist Says Bestiality OK "As Long as the Animal Doesn’t Mind". LifeSiteNews.com. Retrieved on 13 December 2015. - Multiple references: - Suarez Sang, Lucia I. (September 3, 2017). FBI, DHS warned of increasingly violent Antifa clashes in 2016, documents show. Fox News. Retrieved September 3, 2017. - Meyer, Josh (September 1, 2017). FBI, Homeland Security warn of more ‘antifa’ attacks. Politico. Retrieved September 1, 2017. - FBI and Homeland Security deem antifa 'domestic terrorists' as they warn of escalating violence between the left and white nationalists. Daily Mail. Retrieved September 1, 2017. - Anarchist Extremists: Antifa, Dept of Homeland Security, June 12th, 2017

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Winter in the subantarctic is no Club Med. Screaming gale-force winds beat against your body at up to 240 kilometres an hour and daytime temperatures regularly swoop below zero, creating conditions so chilling and harsh that it is hard to think of anything except mere survival. There is no heated indoor sanctuary to retreat to, no electricity, no warm bed. Only the bitter cold, howling wind, constant dampness—and rats. Fearless rats running rampant through the camp, stealing your food, ceaselessly trying to gnaw their way into your tent while you sleep. Such is the nature of Campbell Island, one of the most inhospitable places known to man—or in this case, to woman. For Ramari Stewart and Barbara Todd, this is their reality. Twice in the past four years—during the winters of 1995 and 1997—the pair have made Campbell Island, some 600 kilometres south of Bluff, their home. At a time of year when others are thinking of tropical getaways, Stewart, Todd and a support crew have elected to endure Campbell Island’s unforgiving environment in order to study one of the world’s most enigmatic and vulnerable marine mammals, the southern right whale. As many as 10,000 southern right whales once congregated in the coastal waters around New Zealand to breed—until they were hunted to the point of extinction in the whaling bloodbath of the 19th century (see sidebar, page 97). Despite the fact that they have been internationally protected since 1934, the whales have been making a painfully slow recovery.* They are now rarely seen around the main islands of New Zealand; the whales of Campbell and the nearby Auckland Islands—perhaps 500-800 in total—are all that remain of a once-strong population. Right whales are listed among the world’s “great whales,” mammals whose elephantine bulk almost defies human comprehension. The greatest of them all is the blue whale, which can reach 30 metres in length and 150 tonnes in weight—the largest creature the Earth has ever known. Right whales come in at second place: although adults are only half the length of a blue whale, they can reach 100 tonnes. At close range, they seem more like submarines than mammals Their barrel-like mass, the powerful strokes of their tails, the pneumatic blast of their spouting are as humbling as they are profound. Yet for many years they were regarded, along with humpbacks, sperm whales and the rest, as so much harpoon fodder—swimming supermarkets of baleen and oil. Like most of the great whales, right whales feed by sieving small crustacea (typically krill and copepods) from the water using the fringed baleen plates that hang from their upper jaws like a giant curved comb. They do most of their feeding during the summer, and typically at higher latitudes. In the northern hemisphere, the Atlantic population—the main remnant of the northern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis)—grazes around the Bay of Fundy; southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) are thought to ply the Southern Ocean. In winter, both species migrate to more temperate waters to mate and give birth. The North Atlantic population moves to Florida and Georgia—a fact that was discovered only a decade ago, when coastguard ships and submarines heading for port started colliding with them. (In fact, ship collisions are the main cause of mortality among these whales.) Southern right whales breed along the coasts of South Africa, Patagonia and South Australia and around Tristan da Cunha, as well as in the New Zealand subantarctic. Research suggests that the whales which use each of these breeding areas are genetically and socially distinct populations. New Zealand’s subantarctic whales make Northwest Bay on Campbell Island and Port Ross at the Auckland Islands their winter headquarters. Because right whales mate and give birth close to shore, these isolated locales have become key sites in the search for answers to the many puzzling questions that surround the survival and future of southern right whales. Before addressing those questions, though, one might ask what drives people like Todd and Stewart to brave diabolical weather and a harsh environment for the sake of a species once considered doomed. With both women, the devotion to nature runs deep. US-born Barbara Todd grew up on the shores of California, and says some of her earliest memories are of hours spent in the surf watching seals and dolphins swim by. It was during the 1970s that Todd’s interest in marine biology, especially whales and dolphins, became a passion. In 1978, she signed on board a marine research vessel bound for the Caribbean in search of humpback whales. That experience of conducting census counts and photo identification analysis led her to her next post as a research associate with Orca Survey on San Juan Island in the Pacific Northwest. One of the researchers Todd met while studying orca had just returned from Kaikoura with tales of sperm whales that were living in happy abundance just offshore. Sperm whales typically feed in deep water, and coastal appearances are rare. Todd recognised the Kaikoura situation as a golden opportunity to study these whales up close, in an environment where daily access was feasible. She came to New Zealand in 1982, returned the following season and ended up marrying a local fisherman, Roger Sutherland. The pair went on to found Nature Watch Charters, the country’s first whale-watching operation. In 1988, Todd met Westland-based Ramari Stewart, a nurse and amateur naturalist who had a wealth of first-hand observations of right whales gained during a year-long posting at Campbell Island’s now defunct meteorological station in 1983. Stewart says that it took considerable persuasion to get the authorities to allow her to join the meteorological team. They doubted that a woman could cope with the hardships of living in such a lonely, rugged place. Stewart did more than just cope. She spent every spare moment studying, photographing and observing the wildlife, and especially right whales. “But because I was hired primarily as a cook and medic for the base, I was only able to observe whales on a part-time basis,” she recalls. “So when I got off Campbell, I made up my mind that next time I went back it would be total focus or nothing. I couldn’t bear the days when it was all happening in the bay, with the whales’ interactions just starting to get interesting, and I would have to go back and cook dinner. I hated leaving. All winter I slogged back and forth over that ridge from the bay to the base.” Stewart has spent most of her life on, in and around the sea. As a scientific observer for the Ministry of Fisheries, she spent over 1000 sea days on board commercial fishing vessels, monitoring fish catches and recording information about marine mammals. She also conducted a three-year behavioural study of orca and dolphins in the Bay of Plenty, while recognition of her collection and contribution of whale skeletons and rare fish species to the National Museum over a 15-year period saw her made an honorary associate of the museum. Stewart swam with her first whale when she was 10 years old, and once had a near-Jonahlike encounter with a feeding right whale. “They’re like front-end loaders when they feed,” she says, “ploughing back and forth across a patch of sea. Humpbacks, by comparison, tend to take huge gulps of water.” She had been watching the whale from a boat, and decided to see what the view was like under water. Donning mask and fins, she slipped off the back of the boat as the whale approached. “When the bubbles cleared, all I could see was a gaping black hole,” she says. “It felt like being at the doorway of a room. Then this grapefruit-sized eye came past, inspecting me.” In 1995, seven years after Todd and Stewart’s first encounter in Kaikoura, the two met again at a marine mammal conference in Wellington. By this time, Stewart had co-founded the Project Tohora Trust (tohora is the Maori word for the southern right whale), with the aims of photographically identifying the whales at Campbell Island, estimating the population size, observing whale behaviour and developing educational resource materials. Stewart was planning her first trip back to Campbell since her meteorological days. She would spend a summer and a winter on the island, and her observations of the wildlife would be the subject of a television documentary entitled A Whale Out My Window. She asked Todd if she would be interested in joining her for the winter segment, when the whales were there. Todd jumped at the chance. Two years later the pair, accompanied by a support crew consisting of two boat drivers, a cook and a radio technician, returned for a second season. It takes four days to reach Campbell Island from Wellington—four days in a pitching ship in grim, grey southern seas. At Northwest Bay the only sign of human habitation is a solitary tin hut, securely wired to the ground to resist gales. This but is the only indoor shelter the team will have over the next three months. It has no heating or insulation, and is scarcely large enough to fit six people. It has one small window which faces the bay and provides a bird’s eye view of the whales below. All cooking and collation of data is performed inside the hut, while a makeshift garden shed, erected upon arrival, is used to store wet-weather gear, boots, survival suits and a generator that is used for charging radio batteries. There is no electricity on Campbell Island, and therefore no refrigeration—though keeping foodstuffs cold in the subantarctic is hardly a problem. A camp oven provides the team with freshly baked bread, and a yoghurt maker offers a healthy treat. As a daily indulgence for the team, the cook prepares a decadent dessert such as chocolate fruit fondue. The team sleeps in tents that are constantly in danger of invasion by rats trying to chew through the walls when the occupants are asleep. To keep the numbers down, traps are set daily, and catch anything from four to 10 rats a day. Extreme care has to be taken not to leave any food scraps about that might attract the vermin—even crumbs that might have collected in the dishwashing water. Aside from the rat problem, there are sea lions to contend with. The big animals are encountered not just on the beach but along paths that run inland. The pups are like plump, lovable labradors, but the older animals—especially young bulls—exhibit dispositions that range from mildly curious to downright pugnacious. It is necessary to be armed with a stick at all times as a way of fending them off and maintaining a safe distance. “Usually you just hold the stick out in front of you and walk around them,” says Stewart, “though sometimes they will charge you. I remember the first night we were there. No sooner did I get into my sleeping bag than I heard a sea lion lumbering through the scrub towards the tent. I had to go out and steer this big thing away. I didn’t get much sleep that night.” A walking stick is also useful for probing the terrain ahead when walking across the tussock-covered hills. The island’s peaty soil and high rainfall mean that you can never be sure that on your next step you won’t break through the surface and sink up to your knees in a quagmire. Living conditions on the island are primitive. A long-drop toilet is used, while a drum filled with boiled water suffices for the odd shower. The water supply for drinking and cooking is a tarpaulin rigged up like a shallow pool. Water for washing clothes, dishes and personal hygiene is collected from a creek and carried in buckets up to the hut, about a kilometre away. Since it is full of tannin and very acidic, it turns everything it comes in contact with a lovely shade of brown—skin included! Because Northwest Bay is an exposed body of water, boat activity is determined by the weather. A sudden change in wind direction can kick up squalls and a nasty chop, making launching and landing the inflatables a risky proposition on the rocky beach. “It is not unusual to go from sun to rain to snow to sleet to hail and back to sun again in a single day,” says Todd. “Very seldom do we have a sunny day that lasts all day long. On the other hand, the sudden weather changes are incredibly beautiful to watch.” The daily programme begins with a census count at 9 A.M., one of two counts made each day to determine how many whales are present in the bay. The bay is divided into segments. Each person studies their designated section from a different point on land for approximately 10 minutes. During this process, verbal communication with other team members is critical in order to avoid double counts. After the census count, the team decides whether the number of whales in the bay and the weather warrant a day on the water, for the purpose of gathering photo IDs. (In 1997, only eight out of 79 days on Campbell were calm enough for the boats to be launched.) For safety, the team always has two boats on the water at once. Todd and Stewart take photographs while the drivers manoeuvre the boats to keep a safe distance from the whales. These on-water encounters are the undoubted highlight of the research, because they bring the team into such close contact with its subjects. Sometimes the contact is almost too close. Curious whales will approach the vessels and pass right underneath them, barely missing the hull with flipper or tail. On occasions, they lie directly beneath the boat, perhaps contemplating the orange midget with the buzzing tail above them. Such sights typically bring a gasp of wonder to those on board as they, in turn, contemplate the mastery of movement possessed by these sedate giants of the sea. But there is little time for admiration. Todd and Stewart are constantly trying to get clear photographs of the callosities (patches of raised, roughened skin colonised by barnacles and whale lice) that are located on right whales’ heads. The pattern of callosities is unique to each whale—Stewart calls it the whale’s moko—and enables researchers to distinguish between individuals. Other features such as belly patches, saddle markings, unusual colour pigmentation and obvious nicks and scars are also photographed. Back in New Zealand, the photographs are compared with those taken by researchers in the Auckland Islands to determine the extent of intermingling between the populations. Whether the subantarctic whales are related to the original New Zealand mainland population is unknown. The team also makes detailed observations of whale behaviour and interaction. Generally, the whales engage in five types of activity: resting (lying still at the surface or sinking and re-emerging a few feet away), travelling (leaving, entering or moving around the bay), socialising (usually courting and sexual behaviours), aerial displays (such as breaching, lobtailing or spyhopping, performed by a single individual, perhaps in response to the socially active groups in the bay) and feeding. “On one very stormy day,” says Todd, “we observed a single whale lobtailing continuously over a 40-minute period. The whale did over 100 lobtails, and seemed determined to make his point. Lobtailing is quite amazing because the whale has to literally stand on its head and hold its tail aloft, and then bring it crashing down to the surface of the water, lift it up, and bang it down again. That tail probably weighs half a tonne or more.” The team has to be especially careful when courtship is happening in the bay. In right whales, several males vie for the attentions of a single female, who typically resists their advances for many hours, lying on her back at the surface to frustrate their efforts to mate with her. The males cavort around her, jockeying for position. In this aquatic ballet, the males show great gentleness to the female, nuzzling and stroking her with their flippers, while at the same time trying to shoulder their competitors out of the way. As the ritual continues, the level of boisterousness rises, and human observers are advised to keep their distance. Todd recalls one such incident: “We were in the boat, watching a mildly active group, when they suddenly moved into high gear and serious courtship began to take place. Think about serious courtship for a moment: as you become more involved with the activity, you become less aware of your surroundings. Well, this is exactly what appeared to be happening with the whales. One minute they were engaged in heavy activity about 100 metres from our boat, the next minute they changed direction and started moving towards us. Imagine sitting in a 3.8-metre inflatable with eight hormonally charged whales approaching you, each one 14 to 15 metres long and weighing 40-plus tonnes. We were preparing to move when the whales altered course again, and we could see that they were going to pass right in front of us. I reached for my camera, but as the whales passed I could only stand there in open-mouthed wonder.” When unfavourable weather keeps the researchers on shore, they observe the whales from two vantage points above the bay. A crude but on one hilltop offers modest protection from wind, snow and rain, but at the other location, Limestone Point, a difficult half-hour’s walk away, there is no shelter. When conditions deteriorate, the observers are forced to squat amongst the tall tussocks for cover. Often the whales come very close to shore. Unlike many whale species, which strand in shallow water, right whales seem quite comfortable in the shallows. There are stories of calves resting in the kelp, and Stewart has seen whales cavorting in surf during courtship, kicking up sand with their flippers. “I have seen them lying in water so shallow that their bellies were on the seabed and their blowholes showing above the surface,” she says. The observers remain at their posts for six hours at a stretch. Stinging 50-knot winds coupled with temperatures hovering around freezing are not uncommon The challenge is to stay warm and keep the camera gear dry, while maintaining focus on the task at hand. Although the constant cold and wet may at times get the better of a person’s morale, the isolation does not. “There is so much happening around you because of the variety and abundance of the wildlife that you don’t feel alone,” says Todd. “We share the island with sea lions, elephant seals, yellow-eyed penguins, albatrosses—and they’re just the more obvious ones.” Southern royal albatross chicks are particularly endearing. During winter, with both parents at sea foraging for them, the chicks are alone on their nests. “The hillsides are dotted with these great downy puffballs. Watching them exercise their wings can be quite comical. Sometimes the wind picks them right up off the ground, and they panic, since they’re not quite ready to fly yet. They sort of collapse in mid-air and crash to the ground again.” At 4 P.M., the observers make their way back to the camp. By this time they are often in a state of mild hypothermia, with cramped muscles from standing in one position for so long. After a reviving hot drink, the task of logging the day’s data begins. Then, after a meal and clean-up, the team settles down to an evening of music, literary readings or the weekly Saturday Night Poets Society, in which team members share original verse inspired by their experiences. “One of the highlights of going to a place like Campbell is the strong friendships that develop,” says Todd. “You become bonded by the intense experiences you are sharing—experiences like shivering naked in zero-degree conditions when you bathe, and then the incredible contrast of pouring a bucket of warm water over your head while quickly reaching for a towel that is the size of a small scarf. Or sitting on a snowy hillside watching an albatross chick patiently awaiting its next meal, and having one of its parents land a couple of metres away from you. How do you convey the impact of such memories to someone who hasn’t been there? The only thing you can say is that you feel privileged to have been able to spend time in the company of Campbell Island’s true inhabitants.” Until Recently, Campbell Island was the main winter destination of the subantarctic right whale stock, but the situation seems to be changing. Port Ross in the Auckland Islands now has the larger winter population, with a maximum of 146 whales counted in a single day in 1997, compared with 28 in Northwest Bay. This year, numbers at the Auckland Islands were even higher: 165 counted in a single survey. Last century, a whaling station at the Auckland Islands had to close after three years, having caught only one whale. As recently as World War II, coast watchers spotted few if any whales in the area. The Auckland Islands whale population is now being studied by Scott Baker and Nathalie Patenaude of Auckland University in partnership with the Department of Conservation. These biologists are carrying out the same sort of photo ID work as Stewart and Todd are, but are also securing small samples of whale skin for genetic analysis. DNA profiling can give information on the sex and age of animals and their relatedness to one another and to other populations. “The Auckland Island congregation seems unusual in that all age and sex classes seem to be present together,” says Scott Baker. “There are cows with young calves, courting groups, resting adults and yearlings all in a very small area. In other wintering grounds there is more segregation, and some groups may not be represented.” Indeed, at Campbell Island the constituency seems to be made up of sub-adult whales. Although calves have been seen at Campbell Island in the past, none have been spotted there by Stewart and Todd’s team in the past few years. Calves are seen regularly at the Auckland Islands. This year, researchers counted about 30 cow-calf pairs, and were able to confirm for the first time that calving was actually happening in Port Ross. They are also resighting the same whales from year to year. The patient work of assembling photo IDs of the whales at both islands has started to pay off, too, with four definite matches having been made between the Campbell and Auckland populations, out of a total of 250 catalogued individuals at the Auckland Islands and 38 at Campbell Island. These matches have provided the first proof that whales from the two islands are indeed intermingling, and Patenaude and Baker now regard the subantarctic population as a single genetic stock. Many questions remain unanswered, however. The whales’ migration routes and precise summer grounds are unknown, and the circumstances which influence the timing of migrations are also unclear. For example, the yearly population peak at Campbell Island can vary between June and September. It is also unclear what influences individual whales to choose Campbell Island or the Auckland Islands as a destination. Todd and Stewart believe that only by consistent, long-term study of the whales can the remaining questions be answered. They are also committed to championing the cause of the whales through the development of educational resource materials, by giving public lectures and presentations at conferences, and by forming an Adopt-A-Whale project. Their hope is to create a greater awareness and understanding of a species that was not only brought to the point of extinction by human hands, but then almost erased from human memory. Patenaude says the subantarctic right whale population is particularly important because it is much less subject to human interference than are populations living elsewhere. She worries that that situation could change. For how long can collisions be avoided between some of the 200-odd whales to be found in the 20-square-kilometre harbour of Port Ross and fishing vessels using the area? Tour operators have already expressed interest in offering whale-watching trips to the subantarctic, and, even if handled sensitively, such activities could place subtle pressures on the whales’ long-term recovery. Stewart, of the Ngati Awa tribe, feels a cultural responsibility to the whales, too. In Maori tradition, whales were regarded as kaitiaki—guardians—of the oceans, protecting those who voyaged on the high seas. “The day we took up the harpoon,” says Stewart, “was the day we broke that special contract. We very nearly lost this whale. Now it’s our turn to be the guardian of its future.” Guardianship, when it involves the sort of study being carried out in remote outposts such as Campbell Island, is clearly not without cost, both personal and monetary. Yet Todd and Stewart say it’s the high points that stick in their minds, far more than the hardships. Says Todd: “One snowy mid July night, we marvelled as a full moon rose over the ridge on the east side of the bay. The whales were particularly active that evening, and very noisy. The sound of their breaching bodies, their blows and belches, reverberated around the bay. A fellow team member was sitting on top of the knoll above our tents, and I joined him to listen to the chorus of sounds below. Suddenly, we noticed the water around the bay was lighting up, as if fairies were swooping down and touching the water with their magic wands. There would be a sudden twinkling of lights which would then disappear and reappear in another part of the bay. We puzzled over what could be causing the light show, then realised it was the moonlight reflecting off the white callosities on their heads while they were coming to the surface to breathe. There was a brief twinkling just before the whale brought his head out of the water, followed by a loud explosion of sound as the whale expelled the old air and took a new breath. We sat there enchanted until our bodies told us that they would soon become icicles. As we lay in our tents that night listening to the sounds in the bay below, I called out, ‘Can you still see it?’ Yes,’ came the reply. ‘My mind is full of lights.’ For every hardship that comes with living in an inhospitable environment, so there comes a contrasting moment of sheer splendour. And this, too, is the nature of the subantarctic.

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Despite their age old cultivation, carnations are susceptible to a number of issues, like fusarium wilt disease.The following article contains carnation fusarium wilt info on identifying fusarium of carnations and treating carnation fusarium wilt. Banner MAXX at 5 to 8 fl oz/100 gal water. Ideally, select a soilless, Daconil Weather Stik at 1.4 pints/100 gal water. Discolored foliage or blooms have been noted. 48-hr reentry. Group 3 fungicide. Some of these diseases are very important, such as the vascular wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. by extended periods of high temps. Alternaria Blight Initial leaf symptoms of alternaria blight of carnation, caused by the fungusAlternaria dianthi,are tiny purple dots (1/16 to 1/8 inch). It can be spread through infected wounds by plants. Diseases of Carnation. Their centers become brown while the leaf yellows. Viral diseases. seem to increase the incidence of the disease, so avoid using them. Reference Strider, D.L. However, the common diseases in the family are leaf spot and grey mould, which need to be dealt with in time once they happen. May also occur at the base of the petiole and girdle the leaf stem. Do not use a silicone-based surfactant. Diseases of carnation and their management 1. They continue to enlarge, becoming dark brown to black, circular or irregular lesions. 11-62A and 11-62B).Some races of the fungus also attack the stalks, leaf sheaths, ear husks, shanks, ears, and cobs (Figs. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY (Affiliated to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3) Kullapuram (Po),ViaVaigai Dam, Theni-625 562 DISEASES OF CARNATION STUDENT Miss. GOWRI SANKARI P ID. sanitation is the best control method. Group 7 + 11 fungicide. Group M4 fungicide. Prior to planting, it’s good to mix a slow-release fertilizer into the soil in addition to the compost if you’re trying to stimulate flowering. Although the list of diseases that may attack chrysanthemums is long, mums are relatively trouble-free. Small purplish spots form on leaves. The bluish green leaves are narrow, sheathing the stems; there are swellings at the junction of leaf and stem. Symptoms often appear on one section of the plant. It is an herbaceous plant belonging to the Caryophyllaceae family, native to the Mediterranean Region. on the leaves of this Dianthus sp. However, the common diseases in the family are leaf spot and grey mould, which need to be dealt with in time once they happen. The symptom of carnation wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.dianthi) includes yellowing of leaves, withering of leaves at the basal portion, and yellowing of midribs. and are some of the oldest cultivated flowers. Among fungal diseases caused by soilborne pathogens, Fusarium wilt is the most devastating carnation disease worldwide. Instead, The center of the leaf spot becomes reddish-brown and a yellow border develops around the leaf spot. The affected organs have circular, gray to white spots, of 10-15 mm diameter, covered by a black mold in the center. Spirato GHN at 1 to 2 fl oz/100 gal water. Chemical control Use foliar sprays along with cultural controls. Protect DF at 1 to 2 lb/100 gal water plus 2 to 4 oz spreader-sticker. Springer Int. Leaf spot caused by Alternaria pathogens result in brown spots on leaves. Leaf Spot. 48-hr reentry general or 24-hr reentry for greenhouse. You should look to remove any parts of the plant that appear affected. Avoid blooms. Dip the cuttings in a solution of Dithane M. 45 (0.1%) + Bavistin (0.1%) for 5 min. Fariy-ring leaf spot; Septoria leaf spot; Powdery mildew; Root, crown, stem rot; Rust; Viruses Carnation latent ; Carnation mottle ; Carnation necrotic fleck ; Carnation ringspot; Carnation streak virus; Impatiens necrotic spot virus Lower leaves may show symptoms first. 12-hr reentry. 12-hr reentry. Maintain low humidity. Alternaria panax: Primarily attacks ginseng as an alternaria blight. Stem joints can also become infected eventually killing whole stems and/or the entire plant. The fungus readily invades wounds and all plant tissue, especially senescent or injured plant parts. Vesicles are boat-shaped, hence the species epithet \"pseudonaviculata\"… Also causes pod spot of radish. be helpful in reducing not only the incidence of fusarium wilt of carnations, Apply a fungicide to protect healthy plants. yellow. Captan 80 WDG at 1.5 lb/100 gal water. Fusarium of carnations is caused by the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum. Erwinia Blight. It is prevalent wherever carnations are grown. Armada 50 WDG at 3 to 9 oz/100 gal water. Erwinia attacks at or below the soil line. Group 3 fungicide. Professor (Plant Pathology) Discolored foliage or blooms have been noted. The disease attacks the leaves, the stems and the flowers. When stems of diseased plants are split, a brown discoloration or streaks are evident in the vascular tissues. Erwinia Blight. The disease attacks the leaves, the stems and the flowers. Often confused with cercospora leaf spot in carrots. Erwinia blight, the most common philodendron disease, can prove fatal in a few days. turn, interferes with water and nutrient absorption. D. caryophyllus has been used extensively by breeders for centuries, and as a result, many cultivated hybrids exist, each with a name that usually describes its features. Remove any diseased plants immediately. This blight is also known as Guignardia; the names apply to two different sexual stages of the same fungus. Fusarium of carnations is caused by the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum. This blight is also known as Guignardia; the names apply to two different sexual stages of the same fungus. 24-hr reentry. Bacterial diseases. Appl Biol Res 8:29–32 Google Scholar Botrytis cinerea can cause leaf and flower bract blight as well as stem cankers; the pathogen must be controlled throughout the greenhouse as it can attack a wide array of greenhouse crops. Use with oils or adjuvants may damage plant. Erwinia attacks at or below the soil line. Also causes pod spot of radish. After being covered with grey mould on the flower bud, petal and stem and leaf, it appears brown water spot, which causes the petal to rot, the flower bud to fall off, the stem and leaf to die, the susceptible flower bud cannot open, the flower color of the infected flower to lose its luster. Qazi NA, Khurshid Ahmad MA, Bieg GH, Hassan D, Vaseem Y, Nadeem AG (2006) Prevalence of major carnation diseases in Kashmir and management of leaf spot (Alternaria dianthi Stev. No. 12-hr reentry. Proper Group 11 fungicide. Group M3 fungicide. Spots may coalesce while the area between spots yellows. Apply a fungicide to protect plants. Foliar and Stem diseases. Alternaria japonica: Causes leaf spotting in radish, arugula, other cole crops. Fariy-ring leaf spot; Septoria leaf spot; Powdery mildew; Root, crown, stem rot; Rust; Viruses Carnation latent ; Carnation mottle ; Carnation necrotic fleck ; Carnation ringspot; Carnation streak virus; Impatiens necrotic spot virus 12-hr reentry. Botrytis blight (gray mold) Downy mildew; Fasciation; Fusarium wilt; Leaf spots. Group 12 fungicide. Most common orchid diseases can be prevented or cured, especially is caught early. Monterey Liqui-Cop at 3 Tbsp/gal water. (field bean, kidney, lima, navy, and pinto), Garbanzo Bean (Chickpea), Cicer arietinum, Control of Some Common Aquatic Weeds with Herbicides, Treated Water Use Restrictions (Number of Days), Effectiveness of Major Forestry-registered Herbicides during Seasons of Optimum Usage, Oregon Basis, Recommendations for Broadcast Spraying for Control of Listed Species, Recommendations for Directed Spot Spray, Tree Injection, and Basal Bark Treatment, Hybrid Cottonwood (Hybrid Poplar) Grown for Pulp, Vegetation Management in Orchards, Vineyards, and Berries, Blueberry, Gooseberry, Currant, and Elderberry, Important Preharvest Intervals (PHIs) for Vegetables, Site Preparation, Stale Seedbeds, and Burndown Applications, Registered Uses of Carfentrazone (Aim) Herbicide in Food Crops, Crop Rotation Intervals (months) for Common Soil-active Herbicides, Herbicide Effectiveness in Christmas Trees, Weed Control in Container-grown Nursery Stock, Weed Control in Field-grown Nursery Stock, Ornamental Bulb, Rhizome, Corm, and Tuber Crops, Established Tree, Shrub, Rose, and Ground Cover Landscapes, General Maintenance around Ornamental Plantings, Susceptibility of Broadleaf Weeds in Turf to Common Herbicides, Weed Treatments and Available Products for Home Gardens and Landscapes, Managing Unwanted Vegetation in Riparian Restoration Sites, What to Do in Case of Pesticide Poisoning, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Definitions, Cleaning, Recycling, and Disposing of Agricultural Pesticide Containers, Disposing of Unusable Pesticides and Agricultural, Household and Residential Pesticide Products, Pesticides, Endangered Species, and Mandatory No-spray Buffer Zones, Worker Protection Standard (WPS) for Agricultural Pesticides. of carnations with fusarium wilt are a slow wilting of shoots accompanied by Spectro 90 WDG at 1 to 2 lb/100 gal water. No. & Hall) of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Maintain good air circulation by spacing out plants. Fixed copper products, Group M1 fungicides. Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus)-Alternaria Blight Some necrotic spots due to Alternaria sp. Alternaria dianthi, sometimes known as carnation blight, is a fungal pathogen of the genus Dianthus. Here is a brief introduction to the prevention and treatment of carnation diseases. The disease attacks the leaves, the stems and the flowers. Alternaria dianthi infections begin as small circular or ovular spots on leaves and stems, which can be red, purple, brown, yellow or gray. Asexual spores are produced in slimy masses in sporodochia on branched, penicillate conidiophores, which consist of a conidiogenous phialide, a stipe, a sterile elongation and a vesicle. Chipco 26019 N/G at 1 to 2.5 lb/100 gal water. Dianthus Diseases. Copper-Count-N at 1 quart/100 gal water. The wilting and chlorosis is generally more evident on one side of the plant Group M3 fungicides. These spots eventually kill affected leaves. As the plant dies, the Medallion WDG at 1 to 2 oz/100 gal water. Root-knot Meloidogyne spp. wilt disease. The most common diseases of orchid plants are fungal. Group 12 fungicide. Symptoms Small purplish circular-to-oval spots form on leaves. The diseases of carnation include calyx rot, rust, grey mould, bud rot and root rot. A bane of greenhouse growers, anthracnose is mainly a problem with carnations and perennial dianthus; Sweet William does not seem to be as affected by this fungal disease. Fore 80 WP at 1.5 lb/100 gal water plus a spreader-sticker. Relative Disease Susceptibility and Sensitivity to Sulfur, Diagnosis and Control of Phytophthora Diseases, APHIS List of Regulated Hosts and Plants Proven or Associated with Phytophthora ramorum, Plants Resistant or Susceptible to Armillaria Root Rot, Verticillium Wilt in the Pacific Northwest, Plants Resistant or Susceptible to Verticillium Wilt, Plants Susceptible to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Potential Impact of Cyanobacteria on Crop Plants, Management of the Cyanobacterium Nostoc in Horticultural Nurseries, Impatiens Necrotic Spot: New Name, Same Threat, Virus Certification Program for Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Care and Maintenance of Wood Shingle and Shake Roofs, Winter Injury of Landscape Plants in the Pacific Northwest, Recognizing Sapsucker Damage on your Trees, Key to Nutrient Deficiencies in Vegetable Crops, Key to Nutrient Deficiencies of Deciduous Fruit and Nuts, Use of Disinfestants to Control Plant Pathogens, Current Status of Biological Weed Control Agents in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, Biological Control Agents and Their Roles, Restricted-use Herbicides in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, Testing for and Deactivating Herbicide Residues, Herbicide Effectiveness on Weeds in Grass Seed Crops, Dry Bean East of the Cascades - Phaseolus spp. 48-hr reentry. The affected organs have circular, gray to white spots, of 10-15 mm diameter, covered by a black mold in the center. Botrytis Blight: Petals turn brown and fall. Group 11 fungicide. The use of potting soils that contain peat or coir fiber Septoria leaf spot Septoria dianthi: Southern blight Sclerotium rolfsii Athelia rolfsii [teleomorph] Nematodes, parasitic. Group 3 + 11 fungicide. 12-hr reentry. Alternaria blight of carnation in the greenhouse and its control. Botrytis cinerea: Space plants to insure good air circulation. Most blights are caused by bacterial or fungal infestations, which usually attack the shoots and … Discolored foliage or blooms have been noted. As the disease advances, small spores (microconidia) are Diseases caused by Fungi: Wilt, Fusarium, Verticillium. Give sharp cut below node. This, in Common diseases in Dianthus species include leaf spot, bacterial blight, bacterial spot, stem rot, branch blight and Fusarium wilt. Heritage at 1 to 8 oz/100 gal water plus a non-silicone-based wetter sticker. Avoid overhead irrigation or any practice that keeps plants wet for extended periods. Symptoms of leaf blight on carrot plants at the end of vegetation (first year of seed production). Disarm 480 SC at 1 to 4 fl oz/100 gal water. There is also a bacterial rot which can diminish orchid health. Nu-Cop 50 DF at 1 lb/100 gal water. Orkestra at 4 to 6 fl oz/100 gal water. Eagle 20 EW at 6 to 12 fl oz/100 gal water. but also of other soil borne pathogens and weeds. Border carnations include a range of varieties and hybrids, 30 to 75 cm (1 to 2.5 feet) tall; the flowers, in a wide range of colours, are usually less than 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter and are borne on wiry, stiffly erect stems. Cause Alternaria nobilis (formerly Alternaria dianthi) ,a fungus that has been reported from Washington and found by the OSU Plant Clinic. Group 3 fungicide 24-hr reentry. (Krystyna Tylkowska) Diseased carrot leaf. Several different kinds of fungi cause leaf spot on chrysanthemum: Septoria chrysanthemi, Septoria chrysanthemella, Alternaria species, and Cercospora chrysanthemi. If the disease has been a problem in Root and collar rot is also possible on rooted cuttings. Remove crop debris. Carnation (Dianthus) Diseases. 11-62C and 11-63). Terraguard SC at 4 to 8 fl oz/100 gal water. Blight, any of various plant diseases whose symptoms include sudden and severe yellowing, browning, spotting, withering, or dying of leaves, flowers, fruit, stems, or the entire plant. Ziram 76 DF at 1.5 to 2 lb/100 gal water. Alternaria dianthi: Primarily attacks dianthus-species ornamentals, and is referred to as “carnation blight”. Cercospora Leaf Spot Leaf spot caused by Alternaria pathogens result in brown spots on leaves. Its asexually reproducing stage is a member of the Hyphomycetes. Not for nursery or greenhouse use. Dianthus Diseases. (Krystyna Tylkowska) ... cabbage, cucumber, carnation, lettuce, parsnip, parsley, radish, tomato, aubergine; Monitoring. 48-hr reentry. Group 1 + M3 fungicide. The ancient Indian tribe also used carnations for treatment and relief of chest congestion and diseases by taking about 1 tbsp. 12-hr reentry. Informational table showing disease name, symptoms, pathogen/cause, and management of Carnation (Dianthus) diseases. Rhizoctonia Stem Rot: Stems at the soil level will showcase lesions, complete with a brown border. The wilting and chlorosis is generally more evident on one side of the plant than the other. These spots eventually kill affected leaves. 2015021040 COURSE TEACHER Dr. PARTHASARATHY S Asst. Emblem at 1 to 2 fl oz/100 gal water. 2017. Flower buds are killed before opening. Common diseases in Dianthus species include leaf spot, bacterial blight, bacterial spot, stem rot, branch blight and Fusarium wilt. Carnations are susceptible to a variety of leaf and flower diseases that spread easily through overhead watering. The round or elongate fungus Bud pustules, filled with riîimrusty-brown spore powder, break out on both sides of the leaves and occasionally on the stems. Put the lower end of cuttings in a … dianthi): First symptoms are a slow wilting of shoots, often on only one side of the plant.Wilting is accompanied by a discoloration of leaves, at first a light gray-green and finally a pale yellow color. 12-hr reentry. Carnation Blight is caused by the Alternaria dianthi fungus. Alternaria japonica: Causes leaf spotting in radish, arugula, other cole crops. benches. 2015021040 COURSE TEACHER Dr. PARTHASARATHY S Asst. Botrytis Blight: Indications your carnation has this disease include brown tinged petals and a grey, fungal growth. Plant Disease Reporter 62:24-28. Handbook of Florists' Crops Diseases. This will Carnation rust is caused by the fungus Uromyces caryophyllinus. 5-10-10 slow-release granular fertilizer does well for most types of carnations and pinks. Pageant at 4 to 8 oz/100 gal water. Septoria Symptoms: The tiny spots may start on either leaf surface as sunken, yellow lesions. Not to be confused with the smoking cessation drug. Professor (Plant Pathology) Group 2 fungicide. The development of fusarium wilt of carnations is fostered leaf discoloration that gradually lighten the color from light green to pale Trinity at 4 to 8 fl oz/100 gal water. 12-hr reentry. Cause Alternaria nobilis (formerly Alternaria dianthi),a fungus that has been reported from … High moisture, crowded plants and low fertility favor the disease. use a soil that has been amended with compost or manure, which seems to retard the past, solarize soil, water, wind and contaminated clothing, equipment, and tools. Limit to two (2) applications per year to aid resistance management. the ground for 4-6 weeks during the hottest part of the summer. Avoid watering late in the day. According to some ancient Aztec homeopathic remedies, carnations were used by this Indian culture as a diuretic when taken in an infusion of carnation flower petals in hot water. Ortho MAX Garden Disease Control at 2 teaspoons/gal water. Carnations propagation by terminal stem cuttings Terminal cutting of 8-10 cm long is taken. Despite their age old the development of carnation fusarium wilt disease. The initial symptoms characteristic brown streaking or discoloration in the vascular tissue. Alternaria dianthi, sometimes known as carnation blight, is a fungal pathogen of the genus Dianthus. Use with oils or adjuvants may cause plant damage. Here is a brief introduction to the prevention and treatment of carnation diseases. Symptoms consist of … Dianthus spp.. Fusarium Wilt (fungus – Fusarium oxysporum f. spp. Control methods of carnation diseases. The following article contains carnation fusarium wilt info 12-hr reentry. Alternaria dianthi infections begin as small circular or ovular spots on leaves and stems, which can be red, purple, brown, yellow or gray. Heavy clay soil is a death sentence when growing carnations of any type. 2). Eventually, the root and stems rot and the plant dies. Nematodes, parasitic ... = Criconemella spp. In the greenhouse, control of fungus gnats helps to prevent the spread of Group 7 + 11 fungicide. The disease attacks the leaves, the stems and the flowers. on identifying fusarium of carnations and treating carnation fusarium wilt. Group 3 fungicide. Sterilize tools and soil, and use clean gloves when handling the 'Barbarini Rose'. 24-hr reentry. Calonectria pseudonaviculata is a member of the Ascomycota. OSU Plant Clinic Image, 2014. Spots may merge to form large, irregular patches on the leaf. the disease. A higher potassium level fertilizer will encourage lots of color. They continue to enlarge, becoming dark brown to black, circular or irregular lesions. (eds.) moldy,The area about the infected tissue infestedat first is yello^vish, then brown. Septoria Symptoms: The tiny spots may start on either leaf surface as sunken, yellow lesions. Carnations have a rich and meaningful history, and are some of the oldest cultivated flowers. Find more gardening information on Gardening Know How: Keep up to date with all that's happening in and around the garden. Shear off lower most 1-2 leaf pairs. Southern corn leaf blight, caused by Cochliobolus heterostrophus, anamorph Bipolaris maydis, causes small (0.6 by 2.5 cm), tan lesions that may be so numerous that they almost cover the entire leaf (Figs. 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Wastewater-based epidemiology has been around for decades, used most prominently as a means of detecting the existence of the polio virus in communities. In recent months, interest in this often-overlooked field has exploded as engineers, researchers, private companies, and all levels of government turn to sewage to track trends associated with the spread of COVID-19. Following the onset of the pandemic, scientists quickly determined that the genetic material of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the organism that causes COVID-19, is present in the feces of infected individuals, often as much as several days to a week before such individuals begin showing symptoms and including those who never show symptoms at all. The discovery set off a rush in the United States and elsewhere to sample and test wastewater for the presence of the genetic material. This data can provide a cost-effective indicator of the presence of COVID-19 in a given community long before other methods of detection, giving the public health system more time to act. In the United States, nearly 80 percent of households are served by municipal wastewater collection systems, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. As a result, wastewater-based epidemiology offers a potentially straightforward method for monitoring the prevalence of COVID-19 in communities across much of the country. Wastewater surveillance data can detect whether disease rates are increasing or decreasing earlier than might be indicated by the results of individualized testing. Depending on the degree to which wastewater sampling efforts can be conducted upstream in a sewer system, the results can be used to assess the prevalence of COVID-19 in ever smaller geographic areas. Such data can also inform public health officials as to whether certain medical and social interventions intended to combat the disease are having the desired effects. “The primary advantages of this technique are that it is an extremely cost-effective way to quickly sample a large community without bias or discrimination, and it provides an early warning system for potential emerging infections because it detects signals from people regardless of whether they have symptoms or not,” says Christobel Ferguson, the chief innovation officer for the Water Research Foundation. Wastewater-based epidemiology offers a potentially straightforward method for monitoring the prevalence of COVID-19 in communities across much of the country. A leader in the field of wastewater-based epidemiology, the city of Tempe, Arizona, was uniquely situated to begin testing for SARS-CoV-2 genetic material in its wastewater when the COVID-19 pandemic hit the United States in the spring. Approximately two years earlier, the city had begun wastewater monitoring to check for biomarkers indicating the presence of drugs. The idea grew out of the city’s efforts to make better use of data as a means of improving its services, says Rosa Inchausti, Tempe’s director of strategic management and diversity. The city had developed a working group to combat the opioid epidemic. Because of the stigma associated with opioid use, the city had no way of knowing with precision where opioid use was most prevalent. As a result, it had no way to determine how best to target resources aimed at addressing opioid addiction. Nearly all of the information the city had on the subject came from its fire department, which tracked calls for service that were deemed likely to be related to opioids, and its use of medication to treat opioid overdoses. “Those are lagging indicators,” Inchausti says. In 2018, Inchausti met Rolf Halden, Ph.D., P.E., M.ASCE, the director of the Center for Environmental Health Engineering at the Biodesign Institute, a professor in the Ira A. Fulton School for Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, and a senior sustainability scientist in the Global Institute of Sustainability and Innovation at Arizona State University, which has its main campus in Tempe. Halden suggested that Tempe work with ASU to monitor the city’s wastewater as a means of obtaining more detailed information regarding illicit drug use within its jurisdiction. Because the suggestion meshed with Tempe’s goal to become more data driven, the city jumped at the idea, Inchausti says. ASU began analyzing wastewater samples collected by the city, and Tempe created an online dashboard displaying the results of the wastewater-based epidemiology on a regional basis. As a result, anyone with an internet connection can see at a glance generally what types of opioids are present in the city and where they are used most heavily. At the same time, the dashboard indicates the per capita average monthly mass load values for various opioid-based compounds within each of five regions, providing a quantitative as well as a qualitative assessment of opioid use. “The city of Tempe had done something that nobody had done and still hasn’t done, and that is to take information from wastewater on a neighborhood basis and immediately share it with the public,” Halden says. With the dashboard, Tempe is “essentially taking a genuine look at the health profile, without censoring the data in any way, and making it available to all the stakeholders in the city,” he notes. “We can lay claim on having produced the first wastewater-based, epidemiology-informed dashboard in the world.” The data also revealed the extent to which a government-imposed order for all nonessential workers to remain at home helped lower the prevalence of the disease. Early in 2020, as it became clear that COVID-19 was becoming a worldwide problem, ASU and Tempe decided to begin testing for the virus’s genetic material as well. “We were very well positioned to take on monitoring of the SARS-CoV-2,” Halden says. “With the help of ASU virus experts, we immediately retooled our monitoring system to measure COVID-19 by way of SARS-CoV-2 particles in wastewater using reverse transcriptase quantitative (polymerase chain reaction),” he says, referring to a common laboratory method for quantifying the viral RNA load present in wastewater. Just as it did for opioid use, the city of Tempe created a publicly accessible dashboard to display data regarding levels of the virus in wastewater samples from six collection areas in the city as well as the adjacent town of Guadalupe. (One of the collection areas later was divided in two, so the dashboard now displays data for seven areas within Tempe.) Posted results represent the weekly average of SARS-CoV-2 genome copies per liter of wastewater collected as part of three 24-hour composite samples from each of the areas. Begun in March, the new dashboard was “very successful at providing us with an early view” of the spread of COVID-19 locally, Halden says. “We have a very fine-resolution information database” that shows “how much of the virus is where at what point in time.” The data also revealed the extent to which a government-imposed order for all nonessential workers to remain at home helped lower the prevalence of the disease. “We saw that the lockdown was very efficient in driving the virus numbers down,” Halden notes. Meanwhile, the data also indicated an uptick in the virus load when the economy began to reopen. “With loosening of the lockdowns, we saw an increase in virus particles,” he says. Similarly, a subsequent mask ordinance “really made a difference” in terms of the viral load in the wastewater, “driving numbers down below the detection limit for various areas,” Halden says. The city of Tempe is spending roughly $300,000 to $400,000 annually on sampling related to its wastewater-based epidemiology program. It is money well spent, Inchausti says. “Part of the utility of using this data has been the outreach in the community,” she says. Such efforts include multilingual education and communication about city-provided services, the delivery of masks, and COVID-19 saliva-based testing for individuals in areas shown to be hot spots for the disease. “The city is really invested,” she says. “They’ve seen the benefits of using wastewater [testing] and utilizing it to deploy different strategies.” The city is also looking to use the results of the wastewater testing as a means to combat COVID-19 as cost-effectively as possible. “We need to be more efficient in how we deploy resources,” Inchausti says. For example, the city does not have the wherewithal to routinely clean each of its many parks to limit the spread of the virus. However, targeting only those parks that are located in areas shown by the wastewater testing to be COVID-19 hot spots would require significantly fewer resources on the part of the city while still protecting public health adequately, she maintains. In the event that the wastewater testing shows the virus to be significantly more prevalent in one area, the city would have the option to close only those parks in that area rather than having to shut down every park in the city. ASU has enjoyed such success with its wastewater monitoring efforts that it created two separate entities in 2019 to handle the workload, Halden says. A for-profit venture that licensed the wastewater sampling and testing process developed by ASU — AquaVitas LLC — offers various consultation services pertaining to wastewater-based epidemiology for municipalities and private organizations. Halden is the chief business development officer for AquaVitas. The university also formed the nonprofit organization OneWaterOneHealth, which uses wastewater-based epidemiology as a means of improving health outcomes, primarily in marginalized or underserved communities. When OneWaterOneHealth began last year, “we weren’t quite sure which step was best to take forward at that point,” says Devin Bowes, a nutritional epidemiologist and one of the co-founders of OneWaterOneHealth, along with Halden and Nivedita Biyani, a graduate research assistant at ASU. Upon the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic, Bowes says, “we knew exactly how we could help.” Since then, OneWaterOneHealth has worked with communities that “may not get the clinical testing access that they need in order to make some sound decisions within their community,” she says. Boise, Idaho, is another city that has begun using a publicly accessible internet dashboard to display the results of its testing for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 genetic material in its wastewater. Since late May, the city has been sampling and testing influent daily at the heads of its two water renewal facilities, says Kyle Patterson, a city data strategist for Boise. The two facilities treat, in addition to wastewater from Boise, wastewater from the Idaho towns of Garden City and Eagle. For the purposes of testing for SARS-CoV-2 in its wastewater, Boise sends its 24-hour composite samples to the University of Missouri for analysis by means of quantitative polymerase chain reaction testing, a method of quickly making millions of copies of genetic material. Because Boise conducts its sampling at its water renewal facilities and not further upstream, as Tempe does, its dashboard does not display results on the local level. Instead, Boise’s dashboard shows a single daily result comprising the average virus quantity in the samples from its two facilities. This average is weighted on the basis of flow and adjusted on the basis of a control test. Boise opted to share the data online because “people are really hungry for information related to COVID-19,” Patterson says. “We wanted to do our part to help provide that publicly.” The city also wanted to share its data with Central District Health, one of seven public health districts within the state of Idaho. Central District Health serves the counties of Ada, Boise, Elmore, and Valley; the city of Boise is in Ada County. “We want to do our part to help our public health experts here locally in their fight against COVID-19,” Patterson says. For its part, the Central District Health is “still working on the best way to incorporate this data into our decision-making processes and how it may be used to identify potential increases or decreases in illnesses within our communities,” says Brandon Atkins, a public information specialist for the district. “Our hope is that this information will provide us an additional tool to help provide effective mitigation strategies within our communities.” Like Tempe, other U.S. cities and states have begun teaming with academic institutions to test samples for the presence of the virus’s genetic material. Like Tempe, other U.S. cities and states have begun teaming with academic institutions to test samples for the presence of the virus’s genetic material. For example, in August, the state of Colorado announced that it was developing a partnership to conduct wastewater-based epidemiology using samples from 17 wastewater utilities that, combined, serve as much as 65 percent of the state’s population. As part of the $520,000 project, each utility will provide two samples per week taken from the influent of its wastewater treatment facilities. Analytical testing will be conducted primarily by Colorado State University, with assistance from Metropolitan State University of Denver. “Knowing whether we’ll have an increase in cases allows health officials to adapt and shift resources to those communities so they are ready for the outbreak,” said Nicole Rowan, the clean water program manager for the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, in an Aug. 12 news release. “And if we see a potential decrease in cases, then it can be one tool in the toolbox to help inform whether to ease up on restrictions.” The effort is slated to continue through August 2021, says MaryAnn Nason, a spokesperson for the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. “If the pilot is successful and the need continues, we hope to expand it so more utilities can participate,” Nason says. “We will share this data with local public health agencies, and we anticipate we will have enough data after several months to launch a public dashboard.” In August, New York state announced that it was launching a $500,000 pilot program to test wastewater for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in Onondaga County and the cities of Albany, Newburgh, and Buffalo. Also in August, New York state announced that it was launching a $500,000 pilot program to test wastewater for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in Onondaga County and the cities of Albany, Newburgh, and Buffalo. An Aug. 14 news release from the office of Democratic Gov. Andrew Cuomo explained, “The wastewater pilot will be used to assess the feasibility of a statewide initiative to utilize wastewater as a leading indicator of the prevalence of COVID-19 in the population, usefulness in predicting diagnostic testing and contact tracing needs, as well as potential mitigation measures such as hospital preparedness, the need to reinforce Executive Orders or reevaluate reopening plans.” The pilot project involves the New York State Department of Health, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Syracuse University, the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, the State University of New York Upstate Medical University, the diagnostics company Quadrant Biosciences Inc., and the engineering consulting firm Arcadis. Onondaga County, Albany, Newburgh, and Buffalo were selected for the pilot because they “have features and areas that will allow for specific monitoring of smaller geographic areas such as residential, industrial, commercial and/or resort areas,” according to the governor’s release. “The relationship between wastewater virus data and COVID-19 cases within the corresponding area will be analyzed. The pilot study will also provide for an in-depth daily sampling program at up to 10 locations of high concern or special interest.” For the pilot, Arcadis will identify sampling locations and collect wastewater samples. “We’re sampling two to three days per week, depending on the location,” says Darcy Sachs, a project manager for Arcadis. “That allows us to gain a better understanding of the variability” of the genetic material of the virus in the wastewater,” Sachs says. “In each of these cities, we have up to 15 locations we’re sampling. So we can get a fair bit of resolution on the virus presence in those areas.” To ensure that the resulting data are as useful as possible, Arcadis developed sampling plans that are “very customized” to the individual communities participating in the pilot, Sachs says, “knowing the sewer system is crucial to coming up with a plan that will work.” To this end, Arcadis staff accounted for such factors within the collection systems as high flow rates, combined sewer overflows, sewer depths, the existence of offline or in-line stormwater collection and holding, the use of disinfecting chemicals for odor control, and disinfection. To varying degrees, each variable “can impact the measurability of the viral RNA,” Sachs says. Armed with the data from the pilot, epidemiologists from Syracuse University will “develop models to predict case transmissions” within each of the participating communities, Sachs says. “We hope that this becomes a springboard for a New York statewide platform.” By providing advance data regarding the actual rates of COVID-19 transmission, the pilot project is intended to facilitate better, more informed decision-making on the part of the state government. “We are hoping that this allows the New York State Department of Health to make decisions quickly and snuff out any significant transmission of the virus in a given community,” Sachs says. By providing advance data regarding the actual rates of COVID-19 transmission, the pilot project is intended to facilitate better, more informed decision-making on the part of the state government. The pilot project offers a vital way for civil engineers to work with scientists and other technical professionals to further the cause of public health, says John McCarthy, P.E., the water business line president for Arcadis. “It’s exciting to be on the front line of the COVID-19 challenges,” McCarthy says. “For civil engineers to be there and to be protecting public health, I think that’s a big deal. It’s very much in line with our overall mission, which is improving quality of life. Here we’re protecting the quality of life.” Looking to work with health agencies, wastewater treatment agencies, and others to address the COVID-19 threat, the engineering firm GHD announced in early September that it was initiating a wastewater-based epidemiology service with the support of the bioanalytical testing company Eurofins Scientific. In a press release issued Sept. 9, Peter Capponi, the North American industrial and manufacturing sector leader at GHD, stated, “The launch of this service translates to one more weapon in the fight against the pandemic. The testing technology has the potential to offer scientific evidence to a wide range of organizations to support their decision-making.” While demand for sampling grows, the jury is still out on which techniques are best. “Currently, there is no federal (Environmental Protection Agency)-approved methodology for sampling, but for the most part, health departments and utilities across the country have the same approach — sampling either at the intake of the wastewater treatment plant or upstream throughout the collection system at possible hot spot locations,” says Emily Remmel, a director of regulatory affairs for the National Association of Clean Water Agencies. And hot spots can include hospitals, long-term health care facilities, prisons, and schools and universities. Determining where to sample “should not be a decision made by the wastewater utility single-handedly,” Remmel points out. “This type of epidemiological surveillance is outside the traditional role of a wastewater treatment plant and should be made in tandem with direction from local and state health departments,” she says. That said, sampling at a wastewater treatment facility offers a straightforward approach that can take advantage of existing equipment. “Most utilities are getting good results by sampling primary effluent at the wastewater treatment plant,” says Ferguson of the Water Research Foundation. “There is some indication that primary settled sewage may be the most reliable/representative sample to collect and test to represent an overall community.” Much still remains unclear about exactly how to interpret SARS-CoV-2 signals detected in wastewater. Unknown factors include the extent to which rainwater, industrial effluent, and other constituents present in collection systems might affect the RNA signal from the virus. The question of sampling frequency also is undetermined. “We are learning more and more about sampling wastewater for COVID-19 RNA and the usefulness of the data,” Remmel says. “Ideally, a wastewater sample would be collected at least weekly. But as our learning has evolved on this issue, increasing sampling can improve trend outputs. Therefore, sampling three times a week, although more costly, can give us a more refined picture of RNA prevalence in a given community.” In June, the Water Research Foundation published a paper, titled Wastewater Surveillance of the COVID-19 Genetic Signal in Sewersheds, summarizing the findings of an international panel it convened in April to assess the known state of wastewater-based epidemiology as it pertains to SARS-CoV-2. The paper includes a best practices section that addresses safety, equipment and preliminary activities, sample collection, documentation, and transport, storage, and preservation. (Visit tinyurl.com/wwaterCOVID for the full report.) Much still remains unclear about exactly how to interpret SARS-CoV-2 signals detected in wastewater. Unknown factors include the extent to which rainwater, industrial effluent, and other constituents present in collection systems might affect the RNA signal from the virus. “There are many confounding issues that we are not entirely clear on, such as how dilution/volume may affect the COVID-19 RNA genetic signal,” Remmel says. “Duration, temperature, and volume are a few of the concerns that could impact signal strength,” she notes. “In addition, other constituents — for example, pH, ammonia, total suspended solids, et cetera — may impact the genetic signal.” Another concern has to do with whether current testing methods are capable of detecting low levels of infection in a community. In an Aug. 17 news release, the CDC stated that the “lower limits of detection (i.e., the smallest number of people shedding the virus in stool that can still be detected by current testing methods) for sewage surveillance are not yet well understood. More data on fecal shedding by infected individuals over the course of (the) disease are needed to better understand the limits of detection.” Another glaring question mark involves how closely virus levels in wastewater correlate to the numbers of individuals having the disease. “The trends are predicted by the levels in wastewater, but we do not have sufficient knowledge yet of other information needed to translate the signal into an estimate of the number of individuals infected,” Ferguson says. “A key piece of missing information is the amount of virus RNA shed in fecal material from asymptomatic cases.” Another glaring question mark involves how closely virus levels in wastewater correlate to the numbers of individuals having the disease. The CDC is clear on this point. Currently, “it is not possible to reliably and accurately predict the number of infected individuals in a community based on sewage testing,” according to information on the agency’s website. That said, at least one company maintains that it has the ability to estimate closely the number of individuals in an area having COVID-19 based on the results of wastewater sampling. In late July, the Israeli wastewater management technology firm Kando announced the completion of a pilot project to detect SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater from the collection system of the city of Ashkelon, Israel. Working with researchers from Ben Gurion University and Technion — Israel Institute of Technology, Kando staff “were able to accurately measure concentrations of the virus remnants and determine the approximate number of those suffering from infection by factoring in the necessary data, including industrial effluent, which destroys the virus, and sewage flow, which dilutes the virus’s concentration,” according to a July 30 news release from the company. For the pilot, Kando collected two types of data pertaining to Ashkelon’s wastewater network — continuous sensor data and physical water samples, says Yaniv Shoshan, the company’s vice president of product and marketing. The sensor data are transmitted from Kando’s Internet of Things units to a cloud service that analyzes the wastewater behavior, Shoshan says. Collected by automatic samplers, the physical samples were analyzed in a virology lab. “The lab results (were) then integrated into a mathematical model that ingests the lab results, network properties, population properties, and actual sensor reading to estimate the infected population size,” he explains. Back in the United States, the CDC and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services are looking to compile and integrate the results of the many disparate efforts around the country to test wastewater for the presence of SARS-CoV-2. To that end, the CDC is developing a national database that it calls the National Wastewater Surveillance System. “The data generated by NWSS will help public health officials to better understand the extent of COVID-19 infections in communities,” the CDC said in its news release. “CDC is currently developing a portal for state, tribal, local, and territorial health departments to submit wastewater testing data into a national database for use in summarizing and interpreting data for public health action.” The CDC and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services are looking to compile and integrate the results of the many disparate efforts around the country to test wastewater for the presence of SARS-CoV-2. As the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic continues to unfold, it remains highly likely that wastewater-based epidemiology will feature prominently in efforts to study and understand the transmission of the virus within an increasing number of communities. “What we have is a radar,” says Halden of ASU. “We can look and identify problems early on, find geospatial clusters, and then have a more synchronized and informed intervention, going to the places where help is needed, rather than testing everyone willy-nilly. That can be done quite inexpensively.” At the same time, the newly reenergized field of wastewater-based epidemiology offers a means of addressing other public health threats well into the future, Halden says. “This should not be just a fad,” he says. “We want to build a public health monitoring and protection tool for the Inchausti, from the city of Tempe, agrees. Wastewater-based epidemiology offers “a way to save lives,” she says. But Inchausti does not stop there. “If done right nationally,” she says, “this will eradicate pandemics.” This article first appeared in the October 2020 issue of Civil Engineering.

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Posted by: The Liberty Beacon™ Staff Published June 14, 2013, filed under HEALTH By: Sarah Cain There has been much recent concern regarding vaccines given to children and the possible side effects. Particularly highlighted is the link between early childhood vaccines and autism. What follows will be a list of known ingredients inside vaccines, and their documented side effects. It will aid you in making informed decisions, which is something the industry seems to be against. The corporations involved have attempted to suppress this information for decades. Readers are advised that there are extra chemicals and toxins not mentioned, because we had to base this list upon ingredients that are already public knowledge. It seems that the more we research this topic: the more sinister it becomes. The connection to autism has already been repeatedly and scientifically established, and there are many other conditions caused by vaccines. Permanent paralysis (guillain barre syndrome) is surprisingly common, for example. Vaccines are said to prevent certain diseases. However, the chance of catching these diseases is incredibly remote, and the horrid side effects from vaccines are so common that vaccines overall cause much more harm than good. The chance that a particular vaccine will actually offer protection varies between 35% and 90%, and almost all of them lose effectiveness over time. In some cases, vaccines infect patients with the very diseases that they were meant to offer protection from, because they utilize live viral strains. “A single vaccine given to a 6 pound infant is the equivalent of giving a 180 lb. adult 30 vaccines in one day.” – Dr. Boyd Haley Vaccine Ingredient: Aborted baby fetus tissue and human albumin Did you ever wonder if aborted babies were sold to the pharmaceutical industry? Now you know. From a health perspective, the tissues from another human (not just animals) are still foreign tissues, and therefore toxic to the body. One industry-friendly web site matter-of-factly boasted: The Liberty Counsel reported:“The cells reproduce themselves, so there is no need to abort additional fetuses to sustain the culture supply. Viruses are collected from the diploid cell cultures and then processed further to produce the vaccine itself”. Vaccine Ingredient: Formaldehyde“You may be surprised to learn that some vaccinations are derived from aborted fetal tissue. Vaccines for chicken pox, Hepatitis-A, and Rubella were produced solely from aborted fetal tissue”. This ingredient is used in vaccines as a tissue fixative, and as a preservative. Formaldehyde is oxidized in the human body to become formic acid. Formic acid is the main ingredient of bee and ant venom. Concentrated, it is corrosive and an irritant. While absorbing the oxygen of the body, it may lead to acidosis, nerve, liver and kidney damage. According to the National Research Council, fewer than 20% but perhaps more than 10% of the general population may be susceptible to extreme formaldehyde toxicity, and may violently react to exposure at any level. Formaldehyde is ranked as one of the most hazardous compounds on ecosystems and human health, according to the Environmental Defense Fund. These findings are merely for environmental exposure, and therefore, the dangers are much greater with the formaldehyde included in vaccines, since it is injected directly into the blood. The known effects of formaldehyde exposure are: Mercury compounds are used in vaccines as preservatives. The toxicity of mercury has been repeatedly ignored in the area of vaccines by the medical establishment and oversight agencies. Mercury is the second most poisonous element known to mankind (second only to uranium and its derivatives). Brain neurons rapidly and permanently disintegrate in the presence of mercury within 30 minutes of exposure. Mercury is also known to change a body’s chromosomes. The U.S. Government has known about the potential problems of Thimerosal (the preservative in vaccines that contains mercury) for many years. The World Health Organization expressed concerns about it in 1990. Mercury is a cumulative poison, which means a body has difficulty removing it, and that levels of it in the body will accumulate significantly over time. Enormous amounts of mercury can accumulate over a lifetime. During a typical day of routine vaccines, infants sometimes receive the same amount of mercury as the absolute maximum set by the World Health Organization for 3 months of adult exposure. The following was taken from a website affiliated with the National Institutes of Health: “Symptoms of high exposure to this class of mercury based compounds includes: Aphthous, Stomatitis, Satarrhal gingivitis, nausea, liquid stools, pain, liver disorder, injury to the cardiovascular system and hematopoietic system, deafness and ataxia. Death. Headache, paresthesia of the tongue, lips, fingers and toes, other non-specific dysfunctions, metallic taste, slight gastrointestinal disturbances, excessive flatus and diarrhea may occur. Acute poisoning may cause gastrointestinal irritation and renal failure. Early signs of severe poisoning include fine tremors of extended hands, loss of side vision, slight loss of coordination in the eyes, speech, writing and gait, inability to stand or carry out voluntary movements, occasional muscle atrophy and flexure contractures, generalized myoclonic movements, difficulty understanding ordinary speech, irritability and bad temper progressing to mania, stupor, coma, mental retardation in children, skin irritation, blisters and dermatitis. Other symptoms include chorea, athetosis, tremors, convulsions, pain and numbness in the extremities, nephritis, salivation, loosening of the teeth, blue line on the gums, anxiety, mental depression, insomnia, hallucinations and central nervous system effects. Exposure may also cause irritation of the eyes, mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract.” Complete intolerance to Thimerosal, the mercury containing preservative, is known to develop from previous vaccines. The vaccines stimulate the immune system and cause a sensitization. The effects of mercury differ between inorganic, organic, and metallic mercury compounds. The neurologic toxicity symptoms caused by mercury compounds have a delayed onset after exposure, so few, if any of these symptoms will be noticed at the time of exposure. This explains the suspected long-term neurological symptoms of learning disabilities and behavior disorders associated with vaccines, which did not exist in previous generations. Vaccine Ingredient: Antifreeze Antifreeze (ethylene glycol) is an ingredient of the polio vaccine. It is classified as a “very toxic material”. It would take less than a tablespoonful to kill a 20-pound dog with this substance. Pet owners are generally very wary around this dangerous substance, knowing that only a small amount is fatal. For humans, it is directly injected into the blood through vaccinations. Antifreeze can eventually lead to kidney, liver, blood and central nervous system (CNS) disorders. It is quite harmful and likely fatal if swallowed. Effects include behavioral disorders, drowsiness, vomiting, diarrhea, visual disturbances, thirst, convulsions, cyanosis, rapid heart rate, depression, cardiopulmonary effects, kidney disorders. It can also lead to liver and blood disorders. It produces reproductive and developmental effects in experimental animals. Vaccine Ingredient: Aluminum Aluminum is a suspected carcinogen. It is a cardiovascular (blood) toxicant, neurotoxicant, and respiratory toxicant. It has been implicated as a cause of brain damage, and is a suspected factor in Alzheimer’s Disease, dementia, convulsions, and comas. It has been placed on at least 2 federal regulatory lists. It is well known in alternative medicine as a toxic and accumulative heavy metal. Vaccine Ingredient: 2-Phenoxyethanol This is a suspected carcinogen. A developmental and reproductive toxicant. It is also a metabolic poison, which means that it interferes with the metabolism of all cells. This is the primary factor in the formation of cancer cells. It is capable of disabling the immune system’s primary response. It also contains phenol (see below for explanation). Vaccine Ingredient: Phenol This is a suspected carcinogen, and a cardiovascular and blood toxicant. It is also known as carbolic acid. It is a developmental toxin, gastrointestinal toxin, liver toxin, kidney toxin, neurotoxin, respiratory toxin, skin or sense organ toxin. It has been placed on at least 8 federal regulatory watch lists. Vaccine Ingredient: Methanol This is a volatile, flammable, poisonous liquid alcohol. In industry, it is used as a solvent, and an antifreeze compound in fuel. In the body it is metabolized into formaldehyde (described earlier). Whilst it can be found naturally in the pectin that is present in some common fruits, the naturally occurring variant is only in minute quantities, and the organic form is not known to cause any harmful effects. Vaccine Ingredient: Borax (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) Traditionally used as a pesticide and ant killer. It is suspected to be a cardiovascular or blood toxicant, endocrine toxicant, gastrointestinal toxicant, liver toxicant and neurological toxicant. It was found to cause reproductive damage and reduced fertility rates in studies on rats. It is already banned in foods in the United States due to its toxicity; but astonishingly, it is still allowed for direct injection into the blood through vaccines. It is toxic to all cells, and it has a slow excretion rate through the kidneys. Kidney retention and toxicity are the greatest. It has a cascading effect after causing kidney impairment, causing liver degeneration, cerebral edema, and gastroenteritis. Vaccine Ingredient: Glutaraldehyde Glutaraldehyde is always toxic, causing severe eye, nose, throat and lung irritations, along with headaches, drowsiness, and dizziness. The effects mirror the chemical warfare agent known as nerve gas. It is poisonous if ingested, and known to cause birth defects in experimental animals. The effects of direct injection into the blood to bypass the process of ingestion are unknown. It is often used to clean medical equipment. In hospital accidents involving environmental exposure, it has been known to cause the following symptoms: Monosodium glutamate is a synthetic flavor enhancer. In a 1995 report by the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, two groups of people were defined as intolerant of MSG. This includes those who eat large quantities of MSG (it is used in lots of processed foods as a flavor enhancer) and those with “poorly controlled asthma”. Our research indicates that anyone can suffer after consuming monosodium glutamate; especially if they are deficient in either taurine or magnesium. In the 1995 report, which was contracted by the F.D.A., there was public admission that MSG yields the following symptoms: - Burning sensation in the back of the neck, forearms and chest - Numbness in the back of the neck, radiating to the arms and back - Tingling, warmth, and weakness in the face, temples, upper back, neck and arms - Facial pressure or tightness - Chest pain - Rapid heartbeat - Bronchospasm (difficulty breathing) Note that this is the short list (the one with side effects that the F.D.A. actually admits) and it does not consider the higher toxicity of direct injection into the blood. The long list, which is 15 times longer, includes heart attacks, especially in young people with magnesium deficiencies. Injections of glutamate in laboratory animals have resulted in rapid damage to nerve cells in the brain. MSG is in a special class of chemicals called excitotoxins, which are known to directly attack brain cells. In 1978, MSG was banned from baby foods and other baby products for infants who were less than one year of age, because the American Academy of Pediatrics and the National Academy of Sciences expressed concerns. It is now being used in these products again, along with childhood vaccines. Vaccine Ingredients: Sulfate and phosphate compounds These can trigger severe allergies in children which may last throughout their lives to permanently impair their immune systems. Vaccine Ingredient: Ammonium Sulfate This is yet another carcinogen. Ammonium sulfate is prepared by mixing ammonia with sulfuric acid. It is used as a chemical fertilizer for alkaline soils to lower the pH of soils. In the body, it stresses the immune system by causing acidosis. Ammonium sulfate is also a gastrointestinal (liver) toxicant, neurotoxicant, and respiratory toxicant. Vaccine Ingredient: Gentamicin Sulfate This is a strong antibiotic, which is often used for life-threatening illnesses (eg. pneumonia). Known side effects: When researching this, we discovered the neurotoxicity of neomycin sulfate following oral use as an antibiotic. We can only wonder about what damage this causes when injected directly into the blood of infants. It interferes with vitamin B6 absorption, which is the cause of a rare form of epilepsy, and mental retardation. Adult patients given neomycin as an antibiotic are typically placed under close clinical observation (ie. hospitalized) so that intensive care intervention is immediately available. Neurotoxicity has been reported, along with nephrotoxicity, and permanent bilateral auditory ototoxicity. Sometimes vestibular toxicity is present in patients with normal renal function when treated with higher or longer doses than recommended. Vaccine Ingredient: Tri(n)butylphosphate This is yet another carcinogen. This is a kidney toxicant, and a neurotoxicant. It is more hazardous than most chemicals in 2 out of 3 ranking systems. It is on at least 1 federal regulatory list. Vaccine Ingredient: Polymyxin B This is another antibiotic. Injection of this is generally avoided by doctors (except in the case of vaccines) due to “severe pain at injection sites, particularly in infants and children”. Known side effects - Facial flushing - Dizziness progressing to ataxia - Peripheral paresthesias: circumoral and stocking-glove. - Signs of meningeal irritation with intrathecal administration Vaccine Ingredient: Polysorbate 20 / 80 Emulsifier This is a suspected carcinogen. It is a known skin and sense organ toxin. It is verified as a cancer agent in animals. Vaccine Ingredient: Sorbitol Sweetener Diabetic retinopathy and neuropathy may be related to excess sorbitol in the cells of the eyes and nerves leading to blindness. This is another suspected carcinogen. Sorbitol is a gastrointestinal and liver toxicant. Vaccine Ingredient: Polyribosylribitol This is an experimental artificial sweetener. Actually the experimentation is ongoing in children that is, without the knowledge or consent of their parents. Vaccine Ingredient: Beta-Propiolactone Documented as a verified carcinogen. It is a gastrointestinal (liver) toxicant, respiratory toxicant, skin toxicant, and sense organ toxicant. More hazardous than most chemicals earning a 3 out of 3 in ranking systems. It appears on at least 5 federal regulatory lists. It is ranked as one of the most hazardous compounds to humans. Vaccine Ingredient: Amphotericin B This can cause irreversible kidney damage, and mild liver failure. It has been known to produce severe histamine (allergic) reactions. There are several reports of anemia and cardiac failure. According to the MME definition, it is “a drug used to treat fungus infections. Known allergy to this drug prohibits use. Side effects include blood clots, blood defects, kidney problems, nausea and fever. When used on the skin, allergic reactions can occur”. Vaccine Ingredients: Animal Organ Tissue and Animal Blood Animal cell lines are used to culture the viruses in vaccines, so animal tissues and impurities are included in the formulation that is injected. Animal tissues are unusable and toxic to the body except for when their protein materials are digested to form amino acids through normal food consumption. There is no digestion process for injections. Injections may also contain many types of animal viruses (see the Animal Viruses section). Animals used include monkey (kidney) cow (heart) calf (serum) chicken (embryo and egg) duck (egg) pig (blood) sheep (blood) dog (kidney) horse (blood) rabbit (brain) guinea pig, etc.. Vaccine Ingredient: Large Foreign Proteins In addition to the animal tissue impurities, there are large proteins that are deliberately included, and used for such purposes as adjuvants (substances that aggravate an immune response using their inherent toxicity). Egg albumin and gelatin (or gelatine, obtained from selected pieces of calf and cattle skins, demineralized cattle bones and pork skin) are in several vaccines. Casein (milk protein) is in the triple antigen (DPT vaccine). When injected, these normally harmless proteins are toxic to the body. Hence the immune system “response”. The immune system is intentionally stressed by this invasion to produce an unnatural sensitization to all the ingredients. The body will become further sensitive to these substances in the future, rather than becoming immune to them. So, the basic premise of vaccinations, which the public has been sold, is false. This explains why bizarre allergies such as lactose intolerance, egg, and nut allergies have suddenly become common in recent history. Vaccine Ingredient: Latex Latex is included in the hepatitis B vaccine, which is given routinely to health workers. The high occurrence of the latex allergies among nurses is due to their sensitization to latex through the large amount of chemical rubber that is injected into them. These vaccines produce a panicked immune response. These nurses will suffer with this allergy permanently. Such allergic reactions can be life-threatening. This vaccine is now routinely given to newborn babies in many countries, including Australia, and the United States. Readers may wish to ponder why all newborns are being given a venerial disease vaccination that only works for a maximum period of 7 years. Vaccine Ingredient: Animal Viruses Some of these can be particularly alien to the human body. The most frequently documented and publicized example is the monkey virus SV40. The virus is harmless in monkeys, but it stimulates rare cancers when injected into humans producing brain (tumors) bone (e.g. multiple myeloma) lungs (mesothelioma) and lymphoid tissue (lymphoma). Monkey Virus SV40 has only appeared in people born in the last 20 years (The Journal of Infectious Diseases, Sept. 1999) long after the manufacturer claimed to have “cleaned up” the polio vaccines where it was initially found. Such cases include the late Alexander Horwin, both of whose parents tested negative for SV40. Therefore, recent cases cannot just be blamed on inheritance from parents who received the vaccine (see www.ouralexander.org). This proves that manufacturers are secretly including it again. Vaccine Ingredient: Human Viruses The live viruses found in some vaccines are frequently said to be killed, inactivated, or attenuated. This is a myth. The main method used to inactivate viruses is treatment with formaldehyde. Its effectiveness is limited and temporary. Once the brew is injected into the body, the formaldehyde is broken down by the body: potentially releasing the virus in its original state. This is intentional. It is documented in orthodox medical literature that these “crippled” viruses can revert to their former virulence. The viruses and bacteria included in vaccines are claimed to be in very small populations. However, these quantities are high enough for the diseases to occur in some people. When they do occur, the vaccine-induced cases are always more severe than normal infections of the same pathogens, and these cases are sometimes fatal. Deaths have been reported in the British medical journal, Lancet, from vaccine-induced yellow fever. A susceptible person may succumb to infection when exposed to only a minute dose, especially when it is injected directly into the bloodstream. Likewise, there are other cases in which a healthy person will not succumb, even when exposed to large doses environmentally. It is not the pathogens, but the interaction methods between pathogens and hosts which causes diseases to appear, and the overall level of their severity. Most disease symptoms are the visible signs of a body’s attempts to defend itself against the infection. With disease injections, many important defenses in the digestion path and mucous membranes are bypassed. Vaccine Ingredient: Mycoplasma These are microscopic organisms lacking rigid cell walls and they are considered to be the smallest free-moving organisms. Many are pathogenic, and one species is the cause of mycoplasma pneumonia which interestingly, is noted to occur only “in children and young adults”, according to Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. This is not simply in vaccines by accident. It is deliberately added as an adjuvant (to increase the immune system’s allergic response) to the vaccine. Vaccine Ingredient: Genetically Modified/Engineered Yeast This is in the Hepatitis B Vaccine. Given the controversy over the ingestion of genetically modified foods, how much more dangerous could the direct injection of them be? What are the future consequences of this genetic experimentation against our children? Normal yeast that grows throughout the tissues is already known to be the root cause of countless ailments which can last for years, and in the rare cases when it is actually diagnosed correctly, these are called yeast infections. Yeast overgrowth directly attacks the immune system, and cripples the body’s ability to remove wastes, toxins, and absorb nutrients categorically. The standard treatment for it with antibiotics often actually strengthens these infections in the long term by killing more of the beneficial flora, which normally keeps yeast in check. Vaccine Ingredient: Foreign DNA DNA is used from such organisms as animals, viruses, fungi, and bacteria. It has been documented that injecting foreign DNA can cause it, or a portion of it, to be incorporated into the recipient’s DNA. The horrendous long-term multi-generational implications defy the imagination. The human body has never experienced such a direct invasion as this before. We hope that you consider this list, and the side effects of vaccines before giving your child vaccinations. We have strong reasons to believe that overall, the risks of horrible and long-term side effects far outweighs the risks of the diseases which vaccines are supposed to prevent. Human blood is supposed to be, and traditionally was, remarkably sterile. There were few bacteria or organisms present in the bloodstream. With vaccines now being so prevalent, this is no longer the case. Contrary to what we have been told, they weaken the immune system dramatically instead of strengthening it. In the United States, the Hepatitis B Vaccine is given to a child on the day of his birth, often weakening his immune system for his lifetime. His small body is just becoming accustomed to the germs around him for the first time, and it needs the strong immune system that he was given to remain intact. See original here: http://healthwyze.org/index.php/component/content/article/60-vaccine-secrets.html Please visit “The Health Wyze Report” for more articles like this. Thanks to: http://www.thelibertybeacon.com

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Poland has experienced many territorial vicissitudes in its history, wedged between its bulky Germanic neighbors and the Russian Empire, threatened in the south by the Turkish advance, it has developed a rich and ancient maritime culture. The Venetians have been great navigators since the end of antiquity, and the Eastern Scandinavian sailors and traders has much to do with the techniques developed by these navigators. A commercial powerhouse of the Baltic, Poland had a fleet of impressive trade carracks in the XV-XVI centuries, including the huge “Peter of Gdansk”. The know-how of the Polish shipyards are still recognized today in the world, their importance can be also measured by their political weight and their contribution to the emancipation of the Soviet sphere in the 90s. Situation in 1920 In 1920, independent again with a newly liberated territory, Poland quicky constituted a modest fleet composed of heterogeneous ships of the German fleet ceded by the allies and captured Russian ships. Added to this was a division of territory with an enclavement of a region of East Prussia, the famous “Dantzig Corridor” the source of later discontent between neighbours. The Polish fleet was to be adapted to its lesser needs, the land borders representing a danger much more present than the safeguarding and the surveillance of a mere 90 miles of coastal front. This was even more true in 1936, with the advent of Hitler and the Third Reich, and on the other side an increasingly threatening Soviet state. The Poles managed to build a small modern and efficient naval force, with valuable units. If the initial plan of 1920 included 6 torpedo boats, 2 gunboats, 4 minesweepers, and river monitors, the industrial and economic situation was bad enough so that this first plan was never realized. 1926 construction program It was not until 1926 and the “small program” of the KMW (the maritime direction) announced over 12 years the commissioning of 2 cruisers, 6 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and 12 submersibles. Particularly important efforts were made for Gdynia Yard to be equipped as a large arsenal (with Brest and Kiel as models), and became the major naval base of the Polish fleet. These numbers were to be ready for 1940. One of the aspects of the Polish naval policy was the promised intervention of the French Navy in the event of a Russian attack since the alliance signed in 1921. In mid-1925, however, this plan was once again revised downward due to poor economic conditions and budget restrictions. Moreover, for the lack of sufficient equipment, Gdynia could not ensure the construction of the 4 destroyers and 6 submersibles finally entrusted to France. The plan was postponed and finally abandoned after the Great Depression of 1929. Burza and Wicher, resulting from the 1926 program. 1933 construction program From 1933, however, the Polish shipyards were able to build several good quality minesweepers in a short time (not the case of the French destroyers, built in 2-3 years). A little later, a large versatile minelayer was ordered from France. Polish authorities then turned to Great Britain. The two ambitious destroyers Grom were so heavily armed (probably among the fastest and most powerful in the world at their completion) that they made up for the abandoned construction of two cruisers. Two large ocean submersibles were also ordered this time from the Dutch, and financed by public subscription. A Polish 105 mm Bofors AA and dual purpose gun In 1935 Germany reinstated compulsory military service and remilitarized the Rhineland, resulting in a new 6-year program developed by the KMW, including 8 destroyers, 12 submersibles, 12 minesweepers, 10 torpedo boats and one minesweeper. This was coupled with the construction of a huge industrial complex that would be connected with Gdynia and able to give Poland an industrial autonomy in the design of the next units. In September 1939, this plan was in progress. At this date, the Polish Navy included about thirty ships which details were as follows: 4 Destroyers: 2 Wicher class, 2 Grom class 4 torpedo boats: Mazur, 3 Podlahanin class 5 Submersible: 3 Wilk class, 2 Orzel class, 2 others under construction in France. 17 Miscellaneous: Minelayer Gryf, 6 Jaskolka class minesweepers, 2 Haller class gunboats, 4 Warsawa class river monitors, 2 Krakow class river monitors. Polish Navy Operations from september 1939 The Polish Navy in september 1939 was caught mid-expansion. Polish Naval commanders decided to withdraw the main surface fleet, and sail asap to Great Britain. They decided to join the Allied war effort, preventing a useless slaughter and scuttling. The Peking Plan saw on 30 August 1939, 3 destroyers (ORP Błyskawica, ORP Grom, and ORP Burza) sailing to the British naval base at Leith in Scotland. They will operate in the future in combination with Royal Navy vessels against Germany. Also, two submarines managed to flee from the Baltic through the Skagerrak, reaching Great Britain soon after. One of them, ORP Orzeł, has been interned in Tallinn, Estonia, under Soviet supervision and traveled without maps to the British isles. However, three Polish submarines were interned in neutral Sweden, while remaining surface vessels were sunk by the Luftwaffe. Survival: Operation Peking The invasion on Polish soil preceded the Luftwaffe was also supported by a massive deployment of the Kriegsmarine. The great arsenal of the Westerplatte which suppled the fleet at Gdynia, was shelled mercilessly by the old Schleswig-Holstein battleship while Stukas flew over all Polish ports, looking for targets: They claimed the Destroyer Wicher, torpedo-boat Mazur, minelayer Gryf, gunboat Haller, 6 minesweepers, and the monitor Milno. These three days of fury also testified of the destruction of countless installations, fortifications, petrol tanks, facilities, trains, further making impossible to organize a possible parade. During these feverish hours, a plan was conceived in collaboration with the British: To prevent the fleet from being destroyed without fighting because of the overwhelming air and sea superiority of the Germans, the “Beijing operation” was to allow Polish ships to join the British Ports as soon as possible and under the protection of the Royal Navy and the RAF after the Straits of Denmark. This operation was planned with the British on the first day of the war. Thus 3 destroyers and 2 submersibles managed to join the Royal Navy and following the agreement negotiated by Count Raczynski, remained under Polish control but fully integrated in the Royal Navy organisation. The Free Polish Navy ORP Zbik and Lwow Three submersibles left for the defense of the Hela Peninsula, did not find German ships to destroy and were forced to join neutral countries like Sweden after their country capitulated. They were immobilized there, but Orzel escaped and joined the British. Her career was quite successful afterward, sinking the German liner Rio de Janeiro. The “Pinsk Flotilla” in Poland was composed of armored river vessels, stationed on the Vistula. These riverine ships fought against the German forces before falling victim to bombs and field artillery. They were still recoverable but were scuttled in front of the Soviet advance. Profile of the Orzel Paradoxically, this was on the nucleus of escaped Polish units that was relaunched and eventually realized the initial 6-year plan, thanks to particularly generous British transfers. However, volunteers pouring in from the east and eagerness to fight were indeed decisive in Churchill’s attitude towards the Poles. Not only did they fight with their excellent Grom class destroyers, but were also awarded 6 more destroyers (after Grom’s loss in 1940) Garland, Type G, Hurricane, ex-French Hurricane captured in 1940, the Piorun (N class), Orkan (M class) and three Hunt class escort destroyers (Krakowiac, Kujawiak and Slazak) in 1941-42. All these ships performed admirably their tasks within the RN, fighting wherever the Poles were engaged, in the Atlantic, the Channel, the Arctic, or the Mediterranean. But the largest acquisitions the two planned cruisers were ex-D types (1918) light cruisers, the ORP Dragon and Conrad. The Polish Navy in Detail Gunners training on the riverine monitor Wiezy Since the Polish shore was only 142 km long, there was no need for a blue water navy, even for a strong coastal navy. Only a few ships could patrol and repel potential threats. Destroyers were well suited for that, with torpedoes that can cause major damage to any battleship, potent artillery and long range. From the initial four naval trawlers and two monitors the poles went to built nine submarines. Soviet Union was designated as the main enemy and the Polish fleet was to secure supply convoys from France in case of a war. Economic crisis and the German threat, were to wreck the plan, abandoned and reduced to three submarines ordered from France. The Polish Navy in 1939 Grom class destroyers (1936) ORP Grom in 1940 In the absence of cruisers, many third rank marines chose to build powerful destroyers. This was the case for Poland with these two units built in Great Britain at Cowes. They were launched in 1936 and operational the following year. When they came out, they were the best and fastest destroyers in the world. Their artillery was impressive, with no less than seven guns of 120 mm in twin and a single mount. They also had quad heavy machine gun positions and Bofors AA, and could carry and laid 44 mines. Two others, the Orkan and Huragan were started in Gdynia in 1938, but their construction was barely begun when they were captured and dismantled. These two ships, which were the pride of the Polish Navy, however, had to flee at the time of the invasion to avoid both the Stukas and a possible capture. It was the “Peking” operation that avoided the hopeless sacrifice of these units to allow them to reach the British Isles and from there continue the struggle. The two destroyers were rearmed, giving up their TT rear bench for a 102 mm AA gun. The Grom operated in Norway in May 1940 and was sank on May 5 by Stukas of Kwg-100. Bryslawicka survived this campaign and was prepared for escort missions. Her 120 mm guns were placed by four twin mounts of 102 mm AA, plus four 20 mm AA guns and four Bofors 40 mm. In 1942, the 102 mm central lookout was removed and the two TT banks were replaced. A type 271 radar was added. In 1944, Bryslawicka received a Type 291 radar, a 284 firing system and another Type 293 radar. She was still used intensively until September 1945 and became in 1947 the flagship of the new Polish fleet, was decommissioned in 1965 and preserved. She is currently exhibited at Gdynia. Błyskawica in the Atlantic Wicher class destroyers (1936) Władysław Grabski government tried to obtain a large credit from France, with French stock owners and the new Caen shipyard, which only stood if it signed a contract with the Poles. On September 9, 1925 the government decided to purchase two destroyers to Caen shipyard for approximately 22 million złotys. The shipyard presented a plan for two modified Bourrasque-class destroyers and on April 2, 1926 the order was signed. However, if the yard could deliver blueprints relatively fast, the ships were far from perfect. They were relatively slow and betrayed by a tall silhouette and handicapped by poor protection. It was revealed later they also had poorly designed watertight compartments and pipelines. In case of minor damage they could have been paralyzed. Stability was also poor due to the placement of the fuel tanks, high up on the superstructure. Through this, the shipyard’s lack of experience was showing its true colors. Numerous other construction flaws were corrected after the ships’s delivery by order of the Polish admiralty, but many issues were left unaddressed. The Wicher class construction took four years, two years above schedule. The steam turbines has been provided by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in St. Nazaire. The armament came from the Cherbourg arsenal and Schneider-St Chamond armory. Both ships had the same French standard-issue four 130 mm guns and two triple 550 mm/533 mm/450 mm torpedo tubes banks, but they were complemented by Polish armament, two 40 mm wz. 28 AA Bofors guns, two 240 mm Thornycroft depth charge launchers and two Wz BH200 depth charge launchers, plus two 60 wz. 08 naval mines. ORP Wicher was eventually launched on July 10, 1928, but finally commissioned two years later at Cherbourg. Wicher means “gale”, as a reminder of the class French names of meteorological events. She arrived at Gdynia and was well covered by the press unaware of her limitations, as Polish’s first modern warship. ORP Burza (“storm”), had to wait until 1932, four years after the initial deadline. The construction choices had been mainly political, with French financial interests, but left a desperate yard manager and an angry Polish staff as a result. ORP Wicher career was short: She was sunk during the first three days of the war by aviation. ORP Burza survived the war however and became a museum ship, scrapped in 1977. ORP Burza as a museum ship in the 1960s Displacement: 1540t standard Dimensions: 106.90 x 10.5 x 3.5m Propulsion: 2 propellers, 2 Loire turbines, 8 Normand Boilers, 6000 hp, 28 knots. Armament: 4 x 130 mm, 2 × 40 mm wz. 28 AA guns, 2×3 550 mm/533 mm/450 mm TTs, 2 × 240 mm Thornycroft & 2 × Wz BH200 DCT, 2 × 60 wz. 08 naval mines Gryf, minelayer destroyer (1936) This ship was one of the largest in the Polish fleet. She had been designed for a wide variety of tasks but was disappointing in the latter: As a training ship and presidential yacht. Designed in France by Augustin Normand, she was heavily armed and rolled a lot, with a high metacentric height. In addition, she was too cramped and underpowered. Operational in February 1938, she was attacked and struck on 1 September by the German Luftwaffe. She then served as a floating battery in Hela and was bombed on September 3 and sunk for good. Part of her armament was later recovered to reinforce Hela’s defense. The Germans towed the hull to Gdansk and she served as a training target before being finally raised well after the war and sent to shipbreakers in 1964. Displacement: 2250t, 2900t FL Dimensions: 103.20 x 13.1 x 3.6m Propulsion: 2 propellers, 2 Sulzer diesels and 6000 hp, 20 knots. Armament: 6 x 120 mm (2×1, 2×2), 4 Bofors 40 mm AA (2×2), 4 MG 13,2 mm (2×2), 60 mines. Wilk class submarines (1929) ORP Wilk in 1939 These were French-built Normand-Fenaux type minelayer submarines. The Rys (1929), Wilk (1929) and Zbik (1931) came from AC de la loire, nantes, Augustin Normand and CNF. They were derived from the Saphir class, longer, with a 260 ft diving limit 2500 nautical miles of radius at 10 knots. Of double hull configuration, they carried 40 mines in ten separate wells, each with four mines. But the system proved unreliable. These were good sea boats but noisy and left oil trails. In addition to the tubes they had four bow TTs and two trainable external TTs in the French tradition, further aft. In addition to a 100 mm/40 gun on the forward deck, she also carried a 40 mm bofors behind the kiosk for AA defense, replaced later by a twin 13.2 mm heavy MG mount. After the war broke out, none could escape to UK due to their limited range. Rys and Zbik took refuge in the Swedish port of Stavnas, later joined by Sep. All three were transferred to Loch Malar. Only Wilk managed to escape through the Skagerrak and joined the Royal navy, but served only until 1942, because of the lack of spare parts and their age and condition. The two others were returned to Poland and scrapped in the 1950s. Displacement: 980t, 1250t FL Dimensions: 78.5 x 5.9 x 4.2m Propulsion: 2 shaft Normand-Vickers diesels, 2 emevtric motors and 1800/1200 hp, 14/9 knots. Armament: 6 x 550 mm (6, 1×2) TTs, 100 mm/40, Bofors 40 mm AA, 40 mines. Orzel class submarines (1938) The best Polish submarines by a fair margin were the two long-range cruisers built in the Netherlands at De Schelde and Rotterdam. They were 1400 tons, 84 m (275 feets) long boats tailored to attack German shipping in the Baltic and beyond. They were built by public subscription raised from 1935. These were large oceanic types with excellent fightng qualities, of the double hull type with five compartments. They could dive beyond 270 feets, and had a 7000 nautical miles radius at 10 knots. Orzel was commissioned in Feruary 1939, and arrived at Gdynia in April 1939 but made her trials in a hurry to avoid German sabotage in the Netherlands. ORP Sep in 1939 However her sister-ship Sep was not ready in september and was interned at Stavnas, while Orzel was interned at Tallinn. She saw all her documents confiscated but later managed to sail off in the Baltic and get through the sund narrows in November, and later joined the UK. From there, she started a new wartime carrer. Her escape t Rosyth was applaud as she passed through German minefields and air and ASW patrols. She managed to sink the German steamer Rio de Janeiro but was ultimately lost probably becaiseuof a mine in the north sea in June 1940 while Sep was inactive during the war and returned to poland in 1945. There was a modified Orzel class on paper by 1939. Both submersibles were to be built in France, at AC Augustin Normand and Loire, both of a modified Orzel type, with a 1550 tons displacement when diving, 87 m long, armed with twelve 550 mm tubes (four bow, four stern and two twin trainable banks on the surface), 20 torpedoes in store, two twin Bofors and possibly a single twin 13.2 mm heavy MG. Work was suspended in April 1939 and the hulls were later destroyed by the Germans to free the slipways. Displacement: 1100t, 1473t FL Dimensions: 84 x 6.7 x 4.17 Propulsion: 2 shaft Sulzer diesels, 2 Brown-Boveri electric motors and 4740/1100 hp, 20/9 knots. Armament: 12 x 550 mm (4 bow, 4 stern, 2×2 pressure hull) TTs, 105 mm/41, 1×2 Bofors 40 mm AA, 1×2 13.2 mm MG Jaskolka class minesweepers (1939) Six new minesweepers were in service in September 1939. Their construction began in Modlin and Gdynia in 1933 and ended in 1938 with the admission of the latter, the Zuraw. They were solid units, but slow and weakly defended. In fact, the six ships were stationed in Gdynia in September 1939 and were attacked by the Luftwaffe and seriously damaged or sunk and permanently lost. four will be salvaged, repaired, and returned to service under German supervision as TFA 11, 7 and 8, escaping destruction. Their retrocession took place in 1946, only to be scrapped in 1960. Dimensions: 45 x 5.5 x 1.37 m Propulsion: 2 propellers, 2 Nohab diesels and 1040 hp, 17.5 knots. Armament: 1x 76 mm gun, 2x MG 13.2 mm, 30 mines. Polish Monitors (1920-25) The Polish River Monitors numbered six in September 1939. The first four and older were those of the Warsawa class, including the Horodyszcze, Torun, Pinsk and Warsawa. They had been built in 1920 at Dantziger Werft shipyards to serve on the Vistula and its tributaries, protecting eastern Poland against Russian appetites. They were then the spearhead of the “Pinsk Flotilla”. Originally they were armed with two pieces of 105 mm and 5 machine guns in turrets. Fully armored, they had a small superstructure and a lookout mast. However in 1928 they were rearmed by a 100 mm howitzer and two pieces of 75 mm, four AA machine guns. Between 1936 and 1939 they were rebuilt and their silhouette was lowered, the engine changed for two Glennifer of 100 hp. Three 75 mm turret pieces were mounted while four turret machine guns were installed on a central armored casemate. On September 1, 1939, they scuttled without fighting on the Prypec and were captured and renamed by the Russians who in 1941 used them against the German invasion. They were scuttled to avoid capture. Displacement: 110t, 130 t FL Dimensions: 34.5 x 5.1 x 0.7 m Propulsion: 2 propellers, 2 Glennifer diesels 4 cylinders and 200 hp, 11 knots. Armour: Max 11 mm Armament: 3 x 75 mm (3in), 4 x 13,2 mm MGs. The Krakow class monitors were a bit more recent, and these two buildings built at the Zelnewskiego shipyard in 1924-26 were assigned to the Pinsk flotilla. His locally built diesels were Perkun-Kromhout. Originally, their weaponry included a 100 mm turret Howitzer at the rear and two 75 mm central turret pieces with a 360 degree firing arc, and four turreted machine guns. In 1932, the two 75 mm pieces were replaced by 100 mm Howitzers. In 1939, we had added 4 machine guns in double turrets. The Krakow was scuttled on the Prypec near Kuzliczyn on September 21, 1939 and the Wilno sunk near Osobowicze on the 19th. The Krakow was later captured by the Russians, renamed Bobruisk and was part of the Pinsk flotilla. It was bombed and sunk during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. Displacement: 80t, 110 t FL Dimensions: 35 x 6 x 0,39 m Propulsion: 2 propellers, 2 diesels PK 120 hp, 7,5 knots. Armour: 5-8 mm Armament: 3 Howitzer 100 mm, 8 x 13,2 mm MGs. Kaszub class TBs (1914) Of the six torpedo boats owned by Poland in 1920 and German acquisitions, four were of type A56 and dated to 1918. Displacing 381 tons, they were only three in 1939 as Krakowiak was scrapped in 1937. Capable of reaching 28 knots, they were armed with two 88 mm guns and a single 450 mm TT that can be reloaded. They were captured at berth in 1939 but presumably not used by the Kriegsmarine. Two other torpedo-destroyers of type V105 (1914) had also been in service, the Kaszub being badly damaged during a storm on July 20, 1925. Subsequently, the Mazur was completely rebuilt to serve as a gunners training ship, while torpedo tubes were deposed and the 88 mm main gun, for four 76 mm (3 in). Machines were renovated, and she was sunk by the Luftwaffe during the first hours of the German attack, becoming, on September 1st, the first ship sunk during the Second World War. Specifications (Mazur 1939) Displacement: 350t, 440 t FL Dimensions: 62 x 6,2 x 2,60 m Propulsion: 2 shaft 2 Vulkan AEG turbines, 4500 hp, 25 knots. Armament: 4 x 76 mm (3 in). The Free Polish Navy (1941-45) “During the war the Polish Navy in exile was supplemented with leased British ships, including two cruisers, seven destroyers, three submarines, and a number of smaller fast-attack vessels. The Polish Navy fought alongside the Allied navies in Norway, the North Sea, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and aided in the escort of Atlantic and Arctic convoys, in which ORP Orkan was lost in 1943. Polish naval vessels played a part in the sinking of the German battleship Bismarck, and in the landings in Normandy during D-Day. ORP Orkan in 1943 During the course of the war, one cruiser, four destroyers, one minelayer, one torpedo boat, two submarines and some smaller vessels (gunboats, mine hunters etc.) were sunk; in total, twenty-six ships were lost, mostly in September 1939. In addition to participating in the sinking of Bismarck, the Polish Navy sank an enemy destroyer and six other surface ships, two submarines and a number of merchant vessels.” But the most important transfers were those of the Dragon cruiser in 1943 (ex-HMS Dragon) and Conrad, ex-Danae in 1944, after the loss of the first. They were also the submersible Jastrzab, ex-S25 American, an ancient unit transferred to the British under the “lend-lease” device, and which was sent to escort convoys of the Arctic. But two more recent ones were attributed to him, of class U, the Dzik and Sokol, who operated successfully in the Mediterranean against the Italian convoys and gained the nickname of “terrible twins”. There were also 10 torpedo launchers transferred to the summer (Type MTB White and Type MGB) and for one year, two French submarine fighters captured in Great Britain in July 1940. D class cruisers ORP Dragon in 1944 The Polish Navy did not have any cruiser in 1939. Her ships were destroyed or took refuge in Great Britain. Afterwards, some ships resumed service under Polish colors but fully integrated into the Royal Navy. As more and more Polish seamen also took refuge in UK, and were available for action at sea, but without a ship. The British choosed to give two cruisers to the Poles, the Conrad and Dragon. They were not in service simultaneously: The first into service was ORP Dragon, ex-HMS Dragon. Both ships were light cruiser of the class “D” of 1918. They had their main artillery in simple shielded mounts but their armament was supplemented by modern torpedo tubes banks, and an updated AAA. In addition, a radar, a huff-duff antenna, a sonar room, and ASW grenade launchers were installed. Official transfer was done in January 15, 1943. ORP Dragon was sank on July 8, 1944 off the Normandy coast, supporting supply operations of the beachheads, by a human torpedo of the Nebel type. Judged irreparable, she was towed away and finally sunk to form a breakwater in front of one of the artificial ports of the coast. On October 4, 1944, the Royal Navy gave the Poles the former HMS Danae of the same class, renamed ORP Conrad, with the same modifications. She served intensively until the end of the war and was sent back to Great Britain on September 26, 1946, to be shortly after broken up. Displacement: 4990t, 6100t FL Dimensions: 143.6 x 13.9 x 5 m Propulsion: 2 propellers, 2 Brown-Curtis turbines, 6 Yarrow boilers, 40,000 hp, 29 knots. Armament: 5 x 152 mm, 12 x TLT 533 mm (4×3), 16 x 40 mm AA (4×4) Bofors AA. Polish (ex-British) destroyers ORP Garland: A “G” class destroyer transferred in may 1840, loaned by the Royal Navy, and keeping her name. She served until the end of the war and was returned to UK i 1946. ORP Ouragan: The former French Ouragan seized in a british port after the fall of France. She was roughly of the same type than the Wicher class, and this helped training the Polish crews. She was transferred on 18/07/1940 and returned to the Royal Navy in April 1941. ORP Piorun: An “N” class destroyer, former HMS nerissa, transferred on 5.11.1940 to compensate for the loss of Grom. She served well during wartime and was returned in 1946. Already on drydocks for repairs she she took part in the defence of Clydebank against the Luftwaffe in March 1941. In may, she joined the British 4th Destroyer Flotilla (Cossack, Maori, Sikh and Zulu, Captain Philip Vian) to escort the troop convoy WS8B from Glasgow to the Indian Ocean. On 25 May, this force was hastily detached to join for the German battleship Bismarck, unleashed in the Atlantic. Piorun eventually spotted the battleship, shadowing her and leading torpedo attacks the night before she was sunk. She operated in pait with HMS Maori, charged at Bismarck to distract some fire while Maori manoeuvred to fire her torpedoes. Piorun duelled with Bismarck for an hour, without hit although a near miss at 20 yards (18 m) make Piorun brake the duel and retire. Piorun will also participated in Operation Halberd (Malta convoys), Operation Husky (Sicily). She returned to the Home Fleet in 1944, particpated in Operation Deadlight, sinking several captured German Type XXI submarines. ORP Orkan: An M-class destroyers, wartime repeats of the preceding L class named HMS Myrmidon and built in Scotland in 1942. She was transferred to the free Polish navy in December 1942. ORP Orkan served in the Arctic, to Mursmansk. Early in 1943, she has been succesfully escorting the convoy JW-53 to Russia, plus the return convoy RA-52. She patrolled and was also a convoy escort in the North Atlantic. In July of the same year she transferred the body Władysław Sikorski from Gibraltar to England. However in october 8, she was torpedoed and sank at 07.05 hours by a GNAT homing torpedo fired from U-378. She was escorting the convoy SC 143. One officer and 43 men survived, thanks to the quick and risky intervention of HMS Musketeer. This type of destroyer was armed with three twin 4.7 in (120 mm) Mk XI dual-purpose guns, a single QF 4 in (102 mm) Mk V anti-aircraft gun a quadruple QF 2-pdr (40 mm) Mk VIII AA guns “pom pom” and two single Oerlikon 20 mm (0.8 in) AA guns plus two quadruple, and two twin 0.5 in (12.7 mm) Vickers Mark III anti-aircraft machineguns. Torpedoes were reduced to a single quadruple 21 in (533 mm) bank but she also carried 42 depth charges, two racks, and two DC throwers for ASW warfare, which reflected the priorities already in 1941 when the Type M plans were first drafted. -Submarine Jastrzab: Former US-built S25? She has been at first transferred to the RN to evaluate the adoption of these WW1-vintage surplus American types. At the time the crew of Wilk (lost) was available, it was decided in 1941 to transfer the boat to the Poles and renamed her. Jastrzab screened the convoy PQ but was sunk later by error by the Norwegian destroyer St Albans and British Seagull on 2.5.1942. -Dzik class submarines: The “terrible twins” were ex-U class submarines Urchin and P52 transferred on 11.10.1942. Both served in the Mediterranean. Dzik was used from December 1944 as a training submarine, joined later by ORP Sokol. -S1 class MTB: Two motor torpedo boats built by public subscription at White, Cowes in March 1940, and the first was ceded as S1 to the Poles in August 1940, returned in February 1944. -S2 class MTB: Two ASW power boats intended for the RN as MGB44 and 45, transferred in July 1940 and commissioned as S2 Wilczur and S3 Wysel. The first was discarded in 1943 and the second in 1944. -S4, S5 class MTBs: In total six more MTBs were transferred in 1943 and 1944. They were renamed S4-S10 and returned in 1944 or 1945. -CH11 sub-chasers: Ex-French sub-chasers which took refuge at the French capitulation, were interned and later ceded to the Poles on 19.7.1940. after some service they were returned in February 1941. http://hmscavalier.org.uk/G90/ About the ORP Orkan - Doria class helicopter cruisers (1962) - HMS Ark Royal (1937) - Takao class cruisers (1930) - Type 024 Hoku class FAC (1965) - Grumman F3F (1935) - De Grasse (1946) - Prinz Adalbert class cruisers (1901) - USS Wasp (CV-7) - Tre Kronor class cruisers (1944) - British Gunboats of WWI Armada de Chile Royal Indian navy Imperial Japanese Navy Royal Canadian Navy Royal Yugoslav Navy

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In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".:5 Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as regards the society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates predetermined by their environment; scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and genes. Notions of society and the state of nature have existed for centuries.:20 In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for socialism. Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization". In particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of association. The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after World War II, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of Talcott Parsons. Stages of moral developmentEdit Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person (typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong, even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions. Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight to life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair. This concept has been further developed by Klaus Hurrelmann and Gudrun Quenzel using the dynamic model of "developmental tasks". George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the others' point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others. Contradictory evidence to behaviorismEdit Behaviorism makes claims that when infants are born they lack social experience or self. The social pre-wiring hypothesis, on the other hand, shows proof through a scientific study that social behavior is partly inherited and can influence infants and also even influence foetuses. Wired to be social means that infants are not taught that they are social beings, but they are born as prepared social beings. The social pre-wiring hypothesis refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social. Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or social construction. Rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social behavior and identity through genetics. Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed. The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions." Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the groundwork for all future socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends. For example, if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority, or majority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority/majority groups. Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in. Schools require very different behavior from the home, and children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them. Secondary socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Such examples of secondary socialization are entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society. Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like. Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner suggests that parents are the main source of anticipatory socialization in regards to jobs and careers. Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle. Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity & 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity. Other examples of this are the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. An extreme example would be the process by which a transsexual learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender role. Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role. As newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. This acquired knowledge about new employees' future work environment affects the way they are able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process. They also learn about their work group, the specific people they work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices. Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are the primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood. Parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children. Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do. For example, twin brothers, whose genetic makeup are identical, will differ in personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences. The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality. As much as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error. This suggests that only a very small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris claims that while it's true that siblings don't have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance. Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success. Entering high school is a crucial moment in many adolescent's lifespan involving the branching off from the restraints of their parents. When dealing with new life challenges, adolescents take comfort in discussing these issues within their peer groups instead of their parents. Peter Grier, staff writer of the Christian Science Monitor describes this occurrence as,"Call it the benign side of peer pressure. Today's high-schoolers operate in groups that play the role of nag and nanny-in ways that are both beneficial and isolating." Individuals and groups change their evaluations and commitments to each other over time. There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur in order for an individual to transition through a group; investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other which leads to an increase or decrease in commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective, new, full, marginal, and ex member. Stage 1: Investigation This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (reconnaissance), while the group estimates the value of the potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the offer. Stage 2: Socialization Now that the individual has moved from prospective member to new member, they must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group's norms, values, and perspectives (assimilation), and the group adapts to fit the new member's needs (accommodation). The acceptance transition point is then reached and the individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other members' reactions if they believe that they will be treated differently as a newcomer. Stage 3: Maintenance During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members (role negotiation). While many members remain in this stage until the end of their membership, some individuals are not satisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group's expectations (divergence). Stage 4: Resocialization If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: differences are resolved and the individual becomes a full member again (convergence), or the group expels the individual or the individual decides to leave (exit). Stage 5: Remembrance In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the group, and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the group's tradition. Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behaviour that is seen to be appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural and economic values in a given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are groups including friends, peers, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76). In peer group activities, stereotypic gender roles may also be rejected, renegotiated or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes. Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed (1982, 1990) that boys have a justice perspective meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men. As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations. Sociologist of gender R.W. Connell contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants," when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an individual's gender (and general) identity. Racial socialization, or Racial-ethnic socialization, has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group". The existing literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other. Cultural socialization refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is sometimes referred to as pride development. Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with a common humanity. Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality." This action is a form of political socialization in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion." Based on comparative research in different societies, focusing on the role of language in child development, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin have developed the theory of language socialization. They discovered that the processes of enculturation and socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all societies socialize children both to and through the use of language; acquiring competence in a language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language. Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others. This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy onward. Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into life in a meaningful way. Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs when desirable behaviours are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue exhibiting similar behaviours in the future. Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson"; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life. In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of individuals within a given human collectivity. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior. Productive processing of realityEdit From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his book Social Structure and Personality Development, he develops the model of productive processing of reality. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's personality development. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity".:42 The process of productive processing of reality is an enduring process throughout the life course. The problem of order or Hobbesian problem questions the existence of social orders and asks if it is possible to oppose them. Émile Durkheim viewed society as an external force controlling individuals through the imposition of sanctions and codes of law. However, constraints and sanctions also arise internally as feelings of guilt or anxiety. If conformity as an expression of the need for belonging, the process of socialization is not necessarily universal. Behavior may not be influenced by society at all, but instead, be determined biologically. The behavioral sciences during the second half of the twentieth century were dominated by two contrasting models of human political behavior, homo economicus and cultural hegemony, collectively termed the standard social science model. The fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology developed in response notions such as dominance hierarchies, cultural group selection, and dual inheritance theory. Behavior is the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture, or genes and culture. A focus on innate behavior at the expense of learning is termed undersocialization, while attributing behavior to learning when it is the result of evolution is termed oversocialization. - Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialisation and Society, Boston: Little Brown and Company - Macionis, John J. (2013). Sociology (15th ed.). Boston: Pearson. p. 126. ISBN 978-0133753271. - Billingham, M. (2007) Sociological Perspectives p.336 In Stretch, B. and Whitehouse, M. (eds.) (2007) Health and Social Care Book 1. Oxford: Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-49915-0 - Macionis, John J., and Linda M. Gerber. Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Canada, 2011. Print. - MLA Style: "socialization." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Student and Home Edition. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010. - Cromdal, Jakob (2006). "Socialization". In K. Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of language and linguistics. North-Holland: Elsevier. pp. 462–66. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00353-9. ISBN 978-0080448541. - Pinker, Steven. The Blank Slate. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. - Dusheck, Jennie, "The Interpretation of Genes". Natural History, October 2002. - Carlson, N.R.; et al. (2005) Psychology: the science of behavior. Pearson (3rd Canadian edition). ISBN 0-205-45769-X. - Ridley, M. (2003) Nature Via Nurture: Genes, Experience, and What Makes us Human. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-200663-4. - Westen, D. (2002) Psychology: Brain, Behavior & Culture. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-38754-1. - Kendler, K.S. and Baker, J.H. (2007). "Genetic influences on measures of the environment: a systematic review". Psychological Medicine. 37 (5): 615–26. doi:10.1017/S0033291706009524. PMID 17176502.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - "Fourier and his partisans". The London Phalanx. 6 September 1841. p. 505. hdl:2027/pst.000055430180. - The Gentleman's Magazine. F. Jefferies. 1851. p. 465. Retrieved 2 April 2017. - "socialization, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2017. - St. Martin, Jenna (May 2007). "Socialization": The Politics and History of a Psychological Concept, 1900-1970 (Master's Thesis). Wesleyan University. Retrieved 2 April 2017. - Simmel, Georg (1 January 1895). "The Problem of Sociology". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 6 (3): 52–63. doi:10.1177/000271629500600304. JSTOR 1009553. S2CID 143284719. - Giddings, Franklin Henry (1897). The theory of socialization. A syllabus of sociological principles. New York: The Macmillan company. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 2 April 2017. - Morawski, Jill G.; St. Martin, Jenna (2011). "The evolving vocabulary of the social sciences: The case of "socialization"". History of Psychology. 14 (1): 2. doi:10.1037/a0021984. PMID 21688750. - Macionis, Gerber 2010 108 - Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010). Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. 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Political sociology: Oppression, resistance, and the state. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. p. 47. - Schieffelin, Bambi B.; Ochs, Elinor (1987). Language Socialization across Cultures. Volume 3 of Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521339197, 978-0521339193 - Schieffelin, Bambi B. (1990). The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language, Socialization of Kaluli Children. P CUP Archive, ISBN 0521386543, 978-0521386548 - Duranti, Alessandro; Ochs, Elinor; Schieffelin, Bambi B. (2011). The Handbook of Language Socialization, Volume 72 of Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 1444342886, 978-1444342888 - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-10-25. Retrieved 2012-10-04.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - Miller, Seumas (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Hurrelmann, Klaus (1989, reissued 2009). Social Structure and Personality Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press - Hurrelmann, Klaus; Bauer, Ullrich (2018). Socialisation During the Life Course. London/New York: Routledge - Wrong, Dennis H. (1 January 1961). "The Oversocialized Conception of Man in Modern Sociology". American Sociological Review. 26 (2): 183–93. doi:10.2307/2089854. JSTOR 2089854. S2CID 3250854. - Gintis, Herbert; van Schaik, Carel; Boehm, Christopher (June 2015). "Zoon Politikon: The Evolutionary Origins of Human Political Systems" (PDF). Current Anthropology. 56 (3): 327–53. doi:10.1086/681217. - Searle, Jason (1 January 2015). "Traditional Economics and the Fiduciary Illusion: A Socio- Legal Understanding of Corporate Governance". Brigham Young University Prelaw Review. 29 (1). Retrieved 2 April 2017. |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Socialization| - Bayley, Robert; Schecter, Sandra R. (2003). Multilingual Matters, ISBN 1853596353, 978-1853596353 - Bogard, Kimber (2008). "Citizenship attitudes and allegiances in diverse youth". Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 14 (4): 286–96. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.286. PMID 18954164. - Duff, Patricia A.; Hornberger, Nancy H. (2010). Language Socialization: Encyclopedia of Language and Education, Volume 8. Springer, ISBN 9048194660, 978-9048194667 - Kramsch, Claire (2003). Language Acquisition and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspectives – Advances in Applied Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0826453724, 978-0826453723 - McQuail, Dennis (2005). McQuail's Mass Communication Theory: Fifth Edition, London: Sage. - Mehan, Hugh (1991). Sociological Foundations Supporting the Study of Cultural Diversity. National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. - White, Graham (1977). Socialisation, London: Longman.

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Final Report for LNC10-324 Market and consumer elderberry research results reveal show a nascent industry with mostly small scale participants poised for growth. Demand trends are favorable and prices are good across the value chain. Challenges include a limited domestic supply of fruit, few regionally adapted varieties suitable for commercial production, and high labor costs. The absence of existing mechanical harvesting equipment limits industry growth. Opportunities exist to increase the domestic elderberry industry across the value chain. Outreach publications and on-farm workshops and conferences support individual producers and the Missouri elderberry industry including an ongoing elderberry producer cooperative. Both within the U.S. and globally, concerns about industrial agriculture practices, food quality and links to human health have fostered interest in new, alternative, local, and more sustainable agricultural practices. Organic and locally grown foods are perceived by consumers as healthier and safer for both people and the environment. The production and sale of all types of berries have benefited from increased consumer health consciousness. In 2002, Missouri had 508 farms involved in berry production, with a total of 774 acres under cultivation. Berries yield 2-5 tons per acre depending on the crop, with average on-farm price of $0.90 per pound. Missouri’s berry business contributes an estimated $6.9 million in revenue to Missouri’s agricultural producers . Specialty berries, including elderberries, chokeberries, loganberries, and blackberries are gaining in popularity, especially as juice product. Specialty berry products can be found in sale venues ranging from health food stores to big grocery chains. Elderberry is a perennial shrub native to North America with a variety of uses and benefits. Elderberries can be grown without use of pesticides in sustainable agroforestry systems to generate income while simultaneously protecting and conserving soil, water and other natural resources. They are perennial plants that grow well in upland and riparian forest buffers and in alley cropping configurations to help control erosion and nonpoint source pollution. Elderberries are beautiful landscape plants that attract butterflies and provide wildlife habitat. Elderberry has been recognized for treating a variety of ailments [2,3,4] which makes it a valuable raw material for the nutraceutical industry. The fruit can be used to make jams, jellies, syrups and wines on a small or commercial scale. Demand for elderberry fruit and flowers are increasing from winemakers, jelly processors and nutraceutical companies. At present, demand is being met via elderberry imports from Europe. Global prices for elderberry are relatively high, and demand is expected to continue to grow . In contrast to Europe, elderberry is not well known or widely utilized in the U.S. Historically, a limited amount of elderberry research has occurred in the North East region. Over the past 10 years the North Central region has taken a very active role in both elderberry production research and industry development. Active research has been conducted by University of Missouri (MU) and Missouri State University to identify native elderberry cultivars best suited for Midwest soils, as well as the best production techniques and management practices for cultivation of elderberries in agroforestry settings. Two new high yielding cultivars have recently been released. Plants take 3 to 4 years to reach full maturity, and will yield between 3 to 4 tons of berries per acre. Wholesale prices for fruit in Missouri range from $0.50 to $0.75 (wholesale) per pound. In addition to research producers in Midwest are already involved in the elderberry industry with potential to grow. A group of growers in Missouri started to produce elderberry and to organize themselves to sustain a value added enterprise and a winery in Kansas is the largest value added elderberry producer in the U.S. However, up-to-date information is lacking with regard to market size, growth trends, and competition, as well as on the economic benefits and costs of elderberry intercropping and value added processing. Gathering and organizing marketing and financial information will improve producer decision making for on-farm and associated enterprise opportunities and provide support to the newly developing industry. Results of this study will be published as extension “how to” guides, in refereed journals, and on the MU Center for Agroforestry website. Research outputs will be also disseminated through outreach programs (field days, workshops, conference presentation, guides and directories) to meet the needs of a growing group of elderberry producers and processors. Presentations to local, regional, and national conferences will assist existing and potential producers and value added processors and serve as a model for new specialty crop development and adoption in the U.S. Project activities will also increase consumer awareness about the nutritional properties, health benefits and value added products made from elderberry. Information gained will help grow the industry by promoting elderberry and elderberry benefits and demonstrate that elderberry is a viable Midwest specialty crop. Increased acreage planted to sustainable woody perennial crops will improve ecosystem health (water, soil, air quality) and diversify habitat. The presence of extensive production research in Missouri, partnerships with active research and extension specialists, a group of Missouri growers ready to start producing and marketing elderberries and the largest value-added elderberry processor in the U.S. will help connect all the necessary pieces to make sure that our research and outreach efforts will be targeted to the needs of our partners to the benefit of all landowners that wish to adopt sustainable farming practices and generate increased income in the region. The elderberry (Sambucus nigra) is a native fruit-bearing shrub common in western and central Europe, Scandinavia, and Great Britain. The species found in North America is Sambucus canadensis. Commercial elderberry production is concentrated in Europe in Denmark, Italy, Austria and Germany. Both the flower and the fruit are used in Europe to produce fermented drinks, as a source of food coloring and as dye. Elderberries are used in combination with other fruits for making wines and jams which are rich in vitamins A and C. Historians trace the tradition of the elderberry’s healing power back to Hippocrates, the ancient Greek known as the “father of medicine,” who described this plant as his “medicine chest” for the wide variety of ailments it seemed to cure . Elderberry leaves are considered to be a purgative, an expectorant, and a diuretic. Elderberry leaf ointment is a traditional remedy for coughs, sinus congestion and reducing swelling of sore throats. The berries are used as a remedy for constipation, colic, diarrhea, colds and rheumatism. The flowers are used in treatment of allergies and arthritis. Tea from elderberry flowers is used against cold and high fever. Research indicates that elderberry extract is useful for cold, cough and flu, as well as for heart protection and stress reduction . Elderberry is also used in the cosmetic industry for facial toners and cleansers . The colorant from the fruit is used in wines, as a dye, and as a natural food colorant. New research from Israel and Finland suggests that elderberry is a powerful antioxidant, inhibits influenza virus and the herpes simplex virus . Currently, Europe has an established elderberry industry. Austrian elderberry production is estimated at 8,000 tons of cultivated elderberry per year and this production volume is increasing due to strong market demand. One thousand Austrian growers are organized in a cooperative with rigid schedules for harvesting, trucking and cooling berries. The co-op handles in full season between 600 and 1,600 tons per day . In Canada, demand for elderberry is expected to increase due to a growing demand for nutraceuticals, functional foods and other products derived from elderberry. Marketing efforts should be focused on educating consumers about the benefits of elderberry consumption . The literature about elderberry production and marketing in the U.S. is very scarce. An Elderberry Improvement Project was initiated in Missouri in 1997. The project has three components: 1) collection of native elderberry germplasm and study of phenology and plant growth, harvest date, yield, panicle size, berry size, fruit quality, and disease and insect problems, 2) replicated evaluation trials of superior native germplasm to identify elderberry cultivars with sufficient merit for release and commercial planting and 3) cultural studies (i.e., pruning, and leaf foliar nutritive content) . Additional studies have focused on pruning techniques, elderberry antioxidants and DNA fingerprinting of different cultivars. On the marketing side, Dr. Weeder-Einspahr conducted in 2001 a Midwest regional market assessment for small fruits, including elderberries. Using guided telephone interviews, 66 jam and jelly manufacturers and 57 wineries were contacted in Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, Missouri, and South Dakota. Information collected included types and form of fruit used, current fruit source, quality criteria, annual quantities sources and prices paid. The study found that companies in the region used about 90,000 pounds/year of fresh or frozen elderberries in products ranging from jams, jellies, syrups and wines. Prices paid averaged $0.75 per pound of fruit. Some value-added producers sourced their product (juice concentrate) from Europe and the Pacific Northwest region. The study found that many of the jam and jelly companies in the Midwestern U.S. are small, often pick their own fruit from wild sources and process it themselves. However, several larger jam and jelly manufacturers do purchase large amounts of fresh fruit from growers, often under a verbal contract. Most wineries purchase concentrate from national suppliers, but also purchase fresh fruit when available. Smaller growers of fresh fruits for jam, jelly and wine markets have the best potential for success if they partner with these companies to produce fruit under contract. However, given the overall volumes of fruit used by this industry in the Midwest, commercial production would be limited to a relatively small number of growers. In contrast, juice processors require large quantities and greater production investments by the grower. The possibility of addressing these markets in combination with others (e.g., nutraceuticals, organic colorings, etc.), and expansion of sales from small to medium processors could provide a market of sufficient size for a number of producers . According to an article published in New York Berry News , most of the elderberries grown in the Midwest are harvested for processing markets. Several wineries produce elderberry wines from the fruit, while the flowers and panicles are used to flavor wines. Elderberry juice or fruit are used for jam and jelly. Elderberry juice and concentrates are marketed as nutraceuticals. The pigments in elderberry juice are suitable for colorant use. The proposed project will build upon previously research funded by SARE. In 2002, SARE funded a R&E project (LNE 02-162) that studied nutritional benefits, cultural and processing practices and a feasibility/marketing study of ribes, aronia and elderberries in the NE region. The proposed project, focusing exclusively on elderberry, will have immediate application in the newly emerging center of elderberry development, the NC region. A completed project funded in 2005 (LNC 05-256), Organic Production and Marketing of Forest Medicinals: Building and Supporting a Learning Community among Growers used a similar approach to inform growers. The project proved to be successful in assisting a growers association to develop a learning network among growers, close the gap between growers and research activities and support the association entering the marketplace. This project takes an integrated approach to specialty crop development combining marketing and financial research (supported by ongoing long-term production research) with outreach efforts. Outcomes will be enhanced by formation of clusters of elderberry growers and value-added producers and their integration into regional collaborative networks. This project will provide information essential to the growth and development of a regional elderberry industry. The main outcomes and outcome indicators of the project include: * Increased producer/value-added processor adoption of elderberry as a profitable and sustainable specialty crop * 12 new farms will begin elderberry production * 8 wineries will add or increase elderberry wine production * 10 value added producers will initiate or increase use of elderberry in their product mix * In-depth information created to support producer decision making process for on-farm and associated value added enterprise opportunities * Increased knowledge about the elderberry market, future trends and growth potential * Integrated elderberry Financial Decision Support Model to assist multiple level decision makers from the family farmer to the agricultural lender * Increased knowledge about consumer preferences and target markets * 100 individuals trained in elderberry marketing via workshops * 100 individuals trained in elderberry winemaking principles via workshops * 200 individuals trained in elderberry production via field days * Expanded elderberry value added production * Generate options for higher rates of return for producers by adding value through product processing * Increased coordination among industry players * Development of a learning network among growers * Integration of growers and producers into regional cuisine networks in Missouri and the Midwest for greater visibility, joint marketing, and agri-tourism opportunities * Work towards obtaining geographical indication recognition for Midwest elderberries * Increased demand for elderberry products (10% increase in regional demand) * Increased consumer awareness about elderberry (5,000 to 7,500 individuals directly exposed to elderberry value-added products via the Missouri Chestnut Roast and all the events organized at the University of Missouri Research Centers, Eridu Farms, and Wyldewood Cellars) * Increase consumption of elderberry products with associated nutrition and health benefits The purpose of the market research study is to identify the market participants along the value chain, current status and future trends in the elderberry industry, elderberry market limitations, risks and potential opportunities for elderberry producers and processors. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods will be used to accomplish our research objectives. Quantitative methods will be used to obtain information such as, number of companies, sales, volume, production size, production operation, trends in demand and supply, etc. [13,14,15]. Because little is known about the elderberry market and market participants (i.e., uncertainty about the number of elderberry growers and processors, lack of addresses for businesses involved in the elderberry industry, lack of official information about the industry), qualitative methods will be also used as an exploratory and developmental market research tool. The theoretical model is based on the Porter Five Forces Model (PFFM) and has been successful in shedding light on the “black box” of specialty crops including the red cedar, chestnut and shiitake mushroom markets [13, 14, 15]. The PFFM looks at five areas of competition that market participant’s face. These areas include: barriers to entry, bargaining power of suppliers, bargaining power of buyers, threat of substitute products and rivalry among existing firms. Both interview and survey questions will be designed to provide information about the five forces that have influence on the market. Qualitative research: Semi-structured interviews will be conducted with representative market participants to get a general understanding of the market, create a base for a quantitative survey design and identify new market participants. To assure thoroughness, main questions, follow-up questions and probes will be designed to guide the interview. The main questions will follow the theoretical model, addressing all forces that influence competition based on PFFM. Questions will be modified if necessary during the interview or for subsequent interviews to make sure that meaningful information is obtained. Follow-up questions will be developed as necessary to fill gaps in information, complete ideas, define and explain terms, or elaborate on implied concepts. Interviewees will be chosen to represent different backgrounds and experiences . To assure accuracy, all interviews will be audio recorded using a digital recorder, after obtaining participants’ permission to record. Notes will also be taken during the interview by using an interview protocol. All interviews will be transcribed verbatim. Based on collected data, concepts, themes and events will be identified, refined, elaborated and integrated. Codes will be assigned to the main concepts and themes, and information will be sorted, summarized and analyzed. A final report will be developed. Quantitative research: A questionnaire-based survey will be developed. A combination of yes/no, closed and open ended questions will be designed to collect general information about the market participants (i.e., activities performed, questions about utilization of brand name, advertising and publicity, size of operation, degree of involvement in the production of elderberry, management practices) and information specific to each of the Porter’s five forces . Questionnaires will be mailed to all individuals identified through Internet research, interviews, and recommendations according to Dillman’s recommended procedure . Appropriate statistical methods and techniques (e.g., descriptive statistics and correlations) will be used to analyze data with SPSS software. An economic analysis of the price structure along the value chain for different value added products will help us identify the best pricing strategies to recommend to elderberry value added producers. To successfully add value to products, a producer/processor must develop a product and marketing strategy that will increase the bundle of benefits to the consumer. For elderberry, value can be added in many ways: by destemming, freezing, or drying the fresh fruit; by extracting juice, or making wine; by bottling the juice or wine; by making jelly or concentrate; by increasing the product functionality by marketing the elderberry’s unique benefits; making it easier for the customer to obtain the product; package into smaller units desired by the customer; by providing information and recipes; by packaging and labeling to help differentiate the product and build brand loyalty among customers, etc. The information obtained in the market research study will help us identify prices along the value chain and identify all steps and activities that add value to the original product. A partial budget model will be used to estimate the profitability of different elderberry alley cropping scenarios. Partial budget analysis is a standard technique to assess the economics of a change in farm enterprise when the change involves only part of the production system The partial budget technique compares the negative effect of applying a new treatment relative to a standard treatment to the positive effects associated to the new treatment relative to the standard treatment. The effects considered are changes in costs and revenue. The study of consumer preferences for elderberry will be derived from a random utility model . The random utility model is made operational using a Conditional Logit econometric specification. Conditional Logit will include product-specific elderberry characteristics (i.e. product price, size, etc.) and respondent-specific variables (i.e. region, gender, age, etc.). Conjoint Analysis (CA) will be the empirical method used to estimate consumer preferences for elderberry following the Conditional Logit specification. CA is based on the premise that consumers can judge the value of a collection of hypothetical elderberry products, which are described by different characteristics that make up product profiles, and choose the one which gives them the most utility. The hypothetical elderberry product will be described in a number of profiles that will include varying product characteristics. The generated profiles will be included in a survey questionnaire together with demographic questions (e.g.,, age, gender, level of education, and total household income)). Respondents will be asked to review a number of pairs of hypothetical elderberry products and select one product (A or B) that they would be most likely to purchase. CA helps determine a set of partworths for the individual elderberry characteristics that are consistent with the respondent’s overall preferences. The partworths identify the relative importance that consumers place on each particular characteristic . Cluster analysis and analysis of variance techniques will be used to identify and describe particular consumer segments. Cluster analysis is a term applied to a group of empirical techniques used for classification of objects without prior assumptions about their population . Cluster analysis classifies objects or variables so that each object is very similar to others in the cluster. In this study Cluster Analysis will segment the market and create buyer profiles to help identifying different niche markets characterized by differing preferences for product attributes, prices, etc. Cluster analysis can be performed on socio-demographic information such as income, age, education level, preferences for other products, U.S. region, preferred purchase location (farmer’s markets, retailer, others). Cluster analysis will be followed by discriminant analysis to assess optimality and efficiency of the groups generated by the cluster analysis. Up-to-date information is lacking with regard to the elderberry market or market potential. This research identifies the market participants along the value chain, the current status of the industry, direction, future trends, and elderberry market limitations as well as risks and potential opportunities for elderberry producers and processors. A combination of quantitative (mail survey) and qualitative (phone interview) methods have been used. The theoretical model used for the survey and interview development and analysis is based on the Porter Five Forces Model (PFFM) which describes the competitive forces that coordinate and control the market. Seventy-four mail survey responses and 20 follow-up phone interviews provided information on the market participants, challenges, opportunities and competitive forces in the elderberry industry. Results show a nascent industry with mostly small scale participants poised for growth. Demand trends are favorable and prices are good across the value chain. Challenges include a limited domestic supply of fruit, few regionally adapted varieties suitable for commercial production, and high labor costs. Additionally, the absence of existing mechanical harvesting equipment limits future production potential and industry growth. Respondents identified low levels of competition within the industry at the present time. Based on identified market size and demand, opportunities exist to increase the domestic elderberry industry across the value chain. Cernusca, M.M., L.D. Godsey and M.A. Gold. 2012. Using the Porter Model to Analyze the U.S. Elderberry Industry. Agroforestry Systems. 86(3):365-377. Based on the above-mentioned national elderberry market research study and using qualitative data analysis tools, this paper focuses on understanding market barriers for elderberry producers and processors in a young and rapidly growing industry. Our research concentrated on understanding the motivation, challenges and unforeseen opportunities of the small number of entrepreneurial firms in the elderberry market and the way they start shaping a new industry and challenge market boundaries. Understanding all the market barriers can be used to create advantages for the future for current and potential market participants. Twenty in-depth phone interviews were analyzed with NVivo 8, a qualitative data analysis software tool, which facilitated a rigorous and efficient approach to data analysis. Results identified barriers to entry consistent with the ones existing in an established, competitive industry such as economies of scale, cost advantages for existing firms, the investment needed for start-up, the lack of necessary information, and steep learning curves. In addition, the high level of uncertainty that characterizes a nascent industry including the reluctance of banks to provide loans, existing prejudices, and the low awareness towards elderberry and its properties, pose extra challenges to entry and success in the marketplace. This research sheds light on the challenges and opportunities that exist in a nascent industry and provides suggestions to overcome the challenges. Cernusca, M.M. and M.A. Gold. 2014. Breaking Down Market Barriers for Elderberry Growers and Producers. Acta Horticulturae. In press. Increased production of North American Elderberry (Sambucus Canadensis) for its use in value-added secondary products is a prime example of the growth in non-traditional agroforestry products markets. Nonetheless, greater demand of elderberry products may be fostered through a better understanding of consumer preferences. With detailed information of the consumer market for elderberry products, prospective firms can develop strategies to enter the elderberry industry and firms currently supplying the market can develop strategies to increase their market share. The research is composed of both local exploratory consumer research and a national consumer preferences survey. The local exploratory research included: (1) a local consumer survey and (2) a consumer focus group. Information gained in exploratory research was then used to create an effective online consumer preference survey. The online survey gathered information from 1,048 household from the continental United States on their preferences for elderberry juice and jelly products. A cluster analysis was applied to define consume market segments based on how healthy respondents identified their lifestyles and whether they had purchased elderberry products. The four market segments were composed of health conscious elderberry consumers, less health conscious elderberry consumers, health conscious prospective consumers and less health conscious prospective consumers. A choice-based conjoint analysis was then used in the survey to estimate consumer sensitivity to product attributes of price, health related claims and the origin labels. As a result of the study, firms selling elderberry products will be able to increase the sale of their products through effective market strategies. Mohebalian, P. 2011. U.S. Consumer Preferences for Elderberry Products. M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri. Increased production of the North American Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) for its use in value-added specialty products is a prime example of the growth and potential of nontraditional agroforestry product markets. A consumer survey was conducted at the 2010 Missouri Chestnut Roast Festival to evaluate the importance of elderberry product attributes based on consumer segmentation and evaluated existing consumer knowledge and opinions of elderberry products. Using a cluster analysis respondents were classified into two clearly defined market segments. The first cluster was composed of individuals who identify themselves as being very health conscious in their life style and consumption habits. These individuals were found to be more likely to be female and on average significantly older with ages ranging between 46 and 55. The second cluster was composed of individuals that identified themselves as being less health conscious than cluster one. These individuals were more likely male and on average significantly younger than the first cluster being between 36 and 45. Both market segments identified the price of the product and organic certification as being the most important attributes in making elderberry juice purchasing decisions. This information was used to develop a more extensive conjoint analysis survey to evaluate national and niche markets for elderberry juice. Mohebalian, P.M. M.M. Cernusca and F.X. Aguilar. 2012. Discovering Niche Markets for Elderberry Juice in the United States. HortTechnology 22(4):556-566. This study is the first of its kind in eliciting U.S. consumer preferences for elderberry juice and jelly products. An online survey collected self-reported information from 1043 U.S. residents. Results of a conjoint analysis suggest elderberry products that disclose qualified health claims and are produced locally were the best positioned to compete for greater shares in the jelly and juice product markets. Consumers valued product price, disclosure of health claims, and origin. Consumers were 3.7 times more likely to choose locally produced jelly products than imported jelly and twice as likely to select products disclosing health claims compared with jelly products without claims. Likewise, consumers were 3.3 times more likely to choose locally produced juice products than imported juice products and 2.1 times more likely to select juice products with health claims than without. Our results indicate that an introductory strategy that combines the strength of preferences for locally produced products along with the disclosure of health claims at a competitive price can be an important tool in expanding the market for elderberry products in the United States. Mohebalian P., F.A. Aguilar, M.M. Cernusca. 2013. Conjoint Analysis of U.S. Consumers’ Preference for Elderberry Jelly and Juice Products. HortScience. 48(3):338-346 What demonstrable impacts has the project had to date? Since its inception, Missouri Elderberry Development Program activities have led directly to a new industry of 150 plus acres of commercial elderberry production in Missouri and surrounding states, worth an estimated $650,000 for the raw fruit alone. The majority of the elderberry acreage in Missouri is planted to cultivars selected and promoted by the Missouri Elderberry Development Program. What demonstrable impacts do you expect the project to have in the future? Comprehensive elderberry workshops involving active elderberry farmers, extension agents and researchers are continuing in 2014 and expected to continue in the future. Additional farmers and additional planted acreage is anticipated as a result of the ongoing commitment to the future development of this specialty crop. The Elderberry Financial Decision Support Tool (EFDST) developed by Dr. Larry D. Godsey in 2012 is an Excel (©Microsoft Corporation) based model designed to assist with elderberry establishment and management decisions. This model allows the user to select multiple options from a list of the most common establishment, management, harvesting and marketing techniques to determine the techniques that will generate the best economic returns. Default methods and costs are based on current elderberry production methods; however, they may be modified by the user. The EFDST includes an internal yield model that covers a 25-year rotation. In other words, the model assumes that the elderberry plants will be removed or replanted after 25 years. The cost of removal and replant at that time is not included in this model. The model also includes a random variable that reflects the potential yield risks from year to year. More specifically, the random risk variable attempts to model the fluctuations in yield caused by annual weather conditions and other unpredictable events. The EFDST uses the financial indicators of net present value (NPV), present value of costs and revenues (PV), annual equivalent value (AEV), modified internal rate of return (MIRR), internal rate of return (IRR), and years to break even. It is important to note that the financial returns of the model represent returns to land and labor. In other words, most of the establishment labor is contracted as part of the cost, the management and harvesting labor is not included in the cost structure. It is also important to note that this model is based on the best information available at this time. It is intended as a guide, but not as a crystal ball. The purpose of this model is to identify how different establishment, management, harvesting and marketing decisions impact the financial outcome of the system. The model is accurate in predicting whether or not a decision will increase or decrease returns. However, it is not intended to provide a “promised” level of income. Extension outreach programming through the Missouri Elderberry Development Program in 2011-2014 has directly impacted an estimated 540 people at workshops and individual consultations, and evaluations reveal a substantial level of knowledge gain as a result of participation. The publication Growing and Marketing Elderberries in Missouri, based on 15 years of research and experience, has had 2531 requests for the downloadable version since its publication in 2012. A Midwest Elderberry Growers Association was established in 2011 (http://www.elderberrygrowers.org). Specific recommendations for farmers We recommend that prospective farmers begin by carefully reviewing the published Agroforestry in Action guide – Growing and Marketing Elderberries in Missouri. The guide provides a comprehensive overview of the issues faced by elderberry growers. Educational & Outreach Activities Mihaela M. Cernusca, M.A., M.A. Gold and L.D. Godsey. 2013. Breaking Down Market Barriers for Elderberry Growers and Producers. Proceedings First International Symposium on Elderberry. June 10-14, 2013. Columbia, MO. Abstract p. 48. Chung-Ho Lin, C-H, H-Y Hsieh, G. Stewart, B. Thompson, X. Zou, N. Ullah, C-M Su, M. Gold and S. Jose. 2013. Exploring the Health Benefits and Economic Opportunities of the Bioactive Phytochemicals-An Overview of Phytochemical Research at the University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry. Proceedings First International Symposium on Elderberry. June 10-14, 2013. Columbia, MO. Abstract p. 49. Thomas, A.L., D. Charlebois, C.M. Greenlief, P.L. Vincent, K.L. Fritsche, K.L. and K. Kaack, Editors. 2013. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Elderberry. June 9-14, 2013, Columbia, Missouri USA. http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/ElderberrySymposiumGuide.pdf Mohebalian, P. 2011. U.S. Consumer Preferences for Elderberry Products. M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri. Mohebalian, P.M. M.M. Cernusca and F.X. Aguilar. 2012. Discovering Niche Markets for Elderberry Juice in the United States. HortTechnology 22(4):556-566. Cernusca, M.M., L.D. Godsey and M.A. Gold. 2012. Using the Porter Model to Analyze the U.S. Elderberry Industry. Agroforestry Systems. 86(3):365-377. Mohebalian P., F.A. Aguilar, M.M. Cernusca. 2013. Conjoint Analysis of U.S. Consumers’ Preference for Elderberry Jelly and Juice Products. HortScience. 48(3):338-346 Cernusca, M.M. and M.A. Gold. 2014. Breaking Down Market Barriers for Elderberry Growers and Producers. Acta Horticulturae. In press. Elderberry Market Report http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/profit/elderberrymarketreport.pdf Elderberry Market Directory http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/profit/elderberrymarketdirectory.pdf Godsey, L.D. 2012. Elderberry Financial Decision Support Tool http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/profit/elderberryfina.ornce.php Byers, P.L., A.L. Thomas, M.M. Cernusca, L.D. Godsey and M.A. Gold. 2012 (updated 2014). Elderberry “Agroforestry in Action” guide http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/profit/ElderberryGuide.pdf Cernusca M.M., M.A. Gold. 2012. Elderberry Comprehensive Workshop Evaluation Report. Cernusca M.M., M.A. Gold. 2012. Elderberry Winemaking Workshop Evaluation Report. Brewer, John. 2012. Elderberry Winemaking Workshop Video.http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/workshops.php Cernusca M.M., M.A. Gold. 2013. Elderberry Farmers Forum Evaluation Report. Summary of the education and outreach programs and events, including field days Activities in the past 3 years have led to improved understanding of elderberry production and challenges, planting of new elderberry acreage in Missouri, widespread planting of cultivars developed and publicized through the program, provided detailed market and consumer information, and are resulting in adoption of science-based production practices by Missouri elderberry producers. - Interviews with television, print, and radio media to publicize program activities - Release and promotion of 3 new elderberry cultivars - Publication of Elderberry Market Research (2011) and Growing and Marketing Elderberries in Missouri (2012/updated 2014) - Published content uploaded to University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry website - Terry Durham Farm elderberry workshops/festivals (2) - 2012 Comprehensive Elderberry Workshop - 2012 Elderberry Panel, Small Farm Today Conference - 2012 Elderberry Winemaking Workshop - 2012 Farmers Forum at the Small Farms National Trade Show & Conference https://youtu.be/ebYtzcnbVoE - 2013 Farmers Forum, International Elderberry Symposium - Presentations at the Great Plains Growers Conference, New England Vegetable and Fruit Conference (2011), Minnesota Fruit and Vegetable Growers Conference (2014), and NACAA Conference (2012) - Presentations and outreach materials prepared to address Japanese beetle and spotted wing drosophila issues - Formation of the Midwest Elderberry Growers Association (2011) - 33 individual consultations with current and prospective elderberry producers State and National Recognition – 2014 The Missouri elderberry development program was recognized as a State and National winner of the National Association of County Agricultural Agents (NACAA) Search for Excellence in the category of Crop Production. Submitted by Patrick Byers, Regional Horticulture Specialist University of Missouri – Southwest Region. The submitted summary highlighted such activity as the Comprehensive Elderberry Workshop organized by the MU Center for Agroforestry and Riverhills Harvest, the Farmers Forum at the 2013 International Elderberry Symposium, the Elderberry Festivals hosted by Terry Durham, various presentations at growers’ conferences, and publications such as “Growing and Marketing Elderberries in Missouri” and “Elderberry Market Research Report”. http://www.nacaa.com/awards/apps/display_award.php?id=5779-16907 Areas needing additional study Suggest areas for future research, demonstration or training. Additional work is need to breed and test new cultivated varieties that are adapted to different regions around the Midwest (and elsewhere in the USA). A mechanical berry harvester is needed in order to scale up planted acreage for industry growth. Ongoing market and consumer research is needed to keep industry players up-to-date on the latest trends.

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Also, multiple cases are documented of medium-sized (3 m [9.8 ft] to 4 m [13 ft]) captive Burmese pythons constricting and killing humans, including several nonintoxicated, healthy adult men, one of whom was a "student" zookeeper. https://www.newsweek.com/snake-kills-ripping-chunks-halloween-1542897 Do Baby Snakes Stay with Their Mother? This decidedly picky species will only gobble the right kind of crab when it has been freshly molted. However, one species of water snake in Tree snakes cannot digest an animal which is much wider than its own body. While attacking their prey, these snakes place their heads completely over their prey. Pygmy rattlesnakes are venomous pit vipers found in the Southeast U.S. As predators, they aren’t super picky, swallowing up frogs, lizards, mice, the occasional bird—and even other snakes. While there are snakes that can kill their prey in a matter of minutes with their venomous bites, there are also huge snakes who can overpower their targets and crush their bones before swallowing them whole. the flow of blood to the rat’s heart, causing the rat to have a heart attack. While they do not pose any danger to humans, this venom is an anti-coagulant which can hurt smaller animals. bats. Snakes flick their tongues to detect the chemical signals given off by nearby prey. Save my name and email in this browser for the next time I comment. Once the poison does its work, and the prey is incapacitated, the snake has his ready meal! Tree "Like most snakes, the skin in their chin region and their neck can just extend to accommodate large prey," Bruce Jayne, professor of biology at the University of Cincinnati, told Newsweek. Anti-coagulant makes wounds bleed more than they would otherwise. Ambush predator snakes will not stick around for very long if their cover has been blown. The brown tree snake loves to snack on birds. They live in tree-covered areas of South and Southeast Asia, including forests and jungles. but the indian grey mongoose is quite the predator itself, and its lightning fast reflexes, thick hide, and resistance to venom have enabled it to add snakes like the cobra to its list of favored foods. Water Snakes. They make S-like serpentine movements to control their direction on the air currents. One of their fangs acts like pinion to hold their prey still for the venom to take effect. Your email address will not be published. Obviously, we all think of snakes that bite first. says Jayne. snakes never come down to the ground to hunt, staying high above to avoid They are able to travel more than one hundred meters in a single glide. This means that gliding snakes focus on smaller prey which they can get their mouths around more easily. This is a quick method of killing, not the long torture of suffocation. The dream can also be associated with gain, in money. Instead, it blocks Researchers from the University of Tennessee observed Cuban boas, snakes which mainly hunt bats. This site does not constitute snake medical advice, please consult a licensed veterinarian for medical advice. Snake venom is the fluid secretions from the modified salivary glands of venomous snakes. Burmese pythons have been know to prey on alligators in the area. Professor Bruce Jayne/Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, After Parler Ban, Rein in Big Tech Now or Cease Being Free Citizens. If the prey animal noticed the snake, the rodent would make a behavioral display to alert other animals nearby to the snake’s presence. The snake will climb to the top of one tree to hunt. This newest wild anaconda attack game 3d will put you in control of this deadly beast. of choice for these carnivores include birds, frogs, rodents, lizards, and Some types of snakes chase their prey at relatively high speeds. Constrictors include anacondas, ball pythons, and boa constrictors. Some coil with their dorsal side against the prey animal. Snakes aren’t usually fast-moving animals, but there are exceptions. They eat a wide range of foods, Many are several different types of venom. These vibrations are picked up by the snake’s jawbone and translated into a sort of “hearing.” Snakes can use the vibration they feel in their jaws to pinpoint the location of their prey. Unlike larger snakes, which can take hours to swallow their dinner, the cat-eyed water (Gerarda prevostiana) snake crams down the moving crab in only a couple of minutes. predators of their own. Required fields are marked *. through leaves and dig through loose soil to find hidden meals. This behavior is called constricting. These snakes which eat their prey alive depend on speed to snatch up and swallow their prey. Let’s start by looking at the more general hunting patterns used by snakes before looking more closely at the different senses and skills that individual species use to their advantage. You’ll notice a considerable variation in approaches between species based on the type of prey that’s found in the snake’s locality. the snake tries to warn the mongoose away, making use of that famous hood and raspy hiss. While Gliding These snakes fling themselves off of high branches, flattening out their body to help themselves glide through the air. Common venomous snakes include the families Elapidae, Viperidae, Atractaspididae, and some of … The bird has very long legs and usually kills the snake with strong and precise kicks. These There prey on the lower level of another tree, it will leap out to glide down and Jayne brought some of the reptiles into his lab and tried every trick he could to get them to eat crabs, but no luck. The nickname "water moccasin" stems from the fact that these snakes are semi-aquatic and known to sneak up silently on their prey. These snakes did not appear to compete with each other over the bats, and all left in the end having eaten. (Prey Too Big + Wrong Way). Snakes are extremely effective hunters. The prey bite-sized pieces. snake will constrict its prey. The primary component of snake venom is protein. … Water Even if the prey is already dead, the This can include Venomous snakes are species of the suborder Serpentes that are capable of producing venom, which is used primarily for immobilizing prey and defense mostly via mechanical injection by fangs. Some snakes constrict their prey to immobilize them, while others will use venom. 4.The favorite prey of the secretary birds are snakes. Constrictors A third group makes irregular, overlapping coils with no consistent surface held against the prey animal. The color of the snake attacking you is also important. I hope that you find this website useful! Another image that may quickly come to mind when thinking of how snakes hunt is the snakes with venomous fangs. … Scientists were never certain if snakes planned their hunts or just worked alone whilst attacking the same prey. A Thai man recovered fully after a 10-foot python slithered through … has been long believed that constrictors suffocate their prey, causing a slow, "We know that chameleons and some salamanders shoot their tongues towards their prey when attacking, and they can hit accelerations which are many, many times greater than snake … Photograph: Charles Ommanney/Getty Images In addition, the FWC and the South … Lasso locomotion allows these snakes to reach otherwise unobtainable prey, but seems to be energetically demanding for them, as they take several pauses when climbing. When a prey animal moves across the ground, this causes a slight vibration that a snake can detect. Depending on the species, they will then use capture/kill techniques that focus on either constriction or envenomation. but the mongoose is persistent, and on the hunt. eggs, and even fish or tadpoles if they come close enough to the shore. One of the most curious snake species on the planet is the cat-eyed water snake, a menacing creature with a penchant for soft crabs that tears its prey into bits while still alive. In his fascinating infrared video, the snake attacks an extremely large crab—one that is at least four times as big as the snake's head. including geckos, frogs, lizards, skinks, small mammals, water skinks, reptile ground to hunt their prey. their mouths wide open, and when a fish passes by, they snap their jaws down often depend on heat. After the morsel sheds its exoskeleton, the snake pounces, peeling away different sections of its body—as it is still alive—until it has been swallowed in its entirety, piece by piece. These toxic proteins are the cause of most of the harmful effects of snake … catch it. These snakes are not venomous and usually do not depend on biting to subdue their prey. This bite alone is not enough to kill, but the venom does the rest of the work to slow the prey down. Photo about poisonous snakes attack the prey. I will run through the snake colors in a moment. snakes feed on smaller animals near or in their watery homes. How Long Does It Take Snakes to Digest Their Food? These snakes are also foragers. Snakes rely on venom to disable prey and aid in the digestive process. Not all snakes have venom, and the vast majority of venomous snakes are not dangerous to humans. Let’s explore the methods snakes use to detect, hunt, capture, and kill their prey. The snake like a boa constrictor can know when the victim’s heartbeat has stopped and this is when it will start to eat its meal. Snakes perform this behavior instinctually. The rattlesnake would immediately leave its ambush location and find a new foraging site far away to wait in with new, unaware prey. This continues until the prey is completely dead. This also limits the size of prey that these snakes can eat. Snakesforpets.com is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for me to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites. The eastern coral snake, also known as Micrurus fulvius, eats lizards, frogs and smaller snakes, including other coral snakes, according to National Geographic. Interestingly, the snake also seemed to take the rodent’s display as a cue. According to older dream books, an attacking snake generally indicates that you are going to work hard. If you see a large snake attacking you then this can imply that you may have business issues in the future. How Often Do Corn Snakes Shed Their Skin? causes the prey to become paralyzed, allowing the snake to catch up to its These snakes include the green tree snakes of They spend... Gliding Snakes. "We were able to do a study of the diet of the snake without having to kill the snakes. 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This article is concerned with the transfer of thermal energy by the movement of fluid and, as a consequence, such transfer is dependent on the nature of the flow. Heat transfer by convection may occur in a moving fluid from one region to another or to a solid surface, which can be in the form of a duct, in which the fluid flows or over which the fluid flows. Convective heat transfer may take place in boundary layers, that is, to or from the flow over a surface in the form of a boundary layer, and within ducts where the flow may be boundary-layer-like or fully-developed. It may also occur in flows which are more complicated, such as those which are separated, for example, in the aft region of a cylinder in cross-flow or in the vicinity of a backward-facing step. The flow may give rise to convective heat transfer where it is driven by a pump and is referred to as forced convection, or arise as a consequence of temperature gradients and buoyancy, referred to as natural or free convection. Examples are given later in this Section and are shown in Figure 1 to facilitate introduction to terminology and concepts. The boundary layer on the flat surface of Figure 1 has the usual variation of velocity from zero on the surface to a maximum in the free-stream. In this case, the surface is assumed to be at a higher temperature than the free-stream and the finite gradient at the wall confirms the heat transfer from the surface to the flow. It is also possible to have zero temperature gradient at the wall so there is no heat transfer to or from the surface but heat transfer within the flow. If the flow is laminar, heat transfer from the surface is given by the Fourier flux law, that is: where q represents the rate of heat transfer per unit surface area, λ is the thermal conductivity, T is the temperature and y is distance measured from the surface. The same expression applies to any region of the flow and also in the case of the adiabatic wall where zero temperature gradient implies zero heat transfer. It should be noted that the surface can be horizontal as shown, with air flow driven by a fan or a liquid flow by a pump, and that it can equally be vertical, with buoyancy providing the driving force for the flow. In the latter case, the free-stream velocity would be zero so that the corresponding profile would have zero values at the wall and far from the wall. The backward-facing step of Figure 1 results in a more complicated flow and several boundary layers can be identified within the flow as a consequence of separation and reattachment. The details of flows of this type are not well-understood so it is difficult to identify the characteristics of the boundary layers and it can be imagined that the shapes of the velocity and temperature profiles— and therefore of the local heat transfer within the fluid and to the wall—will vary considerably from one location to another. It is known, for example, that the rate of heat transfer can become high at the location of reattachment of the upstream flow on to the surface of the step, as is also the case at the leading edge of a cylinder in cross-flow, but the detailed mechanisms remain incompletely understood and research continues. It is well known that even comparatively simple geometrical configurations, such as those of Figure 1, can give rise to heat transfer rates which vary considerably depending on the nature of the flow and of the surface. With laminar flows, heat transfer to or from the wall varies with distance from the leading edge of a boundary layer. Turbulent flows can give rise to heat transfer rates which are much larger than those of laminar flows, and are caused by the manner in which the turbulent fluctuations increase mixing; they also affect the heat transfer to and from the surface, especially where the free-stream fluid is able to penetrate to the wall even for short periods of time. The nature of the surface, for example the degree or type of roughness, usually affects heat transfer to or from it, and in some circumstances to a large extent. It is convenient, therefore, to represent the heat transfer at the wall by the expression where again represents the rate of heat transfer from the wall, this time over unit area of surface; the temperature difference refers to that between the wall and the free stream; and α is the “heat transfer coefficient” which is a characteristic of the flow and of the surface. The two temperatures can vary with x-distance and it can be difficult to identify a free-stream temperature in some complex flows. Typical values of α are shown in Table 1, from which it can be seen that increases in velocity generally result in increases in heat transfer coefficient, so that α is smallest in natural convection and increases to 100 and more on flat surfaces with air velocities greater than around 50 m/s. The heat transfer coefficient is considerably greater with liquid flows and greater again with two-phase flows. Table 1. Typical values of heat transfer coefficient |Forced convection; low speed flow of air over a surface||10| |Forced convection; moderate speed flow of air over a surface||100| |Forced convection; moderate speed cross- flow of air over a cylinder||200| |Forced convection; moderate flow of water in a pipe||3000| |Forced convection; boiling water in a pipe||50,000| |Free convection; vertical plate in air with 30°C temperature difference||5| It should be noted that the above equations are expressed in terms of dimensional parameters. And it is easy to see that a combination of the two will lead to a nondimensional parameter αx/λ, where α is a wall heat transfer coefficient, x is a characteristic distance and λ is the conductivity of the fluid; this is known as the Nusselt number and can readily be devised from dimensional analysis as well as from nondimensional forms of conservation equations as suggested in the following section. The heat transfer coefficients of Table 1 can be expressed in terms of this nondimensional number, the Nusselt number, and analytical and correlation equations are usually expressed in this way as will be shown below. It is also useful to note that the heat transfer coefficient and the Nusselt number can be used to refer to local values at a location x on a surface, or to an integrated value up to the location x. The concept of dimensional analysis gives rise to several nondimensional groups, to which reference will be made in this section, and it is convenient to introduce them here. In addition to the Nusselt number, reference will be made to the following: |Prandtl number||Pr = ηcp/λ| |Reynolds number||Re = ρux/η| |Nusselt number||Nu = αx/λ| |Stanton number||St = α/ρcp u = Nu/Pr Re| |Grashof number||Gr = gβ(Tw − T∞)y3/ν2| The Prandtl number is dependent only on fluid properties; the Reynolds number is a ratio of inertial to viscous forces and is relevant throughout the subject of fluid mechanics and convection; the Stanton number is a combination of Nu, Pr, and Re; and the Grashof number characterizes natural convection with the gravitational acceleration, g, and β, the coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion, and is a combination of inertial, u2/y, frictional, vu/y2, and buoyancy, gβΔT, scales. These nondimensional groups may be obtained from conservation equations and are convenient in the representation of results and correlations of experimental data. It is useful to examine the equations which represent conservation of mass, momentum and energy and these are written below for rectangular Cartesian coordinates with simplification of uniform properties. The three equations representing conservation of momentum and the equation representing conservation of energy have the same form, with the terms on the left-hand sides representing convection of momentum and energy. It should be noted that these convective terms are nonlinear, thereby presenting difficulties for any solution and that there are four individual parts of convection corresponding to variations in time and in the three directions. The terms on the right-hand side are slightly simplified forms of those representing transport by diffusion together with pressure forces and sources or sinks of thermal energy. Terms for buoyancy may be added as shown in a following section. It is easy to see that nondimensional velocities and distances in the momentum equations will lead to the inverse of Reynolds number and of the temperatures, velocities and distances in the energy equation to a nondimensional group which comprises (1/PrRe). In later sections, these equations will be simplified to deal with convective heat transfer in steady, laminar flows of forced and free convection. It is evident from the above that there is some similarity between the equations for conservation of momentum and thermal energy so that the solutions of the two equations will have similar forms when the source terms are zero, the Prandtl number is unity and the solutions are presented in nondimensional form. The presence of buoyancy is often limited to the second momentum equation into which an additional term of the form ρβg(Tw − T∞) must be added. Where the surface which gives rise to the temperature difference—and therefore to the buoyant force—is not vertical, the angle of the surface to the direction of the gravitational force must be considered. This will lead to the resolution of forces so that part of the buoyancy term will appear in the first momentum equation with that in the second equation, multiplied by the sine of the angle to the vertical. This will give rise to an additional nondimensional group, the Grashof number. In the absence of convection terms, the energy equation reduces to that for heat conduction and the momentum equations are no longer relevant where the conduction takes place in a stationary material. Many other simplifications of the above equations are possible, including those for two-dimensional flows and for boundary-layer flows, as will be seen below. Also, it is possible to integrate the equations and, in their simpler forms, this can have some merit; for example, in the integral momentum and energy equations where the dependent variable is devised so as to be represented in terms of one independent variable, and therefore solvable by simple numerical methods. More complicated forms may also exist as discussed in the following section. Most flows in nature and in engineering equipment occur at moderately high Reynolds numbers, so they are described as turbulent. Thus, the properties of the flow at any point are time dependent with scales which vary from very small, the Kolmogorov scale, to that corresponding to the largest possible dimension of the flow. In a room, for example, the Kolmogorov scale may be of the order of a fraction of 1 mm or less than 1 ms time scale if the velocity is of the order of 1 m/s, and the largest, of the order of several meters or more than 103 larger. There are two important implications for this: the first, that the rate of heat transfer from a surface to a flow will be considerably greater than if the flow were laminar at the same Reynolds number; and secondly, that the conservation equations are even more difficult to solve than for the laminar flow since any numerical solution must now consider physical and time scales which encompass three orders of magnitude. The first means that turbulent convection is important, much more important than laminar convection; and the second, that the conservation equations cannot be solved in their general form except where the boundary conditions allow them to be reduced to simpler forms and even then, with additional problems. This conclusion has led to the widespread use of correlation formulas based on measurements and these, of necessity, encompass limited ranges of flow. Some examples are presented and discussed in the following section. It has also led to widespread attempts to solve complicated forms of the conservation equations with assumptions which represent the turbulent aspects of the flow. The following paragraphs provide an introduction to this approach. The introduction of Reynolds averaging, that is, to rewrite the time-dependent variables as sums of mean and fluctuating components, to introduce the new dependent variable into the conservation equations and to average overall time results in equations of the form: where the upper case symbols refer to time-averaged quantities; the lower case, to fluctuating quantities with q, the temperature fluctuations; κ is λ/ρcp; and the overbars, to averages of multiplications of two time-dependent quantities. The equations have been written in tensor notation to render them more compact, but the similarity between the conservation of the time-averaged momentum and energy equations is still evident. The terms representing convection are still on the left-hand side, with diffusion on the right-hand side. There are now two diffusion terms in each equation: one representing laminar diffusion; and the second, the correlations between fluctuating components. There are still five equations, but now there are more than five unknowns since the correlations imply six terms in the momentum equations and three in the energy equation. Thus, it is evident that these equations do not represent a soluble set without assumptions which reduce the number of unknowns to the number of equations. These require models for the Reynolds stresses, , and the turbulent heat fluxes, , and, as shown elsewhere, it is possible to derive equations for these correlation terms. Each gives rise to higher order correlations so that a decision must be made about closure as well as the introduction of model assumptions. By analogy with laminar flow, it is possible to write the turbulent momentum flux and turbulent heat flux in the forms and nondimensional forms of these expressions with turbulent viscosity and turbulent conductivity will lead to Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, where the latter is frequently referred to as a turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl number has found considerable use in engineering calculations of convective heat transfer since it can be assigned a value of unity. With the laminar Prandtl number also near unity for air—and often of secondary importance since laminar diffusion is less important than turbulent diffusion—the momentum and energy equations can be solved once for flows where there is no pressure gradient and no sources or sinks of energy, with similar results if presented in nondimensional variables. This approach applies to complex flows with difficult numerical solutions and to simple boundary-layer flows as will be shown. With assumptions of high Reynolds numbers and local equilibrium, so that the influence of one region of flow on another is small, it is possible to simplify the time-averaged conservation equations. Assuming two-dimensional boundary layers yields: where Cμ and Ct are constants, lm is the mixing length for the transfer of momentum and lt is a corresponding mixing length for the transfer of thermal energy. These equations reduce to the effective viscosity and Prandtl number equations referred to above when the length scales and constants are equal and the Prandtl number is unity. Thus, the concept of a turbulent Prandtl number is limited in its applicability, as is that of a turbulent viscosity. But the range of acceptance for engineering calculations remains large. As will be shown below, the exact solution of the equation appropriate to the laminar flow over a flat plate, where the free-stream and plate temperatures are constant and different, may be written as: which recognizes the importance of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers and expresses the heat transfer coefficient in terms of the Nusselt number. The corresponding result for laminar natural convection over a vertical plate with similar boundary conditions is: In turbulent flows, approximations appropriate to a flat plate with forced convection have led to expressions of similar form; for example, As a consequence, equations used to represent measurements of complex flows—where analytic and numerical solutions are either impossible or subject to large inaccuracy—tend to have this form. Several examples are provided in the following sections. Forced convection is associated with flows which are driven by pumps and fans or by the movement of a body through stationary fluids, as in an aeroplane or ship where each has substantial means at its disposal to cause it to move. It is in contrast to natural convection where gravity provides the driving force, although it is possible to have mixed convection in a limited number of flows where the pressure and gravitational forces are of the same order of magnitude, that is Gr/Re2 is approximately unity. All exact analytical solutions are simplified forms of conservation equations and for laminar flows. Some other cases are discussed below. Boundary Layer Heat Transfer is discussed in the relevant article. The flow between flat plates is portrayed in Figure 2. It comprises boundary layers which begin at the leading edges, grow on each of the two surfaces until the potential core narrows to zero and then continues towards a fully-developed laminar flow, after which all gradients in the x-direction become zero. The boundary layers are represented by the boundary layer equations with boundary conditions corresponds to a symmetry boundary condition. In the initial region where the boundary layers are separated by a region of potential flow, the analysis is similar to that for a boundary layer, with the free-stream condition represented by the potential core velocity and temperature. Further downstream, the flow becomes fully-developed so that the velocity and temperature profiles will not change if expressed in terms of appropriate dimensionless quantities. This will be demonstrated below. It is useful to note, however, that there is an intermediate region where there is no potential core and where the flow is not fully-developed. In this region, it is necessary to solve the equations representing conservation of mass and momentum so that each is satisfied; this may require an interactive approach. In the case of fully-developed laminar flow, the convective terms become zero since and the momentum equation becomes with the pressure gradient constant so that integration with the boundary conditions at the wall and on the symmetry line leads to: and, if one plate moves parallel to the other with a constant velocity U, the solution becomes In the former case, the temperature profile has the simple form This, too, may be complicated by considering the effect of viscous heating, which requires the addition of a term of the form to the conservation equation for energy, and—for zero pressure gradient and constant values of U—leads to This last result must be regarded as an approximation since no account has been taken of variations likely to occur in transport and thermodynamic properties. The velocity profile for fully-developed laminar flow is a parabola when the walls are stationary, provided that the fluid properties are constant and the velocities are low; it is linear when the pressure gradient is absent and the wall moves with constant speed with respect to the other. The effect of a moving surface is to provide a force which can act against or with that exerted by pressure. This is reflected in the velocities which can be in positive and negative directions. The temperature profile is expressed in terms of surface temperatures and it is clear that the bulk temperature will increase if one or both of the walls is hotter than the initial temperature, T1 Thus, the temperature profile is often expressed in terms of the initial temperature and the bulk-mean temperature, defined as: where U is the bulk velocity as discussed further below. Flow and heat transfer in a pipe are of rather more importance than those between parallel plates since they are found more frequently in engineering practice. The flow may again begin at the leading edge so that laminar flow solutions can be obtained as for parallel plates, but this time to equations in cylindrical coordinates and without the prospect of one surface moving with respect to another. At small values of Reynolds number, ρud/η , the length required to achieve fully-developed laminar flow may be given by the expression and originates from asymptotic solutions of the boundary layer equations. The flow in small-diameter pipes required to achieve these small Reynolds numbers comes from larger diameter pipes or from plenum chambers, so it is likely that boundary layers do not have their origins at the beginning of the small diameter pipe. Rather, there is a sudden contraction for which the flow is properly represented by more complete forms of the conservation equations than their boundary-layer forms. Indeed, the flow may separate inside the pipe with a more rapid movement towards fully-devel-oped conditions than would be the case with attached boundary layers. The region of developing flow can be small in many cases and fully-developed flow is usually more important than the developing flow. The conservation equations in cylindrical coordinates may be reduced for fully-developed flow in the same way as between two plates, with the result and this, with boundary conditions may be integrated to yield The Moody friction factor, defined as f = − (dp/dx)/0.5ρU2/D, commonly represents the relationship between pressure drop, geometry and fluid properties, and may be deduced for fully-developed laminar pipe flow as: which is sometimes referred to as the Hagen-Poiseuille friction law. The energy equation in cylindrical coordinates has the form and this reduces for fully-developed flow to where Tb is the bulk temperature, defined as: Integration of the differential equation with boundary conditions corresponding to symmetry at the centre line, and for the particular condition that which is independent of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, provided the flow remains laminar. An iterative solution is required to solve the equations for the boundary condition and leads to the result which shows that the solution depends on the thermal boundary condition. Of course, the flow will remain laminar only if the Reynolds number is less than around 2 300 or to larger values if it is so free from disturbances that none are available to propagate and cause turbulent flow, as is usually the case. Where turbulent flow occurs because a disturbance has propagated and led to fluctuations in all regions of flow except in the viscous sublayer, the nature of the flow and of the problem has changed. It is possible to return to considering the consequences of the onset of transition and of the transitional region in the context of the boundary layer in the entrance region of the pipe. But the overall effect will be to induce turbulent flow rapidly so that the emphasis is again, and even more so, on the region of fully-developed flow—which now corresponds to turbulent and not laminar flow. It is possible to retain a boundary-layer flow, possibly with transitional regions for some distance, but the common shape of slightly-rounded entrance geometry usually leads to a fully-developed turbulent flow in distances not much more than 50 diameters, and in shorter distances for engineering calculations. Correlation of measurements of pressure drop against bulk velocity and diameter has led Blasius to propose the expression which, together with the laminar flow result of allow Figure 3 to be drawn and in which the laminar-flow result can be extended to Reynolds numbers well in excess of 105, provided care is taken with the nature of the initial conditions, with the smooth surface of the pipe and with the absence of disturbances of any kind. More usually, laminar flow does not exist at Reynolds numbers larger than 2,300, above which transition to the turbulent-flow curve takes place with a transitional region which can be short or long depending on the nature of the disturbances. The friction factor thus varies with the Reynolds number, based on the diameter of the pipe, and with laminar, transitional and turbulent regions as shown in Figure 3. The skin-friction coefficient (or Fanning friction factor) is related to the friction factor by so that the coefficient for turbulent flow may be expressed as with the constants stemming from consideration of experimental results and are, therefore, of limited applicability. Figure 3 shows the variation of friction factor with Reynolds number based on the pipe diameter, and the distinction between those for laminar and turbulent flow. At high Reynolds number, the results become less certain as indicated by the two lines, but the graph is adequate for many design purposes. Consideration of the similar nature of the equations representing conservation of momentum and energy implies that the variation of Nusselt number will also be dependent upon Reynolds number, together with the Prandtl number where it is different from unity. An example of an expression describing the variation of Nusselt number with turbulent flow in a pipe is: As with Figure 3 and the friction factor and skin-friction coefficient, uncertainty increases at high Reynolds numbers and also in the transitional region where the difference between the results for laminar and turbulent flows are widely divergent. This may occur over a range of Reynolds numbers depending on the initial and boundary conditions. It should be noted that rough surfaces increase the values of skin-friction coefficient and Nusselt number. Related calculations can be made for noncircular ducts with an hydraulic diameter replacing the geometric diameter.

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2 What is Political Polarization? - Nolan McCarty Commentators use few words to describe the American political scene as frequently as they use the word “polarized.” But unfortunately, the terms polarized and polarization have taken on such a wide variety of meanings among journalists, politicians, and scholars that they often confuse, rather than clarify, the problems that our political system faces. So one of my main tasks in this volume is to be more precise in the terminology in hopes of better explaining contemporary American politics. The formal definition of polarization is derived from that of polarity, which is the “state of having two opposite or contradictory tendencies, opinions, and aspects.”1 There are usages of polarization that span almost all possible political “tendencies, opinions, and aspects.” The public has variously been described as polarized over cultural norms and practices, religion, attitudes toward subgroups, policy preferences, and partisan attachments. In some cases, the definition is stretched to encompass social and political divisions involving more than two groups—such as when polarization is used to describe conflicts among social, ethnic, and racial identities. This book, however, focuses on a much narrower set of definitions of polarization. I focus on those political phenomena where the public and its leaders have become increasingly divided. These areas include preferences over public policy, ideological orientations, and partisan attachments. The p. 9↵primary reason for this narrowing is that policy, ideological, and partisan polarization are those areas that have received far more attention from political and other social scientists and therefore have a set of arguments and findings that I believe “everyone needs to know.” Of course, there are links between cultural and social polarization that are important for understanding political polarization so I do not completely neglect these other forms of conflict. Let me unpack the various forms of polarization: policy, ideological, and partisan. I start with policy polarization. A simple definition of policy polarization is a process where extreme views on some matter of public policy have become more common over time. As an example, consider attitudes toward government policies related to abortion. To simplify the discussion, let’s assume that voters are asked to evaluate three distinct policies related to abortion access. Under policy 1, abortion is legal under all circumstances and is not restricted in any way. Under policy 2, abortion is legal in most circumstances but restricted in some others. Policy 3 holds that abortion is illegal under all circumstances. We would say that policy preferences over abortion were polarizing if support for the two most extreme policies (policies 1 and 3) were growing over time relative to the centrist policy 2. Thus, polarization is distinct from uniform movements of attitudes in either a pro- or anti-abortion direction. We would not say opinion is polarizing if support for policy 3 was increasing while support for policy 1 was decreasing. Another implication of this example concerns how we measure polarization. When policy preferences are very polarized, the two extreme attitudes will have more support than the middle one. In the terminology of statistics, the distribution of polarized opinion is bimodal, as there are two distinctive, most common answers. Alternatively, we say opinion is unpolarized or centrist if it is unimodal, in that the centrist policy 2 is the single most common position. Polarization may also be related to how much variation there is in policy positions. In statistical terms, the variance of opinions p. 10↵represents the typical deviation of individual opinions from the average (or mean) opinion. In a situation of low polarization, most voters choose the same policy position and so the statistical variance is low. In the extreme case, where voters are equally divided between policies 1 and 3, the variance is quite large. In addition to analyzing polarization on specific policies, political scientists often discuss it in terms of broader ideological differences among voters. For now, let us think of ideology as a general orientation to politics and governance. In the United States, we often imagine ideological orientations falling on a continuum from liberal positions to conservative ones and orient them so that they range from “left” to “right.”2 Conceptually, ideological polarization is similar to policy polarization. If most voters fall toward the ideological center, we’d say there is little ideological polarization. But to the extent to which liberal and conservative ideologies become more common relative to those of the center, we’d call that polarization. As before, we can identify polarization statistically by looking to see whether ideologies have become more bimodal or more variant in the population. Figure 2.1 may be helpful in understanding what political scientists mean by polarization. The figure shows two curves representing different distributions of ideological orientations. The solid line represents what we might call a centrist distribution of preferences. In this case, the most typical position is one of moderation. Extreme liberal or conservative views are quite rare. The dashed line, however, represents a more polarized distribution. It is clearly bimodal in that the most common positions are distinctly conservative or liberal. Now moderate views are relatively less likely and extreme liberal or conservative views are no longer rare. While these figures present polarization solely in terms of the distribution of ideological preferences, researchers often focus on how the positions of voters and politicians vary across political parties. Consequently, we can use partisan polarization p. 11↵to refer to situations where polarization is organized around parties. Most often, scholars use party polarization to describe situations where the policy and ideological differences between members of the Democratic and Republican parties have grown. However, as I soon discuss, this usage is controversial because it conflates two distinct trends about voters. Partisan ideological differences may grow either because there is ideological polarization between the liberals who tend to be Democrats and the conservatives who tend to be Republicans. Or partisan differences could increase without ideological polarization if there is a tendency over time for liberals to move into the Democratic party as conservatives move into the Republican party. These different trends and p. 12↵patterns have important implications for how we interpret the increased divergence of opinions across the parties and the likely consequences of those changes. 2.1. What is the difference between partisanship and polarization? The terms polarization and partisanship are often used interchangeably, but such usage often obscures important differences. As discussed earlier, polarization generally refers to differences on policy issues, ideological orientations, or value systems, while partisan polarization may refer to these differences across members of different parties. Partisanship, however, can be more general in that it may refer to any partiality one feels toward one’s own party regardless of whether polarized preferences and attitudes are the source. In recent years, many scholars have argued that the rise in partisan conflict is best thought of as a rise in general partisanship that is unrelated to rising ideological or policy polarization. Many explanations have been offered as to why high levels of partisanship can persist even without underlying polarization. With respect to Congress and political elites, Frances Lee argues that the intense competition for majority control of the US House and Senate induces high levels of intra-party competition and inter-party conflict, which she dubs “teamsmanship.”3 Given the importance of majority control in setting policy and allocating patronage, this instrumental form of partisanship has been an important feature of American politics throughout its history. But in the current era of partisan parity, it has become much more salient. Others have argued that partisanship at the mass level is less instrumental and is instead based on strong psychological attachments and social identification.4 From this perspective, the observed rise in political conflict in the United States is a reflection of the strengthening of “in-group” loyalties and “out-group” animosities. While partisan polarization might p. 13↵underpin these rising animosities, many scholars argue that differences on policy positions across the parties are caused by partisanship, as party loyalists adopt the positions favored by their own party.5 In chapter 4, I report on the research that has sought to explain the rising salience of partisanship and partisan identities. 2.2 What is the difference between mass and elite polarization? Any discussion of polarization, its sources, and its consequences should distinguish between elite and mass polarization. Social scientists use elite polarization to refer to divisions among office holders, party officials, policy intellectuals, and activists. Alternatively, mass polarization refers to that associated with normal voters and citizens. While most people assume that elite and mass polarization are closely related, that is often not the case. As long as the political elites are not perfectly representative of the electorate or not responsive to ordinary voters, we could observe increasing political conflicts among elites that are not mirrored in the broader public. The politics of abortion are a good example of this pattern. Elected politicians tend to take polarized views on the subject. Most Republican leaders have adopted a pro-life position that provides for abortions only in exceptional circumstances, such as when the life of the mother is in jeopardy.6 Many Democratic officeholders take the near-opposite position that there should not only be few if any restrictions on the practice but that abortion services for the poor should be supported by tax dollars. A plurality of voters reject these positions, however, preferring instead that abortion be available in most circumstances but accepting restrictions based on term. Support for public funding is low.7 While voters’ views on abortion correlate with their partisan identification, large numbers of Democratic voters are pro-life while many Republican voters are pro-choice.8 Alternatively, society could become quite divided, but an elite consensus could persevere. A good example of this might p. 14↵be the Vietnam War. Attitudes about the continued conflict in Vietnam became polarized in the public well before the bipartisan elite consensus in favor of US involvement broke down. By May 1967, the American public was evenly divided over the question of whether it was a “mistake” to send troops to Vietnam, but the leadership of both parties remained committed to the war until after the Tet Offensive in 1968.9 As I discuss in chapters 3 and 4, polarization of political elites and the masses began at very different times and have followed distinct trajectories. Specifically, the current era of elite polarization appears to have begun in the mid-to-late 1970s, while similar changes in the mass public do not emerge clearly until the 1990s. Given these differences, distinguishing between elite and mass polarization is crucial for understanding the underlying causes and the likely consequences. 2.3 What is partisan sorting and is it different from polarization? In discussions about polarization, it is often noted that Democratic and Republican voters have increasingly divergent opinions on many matters of public policy. For example, in a recent report, the Pew Research Center notes that the gap between Democrats and Republicans on the value of open immigration has grown markedly.10 Eighty-four percent of Democrats agreed that “immigrants strengthen the country with their hard work and talents,” whereas only 42% of Republicans shared this view. This 42-point gap grew from only a 2-point gap in 1994. There are two logical ways in which such a partisan gap in views on immigration can emerge. The first is voter polarization. It might be the case that partisans have increasingly taken the extreme positions. Democrats may have increasingly adopted very pro-immigrant positions while Republican voters have become much more anti-immigrant. These changes of voter attitudes lead to the large partisan gap on the question about the contributions of immigrants. p. 15↵But it is also possible that opinions about immigration have not polarized. Perhaps voters have just sorted into parties so that voters with pro-immigration attitudes now overwhelmingly identify as Democrats while immigration restrictionists have migrated into the Republican party. Such a pattern of party sorting can account for the increased differences across partisans even if the distribution of immigration attitudes in the population remains unchanged or moves uniformly in one direction or the other. In this case, it is clear that attitudes have shifted in a pro-immigration direction. Roughly 30% agreed that immigrants strengthened the country in 1994. In the 2017 survey, 65% did. So the most likely cause of the partisan gap is sorting. Partisan sorting can arise in two different ways. First, voters can choose parties based on their agreement with the party’s position on salient issues. In the immigration example, an anti-immigrant Democrat might recognize that the Republican party has increasingly adopted positions closer to her own, and therefore she decides to switch her party allegiance. I call this ideology-driven sorting. Since party switching is relatively rare,11 ideology-based sorting is probably most pronounced for new voters entering the electorate. A new anti-immigrant voter in 1994 may not have recognized an important difference between the parties on immigration, but one entering the electorate in 2017 clearly would. Those who see immigration as a sufficiently important issue might use these differences in deciding which party to support. The second mechanism is that partisans may decide to adopt the policy positions of their preferred party. So an anti-immigrant Democrat might alter her views about immigration to correspond to the dominant viewpoint of her party. The same might be true for pro-immigrant Republicans. This party-driven sorting mechanism is probably most pronounced in those cases where voters do not have strong views about immigration and are therefore susceptible to persuasion and social pressure from other partisans and party elites. To the extent p. 16↵party is an important social identity, many voters may simply decide that maintaining that identity requires supporting their party’s dominant view. Throughout the remainder of the book, I try to distinguish between conclusions related to voter polarization and those related to sorting. But in many cases, it is not clear which of the mechanisms is responsible for the diverging views of partisans. I describe such findings as partisan divergence, which of course can be caused by either polarization or sorting. 2.4. What is belief constraint and ideological consistency? Many scholars of public opinion are interested in another concept closely related to polarization. Ideological consistency is the propensity of a voter to have either all liberal, all moderate, or all conservative views. Since the seminal work of Philip Converse, this phenomenon is also called belief constraint, which Converse defines as “the success we would have in predicting, given initial knowledge that an individual holds a specified attitude, that he holds certain further ideas and attitudes.” For example, if we could predict a person’s position on tax cuts from her position on free trade or from that on gay rights, we’d say that those beliefs exhibit constraint and that the voter is ideologically consistent. While the concepts are distinct, increases in ideological consistency and belief constraint have manifestations that are similar to polarization and sorting. A consistent liberal is not only likely to have liberal views across the board but is also likely to only support liberal politicians and is therefore likely to join the Democratic party. They disagree strongly with consistent conservatives. However, if beliefs were less constrained and consistent, the typical voter might support liberal positions sometimes and conservative ones at others. She might be likely to split her votes between Democratic and Republican politicians. Moreover, pairs of opposed partisans are more likely to agree on at least some issues. p. 17↵ Chapter 4 reviews the evidence about the ideological consistency of voters and how it has changed over time. 2.5. Who is polarized—the public or the politicians? As I stressed earlier, it is important to distinguish between mass and elite polarization. This is true not only because they are distinct phenomena, but because the evidence points to a much weaker relationship between polarization at the two levels than many people presume. The academic consensus that political elites have polarized over the past forty years is quite strong and is bolstered by both qualitative and quantitative evidence. Noteworthy are qualitative accounts, which often combine historical research and participant observation.12 There are also several excellent histories of the intra-party battles among partisan elites that culminated in our polarized party system.13 As I explain in some detail in chapter 3, the starting point for many quantitative studies of polarization is the robust observation of rising partisan differences in roll-call voting behavior in Congress. The bipartisan coalitions of the 1950s and 1960s have given way to the party-line voting of the twenty-first century. Also discussed in chapter 3, similar patterns of elite polarization have been documented for state legislatures, the judiciary, and large campaign donors. Both the quantitative and qualitative evidence suggest that the late 1970s were a turning point. To be sure portents of the intra- and inter-party conflicts that led to polarization and sorting were in play much earlier, but the predominance of the liberal wing of the Democratic party and the conservative wing of the Republican party was not cemented until the late 1970s.14 The extent to which the mass public is polarized is a topic of somewhat more vigorous academic debate that is taken up in detail in chapter 4. Longitudinal studies of voter opinion generally do not provide much evidence of polarization or significant sorting until the 1990s.15 Consequently, it is hard to p. 18↵sustain claims that mass polarization is the primary cause of elite polarization given that elite polarization precedes it by about fifteen years. Yet it does not appear that the centrist, unsorted electorate placed too many constraints on the efforts of the parties to reorganize themselves along ideological lines. The comparison of the 1964 and 1980 presidential elections is instructive, if imperfect. In both cases, a very conservative Republican candidate challenged a Democratic president from the moderate wing of the party. In the first instance, Barry Goldwater lost forty-four states plus the District of Columbia. In the second, Ronald Reagan won forty-four states. While there are many differences in the context of the two elections, it seems clear that the electorate was far more tolerant of a conservative message in 1980, despite the apparent lack of polarized public opinion.16 The debates about the magnitude and timing of mass polarization focus on how to interpret the increased difference between Republican and Democratic voters in terms of general ideological orientations and specific policy preferences. One school of thought, led by Morris Fiorina, argues that these differences can be explained almost entirely by the ideological sorting of voters into the parties.17 Fiorina and his coauthors often point to the fact that most voters remain fairly moderate in their expressed policy positions.18 Moreover in studies that produce estimates of voter issue positions that are comparable to legislator positions, representatives are generally found to take positions that are considerably more extreme than those of their constituents.19 Since voters do not seem to increasingly take on extreme positions, the partisan differences are likely caused by sorting, with liberal voters aligning with the Democratic party and conservative voters aligning with the Republican party. This sorting interpretation has been challenged by Alan Abramowitz who observes that while many citizens are moderate, those most likely to participate in politics increasingly take extreme policy positions.20 The greater the level of p. 19↵engagement the more polarized are the preferences. Highly informed voters also appear to be polarized. While some moderate voters have chosen middle-of-the-road positions for substantive policy reasons, many others are uninformed, unengaged, or apathetic, checking off the middle position on surveys due to the lack of an opinion. Of course, at very high levels of voter engagement and sophistication, the lines between elite and mass begin to blur. Despite the lack of evidence that voter polarization causes elite polarization, it is clear that both voter sorting and the polarization of the engaged electorate can reinforce if not exacerbate elite party divisions. Even if voters are merely sorted into parties, the incentives for parties to take positions that appeal to supporters of the other party will diminish—leading to greater partisan polarization and greater incentives for voters to sort. 2.6. Why is polarization bad? Very few people use the word “polarization” to describe a healthy state of political affairs. It is almost always used as a near-synonym for dysfunctional conflict. But at the same time, we might imagine situations in which polarization were too low. If there is little polarization among the public, we might worry about the costs of conformity. Few citizens will challenge current practices and conventions, and there would be little impetus for social progress and reform. For example, the American electorate of the 1950s demonstrated a very high degree of consensus on the issues that were on the public agenda, but this consensus left issues related to the rights of African Americans, ethnic minorities, women, immigrants, and the LGBTQ community largely unaddressed. Polarization among political elites and the parties is also not unambiguously bad. Indeed, the consensus among political scientists is that democracy works best when parties provide the voters with distinct menus of policy positions. Some degree of polarization is necessary for political representation and p. 20↵accountability. When the parties do not take distinctive positions, voters lack a clear choice with regard to policy. Moreover, heterodox parties reduce the usefulness of partisan cues as to which candidates to support. But when parties are distinct and coherent, voters can better register their views through their vote. Additionally, when parties push different policies, voters know who to hold accountable when a policy approach fails. These arguments, known as Responsible Party Theory, were summed up nicely in the American Political Science Association’s report from its Committee on Political Parties in 1950: In a two-party system, when both parties are weakened or confused by internal divisions or ineffective organization it is the nation that suffers. When the parties are unable to reach and pursue responsible decisions, difficulties accumulate and cynicism about all democratic institutions grows. An effective party system requires, first, that the parties are able to bring forth programs to which they commit themselves and, second, that the parties possess sufficient internal cohesion to carry out these programs . . . On the other hand, . . . a coalition that cuts across party lines, as a regular thing, tends to deprive the public of a meaningful alternative. When such coalitions are formed after the elections are over, the public usually finds it difficult to understand the new situation and to reconcile it with the purpose of the ballot. Moreover, on that basis it is next to impossible to hold either party responsible for its political record. This is a serious source of public discontent. 21 In sum, without some differentiation of the political parties, it would be almost impossible for the typical voter to have any influence over the direction of public policy. But as I discuss in chapter 7, there is considerable evidence that the level of polarization among the elites and the public is well to the warm side of the Goldilocks point. Polarization has become a catch-all word used to describe almost any form of political conflict and disagreement. But understanding the causes of political dissensus requires distinguishing polarization from many other sources of partisan conflict. While partisanship, partisan sorting, and ideological consistency may be closely related to polarization, it is important to identify them as distinct phenomena. For example, the extent to which conflict reflects polarization or sorting has implications for the extent to which conflict is bottom-up from the voters or top-down from the elites. It is equally important to consider who is polarized—elites and elected officials or regular ordinary voters. It is entirely possible that one group but not the other is polarized. The question of the extent to which elites are polarized is taken up in the next chapter, while voter polarization is considered in chapter 4. Finally, it is important to remember that polarization is not always a bad thing. If the parties did not offer distinctive public policy positions, voters could hardly be in a position to influence public policy through their votes. We might also be wary of those calls to reduce polarization in the public that would involve repressing certain viewpoints. To riff on Madison in Federalist 10, there are two methods of removing the causes of polarization: the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests. Clearly, the first is worse than the disease, and the second is unlikely to happen given the diversity of American public life. But unfortunately, as I discuss in chapter 7, Madison’s constitution may not provide the needed relief in controlling polarization’s effects.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Facial hair in the military has been at various times common, prohibited, or an integral part of the uniform. Military mustache styles. In the armed forces and police of India, male Sikh servicemen are allowed to wear full beards as their religion expressly requires followers to do so. However, they are specifically required to "dress up their hair and beard properly". In fact, in Sikh-only units such as the Indian Army 's Sikh Regiment and Sikh Light Infantry there have been instances of personnel being transferred out of the unit by their commanding officer for their refusal to wear a beard and grow their hair out as required by the Sikh religion, although no official regulation exists on this. Non-Sikh personnel are allowed to grow whiskers and moustaches, with the only regulation being that "will be of moderate length". In December 2003, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Muslims in uniform can grow beards. Thus, non-Muslims and non-Sikhs serving in the Indian Army or the Indian Air Force are not permitted to wear beards. However, Army personnel on active duty are sometimes exempt from facial hair regulations for the duration of their tour of duty if their deployment makes access to such facilities difficult. Indian Navy personnel are allowed to grow beards subject to the permission of their commanding officer. Exceptions for other religions are made in the case of special forces operatives like the Indian Air Force Pilots, Indian army's Para (Special Forces) soldiers and the navy's MARCOS commandos who are allowed to grow beards. Beards to a certain length were traditionally permitted in the Iraqi security forces, however a ban was brought into effect in April 2012 due to public associations between beards and certain sectarian militias in Iraq. As a result of the change Iraqi soldiers and police must now be clean shaven. Under the rule of Saddam Hussein, beards were not allowed in the army and in military service, only a mustache. Hussein did not allow any one to grow a beard under his rule. The IDF prohibits the growing of facial hair unless a special request form has been filed and approved. The requests can be for religious reasons (full beard only), health reasons such as acne (no restrictions on facial hair styles), and on the grounds of "free will", which means the facial hair (mustache, a goatee or a full beard all of which must be well groomed) has to be part of the soldiers identity and part of his self-esteem. If the request is due to health reasons, it must be approved by the military doctor and lasts up to half a year. if the request is due to religious reasons or "free will", it must be approved by an officer at the rank of Major, that is acquainted with the soldier, for religious requests the form must be approved additional by a military Rabbi, who usually conducts an interview, and finally by an Adjutant officer. The exemption from shaving expires only if the soldier shaves his facial hair willingly. Beards are not allowed in the Lebanese Armed Forces. Only trimmed moustaches that don't pass the upper lip are permitted. Beards are permitted in Pakistan Army. They are allowed only on special request is approved. The requests are generally for religious reasons or for health reasons, such as acne or skin allergy. Once the form has been approved applicant is not allowed to shave back. There is a special allowance for bigger moustaches but they must be neat and trimmed. Currently, moustaches and beards are not within regulations in the Nepal Army. In the past, moustaches was popular in the Gorkhali Army commanders and soldiers. Military commanders of Kshatriya order (called Kshetri in Nepal) especially of five Kaji noble family Thapa, Pande, Kunwar, Basnet and Bista used to linked moustaches to dignity. However, with changing times, it became apparent that facial hair can break seals on gas masks, and thus a liability. Thus regulations do not allow for facial hair. Despite this, many soldiers can still be spotted with facial hair, especially when stationed in remote areas, away from the eyes of the press, and if their unit commanders are willing to look the other way. Moustaches, but not beards, are permitted in the Singapore Army. If a moustache is kept, it has to be kept neatly trimmed and of moderate length. Exception for beards are allowed for those in the Sikh faith. The Navy does not allow moustaches alone, but does allow full-set beards. Moustaches but not beards are permitted in the Army and Air Force. However, members of the Commando and Special Forces regiments are allowed to wear beards if based outside their home camps. Beards are not allowed in the Syrian Army. Trimmed moustaches, however, are allowed. The Belgian Armed Forces permits moustaches and beards, but they have to be properly trimmed. The Austrian Armed Forces permits moustaches, beards and sideburns, as long as they are neatly trimmed. The Republic of Croatia Armed Forces permits moustaches for soldiers and non-commissioned officers. Officers are allowed to wear neatly trimmed beards. Furthermore, beards are not only allowed, but fully recommended for members of special operations teams when deployed. The Army of the Czech Republic permits moustaches, sideburns or neat full beard of a natural colour. A moustache has to be trimmed so it would not exceed the lower margin of the upper lip. Sideburns may not reach under the middle of each auricle. Hairs of sideburns and goatee may not exceed 2 cm (0,787 inch) in length. Danish Army personnel are generally allowed to wear any well-kept beard. Stubble, however, is not allowed. Full beards are popular among units deployed in Afghanistan, as it is easier to maintain when in the field. This also helps break down cultural barriers between the Danish and the Afghans, as most Afghan men wear full beards, and because many Danes grow red-coloured beards, an Afghan symbol of bravery. Soldiers who belong to Den Kongelige Livgarde (The Royal Life Guards) are not allowed to have beards when on guard duty. Additionally, Danish soldiers are not required to have short haircuts, though most have. The regulations of the Finnish Defence Forces (Rule 91) prohibit the growing of a moustache, a beard or long hair. Reservists can grow moustache, beard or long hair. Men's mustache and beard styles Since the Napoleonic era and throughout the 19th century, sappers (combat engineers) of the French Army could wear full beards. Elite troops, such as grenadiers, had to wear large moustaches. Infantry chasseurs were asked to wear moustaches and goatees ; and hussars, in addition to their moustache, usually wore two braids in front of each ear, to protect their neck from sword slashes. These traditions were gradually abandoned since the beginning of the 20th century, except for the French Foreign Legion sappers (see below). The "decree № 75-675 regarding regulations for general discipline in the Armies of 28 July 1975, modified" regulates facial hair in the French armed forces. Military personnel are allowed to grow a beard or moustache only during periods when they are out of uniform. The beard must be "correctly trimmed", and provisions are stated for a possible ban of beards by the military authorities to ensure compatibility with certain equipment. However, within the Foreign Legion, sappers are traditionally encouraged to grow a large beard. Sappers chosen to participate in the Bastille Day parade are in fact specifically asked to stop shaving so they will have a full beard when they march down the Champs-Élysées. The moustache was an obligation for gendarmes until 1933. By tradition, some gendarmes may still grow a moustache. Submariners may be bearded, clean-shaven, or "patrol-bearded", growing a beard for the time of a patrol in reminiscence of the time of the diesel submarines whose cramped space allowed for rustic and minimal personal care. French soldiers of the First World War were known by the nickname poilu, meaning "hairy one" in reference to their facial hair. In the Third Reich -era Wehrmacht , facial hair beyond a small neatly trimmed moustache was against regulations, though such regulations were often relaxed under field conditions. The latter was particularly true in the case of the Kriegsmarine and Gebirgsjäger . Growth of a full beard was the norm for U-boat crews on active duty, though facial hair was expected to be shaved off soon after reaching port. The present-day regulations of the Bundeswehr allow soldiers to grow a beard on condition that it be not long, unobtrusive and well-kept. Beards must not impact the proper use of any military equipment, such as a gas mask. Moreover, stubble may not be shown; thus a clean-shaven soldier who wants to start growing a beard must do so during his furlough. In the Greek armed forces, only the navy permits military personnel to wear a beard. Neatly trimmed moustaches are the only facial hair permitted in the army and air force. The growing of beards is not permitted in any branch of the Irish Defence Forces with exception of the Army Ranger Wing. Moustaches are permitted with permission. Sideburns are not allowed beyond ear length. The Irish police force similarly does not allow any uniformed members to grow beards, but does allow moustaches on the upper lip and ear length sideburns. In the Italian armed forces, beards or moustaches are allowed, but well taken care of it; without beards, the sideburns should reach the middle of the tragus. In the various branches of the police, same specific law is in force. Stubble is permitted outside of ceremonial occasions. In the Royal Netherlands Army, officers and soldiers may only grow beards after permission has been obtained. As in many other armies, automatic permission is given for certain medical conditions. Mustaches may be grown without asking permission. Beards are worn at times by the Royal Netherlands Marines and by Royal Netherlands Navy personnel. All facial hair in the Netherlands armed forces is subject to instant removal when operational circumstances demand it. Recent operations in Afghanistan under the ISAF have seen a trend of growing "tour beards", both for bonding and as a way of advancing contacts with the Afghan population, who regard a full beard as a sign of manhood. A beard without a mustache is uncommon in the Netherlands. The Royal Guard is required to be clean-shaven. Most operative personnel are not allowed to wear beards (so as not to interfere with gas masks) unless: The soldier obtains express permission to grow his beard from a high-ranking officer. The soldier already has a beard upon his enlistment and requests to continue growing it or maintain it at its present length. Although, in the enduring operations in Afghanistan, many soldiers have grown full beards Traditionally, Russian soldiers of Russian Tsardom wore beards, but during the reign of Peter the Great they were completely banned in the army and even for civilians, except members of the clergy. Peter did however make moustaches a requirement for every soldier excluding officers, and all of the Russian infantry of the imperial reign could be seen sporting them, often growing beyond the upper-lip. Although the typical image of the imperial Russian soldier shown him with a beard, they were not universally permitted until 1895. Cavalrymen also met these requirements. Officers and staff on the other hand grew whatever hair they wished, and generally kept with the fashion of the time. The Spanish Armed Forces allow facial hair, under article 40 of the Royal Ordinances. Dress and grooming standards for Spanish ISAF forces have been relaxed to help the troops blend in better with the local Muslim population. In the Serbian Armed Forces neatly trimmed mustaches are the only facial hair permitted, remaining of the face must be cleanly shaved in every occasion except when legitimate reasons prevent it (e.g. winter field operations, war operations), but soldiers do have to shave the first chance that situation permits. Priests of any denomination are allowed to have beards if their religion requires it, but it still has to be trimmed and well groomed. The regulations require personnel to be "well shaved" (välrakad). Within the Royal Guard (Högvakten), the royal companies (Livkomp) and other personnel performing ceremonial duties, temporary or on a regular basis, the regulations are strictly enforced. Within other units, beards tend to be allowed under the discretion of the company commander (or other higher ranking commander). The general provisions of well-managed appearance is enforced also when it comes to beards. Soldiers are however by practice allowed to grow beards during service abroad, for example in Afghanistan. The motivation for the regulation prohibiting beard is that it interferes with the gas-mask and makes it difficult to achieve a perfect air-tight fit. Shorter beard and gun grease or ointment is one remedy but will increase the time for the application of the gas-mask which in turn will put bearded personnel at increased risk of exposure. All Turkish Armed Forces personnel are required to be clean-shaven at all times. Ukrainian Cossacks traditionally have a distinctive facial hair style - long "cossack" moustache was very popular across Ukraine during Middle Ages until modern times. The tradition allegedly dates back at least to the times of prince of Kyevan Rus' Sviatoslav I of Kiev famous for his military campaigns in the east and south. Sviatoslav had distinctive moustache and hair style ( oseledets or chupryna ) that almost every Ukrainian cossack had centuries after his times (although Svyatoslav had lived in 10th century, while Cossacks appear on the historical scene only since the 15th century). The length of the cossack moustache was important - the longer the better. Sometimes one had to tuck them away behind one's ears. Some cossacks were wearing beards as well, but this type of facial hair was not very popular in Ukraine in general and in Ukraine's military in particular. Until the mid-19th century, facial hair was unusual in the British Army, except for the infantry pioneers, who traditionally grew beards. A small minority of officers wore moustaches. During the 1800s, the attitude to facial hair changed as a result of the Indian and Asian Wars. Many Middle Eastern and Indian cultures associated facial hair with wisdom and power. As a result, facial hair, moustaches and side whiskers in particular, became increasingly common on British soldiers stationed in Asia. In the mid-19th century, during the Crimean War, all ranks were encouraged to grow large moustaches, and full beards during winter. After the Crimean war, regulations were introduced that prevented serving soldiers of all ranks from shaving above their top lip, in essence making moustaches compulsory for those who could grow them, although beards were later forbidden. This remained in place until 1916, when the regulation was abolished by an Army Order dated 6 October 1916. It was issued by Nevil Macready, Adjutant-General to the Forces, who loathed his own moustache and immediately shaved it off. However, there is considerable evidence in photographs and film footage that the earlier regulations were widely ignored and that many British soldiers of all ranks were clean-shaven even before 1916. This was often because the penalty for not growing a moustache was rarely enforced, as it wouldn't hold in military court for court-martialling. Since that time, the British Army, Royal Air Force, and Royal Marines have allowed moustaches and connected side whiskers only. Exceptions are beards grown for medical reasons, such as temporary skin irritations, or for religious reasons (usually by Sikhs or Muslims ), although in the event of conflict in which the use of chemical or biological weapons is likely, they may be required to shave a strip around the seal of a respirator. Infantry pioneer warrant officers, colour sergeants and sergeants also traditionally wear and are permitted to wear beards; although not compulsory, most do wear them. In some Scottish infantry regiments, it is either permitted or expected, by regimental tradition, for the drum major, pipe major, and/or commanding officer's piper to wear a beard. As with the Royal Navy, all beards worn by soldiers must be a "full set". Beards are also permitted to special forces when on covert intelligence operations or behind enemy lines. More recently, the British Army has been seen sporting a full range of stubble, moustaches and beards in Afghanistan in an effort to blend in with the generally bearded Afghan men, for whom a beard is seen as a sign of virility and authority. The Royal Navy has always allowed beards, but never moustaches alone, and since at least the early 20th century has permitted its members to wear only a "full set" (i.e. a full beard and moustache). A beard or moustache may not be worn without the other and the beard must be full (i.e. cover the whole jawline) and joined to the moustache. If, after a period without shaving, it becomes clear that the individual cannot grow a proper full set, his commanding officer may order him to shave it off. Any style of facial hair is allowed to British police officers, as long as it is neatly trimmed. Beards and sideburns are not permitted by the regular Mexican military, without exception. Soldiers at any rank must be clean-shaven and short haired. Beards and sideburns are banned in all military and police forces since the early 20th century. A clean-shaved face is considered part of a spirit of order, hygiene and discipline. Stubble is also considered unacceptable and controlled with severity. Well-trimmed moustaches are allowed in most of these branches, although in some cases this is a privilege of officers and sub-officers, and it's not allowed to be grown while on duty. Before the end of 20th century, the Navy became a singularity within the Argentine Armed Forces as Adm. Joaquín Stella, then Navy Chief of Staff allowed beards in 2000 for officers with ranks above Teniente de Corbeta (Ensign), according to Section 22.214.171.124 of the Navy Uniform regulations (R.A-1-001). Adm. Stella gave the example himself by becoming the first bearded Argentine admiral since Adm. Sáenz Valiente in the 1920s. Non commissioned officers can wear beards from Suboficial Segundo (Petty Officer) rank, and upwards. Protocol still requires officers to appear clean-shaved on duty, thus forcing those who choose to sport beards to grow them while on leave. Both full beards and goatees are allowed, as long as they proffer a professional, non-eccentric image. Nowadays, bearded Argentine naval and marine officers and senior NCO's are a relatively common sight. The Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy and Brazilian Air Force permit moustaches, as long as they are trimmed to just above the upper lip. Recruits, however, may not wear moustaches. Beards are generally not allowed except for special exceptions, such as covering a deformity. In such cases, a beard is permitted under authorization. Effective 25 September 2018, the wearing of a beard is authorized for all CAF members upon attainment of their operationally functional point (OPP) or having completed developmental period one, whichever comes last. However, Commanders of Commands, Task Force Commanders and Commanding Officers retain the right to order restrictions on the wearing of a beard to meet safety and operational requirements. This includes restrictions pertaining to operations and training where, in a chemical biological radiological nuclear (CBRN) environment or CBRN training environment, a beard can be ordered to be removed to ensure force protection on operations or training. Such restrictions will be as temporary as feasible (E.G. as long as the entire duration of an operational tour in a CBRN environment or as short as a single training day for CBRN operations). Where current CAF equipment capabilities cannot ensure force protection or the ability to effectively employ safety systems while wearing a beard, beard restrictions for members using that equipment for operational or safety reasons may be put in place by a Commanding Officer. In no case is a beard permitted without a moustache, and only full beards may be worn (not goatees, van dykes, etc.) Beards are also allowed to be worn by personnel conducting OPFOR duties. Only after the rank of captain, officers are allowed to wear a well trimmed moustache that doesn't grow over the upper lip. Beards and sideburns are not allowed. Mustache shape up Excluding limited exemptions for religious accommodation, the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps have policies that prohibit beards on the basis of hygiene and the necessity of a good seal for chemical weapon protective masks. The official position is that uniform personal appearance and grooming contribute to discipline and a sense of camaraderie. All branches of the U.S. Military currently prohibit beards for a vast majority of recruits, although some mustaches are still allowed, based on policies that were initiated during the period of World War I. On 10 November 1970, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Elmo Zumwalt explicitly authorized beards for active duty Naval personnel, in his Z-gram number 57, "Elimination of Demeaning or Abrasive Regulation," although his position was that they were already implicitly allowed based on policy changes made by his predecessor, Thomas H. Moorer: 1. Those demeaning or abrasive regulations generally referred to in the fleet as "Mickey Mouse" or "Chicken" regs have, in my judgment, done almost as much to cause dissatisfaction among our personnel as have extended family separation and low pay scales. I desire to eliminate many of the most abrasive policies, standardize others which are inconsistently enforced, and provide some general guidance which reflects my conviction that if we are to place the importance and responsibility of "the person" in proper perspective in the more efficient Navy we are seeking, the worth and personal dignity of the individual must be forcefully reaffirmed. The policy changes below are effective immediately and will be amplified by more detailed implementing directives to be issued separately. 2. It appears that my predecessor's guidance in May on the subject of haircuts, beards and sideburns is insufficiently understood and, for this reason, I want to restate what I believed to be explicit: in the case of haircuts, sideburns, and contemporary clothing styles, my view is that we must learn to adapt to changing fashions. I will not countenance the rights or privileges of any officers or enlisted men being abrogated in any way because they choose to grow sideburns or neatly trimmed beards or moustaches or because preferences in neat clothing styles are at variance with the taste of their seniors, nor will I countenance any personnel being in any way penalized during the time they are growing beards, moustaches, or sideburns. The Navy ban on beards on Naval installations and operational vessels, including its submarine fleet, was reinstated in 1984 by CNO James D. Watkins. However, this rule is generally ignored on board deployed submarines at the Captain's discretion. The U.S. Coast Guard allowed beards until 1986, when they were banned by Commandant Admiral Paul Yost. The majority of police forces in the United States still ban their officers from wearing beards. Mustaches are generally allowed in both the military and police forces (except for those undergoing basic training), so long as they are well-groomed. U.S. Army regulations, for example, require that a mustaches be "neatly trimmed, tapered, and tidy", and that "no portion of the mustache will cover the upper lip line, extend sideways beyond a vertical line drawn upward from the corners of the extend above a parallel line at the lowest portion of the nose." Those with skin conditions such as pseudofolliculitis barbae or severe acne are allowed to maintain short facial hair with the permission of a doctor or medic, but no shaping is allowed, only trimming with an electric razor, or approved regular razor. 1/8 - 1/4 of an inch (3.2 mm) is usually the standard for this condition. Additionally, for almost a decade, ending with a "deauthorization" order that took effect on 7 September 2010, many Special Forces members in Afghanistan were allowed to wear beards. Exceptions for religious accommodation In 2010, the U.S. Army granted waivers for a number of Sikh soldiers and one Muslim soldier, permitting them to have beards (and in the case of the Sikh soldiers, to have "unshorn" hair covered by turbans). In 2010, a rabbi filed suit against the Army for permission to be commissioned as a Jewish chaplain without shaving his beard, noting (among other issues) that another Jewish Chaplain, Colonel Jacob Goldstein, has been serving (first in the New York State National Guard and later in the United States Army Reserve ) since 1977 with a beard. Effective 22 January 2014, the US military expanded its policies on religious accommodation and allowed all officer and enlisted personnel to request permission to wear beards and articles of clothing for religious reasons. Beards are normally not allowed in the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force, however, neatly trimmed moustaches and sideburns are allowed. Regulations apply, however. The moustache can not be grown past the top lip. The sideburns are not to be past the point where the bottom of the ear connects to the facial skin. In some circumstances though, such as medical or religious reasons beards may be permitted. Exceptions to this rule however are assault pioneers and special forces in Afghanistan. In the Royal Australian Navy, members may grow a beard but only with approval from their commanding officer. The beard must be complete, joined from sideburns, covering the chin and joining the moustache. A moustache on its own is not permitted. Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.

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(The Five Solas of the Reformation) (watch the video) by Bob Burridge ©2014 Faith is the only thing we are called upon to exercise in being restored to fellowship with God. The grace of God uses faith as its means when it works in the heart. God implants a trust that rests in his promises and love. By that faith our otherwise unworthy hearts lay hold of Christ’s work of redemption. Paul summarized this in Ephesians 2:8-9. “For by grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God, not of works, lest anyone should boast.” Grace is the cause and Faith is the means by which the atonement of Christ is applied for our Justification. People often talk about faith in a way totally alien to what it means in God’s word. People talk about faith in the economy, faith in political promises made during an election cycle, or a faith that hopes everything is going to work out somehow. They dismissively say, “Just have faith.” Faith is often understood as a hope in things totally irrational and contrary to reason. Even if they know something isn’t true, faith becomes the self-deceiving attitude that believes it anyway. There’s a mechanism built into our minds that at some point resolves that certain ideas will be trusted and acted upon as being true. There is a broad sense in which that may be called faith. A study of the words translated as “faith” in the Bible is helpful. The Hebrew word used in the Old Testament for faith is aman (אמן). The root-meaning of the verb is “to confirm”, “to support”. In the Niphil form it means “to be made firm or sure, established, verified” which in the moral sense is “to be reliable, trustworthy”. In the Hiphil form it means “to regard as firm or trustworthy, to place trust in, or to have confidence in”. The Noun form is emunah (אמונה) which means “firmness, steadfastness, fidelity, or faithfulness” (as in Habakkuk 2:4). In the New Testament the Greek Noun for faith is pistis (πιστις): “trust, reliability, faithfulness, promise, confidence”. In its basic Verb form, pisteuo (πιστευϖ), it means “to believe, to trust, or to entrust something to someone”. These were common words used in every day conversation in reference to putting trust in something. They did not always make reference to religious matters. When we trust in something, our confidence is based upon some type of information. In this broad sense we can speak of “faith” in three ways: 1. There is a purely rationalistic faith It is based upon information that comes to us through our natural senses. It is stored in memory where it can be recalled. It can then be used in making decisions, and drawing conclusions about situations and questions we face. When we use this information we first evaluate how trustworthy each piece of information is. To make that decision there are some assumptions we accept. We assume that the source of our information is reliable, that the rules of reason we are using are sound, and that we are not being influenced by conclusions we have reached which may not have been soundly reasoned out. As we make decisions and draw conclusions we assume that the information we have is sufficiently complete, and that all possible alternative explanations without exception have been identified and ruled out. The soundness of our conclusions depends upon the truthfulness of our information and how we make use of it. a. One kind of rationalistic faith is a scientific faith. It draws general conclusions from our experiences, then applies the generalizations to specific cases. For example we decide to sit in a chair trusting that it is dependable based upon our past experiences with chairs. That is a perfectly normal way in which we put our trust in things in the physical world around us. Since spiritual issues do not come to us by physical observations and measurements, they cannot be evaluated by a purely naturalistic scientific method. When the Bible and the Gospel are evaluated this way, decisions may be drawn about what we discover there, but this is not a Saving Faith. b. A testimonial faith This is when we trust something to be true because other people tell us that it is true. We might try a new brand of toothpaste because of claims made by ads or by friends. We might accept medicines because of a Doctor’s advice even though we don’t know how they actually work. c. An historical faith This is a trust in something to be reliable and true based upon past records, and surviving material evidence. d. A miraculous faith This faith believes that things have happened which must have been supernatural. It remains a rational process because it simply adds those events it sees as miracles to the pool of information from which they reason. Belief that Jesus could heal the sick and control nature does not necessarily include a trust that he was the true Christ, God the Eternal Son, and the Redeemer. They merely assent to observed or recorded facts. Those with a “miraculous faith” may even believe that they could personally benefit from miracles performed by God. That is not a saving faith. 2. There is a purely irrationalistic faith. This approach has no interest in determining the absolute reliability of something. Evidence is not expected, and often the search for it is looked down upon. It chooses simply to hope in what appeals to the person’s present feelings and disposition. This faith is sometimes spoken of by the imagery of taking “a blind leap into the dark.” Absolute truth is seen as neither an attainable nor a necessary thing. What is perceived in the mind of the person becomes his reality and truth at that time. Some say they trust in Jesus Christ, but believe that he might not be God, or have really risen from the tomb. They believe in him as a good teacher or inspiring example, perhaps even as a miracle worker. They believe the Bible, but not as an inerrant book. This faith, though “religious” is not a Saving Faith. All these ways by which people come to trust in things are most fundamentally contrary to the faith God says justifies us through Christ. 3. There is also a saving faith. This is a confidence implanted supernaturally by the Holy Spirit into the souls of the elect in their regeneration. This faith receives as true and reliable whatever the person learns God has said and done. This faith is first evidenced in a person when he confidently rests upon the atonement of Christ for salvation. There are then, two ways to speak of saving faith. It is both the faculty implanted into the soul by grace that enables it to trust what God makes known, and it is the exercise of that faculty to trust in the revealed truths received from God. John Calvin summarizes many of these ideas in his definition of saving faith (Institutes 3:II:7), “(Faith is) … a firm and sure knowledge of the divine favor toward us, founded on the truth of a free promise in Christ, and revealed to our minds and sealed on our hearts by the Holy Spirit.” People commonly call it “faith” whenever anyone decides something is reliable without objective evidence. But saving faith is not common to the human nature in all its states. The fallen soul has no ability to perceive as true or to embrace what God has made known about the universally fallen human condition and the provision of Christ for salvation. (Note Romans 3:11, 1 Corinthians 2:14, and John 6:44.) Saving faith is rational, but is not limited to information obtained by our senses and personal reasoning. Saving faith is not irrational because it affirms that truth is a real objective quality because it expresses things as God sees them and has revealed them to regenerated hearts through the ministry of his word. Saving faith is not present in all people. Human-centered theology denies that sin limits our ability to perceive and to believe what we experience. It denies that saving faith is a supernatural gift. It holds to the idea that all faith is either a rational choice based upon gathered sensory information, or it is an irrational leap in the dark. The Bible presents faith as neither of these. It is a supernatural gift of God’s grace whereby we are convinced of the reliability of God and his promises. Paul’s prayer for the persecuted Thessalonians is found in 2 Thessalonians 3:2, “and that we may be delivered from unreasonable and wicked men; for not all have faith.” Paul had just referred to faith as a gift of grace (2 Thessalonians 2:13). This same idea is clearly expressed in Philippians 1:29. The Elements of Saving Faith Reformed theologians have divided saving faith into various elements. 1. Some divide saving faith into two parts. A. A. Hodge calls them assent and trust. By assent he means giving intellectual recognition to what the Scriptures reveal about the person, offices, and work of Christ. By trust he means implicit reliance upon Christ, and Christ alone, for salvation. This saving faith, according to A. A. Hodge, is an act of the whole man, his intellect, affections, and will. The Heidelberg Catechism, in question 21, also divides what it calls true faith into two elements. They are a certain knowledge by which all that God reveals is received as truth, and a personal hearty trust in the promises of the gospel concerning forgiveness of sin, everlasting righteousness, and salvation by mere grace for the sake of Christ’s merits. 2. Some divide saving faith into three elements. They are: knowledge (notitia), assent (assensus), and volition (fiducia). a. Knowledge is the learned information available to be trusted. Faith must be “in” something. Trust cannot be exercised without an object. In Saving Faith, the object is the learned information God reveals in his word preserved in Scripture about his work of redemption through Christ. To provide this knowledge, the content of the gospel must be presented to the unbeliever in the process of evangelism. The teachings of the Bible must be explained to believers in the process of their sanctification. b. Assent is agreement that what God has revealed as true. The contents of God’s word should not just be known as facts. There must be an accepting that the facts are true just as God revealed them. c. Volition is a decision to personally trust and appropriate the truths of the gospel. It is the act that embraces Christ as Savior and therefore as Lord. Louis Berkhof wrote that this includes, “.. a surrender of the soul as guilty and defiled to Christ, and a reception and appropriation of Christ.” (Systematic Theology pg. 505). Berkhof adds, “the seat of (saving) faith cannot be placed in the intellect, nor in the feelings, nor in the will exclusively, but only in the heart, the central organ of man’s spiritual being, out of which are the issues of life.” A helpful example is given by James. James 2:19, “You believe that there is one God. You do well. Even the demons believe — and tremble!” The word for “believing” in that verse is the same word translated as “faith” [pisteuo (πιστευϖ)]. The demons know the fact that there is one God. They may even assent to the truth of what God says. It may make them tremble when considering the truth of it. They have knowledge, and assent, but they do not appropriate it. They cannot submit to it personally. Without the element of volition enabled by grace, faith in Christ is not Saving Faith. Some misunderstand Hebrews 11:1. The first verse of Hebrews chapter 11 is often understood to be an exhaustive definition of faith. Hebrews 11:1 says, “Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.” When read outside of its context some assume that it’s saying that faith is irrational, that it’s not based upon facts. have fun — A close examination of that verse shows that this is not the case. It is a practical definition, not a strict definition of what the word “faith” means. This verse is explaining what a true faith accomplishes in us. Hope is not the foundation of faith. It’s saying the opposite. Faith is what gives our hope substance. It’s not unseeable things that are the evidence of faith. Faith is the evidence provided for those things which we cannot see. The verse begins with the word “Now.” This connects back to the previous chapter. In Hebrews 10:38 the writer quotes from the prophet Habakkuk. The verse quoted is Habakkuk 2:4, “The just shall live by faith.” The prophet had learned that instead of questioning God when troublesome things occur, we should live by faithfully trusting in his promises. In Habakkuk, the word translated “faith” is the Hebrew word emunah (אמוּנה), which most accurately means “faithfulness.” Literally the Habakkuk passage could be translated, “The righteous will live through his faithfulness.” Those justified by God’s grace will live by faithfully trusting in God’s provisions and promises, not by trusting in his own understanding or perception of things. The first part means that faith is “the confident reality of things hoped for”. True faith gives us confidence in the reality of the things God has promised. It applies God’s words to us personally. When the Holy Spirit implants this saving faith, we realize the value of the promises of God to his children. This produces a great expectation, a true hope. God will not go back on his word. He cannot lie. The second part means that faith is “the establishing of things not seen”. There are things we cannot take into the science lab, things we cannot see, touch, or measure. The rationalistic method is not able to establish spiritual facts. Saving faith convinces us to accept and to trust God’s word simply because we know God said it. This inward evidence is more assuring than all the scientific demonstrations we may observe. It comes from the work of the Creator upon the heart of his creatures. This text rules out the false meanings of faith. We are left with what God says about it. It is that firm conviction which comes from the Holy Spirit. It assures us that God has spoken clearly with written promises we can count on, and by which we can live. Saving Faith is a Work of the Holy Spirit. Since the unredeemed are able neither to discern spiritual truth, nor to seek after the true God (Romans 3:11, 1 Corinthians 2:14, 2 Corinthians 4:4), saving faith must be implanted into the unworthy by a supernatural act of the Triune God. The gift of saving faith originates in God’s eternal decree judicially based upon the work of Jesus Christ as Redeemer. This is why it is called a grace exercised toward the elect. Acts 13:48, “Now when the Gentiles heard this, they were glad and glorified the word of the Lord. And as many as had been appointed to eternal life believed.” 2 Corinthians 4:6, “For it is the God who commanded light to shine out of darkness, who has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ.” Ephesians 2:8, “For by grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God” Ephesians 1:17-18, “that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give to you the spirit of wisdom and revelation in the knowledge of Him, the eyes of your understanding being enlightened; that you may know what is the hope of His calling, what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints” The application of the faculty of faith is attributed particularly to the work of the Holy Spirit. It is listed among the fruit of the Spirit in Galatians 5:22. Note also the following texts: 1 Corinthians 12:3, “Therefore I make known to you that no one speaking by the Spirit of God calls Jesus accursed, and no one can say that Jesus is Lord except by the Holy Spirit.” John 6:44-45, “No one can come to Me unless the Father who sent Me draws him; and I will raise him up at the last day. It is written in the prophets, ‘And they shall all be taught by God.’ Therefore everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to Me.” The faculty of faith is ordinarily established by the instrumentality of the inspired word, and is directed toward the promises revealed in Scripture as the Spirit works. We desire to see faith evidenced in others as we declare the word of God to them, and pray for the work of the Spirit upon their dead hearts to grant life through the atonement of Christ. Romans 10:13-17, “For ‘whoever calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved.’ How then shall they call on Him in whom they have not believed? And how shall they believe in Him of whom they have not heard? And how shall they hear without a preacher? And how shall they preach unless they are sent? As it is written: ‘How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the gospel of peace, Who bring glad tidings of good things!’ But they have not all obeyed the gospel. For Isaiah says, ‘LORD, who has believed our report?’ So then faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God.” The Work of Faith The Scriptures repeatedly speak of our being justified and saved from the wrath of God by means of this implanted faith. It is the single condition stated regarding the salvation of the believer. Acts 10:43, “To Him all the prophets witness that, through His name, whoever believes in Him will receive remission of sins.” Romans 3:22-25, “even the righteousness of God, through faith in Jesus Christ, to all and on all who believe. For there is no difference; for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified freely by His grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God set forth as a propitiation by His blood, through faith, to demonstrate His righteousness, because in His forbearance God had passed over the sins that were previously committed,” Galatians 2:16, “knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the law but by faith in Jesus Christ, even we have believed in Christ Jesus, that we might be justified by faith in Christ and not by the works of the law; for by the works of the law no flesh shall be justified.” Galatians 3:26, “For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus.” Philippians 3:9, “and be found in Him, not having my own righteousness, which is from the law, but that which is through faith in Christ, the righteousness which is from God by faith;” 2 Timothy 3:15, “and that from childhood you have known the Holy Scriptures, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus.” The faculty of Saving Faith enables the elect of God to believe to the justifying of their souls. It produces a trust in what God has revealed in his word. This trust is anchored in divine authority alone. God’s warnings stir the redeemed to act upon what God has promised, and to thankfully obey his commands. The soul is restored to fellowship with the once offended Creator by the removal of the offense of sin. That produces life for the glory of God. As Jesus said in John 7:38, “He who believes in Me, as the Scripture has said, out of his heart will flow rivers of living water.” Principally faith is the accepting, receiving, and resting upon Christ alone for justification, sanctification, and eternal life by virtue of the covenant of grace (WCF 14:2). Faith is also a moral act. The lack of it, unbelief, is denounced as sin. It is rooted in the decree of reprobation which passes over those not elected and leaves them to reject Christ and the word of his grace. John 3:18-19, “He who believes in Him is not condemned; but he who does not believe is condemned already, because he has not believed in the name of the only begotten Son of God. And this is the condemnation, that the light has come into the world, and men loved darkness rather than light, because their deeds were evil.” John 8:24, “Therefore I said to you that you will die in your sins; for if you do not believe that I am He, you will die in your sins.” Saving Faith is a Growing Faith A temporal faith is not a saving faith. It is like the seed of the word that falls upon stony ground. It may cause excitement for the moment, then it dies out and reveals that it is not the gift of redeeming grace. It is only the evidence of God’s restraint of sin in the person, and produces a momentary outward appearance of blessing. Matthew 13:5-6, “Some fell on stony places, where they did not have much earth; and they immediately sprang up because they had no depth of earth. But when the sun was up they were scorched, and because they had no root they withered away.” Matthew 13:20-21, “But he who received the seed on stony places, this is he who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy; yet he has no root in himself, but endures only for a while. For when tribulation or persecution arises because of the word, immediately he stumbles.” A true saving faith grows as evidence of the life that God stirs within. It is not perfect in this life, but advances until it becomes complete in union with Christ in glory. Since it is here incomplete, it must exist in varying degrees of advancement. The means of its growth are what we call “the means of grace”. They are the ministry of the word of God, the faithful exercise of worship (particularly the right participation in the sacraments rightly administered), and the diligent use of prayer conducted according to God’s instruction. These are encouraged in the believer by his membership in the church of Christ directed by the Shepherds called by God, gifted to the task, and ordained for the edification and discipline of the sheep. For further study consider the lesson of Jesus in Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29 and Luke 9:37-43. We are Justified by Grace Alone, through Faith Alone, by the work of Christ Alone. It is not what you do, but what Christ has done, that makes you trust in the gospel. When grace works in your heart, it stirs you to trust in the Savior’s work. That implanted trust is what God honors when he declares you innocent of your sin, and declares you innocent through Christ. If you trust in anything else added — any ritual, inheritance, work, or personal sacrifice — you do not have a biblical saving faith. Many churches have abandoned grace and biblical faith as things that stand alone. Grace is made into God’s sentimental tolerance for all people, and for all sincere beliefs. Faith is made into an irrational hope or personal decision. These ideas are not what is taught in the Bible when it stands on its own. When we add false ideas to the gospel, we produce another gospel. We must rest our salvation upon God’s Grace alone, through Faith alone. Bible quotations are from the New King James Version unless otherwise noted.

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Letter Names Can Cause Confusion and Other Things to Know About Letter–Sound Relationships You are here A teacher asks kindergartners to write about what each of them did over the weekend. One child writes the letters HRH on her paper. When the teacher asks her to share what she has written, the child says “church.” Why? Because the pronunciation of the letter name for h ends with the ch sound. —Donna Scanlon, Professor Letter names in English can cause confusion for young children. Knowing this and other things about English orthography (the standardized alphabetic spelling system of the English language) can help teachers better support young children’s literacy development (e.g., McCutchen et al. 2009). However, teachers need to know not only about letter names and letter–sound relationships in English words but also about applying this knowledge in their interactions with young children. In this article, we present 10 essential understandings about English orthography and examples of how this knowledge can help teachers appropriately support preschool and primary grade children’s literacy development. 1. Letter names can be confusing. H is one of three letters whose names, when pronounced, do not contain a sound that the letter represents. The other two letters are w and y. Children sometimes write a w for /d/ (/d/ means the d sound: slashes around a letter [or letters] denote its sound or pronunciation) because the pronunciation of the letter name for w (double-u) starts with /d/. And you’ll sometimes see children write a y for /w/, as in YAT for wait. The pronunciation of most letter names includes at least one sound the letter commonly represents, although the position of the letter’s sound in the letter’s name varies. For some letters, the sound comes first and is followed by a vowel sound, as in b, c, d, g, j, k, p, q, t, v, z. In other letters, the letter’s sound comes second, preceded by a vowel sound, as in f, l, m, n, r, s, x. Moreover, the vowel sound is not consistent. Sometimes it is /ee/, as in the letter names for b, c, d, g, p, t, v, z; sometimes it is /ĕ/, as in the letter names for f, l, m, n, s, x; sometimes it is /ay/, as in j and k; in q it is a long u; and in r it is an r-controlled a (more about r-control later). Rather than teaching children rules, expose them to lists of words that all follow a particular pattern. We can see why children learning letter–sound associations and trying to apply that knowledge in their reading and writing are sometimes mystified. Some researchers recommend that we not teach letter names at all (e.g., McGuinness 2004). However, other research indicates that instruction in both letter names and letter sounds is best for children (Piasta, Purpura, & Wagner 2010). What you can do As a teacher of young children, be sure to devote at least as much attention to helping children learn the sound or sounds associated with each letter as you do the letter name. When interacting with children, look out for the influence of letter names and address this explicitly. For example, if a kindergartner writes YD for wide, you can say, “I understand why you put the letter y there. You hear /w/ at the beginning of the name for y. But the letter y actually makes a /y/ sound. That’s confusing, isn’t it! Do you know what letter makes the /w/ sound?” (If more support is needed, provide a name or other key word children have learned for /w/, such as Waheed, a classmate’s name.) 2. English is more systematic than we may realize. All too often, the English language is viewed as being highly complicated and irregular—with many exceptions to every rule. George Bernard Shaw suggested that English is so irregular and chaotic that the word ghoti might conceivably be pronounced fish (Venezky 1999). However, Venezky shows that Shaw’s claim is misleading. The letters gh can represent /f/ only when they come at the end of a word, such as in enough. Shaw suggested that o can represent the short i sound; but according to Venezky, Shaw was referring to the word women, which is the only word in the English language in which o represents short i. Finally, ti can represent /sh/ only when followed by other letters (as in action), never at the end of a word. Venezky’s rebuttal of Shaw’s argument illustrates the systematicity of written English. Of course, systematicity does not necessarily mean simplicity. English orthography is indisputably complex, and it is important not to make simple, unwarranted generalizations. Many of the phonics generalizations or phonics rules that elementary grade students learn are too simplistic, having far too many exceptions to be valid (Clymer 1963). For example, regarding the rule stating that “when two vowels go walking, the first one does the talking,” Clymer found that only 45 percent of English words having two vowels together follow it. Johnston (2001) revisited this analysis with a different database. She also found that this rule often did not apply, nor did any broad phonics generalization she studied. What you can do Rather than teaching children rules, expose them to lists of words that all follow a particular pattern. For example, rather than teaching the aforementioned rule for vowels, present children with a list of words such as look, book, took, cook, and help children focus on the sound–letter pattern. Johnston (2001) found that many specific (rather than broad) generalizations were true much of the time (e.g., in her database oi represents the sound in coin 100 percent of the time). In addition, to counter your colleagues who question the value of phonics instruction, share the ghoti example to demonstrate that English is more systematic than we realize. 3. English orthography is complex for good reasons. Written English has a long, rich history. As a result, pronunciation of some words has evolved even while their spelling has not. For example, originally the word gnat was pronounced /gnat/, but over time, the g has become silent. We now pronounce it /nat/; yet, we still spell it with the g at the beginning. In addition to evolved pronunciations, many words, such as llama or rhyme, have been borrowed from other languages. English is also a language in which morphology (the study of the smallest unit of meaning in words), as well as phonology (the study of speech sounds), drives orthography (Venezky 1967). (For definitions of these words and other related vocubulary, see “Glossary of Terms” at the end of the article.) In a purely phonological orthographic system we would spell words exactly as they sound. For example, bugs might be spelled bugz, and insects, insex. But in a partially morphological orthographic system such as English, we spell these words bugs and insects to signify with the -s that both are plural. Although admittedly posing challenges for readers and writers in early stages of literacy development, the fact that English orthography conveys morphological relationships can be a big help to readers and writers in later stages of literacy development, when they begin encountering a lot of words in reading that aren’t in their everyday oral vocabulary. It allows us to see semantic, or meaning-based, relationships between words. For example, even though magic and magician have very different pronunciations (/majic/ and /majishun/), we can see by their spelling that they are related. The morphological nature of English orthography also allows us to figure out the meanings of words we have never seen or heard (e.g., kleptophobia—the fear of stealing or being stolen from). Indeed, a growing body of research suggests that stronger morphological awareness supports literacy development (Carlisle 2010). Recognizing the morphological nature of English orthography offers readers an advantage. What you can do Consider teaching some beginning morphology to children in kindergarten or first grade (depending on their readiness for this). For example, you might help them understand that we use -s to make a word mean more than one even if we say it with /z/. Help them understand that we use -ed to make a word indicate that something happened in the past, whether we say it with a /d/ or with a /t/, as in walked. You can use the preceding examples to help parents, colleagues, and others better understand that the language system is based on both phonology and morphology. 4. Some letters represent different sounds in different words. Ms. Wilson is introducing the letter c to her kindergartners. She explains that c stands for at least two sounds: /k/ as in cat and /s/ as in cereal. Like c, there are a number of letters that commonly represent either of two sounds. Another is g. The two sounds are referred to as hard and soft. The hard sound of c is /k/, as in cat or cookie, and of g is /g/, as in goat or grandma. The soft sound of c is /s/, as in cereal or center, and of g is /j/, as in gym or ginger. Hard and soft sounds provide another opportunity to underscore that English orthography is more systematic than we may realize. It is not, in fact, random whether the c or g is pronounced with its hard or soft sound. Try pronouncing these two words: ceilent and gantin. These are made-up words, so you haven’t seen or read them before. Yet most likely you pronounced the c as /s/ (soft) and the g as /g/ (hard). The reason is that c and g typically represent soft sounds when followed by e, i, or y, and hard sounds when followed by a, o, or u. We would not teach these generalizations to young children, but they can remind us of the systematicity of English spelling. There are other letters that represent two or more different sounds—the letter s is one, as in sun and was; x is another, as in xylophone and fox (the x in fox represents two sounds, or phonemes, pronounced together: /k/ /s/). Each vowel represents at least three different sounds. One of these, the schwa sound, will be discussed in point number 10. The other two are referred to as long vowels and short vowels. Typically, a short vowel is the sound the vowel represents in a consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) word. For example, short a is the middle sound in bag (for the other short vowels, it’s /e/ as in bed, /i/ as in bit, /o/ as in hot, /u/ as in cut). Long vowels “say their names”—for example, long i is the sound the vowel represents in bike. The terms long vowel and short vowel are misnomers in that short vowels are not pronounced noticeably faster than long vowels. What you can do Be up front with children, as Ms. Wilson was, about cases in which a letter represents different sounds in different words. When a child is reading aloud and is unsure of which sound to use, have the child try both sounds and ultimately decide on one based on the word that sounds right and makes sense (Scanlon, Anderson, & Sweeney 2010). With vowels, this approach is sometimes referred to as vowel flexing. 5. Sometimes sounds can be represented in more than one way. Jelani, a first-grader, brings his writing to a conference with his teacher, Mr. Acker. He has written uv for the word of. Mr. Acker points to the word and tells Jelani that the letters he wrote do make the sounds we hear in of, but we spell this word “of. Jelani actually has written appropriate letters for the sounds he heard. Mr. Acker does the right thing to validate that. We have seen teachers who will not recognize this and suggest that the child listen harder or try again. Listening harder would not help him spell of correctly because the two phonemes, or small sound units, in the word can reasonably be represented by the letters u and v. As with many words, the only way for Jelani to know how to spell of correctly is through experience with the correct spelling of the word. What you can do Don’t insist on correct spelling early on; research strongly suggests that engaging children in listening for sounds in words and inventing/estimating/approximating their spelling supports their literacy development (e.g., Ouellette & Sénéchal 2008). Over time, following the guidelines of standards documents with specific expectations for spelling at each grade level, encourage children to learn to spell a growing number of words correctly—for example, the words listed on a classroom word wall or in their personal dictionaries or word journals. 6. Sometimes pairs or groups of letters represent a single sound. In Mr. Acker’s classroom, the first-graders engage in a guided reading lesson. They are reading a text about fish. Some students try to figure out the word by pronouncing /f/ /i/ /s/ /h/. Mr. Acker stops and explains to them that when s and h are together, they don’t make /s/ and /h/; together they make the /sh/ sound. This teacher recognizes the difference between digraphs and blends. A digraph is two letters that stand for a single phoneme. Unlike a blend, a digraph is not a combination of the sounds that the two letters represent. Sh is a digraph representing the single phoneme /sh/—it is not formed by pronouncing /s/ and /h/ consecutively. Three other important consonant digraphs are ch as in chin, th as in thin or that, and ng as in sing. No single letter can represent the sound represented by any of these digraphs. There are many other consonant digraphs that represent a sound already represented by another letter: ph, wh, wr, kn, gn, ck, ff, gh, ll, mb, ss (Dow & Baer 2012). There are also vowel digraphs. One is oa, as in boat. Other combinations of vowel digraphs (e.g., Dow & Baer 2012), which others call simply vowel pairs (e.g., Fox 2009) or vowel teams (NGA & CCSSO 2010), include ea (as in head or as in bead), ai, ay, ee, oe, au, aw, ew, oo (as in spook or as in book), and ow (as in slow—please see point number 7 for a discussion of ow as in cow). In some cases, we even have trigraphs in English—three letters representing a single sound. Examples of trigraphs are sch, as in the word schwa; dge, as in judge; igh, as in high; and tch, as in watch. And there are at least two quadgraphs we can think of. We’ll put them at the end of the article to give you some time to come up with them. Digraphs are frequently confused with blends. Blends are pairs or groups of letters in which each letter is sounded, one right after the other. Unlike a digraph, the sound of each individual letter in the blend is maintained. For example, the gr in the word grape is a blend. When you say the word, you pronounce both /g/ and /r/ but in immediate succession such that they sound blended together. (See “Keeping in Mind a Word’s Sound Structure.”) What you can do We recommend teaching digraphs explicitly (but without using the term digraph). Some teachers take a digital photo of children showing thumbs up for th, making the quiet sign for sh, and pointing to their cheeks for ch, and they post those along with the digraphs as a reminder of the sound associated with each of these digraphs. 7. Sometimes pairs of letters represent a special kind of sound. Another kind of letter pair to be aware of are diphthongs. We sometimes say that diphthongs make a sound-and-ahalf or that they glide—the two letters represent a single phoneme, but saying the phoneme involves substantial movement of the mouth. Try putting your fingers around your mouth as you say boy and cow. You will feel substantial movement in the second part of the words. The oi/oy, ow/ ou (as in mouse), and au/aw (caught, raw) are diphthongs. You may also notice that when writing, young children who are not yet aware of the spellings for these sounds may use any number of vowels to represent them. Sometimes they use a long string of vowels such as caoy for cow, probably because they sense considerable movement in their mouths. What you can do As with digraphs, we recommend providing explicit instruction in diphthongs (although that teaching needn’t— and shouldn’t—include the term diphthong). Again key words or anchor words can be very helpful for children. The high frequency word boy, for example, might serve as a key word to remind children of the oy letter–sound relationship (Ehri, Satlow, & Gaskins 2009). Keeping in Mind a Word’s Sound Structure Literate adults are so influenced by orthography that they sometimes lose touch with the actual sound, or phoneme, structure of words. Count the phonemes in these words and see how close you come: sheep, bright, six, each, choose (3, 4, 4, 2, 3, respectively). It is important for teachers of young children to be aware of the phoneme structure in words as they respond to children’s writing. A child who represents the word bright as BIT may at first glance seem way off, but in fact she has represented three of the four phonemes in the word, and the one she has missed is the second sound in a blend—and they are notoriously hard for young children to hear. (Also hard to hear are n and m before consonants, so you’ll see spelling such as dot for don’t and cap for camp.) 8. The letter or letters that immediately follow or precede a letter matter. Mrs. Chan, a first-grade teacher, is eliciting words that begin with the ă sound. James offers art. Mrs. Chan explains that the word art does begin with the letter a, but in that word, it doesn’t represent the /ă/ or /ā/. Because it’s before the letter r, it makes a different sound (which she then pronounces with the children). In this context, a is known as an r-controlled vowel—the a sound is lost to the r sound. R-control affects not only a, but any vowel that precedes the r. We pronounce neither the long nor the short sound of e in er, i in ir, o in or, or u in ur. Rather, each of these letter pairs has a special pronunciation (or pronunciations) that is not the sum of their individual sounds. In spelling, determining which r-controlled vowel represents a sound in a word can be quite difficult (Venezky 1999). For example, the words her and girl contain the same r sound but are represented by different r-controlled vowels. R-control is just one example of a larger phenomenon in English orthography—the fact that the letters around a letter matters. We also see this with vowels preceding l versus another letter (e.g., ball versus bat) and with some letters that are unsounded when in certain contexts (e.g., b before t, as in doubt; b after m, as in comb). What you can do The fact that the sound made by the letter(s) that follow or precede another letter matters is one of the reasons we recommend teaching phonograms beginning in kindergarten. Phonograms are common groups of letters that represent the same sounds, such as –ight in bright, light, sight, and so on. Teaching children phonograms, such as –er, -all, and – tch, helps avoid the problem of children trying to read these letter groups using the individual sounds associated with these letters. It also explains why word chunking is widely suggested for multisyllabic words. To explain chunking, Gaskins (Center for the Study of Reading 1991) offers the example of the word bandiferous. Although not a real word, we read this word quickly and easily. We do not do so by sounding out each individual letter—/b/ /a/ /n/ /d/ /i/ /f/ /e/ /r/ /o/ /u/ /s/. Instead, we read the word in chunks (e.g., /band/ /if/ /er/ /ous/), recognizing the chunks from words we already know. The longer and more orthographically complex words are, the more important chunking is. For example, to support a second grader who is struggling to read the word rereading, a teacher would show the child the chunks /re/ /read/ /ing/. 9. A letter’s position in a word matters. Mrs. Chan listens as Francine, a first-grader, tries to read the word funny. When Francine gets to the y, she pronounces the sound /y/, as in yellow. The teacher who knows about English orthography recognizes this as a sign that the child has limited understanding of the letter–sound relationships of y. Although y does represent the sound /y/ at the beginning of a word, elsewhere in a word it typically represents the long i or long e sound. Indeed, this is why we say y is sometimes a vowel—when y comes at the beginning of a word, it is often a consonant, whereas if it is in the middle or end of a syllable or word, it typically acts as a vowel. Y illustrates that a letter’s position in a word and syllable matters. What you can do Once children have some basic letter-by-letter decoding skills, help them use knowledge of known words to solve unknown words. Sometimes called “decoding by analogy,” this strategy helps children take into account the position of letters within a word and supports word-reading development (White 2005). For example, children might use knowledge of happy to decode the end of funny or their knowledge of celebrate to decode celery (see point number 4). 10. Any vowel can be a schwa. Tyrice, a second-grader, asks his teacher for help spelling the word envelope. Mr. Allen begins pronouncing the word as en (pronouncing the e as a short e), ve (pronouncing a short u), lope (pronouncing a long o). This teacher avoided a pitfall we have repeatedly observed both teachers and parents caught in—inaccurately pronouncing a word to help children with its spelling. Mr. Allen correctly pronounces the second e sound as short u, which is how it is pronounced naturally in this word, rather than pronouncing it with a short e sound in a misguided attempt to assist the child with the spelling. In envelope, the second e does not represent the short (or long) e sound. Rather, it represents a sound known as schwa—the uh or short u sound common in many English words. A schwa is the sound a vowel often represents in the unstressed or unaccented syllable of a multisyllabic word, such as the o in computer, the i in pencil and the first e in select (to remember how accented syllables work, we enjoy the phrase that misplaces the accented syllables as follows: put your emphásis on the right sylláble). The schwa is “the most difficult sound to predict in the entire orthographic system” (Venezky 1999, 62). Because the schwa sound can be represented by any vowel, it is difficult for children to know which vowel represents the sound until they have had experiences with the correct spelling of the word. We help children by showing them the correct spelling of the word rather than altering the pronunciation of the word to try to reveal that spelling. (See “Identifying Unstressed Syllables and the Schwa Sound.”) What you can do Directing children to similar words they already know can help them with their spelling, as it does with their word reading. For example, a child could be encouraged to use her knowledge of the spelling of invite to help determine the vowel that represents the schwa sound in the word invitation. We also suggest cautioning parents and colleagues not to mispronounce a word to help children with its spelling. For example, when helping a child spell the word amaze, refrain from pronouncing the initial a as /ā/. Rather, explain that knowing which vowel represents the schwa sound requires familiarity with the correct spelling of the word. Identifying Unstressed Syllables and the Schwa Sound Try identifying the unstressed syllable with schwa in these words: aware, orthography, pedagogy, syllable, consonant (first, third, second, second, second, respectively). Being aware of which syllables in words are unstressed and contain schwa can help teachers identify parts of words that may be especially difficult for children to spell, and to understand why children may be struggling with spelling a particular word. For example, if second-graders are writing about animals, the teacher might anticipate that the children will struggle with representing the two schwa sounds in animal (represented by the i and the second a) and would go ahead and teach children how to spell this word. - blend: two or three consecutive consonants, each sounded, within a syllable. Examples: cl in the word class or spr in the word spring - chunking: breaking a word into smaller, more manageable parts in order to figure out how to read or write the word. Example: Reading rain and then bow to figure out rainbow - digraph: two consecutive letters that produce a single phoneme (sound). Examples: ch in child, th in this, sh in shell - diphthong: a vowel phoneme with a glide from one sound to the other. Examples: the sound represented by oi or oy as in noise or boy - orthography: the spelling system of a language - morphology: the study of meaningful parts of words. Example: in reusable, the three meaningful parts are re, us(e), and able - phonogram: a letter or combination of letters that represent a sound or series of sounds in a syllable. Examples: -er, kn-, -all - phonology: the study of sounds in language - r-controlled vowel: vowels that make a special sound when followed by the letter r. Examples: a in art, u in fur - semantic: relating to meaning in language - vowel flexing: trying the different sounds of a vowel to determine which one results in the correct word. Example: A child who is trying to figure out the word leak may try both the short e sound (as in head) and the long e sound (as in leap) In this article we have argued that there is some fundamental knowledge about English orthography that may aid early childhood educators in responding to young children’s reading and writing in informed and effective ways. Specifically, we identified 10 understandings of English orthography that we believe are important for teachers. With this knowledge, teachers can support children in developing proficiency in reading and writing the complex and rich language we call English. Carlisle, J.F. 2010. “Effects of Instruction in Morphological Awareness on Literacy Achievement: An Integrative Review.” Reading Research Quarterly 45 (4): 464–87. Center for the Study of Reading (Producer). 1991. Teaching Word Identification. DVD, 30 min. In Teaching Reading: Strategies From Successful Classrooms. Set of 6 videos, a preview DVD, 6 viewer’s guides, an instructor’s guide. (Available from Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Children’s Research Center, Room 158, 51 Gerty Drive, Champaign, IL 61820.) Clymer, T. 1963. “The Utility of Phonic Generalizations in the Primary Grades.” The Reading Teacher 16 (4): 252–58. Dow, R.S., & G.T. Baer. 2012. Self-Paced Phonics: Text for Educators. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Ehri, L.C., E. Satlow, & I. Gaskins. 2009. “Grapho-Phonemic Enrichment Strengthens Keyword Analogy Instruction for Struggling Young Readers.” Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties 25 (2–3): 162–91. Fox, B.J. 2009. Phonics and Structural Analysis for the Teacher of Reading: Programmed for Self-Instruction. 10th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Johnston, F.P. 2001. “The Utility of Phonic Generalizations: Let’s Take Another Look at Clymer’s Conclusions.” The Reading Teacher 55 (2): 132–43. Photographs: © Getty Images; Children’s illustrations courtesy of the authors Meghan K. Block, PhD, is an assistant professor of English language and literature at Central Michigan University. She previously has taught kindergarten and first and second grades, and she sits on the board of an NAEYC-accredited child care center. Nell K. Duke, EdD, is a professor in Literacy, Language, and Culture and in the Combined Program in Education and Psychology at the University of Michigan. Duke’s expertise lies in early literacy development, particularly among children living in economic poverty.

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