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Nothing Is Impossible! STORY CIRCLE - Term 3, Week 5, Friday 18 May 2018 Adapted bu Gill Kirk from The Three Daughters of King O’Hara in “Myths and Folklore of Ireland” by Jeremiah Curtin, 1890 Once upon a time there was a King called Coluath O'Hara, and a Queen called Tia and they had three daughters: Cara, Mara and Bridie. One day, Queen Tia was away and King Coulath went out and left his daughters by themselves. And it was at this point that the eldest daughter, Cara, decided that she was very grown up, and with some strange logic , she decided this meant she ought to have a husband. So she went up to the top of the castle, put on her father’s magic wishing cloak, and wished for the most beautiful man under the sun to be her husband. The moment she took off the wishing cloak, the girls could hear the clatter of horses’ hooves on the road outside. They ran to see what had happened. A golden coach pulled up outside, with four horses, two black and two white. The coach door opened and out climbed the finest man Cara had ever set her eyes on. And without even saying goodbye to her sisters Mara and Bridie, she got in the strange but handsome man’s coach and rode away. When Mara saw this, she ran back inside and she put on the magic wishing cloak. And what do you think she wished for? She wished for the next best man in the world as her husband! And as she took off the cloak, there came, in a golden coach with four black horses, a man nearly as handsome as the first, and off she went with him, without even waving goodbye to Bridie. Bridie went inside. She climbed the stairs. She looked at the magic wishing cloak. She picked it up. Put it on. And wished. For the best white dog in the world. There was no sound of hooves. There was no great golden carriage. But outside, she heard a bark. She ran downstairs and sure enough, there, waiting for her at the castle door was the best white dog in the whole, wide world. Big and shaggy and happy and healthy. And she climbed on his back and they ran off into the woods. That night, the king came back home. Where's Cara? Where's Mara? Where's Bridie? A young stable-boy, who had seen the daughters leave, told him everything. King O’Hara didn't mind about the strange men with their gold carriages. But he was furious that Bridie had run off with a dog. That night, Cara and her handsome stranger arrived at his house. He smiled at her and said, “I need you to make a choice. I appeared in your life from a wish, but that is not where I am from. Now you have to choose. How do you want me to look in the daytime? Like this, a man? Or in my real form? Whichever you choose, I will take my other form by night." “I would like you to be a man in the daytime,” said Cara. So Cara's husband was a handsome man in the daytime; but at night he was a - seal. Mara’s new husband gave her the same choice. What form should I be in the daytime? And just like her big sister, Mara chose him to be a man by day. And at night, he was a seal, as well. When Bridie and the white dog reached his home, he asked her the same question as the men had asked Cara and Mara: “I need you to make a choice, Bridie. I appeared in your life from a wish, but that is not where I am from. Now you must choose. How do you want me to appear in the daytime? Like this? Or in my real form? Whichever you choose, I will take my other shape by night." And Bridie replied, "As you are now in the day.” So the white dog was a dog in the daytime, but at night he was a kind and thoughtful man. After a while, Bridie and her husband had a baby boy. One day, when the dog-husband was going out to hunt, he warned Bridie that if anything happened to their child, whatever she did, she must not shed a single tear. That day, while he was gone, a big grey crow came and carried the baby away. Bridie fought the crow but it was too strong and she watched it carry the baby far above the tree tops and out of sight. She was beside herself with sadness, but she remembered the warning; it sounded important. And although it was hard, she did not cry a single tear. A wee while later, Bridie and her dog husband had another son. And again, every time her dog husband went hunting, he would warn her: “if anything should happens to our baby, you must not shed a single tear.” And again, one day the big, grey crow came. And again Bridie fought it. And again, it carried her baby far, far away over the tree tops. And again, she remembered the warning, and refused to cry even a single tear. A year passed and Bridie and her dog husband had a third baby, a little girl this time. And again, the crow came. And Bridie fought as hard as she could but she was not strong enough. But this time, she could not help it: a single tear fell from her eye. She quickly caught it in her hankie, and wiped her eye and put the hankie back in her pocket. When her dog husband came home from hunting she told him what had happened and he asked, “Did you shed a tear?” “I did,” said Bridie, “Just one.” And her dog husband looked sad and said, “You're a very brave woman and we still have each other,” and they hugged. Soon it was winter, and King and Queen O’Hara invited their daughters and their families to come to a feast at the castle. They were very glad that Cara and Mara had rich and handsome husbands (because he had no idea that they were seals at night!) But they were annoyed that Bridie was still living with her big, white dog and hadn't “settled down with a nice, rich, young prince”. Bridie’s dog husband was worried. "I must stay with you, Bridie," he said. "If they make me stay in the yard with the other dogs, I fear for my safety!" "Don't worry," said Bridie, "I will keep you with me. I will protect you." Bridie was good as her word and kept her dog husband with her at all times, no matter how often her father and mother and sisters made jokes or were rude about him or just seemed not to notice he was there. After the feast, everyone went to bed. Now Queen Tia was a loving mother, and she missed her daughters very much. She had been very sad that all three of them had left the castle without waiting to say goodbye (for their handsome husbands and a white dog) and she couldn’t work out why. The truth of it was that she showed her love through being nosy. Can you believe it? To her, knowing everything about a person meant you loved them. And when Cara, Mara and Bridie were growing up, they never had a moment of privacy - they never had a moment for themselves. They never had a secret den, or a secret diary, or even a friend for themselves - because every time they tried, their mother Queen Tia always wanted to know what they were doing. She never left them alone. And that was why, when they grew up, Cara, Mara and Bridie had all run off with their wishing cloak husbands without saying goodbye. So after the feast, when Queen Tia was full of love and happiness at having her family all around her, she did a very foolish thing. She decided she would watch her children sleep. Except they weren’t children, were they? They were grown-ups! First of all, she peeked into Cara's bedroom. She smiled at her oldest daughter lightly snoring in her bed. Then she peeked in a bit further to watch Cara’s handsome husband snoring, too. But can you guess what she saw? Was it a handsome man? No! It was a seal! Queen Tia staggered out of the bedroom in shock. “I must be seeing things,” she said to herself. “Perhaps I drank too much wine. Or the fish finger trifle has given me food poisoning and I’m having a funny dream. Yes, that must be it.” But did the nosy Queen learn her lesson? No! She was still nosy and she tiptoed her way to Mara’s bedroom, to have a nosy peek at her while she slept. Very carefully and quietly, the nosy old queen opened the door. OH NO! Mara was lying in bed with a seal as well! Queen Tia nearly fainted with surprise. She was almost sick right there on the spot and it was all she could do to keep the fish finger trifle inside her tummy! Urgh! You would have thought she would have learnt that being so nosy was not doing her any good at all, but no. Of course not. “I’ll just check Bridie is safe with that horrible big white dog of hers. At least a dog is a dog and cannot turn out to be a seal!” she muttered to herself, vowing never to have fish finger trifle ever again. And she crept over to Bridie’s bedroom door and opened it, creak by cratchetty creak: creeee-aaaaak…. And while she had expected to see bridie fast asleep with her dog by the fireside, perhaps, or even lying across the botto of the bed, it wasn’t what she got. Obviously. Because the dog was nowhere to be seen and lying next to Bridie was a snoring, and handsome young man! Confused as confused can be, the foolish nosy Queen began to tiptoe backwards out of the room. But then her eye caught sight of something big and white and shaggy on the floor. It was the dog husband’s dog skin! She picked it up. “What is this smelly old thing?” she said, and took it downstairs. She went into the kitchen where a great fire was burning and threw the skin on the fire. The skin caught fire and made such a loud CRACKING that it woke everyone in the castle, as well as everyone for miles around. The dog husband leapt out of bed! “No no no!” “What is it?” asked Bridie, very worried. “I haven't told you everything,” he said. “You haven't told me anything,” said Bridie. "I have to leave straight away,” he said. “The Queen of Tír na nÓg, the land of youth, put a spell on me so that I am a dog by day and a man by night. or the other way around. The only way to break it is to spend 3 nights in the home of my wife’s family. This was the first night. But if anyone or anything ever destroys my dog skin, I have to marry the Queen of Tír na nÓg. And your mother has just burnt my skin. I have to go.” And with great sadness, he hugged Bridie and turned to walk away. "Are you giving up? Just like that?" said Bridie. "I don't have a choice," said the dog husband. And he started his walk towards Tír na nÓg and his wedding to the Queen of the Land of Youth. "Well, I fancy a walk, too, " said Bridie and she followed him. All day and all night, Bridie walked beside her dog husband. "Stop following me, you'll only get into danger and make yourself sad," he said. “It’s not for you, don’t worry,” said Bridie. “I want a walk - a long one," she said. And it was true. She needed a big, long walk, so she could do some big, long thinking. Night came and they saw a house. The dog husband said, "You stay in this house. I'll sleep outside and keep guard." So Bridie knocked at the house and asked for shelter. The lady who lived there was kind and happily took her in. While the lady made up a bed for her, a little boy ran up to Bridie and said, “Mummy!" And gave her a great big hug. The lady of the house smiled and told the boy to go back to bed. Then she sat down with Bridie and she said, "I have a present for you. Here are some magic scissors. If you see someone in ragged clothes, use these scissors to cut a piece off their rags, and immediately, the rags will turn to cloth of gold." "Thank you," said Bridie and, a little confused at such generosity, went to bed. The next morning, she got up early and caught her dog husband trying to leave without her. “Oh, no you don't," she said. “I have more thinking to do. I will keep walking.” So they walked all day and at night time, they reached a second house. Again the dog husband said: "You go in; I'll sleep outside ’til morning." The woman in the second house was also very welcoming and after Bridie had eaten a meal, a second little boy came out, ran to Bridie’s knee, and said, "Mummy!" The lady of the house smiled and told the child to go back to bed. "I have a present here for you, " she said to Bridie and she handed her a comb. "If you meet anyone with a painful head, comb their hair with this comb three times and it will heal them and cover their head with the most beautiful hair anyone has ever seen." Bridie took the comb, again, confused but grateful and went to bed. And again, in the morning, she got up just in time to catch her dog husband trying to leave without her. “Please go home, Bridie - this isn’t a safe journey for you,” he said. "I have some more thinking to do," said Bridie. And on they went. At the end of the third day, they reached another little house. And again, the dog husband slept outside and Bridie went inside. And she was made very welcome and a third child ran up to her. “Mummy!" cried a little girl, who had only one eye. Bridie was shocked to see the little girl’s eye. After all her thinking, she was starting to think these children were the babies the crow had taken. She put her hand into her pocket and pulled out her hankie. The one that had caught the single tear that fell when the crow took her baby girl. And in the hankie was an eye! She pressed the hankie to the girl’s eye and the eye grew back into place. The girl and the lady of the house smiled and the little girl hugged Bridie and went back to bed. "Thank you," said the woman. “I have saved a special gift for you. Take this whistle. Whenever you put it to your mouth and blow on it, all the birds of the air will come to you from all over the world. Be careful how you use it, because it is very powerful.” "Thank you," said Bridie and went to bed. This time, in the morning, she was up before her dog husband and she woke him up, saying, "Today we will reach Tír na nÓg, won't we? And you must marry the queen?” "I must," said the dog husband. He kissed her and then walked through a bush. And vanished. So she followed him. And now they were in the land of Tír na nÓg. As soon as they entered Tír na nÓg, Bridie lost sight of her dog husband. This was a magical place and Bridie knew she had to be wise and careful. She saw a huge castle and a small house at the bottom. She knocked on the house door and a washer-woman, who did other people's laundry, opened the door. Bridie asked if she could please stay the night. The washerwoman was very kind and said yes. And the next morning to repay her kindness, Bridie helped her with her jobs. And at the very same time, the Queen of Tír na nÓg married her new husband… That afternoon, the washerwoman’s farmer friend came round with one of her little girls. The girls clothes were ragged and dirty. So when the adults weren't looking, Bridie used her magic scissors and turned them into gold cloth. When she saw what had happened, the child ran to her mother, the farmer, and told her what Bridie had done. The farmer went straight to the Queen of Tír na nÓg and said: "There is a strange woman here with magic scissors. She is very powerful and will take your new husband away if you're not careful!" The Queen of Tír na nÓg didn’t like anyone else having magical powers, so she sent a message to Bridie to say that unless she gave her the scissors, she would cut off Bridie’s head. So Bridie said she would do a swap: the Queen could have the scissors if Bridie could spend an evening with the Queen’s new husband. Annoyed and grumpy, but determined to be the boss of everything, the Queen agreed, but put a sleeping potion into the dog husband’s food. When Bridie arrived to see him he was fast asleep and when she left at dawn, he was still snoring. The next day, the farmer’s other daughters came to play at the washerwoman’s house. The girl had sores in her hair and looked in so much pain. Bridie combed her hair three times with the magic comb. The girl’s head healed and her hair was the shiniest you could ever imagine. Again, the farmer hurried to the Queen of Tír na nÓg and said: "That strange woman has a comb with wonderful curing power; she'll take your husband from you if you don't get rid of her!” So the Queen sent another message to Bridie: “give me the comb, or I’ll take your life”. And again, Bridie said that was fine, if she could spend another evening with the Queen’s new husband. And again, the queen agreed, and cheated and put more sleeping potion in the dog husband’s dinner. And again, Bridie spent the evening watching a man snore. On the third day Bridie went for a walk in the woods with the washerwoman and both the farmer’s daughters and her magic whistle. She blew it and the birds all flocked to her. Amongst them was a bird of song and stories. Bridie turned to this bird and said, "How can I save my dog husband from the Queen of Tír na nÓg?" And the bird sang her this secret: “Only the Queen's husband can stop her. And he has to want to. “Inside a holly-tree in front of the castle is a ram. In the ram is a duck. In the duck is an egg. And in that egg is the heart of the Queen of Tír na nÓg. “No man in Tír na nÓg can cut that holly-tree - except the Queen’s own husband." So Bridie thought and she blew the whistle again. A fox and a hawk came to her. The washerwoman put them into two boxes, and they took them home. When the farmers daughters went home, they told their mother about the whistle. And the farmer ran to the Queen, and said: "That woman has a whistle that brings together all the birds of the air, and she'll have your husband yet, unless you stop her." "I'll take the whistle from her,'' said the Queen. And she sent for the whistle. And again Bridie made the same offer of a swap- a night with her dog husband in exchange for the whistle. And of course the queen put sleeping potion in his food. And again, Bridie watched her dog husband snore all night. BUT THIS TIME, she had brought a book and got lots of reading done. And she also brought paper and pen and wrote her dog husband a letter which she popped into his shirt pocket for when he woke up. As soon as he woke, the dog husband read the letter. It told him that Bridie had come to save him, about the sleeping potions and that if he really wanted to, he could break the spell, by finding the life of the queen in an egg, the egg in a duck, the duck in a ram, and the ram in a holly-tree, in front of the castle. But only he could break into the tree, and only if he truly wanted to. The dog husband stood up straight away, found an axe, and went to the holly-tree. When he got there, there was Bridie, waiting for him, with her friend the washerwoman, and their two boxes with the fox and the hawk. He picked up the axe and struck the holly tree. It split wide open, and out sprang the ram. The ram ran only twenty paces before the fox caught him and bit him. From inside the ram flew the duck! As fast as it could it flapped its wings for freedom. But it hadn’t managed fifteen wing-beats when the hawk caught her and made the duck lay its egg in terror. The egg fell to the ground and smashed. That very instant, the Queen of Tír na nÓg died and the spell was broken. The dog husband kissed and hugged Bridie and she hugged and kissed him. They gave a great feast; and when the feast was over, they turned Tír na nÓg into a happy place that was safe for everyone who lived there. 1. Who believed in happy endings? 2. Who believed in Bridie? 3. What number kept appearing in the story? 4. Who gave up? 5. Who thought being nosy was loving? 6. Does love come from knowing everything about someone or by magic?

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- Agronomic: sorghum (milo), wheat, grass (misc. perennial), hay - Animal Production: feed/forage - Crop Production: conservation tillage, fallow - Education and Training: display, workshop - Natural Resources/Environment: biodiversity - Pest Management: biological control, chemical control, cultural control, economic threshold, physical control, precision herbicide use - Production Systems: agroecosystems - Soil Management: soil chemistry - Sustainable Communities: sustainability measures Carabid (Coleoptera: Carabidae) biology within diverse agricultural systems of the Southern Great Plains is not well studied. This study was conducted to elucidate carabid dispersal powers, colonization rates, habitat utilization, natal origins, and the impact of tillage on carabid populations in diverse agroecosystems. The effects of tillage regimes and colonization rates from a semi-permanent habitat into an annual cropping system were investigated with standard pitfall trap sampling. Carabid dispersal powers, habitat utilization, natal origins, and diet switching were determined by stable carbon isotope data. For 2006, the average number of carabids per trap in no-till (NT) and conventional till (CT) was similar in Period 1. During Period 2, these averages decreased in no-till and increased in conventional tillage. The differences in the availability and distribution of resources and the density of ground cover in NT and CT impacted carabid foraging activity-density which altered the opportunities for carabids to be trapped. Data analysis for 2007 tillage impact is in process. Colonization data has provided fine scale resolution to beetle movement into the annual cropping system from the semi-permanent habitat. Stable carbon isotope data for 2006 and 2007 show that 631 carabids moved from alfalfa to sorghum and 61 moved from sorghum to alfalfa. This data revealed that there were a total of 305 carabids that did not move from alfalfa and 29 did not move from sorghum. Natal origins were determined for 505 carabids in 2006 and analysis continues for the rest of 2006 and 2007. Dieting switching was confirmed for a total 28 carabids based on stable carbon isotope ratios of the P and R tissue sub-samples from each beetle. This study has provided information to producers regarding carabid colonization and dispersal abilities in diverse agroecosystems. Tillage and dispersal data demonstrates that alfalfa is utilized as a refuge habitat by carabids during catastrophic environmental disturbances. Isotope results from the selected P and R sub-sample tissues have shown a high degree of resolution for determining movement and diet switching for individual beetles. This data supports the need for diversifying agroecosystems to provide carabids with the various habitats necessary to complete all life stages. Carabid mobility and polyphagous feeding habits demonstrate the need to conserve these biological control agents within the agroecosystems of the Southern Great Plains. In the Southern Great Plains, natural enemies have a regulating effect on pest populations in winter wheat, alfalfa, cotton, and sorghum (Kring et al. 1985; Rice and Wilde 1988; Giles et al. 2003). This natural regulating effect is an essential component of integrated pest management plans (IPM). Holland et al. (2005) considers carabids one of the most important ground-dwelling consumers of agricultural pests. Carabids are excellent organisms to study in agroecosystems because they react to environmental changes quickly and measurably (Thiele 1977; Fournier and Loreau 2000; Holland et al. 2005). This is due to their reproductive plasticity and flexible behavioral and environmental requirements (Thiele 1977; Holland 2002). These beetles are relatively easy to sample due to their foraging techniques and dispersal characterized by walking rather than flying (Thiele 1977; Fournier and Loreau 1999). Carabids are often abundant and persistent despite catastrophic disturbances in agroecosystems (Thiele 1977; Lövei and Sunderland 1996). Integrated pest management (IPM) practitioners readily recognize the polyphagous nature of carabids and the potential implications of this feeding activity on the consumption of pest species. However, carabid biology within diverse agricultural systems of the Southern Great Plains is not well studied. Monoculture crops dominate farming practices in the prairies of North America and monocultures can lead to an increase in pest pressures (Elliott et al. 1998; Ahern and Brewer 2002; Brewer and Elliott 2004; Boyles et al. 2004; Men et al. 2004; Ribas et al. 2005). These homogeneous crops increase the isolation and fragmentation of suitable habitats for natural enemies. Predators are generally thought to be more vulnerable to fragmentation of habitat than prey species (Kruess and Tscharntke 1994; Abensperg-Traun and Smith 1999; Kruess and Tscharntke 2000). This vulnerability can be expressed as a breakdown in food chains and loss of trophic structure within ecosystems (Hunter 2002). Additionally, habitat degradation and limited resources within these monocultures can diminish the ability of natural enemies such as carabids to decrease pest populations leading to a loss of crop and forage yields (Lys 1994). For example, yield loss and insecticide costs from an outbreak of greenbug, (Schizaphis graminum) can range from $3.8 to $135 million in grain wheat grown in Oklahoma (Webster 1995). The greenbug can reproduce rapidly often without detection and reach economic injury levels quickly (Starks and Burton 1977). Alfalfa, grown for livestock forage, can produce gross incomes exceeding $100 million for Oklahoma producers and over 480,000 tons annually for Texas alfalfa producers. Alfalfa suffers reduced quality and yield losses from attacks by alfalfa weevils, spotted and blue alfalfa aphids, pea aphids, defoliating caterpillars, and army cutworms (Cooperative Extension Service 2008). Oklahoma and Texas producers plant over three million acres in sorghum annually with an estimated cash value over $315 million dollars, however; this amount exceeds $1 billion when used as livestock feed (NASS 2005). Sorghum producers are also plagued by insect pests, such as greenbugs, and weed encroachment. Producers have used insecticides to address some pest problems; however, use of these products can cause a breakdown in the life cycle of natural enemies. This breakdown can lead to pest resurgence episodes that require additional insecticide applications, which increases input costs and can cause a greater risk of insecticide resistance in pests. In an effort to reduce the negative effects associated with monocultures and increase net profits, some producers are diversifying their agricultural systems (Brewer and Elliott 2004; Keenan et al. 2005). The concept that diversification of agroecosystems increases and maintains natural enemy assemblages, which in turn increases the efficiency of these biological control agents, is supported by growing data (Parajulee and Slosser 1999; Guerena and Sullivan 2003; Brewer and Elliott 2004). Carabids constitute a major part of the fauna and are an important part of the natural enemy assemblages in agroecosystems (Fox and MacLellan 1956; Rivard 1964, 1965, 1966; Whitcomb and Bell 1964; Frank 1971; Kirk 1971; Esau and Peters 1975). Carabid richness has been positively correlated to small-scale landscape heterogeneity (Weibull et al. 2003). More complex habitats supply carabids with the necessary resources to maintain higher populations allowing colonization of crops before pest species reach economic damage levels (Hunter 2002). Diversity provides increased habitat richness, which increases the abundance and persistence of predators of agricultural pests and consumers of weed seeds. Carabids consume insect pests and weed seeds; however, carabids need a variety of habitats to complete their life cycles, including feeding grounds, breeding habitats, and over wintering refuge. Because carabids react to environmental changes quickly and measurably they may also be useful as bio-indicators as well as biological control agents (Thiele 1977; Norris and Kogan 2000; Fournier and Loreau 2002; Holland et al. 2005). With the prevalence of monocultures, producers also combat the issue of increased weed production and ultimately weed seed production (Keenan et al. 2005). Carabids are an important consumer of weed seeds due to their polyphagous nature (Lund and Turpin 1977; Thiele 1977). Genera like Amara and Harpalus have species that selectively consume weed seeds once they fall from the parent plant to the ground. This consumption of seeds can have a major influence on seed survival and therefore on plant community composition (Tooley and Brust 2002). In agroecosystems, carabids and rodents are considered the two major weed seed predators (Brust and House 1988; Marino et al. 1997; Westerman et al. 2003). In the Central Great Plains, weeds such as volunteer rye, downy brome, and jointed goatgrass, negatively impact profitable winter wheat production (Lyon and Baltensperger 1995). Producers need more information regarding carabid feeding behavior and its impact on pest populations in diverse systems. Additionally, producers need a better understanding of carabid dispersal and colonization abilities so that they can integrate carabids into IPM plans and habitat management decisions. Carabids have long been identified as biological control agents in scientific literature; however, recognition of carabid beetles as an important component of natural enemy assemblages is lacking among producers. As producers move toward no-till diverse agricultural systems in an effort to reduce input costs and increase net profits, it is essential that they understand the impacts of these changes on pests and natural enemies. Coupled with this diversification, a reduction of pesticide use within these systems will decrease environmental contamination and protect natural enemies, like carabids, from unnecessary mortality. A reduction in disturbance regimes such as conventional tillage will decrease carabid mortality and increase their effectiveness as biological control agents. By changing farming practices, reducing the use of broad-spectrum pesticides, and diversifying agroecosystems the economic and ecological sustainability of farms in the Southern Great Plains will be improved. Carabid distribution is affected by abiotic factors such as soil pH, soil type, and soil moisture (Baker and Dunning 1975; Hengeveld 1979; Gruttke and Weigmann 1990; Holland et al. 2007). Evidence suggests soil moisture has the greatest influence on carabid distribution (Holopainen et al. 1995; Sanderson et al. 1995; Luff 1996). Soil composition may influence microhabitat selection for oviposition and larval burrowing (Holland and Luff 2000). Larvae have higher survival rates in moist soils and are sensitive to soil temperatures (Luff 1994; Holland 2002). Adult carabids of arable lands are susceptible to water loss and are dependent upon microhabitats for added protection from desiccation. Carabids frequently show aggregation patterns of high and low densities based on vegetation canopy, structure, and density (Speight and Lawton 1976; Hengeveld 1979; Cárcamo and Spence 1994; Holopainen 1995; Thomas et al. 1998; Holland et al. 1999). Carabids have been found in higher numbers in weedy crops. For example, no-till fields encourage weeds thereby increasing organic material on the soil surface altering microclimates (Speight and Lawton 1976; Purvis and Curry 1984; Powell et al. 1985; Kromp 1989; Pavuk et al. 1997). The amount of crop canopy present over time may influence changes in carabid assemblages by retaining more moisture as the canopy closes. All of these environmental factors alter resource and habitat availability to all carabid life stages and ultimately leads to discrete distributional patterns within and among fields (Holland and Luff 2000; Thomas et al. 2002). Soil cultivation is another factor that can kill or disturb carabids at all life stages. However, which life stage is most at risk remains unclear. Several reviews on farming practices have described a reduction in abundance and diversity of carabid assemblages due to deep tillage (Thiele 1977; House and All 1981; Luff 1987; Stinner and House 1990; Kromp 1999; Holland and Luff 2000). It has been reported that deep soil cultivation with a moldboard plough had a negative effect on carabid abundance compared to shallow cultivation (Dubrovskaya 1970). This finding was supported by Stassart and Grégoire-Wibo’s (1983) analysis of pitfall data over several years in Belgium where they determined the depth of tillage was a major factor affecting field carabid fauna. It has been noted that carabids are an important component of natural enemy assemblages consuming agricultural pests. Through the use of stable carbon isotopes the relationship of carabid dispersal and dietary intake over time can be better understood (Teeri and Schoeller 1979; Boutton et al. 1983; Peterson and Fry 1987; Wada et al. 1987; Harrigan et al. 1989; Ostrom and Fry 1993). By determining the differences in isotope ratios between predators, prey, and host plants within agroecosystems the dispersal of carabids can be traced among habitats (Ostrom et al. 1997; Hobson et al. 1999). This dispersal information demonstrates seasonal habitat utilization by carabids as larvae and adults (Ostrom et al. 1997; Hobson et al. 1999). Ratio data can clarify which habitat type, feeding grounds, breeding habitats, over-wintering refuge, and non-cultivated refuge, larvae and adult carabids utilize. The use of stable carbon isotope ratios (SCIR) reflects dietary information over time determining carabid prey selection and dispersal power (Peterson and Fry 1987; Hobson and Clark 1992). By understanding the environmental requirements of carabids, their presence in diversified agricultural habitats can be enhanced. Isotope Definition and Measurements: Elements exist in nature as one or more isotopes. Isotopes are defined as atoms of the same element which have the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons. These isotopes will have the same charge but different masses. It is this difference in mass that can be exploited for scientific study and since their discovery in the 1920’s, ecological and biological studies have been using isotopic compositions at an increasing rate. Fractionation is the term applied to isotopic variance and defined as the enrichment or depletion of a heavy isotope relative to a light (low mass) isotope (Broecker and Oversley 1976; Tieszen and Boutton 1989). Fractionation is the proportional difference between the isotopes’ masses. These proportional differences represent very small changes in the physical and chemical properties of each isotope within tissues (Park and Epstein 1960; Broecker and Oversley 1976; Ehleringer and Rundel 1989). Enzymatic discrimination within tissues is the utilization of one isotope and not the other or the use of one isotope before another isotope (Ehleringer and Rundel 1989). Isotopic composition absolute values can be measured accurately within a sample over the short-term; however, reliability over the long term is questionable (Hayes 1983). To provide high accuracy and repeatability over time, differences between a standard and sample must be measured (McKinney et al. 1950; Ehleringer and Rundel 1989). Differential analysis has been a standard procedure in isotope compositions since its introduction (McKinney et al. 1950). The reference material for carbon was the carbon found in the PeeDee limestone (belemnite, PDB); however, this material is now depleted. The current standard for carbon is the equivalent Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) standard (Clark and Fritz 1997; Kendall and Caldwell 1998). Use of VPDB indicates the standard has been calibrated to 0‰ according to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) guidelines (Coplen 1996). Expression of isotopic composition uses differential notation, in other words, terms of ? values (parts per thousand differences from a standard): ?Xstd = [(Rsample/Rstandard) –1] x 1000, where X is 13C, the isotope ratio reported in delta units relative to a standard; Rsample/Rstandard is the absolute isotope ratios of the sample and standard, 13C/12C (Peterson and Fry 1987; Ehleringer and Rundel 1989; Hobson et al 1994). Multiplying by 1000 (‰) expresses values as “parts per thousand” or “per mil” allowing very small differences between samples to be examined more clearly (Peterson and Fry 1987; Ehleringer and Rundel 1989). Isotope Relationship between Host Plants, Aphids, and Carabids: Plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to organic materials thereby storing sunlight as usable energy within plant tissues. Plants use two distinct pathways to accomplish this energy conversion. One photosynthetic pathway used by plants (e.g. alfalfa) produces three-carbon molecules and is called the Calvin cycle (C3). Other plants (e.g. sorghum) use the alternative Hack-Slack pathway (C4) which produces four-carbon molecules. C3 and C4 plants have distinctly different carbon isotope ratios that provide a predictive relationship with ?13C values as 13C depletion continues (Bender 1968). In C3 plants, the accumulated levels of 12C are higher than 13C (–20 to –35‰) compared to atmospheric CO2 (ca. –7.7‰). C4 plants have measurably higher 13C levels (–9 to –14‰) compared to C3 plants. Alfalfa (C3) and sorghum (C4) have specific aphid species that only feed on these particular plants and should reflect the isotope ratios of their host plants. Animal tissues that reflect a predictable carbon isotope enrichment or depletion rate when compared to dietary intake are used to reconstruct diet histories. Evidence of migration between isotopically discrete food webs can be retained in animal tissues for a period of time depending on elemental turnover rates. Stable isotopes are fractionated (enrichment or depletion) through the enzymatic transformation and assimilation of food within animal tissues. DeNiro and Epstein (1978) used mice to demonstrate that ?13C values were similar in whole-animal vs. bulk dietary intake. However, they found that ?13C values in tissues differed in a sequential pattern. Tieszen et al. (1983) verified these results using gerbils. Tieszen et al. (1983) demonstrated that by switching the diet from corn (C4) to wheat (C3) carbon replacement in gerbil tissues was dependent on tissue type (i.e. liver half-life = 6.4 days vs. muscle half-life = 27.6 days). These rates are dependent on fast or slow turnover of isotopic compositions. Carabid flight muscles and soft organs are metabolically active and can reflect recent dietary turnover of carbon isotopes in a short period of time. In contrast, carabid elytra, wings, and pronotal exoskeleton are basically metabolically inactive. Therefore, these tissues retain carbon isotope compositions from the beetles past dietary intake. These inactive components retain larval compositions indicating natal origins. Examination of carabid movement or dispersal based on carbon isotope ratios can only be done within systems with distinct 13C sources (Prasifka and Heinz 2004). Aphids will exhibit isotopic signatures of the crop type (C3 or C4) they are consuming. Consequently, carabids will reflect the isotopic signatures of aphids preyed upon. Boutton et al (1983) demonstrated termite preferences for C3or C4 plants at two locations in the grasslands of East Africa. This work demonstrated that within colonies termites focused on one vegetation type while between locations the vegetation utilized varied. Using alfalfa (C3) and sorghum (C4) as isotopically discrete habitats, carabid dispersal patterns can be reconstructed. 1.Quantify carabid colonization of annual crops (sorghum/winter wheat) from a semi-permanent habitat (alfalfa) as it relates to disturbance (tillage); 2.Elucidate carabid dispersal powers through prey selection, diet changes within and among habitats, and larval habitat utilization; 3.Provide results of this research to producers and IPM professionals.

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16.1 The Path-Space Measurement Equation In light of the path integral form of the LTE from Equation (14.16), it’s useful to go back and formally describe the quantity that is being estimated when we compute pixel values for an image. Not only does this let us see how to apply the LTE to a wider set of problems than just computing 2D images (e.g., to precomputing scattered radiance distributions at the vertices of a polygonal model), but this process also leads us to a key theoretical mechanism for understanding the bidirectional path tracing and photon mapping algorithms in this chapter. For simplicity, we’ll use the basic path integral for surfaces rather than the generalized variant from Section 15.1.1, though the conclusions are applicable to both versions of the LTE. The measurement equation describes the value of an abstract measurement that is found by integrating over some set of rays carrying radiance. For example, when computing the value of a pixel in the image, we want to integrate over rays starting in the neighborhood of the pixel, with contributions weighted by the image reconstruction filter. Ignoring depth of field for now (so that each point on the film plane corresponds to a single outgoing direction from the camera), we can write the pixel’s value as an integral over points on the film plane of a weighting function times the incident radiance along the corresponding camera rays: where is the measurement for the th pixel and is a point on the film. In this setting, the term is the product of the filter function around the pixel and a delta function that selects the appropriate camera ray direction of the sample from , : This formulation may initially seem gratuitously complex, but it leads us to an important insight. If we expand the terms of the LTE sum, we have where is the path throughput function introduced in Equation (14.18). Note the nice symmetric way in which the emitted radiance (quantifying the light source emission profile) and the weighting function (quantifying the camera’s sensitivity profile for a pixel ) appear in the above equation: neither term is treated specially, and from this we can infer that the concepts of emission and measurement are mathematically interchangeable. The implications of this symmetry are important: it says that we can think of the rendering process in two different ways. The first interpretation is that light could be emitted from light sources, bounce around the scene, and arrive at a sensor where describes its contribution to the measurement. Alternatively, we can think of the sensor as emitting an imaginary quantity that creates a measurement when it reaches a light source. This idea isn’t just a theoretical construct: it can be applied in practice. A good example is the Dual Photography work of Sen et al. (2005) that showed that it was possible to take photographs from the viewpoint of a video projector by processing input photographs taken with a separate camera—this could be interpreted as turning the projector into a camera, while using the original camera as the “light source” to illuminate the scene. By simply swapping the role of cameras and light sources in this way, we can create a method known as particle tracing, which traces rays from the light sources to recursively estimate the incident importance arriving on surfaces. This is not a particularly useful rendering technique on its own, but it constitutes an essential ingredient of other methods such as bidirectional path tracing and photon mapping. The value described by the term is known as the importance for the ray between and in the scene. When the measurement equation is used to compute pixel measurements, the importance will often be partially or fully described by delta distributions, as it was in the previous example. Many other types of measurements besides image formation can be described by appropriately constructed importance functions, and thus the formalisms described here can be used to show how the integral over paths described by the measurement equation is also the integral that must be estimated to compute them. 16.1.1 Sampling Cameras Bidirectional light transport algorithms require the ability to evaluate the value of the importance function for arbitrary points in the scene; this is useful, for example, for computing the importance of a point along a path that started at a light source. The Camera::We() method takes a ray with origin and direction and evaluates the importance emitted from the point on the camera in a direction . If provided, the pRaster2 parameter is used to return the raster position associated with the ray on the film; conceptually this can be understood as the discrete index such that attains its maximum value; in practice, the function returns fractional values to specify the raster positions more accurately. The default implementation of this method generates an error message; it’s currently only implemented for the perspective camera model in pbrt. Implementing it for other Camera models is saved for Exercise 16.1 at the end of the chapter. Given the camera-to-world transformation for the provided time, the method checks that the direction points in the same hemisphere as the camera is facing by transforming the camera-space viewing direction to world space and computing the cosine of the angle between them. If these directions are more than 90 degrees apart, then the camera would never return a ray in this direction from its GenerateRay() method, and so an importance value of 0 can be returned immediately. A slightly more involved test next checks if the ray corresponds to one starting from the film area. If its origin is outside of the film’s extent, then the point is outside of the camera’s viewing volume, and again a zero importance value can be returned. For a camera with a finite aperture, we have a point on the lens and its direction (Figure 16.1). We don’t yet know the point on the film that this ray corresponds to, but we do know that all rays leaving that point are in focus at the plane . Therefore, if we compute the ray’s intersection with the plane of focus, then transforming that point with the perspective projection matrix gives us the corresponding point on the film. For pinhole apertures, we compute the intersection with a plane arbitrarily set at to get a point along the ray leaving the camera before performing the projection. Given the raster-space point, it’s easy to check if it’s inside the image extent. The perspective camera in pbrt is an ideal sensor in the sense that it generates samples with a uniform distribution over the film area. We will now use this fact to derive the corresponding directional sampling distribution. We’ll start by defining a camera space image rectangle that all camera rays pass through and (arbitrarily) choose the one on the plane . The following fragment that is part of the PerspectiveCamera constructor uses the RasterToCamera transformation and divides by the coordinate to compute the rectangle’s corner points, which in turn gives the rectangle’s area . The importance function doesn’t have to obey any normalization constraints (just like emitted radiance from an area light). However, we’ll define the PerspectiveCamera’s importance function as a normalized PDF on ray space, both for convenience in the following and also to be consistent with the weight values of 1 returned from PerspectiveCamera::GenerateRay(). The importance function of PerspectiveCamera varies smoothly over its support (); this variation is defined so that it cancels the vignetting that a real pinhole camera would have and ensures that pixels record values in units of radiance (this is another reason why PerspectiveCamera::GenerateRay() returns weight values of 1). The camera uniformly generates samples over the image plane area ; thus, the area-measured PDF for points on the image plane is . Consider now the directional PDF at a point on the lens (or the camera’s pinhole) corresponding to a differential area on the image plane (Figure 16.2); applying Equation (5.6) to transform to a directional density gives where is the angle that makes with the image rectangle normal and is the distance between the point on the lens and the intersection of the ray with the plane. The distance to the point on the image plane is as is the coordinate of in the local camera coordinate system and . Hence, By construction, the above density function is normalized when integrated over directions—however, we initially set out to create a normalized importance function that is defined on the space of camera rays , where is the surface region associated with the perspective camera’s lens element. This function must satisfy the ray-space normalization criterion We can’t directly set equal to due to the extra integration over areas and the additional cosine factor in the above integral. Note that the lens area of a perspective camera is equal to , where is the lens radius. For a pinhole camera, the lens area is set to 1 and interpreted as a Dirac delta function. We then define on ray space as which divides by the lens area and a term to cancel out the cosine factor from Equation (16.3). At this point, the implementation has already ensured that is within the frustum, hence the only thing left to do is to return the importance value according to the first case of Equation (16.4). In the light of a definition for the perspective camera’s importance function, we can now reinterpret the ray generation function Camera::GenerateRay() as an importance sampling technique for We(). As such, it’s appropriate to define a Camera method that separately returns the spatial and directional PDFs for sampling a particular ray leaving the camera, analogous to the Light::Pdf_Le() method for light sources that will be introduced in Section 16.1.2. As before, this method is currently only implemented for the PerspectiveCamera and the default implementation generates an error message. The directional density of the ideal sampling strategy implemented in the method PerspectiveCamera::GenerateRay() was already discussed and is equal to defined in Equation (16.2). The spatial density is the reciprocal of the lens area. Due to this overlap, the first four fragments of PerspectiveCamera::Pdf_We() are therefore either identical or almost identical to the similarly named fragments from PerspectiveCamera::We() with the exception that they return zero probabilities via *pdfPos and *pdfDir upon failure. One last additional Camera method completes the symmetry between light sources and cameras: it samples a point on the camera lens and computes an incident direction along which importance is arriving at the given reference position in the scene; it is thus the camera equivalent of Light::Sample_Li(). Like Sample_Li(), the PDF value this method returns is defined with respect to solid angle at the reference point. The PerspectiveCamera implementation of this method samples a point on the lens to compute the incident importance at the reference point. We can compute an Interaction for a point on the lens by using u to sample the lens and then transforming this point to world space. For pinhole cameras, lensRadius is 0 and pLens always ends up being at the origin. Given the point on the lens, most of the output parameters of Sample_Wi() can be initialized in a straightforward manner. The PDF of the sample is the probability of sampling a point on the lens (1 / lensArea), converted into a probability per unit solid angle at the reference point. For pinhole cameras, there is an implied delta distribution in both the PDF and the importance function value that cancel out later. (This is following the same convention as was used for BSDFs and light sources in Sections 14.1.3 and 14.2.1). 16.1.2 Sampling Light Rays For bidirectional light transport algorithms, it’s also necessary to add a light sampling method, Sample_Le(), that samples a ray from a distribution of rays leaving the light, returning the ray in *ray and the surface normal at the point on the light source in *nLight (effectively, the analog of Camera::GenerateRay()). A total of four sample values are passed to this method in the u1 and u2 parameters so that two are available to sample the ray’s origin and two are available for its direction. Not all light implementations need all of these values—for example, the origin of all rays leaving a point light is the same. This method returns two PDF values: the ray origin’s probability density with respect to surface area on the light and its direction’s probability density with respect to solid angle. The joint probability of sampling the ray is the product of these two probabilities. So that multiple importance sampling can be applied, there is also a method to return the position and direction PDFs for a given ray. The sampling method for generating rays leaving point lights is straightforward. The origin of the ray must be the light’s position; this part of the density is described by a delta distribution. Directions are uniformly sampled over the sphere, and the overall sampling density is the product of these two densities. As usual, we’ll ignore the delta distribution that is in the actual PDF because it is canceled out by a (missing) corresponding delta term in the radiance value in the Spectrum returned by the sampling routine. The method for sampling an outgoing ray with a reasonable distribution for the spotlight is more interesting. While it could just sample directions uniformly on the sphere as was done for the point light, this distribution is likely to be a bad match for the spotlight’s actual distribution. For example, if the light has a very narrow beam angle, many samples will be taken in directions where the light doesn’t cast any illumination. Instead, we will sample from a uniform distribution over the cone of directions in which the light casts illumination. Although the sampling distribution does not try to account for the falloff toward the edges of the beam, this is only a minor shortcoming in practice. The PDF for the spotlight’s illumination distribution is separable with . We thus just need to find a sampling distribution for . The UniformSampleCone() function from Section 13.6.4 provides this functionality. The SpotLight’s Pdf_Le() method for sampled rays must check to see if the direction is inside the cone of illuminated directions before returning the cone sampling PDF. The sampling routines for ProjectionLights and GonioPhotometricLights are essentially the same as the ones for SpotLights and PointLights, respectively. For sampling outgoing rays, ProjectionLights sample uniformly from the cone that encompasses their projected image map (hence the need to compute ProjectionLight::cosTotalWidth in the constructor), and those for GonioPhotometricLights sample uniformly over the unit sphere. Exercise 16.2 at the end of this chapter discusses improvements to these sampling methods that better account for the directional variation of these lights. The method for sampling a ray leaving an area light is also easily implemented in terms of the shape sampling methods from Section 14.2.2. The surface area–based variant of Shape::Sample() is used to find the ray origin, sampled from some density over the surface. The ray’s direction is sampled from a cosine-weighted distribution about the surface normal at the sampled point. Incorporating this cosine weighting means that rays leaving the light carry uniform differential power, which is preferable for bidirectional light transport algorithms. Because the direction returned by CosineSampleHemisphere() is in the canonical coordinate system, it must be transformed to the coordinate system about the surface normal at the sampled point here. Sampling a ray from the DistantLight’s distribution of outgoing rays is a more interesting problem. The ray’s direction is determined in advance by a delta distribution; it must be the same as the light’s negated direction. For its origin, there are an infinite number of 3D points where it could start. How should we choose an appropriate one, and how do we compute its density? The desired property is that rays intersect points in the scene that are illuminated by the distant light with uniform probability. One way to do this is to construct a disk that has the same radius as the scene’s bounding sphere and has a normal that is oriented with the light’s direction and then choose a random point on this disk, using the ConcentricSampleDisk() function (Figure 16.3). Once this point has been chosen, if the point is displaced along the light’s direction by the scene’s bounding sphere radius and used as the origin of the light ray, the ray origin will be outside the bounding sphere of the scene. This is a valid sampling approach, since by construction it has nonzero probability of sampling all incident rays into the sphere due to the directional light. The area component of the sampling density is uniform and therefore equal to the reciprocal of the area of the disk that was sampled. The directional density is given by a delta distribution based on the light’s direction. Choosing the point on the oriented disk is a simple application of vector algebra. We construct a coordinate system with two vectors perpendicular to the disk’s normal (the light’s direction); see Figure 16.4. Given a random point on the canonical unit disk, computing the offsets from the disk’s center with respect to its coordinate vectors gives the corresponding point. Finally, the point is offset along the light direction and the ray can be initialized. Recall from Section 12.4 that DistantLights can’t be embedded in any medium other than a vacuum. Therefore, no medium needs to be specified for the ray. Infinite Area Lights Generating a random ray leaving an infinite light source can be done by sampling a direction with the same approach as the earlier InfiniteAreaLight::Sample_Li() method. The sampled ray’s origin is then set using the same approach as was used for DistantLights, where a disk that covers the scene’s bounding sphere is oriented along the ray’s direction (recall Figure 16.3). We therefore won’t include the <<Compute direction for infinite light sample ray>> or <<Compute origin for infinite light sample ray>> fragments here. The PDFs for these rays are the PDF for sampling the direction (as derived in Section 14.2.4) and the PDF for sampling a point on the disk. The Pdf_Le() method applies the same formulas, so we won’t include its implementation here. 16.1.3 Non-symmetric Scattering Certain aspects in the input scene specification of materials and geometry can lead to non-symmetric behavior in light transport simulations, where incident radiance and importance are scattered in different ways at a point. If these differences aren’t accounted for, rendering algorithms based on radiance and importance transport will produce different and inconsistent results when rendering the same input scene. Bidirectional techniques that combine radiance and importance transport are particularly affected, since their design is fundamentally based on the principle of symmetry. In this section, we will briefly enumerate cases that give rise to non-symmetry and explain how they can be addressed to arrive at a consistent set of bidirectional estimators. Recall the path throughput term from Equation (16.1), which was defined as The vertices are ordered such that denotes the -th scattering event as seen from the camera. Sampling techniques based on finding importance-carrying paths trace rays starting at the light sources to estimate the incident importance at the light, which means that the vertices will be generated in reverse compared to the above ordering. As such, the incident and outgoing direction arguments of the BSDFs will be (incorrectly) reversed unless special precautions are taken. We thus define the adjoint BSDF at vertex , whose only role is to evaluate the original BSDF with swapped arguments: All sampling steps based on importance transport will then use the adjoint form of the BSDF rather than its original version. Most BSDFs in pbrt are symmetric so that there is no actual difference between and . However, certain cases related to shading normals and light refracting into media with a different index of refraction require additional attention. The TransportMode enumeration is used to inform such non-symmetric BSDFs about the transported quantity so that they can correctly switch between the adjoint and non-adjoint forms. Non-symmetry Due to Refraction When light refracts into a material with a higher index of refraction than the incident medium’s index of refraction, the energy is compressed into a smaller set of angles. This is easy to see yourself, for instance, by looking at the sky from underwater in a quiet outdoor swimming pool. Because no light can be refracted above the critical angle ( for water), the incident hemisphere of light is squeezed into a considerably smaller subset of the hemisphere, which covers the remaining set of angles. Radiance along rays that do refract must thus increase so that energy is preserved when light passes through the interface. More precisely, the incident and transmitted radiance are related by where and are the refractive indices on the incident and transmitted sides, respectively. The symmetry relationship satisfied by a BTDF is and we can obtain the adjoint BTDF which effectively cancels out the scale factor in Equation (16.5). With these equations, we can now define the last missing piece in the implementation of SpecularTransmission::Sample_f(). Whenever radiance is transported over a refractive boundary, we apply the scale factor from Equation (16.5). For importance transport, we use the adjoint BTDF, which lacks the scaling factor due to the combination of Equations (16.5) and (16.6). A similar adjustment is also needed for the FourierBSDF::f() method in the case of refraction. In this case, FourierBSDFTable::eta provides the relative index of refraction. Recall that this model uses a convention where the sign of is flipped, hence the expression muI * muO > 0 can be used to check if light is being refracted rather than reflected. Non-symmetry Due to Shading Normals Shading normals are another cause of non-symmetric scattering. As previously discussed in Section 3.6.3, shading normals are mainly used to make polygonal surfaces appear smoother than their actual discretization. This entails replacing the “true” geometric normal with an interpolated shading normal whenever the BSDF or the cosine term in the light transport equation are evaluated. Bump or normal mapping can be interpreted as another kind of shading normal, where is obtained from a texture map. This kind of modification to the normal of a surface interaction causes a corresponding change in the underlying reflectance model, producing an effective BSDF that is generally non-symmetric. Without additional precautions, this non-symmetry can lead to visible artifacts in renderings based on adjoint techniques, including discontinuities in shading effects resembling flat-shaded polygons that interpolated normals were originally meant to avoid. Recall the light transport equation, (14.13), which relates the incident and outgoing radiance on surfaces: Here, the cosine factor is expressed as an inner product involving and the true normal of the underlying geometry. Suppose now that we’d like to replace with the shading normal . Instead of modifying the scattering equation, another mathematically equivalent way of expressing this change entails switching to a new BSDF defined as The first factor in the above expression makes this BSDF non-symmetric with respect to the arguments and . To avoid artifacts and inconsistencies in bidirectional rendering algorithms, the adjoint BSDF should be used in simulations whenever importance transport is used. It is given by Rather than integrating this special case into all BxDF subclasses, we find it cleaner to detect this case in the integrator and apply a correction factor which corrects the normal dependence of the non-adjoint version into that of the adjoint when importance transport is indicated by the mode parameter. This adjustment is implemented by the helper function CorrectShadingNormal() below.

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The purpose of this particular page is to give those who lack a good degree of familiarity with the cosmological stomping grounds of the Norse deities, and the other races of beings they regularly interact with in the myths, a crash course on the subject. I will endeavor to make this page as succinct and to the point as possible, giving only the basic information that one may require to fully understand and appreciate the complete otherworldly milieu in which the Norse deities operate within. It should first be noted that much of the original myths as written down before and during the Age of Vikings in Europe was lost, and what survived was in certain cases rewritten by Christian monks of Scandinavian heritage who sought to preserve this literary tradition of their culture after the fall of Northern Paganism, albeit adding Christian-inspired conceits to the material. The remains of the original poetic versions of the myths were ultimately collected into a volume known as the POETIC EDDA. In the 13th century, these poems were reworked by the writer, historian, and mythographer Snorri Sturluson reworked into standard prose narrative for the first time in the PROSE EDDA (also called the YOUNGER EDDA), where some of his own ideas and interpretations embellished the surviving myths. It is from these sources that the bulk of what is today known about Norse mythology stems. The cosmic geography in which the Norse deities dwell encompasses nine realms of interconnected realities that are often referred to as the Nine Worlds. These realms are all linked together by the various branches of the cosmic ash tree referred to in the myths as Yggdrasil (illustrated in the painting at the top of this page). Asgard was connected to Midgard (the Earth) by a rainbow-hued bridge called Bifrost. The Nine Worlds of the Norse cosmology are the following: 1. Asgard--the realm inhabited by the great majority of the Norse deities, and ruled by Odin and Frigga. Most of the deities have their own palace, and it's the original home of the war-loving Aesir tribe. Asgard is described in the myths as an amazing and majestic realm of towering spires and palaces of gold and silver situated within a remarkable city. It is surrounded by miles and miles of enchanted woodlands, rivers, and seas, which are populated by a large number of life forms, many of them analogous to Earth creatures, such as dogs, cats, and horses, and others unlike anything natural to the biological fauna of Earth, including dragons and various types of sea serpents. This realm is also the original home of the Aesir, one of the two tribes of deities who merged into a single tribe, the Asgardians. A special section of Asgard called Valhalla is inhabited by the souls of heroic and virtuous mortals who followed the Norse path, and these honored dead, known collectively as the Einerjar, are ruled by Odin and Freya (each of whom rules over half of these fallen heroes). 2. Vanaheim--former home of the Vanir, a tribe of peaceful but powerful fertility deities, that went to war with the Aesir of Asgard and eventually achieved peace with them, merging and intermarrying with this other tribe, and making their home with them in Asgard. Vanaheim, like Asgard, is a spectacular realm that is dotted with vast, unspoiled forests and bodies of water, all of which are inhabited by nature spirits and equivalents of Earth animals. 3. Alfheim--the realm of the Light Elves, once ruled by the Norse god Frey in his youth (who since migrated to Asgard). The light elves are the enchanted, shape-shifting beings of great magickal power who were known to the Celtic people as the faerie folk, or fays, and Alfheim is simply another word for the twilight realm known in Ireland and Scotland as Faerieland. 4. Svartalfheim--the home of the Dark Elves, an offshoot species of the inhabitants of Alfheim, who have been known to people in the Western world as goblins, bogarts, and many other names. 5. Midgard--this word, meaning "Middle Realm," is the Asgardian name for the Earth dimension, which is the material manifested world of humanity that we mortals inhabit. As we all know, our realm operates under a set of physical laws recognized by science, but the quantum nature of our reality enables mortals of varying skill to wield energies that can be drawn from the other, magickal realms comprising the Nine Worlds (and beyond). 6. Jotunheim--the realm of the Jotun, or Giants, a third tribe of humanoid beings of great magickal power to rival the Aesir and Vanir who never made peace with either of these other two tribes, and are considered their sworn enemies. This realm is distinguished by an extremely cold, snow-capped tundra and huge mountain ranges. 7. Nidavellir--rocky realm characterized by miles of caves whose whose lower levels are inhabited by the diminutive and elusive race of humanoid beings known as the Dwarves, where they maintain their forges that they sometimes use in the service of the deities, and occasionally for a few select mortals. 8. Helheim (or Hel)--this is the twilight realm of the common dead, the souls of those mortals and deities living under the purview of the Norse cosmology who were neither truly heroic nor truly evil, and are ruled by the death goddess Hela, where her great palace resides. Helheim (not to be confused with the Hell of Biblical legend) is described as having a gray, barren, and bleak landscape. Niflheim--this frozen reality of endless snowscapes is the bitter realm of the dishonored--i.e., evil --dead, the relatively small number of mortal souls of those people who were truly and remorselessly malicious or murderous while alive. It's described in the legends as being an extremely cold, frozen landscape of endless night. The souls confined to that realm are subject to frequent hardships and tortures, and also fall under the rulership of the death goddess Hela. Niflheim is the former home of Ymir, the primal frost giant, and the birthplace of the later race of giants whom he spawned during the early history of the Nine Worlds. Niflheim may also be the same dimensional plane as the afterlife realm sometimes referred to as Winterland, where a small number of Wiccans fear that the most malign amongst their number may dwell at least temporarily following their mortal demise. Though the above two realms of the dead are technically two separate realms, they are most often considered to be "one" of the Nine Worlds since both are afterlife realms ruled over by Hela. 9. Muspelheim--this is the realm of unending fire, possibly a manifestation of chaotic energies. It is inhabited by a little known race of dangerous warrior beings called the Fire Demons (or simply called demons), which may be a sub-species of the differently described demons of Judeo-Christian lore, and are ruled by the ancient, incredibly powerful giant fire demon Surtur (described in some sources as a renegade, supremely powerful member of the Jotun race). In addition to the above nine realms of reality, it would be useful to know of the various races of beings that inhabit these dimensional planes, and who are all described in the Norse myths. The gods and goddesses--the deities are described in the myths as humanoid beings of usually great physical attractiveness (by human standards; though in reality, they may lack any substantial form that humans would recognize, and merely take human form temporarily so as to provide a relatable frame of reference when interacting with humans either in the material realm or via the dream state, or within a state of altered consciousness). Their major differences from the human race is the incredible degree of magickal power and weaponry they wield, and their great longevity, as they age incredibly slowly in comparison to mortals (though they are not truly immortal in the same sense as the Greek deities are). There are various tribes of deities throughout the multiverse, and two of them--the warrior deities known as the Aesir of Asgard and the fertility deities known as the Vanir of Vanaheim--merged into a single tribe following a stalemated war, and most of them subsequently made their home in Asgard. 2. The light elves--these powerful enchanted beings, described in the myths as humanoid and reverent to the more powerful deities, are the same beings described in Irish legend as the faerie folk or fays, and they inhabit the realm of Alfheim. There appears to be a great variety of sub-species of etheric beings related to the elves, and most are characterized by a vulnerability to iron and cold steel. 3. The dark elves--similar in power and appearance to their cousin species, the light elves, but described in the myths as darker in skin and (sometimes) disposition, they appeared to have a less reverent relationship with the deities and inhabited a different realm (possibly a sub-realm) known as Svartalfheim. They tend to share a vulnerability to iron and cold steel along with their 'light' cousins. They may be similar or identical to beings known in common folklore as goblins and bogarts. 4. The dwarves--this race of diminutive humanoid beings, much smaller in stature, and much less physically attractive by human standards, than the deities and the light elves of the Nine Worlds, live underground throughout the rocky realm of Nidavellir (possibly a sub-realm of Asgard). Although they are generally reclusive and often shun contact with the other races, the benevolent ones amongst their race do have a generally good working relationship with the deities. Masters of the forge and controllers of the wealth to be found on and within the earth, the dwarven race is responsible for producing a large number of the fantastic weapons and items owned by the deities, including Thor's battle hammer Mjolnir and Freya's enchanted necklace Brisingamen. Their major weakness is said to be sunlight, as they cannot be exposed to it without turning into stone, according to the legends; this is the major reason they are forced to dwell in caves and underground, and can emerge onto the surface only at night or briefly in the day during particularly overcast conditions. There are likely several sub-species of dwarves, just as there are many such sub-species of elves, and one such sub-species of the former may be kobolds, along with any other etheric being who lacks the typical elvin vulnerability to iron and actually works with the metal, but who has a great vulnerability to sunlight instead, and thus lurk in caves, mines, or subterranean environments. 5. The giants (or Jotuns)--another tribe of humanoid beings of magickal power comparable to that of the Aesir and the Vanir, this race has never been at peace with the other two divine tribes that merged to form the deities of Asgard, and the giants are frequently at war with them. Though generally gigantic in stature, they are master shape-shifters and can alter their size (while retaining their full strength), which they frequently do to closely and intimately interact with the deities, mortals, and other races in the Nine Worlds. A few of the deities--Loki, Skadi, and Saga--are full-blooded members of the giant race with permanent human-sized stature, and amongst the few of their tribe to be welcomed within the ranks of the deities as one of them. 6. The trolls--a race of brutish, slow-witted, but physically powerful semi-humanoid entities who inhabited some of the distant regions of Asgard, they are described in the legends as malicious and violent beings who hate all of the other races of the Nine Worlds, and are also considered enemies of the deities who were frequently slain in battle by Thor and the other warrior deities amongst their number. 7. The fire demons (or muspeli)--only a little is known of these beings, who are described in the myths as dangerous warriors under the control of the incredibly huge, powerful, and anti-life demon Surtur. They existed in the fiery realm of Muspelheim, whose entry portals leading to Asgard were sealed off ages ago when Surtur launched an attack on the godly realm that was repulsed by the three initial members of the Aesir--Odin and his two brothers Vili and Vey, with the latter two evidently sacrificing their physical aspects to seal the portal, conferring their power to Odin. 8. The human race (i.e., mortals)--that's us, a race of limited, fully corporeal humanoid beings of very short lifespan and an even shorter span of youth who inhabit the material realm of Midgard (Earth), which is under the protection of the thunder god Thor. Despite our limitations, we are known to have great potential, on both an individual and collective level, to transcend our commonly accepted limitations to potentially become peers of the deities. Our physical and spiritual evolution is of great interest to the deities, and they watch over and influence us in a manner similar to how parents strive to do the same with their children. Also of note are a few singular entities relevant to the Nine Worlds: Jormangand the Midgard Serpent--one of the three monstrous progeny of the Trickster deity Loki and the giantess Angrboda (his siblings are the Fenris Wolf and Hela, both of whom have their own pages elsewhere on this shrine), this being is perhaps the king of all dragons, rivaling the cosmic Sumerian dragon Tiamut in size and power, as upon reaching full adulthood Jormangand became so huge that he is able to literally encircle the entire planet Earth in his coils. He is said to reside in etherial form within the oceans of Midgard, and he is foretold to battle his arch-nemesis, Thor, during the cataclysmic battle of Ragnarok, where both die in combat with each other. The Midgard Serpent encountered Thor on two other occasions in the surviving myths prior to Ragnarok. He can evidently change size so as to shrink to a much smaller but still incredibly formidable level of strength and weight, and his venom is so lethal that not even the deities can withstand contact with it. Nidhogg--another powerful and evil dragon in Norse mythology, he resembles a traditional Western dragon in appearance and sits near one of the roots of Yggdrasil, constantly gnawing away at it, and guards the nearby enchanted Spring of Hvergelmir. He is said to frequently trade insults with a sentient being in the form of an eagle who sits atop the world tree, with a squirrel known as Ratatosk delivering these insults back and forth between the two. Surtur (or Surt)--a vastly powerful fire demon of cosmic scope, towering well above the highest skyscraper in height (but presumably able to attain smaller sizes at will), carrying a sword seemingly composed of quasi-solidified fire, Surtur is the absolute ruler--and possibly the progenitor--of the malicious race of fire demons that inhabit Muspelheim. His origin was never described in the surviving myths, nor that of the race of demons that he ruled. Surtur launched an assault on the realm of Asgard early in its history, when it was ruled jointly by the first three deities, the brothers Vili, Vey, and Odin. After a tremendous battle, the three siblings managed to drive Surtur and his demonic forces back into Muspelheim and seal the portal leading into Asgard, but apparently at the cost of Vili and Vey's independent existences, forcing them to confer their essence--and therefore their power--to Odin, so he could effectively rule the fledgling race of deities on his own. According to prophecy, at Ragnarok--the cataclysmic 'Twilight of the Gods'---Surtur's access to Asgard will be restored by the giants, as they conduct a final climactic battle with the deities. The one weapon that was said to be capable of destroying Surtur, Frey's enchanted sword, was previously given up by the latter god as a dowry to win the hand of his giantess wife, Gerda. As a result, Frey was forced to battle Surtur with an alternate weapon composed of a buck's antlers that proved inadaquate to the task, and as a result he perished in battle with the mighty Surtur. The victorious Surtur then went on to envelop the Earth in torrents of the fiery energy from his native realm that he wielded. The final fate of Surtur is not recorded in the surviving myths, but he evidently did not survive the culmination of Ragnarok. Surtur appears to be one of many beings in mythology who was a personification of fire, based on the pervasive fear that humanity possessed of the destructive power of this natural phenomenon. Garm--this enormous, massively powerful dog was a classic member of the hellhound archetype, and as with many of his brethren throughout the realm of world folklore, he served as a guardian entity. Like Cerberus, his three-headed canine counterpart in Greek mythology, Garm guarded the entrance into the realm of the Nordic underworld, allowing anyone entrance but devouring anyone who attempted to leave. As such, he was under the control of Hela, the goddess of the dead. Snorri Sturluson stated in the PROSE EDDA that Garm was loosed upon the deities during their climactic battle with the giants at Ragnarok, where the monstrous canine battled the war god Tyr, with both perishing as a result. Some modern scholars speculate that Sturluson may have added Garm's role to the original myth of Ragnarok, because his presence during this cataclysmic end event was not mentioned in the surviving poetry that Sturluson gathered together to create the PROSE EDDA, and that it was actually the giant wolf Fenris, not Garm, who was Tyr's archenemy; this theory would appear to indicate that the original, lost version of the myth may have had Tyr battling Fenris to mutual destruction instead. It should finally be noted that certain symbols have become a major part of the Norse mythos, and thus deserve a mention here. The most prominent of these are the runes, a series of symbols that not only form an ancient alphabet known as the Futhark, but also can be used for divinitory purposes in a manner similar to that of tarot cards or I Ching coins. According to the myths, Odin went through nine days of extreme torturous hardship while being hung upside down from a tree without food and water in order to learn the secret of the runes, which granted him a large measure of his power upon earning knowledge of the universal mysteries they represent. The goddess Freya is said to have acquired the secret of the runes without the extreme trial that Odin endured to gain them. The runes appear to be symbols that somehow tap into the collective consciousness of humanity in an as yet undetermined manner, and not only allow prediction of likely alternate futures if used properly, but can also be used in spellwork to tap into the hidden forces of the universe that the symbols are representative of. They can also be used in this capacity as protective symbols. Each rune particularizes a different aspect of everyday life of the universe as experienced by people during the time these symbols were created, with some of them directly connected to one of the deities. There are many books available for study of the runes, with three of the best written in contemporary times being FUTHARK: A HANDBOOK OF RUNE MAGIC by Edred Thorsson, A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE RUNES: THEIR USES IN DIVINATION AND MAGIC by Lisa Peschel, and TAKING UP THE RUNES: A COMPLETE GUIDE TO USING RUNES IN SPELLS, RITUALS, DIVINATION, AND MAGIC by Diana L. Paxson (all of which are available on Amazon.com). A final symbol of Norse mythology that I will mention here is the Valknut, a mysterious symbol of power that resembles three interconnecting triangles. The Valknut would appear to symbolize the aspect of the universe that manifests within the human psyche in the form of a triune source of power and spiritual resonance, which is also seen in the form of the Holy Trinity in Christianity and the Triple Goddess of Wicca.

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The Tudor house was defined by its Tudor arch and oriel windows. The Tudor period was the first period to move away from the medieval style houses and was more like a timber framed country house. Today Tudor houses are all listed building and highly sought after due to there location and the amount of space and history involved. Tudor houses are an expensive housing option so be prepared for the financial layout and upkeep costs. If that doesn’t put you off then buying a Tudor house could be a great investment and opportunity to keep English heritage alive. Elizabethan – 1550 -1625 Elizabethan houses can be recognised by their large vertical timber frames that are often supported by diagonal beams. The Elizabethan style houses were similar to medieval style houses. These houses were built sturdy to last through the age. The houses were built by the middle class are are today listed building. Jacobean – 1603 – 1625 The Jacobean style gets its name from King James 1 of England who reigned at the time. The Jacobean style in England follows the Elizabethan style and is the second phase of Renaissance architecture. May Jacobean houses were very large both inside and out with large rooms for family living. Common features included columns and pilasters, arches and archades. These features were to create a sense of grandeur. There are many Jacobean style houses on the market today if your lucky enough to be able to afford one. Stuart – 1603 – 1714 One of the most common period property types for country houses. This period house boasted elegant exteriors with sash windows, high ceiling and spacious rooms. The outside was commonly bare brick and flat fronted. English Baroque – 1702 – 1714 During this period houses were decorated with arches, columns and sculptures and took many features and characteristics from the continent. The interiors were very exuberant with artwork and ornaments in all rooms main rooms Palladian – 1715 -1770 The Palladian era started in 1715 and these types of houses are characterised by symmetry and classic forms, more plain than other eras however on the inside houses were lavish and often had elaborate decorations Georgian – 1714 – 1837 The Georgian house was styled with rigid symmetry, the most common Georgian house was built with brick with window decorative headers and hip roofs. The Georgian house period started and got its name due to the 4 successive kings being named George. Regency – 1811 – 1820 The Regency housing style was common among the upper and middle classes from 1811 to 1820 the houses were typically built in brick and then covered in painted plaster. The plaster was carefully moulded to produce elegant decorative touches to give the exterior of the house more elegance. Victorian – 1837 – 1910 Very common even today especially in London. A Victorian house in general refers to any house build during the reign of Queen Victoria. The main features of a Victoria house are roofs made of slate with sash windows and patters in the brick work that are made using different colour bricks. Stained Glass windows and doors were also a common feature as were bay windows Edwardian – 1901 -1910 Edwardian architecture got its name during the reign of King Edward from 1901 – 1910. These types of houses were generally built in a straight line with red brick. Edwardian houses typically had wooden frame porches and wide hallways. The rooms inside were wider and brighter moving away from the older style houses that were more gothic. Parquet wood floors and simple internal decoration was common also. Private. Worcestershire Regiment 2nd Bat. Service no 12878. Aged 19. Date of death. 2nd Nov 1914. Part of the 5th Brigade 2nd Division. Arthur, who died of wounds, was an old contemptible (men of the BEF who saw service before 22nd Nov 1914). The BEF embarked to France on 9th Aug 1914 aboard the ship “Lake Michigan”, taking part in the battle of Mons then in the 1st battle of Ypres Oct 31st-Nov 22nd British captured it from the Germans in the days leading to Arthurs death the Germans pushed back the allies relentlessly, by 31st Oct they had taken Geluveld and almost broke through the British line on the Menin road, on the 1st Nov they took the Mesen ridge and Wijschate, while british troops captured Geluveld. This as now gone down in history as an heroic stand by the heroes of 2nd Worcs. The BEF now almost virtually destroyed, cooks, batman, signallers and other non-combatants were called into action, both sides were now exhausted, and the war in the trenches began. Son of Frederick and Fanny Nicholls, of Ivy Cottage Marcliff, Nr Bidford. Worked as a farm labourer. Buried Poperinghe old military cemetery. L/Corporal. Service no 30290. Grenadier Guards 3rd Battalion. Killed in action date died 25th Sept 1918. Born Crowle Worcs Enlisted Stratford. Resident Barton. The Guards regiments were regarded as being among the elite units of the British Army.. Attached to 2nd Guards Brigade 3rd Army. George was killed in battles around the town of Hermies which was re-captured in Sept 1918. He was involved in battles in both France and Flanders. Buried at Hermies Hill British cemetery. William John Henry Private, Royal Warwickshire Regiment. 2nd Battalion. Service no 19336. Date of death 4th May 1917. Part of the immortal 7th division who suffered over 68,000 casualties William was killed during the battle of Arras, which began in a snowstorm on the 9th Apr 1917 the British sector was to the east of Arras the battle slogged on until mid May following a large-scale attack at Bullecourt on the 4th May the day William died, casualties were particulary high on the British sector. It became the greatest killing battle of the war with daily casualty rate of higher than the somme 4,076 a day. Widow Emily. Remembered on the Arras Memorial. Lance corporal. Royal Warwickshire Regiment. 11th Battalion. Aged 21. Date of death 10th Apr 1917. Service no 9249. Lived in Bidford, worked as an errand boy in 1911. Born in Wellesbourne.. 1st battle of Scarpe (a river) 9th-14th Apr 1917. To capture Monchy-le-preux, it was a bitterly cold spring period with sleet and rain 112 brigade with 111 brigade were at the forefront of this battle to capture the high ground to the East of Arras. Whilst the 4th Division had been engaged on the north of the river Scarpe the 37th Division, with the 11th Royal Warwickshire in the 112th Brigade, were in action in the south. There also the German line was breached and the village of Feuchy taken. On April 9 the 11th Royal Warwickshire was in support, but advanced at evening to a point south of Feuchy Chapel on the Cambrai Road. In the early afternoon of April 10 the battalion moved forward to the west of Monchy-le-Preux. That night they dug in at Les Fosses Farm, with their left resting on the Cambrai Road. Early next morning the battalion led on the right in the attack on the high ground between Monchy and Guemappe. Advancing by short rushes, they got to a point about fifty yards east of the road from La Bergere to Monchy, where they held their ground till relieved at evening. Son of Thomas and Ruth Pitcher of 70, Charlotte road, Stirchley Birmingham. Remembered on the Arras Memorial. Brother of Bernard (above) born in Wellesbourne.. Private. Wiltshire regiment 2nd Battalion Aged 19. Date of death 30th May 1918. Service no 36422. 2nd Battalion Wilts Regiment on the day Carl was killed in action fighting nr Chambrecy. Part of the war diary for the day Carl died states “Enemy attacks in the early hours of the morning our flanks heavily engaged forced to give ground withdrawing to Est of Sarcy suffering heavy casualties, only 5 officers and 120 men remained, position consolidated and strengthened by a party of Welsh fusiliers”. Son of Thomas and Ruth Pitcher, 70 Charlotte road, Stirchley Birimingham Buried at Chambrecy British cemetery in France. George Henry Fosbroke Lieutenant. (commissioned Aug 15th 1914) ( Duke of Cambridges own (Middx reg “The Die Hards”) 6th Battalion Attached to “C” company 3rd Battalion 85th Brigade 28th Div. Died of wounds 9th May 1915 aged 21. Born 8th Jan 1894. Educated Merchant Taylors School and commoner of New college Oxford where he was president of the fencing club. His family were informed that he was seen by a member of his regiment having been struck by enemy shellfire, which blew his hand off. However his body could not be located. Commemorated on the Menin gate memorial at Ypre and on a bronze tablet in the parish Church. Driver. Army Service Corps. unit 239th H.T.Coy. Date of Death 17th Mar 1917. Born is Stow aged over 50. William’s 239th HT Company formed in Feb 1915, served overseas. Died of shell shock in Kemstone Military hospital. Before the war he was employed as a general labourer/ joiner. His H/T company was orginally formed for Mediterranean Expeditionary Force. William is buried in his home cemetery at Bidford, in the North West at St Laurence church. His son also fell details below. Private. service no 19934 Machine Gun Corps (MGC known as the suicide club) formely 1583 K.R.R.C. Killed in action 21st Mar 1918, Born Abbots Morton,working as a plough boy in 1911. On the day the German spring offensive started “operation Michael”. Enlisted 29.9.14. Resident Alcester. Served in France and Flanders. His father William Francis Pulham fell details above. Montescourt-Lizerolles communal cemetery. Farrier Sergeant. Aged 22. service no 208635. Died in Egypt. served in the Corps of Royal Engineers. Formerly with the Warwick Yeomanry (7th field coy R.E). Date died 24th Jan 1917. Born Alcester. Enlisted in Iron Cross Warks. Died of Paratyphoid in No 24 Casualty clearing station. Before the war he was employed as a blacksmith. Son of Ada Cantrill(formerly Reeves), of 84, West St. and the late Charles Reeves. Native of Kings Heath, Bham. Buried at Kantara war memorial Cemetery. Egypt. Private. Worcs Regiment 3rd Battalion. Date of death 12th Mar 1915. Aged 35. Service no 6298. Born in Alcester resided in Bidford. He had served in the South African War and was mobilised upon outbreak of war Arrived France 11 Sept 1914. War diary extract for the day Thomas was wounded in action.. Attack on Spanbreok mill Lindenhoek Belgium 12th Mar 1915. The Battalions detailed for the attack included the 3rd Worcs, The assault timed for 8.40am after a night march from billets at Locre, problem at first light was a dense fog which delayed the attack eventually clearing in mid afternoon when the attack started 2 battalions rose from the water logged ditches knee deep in mud, the enemy fire was fierce and deadly, officers and men went down at every step, small parties of men managed to breach through the German lines and seizing a group of ruined houses this being the only success, the rest of the 2 attacking companies of the 3rd Worcs had been shot down and were lying killed or wounded on the broken mud between the trench lines, soon the enemy began to press back inwards along the trench’s towards the ruined buildings using bomb and bayonet the Worcester lads held firm for over 3 hours, no help came, instead the artillery misinformed as to the position annihilated the helpless party in the ruined buildings. The losses in the disastrous attack were severe casualties were 9 officers and 77 other ranks killed.Thomas received a severe thigh wound and died in a casualty clearing station Nr Chocques. Remembered at Ypres on the Menin gate memorial and Salford Priors war memorial. Lance corporal, Royal Kings rifle corps. 2nd Battalion 1st Div. Aged 21. Died of wounds, Date of death 1st Oct 1915. Service no Y/1225. Lance corporal Arthur Rose probably lost his life after the Battle of Loos 25th Sept 1915-19th Oct 1915. His division lost 6,OOO lives in this battle 2nd Kings lost 450 men. Buried at Chocques military cemetery. Son of Henry James and Sarah Ann Rose, Salford Rd, Bidford. Worked as a market gardener. Private. Service number 88497 Machine Gun Corps 2/bn. 11th Coy. Aged 19. Date of Death. 4th Oct 1917. Born in Norgrove Glous and resided in Bidford. Ernest’s Brigade the 11th took part in most major battles of ww1. 31st July 17-10th Nov 17 The battles of Ypres (Passchendaele). Ernest’s division were active in 2 battles at the time of his death: Battle of Polygon wood 26th Sept-3rd Oct 1917 and the Battle of Broodsende 4th Oct 1917. Ernest Ash is remembered on the Tyne cot memorial the worlds largest military cemetery 11,962 men are remembered here. Earnest was 18 years old when he joined up on the 10.5.1916. Disembarked Boulogne 14/5/17. Son of Edward and Amelia Martha Ash, Salford road, Bidford. Ernest was employed by the Co-op as a grocer’s assistant before the war. Had also worked has a farm labourer. He had 3 brothers and 5 sisters. Sergeant. Ox and Bucks Light Infantry 2nd Battalion. 5th brigade 2nd Div. Service no. 31117. Aged 23. Date of death 20th Apr 1918. Alfred was fighting on the Arras front during the German push of spring 1918. Probably dying of wounds he received in action. Husband of Ethel. M. Collins (formerly Beard)of Home Farm cottage, Eastend, Lymington Hants. She had the words Faithful until death on his headstone in France. He enlisted in Birmingham in Sept 1914, at the time of his death he had been in France for one month. He was born in Barton. Youngest son of Henry and Elizabeth. Buried at Bac-Du-Sud British cemetery Bailleulval. SW of Arras. Private. service no 4738 15th Hussars (and cavalry of the line incl Yeomanry and Imperial The Kings. Household cavalry Camel Corps 1st division) Aged 32, An old contemptible of the original BEF. Arrived France Sunday 23rd Aug 1914. Would have been involved in the great Mons retreat a heroic rear guard action by the 1st division. Date died of wounds 30th June 1917. Saw service in France and Flanders. Born and resident of Bidford. Enlisted Alcester. He had also served in Africa. Before the war he worked at Bomfords in Salford. Third son of Able and Sarah Bennett, Salford road, Bidford. Mrs Bennett had a family of 8 boys six of whom were serving, another wished to serve but was retained by his employer. Fred was her first son to fall. She was residing in Rugby at the time of his death. Buried La Targette Neuville Vaast. Private. Dorsetshire regiment 6th battalion. Aged 23. Service no 11812. Joined Sept 1914. Posted to France 13.7.15. Date of death 2nd Jan 1917. 50th Brigade 17th Division. Although the battle of the Somme was regarded as over after the capture of Beaumont Hamel in Nov 16 operations in the Ancre valley continued through the winter of 1916/1917.William was a battalion runner and was killed by enemy shell. Born in Broom resident in Bidford. William was a bricklayers labourer before the war. Enlisted in B’ham at the age of 20 yrs. 2 months Height 5ft 2ins Weight 112 lbs. He was also wounded in Feb 1916 GSW to right side of chest (slightly) Rejoined his battalion on 23.3.16.Father William Bennett, Grange road, Bidford. Buried at the Guards cemetery Lesboeufs. Samuel Frederick Baker Captain.159836. Tank Corps Aged 29. Date of Death 20th Nov 1917. Awarded the Distinguished Service Order(DSO). He originally enlisted as 29022, Motor Cyclist Section, Royal Engineers. On the day Samuel died Byng’s 3rd Army launched an attack at Cambrai, 378 Mark IV tanks were used in the battle to smash through the Hindenburg line. (So Successful was this action that church bells were rung throughout Britain). Captain Samuel Blackwell received his DSO whilst serving as a 2nd Lt with the 9th Battalion Norfolk regiment in 1916. His citation reads:- “For conspicuous gallantry in action. He led a reinforcement party over the open under very heavy fire, bombing back the enemy and maintaining his position against three enemy counter-attacks for 36 hours. Later, he led a daring patrol, and proceeded over 100 yards along the enemy line and obtained valuable information”. Samuel is buried at Ribecourt cemetery which lies on the Southside of the Ribecourt-la-tour village and holds 273 casualties. Before the war Samuel was a farmer. Living Charingworth Ebrington. He has a memorial on the wall inside Bidford church. Son of Samuel Fowler Blackwell landowner and farmer and Rosetta Mary Blackwell, Bickmarsh Hall, Bidford. Corporal. Royal Engineers 94th Field Coy. Aged 36. Date of Death 20th Sept 1917. Service no 63401. Samuels company were active at the time of his death in the battle for the Menin Road 20th-25th Sept 17 (3rd Phase of the battle for Ypres) Samuels division suffered more than 39,000 casualties in the war. Oxford rd cemetery: NE of the town of Ieper Belgium. Oxford rd was the name given to a road that ran behind the support trenches during the war. Son of Harry and Elizabeth Churchley; husband of Hilda M Churchley of Burford rd, Bengeworth ,Evesham, Nr Bidford. His wife had the inscription He died that we might live, onto his gravestone in France. He had 2 children William and Edward. Samuel was employed as a bricklayer before the war with Mr C.Knott of Evesham. Buried Oxford rd cemetery. Corporal. Hampshire Regiment 2nd battalion. aged 25. Date of death 13 August 1915. service no 11788. Whitmore’s battalion was a member of the 88th brigade 29th division, Whitmore died at sea when the troopship he was embarked on ‘RMS Royal Edward’ was torpedoed and sunk in the Aegean by UB14 13th Aug 1915. His battalion went on to be involved in the Gallipoli campaign fighting in the Helles battles and the Krithia battles one of which was the battle for the Krithia vinyard the 88th brigade made a costly and futile attack along the exposed Krithia spur,fighting continued until the 13th Aug the losses at Krithia vinyard were in excess of 4,000. Kitchener said “your country needs you” he also said “withdraw from Gallipoli”. a soldier once said of Gallipoli,” the body slowly dying from the inside, the water was death, the food was death, life was death, germs were the killer flood was a killer,(In late November heavy rain turned the trenches into rivers when the water off the mountains came rushing down the peninsula, many drowned) the Turkish sniper was a killer”.And to add more misery October brought blizzard conditions many suffering frostbite. But out of adversity came some sort of victory the withdrawal from the peninsula was a complete success without any loss of life. Remembered on the Helles memorial to the missing. Resided in Bidford and was employed as a bricklayer. Known has Whit and very popular in the local football circles. Whit was born in Sedgley, Staffs. Son of Mr and Mrs William Henry Edgar Clarke, of Salford Rd, Bidford. Private. Royal Warwickshire Regiment 14th Battlion.13th brigade 5th div, Aged 22. Service no: 16326. Died of wounds, Date of death 5th Sept 1916. Alberts Battalion 1st Bham South Midlands division, were at the heart of the battle on the Somme in the summer of 1916 until Nov 16. The battalion was involved in the Battle of Guillemont on the Somme. They were in action at Falfemont Farm. On September 3 the 5th Division was at the extreme end of the British line, where the 13th Brigade attacked, with the 95th on their left and the French on their right. Their objec-tives were Falfemont Farm (which had to be secured to protect the French left) and the line of trenches on the north up to Wedge Wood. The attack on the latter was entrusted to the 14th Royal Warwickshire. After repeated attempts, through the splendid push and bravery of Captain Addenbrooke and 2nd Lieut. Barrow, ” C ” Company on the left captured the gun-pits in a valley running south from Wedge Wood. Mean-time ” A ” and ” B ” Companies had advanced very gallantly, but the attack on Falfemont had failed and their ranks withered away under the enemy fire from the Farm. ” A ” soon dwindled to a mere handful, which still continued to advance in the most undaunted manner. ” B ” had suffered almost as much, but also struggled on till they reached and held a trench just south of Wedge Wood. The 15th Royal Warwickshire had simultaneously delivered a second attack on Falfemont Farm, which like the first was stopped by machine-gun fire. The 15th Brigade had been in reserve that day, though a patrol of the 16th Royal Warwickshire, under Lieut. J. Hughes, made a most gallant attempt to get into the Farm at evening. This brigade took up the assault on September 4, when the 16th Royal Warwickshire, in support of the Norfolks, at last managed to dig in close to the German trenches. Early on the following morning through their combined efforts Falfemont was captured. Then the 15th Royal Warwickshire passed through, and after some considerable fighting cleared Leuze Wood. The casualties during these days in the 16th were over 250, and in the 15th nearly as many, whilst those of the 14th (chiefly on September 3) were even greater. British casualties on one day alone (July 1st) were 54,000 of these 19,240 were killed. The Somme offensive cost over half a million British casualties. Albert was discharged in Dec 1915 due to ill health but reenlisted in Feb 1916. La Neuville British cemetery Corbie is 15mls SW of Albert. Son of Jack and Ellen Collett; husband of Marie Collett, Golden Hillock road, Small Heath, Birmingham. Native of Bidford. Albert was one of a total of 5 sons from the Collett family who were involved in the Great war Albert being one of 3 killed. Private. Labour corps. (Formerly 130236 R.F.A.)143146. Date died 28th June 1918. Aged 26. Labour corps formed in Jan 1917 numbered around 390,000 men of this total around 175,000 were working in the UK many were physically unfit for front line duties. Philip Died of peritoneum in Bridgewater hospital.UK. He was kicked in the stomach by a horse and as a result was transferred to the Agricultural company, was formerly a driver with the Royal Field Artillery (130236) probably serving in France and Flanders while in the R.F.A. Born 1892 Marcliffe Nr Bidford. Employed as a steamroller drivers assistant at Bomfords in Salford. Also worked as a farm labourer. Married to Annie E. His mother Sarah Ann was widowed. Father William, He had two older brothers Charles and Walter. Philip is Buried in Stow-on-the-wold Cemetery. Frank died of pulmonary tuberculosis on Wed 17th May 1922. Aged 30. The husband of Fanny Davis who lived in Broom. He is buried in the local cemetery at Bidford. Private. Service no 6897. Worcestershire regiment 3rd Battalion, 25th div 74th brigade. Date of death 10th July 1916. Herbert’s brigade were at La Boisselle, taking part in the attacks at Ovillers, there were many attacks between the 5th and 16th July Herbert was killed in action on the 10th. Born and resident of Bidford. He is remembered on the Thiepval memorial were over 72,000 Identified casualties to the missing from the battles of the somme. Mother Emma Russell. Corporal. service no Y/1227. Kings Royal Rifle Corps, 9th Battalion. Date of death 24 Aug 1916. Edwards battalion was part of the 42nd Brigade 14th division. Heavily involved in the battles of the Somme, Edward was killed in action probably in one of the battles for Delville wood which was secured on the 25th Aug 1916 by the 14th (light) division. Born in Stratford Resident of Bidford. Father Francis. Edward is buried in Delville wood cemetery Longueval. Private. service no 11762. Oxford and Bucks light infantry. 2nd battalion. Date died 13th Nov 1916. Christopher was killed in action his Division was heavily involved in the battles on the Somme around the time of his death battles were ranging along the Ancre river between 13th-18th Nov 1916 North of Thiepval. UK casualties on the Somme were 360,000 of these 95,600 killed. Mother Mrs Amelia E Moore. Occupation Farm Labourer. Christopher is buried at Redan ridge cemetery Beaumont-Hamel. Rifleman. Kings Royal Rifles Corps 12th Battalion. Served 8th Bn KRRC and 17th Bn KRRC. Service No A/3398. Date of death on or since 16th Aug 1917. Aged 26. Part of the 20th division, the KRRC were active in the Battle of Langemarck, 3rd battle of Ypres 16th-18th Aug 1917, It took place in the wettest weather in 75 years, the battle fields turning into quagmires and became known as Passchendaele after the village to the east of Ypres, the battle cost 300,000 allied casualties, Michael although dying of disease was one of these. Son of Michael Charles and Elizabeth Ann Finnemore of Marcliff, Bidford. His mother requested Dearly Beloved to be on his gravestone. Buried Harlebeke New British cemetery. Leacroft Howard. (William) Sapper. Canadian Engineers 1st field company. Service no 5089. Date died 15th June 1915. Died at Givenchy aged 30. On the evening of Tuesday, the 15th of June, 1915, the 1st Canadian Brigade found itself involved in one of the bloodiest engagements of the whole war. Over against its left flank was a German “fortin,” known to us as Stony Mountain, bristling with machine guns, guns which later did terrible execution. Before it, some 250 yards more to the south, was another strongly entrenched post known as “Dorchester.” The operation orders directed that the 7th British Division on the Canadian left (with the East Yorks next to us) should make a frontal attack on Stony Mountain. The 1st Canadian Battalion (Ontario Regiment), under General Mercer, was to attack in support and secure the two lines of enemy trenches between Stony Mountain and Dorchester. Working parties of the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Battalions were to secure and connect the trenches taken by the 1st, or, if necessary, assume the defensive. A Canadian national at the time of his death Son of Mrs G.L. Freer of Port Hammand. B.C. and the late Howard Freer. Born Bidford August 27th 1884, trade carpenter. Family lived at Bidford grange,his father Howard was a farmer. Remembered on the Vimy memorial. Sergeant. Worcestershire regiment 3rd battalion. 7th Brig 3rd Div. service no 13202. Entered service 12/8/14 an old contemptible. Date died 16th June 1915. Henry was involved in the 2nd battles of Ypres. One of which was the 1st attack on Bellewaarde on the 16th July 1915 the day Henry was killed in action. By exploding shell in his trench. The 3rd Worcs attacked with the 7th Irish rifles and were met by heavy artillery and machine gun fire, ground was won and consolidated. Henry was born and resident in Bidford. Served as a police constable in the Birmingham area. Mother Mary sister Elizabeth Brothers Benjamin, Frank, Joseph, John, Justus. Enlisted Worcester. Ypres (Menin gate) memorial. Hope you find my site informative I have a guestbook and email link at the bottom of each page if you wish to comment or contact me. I am local to Bidford-on-avon and have lived here for over 37 years. This website has been live since 2006 (upgraded in 2015), whilst I have made every effort to be accurate in my research if I have made mistakes it is not intended to offend. If the relatives of the fallen men who gave their lives in the Great War wish me to remove or update their details please don’t hesitate to contact me (email address at bottom of page), this also applies to any parade photos. My research is mostly based on historical facts and educated speculation where the men’s regiments and division might have been when they were killed or wounded with some information taken from the web. I have personally visited the battle fields in France and Belgium. If I have breached anyone’s copyright I apologise and will remove or credit if mutually agreed, I must also say this is a none profit making site and is solely for historical research and for the men to be remembered not just as a name on a plague but for the sacrifice they made for us all. Credits:– Thumbnail photos of the fallen courtesy Berrows Worcester journal and Evesham Journal (gratis supplement published 1914-1918) newspaper. Copies held at Worcester family history centre/library ‘The Hive’. Also thanks to CWGC for pictures of some cemetery photo’s. Some of the Warwickshire regimental history provided by:- The Story of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment (Formerly the Sixth Foot) by Charles Lethbridge Kingsford 1674 to 1920. And all like-minded researchers of WW1 fallen. Bidford-on-avon history society have a book published entitled Yesterday’s children, which has a chapter on Bidford in the world wars. ISBN 978-0-9575790-0-2. Disclaimer:– This site contains links to third party websites. I except no responsibility for hypertext links on this site, and a listing should not be taken as an endorsement of any kind

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Genetics and Homosexuality: Are People Born Gay? The Biological Basis for Sexual Orientation There is a common belief among liberals that people are born either gay or straight. Conservatives tend to believe that sexual orientation is actually sexual preference, which is chosen by the individual. This page represents a review of the scientific literature on the basis for homosexual orientation. Are people born gay or straight? Much of the current media sources assume the question is a solved scientific problem with all the evidence pointing toward a biological (probably genetic) basis for a homosexual orientation. Contrary to this perception, the question has been poorly studied (or studied poorly), although there is some evidence on both sides of question. In addition, many of the initial studies, which were highly touted by the media as “proof” for a biological basis for homosexuality, have been contradicted by later, more thorough studies. This evidence falls into four basic categories: - Brain structure - Possible hormonal influences - Concordance of homosexuality in twins - Concordance of genetic markers in siblings Why does it matter? Until a few years ago, sexual orientation used to be called sexual preference. Obviously, the two terms denote significant differences in the the manner by which sexuality develops. A preference is something that is chosen, whereas orientation is merely something that defines us. The differences are potentially important regarding how the law applies to those who are gay. If homosexuality is not chosen, but actually is a biologically-determined characteristic over which we have no choice, then laws should not treat gays and straights differently, since homosexuality would be equivalent to one’s race, over which we have no control. Sexual orientation—brain studies Since sexual attraction begins in the brain, researchers first examined the question of sexual orientation by comparing the anatomy of brains from males and females. These studies showed that male and female brains showed sexual dimorphism in the pre-optic area of the hypothalamus, where males demonstrated a greater than two-fold difference in cell number and size compared to females.1 A second study found that two of four Interstitial Nuclei of the Anterior Hypothalamus (INAH) were at least twice as large in males as females.2 Since the INAH was involved in sexual dimorphism, it was hypothesized by Simon LeVay that there might be differences in this region in heterosexual vs. homosexual men. Postmortem examination of the brains of AIDS patients vs. control male subjects (presumed to be heterosexual) showed that the presumably heterosexual men exhibited INAH3 that were twice the size of both females and presumably homosexual men who had died of AIDS.3 The study has been criticized for its uncertainty of sexual orientation of the subjects, and potential complications caused by the AIDS virus (which does infect the human brain), and also by lowered testosterone levels found in AIDS patients. A popularized Newsweek cover story, “Is This Child Gay?”4 characterized LeVay as a “champion for the genetic side,” even though the study involved no genetic data at all. A subsequent study by Byne, et al. examined the question of INAH3 size on the basis of sex, sexual orientation, and HIV status.5 The study found large differences in INAH3 volume on the basis of sex (with the male INAH3 being larger than the female INAH3). However, the volume of IHAH3 was decreased in male heterosexual men who had contracted AIDS (0.108 mm3 compared with 0.123 mm3 in male controls). There was no statistically significant difference between IHAH3 sizes of male heterosexuals vs. male homosexuals who had contracted AIDS (0.108 mm3 and 0.096 mm3, respectively). The study also found that there were no differences in the number of neurons in the INAH3 based upon sexual orientation, although researchers found significant differences between males and females, as in other studies.5 It was obvious from this study that LeVay’s study was fatally flawed due to the AIDS complication, and that there were no differences in the INAH3 based upon sexual orientation. The role of the hypothalamus in sexual orientation was further studied by Swaab, et al. Other researchers had hypothesized that differentiation of the hypothalamus occurred before birth. However, Swaab’s study showed that the sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) of more than 100 subjects decreased in volume and cell number in the females only 2-4 years postnatal. This finding complicated the findings of the brain studies, since not only chemical and hormonal factors, but also social factors, might have influenced this process.6 A study by Allen and Gorski examined the anterior commissure of the brain, finding that females and homosexual males exhibited a larger size than heterosexual males.7 However, later studies using larger sample sizes found no such differences.8 Complicating the issue of brain differences between homosexuals and heterosexuals is the problem that sexual experiences themselves can affect brain structure.9 So, the question will always be whether homosexual practice changes the brain or whether the brain results in homosexual practice. Since sexual differentiation occurs within the womb, as a result of hormonal influences, it has been hypothesized that homosexuality may result from a differential hormone balance in the wombs of those who eventually exhibit a homosexual orientation. Since hormonal levels within the womb are not available, proxies for hormonal influences have been used to examine the question of how hormonal influences might impact sexual orientation. These proxies include differences in skeletal size and shape, including the ratio of the long bones of the arms and legs relative to arm span or stature and the hand bones of adults (the ratio of the length of the various phalanges). Studies have shown that ratios of digit length are predictors of several hormones, including testosterone, luteinizing hormone and estrogen.10 In women, the index finger (2D, second digit) is almost the same length as the fourth digit (4D). However, in men, the index finger is usually shorter than the fourth. It has been shown that this greater 2D:4D ratio in females is established in two-year-olds. It has been hypothesized that the sex difference in the 2D:4D ratio reflects the prenatal influence of androgen on males. A study by Williams, et al. showed that the 2D:4D ratio of homosexual men was not significantly different from that of heterosexual men for either hand.11 However, homosexual women displayed significantly smaller 2D:4D ratios compared with heterosexual women (see figure to right). It has been hypothesized that women exposed to more androgens in the womb tend to express a homosexual orientation. However, since these hormone levels were never measured, one is left with the proxy of finger lengths as a substitute. Studies have found that the more older brothers a boy has, the more likely he is to develop a homosexual orientation.12 This study also found that homosexual men had a greater than expected proportion of brothers among their older siblings (229 brothers: 163 sisters) compared with the general population (106 males: 100 females). Males who had two or more older brothers were found to have lower 2D:4D ratios,11 suggesting that they had experienced increased androgens in the womb. Why increased androgens would predispose both males and females to be homosexual was not explained in the study. Another study examined the length of long bones in the arms, legs and hands. Both homosexual males and heterosexual females had less long bone growth in the arms, legs and hands, than heterosexual males or homosexual females.13 Accordingly, the researchers hypothesized that male homosexuals had less androgen exposure during development than male heterosexuals, while female homosexuals had greater steroid exposure during development than their heterosexual counterparts. Of course, with regard to male homosexuality, this study directly contradicted the presumed results of the Williams study above, which “showed” that males with multiple older brothers (who tended to be homosexual) experiencedincreased androgen exposure. A study of one homosexual vs. two heterosexual male triplets found that the homosexual triplets scored more on the female side of the Masculinity-Femininity scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory,14 suggesting a possible hormonal influence (decreased androgens) involved in male homosexual orientation. All of the studies reporting possible hormonal influence on homosexuality suffer from the lack of any real evidence that hormones actually play any role in sexual orientation. The fact that contradictory studies report increased11,15 vs. decreased13–14 androgens as a basis for homosexuality doesn’t provoke confidence that the proxies are really true. Obviously, a study that documented real hormone levels, as opposed to proxies, would probably provide more definitive data. Studies involving a rare hormonal imbalance, congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), caused by defective 21-hydroxylase enzyme, suggest that hormonal abnormalities can influence sexual orientation. CAH results in increased production of males hormones during development. In males, increased androgens has little effect. However, female fetuses that develop in this environment develop ambiguous external genitalia, which complicates subsequent development. In utero treatment with dexamethasone reduces the androgen imbalance, resulting in an individual who is genetically and phenotypically female. However, dexamethasone treatment also results in reduced homosexual orientation among treated females,16 suggesting that some homosexuality may result from hormonal influences during development. Homosexual rights groups have suggested that dexamethasone treatment not be given, because it reduces homosexual orientation in females affected by CAH. The observation that familial factors influence the prevalence of homosexuality led to a the initiation of number of twin studies, which are a proxy for the presence of possible genetic factors. Most of these early studies suffered from methodological flaws. Kallmann sampled subjects from correctional and psychiatric institutions—not exactly representative “normal” populations.17 Bailey et al. published a number of studies in the early 1990’s, examining familial factors involved in both male and female homosexuality. These studies suffered from the manner in which subjects were recruited, since the investigators advertised in openly gay publications, resulting in skewed populations.18 Later studies by the same group did not suffer from this selection bias, and found the heritability of homosexuality in Australia was up to 50 and 60% in females but only 30% in males.19 A study by Kendler et al. in 2000 examined 1,588 twins selected by a random survey of 50,000 households in the United States.20 The study found 3% of the population consisted of non-heterosexuals (homosexuals and bisexuals) and a genetic concordance rate of 32%, somewhat lower than than found in the Australian studies. The study lost statistical significance when twins were broken down into male and female pairs, because of the low rate (3%) of non-heterosexuals in the general U.S. population. A Finnish twin study reported the “potential for homosexual response,” not just overt homosexual behavior, as having a genetic component.21 On a twist on homosexual twin studies, an Australian research group examined the question of whether homophobia was the result of nature or nurture.22 Surprisingly, both familial/environmental and genetic factors seemed to play a role as to whether or not a person was homophobic. Even more surprising, a separate research group in the U.S. confirmed these results (also adding that attitudes towards abortion were also partly genetic).23 Now, even homophobes can claim that they were born that way! Twin studies suffer from the problem of trying to distinguish between environmental and genetic factors, since twins tend to live within the same family unit. A study examining the effect of birth order on homosexual preference concluded, “The lack of relationship between the strength of the effect and degree of homosexual feelings in the men and women suggests the influence of birth order on homosexual feelings was not due to a biological, but a social process in the subjects studied.”12 So, although the twin studies suggest a possible genetic component for homosexual orientation, the results are certainly not definitive. Genetic studies—the “gay gene” An examination of family pedigrees revealed that gay men had more homosexual male relatives through maternal than through paternal lineages, suggesting a linkage to the X chromosome. Dean Hamer24 found such an association at region Xq28. If male sexual orientation was influenced by a gene on Xq28, then gay brothers should share more than 50% of their alleles at this region, whereas their heterosexual brothers should share less than 50% of their alleles. In the absence of such an association, then both types of brothers should display 50% allele sharing. An analysis of 40 pairs of gay brothers and found that they shared 82% of their alleles in the Xq28 region, which was much greater than the 50% allele sharing that would be expected by chance.25 However, a follow-up study by the same research group, using 32 pairs of gay brothers and found only 67% allele sharing, which was much closer to the 50% expected by chance.26 Attempts by Rice et al. to repeat the Hamer study resulted in only 46% allele sharing, insignificantly different from chance, contradicting the Hamer results.27 At the same time, an unpublished study by Alan Sanders (University of Chicago) corroborated the Rice results.28 Ultimately, no gene or gene product from the Xq28 region was ever identified that affected sexual orientation. When Jonathan Marks (an evolutionary biologist) asked Hamer what percentage of homosexuality he thought his results explained, his answer was that he thought it explained 5% of male homosexuality. Marks’ response was, “There is no science other than behavioral genetics in which you can leave 97.5% of a phenomenon unexplained and get headlines.”29 Abusive childhood experiences A study of 13,000 New Zealand adults (age 16+) examined sexual orientation as a function of childhood history.30 The study found a 3-fold higher prevalence of childhood abuse for those who subsequently engaged in same sex sexual activity. However, childhood abuse was not a major factor in homosexuality, since only 15% of homosexuals had experienced abuse as children (compared with 5% among heterosexuals).30 So, it would appear from this population that only a small percentage of homosexuality (~10%) might be explained by early childhood abusive experiences. Sexual preference or orientation? If homosexual orientation were completely genetic, one would expect that it would not change over the course of one’s life. For females, sexual preference does seem to change over time. A 5-year study of lesbians found that over a quarter of these women relinquished their lesbian/bisexual identities during this period: half reclaimed heterosexual identities and half gave up all identity labels.31 In a survey of young minority women (16-23 years of age), half of the participants changed their sexual identities more than once during the two-year survey period.32 In another study of subjects who were recruited from organizations that serve lesbian/gay/bisexual youths (ages 14 to 21 years) in New York City, the percentage that changed from a lesbian/gay/bisexual orientation to a heterosexual orientation was 5% over the period of just 12 months (the length of the survey).33 Other studies have confirmed that sexual orientation is not fixed in all individuals, but can change over time, especially in women.34 A recent example of an orientation change occurred with The Advocate’s “Person of the Year” for 2005. Kerry Pacer was the youngest gay advocate, chosen for her initiation of a “gay-straight alliance” at White County High School in Cleveland, Georgia. However, four years later, she is raising her one year old daughter, along with the baby’s father.35 Another former lesbian, British comedienne Jackie Clune, spent 12 years in lesbian relationships before marrying a man and producing 4 children.36 Michael Glatze came out at age 20 and went on to be a leader in the homosexual rights movement. At age 30, he came out in the opposite direction, saying, “In my experience, “coming out” from under the influence of the homosexual mindset was the most liberating, beautiful and astonishing thing I’ve ever experienced in my entire life.”37 A 2011 study of Christian gays who wanted to change their sexual orientation found that 23% of the subjects reported a successful “conversion” to heterosexual orientation and functioning, while an additional 30% reported stable behavioral chastity with substantive dis-identification with homosexual orientation.38 However, 20% of the subjects reported giving up on the process and fully embraced a gay identity, while another 27% fell in between the two extremes.38 Obviously, for at least some individuals, being gay or straight is something they can choose. The question of nature vs. nurture can also be seen by examining children of homosexual vs. heterosexual parents. If homosexuality were purely biological, one would expect that parenting would not influence it. Paul Cameron published a study in 2006 that claimed that the children of homosexual parents expressed a homosexual orientation much more frequently than the general population.39 Although claims of bias were made against the study, another study by Walter Schuum in 2010 confirmed Cameron’s results by statistically examining the results of 10 other studies that addressed the question.40 In total, 262 children raised by homosexual parents were included in the analysis. The results showed that 16-57% of such children adopted a homosexual lifestyle. The results were even more striking in daughters of lesbian mothers, 33% to 57% of whom became lesbians themselves. Since homosexuals makeup only ~5% of the population, it is clear that parenting does influence sexual orientation. It always amazes me when people say that they were born gay. Looking back on my own experience, I would never say that I was “born straight.” I really didn’t have any interest in females until about the seventh grade. Before that time, they weren’t really interesting, since they weren’t interested in sports or riding bikes or anything else I liked to do. Homosexuality and Darwinism I am not a huge fan of Neo Darwinian evolution. Nevertheless, there is some clear evidence that natural selection (and sexual selection) does act upon populations and has acted on our own species to produce racial differences.41 Natural selection postulates that those genetic mutations that favor survival and reproduction will be selected, whereas those that compromise survival and reproduction will be eliminated. Obviously, a gene or series of genes that produce non-reproducing individuals (i.e., those who express pure homosexual behavior) will be rapidly eliminated from any population. So, it would be expected that any “gay gene” would be efficiently removed from a population. However, it is possible that a gene favoring male homosexuality could “hide” within the human genome if it were located on the X-chromosome, where it could be carried by reproducing females, and not be subject to negative selection by non-reproducing males. In order to survive, the gene(s) would be expected to be associated with higher reproductive capacity in women who carry it (compensating for the generation of non-reproducing males). I can’t imagine a genetic scenario in which female homosexuality would ever persist within a population. Real genetic studies? Within the last decade, genetic analysis of heritable traits has taken a huge step forward with the advent of DNA microarray technology. Using this technology, it is possible to scan large lengths of the human genome (even an entire genome wide scan—GWAS) for numerous individuals, at quite reasonable costs. This DNA microarray technology has led to the discovery of genes that are associated with complex diseases, such as Crohn’s Disease, which is the topic of my research. If homosexuality truly has a genetic component, DNA microarray studies would not only definitively prove the point, but would identify specific gene(s) or loci that might be associated with those who express a homosexual orientation. The first attempt to do genome wide scans on homosexual males was done by Mustanski et al. in 2005.42 The results suggested possible linkage near microsatellite D7S798 on chromosome 7q36. However, an attempt to repeat the finding (along with ~6000 well-defined SNPs spread comparatively evenly across the human genome) failed to find any significant SNPs.43 However, a third study using Chinese subjects found a weak association at the SHH rs9333613 polymorphism of 7q36.44 A more general study, examining mate choice among different populations, found no genetic link, prompting the investigators to speculate that such choices were “culturally driven.”45So, the preliminary studies on possible genetic causes of homosexual orientation tends to rule out any dramatic genetic component to sexual orientation. Why are people gay? The question of how homosexual orientation originates has been the subject of much press, with the general impression being promoted that homosexuality is largely a matter of genes, rather than environmental factors. However, if one examines the scientific literature, one finds that it’s not quite as clear as the news bytes would suggest. The early studies that reported differences in the brains of homosexuals were complicated by HIV infection and were not substantiated by larger, better controlled studies. Numerous studies reported that possible hormonal differences affected homosexual orientation. However, these studies were often directly contradictory, and never actually measured any hormone levels, but just used proxies for hormonal influences, without direct evidence that the proxies were actually indicative of true hormone levels or imbalances. Twin studies showed that there likely are genetic influences for homosexuality, although similar studies have shown some genetic influences for homophobia and even opposition to abortion. Early childhood abuse has been associated with homosexuality, but, at most, only explains about 10% of those who express a homosexual orientation. The fact that sexual orientation is not constant for many individuals, but can change over time suggests that at least part of sexual orientation is actually sexual preference. Attempts to find a “gay gene” have never identified any gene or gene product that is actually associated with homosexual orientation, with studies failing to confirm early suggestions of linkage of homosexuality to region Xq28 on the X chromosome. The question of genetic influences on sexual orientation has been recently examined using DNA microarray technology, although, the results have largely failed to pinpoint specific genes as a factor in sexual orientation. - Swaab, D.F. and E. Fliers. 1985. A sexually dimorphic nucleus in the human brain. Science 228:1112-1115. - Allen, L.S., M. Hines, J.E. Shryne and R.A. Gorski. 1989. Two sexually dimorphic cell groups in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 9:497-506. - LeVay, S. 1991. A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men. Science 253:1034-1037. - Gelman, D. Is This Child Gay? Born or Bred: The Origins of Homosexuality. Newsweek September 9, 1991, p. 52. - Byne W., S. Tobet, L. A. Mattiace, M. S. Lasco, E. Kemether, M. A. Edgar, S. Morgello, M. S. Buchsbaum, and L. B. Jones. 2001. The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: an investigation of variation with sex, sexual orientation, and HIV status. Horm. Behav. 40:86-92. - Swaab, D.F., L.J.G. Gooren, and M.A. Hofman. 1992. Gender and Sexual Orientation in Relation to Hypothalamic Structures. Horm. Res. 38 (Suppl. 2):51-61. - Allen, L. S. and R. A. Gorski. 1992. Sexual orientation and the size of the anterior commissure in the human brain. PNAS 89: 7199-7202. Allen, L. S. and R. A. Gorski. 1991. Sexual dimorphism of the anterior commissure and massa intermedia of the human brain. J. Comp. Neurol.312: 97-104. - K. M. Bishop, K. M. and D. Wahlsten. 1997. Sex Differences in the Human Corpus Callosum: Myth or Reality? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 21: 581-601. Lasco, M. S., T. J. Jordan, M. A. Edgar, C. K. Petito and W. Byne. 2002. A lack of dimorphism of sex or sexual orientation in the human anterior commissure. Brain Research 936: 95-98. - Breedlove, M.S. 1997. Sex on the brain. Nature 389: 801. - Manning, J.T., D. Scutt, J. Wilson and D. I. Lewis-Jones. 1998. The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction 13: 3000-3004.. - Williams, T. J., M. E. Pepitone, S. E. Christensen, B. M. Cooke, A. D. Huberman, N. J. Breedlove, T. J. Breedlove, C. L. Jordan, and S. M. Breedlove. 2000. Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. Nature 404: 455-456. - McConaghy, N., D. Hadzi-Pavlovic, C. Stevens, V. Manicavasagar, N. Buhrich, and U. Vollmer-Conna. 2006. Fraternal birth order and ratio of heterosexual/homosexual feelings in women and men. J. Homosex. 51:161-74. - Martin, J. T. and D. H. Nguyen. 2004. Anthropometric analysis of homosexuals and heterosexuals: implications for early hormone exposureHormones and Behavior 45: 31-39. - Hershberger, S.L., and N.L. Segal. 2004. The cognitive, behavioral, and personality profiles of a male monozygotic triplet set discordant for sexual orientation. Arch. Sex. Behav. 33:497-514. - McFadden, D. 2002. Masculinization effects in the auditory system. Arch. Sex. Behav. 31:99-111. - Fris�n L, Nordenstr�m A, Falhammar H, Filipsson H, Holmdahl G, Janson PO, Thor�n M, Hagenfeldt K, M�ller A, Nordenskj�ld A. 2009. Gender role behavior, sexuality, and psychosocial adaptation in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to CYP21A2 deficiency.J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 94:3432-3439. - Kallmann, F.J. 1952. Twin and sibship study of overt male homo-sexuality. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 4:136-146. - Bailey, J.M., and R.C. Pillard. 1991. A genetic study of male sexual orientation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48:1089-1096. Bailey, J.M., R.C. Pillard, M.C. Neale, and Y. Agyei. 1993. Heritable factors influence sexual orientation in women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry50:217-223. Bailey, J.M., and A.P. Bell. 1993. Familiality of female and male homosexuality. Behav. Genet. 23:313-322. Bailey, J.M., and D.S. Benishay. 1993. Familial aggregation of female sexual orientation. Am. J. Psychiatry 1993; 150:272-277. - Bailey, J.M., M.P. Dunne, and N.G. Martin. 2000. Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. J. Person Soc. Psychol. 78:524-536. Kirk, K., J. Bailey, and N. Martin. 2000. Etiology of male sexual orientation in an Australian twin sample, Psychology, Evolution & Gender 2: 301–311. Kirk, K., J. Bailey, M. Dunne, and N. Martin. 2000. Measurement models for sexual orientation in a community twin sample. Behavior. Genetics30: 345–356. - Kendler, K. S., L. M. Thornton, S. E. Gilman, and R. C. Kessler. 2000. Sexual Orientation in a U.S. National Sample of Twin and Nontwin Sibling Pairs. Am. J. Psychiatry 157:1843-1846. - Santtila, P., N. K. Sandnabba, N. Harlaar, M. Varjonen, K. Alanko, and B. von der Pahlen. 2008. Potential for homosexual response is prevalent and genetic. Biological Psychology 77: 102–105. - Verweij, K. J. H., S. N. Shekar, B. P. Zietsch, L. J. Eaves, J. M. Bailey, D. I. Boomsma, and N. G. Martin. 2008 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Individual Differences in Attitudes Toward Homosexuality: An Australian Twin Study Behav. Genet. 2008 May; 38(3): 257-265. - Eaves, L. J., and P. K. Hatemi. 2008. Transmission of Attitudes Toward Abortion and Gay Rights: Effects of Genes, Social Learning and Mate Selection. Behav. Genet. 38:247–256. - Dean Hamer gained even more notoriety by publishing a book entitled The God Gene: How Faith Is Hardwired into Our Genes, which aScientific American Review of The God Gene said should have been titled, “A Gene That Accounts for Less than One Percent of the Variance Found in Scores on Psychological Questionnaires Designed to Measure a Factor Called Self-Transcendence, Which Can Signify Everything from Belonging to the Green Party to Believing in ESP, According to One Unpublished, Unreplicated Study.” - Hamer, D. H., S. Hu, V. L. Magnuson, N. Hu, and A. M. Pattatucci. 1993. A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science 261: 321. - Hu S., A.M. Pattatucci, C. Patterson, L. Li, D.W. Fulker, S.S. Cherny, L. Kruglyak, and D.H. Hamer. 1995. Linkage between sexual orientation and chromosome Xq28 in males but not in females. Nat. Genet. 11:248-56. - Rice, G., C. Anderson, N. Risch, and G. Ebers. 1999. Male Homosexuality: Absence of Linkage to Microsatellite Markers at Xq28. Science 284:665-667. - Wickelgren, I. 1999. Discovery of ‘Gay Gene’ Questioned. Science 284: 571. - Marks, J. 2002. What It Means to Be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes. - Multiple Aspects of Sexual Orientation: Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates in a New Zealand National Survey J. Elisabeth Wells, Magnus A. McGee and Annette L. Beautrais DOI: 10.1007/s10508-010-9636-x - Diamond, L. M. 2003. Was it a phase? Young women’s relinquishment of lesbian/bisexual identities over a 5-year period. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.84: 352-64. - Diamond, L. M. 2000. Sexual identity, attractions, and behavior among young sexual-minority women over a 2-year period. Dev. Psychol. 36: 241-50. - Rosario M., E.W. Schrimshaw, J. Hunter, and L. Braun. 2006. Sexual identity development among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: consistency and change over time. J Sex Res. 43: 46-58. - Kinnish, K.K., Strassberg, D.S., Turner, C.W., 2005. Sex differences in the flexibility of sexual orientation: a multidimensional retrospective assessment. Archives of Sexual Behavior 34, 173–183. - Whoops! Lesbian ‘Person of the Year’ in Gay Press Goes Straight With Baby by Tim Graham. - Former Lesbian: I Craved Emotional Balance of Hetero Relationship by Kathleen Gilbert. - Michael Glatze. 2011. How a ‘gay rights’ leader became straight. WorldNetDaily. - Stanton L. Jones & Mark A. Yarhouse. 2011. A longitudinal study of attempted religiously-mediated sexual orientation change. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 37: 404-427. - Cameron P. 2006. Children of homosexuals and transsexuals more apt to be homosexual. J. Biosoc. Sci. 38:413-418. - Schumm, W. R. 2010. Children of homosexuals more apt to be homosexuals? A reply to Morrison and to Cameron based on an examination of multiple sources of data. J. Biosoc. Sci. 42:721-742. - See online slideshow beginning with Origin of the Races: Race Facts. - Mustanski, B. S., Dupree, M. G., Nievergelt, C. M., Bocklandt, S., Schork, N. J. & Hamer, D. H. 2005. A genome-wide scan of male sexual orientation. Hum. Genet. 116, 272–278 (2005). - Ramagopalan, S. V., D. A. Dyment, L. Handunnetthi, G. P. Rice and G. C. Ebers. 2010. A genome-wide scan of male sexual orientation. J. Hum. Genet. 55: 131–132. - Wang, B., Zhou S., Hong F., Wang J., Liu X., Cai Y., Wang F., Feng T., and Ma, X. 2011. Association Analysis Between the Tag SNP for Sonic Hedgehog rs9333613 Polymorphism and Male Sexual Orientation J. Androl. 2011 Sep 22. - Laurent, R., B. Toupance, and R. Chaix. 2012. Non-random mate choice in humans: insights from a genome scan. Molecular Ecology 21:587–596.

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ECB independence: concept, scope, and implications Power and accountability should be symmetrical This post is archived. Opinions expressed herein may no longer represent my current views. Links, images and other media might not work as intended. Information may be out of date. For further questions contact me. Over the last year or so, I have written at length about the independence and accountability of the European Central Bank. In the present article I consolidate my criticism of the status quo and further expand on it. The analysis centres on the particularities of the ECB’s institutional position and tackles the various arguments in support of it. Each point is addressed in its own section. The contents are outlined as follows: - definition of independence; - medium term outlook and election cycles; - narrow mandate and accountability; - statelessness and heterogeneity of the euro area. 1. Definition of independence The European Central Bank is the institution of the European Union tasked with performing the monetary function. The ECB is part of the Union-wide European System of Central Banks, while it coordinates the operations of the Eurosystem, which consists of the central banks of countries whose currency is the euro. The presence of these systems is important to note, as the provisions of the Treaties on independence cover them as well, thus removing the relevant power over national institutions from national will-formation. 1.1 Legal foundation of independence Article 130 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provides the legal basis. When exercising the powers and carrying out the tasks and duties conferred upon them by the Treaties and the Statute of the ESCB and of the ECB, neither the European Central Bank, nor a national central bank, nor any member of their decision-making bodies shall seek or take instructions from Union institutions, bodies, offices or agencies, from any government of a Member State or from any other body. The Union institutions, bodies, offices or agencies and the governments of the Member States undertake to respect this principle and not to seek to influence the members of the decision-making bodies of the European Central Bank or of the national central banks in the performance of their tasks. This is a particularly strong version of independence: - Inter-institutional. The ECB and the National Central Banks shall not take instruction from other EU institutions or national authorities. - Non allegience. Decision makers of the central banks are prohibited from doing the same, even when that concerns their own country/government. - Double enforcement. Not only are the central banks protected from external interference, but all other public stakeholders are further tasked with preserving this state of affairs. - Quasi permanence. The law in question is an international treaty, which means that it cannot be changed through the ordinary legislative procedures, neither at the European level nor the national one. EU Treaty amendments require consensus from all the Member States and, more generally, the process is particularly cumbersome as it unfolds against the backdrop of inter-state power politics and crossing veto rights. 1.2 Four aspects of independence In conceptual terms, independence is four-fold: (i) institutional, (ii) instrumental or operational, (iii) financial, and (iv) personal. The first concerns the separation of powers in a rule-of-law-based democracy (a republican order, in the sense of “Republic”—not to be confused with the right wing party of the USA). This principle stipulates that the cardinal functions of statehood—executive, legislative, judiciary, monetary, military—should be performed by different institutions in order to diffuse power and prevent the rise of autocracy or practices of that sort. The principle is further reinforced by concomitant constitutional norms such as limited government, or in the case of the European Union the consubstantial principles of conferral, subsidiarity, and proportionality. Competences conferred to EU entities should be defined explicitly, their scope should be commensurate with the content of the policies involved so that it does not interfere with the vertical separation of powers (between local, regional, national, and supranational levels), and any actions taken therefrom should be proportional to the ends sought while never creating material conditions for upsetting this state of affairs. We will return to this notion when considering the ECB’s recourse to ‘unconventional’ monetary instruments and how these impact matters beyond the confines of monetary policy. The second aspect of independence, instrumental or operational, concerns the tools that the institution may use in pursuit of its mandate. Such discretion should be interpreted narrowly, for any action must remain consistent with the general norms of the polity (operational independence does not allow for arbitrary measures that would be of dubious legality in the republican order at-large). Financial independence consists in the budgetary sufficiency of the institution in the pursuit of its tasks. Without enough resources, the institution’s overall independence could be compromised by emerging dependency needs and/or its capacity to fulfil its mandate would be severely constrained by material limitations. As for personal independence, the fourth aspect here considered, it protects individuals working for the institution from external influence, including from any possible conflicting interests. If decision makers could be guided into certain courses of action then the independence of the institution itself would practically be undermined. 2. Medium term outlook and election cycles The ECB pursues its mandate of price stability with a medium term outlook. The rationale is both economic and political. The former consists in the mechanics of macroeconomics. Fluctuations in the price level are gradual. Triggers tend to have an incremental, trickle-down effect. This is particularly true for monetary policy whose effects are typically felt in the real economy long after a certain set of measures is introduced, due to delays in the ‘transmission mechanism’. Monetary policy passes through intermediaries, private banks which have their own incentives and priorities, which practically places a [time] barrier between public policy and the real economy. The central bank’s efforts to offer a direction to the financial sector receives responses that are distributed over a several-month-long temporal horizon. It would thus be inappropriate to expect policy deliverables over the very short term. As for the political reasoning of the medium term outlook of monetary policy, it is construed as one of technocratic adequacy. Politicians face election cycles which skew their incentives, or so the thinking goes, in favour of short term measures, even when these are tokenistic in nature and contrary to the longer term interests of society. Elections as such are therefore treated as an effective hindrance to optimal policy making and implementation, for they force expedience and self-interest over the general good. Such a view is peddled as a more or less evident fact of political life, a necessary evil of democracy that should, nonetheless, be confined to politicians. Technocrats, however, should be insulated from public scrutiny in order to focus on their task and, as the thinking goes, deliver optimal results. While there is truth in the economic underpinnings of medium-termism, at least for as long as central banks are not eager to embrace alternatives that cut the intermediary (e.g. “helicopter money”), the political reasoning is outright spurious.1 It rests on a tangle of fallacies and misunderstandings. It first introduces an a priori disadvantage for all politicians, namely a structural or else intrinsic weakness in the job itself, which hampers efforts to do good policy-making while striving to remain in office. The politician is depicted as a charlatan and an opportunist with no intention whatsoever of doing the right thing. If they do, they get punished for not prioritising their own short-term agenda. While there may be instances of politicians that conform to such a caricature, the phenomenon cannot be generalised. Not only is it erroneous to think of charlatanry as germane to public life, it is also presumptuous to claim that the electorate are but a bunch of gullible fools willing to reward only the connivers and those with dubious intentions, rather than members of society who exhibit integrity and professionalism while in office. The fact of the matter is that electorates do care about the longer term implications of policy and do recognise the merits of governments that deliver tangible results over a number of years. For example, the French are rightfully not rewarding Mr. Hollande and his party because of their spectacular policy failures and inability to deliver on their promises (such as the 70% tax on the super-rich or the supposed repeal of the Fiscal Compact). In contrast, the Germans did support Ms. Merkel’s handling of the euro crisis and might still renew their commitment to her brand of government (whether this is right or not is a matter of opinion—the point is that citizens are not idiots). The tacit elitism of such misconceptions of democracy, fails to account for the actuality of policy-making and the content thereof. At the surface level, most areas of policy do in fact have a medium to longer term horizon. Think of everything pertaining to the justice system, with such matters of principle as the protection of fundamental rights. These do not change arbitrarily every four or five years. The same can be claimed for police cooperation and the application of criminal law, the formulation and conduct of foreign policy, education, and economic policy. Europe’s economic governance, as well as the framework for bank supervision, was refashioned between 2010-2014. The expectation is that no substantial change will occur to it at least until 2025. Even then, reforms will not seek to start from scratch but instead iterate on what already is in place. States, institutional orders, do have a certain continuity. It is preposterous to depict them as erratic magnitudes that are subject to radical change at regular intervals. In addition, the peculiarities of the EU should be mentioned to further dismiss the political narrative of technocratic medium-termism. EU policy can only change once widespread consensus is reached (whether this is desirable or not is another discussion altogether). Here is an overview: - the European Council must agree on a policy agenda for the coming years; - the Commission must then prepare new draft legislation, which either repeals, amends, complements, or supersedes existing laws; - the European Parliament and the Council of the EU, must separately follow their own procedures for amending each Commission proposal, and then agree on a common text; - the end product becomes law of the Union and is implemented by the Member States. If it is not already evident, European policy goes through a minefield of potential blocks and challenges. While this multifaceted complexity may render the process relatively slow and seemingly cumbersome, it does nevertheless ensure that decisions are as broad-based as possible under the circumstances. What this means is that the supposed short-termist drive of politicians is but a chimera, a fiction for providing justification—the veneer of authority—to an otherwise weak case. All policy has a medium term horizon, not just monetary matters. Consequently, the ECB should not be thought of as being in an exceptional position where it requires bespoke solutions to tackle the challenges it faces. The rules of conduct that hold true for all decision makers should extend to the ECB as well. 3. Narrow mandate and accountability The ECB (the European System of Central Banks) has a seemingly straightforward objective. To ensure price stability. On the face of it, the mandate is explicit and limited in scope, which, if indeed so, provides a clear benchmark against which the ECB’s conduct can be evaluated. Accountability is thus a function of compliance with the mandate. This is also known as “output legitimacy”, which practically means that an institution is given a specific job and no one can question its conduct for as long as it delivers what is expected. The argument is plausible but only at a theoretical level where the mandate is indeed narrow, explicit, and does not leave room for diverging interpretations. In the ECB’s case, the opposite is true. - Obscure mandate. The Treaties envisage a generic commitment to macroeconomic phenomena that are not defined in any concrete terms: what exactly is “price stability” in quantitative terms, what methodology is to be employed or else what is the temporal horizon of evaluating it? Even worse, the entity entrusted with answering such questions is the one expected to be held accountable against them: the ECB. - Conflict of roles. The ECB has provided substance to the aforementioned Treaty provision. It comes in the form of an equally problematic definition, which is an inflation rate that is below, but close, to 2% over the medium term. No objective means exist for knowing exactly how close to 2% the rate should be and, more importantly, there is no specific range of years that qualifies as “medium term”. It could be anything from a bit more than 18 months to 7+ years.2 To further complicate things, the entity that is once again responsible for providing direction and clarity on the matter is the ECB. The mandate is inadequate and the ECB has excessive power over its definition, which gives it open space for deflecting any serious effort at scrutinising its conduct. All the ECB has to do is find clever rhetorical tricks of explaining how its actions are aligned with the purposefully imprecise definition of price stability it has adopted. This state of affairs, apart from being a glaring flaw of the Treaties (certainly worse than that spurious “no bailout clause”), is in direct contradiction to the principles of a modern republic, in particular the separation of powers. The criteria of an institution’s accountability are established externally to it. The Commission is held accountable by the European Parliament. The Council, even though it is not a second parliamentary chamber, is severally answerable to each national electorate. Such accountability also applies to the European Council. The European Court of Justice is accountable by virtue of its relationship with national supreme courts as well as its overall alignment with the specifics of the European integration process. Whereas the ECB is practically accountable to itself and only indirectly and ‘communicatively’ to the Parliament and European citizens in general. Yet the problem is not merely constitutional. It also concerns the substance of policy. In contrast to other specialised institutions, such as courts of law, the central bank can potentially influence, if not determine, areas of policy well beyond its nominal powers, and in manner that is rather immediate and direct. Consider the ECB’s quantitative easing. This is an initiative taken under the pretext of price stability, whereby the ECB pumps oodles of euro into the financial system in exchange for assets. In effect, the central bank is subsidising segments of the private sector, large corporations, which is a form of fiscal and social policy in that it redistributes resources while picking winners and losers. Unlike any government, the ECB does not have to go through a lengthy legislative process, it does not need to meet and heed the concerns of civic society, nor does it have to gain the approval of wide parts of the population. It proceeds with its business under the cover of an obscure mandate that no democratic force can pin down, and defends its actions by embellishing them with meaningless language and unnecessary jargon. The institutional independence of the ECB is excessive, disproportionate to its role in the EU legal order, and far from the standard that applies to other EU institutions. Independence in the sense of “checks and balances” is indeed valuable and desirable, provided there are checks and balances which are sufficient and effective. This is not the case. Moreover, the ease with which the ECB can transition from ‘conventional’ to ‘unconventional’ measures, and the ramifications the latter have on normative issues of a fiscal, economic, and social sort, should actually call for an ever more strict accountability framework. The mandate should be rendered explicit in the Treaties. The method should be subject to review by the co-legislative institutions. Fears of short-termist opportunism are exaggerations and misunderstandings of how democracy works in general, while they completely disregard the peculiarities of EU politics, in particular with regard to the need for widespread consensus. 4. Statelessness and heterogeneity of the euro area There is this view that the independence of the ECB is further justified by the idiosyncracies of European integration. The euro area is not a nation state. It is a group of nations that share a common currency and which have opted to closely coordinate a number of their policies. Against this backdrop, the argument goes, the ECB needs to enjoy full independence in order to provide a clear benchmark and a direction amid the heterogeneous and potentially heteroclite whole of the currency area. National leaders can thus trust in the ECB to provide for a stable indicator at the supranational level. As with previous arguments in favour of the status quo, this view cannot withstand scrutiny. At first, it treats the currency area as an amalgamation of seemingly incompatible nation states, whose sole strong connection is the shared currency. That is flatly incorrect. The euro is but an extra layer to a much wider process of European integration. The national economies that have ended up comprising the euro area already had harmonised a wide range of their policies and had established a single market among them. And that had been achieved courtesy of deliberate concerted action at the supranational level. The EU has decision-making mechanisms that provide for the coordination of political action and, hence, ensure its homogeneity. That Europe or the euro area is not a nation state, does not mean that it is not isomorphic to a state in a number of important areas. There are processes for governance, there is a legislative procedure, there are elections, there exists an independent judiciary, etc. Whatever flaws the main EU edifice has are of degree not category. They could have been better even if the underlying constitutional norms remained constant. What is indeed heterogeneous in Europe are the historical path dependencies of each nation. These however have little to do with the role of the European Central Bank or monetary policy in general. They just reflect the cultural milieu in which the integration process unfolds. No wonder the EU’s motto is “united in diversity”. Differences of history are to be overcome or otherwise synthesised by means of the European integration process, as all Member States move in the same direction and stand on a common normative foundation. That is the material implication of policy harmonisation at the supranational level. As for the statelessness of the euro, the fact that the single currency is not backed by a single sovereign, here too the issue is not peculiar to either the ECB or monetary policy. It touches on matters of legitimacy and accountability of the architecture as whole, where indeed we witness a tension between the supranational uniformity of decisions (they apply to the system as a whole) that is not checked against a commensurate demos. To render this phenomenon concrete (I call it “sovereignty mismatch”) consider the accountability of the European Council which decides for the EU as a whole, but its individual members, the heads of state or government, are only accountable to their respective electorates. The European Council cannot be held accountable as such, as a body. At any rate, the point is that the peculiarities of EU politics or the composition of the euro area, do not merit bespoke institutional arrangements that practically insulate the ECB from democratic will-formation. Independence should be limited to the separation of powers The ECB finds itself in a particularly favourable position. It practically faces no popular resistance to its policies. It circumvents such issues altogether. No supranational or national authority has sufficient means of scrutinising the EU’s monetary policy. Meanwhile, the Treaties fail to offer a robust legal framework that provides clarity and confidence in the monetary authority’s discretionary margins. In contrast, the ECB has the luxury to adapt the generic Treaty provisions on price stability to its specific needs and, furthermore, to interpret them in ways that suit its case. Given such power, the only way the ECB could be found at a fault and called into question, would be for its communication department to spectacularly undo itself (will not happen). What derives from the analysis of the main themes of ECB independence is that an otherwise sound premise, the separation of powers in a democracy, is misused, poorly implemented, inwardly corrupted, and consequently rendered undesirable in the context of the Eurosystem’s monetary policy. The independence of the ECB is excessive and misaligned with the standard enjoyed by the rest of the Union’s institutions. It positions the euro as an instrument of elitism and even corporatism, especially in light of the ease with which the ECB effectively subsidises the upper echelons of the private sector. The technical nature of monetary policy, the fact that it requires a medium term horizon to yield results, is no compelling reason to deviate from the constitutional standards applied to other institutions. Most, if not all, areas of policy have a longer term orientation. The view that politicians are mere opportunists that move with the ebb and flow of election cycles, is dangerously misinformed while veering on technocratic supremacism. Policy tends to exhibit continuity over election cycles, as differences of opinion at the rhetorical level are ironed out through the legislative process due to the need of finding room for compromise. This is even more so at the European level, where any kind of reform requires widespread consensus at both national and supranational levels. As for the specifics of the European Union, in particular the fact that it is not a nation state, these have no implication on the role of the ECB and the functioning of monetary policy. There is no excuse for the present state of affairs. It is, at first, a lack of foresight from the drafters of the European Treaties and, secondly, the end result of a concatenation of misunderstandings by those defending the status quo. The topic of ECB independence, apart from its obvious constitutional dimension, touches on immediate issues of economic and social policy. It also brings into question the overall functioning of the European Union and the effectiveness of its democratic norms. Monetary policy must indeed be supported with the necessary means and resources for meeting its clearly defined objective, within a clearly delineated mandate. Nonetheless, this cannot come at the expense of democracy and the concomitant need for the legitimation of policies with redistributive effects. The ECB’s excessively favourable institutional position, apart from being unjust, offers a broad surface of attack against the EU by those with no intention of improving the integration process. It would be a lamentable error to assume that matters of monetary policy are the domain of the specialist and that citizens and their representatives have no say on the matter. What the ECB represents, what it does and fails to, has a harmful impact on the image of the European project as a whole.

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Since 1999, the DoD hasn’t used the TAFIM, and it’s been eliminated from all process documentation. TOGAF stands for The Open Group Architecture Framework.The most recent version is TOGAF 9.1, published in December 2011. The TOGAF® Standard, a standard of The Open Group, is a proven Enterprise Architecture methodology and framework used by the world’s leading organizations to improve business efficiency. There are currently eight certified TOGAF tools and 71 accredited courses offered from 70 organizations. 2.2 What is Architecture in the Context of the TOGAF Standard? This architecture tailoring may include It is a partial representation of a whole system that addresses several concerns of several stakeholders. The major components within an Architecture Repository are as follows: In order to carry out architectural activity effectively within an enterprise, it is necessary to put in place an appropriate For example, an Architecture Definition Document is a deliverable that documents an Architecture Description. and their relationships to each other, and the constraints and requirements on a cycle of architecture development. Introduction to the Guide1 Enterprise Architecture (EA) is a rapidly evolving but still immature discipline; however, there is considerable knowledge about the discipline available. The ADM can be adapted and customized to a specific organizational need, which can then help inform the business’s approach to information architecture. architectural output at different levels of abstraction, created by the ADM. It is a real, measurable … In this context, the TOGAF ADM can be regarded as describing a process lifecycle that operates at multiple levels within the An architecture domain in enterprise architecture is a broad view of an enterprise or system. TAFIM was initially developed by US Department of Defense. Architecture domains, the architecture development method, and the enterprise continuum. Introduction to Part IV) provides a structural model for In effect, an Enterprise Architecture practice The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) is an enterprise architecture methodology that offers a high-level framework for enterprise software development. enterprise - studies have demonstrated a correlation between increased shareholder value and well-governed enterprises, Integrates with existing processes and methodologies and complements functionality by adding control capabilities, A definition of the deliverables that the architecting activity should produce, A description of the method by which this should be done. In that time, a number of enterprise-architectural methodologies have come and gone. This pillar divides enterprise architecture into four key domains. 1. Two of the key elements of any Enterprise Architecture framework are: With some exceptions, the majority of Enterprise Architecture frameworks focus on the first of these - the specific set of The TOGAF Architecture Content Framework (see Part IV, 29. TOGAF is a budget-friendly certification. terminology drawn from relevant standards, and commonly accepted terminology that is familiar to the majority of the TOGAF ITIL describes design at a solution (architecture) level. far-reaching strategic consequences for the organization, Greater shareholder value; in particular, Enterprise Architecture increasingly represents the core intellectual property of the The most recent version of TOGAF was updated to include: The TOGAF certification from The Open Group consists of two levels: Level 1 TOGAF Certification, which covers the foundations of the TOGAF 9.1; and Level 2 TOGAF Certification, which covers your working knowledge of TOGAF and all relevant technology, tools and concepts. Senior Writer, Barring Architecture Capabilities set up to purely support change delivery programs, it is increasingly recognized that a To this end, and over ADM in such a way are given in Part II, 4.3 Adapting the ADM Should you care about a field that is 20 years old? First developed in 1995, TOGAF was based on the US Department of Defense Technical Architecture Framework for Information Management (TAFIM) It is a model used in the field of Enterprise Architecture … It makes clear that its purpose is to support and enable EA. TOGAF is a framework that is used for the development of enterprise architecture, using different strategies. It’s also a vendor-neutral certification that has global recognition. TOGAF is a management framework that features and promotes the role of architects. Applications architecture:a blueprint for structuring and deploying application systems and in accordance with business goals, other organizational frameworks and all core business processes. define the purpose of Enterprise Architecture define what is a framework and it's usage in architecture describe who is The Open Group and the multiples components in TOGAF® define the multiple … Building blocks can be defined at various levels of detail, depending on what stage of architecture development has been The TOGAF certification is especially useful for enterprise architects, since it’s a common methodology and framework used in the field. includes establishing an architecture framework, developing architecture content, transitioning, and governing the realization of The ADM helps businesses establish a process around the lifecycle of enterprise architecture. The Architecture Development Method (ADM) is at the heart of TOGAF. organization, operating within a holistic governance framework and producing aligned outputs that reside in an Architecture may also describe other building blocks, such as the actors involved in the process (e.g., a Customer Services Representative). comprises two complementary concepts: the Architecture Continuum and the Solutions Continuum. Enterprise architecture guides your organization’s business, information, process, and technology decisions to enable it to execute its business strategy and meet customer needs. The benefits of Architecture Governance include: Further detail on establishing an Enterprise Architecture Capability is given in Part VI, 39. readership. Architectural Domains Enterprise Architecture is derived from the understanding that technology exists to fulfill business needs. TOGAF, an acronym for The Open Group Architecture Framework, is intended to be a standard way to design and implement architectures for very large computer systems. 4 trends fueling hybrid-work strategies in 2021, Why ERP projects fail: Finding the gaps in your program plans, Carrier and AWS partner on innovative cold-chain platform, Customer-focused IT: A key CIO imperative, post-COVID, Phillip Morris CTO scraps bimodal IT for consumer-centric model, Perfect strangers: How CIOs and CISOs can get along, Top 5 strategic priorities for IT leaders in 2021, What is enterprise architecture? Because the TOGAF standard is a generic framework and intended to be used in a wide variety of environments, it provides a all architecturally significant activity is controlled and aligned within a single framework. However, it is often treated as a general purpose analysis … In all cases, it is expected that the architect will adapt and build on the TOGAF framework in order to define a tailored method reached. Building and above the core processes defined within the ADM, an Enterprise Architecture practice should establish capabilities in the must be run like any other operational unit within a business; i.e., it should be treated like a business. decision-making at lower levels ensures oversight at an appropriate level within the enterprise of decisions that may have The structure of the TOGAF Architecture Repository is shown in Figure 2-4 . relevant. For more IT management certifications, see "10 IT management certifications for IT leaders.". The Enterprise Continuum TOGAF is based on TAFIM (Technical Architecture Framework for Information Management), an IT management framework developed by the U.S. Defense Department in the 1990s. The relationships between deliverables, artifacts, and building blocks are shown in Figure 2-1 . A framework for transformation, Top 13 enterprise architecture tools for 2020, Sponsored item title goes here as designed, What is an enterprise architect? For example, a The Principal Solutions architect will also ensure the Enterprise Applications development is aligned to leading industry best practices across SAP, non-SAP & other Cloud…Title -Director, Solution Architecture Enterprise … The Open Group TOGAF® 9 standard is the global industry standard Enterprise Architecture framework utilized by the world’s leading organizations to improve efficiency. Architects executing the ADM will produce a number of outputs as a result of their efforts, such as process flows, architectural Certification is offered through The Open Group at both individual and organizational levels and it does not need to be renewed. It is positioned as an ‘open, industry consensus framework for enterprise architecture… TOGAF describes design at an enterprise architecture level. Repository. As a result, the TOGAF framework may be used either in its own right, with the generic deliverables that it describes; or else There are four architecture domains that are commonly accepted as subsets of an overall Enterprise Architecture, all of which understanding and co-operation between stakeholders and practitioners at different levels. An CIO |. Definitions and Part Architecture Landscape at a point in time. use, and maintenance of an Enterprise Architecture. The Open Group took over TOGAF in 2005 and released TOGAF 8.1.1 in November 2006. TOGAF® certification is the most widely-recognized certification in the Enterprise Architecture … The year 2007 marks the 20-year anniversary of enterprise architecture. All data is a concrete, valuable asset to an enterprise. Copyright © 2018 IDG Communications, Inc. An overview Model for the development of enterprise … An explains how generic solutions can be leveraged and specialized in order to support the requirements of an individual organization. Amazon Web Services ... Enterprise Architecture Domains Enterprise architecture guides your organization’s business, information, process, and technology … TOGAF or any other EA framework. It’s an extensive document — but you don’t have to adopt every part of TOGAF. requirements, project plans, project compliance assessments, etc. It was originally developed by the Open Group Consortium members, and it used to have technical architectures, though the domains for enterprise … the TOGAF standard aligns the framework with current business best practice and also ensures a level of visibility, guidance, and 2.3 What Kind of Architecture Does the TOGAF Standard Deal With? TOGAF 7 was released in December 2001 as the “Technical Edition,” followed by TOGAF 8 Enterprise Edition in December 2002; it was then updated to TOGAF 8.1 in December 2003. In the recent years The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF 2011) has gained prominence as the best-known framework for EA practice. 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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MOMENTS OF SYMMETRY -WILSON'S THEORIES FOR GENERATING MICROTONAL SCALES OF ANY SIZE INTERVAL By Kraig Grady (Cultural Liaison-North American Embassy of Anaphoria Island) 6/17/2007 [revised 10/2014] all rights reserved. ~Comments and Questions welcome~ Let it be known that these archives have no relation to other interpretations of this theroy. While terms found herein have been borrowed, used, or even undermined by others, these archives are essential for fostering the vision of Wilson's original work and thereby deflecting misinterpretations. Link to Wilsonic app which includes interactive MOS exploration --- Link to Stiltner's MOS generator for equal divisions -- Link to Diego Villaseñor"s wilson-tunings.netlify.app a bit of Wilson's humor Definition of Moment of Symmetry CLIFF NOTE DEFINITION A Moment of Symmetry is a scale that consists of: 1. A generator (of any size, for example a 3/2 or a fifth in 12 equal temperament) which is repeatedly superimposed but reduced within 2. An Interval of Equivalence commonly called a period (of any size, for example most commonly an octave). 3. A Moment of Symmetry is formed where each scale degree or scale unit size will be represented by no more than two sizes and two sizes only (Large = L and small = s). 4.The relative number of L and s intervals is coprime, i.e. they share no common factors other than 1. 5. The numerator (generator) and denominator (period) representing MOS are also co-prime. [3a.] Wilson expands the process to create Secondary or Sub-moment MOS patterns. Following the example of cycles of Japanese pentatonics derived from the 7 tone Pythagorean chain (an MOS scale) shown to him by Tanabe, he generalizes the principle to include all MOS scales containing a smaller MOS embedded within it. While keeping the units of scale steps constant, one rotates the smaller MOS set around the parent MOS until the cycle is complete. The Tanabe Cycle is illustrated on page 13 of the document. He often referred to this secondary level as what directed him to his concept of MOS patterns A 'constant structure' (commonly of a multi-limit tuning) is a scale where every occurrence of a ratio will always be the same number of steps or units. This term he later used to differentiate from the strict MOS formed of a consistent generator size. A constant structure can be thought of as a 'MOS' with a variable generator size accommodating the similar size intervals found when using tunings with more than one harmonic limit. THE BACKGROUND, THE QUESTION, THE APPROACH, AND THE RESULTS Erv Wilson perceived two contrasting forces that influence what makes up a scale, harmonic and melodic. While he understood the influence of timbre, he felt it had little influence in the actual making of a chain that started and stopped at certain points. Being that we have many cultures whose music is melodically more than harmonically based, Wilson posed a question. "What makes people gravitate toward certain types of scales like a 5 or 7 tone one and why do we find so few of others, say that are six or eight." Moments of Symmetry satisfied many of these examples as an influence even if not strictly applied. On one level it is a very simple idea that gaps in a scale would be filled with similar or like intervals. Hence it is often done intuitively. The Moments of Symmetry appear to have been felt quite intuitively, both individually and culturally even in higher limit tunings. Both the scales of Partch and Novaro exhibit this intuitive application. More importantly, it offers us a gateway into an almost infinite family of new scales that the conditions have not been ripe to manifest. Moments of Symmetry do not to attempt to explain all scales. The enharmonic and other tetrachordal scales are good examples of those that don't fit. What is important about them is that they always sound like cohesive scales. On a personal level, I have received numerous comments from listeners about how the scales I use hold together, not knowing or being concerned that they are Moments of Symmetry. While possibly more mathematically defined, some have found Rothenberg’s concept of propriety more useful for that reason. I include references at the end for the reader’s own comparison. They do diverge most noticeably with Wilson’s illustration of Secondary MOS patterns discussed later. The importance of this should not be underestimated for they represent what Wilson considers often the more interesting scale formations. Erv was not convinced of propriety in that he was able to show Chalmers an improper scale that showed no ambiguity in the fourth being different than the fifth or third which according to his theory should have been there. Wilson sees the role of a theorist as someone that makes music makers aware of the potentials of given material or constructs which might be useful to the actual artist who makes music. It is for this reason he prefers to present his ideas on a level intelligible to that audience. His work, if any critctism can be said to be too brief for this form, but it was always intended to accompany verbal descriptions. WHAT ARE MOMENTS OF SYMMETRY? A Moment of Symmetry is a scale where there are only two size steps. It is formed by the interaction of two intervals. The first is what is referred to as the 'generator', an interval that is superimposed over and over in a chain. The second is referred to as the ‘interval of equivalence’ , or period, most commonly (but not limited to) the octave. Whenever a superposition of a ‘generator’ exceeds this ‘interval of equivalence’ it is transposed within its compass. The most common example is the Pythagorean series where we have a generator of a 3/2, a fifth, which is superimposed and reduced within the octave, the interval of equivalence. Each time we add a note we do not arrive at a Moment of Symmetry scale as a result, only when we have two and only two size steps. Wilson in his paper refers to these steps as large (L) and small (s). The five-tone and seven-tone series are the most common examples of those that occur with the 3/2. To be an MOS though it must be true that every number of steps or units of the scale will also only have two step sizes, one large and one small size. THE LETTER. (http://anaphoria.com/mos.pdf) The goal here is to guide the reader through this somewhat informal letter to John Chalmers. Wilson’s first example of an MOS (an abbreviated form that Wilson finds “unpoetic” but we succumb since it is so widely used) is shown within a 12-tone scale. In the diagram on Page 1, the numbers along the top represent the 12 tone steps or units, and the numbers below represent the number of ‘fourths’ or the 5 unit intervals (e.g. unit equals steps as in 5 semitone steps in a fourth…) one has to superimpose to find that position within 12. Wilson starts with 0 because at the starting point we have not yet proceeded up any fourths. After the 2 and 3 note scales the pentatonic is formed by going up a succession of 4 fourths above our beginning note. At this point we return to our beginning note in what is called the disjunction. The disjunction is found at the end of the chain and a typical in size, but will be subtended (in between) by the same number of steps or units. This brings use cyclically back to our starting point.. Wilson states that the disjunction functions ‘melodically’ within the context of the scale even if of a different size. Except in exceptional cases, the disjunction interval will not exceed nor be smaller than those intervals formed of larger or smaller number of steps. In the middle of Page 2 Wilson takes the 7 tone MOS and looks at all the 5 tone subsets of it by treating the 7-tone scale in the same fashion he treated the 12-tone scale to create what he calls ‘binary depth’. After mapping the chain of fourths under the 12 units, he provides, the seven pentatonics formed by taking two steps at a time. He then octave reduces these in order to show the types ‘trichords’ that are formed. A trichord being analogous to a tetrachord except we have only two tones instead of three within the fourth. On Page 3 Wilson shows the various character of trichords found in these pentatonics. On Page 4 and 5 shows all the Moments of Symmetry of a 17 tone scale using different generators. He points out complementary sets as he found them musically useful. On Page 6 the "depth" is extended even further. First taking 17 units at a time of the 41-tone scale he forms a 17-tone MOS (the 10-2 should be read as two numbers one below the 6 and the other below the 7). Then he takes 5 units of this 17 to form a 7 tone scale. Then he goes through all of the 7-tone sub-MOS scales found taking 5 units at a time of this 17-tone scale in the same way he went around the pentatonics in the 7 tone scale. Page 7 and 8 shows a Just Intonation interpretation of the MOS patterns on page 6 with the revised version first repeating the numbers at the top while the next page shows how it articulate Helmholtz's 1/8 skisma temperament. At the top of Page 9, Wilson illustrates a sequence in which a generator that is 3/7ths of an octave as it get progressively smaller will form MOS scales of process of getting smaller passes through 12 ET, 5ET, 13 ET, and finally 8 ET . Wilson at this point used Greek letters in keeping with Yasser, who was both well known and Wilson's starting point in investigating different tunings. Wilson recognized that one could pick a scale formed of a generator at any point along this continuum. The chart shows how at these points where it coincides with an ET, it very nature can and does change. He has a chart illustrating the continuum between 0/1 and 1/2 here http://anaphoria.com/line.pdf On Page 9 and 10 Wilson uses annotation unique to this paper. He explains on the bottom of page 12 the small “e” standing for equal, in this 13 ET. The small numerical superscripts indicating the generator is size of units with the large number the actual steps to the scale. In the first example an 8-tone scale made of a 3 unit generator [ the sign ‘ ) ' means 'taken out of' in this case 13]. The next example might be easier to read backward. One makes an 8-tone MOS out of a generator of 3 units of 13ET as before, then one then forms a 5 tone scale the generator is now 2 units (5) from 13 ET that when one has an , then illustrates how this same generator will form a 5 tone sub-MOS scales whose generator is 2 units of the 8 tone scale. Thus Wilson shows the possibility of having what one could refer to “trinary depth”, but Wilson does not introduce this term. How far can one go with this process? This is up to ones taste and sense of scale in the material one is using. At the bottom of Page 10 Wilson returns to the pentatonic found on page 13 as the Tanabe Cycle. On Page 11 he lists without explanation 11 different 7-tone scales found later in Xenharmonikon 9, The Marwa permutations, fig 1e. Page 3 (http://anaphoria.com/xen9mar.pdf). Something the reader is free to pursuit there. Page 12 shows a 13-tone keyboard that might be Wilson having some fun. The joke being that if on retains the names of fourths one finds that E and B are now higher than F and C. Page 13 brings us to The Tanabe Cycle, which shows a “historical” use of the MOS idea in Japanese music. This appears to be the fountainhead in which Wilson observed what Tanabe had shown him and noticed the underlining pattern. So he is giving credit where he feels credit is due. Page 14 shows the variety of scales within the 7 tone scale by placing them on a single tonic. The letter names on the left shows where the scales could be found. It also shows the common tone modulations of the 7-tone scale in a cycle of fourths, which results in 13 tones that one, is more likely to hear as a 12-tone scale with a 'comma' inflection. Page 15 shows the 5 tone sub MOS of 7 tones scale and a possible 'Kornerup' type version of the scale. Kornerup envisioned the Yasserian sequence as converging toward these relationships of large to small intervals. Page 16 and 17 clarify how every size steps will have the same properties of only two sizes (L and s) FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS BY WILSON BEYOND THIS LETTER. Zigzag or 1/x patterns These Zigzag or 1/x patterns can be the most bewildering of his illustrations for those who have not had the benefit understanding their significance. Many of Wilson’s later papers include these various zigzag patterns which are illustrations of the Moments-of-Symmetry of a particular generator shown in the numerator with the denominator the numbers of scale steps to the period. He became aware of this from Larry Hanson. This is what you do to find the MOS of a generator in question. First you start with the log2 of your interval. If you don’t know how to figure out the log based 2 of an interval, the formula is log (A/B)/log (2). To find the cents, in case you don’t know, one multiplies the log2 of an interval by 1200. Wilson personally prefers thinking of intervals in terms of their log based 2 (as opposed to cents). Scientific calculators will have a 1/x button as in Wilson's case or some will have a x-1 button that means the same thing. Let us take the 5/4 as an example to find what MOS scales it generates. The log2 is .3219280949. Next we find the 1/x (or x-1) of this interval, then subtract the number left of the decimal point before repeating the 1/x again, always subtracting the numbers left of the decimal point. In the case of 5/4 this gives us Now we use the whole numbers as a way of finding the moments of symmetries by the process Erv calls “freshman sums” because it is the ‘wrong’ way to add fractions where you add the numerators together and then the denominators together. We always start between 0/1 and 1/1 and we zigzag our freshman summing starting at 1/1 and moving to the zigging to the left however many steps we have as our first whole number. Starting with 1/1, we add 0/1 and likewise with the answer until we have moved 3 times finding ourselves at 1/4 1/4 1/3 1/2 Next we are going to zag to the right 9 times, each time toward a new mediant between 1/4 and 1/3, by adding 1/3 to each new answer until we have proceeded 9 steps. This gives us the following sequence 2/7 3/10 4/13 5/16 6/19 7/22 8/25 9/28 10/31 Let me explain what this series is telling us. The denominator tells us how many tones in the scale and the numerator how many units the generator is in size. This gives us a chain of scales after the first 1, 2, 3 and 4 tone scales to a more viable 7-tone scale where a generator is 2 units, to a 31-tone scale when it is now 10 units. Next step we would zig to the left, then zag to the right as far as is useful to us. Here is a further chart which contains the data of the next set of zigzags. Due to the limits of most hand held calculators, going past 10 or 12 steps is questionable as the calculator will round off and one can end up computing artefacts. The series and branches of freshman sums lead to Wilson making what one might see as the mother of all zigzag patterns he called “The Scale Tree" (http://anaphoria.com/sctree.pdf). In the mid 90's it was discovered to already found and called the “Stern-Brocot tree”. Wilson nevertheless deserve credit for being the first one to see the it application to music both in terms of MOS scales but also in regard to keybaord mappings and horograms all subjects discussed elsewhere in the archives. He does one thing not found in the stern Brocot tree and that is to calculate the noble numbers that the different zigzags generate from the first 12 layers of the tree. It is interesting that the way it came about historically was by people involved in calculating gear ratios for clocks. So in a way it was related to the division of time into arithmetical harmonic mediants. Definition of a Constant Structure CLIFF NOTE DEFINITION “A tuning system where each interval occurs always subtended by the same number of steps. (That is all, no other restrictions)" Wilson has also noticed the influence of MOS patterns on scales of higher limits (such as 5 and beyond) that cannot be explained as being generated linearly by a single generator. This led to another term he calls “Constant Structures”. These are defined simply as, “A tuning system where each interval occurs always subtended by the same number of steps. (That is all, no other restrictions). An example of this would be say a 5 limit 12 tone tuning were the 5/4 would always be subtended by 4 steps. While Constant structures are independent of MOS, they more often than not will be informed by the large/small patterns of MOS scales of the same number. It is for this reason that Wilson has referred to the MOS as being archetypal patterns that scales of more than one limit will gravitate to accordingly. In this light, it is possible to look at Constant Structures also as a chain of a variable generator within the range a given limit imposes on the chain. These are easy to follow when we map such a scale to a generalized keyboard as seen in the examples below. These keyboards can be understood as two dimensional model of constant structures in that the same interval will always be laid out on the keyboard in the same way. With recurrent sequences, like the fibonacci series, this becomes difficult in that if done as a numerical sequence no two intervals might ever repeat. In seeing the generator as possibly varied in size, we can still map such scales to a generalized keyboard, treating it as a representation of the golden/noble ratio these sequences converge on. The concept of a Constant Structure is in many ways superior to identifying these structures as having 'multiple generators' or of different "ranks". First it can be observed historically that the constant structures we have as examples, they have been thought of as variations of MOS scales like the Pythagorean. Constant structures preserves this conception and it is important to note that they also have a tendency to imitate with subtle variations the Large and small patterns of MOS scales which act as their prototype. Second in observing the occurrence of the new intervals resulted from adding other limits, these new intervals do not result in other chains of repeated intervals, or cycles which makes the term 'generator' awkward. There are examples of multiple generators where complete chains are repeated and are appropriate. Margo Schulter's use of two Pythagorean chains a seven limit apart is a good example of this. A large collection of constant structures can be seen here just to cite a few. Carl Lumma made a PDF file of Rothenberg’s three main papers: A special thanks to Adam Reese, Carl Lumma, and Terumi Narushima for help with article. Any Errors though are mine ~Comments and Questions welcome~

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One of the major factor and methodologies stated in chapter one of this work was to do an extensive research on how to combat spam unsolicited/ unwanted advertisements, messages, or telemarketer calls as spam through user behaviour analysis. To also carry on progressive reviews on various types of spam and their function and how they affect the user environment. Thereafter, this chapter presents on overview of the different type of spam and how they can be identify through content management or html meta-tags, url with user behaviour analysis. This chapter will explain why spammer crate spam, what are their motive and why do they focus on the user community, are the doing this for profit making or for business purpose. Is the word spam harmful? How can we prevent it from causing an embarrassment for the users environments, why spammer so interested in users email address doing unwanted advertisements. Spam are the range of unwanted pop- ups, links, data and email that we received in our daily interactions why using the internet (web). The word spam actually has its roots from an American food company called Hormel foods, and was the first can of Spam luncheon meat which was produced in 1937 for World War II that was often unwanted but ever present. Using the world spam to describe unsolicited email started in April 1993, not to an Email but to unwanted postings on USENET news group network and that was done by a mercenary programmer. He accidentally posted 200 messages on the USENET news group, a Canter that was consider as the world’s largest online conferencing system after that incident one person later called this massage spam which coin the name to be used world-wide, later in January 18, 1994, the first ever known large-scale email spam occurred within the same USENET news group which became the second and was later follow by numerals of other once. Spam’s are unwanted, but it is harmful, misleading and problematic for website in so many ways, in which websites owner may not want it to be. There are many types spam’s but one of the most know types is email spam, it could a newsletters, email from friend relatives but when it had a huge inheritances or advertisements, email spam became increasingly popular from January 18, 1994. spam are written in all form of languages spam does not have a language barrier, English is the most common one, it comes in all languages including Chinese, Korean and other Asian languages. For the past years and now internet users have gotten used to spam as part of their daily life, because when you are online subbing the web and receiving emails you must get in contact with spam, whether you’re using Gmail, outlook, yahoo and other system, there have been an online system developed to help automatically combat filter and remove unwanted emails from our inboxes. In the past, spam used to favor email as it was the primary communication tool. Email addresses were relatively easy to harvest via chat rooms, websites, customer lists and that impact a user’s address book. Eventually, email filters became more sophisticated, and more effectively decreased spam from clogging the inbox. Apart from the email spam, there is another spam that grow into a pop-pup ads and added itself within the desktop browsers, other than the email, this spam has been one of the most well know spam that continue to cause problem since 2016; but with the help of different developing technique many of these invasive ads have been denied access to computers by antivirus programs and other ad blockers, these applications functions as email spam filters remover in the background without user input. With the advancement in technological world search engines had begun to take over the market as Google been the lead, web users has begun to realized that spam are been benefiting and could still benefits within the search engine results pages (SERPs), because of these factors, this lead to the outbreak of keyword and link related strategies to manipulate the search results. With their sterilities spam would grow to become known by the name BLACK HAT SEO, with the time search engines took notice of it and begin to fine a solutions, Bing, Google, Yahoo and other quickly took aim at their tactics of manipulating their results, they enforce their security and improved on their systems by creating an update of their algorithms. After all their update Google give the name of their update as Panda and Penguin ( Among others), these update helped kick of the black hat SEO spam sterilities out of these systems by making them less important on those sites that used them. While search engines providers have gotten smatter about the way spam behave so spammers too, in this battle spammers are gotten advanced to the traffic and other kinds of web spams search engines has responded with more updates on their algorithm. This problems could continue forever with spam and search engines fighting, but the help of digital marketers SEO practitioners they since weighed, in trying to combat how search engines work, they learned how to block, avoid and Abolish spam. 2.2.3 Types of spam Spammers produced many difference types of spams on a daily basic and there are many different way to combat those spams. As we are about to discuss these spam, there are many different types but for the purpose of this research we are going to focus on the most common ones that you enactor on a daily basis, and what can we do to minimize their negative motive and impact on the user enviroment. These are some of the most common types of spam and their categories: Fixing social media’s spam Click baiting and like jacking The main aim of a search spam is to increase the results by ranking the website in search usually with the impression that minimal input will yield higher rewords, typically this will be used to increase the ranking of the spam user’s own website, over competitors. One of the most common search spam tactics is known as keyword stuffing. Search spam is a form of spam that focus on the using of a Keyword, keyword that you would expect like the title of the page, page description of a business and the content; these spam would also hide the keywords where users will not see but the search engine would. One of the contributing factor of a content on a site is to help the site to be ranked within a search. When these spam are within the content, including keywords cloaking and stuffing play a key part allowing the content to be a contributing factor within search spam. The information’s the website carry has a lot which matters to search engines as much as the user’s environment, some website owner have attempted to increase their keyword density by brining on board some generated machine content or scripting content by stealing information from other sites to increase their own site. Referral Spam, link spam Referral or Link spam is one of the most dangerous spam in terms of search engines, because every sites has a links and from one links to another it create a connections that will lead to spammers boosting their sight from another sites, bad links can cause a major damage to your site. For the past years, Google the search engines commentator has developed it algorithm to better identify genuine sites and links in terms of quality, but yet it has not been perfect yet. During those same time where the search engines commentator was working on the algorithm there was a rules governing the sites, if your sites was found to be a spam or has some spam attach you will be fine to penalty of huge amount of dollars. With all these struggle in 2016 google improved the system by bringing on board the update of penguin in the browse, in other to avoid these penalization as a sites owner you either removed the bad links or improving your current ones. The problem with how link building can be carried out, and why many sites have to deal with link spam, is because it has been carried out deceptively. Black hat SEOs and those looking for quick results, used the early search engine algorithm’s basic nature to attract what would go on to be known as unnatural links. In the spam world this is the third major form of spam you may come across, and it is known as traffic spam. the traffic spam can be things of one or two not necessarily excusive of the other these traffic spam are links spam, where you will received a links from a bad site and receive traffic from that same site that will cause high bounces from users, with all these strategists spammers used, those connections are considered to be traffic spam base on it negative impact it will cause on a sites which is consider as unwanted. Fixing social media’s spam With the problems of fixing social media’s is spam is very common because of creating of fake account in the social application is very easy in that every account you Create, you may have to through an identity verification process which is an easy way of spammer bypassing and getting access to your account. This methods of identity verification which include providing your email which may require you to do the following, email verification-only password-only and phone number-only. Email verification-only is problematic because a single user can create many email accounts in a short time, which can then be used to create fake accounts in the social application. Password-only is also problematic because spammers may use an automated tool called “account checker” to test different username and password combinations on the social application in the hope that a few may work to gain them access to these accounts left47016400. Captchas are supposed to deter the automated creation of accounts, but they can be quickly outsourced for people to solve inexpensively. The use of phone verification upon creation of accounts can prevent spammers from creating fake accounts. This involves sending a one-time password (OTP) to a user over a separate communication channel (SMS or voice) than the IP channel (internet) used by the social application. If an account can only be created after the user has correctly entered the OTP in the social application, this will make creation of fake accounts a more tedious process. Clickbaiting and likejacking Clickbaiting and likejacking spam are the form of spammer who create a sensation posting list encouraging the user to click through the contents of their site for the so purpose of generating online advertisements revenue, When the user clicks through to the page, the content usually doesn’t exist or is radically different from what the headline made it out to be. It also carry on the act of tricking users to post a Facebook status update for a certain site without the user’s prior knowledge or intent. The user may be thinking that they are just visiting a page but the click can trigger a script in the background to share the link on Facebook. This will then create a vicious cycle as other friends of the genuine user will click on the link and share it to more people on their network. These activities negatively impact the user experience as they can either waste the user’s time and attention as well as potentially compromise the user’s security or steal their data. The presence of fake accounts and spam are therefore a problem for social networks, over-the-top (OTT) messaging and other mobile or gaming applications because a negative user experience can lead to user attrition, impact monetization potential and valuation of the service. Although social networks are starting to clamp down on fake accounts and spam, spammers can easily create new fake accounts to continue their activities. Bulk messaging is a form of broadcast messaging that the spammers used to send out a large quantity of messages to a group for a short period of time, several spam accounts can also simultaneously post duplicate messages. Bulk messaging can artificially cause a certain topic to trend if enough people visit view that topic than it provide them to do more broadcast. In 2009, a spam website offering a job with Google tricked users to believe that the site was genuine so more people visited the sites, many of those messages can also spread malware or directing a user to specific site. 2.2.4Anti-spam filtering Techniques Spam-reduction techniques have developed rapidly over the last few years, as spam volumes have increased. We believe that the spam problem requires a multi-faceted solution that combines a broad array of filtering techniques with various infrastructural changes, changes in financial incentives for spammers, legal approaches, and more Spam Guru addresses the part of this multi-faceted approach that can be handled by technology on the recipient’s side, using plug-in tokenizes and parsers, plug-in classification modules, and machine-learning techniques to achieve high hit rates and low false-positive rates. Effective controls need to be deployed to countermeasure the ever growing spam problem. Machine learning provides better protective mechanisms that are able to control spam. This paper summarizes most common techniques used for anti-spam filtering by analyzing the e-mail content and also looks into machine learning algorithms such as Naïve Bayesian, support vector machine and neural network that have been adopted to detect and control spam. Each machine learning has its own strengths and limitations as such appropriate preprocessing need to be carefully considered to increase the effectiveness of any given machine learning. Based on the Ferris (2009), spam can be categorized into the following: 1. Health; such as fake pharmaceuticals; 2. Promotional products; such as fake fashion items (for example, watches); 3. Adult content; such as pornography and prostitution; 4, Financial and refinancing; such as stock kiting, tax solutions, loan packages; 5. Phishing and other fraud; such as “Nigerian 419” and “Spanish Prisoner”; 6. Malware and viruses; Trojan horses attempting to infect your PC with malware; 7. Education; such as online diploma; 8. Marketing; such as direct marketing material, sexual enhancement products; 9. Political; US president votes. SPAMMER TRICKS In order to send spam, spammers first obtain e-mail addresses by harvesting addresses through the Internet using specialized software. This software systematically gathers e-mail addresses from discussion groups or websites (Schaub, 2002), other than that spammer also able to purchase or rent collections of e-mail addresses from other spammers or services providers. He also indicated that many tricks used by spammers to avoid detection by spam filters. Lot work has gone into finding solution to spam problem from different dimensions and directions. Various anti-spam solutions are available that have been surveyed by many other. (Blanzieri and Bryl, 2008, Caruana and Li, 2012, Guzella and Caminhas, 2009, Yu and Xu, 2008, Paswan et al., 2012, Those are blacklists, whitelists, grey lists, content based filtering, feature selection methods, bag-of-words, machine learning techniques such as Naïve Bayes, Support vector machines, artificial neural networks, lazy learning, etc), reputation based techniques, artificial immune systems, protocol based procedures, and so on. (Caruana and Li, 2012) also lists some emerging approaches such as per to peer computing, grid computing, social networks and ontology based semantics along with few other approaches. These solutions can be grouped into various categories such as list based techniques, and filtering techniques; another categorisation can be prevention, detection and reaction techniques (Nakulas et al., 2009). (Paswan et al., 2012) categorises the email spam filtering techniques as origin based spam filtering, content based filtering, feature selection methods, feature extraction methods, and traffic based filtering. The scope of this paper is content based filtering and in specific learning based filters. Hence, we would not go into detail of each of these solutions but limit ourselves to Bayes algorithm. Spammers are insensitive to the consequences of their activities and need to be dissuaded by being made to pay by the internet service providers for the waste of bandwidth occupied by unwanted spam blocked by the servers. This would be a feasible deterrent to reduce spam. To execute this, all service providers must act in CRPIT Volume 149 – Information Security 2014 68 unison and agree to get spammers to pay for spam inconvenience and servers clean up. Users in various Domains have difference preference of emails that they would classify as Spam or Ham. An email from a bookseller trying to sell books on Computer Science would be Spam for a Pharmacist. The most difficult question is how these filters can will identify which emails is/are spam and which is not harmful to the person receiving it. Of course in some mail clients such as Gmail there is an option of user preference setting where user can be given an option to choose the topic area of interest and then the filter can use that information to classify incoming emails accordingly. There is very little work gone into the area of considering specific user preferences while designing anti-spam filters. (Kim et al., 2007) constructs a user preference ontology on the basis of user profile and user actions and trains the filter on the basis of that ontology. (Kim et al., 2006) suggest user action based adaptive learning where they attach weights to Bayesian classification on the basis of user actions. However none of the work address user belonging to a particular domain and their preferences accordingly. SpamBayes filter classifies emails using Bayesian Classifier. It extracts the email content and use the presence of each word (token) to determine the class – spam, or ham legitimate, or unsure – of the email. Each word (token) has a spam score which is used to calculate the overall message score. An email with high message score will be classified as a spam, i.e. when an email contains many words that have high spam score, the email is likely to be classified as spam. Nelson et al. and Tsai explain in more detail the SpamBayes classification mechanism. In the training phase, when SpamBayes sees an email of spam class, it will increase the spam score for all of the tokens present in the email. Similarly, when the system sees a ham (legitimate) email, all of the token present will have its score reduced. SpamBayes retrains itself periodically with the new data that it has collected. This has created a way for an attacker to place his malicious data (email) into the training data set of the SpamBayes filter. Simply by sending the malicious email into the target user’s inbox would cause the user to label it as a spam and, later, when the machine retrains itself the malicious email can become part of the training dataset that it would train from. Knowing the classification mechanism and the training algorithm of SpamBayes, attackers can craft some malicious emails to attack the classifier; making the overall classification performance so poor that the whole classification system becomes useless with the dictionary attack, or making it unable to classify a certain email properly i.e. causing a wrong classification of a particular email with the targeted attack. 2.2.5 TYPE OF SPAM-FILTERING METHODS This popular spam-filtering method attempts to stop unwanted email by blocking messages from a preset list of senders that you or your organization’s system administrator create. Blacklists are records of email addresses or Internet Protocol (IP) addresses that have been previously used to send spam. When an incoming message arrives, the spam filter checks to see if it’s IP or email address is on the blacklist; if so, the message is considered spam and rejected. Though blacklists ensure that known spammers cannot reach users’ inboxes, they can also misidentify legitimate senders as spammers. These so-called false positives can result if a spammer happens to be sending junk mail from an IP address that is also used by legitimate email users. Also, since many clever spammers routinely switch IP addresses and email addresses to cover their tracks, a blacklist may not immediately catch the newest outbreaks. Real-Time Blackhole List This spam-filtering method works almost identically to a traditional blacklist but requires less hands-on maintenance. That’s because most real-time blackhole lists are maintained by third parties, who take the time to build comprehensive blacklists on the behalf of their subscribers. Your filter simply has to connect to the third-party system each time an email comes in, to compare the sender’s IP address against the list. Since blackhole lists are large and frequently maintained, your organization’s IT staff won’t have to spend time manually adding new IP addresses to the list, increasing the chances that the filter will catch the newest junk-mail outbreaks. But like blacklists, real-time blackhole lists can also generate false positives if spammers happen to use a legitimate IP address as a conduit for junk mail. Also, since the list is likely to be maintained by a third party, you have less control over what addresses are on — or not on — the list. A whitelist blocks spam using a system almost exactly opposite to that of a blacklist. Rather than letting you specify which senders to block mail from, a whitelist lets you specify which senders to allow mail from; these addresses are placed on a trusted-users list. Most spam filters let you use a whitelist in addition to another spam-fighting feature as a way to cut down on the number of legitimate messages that accidentally get flagged as spam. However, using a very strict filter that only uses a whitelist would mean that anyone who was not approved would automatically be blocked. Some anti-spam applications use a variation of this system known as an automatic whitelist. In this system, an unknown sender’s email address is checked against a database; if they have no history of spamming, their message is sent to the recipient’s inbox and they are added to the whitelist. A relatively new spam-filtering technique, greylists take advantage of the fact that many spammers only attempt to send a batch of junk mail once. Under the greylist system, the receiving mail server initially rejects messages from unknown users and sends a failure message to the originating server. If the mail server attempts to send the message a second time — a step most legitimate servers will take — the greylist assumes the message is not spam and lets it proceed to the recipient’s inbox. At this point, the greylist filter will add the recipient’s email or IP address to a list of allowed senders. Though greylist filters require fewer system resources than some other types of spam filters, they also may delay mail delivery, which could be inconvenient when you are expecting time-sensitive messages. Rather than enforcing across-the-board policies for all messages from a particular email or IP address, content-based filters evaluate words or phrases found in each individual message to determine whether an email is spam or legitimate. A word-based spam filter is the simplest type of content-based filter. Generally speaking, word-based filters simply block any email that contains certain terms.Since many spam messages contain terms not often found in personal or business communications, word filters can be a simple yet capable technique for fighting junk email. However, if configured to block messages containing more common words, these types of filters may generate false positives. For instance, if the filter has been set to stop all messages containing the word “discount,” emails from legitimate senders offering your nonprofit hardware or software at a reduced price may not reach their destination. Also note that since spammers often purposefully misspell keywords in order to evade word-based filters, your IT staff will need to make time to routinely update the filter’s list of blocked words. Heuristic (or rule-based) filters take things a step beyond simple word-based filters. Rather than blocking messages that contain a suspicious word, heuristic filters take multiple terms found in an email into consideration. Heuristic filters scan the contents of incoming emails and assigning points to words or phrases. Suspicious words that are commonly found in spam messages, such as “Rolex” or “Viagra,” receive higher points, while terms frequently found in normal emails receive lower scores. The filter then adds up all the points and calculates a total score. If the message receives a certain score or higher (determined by the anti-spam application’s administrator), the filter identifies it as spam and blocks it. Messages that score lower than the target number are delivered to the user. Heuristic filters work fast — minimizing email delay — and are quite effective as soon as they have been installed and configured. However, heuristic filters configured to be aggressive may generate false positives if a legitimate contact happens to send an email containing a certain combination of words. Similarly, some savvy spammers might learn which words to avoid including, thereby fooling the heuristic filter into believing they are benign senders. Bayesian filters, considered the most advanced form of content-based filtering, employ the laws of mathematical probability to determine which messages are legitimate and which are spam. In order for a Bayesian filter to effectively block spam, the end user must initially “train” it by manually flagging each message as either junk or legitimate. Over time, the filter takes words and phrases found in legitimate emails and adds them to a list; it does the same with terms found in spam. To determine which incoming messages are classified as spam, the Bayesian filter scans the contents of the email and then compares the text against its two-word lists to calculate the probability that the message is spam. For instance, if the word “valium” has appeared 62 times in spam messages list but only three times in legitimate emails, there is a 95 percent chance that an incoming email containing the word “valium” is junk. Because a Bayesian filter is constantly building its word list based on the messages that an individual user receives, it theoretically becomes more effective the longer it’s used. However, since this method does require a training period before it starts working well, you will need to exercise patience and will probably have to manually delete a few junk messages, at least at first. 2.2.6 Word Wide Web (WWW) The World Wide Web (also known as “WWW”, “Web, or “W3”) is the universe of network-accessible information, the embodiment of human knowledge. It allows people to share information globally. That means it allows anyone to read and publish documents freely. The World Wide Web hides all the detail of communication protocols, machine locations, and operating systems from the user. It allows users to point to any other Web pages without any restrictions. 2.2.7 Web Spam Web spam has a negative impact on the search quality and users’ satisfaction and forces search engines to waste re- sources to crawl, index, and rank it. Thus search engines are compelled to make significant efforts in order to fight web spam. Traffic from search engines plays a great role in online economics. It causes a tough competition for high positions in search results and increases the motivation of spammers to invent new spam techniques. At the same time, ranking algorithms become more complicated, as well as web spam detection methods. So, web spam constantly evolves which makes the problem of web spam detection always relevant and challenging. As the most popular search engine in Google faces the problem of web spam and has some ex- parties in this matter. This research explain our experience in detection different types of web spam on a content, links, click, and user behaviour We also review aggressive advertising and fraud because they affect the user experience. Besides, we demonstrate the connection between classic web spam and modern social engineering approaches in fraud Web spam is annoying to search engine users and disruptive to search engines; therefore, most commercial search engines try to combat web spam. Combating web spam consists of identifying spam content with high probability and also depending on policy downgrading it during ranking, eliminating it from the index, no longer crawling it, and tainting affiliated content. The first step in identifying likely spam pages – is a classification problem amenable to machine learning techniques. Spam classifiers take a large set of diverse features as input, including content-based features, link-based features, DNS and domain-registration features, and implicit user feedback. Commercial search engines treat their precise set of spam-prediction features as extremely proprietary, and features (as well as spamming techniques) evolve continuously as search engines and web spammers are engaged in a continuing “arms race.” Web spam filtering, the area of devising methods to identify useless Web content with the sole purpose of manipulating search engine results, While Web spam is targeted for the high commercial value of top-ranked search-engine results, Web archives observe quality deterioration and resource waste as a side effect. So far Web spam filtering technologies are rarely used by Web archivists but planned in the future as indicated in a survey with responses from more than 20 institutions worldwide. These archives typically operate on a modest level of budget that prohibits the operation of standalone Web spam filtering but collaborative efforts could lead to a high quality solution for the 2.2.8 Web Logs A Web log file records activity information when a Web user submits a request to a Web Server. The main source of raw data is the web access log which we shall refer to as log file. As log files are originally meant for debugging purposes. The log file can be located in three different places: 1. Web Servers, 2. Web proxy Servers, and 3. Client browsers. And each suffers from two major drawbacks Server-side logs: Server-side logs: logs generally supply the most complete and accurate usage data, but their two major drawback it include: This log contain sensitive, personal information, therefore the server owners usually keep them closed. The logs do not record cached pages visited. The cached pages are summoned from local storage of browsers or proxy servers, not from web servers. Proxy- side logs: A proxy server takes the HTTP requests from users and passes them to a Web server then returns to users the results passed to them by the Web server. The two disadvantages are: Proxy-server construction is a difficult task. Advanced network programming, such as TCP/IP, is required for this construction. The request interception is limited, rather than covering most requests. The proxy logger implementation in Web Quilt, a Web logging system performance declines if it is employed because each page request needs to be processed by the proxy simulator. Client-side logs: Participants remotely test a Web site by downloading special software that records Web usage or by modifying the source code of an existing browser. HTTP cookies could also be used for this purpose. These are pieces of information generated by a web server and stored in the users’ computers, ready for future access. The drawbacks of this approach are: The design team must deploy the special software and have the end-users install it. The technique makes it hard to achieve compatibility with a range of operating systems and Web browsers. 2.2.9 Identifying User Behavior by Analysis The users enviroment has contributed immensely on the sharing of spam pages, spam sites and also making spam pages or sites to gain more relavent. More users who visit the web are not abreast to spam pages or sites, because of these reasons they normally click on every pages that come up with a interesting topics. Throughout the years having knowledge of Web users’ interests, navigational actions and preferences has gained importance due to the objectives of organizations, companies online social networks. Traditionally this field has been studied from the Web Mining perspective, particularly through the Web Usage Mining concept, which consists of the application of machine learning techniques over data originated in the Web (Web data) for automatic extraction of behavioral patterns from Web users. WUM makes use of data sources that approximate users’ behavior, such as weblogs or clickstreams among others; however these sources imply a considerable degree of subjectivity to interpret. For that reason, the application of biometric tools with the possibility of measuring actual responses to the stimuli presented via websites has become of interest in this field. Instead of doing separate analyses, information fusion (IF) tries to improve results by developing efficient methods for transforming information from different sources into a single representation, which then could be used to guide biometric data fusion to complement the traditional WUM studies and obtain better results.

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WHAT ARE CFDS - HOW DO THEY WORK? Differences Between Buying CFDs and Various Underlying Assets Foreign Exchange CFDs So Should I, Or Shouldn’t I Invest In CFDs? Basics Of CFD Trading Chapter 1 – Key Points To Remember We’ll take it from the top, in case you’re new to the world of investing and aren’t sure what the acronym means. CFD stands for Contract For Difference. As the name implies, it’s a contract between you and a broker who sells CFDs, with your profit or loss being the difference in price between the time when a trade is entered into, and then time when you exit the trade. You’re literally exchanging the difference between those two values with your broker. There are all sorts of CFDs including: - Commodity CFDs (contracts that track specific commodities like soybeans, wheat, oil, etc.) - Foreign Exchange CFDs (contracts that track currency pairs) - Index CFDs (contracts that track a specific index, like the S&P500, the XJO, etc.) - And Share CFDs (contracts that track the stock of a specific company) As a contract, this is not the same thing as simply buying a share of stock in a particular company, although the CFD’s price mirrors the actual stock price, moving in the same direction, because the CFD's value is based on the underlying asset. The first question you might ask then, is why bother to buy a CFD if you can just buy the asset itself? It’s an excellent question. The main reason is that CFD margins are smaller, which means you have to spend less money to control the asset in question. The best way to see this is to look at a conjectural example. Let’s say you’re buying 100 shares of stock at $25. The total value of that investment is $2500. A traditional broker usually uses a 100% margin. Now let’s look at the numbers if you buy a CFD, rather than the stock itself. Most CFD brokers only use a 5% margin, which means that you could buy the same investment with an outlay of just $125. Big difference, right? Which means that you can buy a lot more investments with whatever amount of money you’ve got. Let’s start the clock and move through time, beginning from the point when you finalize your purchase. Your broker gets a either a fixed dollar commission or the spread. Let’s say the spread is 5 cents, (Or Pips for Forex) so if the underlying stock appreciates by 5 cents after you enter into the contract, congratulations! You just broke even. If the underlying stock continues to appreciate, everything after that is pure profit when you close out the contract (sell). So let’s say the stock appreciates to $26. You’d see a profit of $0.95 per share, 100 shares, or $95 ($1.00, minus the 5 cent spread). What we’re really talking about here then is leverage. That’s the biggest advantage that CFDs offer over more traditional investments. The smaller the margin, the more leverage you’ve got, which allows you to control more assets with less money, and that’s huge. Here are some of the other key advantages to CFD trading in general: - Global Reach – Most CFD brokers offer products from all over the world. That means one-stop shopping for you. You can take advantage of any opportunity from most of the world’s major markets, without ever leaving your broker’s platform. - Fewer Rules and Regulations – Sometimes, depending on what, exactly, you are buying, you’ll face a dizzying array of rules about what you can and can’t do. Many instruments, for instance, prohibit short selling at certain times, or have different margin requirements. While you’ll find a few rules in the world of CFDs, they are generally very few in number, and won’t cramp your style. This is especially true when selling short, because since you don’t actually own the underlying asset, you can short CFDs at any time. - Full Service – Most CFD brokers offer the same types of trades as traditional brokers, including, but not limited to: Stops, limits, and congruent orders, and possibly (but not always) guaranteed stops. - Extremely Low Fees – The fees charged by CFD brokers tend to be significantly lower than the fees charged by traditional brokers. An important rule of business is “keep your fixed costs low,” and low fees = low overhead costs for you! - No Day Trading Requirement – This is huge. Some markets require a minimum amount of capital if you want to day trade, and the dollar value is usually pretty high, which shuts many novice investors out of the game entirely. That’s not the case with CFDs. Accounts can be opened for as little as $1000 in some cases, although this will vary from one broker to the next, with some brokers requiring up to $5000 to set up an account. Even so, this is a fairly modest sum by comparison. - Lots of Different Trading Options – See above, re: the different types of CFDs you can invest in. You have a full menu of choices available, and aren’t restricted to just trading in stock CFDs (although stock CFDs are a great way to get your feet wet!) It all sounds almost too good to be true, and it’s true that CFDs represent a tremendous investment opportunity, but…and you knew there’d be a “but,” didn’t you? There are downsides, and before you jump into the world of CFD trading, you need to be aware of them. The first downside is the spread. Because you have to pay the spread, it means that CFDs aren’t very good if you’re after micro-profits…that is to say, tiny movements in price from one hour to the next. The spread will invariably eat those kinds of profits up, and if you try to take advantage of small moves like that, you’ll consistently lose money. The other big disadvantage is something we’ve talked about before: Leverage. Leverage is a two-edged sword. When you trade at a profit, leverage will magnify the return on your investment, but don’t get cocky! The same leverage that helps you when you’re winning can burn you badly on losing trades, where they magnify your losses, which means you’ve got to be very careful to manage your risk if you want to be successful. Later on, we’ll talk at some length about things you can do and strategies you can employ to help minimize your risks. For now, it’s enough to be aware that they exist. When used correctly, leverage can be a powerful tool that will help you achieve your goals much more quickly than would otherwise be possible. BACK TO CONTENTS Differences Between Buying CFDs And Various Underlying Assets Earlier, we listed various types of CFDs you can purchase, and now that you’ve got a better understanding of what they are in general, we need to spend some time talking about how each of those types differ from simply buying the underlying asset. We’ll talk about share CFDs first, because they’re the easiest to understand and are where most people start out when beginning to invest in CFDs. If you’ve purchased stocks, then you already know just about everything you need to know about buying share CFDs. The process is functionally similar, but there are some important differences to be mindful of. These include: - No ownership – when you buy a share of a company’s stock you physically own a tiny portion of the company in question. That’s not the case when you buy a share CFD. You simply own a contract that is in no way connected to the company’s stock (the underlying asset), even though the price of the CFD mirrors the company’s stock price. - Much lower commissions – Buying stock carries much higher commission rates than buying share CFDs. Expect to pay about half commission rate. That’s huge, because lower commissions equal higher potential profits for you. - Lower margins – We mentioned this above. Many stock brokers require as much as a 50% margin in the US and 100% in Europea and Asia. CFD brokers require something margins from 1% and upwards. - Financing – A small fee your broker may charge you to hold a position overnight As we mentioned earlier, for any commodity you can buy outright on the market, you can buy a CFD. We mentioned a few earlier, but here’s a more comprehensive list, in case you’ve never traded in commodities before: Cattle | Cocoa | Coffee | Copper | Corn | Cotton | Gasoline | Gold | Hogs | Lumber | Oats | Oil | Palladium | Platinum | Pork Bellies | Silver | Soy Beans | Sugar | Wheat And so on. As you can see, there’s no shortage of options here, and this is only a partial list! So the next logical question is, “What exactly is a commodity?” You already know that Commodity CFDs are contacts that track the underlying asset, but if you’re considering trading in Commodity CFDs then you need to understand the underlying product as well! To that end, here’s the shortest, simplest definition of a commodity. It’s a hard asset. A physical product people purchase on futures markets. They’re bought, sold, and traded in large quantity with uniform quality. What that means is that anything on this list can be made, grown, mined or generated anywhere in the world, but the uniform quality ensures that no matter where the good is produced, an apples-to-apples comparison can be made. Here are the key differences to keep in mind when purchasing a Commodity CFD versus purchasing the underlying commodity itself: - When you buy a commodity outright, it will come with an expiry date, something you don’t have to worry about when you buy a Commodity CFD - If you want to break into the commodities market directly, be prepared to spend a ton of money. $20,000 is considered a pretty small contract, and they can run to about ten times that value. For most investors who are just starting out, that’s a lot of money! Again, Commodity CFDs can be purchased with a much smaller outlay - Charting – If you don’t have a lot of exposure to commodities trading, then you’re probably going to want to read this twice. Commodities are priced on the futures market, but all the contracts traded on the futures market have a different expiry date. This can be seen on comprehensive pricing charts that track commodity prices. The charts used for commodity pricing display two months’ worth of information, but Commodity CFD pricing is based only on the current month. If you want to base your buying and selling decisions on more complete information, then in most cases, you’ll need to get that information from a source other than your CFD Broker. Note: Commodity CFDs are NOT recommended for people who are new to CFDs in general. You need to have a deep understanding of the general commodities market and what you’re indirectly trading in before wading into these waters! BACK TO CONTENTS Foreign Exchange CFDs You’ve probably heard the term “Forex.” That’s the shorthand used when referencing currency exchanges, and in particular, simultaneously buying one currency, then selling another currency to profit from the movement between a given currency pair. In many ways, currency trading is a lot like a drug. Its fast paced and always on. Since currency trading isn’t done through a central exchange, you can do it 24/7. There is no “closing bell” here, and fortunes can be made and lost in the blink of an eye. It’s seldom that someone buys a currency position and holds it for more than a day. Often, they’re closed back out within hours, minutes, or even seconds. It’s explosively volatile, and is one of the single largest over the counter market on the planet. Trillions of dollars flow this market, get updates Bank for International Settlements BIS The foundation of currency exchanges are currency pairs, and these come in two flavors: Pairs and Crosses. Here are the major currency pairs: - EUR | USD - GPB | USD - USD | CHF - USD | JPY - USD | CAD - AUD | USD - NZD | USD And here are the crosses. Crosses are different from major pairings in that the US Dollar is entirely absent from the pairing: - EUR | CHF - EUR | GBP - GBP | AUD - AUD | JPY The position of the currency in each pairing matters. The first currency listed in the pairing is called the Base Currency (also known as the Primary Currency), and the second is called the Quote Currency. Currency pairs are quoted out to four decimal places, and each point of movement is referred to as a “Pip.” Here’s how the terminology is used. Let’s say that for the pairing AUD à USD, the price is .9400. If the price moves to .9401, then it has moved one pip. This lies at the bedrock of forex trading. When trading currency, the prices you see listed on your broker’s information screen come from the biggest banks and corporations on the planet who are moving hundreds of millions, if not billions of dollars at a time. This is literally the grease that keeps the wheels of international trade and investment turning, and either directly or indirectly, you can be a part of it, if you want to. There are some seriously compelling reasons to want to, even though it is a highly speculative market. Its major advantages are: - It’s an “always on” market, with no closing bell - Has extremely low margins, paired with flexible position sizes - Is entirely commission free - And it’s the most liquid market on the planet All of those are good things, and compelling reasons to consider jumping in, but of course there’s a downside. All that volatility carries with it extraordinary risk. It takes a steady hand and nerves of steel (and preferably a huge supply of Red Bull, strong coffee, or other highly caffeinated drink) if you want to do well here, and for these reasons, it’s not a good fit for the novice investor. Our advice would be to get your feet wet via Share or Index CFDs, learn how to make money consistently there, then perhaps move into strategic Commodity CFD trading, and only once you’ve mastered that should you consider jumping into the wild and wooly world of Foreign Exchange CFDs. BACK TO CONTENTS Index CFDs are functionally quite similar to Share CFDs, but where the latter track against shares of a particular company, the former track against an index, so what is an index, exactly? Simply put, it’s a group of shares in companies that have a common element. That commonality could be that they’re all tech companies, or all pharmaceutical companies, or something else. The Dow Jones Index is comprised of the 30 biggest companies in America, and the price of the index is weighted according to the size of each of the companies that make up the index. Put another way, if the majority of the shares in the companies that make up the index rise, then the value of the index will rise in tandem. If a majority of those shares fall, then the value of the index will fall by a corresponding amount. If you’ve had at least some exposure to the world of investing, then you’ve probably heard of Index Funds. These are funds that buy stocks in the companies of a particular index, and see their performance mirror the performance of the index as a whole. They’re great investment opportunities, because by buying into an index fund, you automatically gain a certain amount of diversity in your portfolio that you simply don’t get if you buy stocks in one specific company. Index CFDs offer the same basic advantages, which makes them a compelling choice to consider, and not markedly different from Share CFDs, which means that they’re newbie friendly. Another huge plus. Here are some of the bigger indexes from around the world that you may have heard of: - Australia’s XJO - China’s Shanghai Composite - France’s CAC 40 - Germany’s DAX - Hong Kong’s Hang Seng - Japan’s Nikkei Index - Singapore’s Straits Times - The UK’s FTSE - The US’ NASDAQ - The US’ Russell 2000 - The US’ S&P 500 Not only are Index CFDs a great way to help diversify your investment portfolio, they’re also ideal if you think that the economy of a given country is going to generally do well, but you’re short on company-specific research. This way, you don’t need it and can still reap the benefits. BACK TO CONTENTS So, should I or shouldn't I invest in CFDs? Now that you know what CFDs are and what basic flavors they come in, the next question is about you. You may or may not be well suited to investing in CFDs, and it’s important to be honest with and about yourself when making the decision. Personally, we love CFDs, so please don’t think we’re trying to dissuade you from taking the plunge, but as much as we love them, we also want to make sure they’re a good fit for you, so as to maximize your chances of making consistent profits. With that in mind, here are some reasons you SHOULDN’T invest in CFDs: - If you don’t understand basic market mechanics, hold off on adding CFDs to your portfolio. It doesn’t require a ton of experience to invest in them successfully, but you absolutely need a firm grasp of the basics of buying and selling on the market. If you don’t have that, get your feet wet with stock purchases and master that before moving on to CFDs. - Ignorance of the hidden dangers of leverage. One of the most common mistakes that novice investors make is underestimating their exposure. This happens because they fail to take into account how leveraged their positions are. As we said earlier, if you make a profitable trade, leverage will magnify your gains, but if you come out on the losing end, it will also magnify your losses. More novice investors than we can count have seen the value of their accounts wiped out because they didn’t properly account for the impact of leverage on their positions and failed to manage their risk accordingly. Until you’re sure you’ve got a firm handle on that, it’s best to steer clear of CFDs - If you’re driven by your emotions. This is where so many investors, novices and veterans alike can sometimes go astray. If you don’t take anything else from this guide, then take this lesson to heart: Emotions have no place in investing. If you’re not investing dispassionately, then CFDs are not for you. You need to create a cogent, comprehensive strategy and have the discipline to stick with it, regardless of what you’re feeling emotionally. You need to be able to say goodbye to an investment that’s losing money, rather than try to ride it out because you have some kind of emotional attachment to the investment, or the company the investment relates to. Sometimes, companies we love and care about make bad calls. When that happens, the market punishes them for it. If you’re too close to the issue, emotionally, then you’ll take a drubbing, right along with the company in question. Don’t allow that to happen to you. Build your strategy around your risk-tolerance, then stick with it, no matter what. Until and unless you can do that, then sadly, you’re not ready to invest in CFDs, and if you do, you’ll likely lose more money than you make. For the purposes of the rest of this guide, we’re going to make the assumption that you’ve done some soul searching and self-analysis, and have reached the conclusion that CFDs are a good fit for you. If that’s the case, congratulations, and we hope you’ll find what comes next to be of value. BACK TO CONTENTS Basics of CFD Trading There are two ways you can trade CFDs, and you need to be fluent in both. They are trading long and trading short. The difference is as follows: A long trade is just like when you buy a share of stock. The key idea behind it is to buy low and sell high. That is to say, you buy when your data tells you that the value of the CFD in question is set to rise. A short trade is the flip side of that equation. In that case, you’re selling high, then buying low. Essentially, you’re selling something you don’t own with the expectation that the price will drop, then buy it back at the lower price and pocketing the difference. Obviously, there’s a lot more to successful trading than just this (and we’ll be going into a lot more depth in later sections), but this is the foundation of your entire investing enterprise. These two things allow you to make profits, no matter which way the market is moving. If you only focus on one, then you’re limiting yourself to only being able to generate consistent profits when the market is moving in a single direction, and that’s not good because it will limit your success. You don’t want your success to be limited by anything, so take the time to master both types of buying and selling, and while we’re on the subject of your success, here’s something else to keep in mind, especially if you’re a novice investor: Don’t get into the game thinking that you’re going to make money on every single trade. No one does. The reality is that even the best, most successful investors in the world only succeed in turning a profit on about sixty percent of their trades. Think about that for a second, then phrase it another way: The best guys in the world fail four times out of ten. That’s true not just in the world of investing, but in just about everything. Take baseball, for example. The best guys in the league bat around .300. That means that they successfully hit the ball about three times in ten, or put another way, they fail about 70% of the time. Keep in mind that these are the best players in the world, and on top of the game. The point of all this is simply to outline that failure happens, even to the best of the best, and honestly, it happens a lot. The difference between a successful investor and a failed investor isn’t that one is flawless and the other isn’t, it’s that the successful investor takes steps to minimize his exposure to loss and keeps playing, while the failed investor lets his emotions take over until he loses everything, and then, simply can’t afford to play anymore. The biggest secret to your early success is simply this: Keep your positions small until you really get a feel for the market. The second biggest secret is that from day one, you should be treating your investment portfolio like a business. All businesses exist in order to make a profit. If they don’t do that, then they soon cease to exist, just as you will cease to be an investor unless you consistently make a profit. By viewing your portfolio as a business, you’ll go a long way toward putting yourself in a constructive frame of mind. One that will help install the discipline you’ll need to find long term success. We’ll be building on both of these ideas in later sections, as we walk you through developing your own trading strategy, but to give you a sneak peek, and using the first “secret” we mentioned, if you’re not sure or not as confident about a given position, go small. If you’re very sure, then go bigger (but still not too big). By varying the sizes of your positions based on your confidence level, you can help minimize your risk, and when you do suffer losses, they’ll be both minimal and manageable. In the sections that follow, we’re going to outline the ins and outs of investing in CFDs, but then, we’re going to move beyond just that and show you how to build the investment strategy we referenced just above. Once you’re armed with that information, you’ll be primed for success, and should consistently make profits with your CFD positions. Before we do that though, let’s summarize. BACK TO CONTENTS Chapter 1: Key Points to Remember - CFDs are a type of derivative, because their value is determined by something else (in this case, the underlying asset, whose price movement it mirrors) - The basics of CFD trading involve long trades (buy low, sell high) and short trading (sell high, buy low) - If you opt to trade in CFDs, then you’ll face fewer rules, regulations and restrictions than with most other types of investments - CFD Brokers also charge smaller fees, and allow you to use more leverage - Leverage is a two-edged sword, and one you should be extremely careful of. When you’re successful, leverage will make you even more so. When you fail, it will also magnify your losses. - When first starting out, it’s best to keep your positions small, until you have a good feel for the market. In fact, varying the sizes of your positions based on your confidence level is a key component to a successful investment strategy, but we’ll cover the particulars of that in a later section - From the very beginning, you should view your investment portfolio as a business. This will help train your brain to approach investing with discipline, and it will plant the seeds for your long-term success. - CFDs aren’t for everyone. You should have some basic familiarity with the way markets, buying and selling work before jumping in. You should also fully understand the implications of leverage and be disciplined enough to stick to your investment strategy and not allow your emotions to rule your decision making. BACK TO CONTENTS

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Bellydance A – Z is a glossary of terms for bellydance students to use as a reference guide. These are terms commonly used in the dance community, which includes Arabic musical terms, basic rhythms, regional dance styles, and other cultural information needed to get a foothold into the world of Bellydance. You’ll notice I give examples of different spellings for several of the words. This is because Middle Eastern languages have different alphabets than the Roman alphabet that the English language is based on. Different people will spell these words differently when translating using the Roman alphabet. All the variations are legitimate spellings for the same word. Arabesque – 1. an ornamental design consisting of intertwined flowing lines, originally found in Arabic or Moorish decoration. 2. In ballet, it’s a posture in which the body is supported on one leg, with the other leg extended horizontally backward. 3. The Bellydance Arabesque is used to describe a 4 count traveling step, in which the dancers travels, 1,2,3, hold on 4, slightly lifting the the unweighted leg off the floor and extending it backward. Asharah Beledy – (Also known as Beledy Progression or Beledy Taqsim) Arabic musical term. The music begins with a slow taqsim (meaning “improvisation” – see “taqsim”), and then typically follows a dialogue between the solo instrument and the tabla (drum). The full band joins in, progressing into a faster paced rhythmic build-up, typically ending in a drum solo. Assaya – stick or cane used in Egyptian folk dances of Upper Egypt (southern Egypt), known as the Said. Traditionally, the Saidi men carried large staffs (see Tahtiyb) with them which they used as weapons, and eventually a folk dance developed where the men would mock fight with the long sticks. Women then began dancing with canes as a way of playfully imitating the men’s dance, and eventually raks al assaya, or “cane dance” developed into a distinct women’s dance. Assuit – also known as Tulle-bi-telli. It is commonly called assuit after the city of Assuit in Egypt, where it is made. It is a textile of cotton or linen mesh with small strips of metal woven into the fabric in beautiful patterns, with its origins dating back to ancient Egypt. Other spellings include assuite, asyut, assyut, asyute, and azute. Tulle-bi-telli translates roughly as “net with metal”. Awalim – (singular Almeh) female dancers of Egypt, who also sang and played musical instruments. Originally, the Awalim only danced for the women of aristocratic households, unlike the Ghawazee (see Ghawazee) who danced outdoors and in different venues. Awalim were highly regarded entertainers in their heyday, up to the turn of the 20th century. In the early days of “bellydance” in Egypt, dancers were either Awalim or Ghawazee. The term, Raks Sharki or Oriental Dance (see entries), didn’t come about till the early 20th century as the dance became more modernized. Awwady – In Arabic music, this refers to the free-form improvised instrumental solo that has no underlying rhythm. This is often used for the opening few phrases of music played for a belly dancer, and it is then followed by the fast- or medium-tempo entrance music. Ayoub – Arabic 2/4 Rhythm Drum Pattern: Dumm (rest-rest) Tak, Dumm (rest) Tak (see Dumm, Tak, Ka, entry) Bedlah – literally means “suit”. This refers to the beaded two piece costume that bellydancers wear for performances. This style of costume was created in Egypt in the early part of the 20th century by, Badia Masabni, famous dancer and casino owner. Beledy – (also spelled Balady, Baladi, Beledi) adjective meaning native, indigenous, of the country, rural, comparable to English folk, with a lower-class connotation. It can also apply to many other things that are considered native, rural, rustic or traditional, for example beledy bread, beledy rose, beledy dance. It is also an Egyptian musical style that came about at the turn of the 20th century in urban Cairo. It’s also common to hear bellydancers refer to the 4/4 rhythm, Masmoudi Saghyr, as “beledy”. Beledy Dress – Traditional long dress worn for women’s folk dances Beledy Progression – Referring to an Arabic music style. Western term for Asharah Beledy (see entry for Asharah Beledy) Beledy Taqsim – Arabic music. Another term for Asharah Beledy or Beledy Progression (see Asharah Beledy). Belly Dance – (bellydance or belly-dance) also known as Middle Eastern Dance, Arabic Dance, or Raks Sharki – loosely meaning Oriental Dance, is an ancient art form from the Middle East and North Africa. Belly dance developed and became highly stylized in Egypt in the early part of the 20th century. It also became very popular in the Egyptian movies. The term “belly dance” is translated from the French term “danse du ventre” which was applied to the dance in the Victorian era. It is something of a misnomer, as every part of the body is involved in the dance; the most featured part being the hips. In common with most folk dances, there is no codified naming for belly dance movements. Some dancers and dance schools have their own terminology for the movements, but none is universally recognized. Chiftitelli – Turkish rhythm in 8/4 time. (Also spelled, Ciftetelli, Tsiftetelli, Shiftaatellii, Ciftetelli, in Arabic called Wahda Kabira, Wahada Kebira, Dar e Noss, Sheftetilli). Today a faster version is called Sonbati. Chiftitelli is also the Greek term for bellydance, not referring to the rhythm. Drum pattern: Dumm rest Tak Tak rest Tak Tak rest Dabke – Also spelled Debke. Levantine Arab folk circle dance, performed in Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Palestine and Israel. Dabke combines circle dance and line dancing and is widely performed at weddings and other joyous occasions. Def – (also Daf) Middle Eastern frame drum Dumm – Tak – Ka – Sounds made when striking the Tabla (see Dumbek). “Dumm” (also spelled Doum or Dum, pronounced “doom”- a deep sound) is the dominant hand on the middle, or “sweet spot” of the tabla. “Tak” (brighter sound, also spelled Tek) produced with the dominant hand striking the rim. “Ka” – is produced with the recessive hand striking the rim. Dumbek – (also spelled Doumbek) Hourglass-shaped Arabic drum. Also called Tabla, or Darbuka, depending on the region of the Middle East. Fellah – Arabic meaning, peasant, farmer, or agricultural laborer. A Fellahin could be seen wearing a simple cotton robe called, gallabeya. Fallahi Rhythm – (peasant) Arabic 4/4 rhythm Drum pattern: Dumm Tak Tak Tak Dumm Tak Tak Gallabeya – traditional Egyptian and Sudanese garment native to the Nile Valley (see Fellah) Ghawazee – (or spelled Ghawazi, singular is Ghaziya) Dancers of Egypt: a group of female traveling dancers of the Nawari people, sometimes referred to as “Gypsies”. The term Ghawazee in Egypt refers to the dancers in rural Egypt who have preserved the traditional 18th to 19th century style of dancing. The most famous family of the Ghawazi are the Banaat Maazin of Luxor Egypt. Habibi – meaning “my darling” or “beloved” in Arabic, and appears in many Arabic song titles and lyrics Hafla – Arabic meaning, party, get together (also spelled khafla). Outside of Arab speaking countries, many bellydance teachers will sponsor a Hafla for their students and/or the dance community. They can be small gatherings with open floor dancing, or more elaborate events with live music and solo and group performances, as well as vendors selling their wares. Iqaat – The rhythmic modes of Arab music are known as iqa’at (singular iqa’). They consist of regularly repeating sequences of beats, with each beat represented by one of two different types of drum stroke: the Dum and the Tak (see Dum, Tak, Ka) Jeel (also known as Al Jeel, or Geel in Egyptian Arabic)- Arabic pop music, modeled after foreign rock and roll, and pop music. Al Jeel became oriented around dance pop. Kanoun – (also Qanun, Qanoun) is a string instrument played in much of the Middle East and Central Asia. The Kanoun is made of wood, fish skin, nylon cords and metal keys. It looks similar to a dulcimer. Karsilamas – pronounced carshulamah, is a folk dance spread all over Northwest Asia Minor and carried to Greece by Asia Minor refugees. The term “karsilamas” comes from the Turkish word “karşılama” meaning “face to face greeting”. It can also refer to the 9/8 Turkish rhythm counted 2,2,2,3. Khaleej – or Al-Khaleej, is an Arabic word for Gulf, meaning anything from the Persian Gulf/Arabian Peninsula Khaleeji – Also spelled Khaleegy or Khaliji. Western bellydancers use this term to refer to the styles of music and dance from the Persian Gulf/Arabian peninsula. One of the main characteristic of the dance is tossing of the hair. The traditional costuming for this dance would be a Thobe al Nashal, which looks like a elaborately embroidered caftan, with beading, pearls and sequins. Bellydancers typically use the term Khaleeji Dress, or simply, Thobe (dress), when referring to the costume worn for the dance instead of thobe al nashal. The Arabic name for the dance is, Raks Al Nasha’ar (“hair dance”) or Raks al-Nashaat (“hair tossing dance”). Layla – (Also spelled Leyla) Arabic meaning Night, plural – Layali. There are many references to the night in Arabic lyrics and poetry. Nighttime is very magical. Layla, Leyla, Lailah, or Laila, is also a popular girl’s name in the Middle East. Mahraganat – Egyptian Arabic. The origins of mahraganat (songs of mahragan – festivals) began in the shaabi neighborhoods and slums of Cairo combining shaabi music and electronic dance music, with influences of rap, grime and reggaeton. Malfuf – (Arabic meaning wrapped, also called Laff – meaning Wrapping) Arabic 2/4 Rhythm. Also spelled Malfouf. Drum Pattern: Dumm (rest) Tak Tak Maqam – is the system of melodic modes used in traditional Arabic music which is mainly melodic. The word maqam in Arabic means place, location or position. Maqsoum– Arabic 4/4 rhythm. Also spelled Maksoum, Maksum – (divided; also called Wahda w Noss- one and a half), it is similar to masmoudi saghyr, except that the second dumm is replaced by a tak. Drum pattern: Dumm, Tak (rest) Tak, Dumm (rest) Tak Masmoudi Khabir – (Big Masmoudi) Arabic 8/4 rhythm. A slower version of masmoudi saghyr. Also spelled masmudi, masmoodi. Drum Pattern: Dumm Dumm (rest) Tak Dumm (rest) Tak (rest) Masmoudi Saghyr – (Little Masmoudi) Arabic 4/4 rhythm, typically referred to as “beledy” by some bellydancers. Drum pattern: Dumm Dumm (rest) Tak Dumm (rest) Tak (Embellishment: Dumm Dumm ta ka Tak Dumm ta ka Tak) Mawwal– A vocal improvisation in Arabic music. The singer demonstrates his skill with non-metrical improvisation on a poetic narrative text and melody. Megeance – (magancy, majenci, mejense, or mergence) Also known as the Oriental Entrance. It is the first song of the bellydancer’s show when she makes her grand entrance to the stage. It comes from the word emergence. The entrance music is a complex composition, meaning the music can have various rhythm, tempo, and mode changes. Meleya – (also melea, malaya) a modesty wrap worn by urban Egyptian women up until the early 20th century. It can also refer to the meleya dance. See Meleya Luff Meleya Luff – (also spelled Malaya Leff, Melea Laf) An Egyptian character dance that is fun, lighthearted and flirty depicting a beledy girl wearing a meleya (modesty wrap). The dance can be a girl from Alexandria (Eskandaria or spelled Iskandaria) or urban Cairo depending on the music. Mizmar – in Egypt it is a single or double reed wind instrument. It has a high pitched whining sound. In Turkey it is called Zurna. In other countries such as Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, it may be known as Zamr. Mizmar is also a term used for a group of musicians, usually a duo or trio, that play a mizmar instrument along with an accompaniment of one or two double-sided bass drum, known in Arabic as Tabl Beledy, or simply Tabl. Muwashahat – (also spelled Muwashshahat) Arab poetic form as well as a secular musical genre. The Muwashahat genre is inspired by tenth century court poetry of Arab-Andalusia, developed when Arab intellectual and artistic culture flourished in Spain. There are several traditions based on this poetic form. The Syrian and Egyptian wasla tradition is popularly used by Oriental dancers in performance. Ney – (also spelled Nay) is an end blown flute that figures prominently in Middle Eastern music. The ney is an ancient instrument that has been played for 4,500 – 5,000 years. Oriental Dance – see Belly Dance and Raks Sharki Oriental Entrance – The first song of a Bellydancer’s show. See Megeance Oryantal Dans – The term and spelling for Oriental Dance/Bellydance in Turkey. Oud – A musical instrument that is a form of lute or mandolin played in Arabic countries. Oud is also the word for wood in Arabic. There’s also the fragrance oil known as oud (or oudh), it comes from the wood of the Southeast Asian agar (aquilaria) tree. Many intoxicatingly beautiful Arabian perfumes and incenses are made with oud. Oum Khaltoum – Legendary singer of Egypt. Her birthdate is unknown, approximately born 1904 – died February 3, 1975. Known as “The Star of the East” and “The Voice”, she was known for her extraordinary vocal ability and style, Oum Khalthoum was one of the greatest and most influential Arab singers of the 20th century. Every serious Bellydancer should know the music of Oum Khalthoum. Other spellings, Um Kalthum, Om Kalsoum, Oumme Kalsoum, Uum Khalthum, and more. Rakkas – Arabic word meaning, “the male dancer”. Rakkasah – Arabic word meaning, “the female dancer”. Raks – also commonly spelled Raqs (Pronounced “rocks”) Arabic word for “the act of dancing”. Raks Al Assaya – Arabic meaning, “Cane dance”. See Assaya Raks Al Beledy – Arabic meaning, “folk dance” Raks Al Balas – Water jug dance – folk dance of Egypt Raks Al Kawliya – (or Raqs Al Kawleeya) Iraqi “gypsy” dance. An energetic dance with wild hair tossing movements. Raks Al Nasha’ar – Hair dance (see Khaleeji) Raks Al Nashaat – Hair tossing dance (see Khaleeji) Raks al Shamadan – Candelabra dance. The candelabra or shamadan is balanced on the head while dancing. The dance was made famous by Shafiqia al Koptia (Shafiqia the Copt), the most famous Awalim (see entry for Awalim) of the late 19th century in Egypt. Raks Sharki – Also spelled Raqs Sharqi. Arabic meaning, Dance of the East, or Dance of the Orient, translated as Oriental Dance. In America we call it “Belly Dance”. Riqq – (or Riq) Arabic tambourine Sagat – Term for finger cymbals in Arabic. Also spelled zagat, sagaat. See entry for Zills Saidi – This refers to anything of the Said region of Egypt, such as Saidi music, Saidi dance, Saidi people, Saidi food, etc. The Said is also known as “Upper Egypt”, located in the southern part of the country. Raqs al assaya (the cane dance) originated in the Said. Also spelled, Saidee, Sayeedi Saidi Rhythm – 4/4 Rhythm from Upper Egypt Drum Pattern: Dumm Tak (rest) Dumm Dumm (rest) Tak Samaii – A musical form in classical Arabic music Samaii Thaqil – Arabic 10/8 Rhythm Drum pattern: Dumm (rest-rest) Tak (rest) Dumm Dumm Tak (rest-rest) Shaabi – Arabic meaning, folk, or popular of the people. It is also a musical genre, known as “Egyptian street pop”. It first became popular in the 1970’s by the godfather of Shaabi, Ahmed Adaweya. Shaabi lyrics use the language of the streets of Cairo, full of working class slang and double entendres. Shamadan – A candelabra used to balance on the head while dancing. See Raks Al Shamadan (also spelled Raqs Al Shamadan) Sufi – A Sufi is a person who practices Sufism. Sufism – mystical Islamic belief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. Tabla – Arabic drum. See Dumbek Tabl Beledy – or simply Tabl. In Arabic music, it is a double sided bass drum played in folk music. See entry for Mizmar Tahtiyb – Men’s folk dance of Upper Egypt done with large staffs in a mock fighting manner – see Assaya and Saidi entries Takht – A small ensemble of Arab musicians, often including oud, kanoun, nay, tabla & riqq. Tanoura – The whirling dervish of Egypt. The whirler wears a colorful skirt, each color representing each Sufi order. The word may also refer to the dancer, traditionally a Sufi man. Tanoura is associated with Sufism and is performed at Sufi festivals, but it is also performed by non-Sufis as a folk dance or concert dance. In Egypt it is not uncommon to see a Tanoura dancer as one of the opening acts before the Bellydance show. Taqsim– also spelled “taxim”. Arabic musical term for the improvisation of a solo instrument. Tarab – Traditional Arab music has an intimate ambience and aims at evoking “tarab”, or ecstasy, in the performers and listeners. Thobe – Arabic word for “dress” Thobe al Nashal – Ornate dress worn in women’s khaleej dancing. See “Khaleeji” Tribal Bellydance – An American style of modern bellydance, which was created and codified by Carolina Nericcio-Bolman, called American Tribal Style or ATS. The roots of Tribal Bellydance are accredited to Jamila Salimpour of the San Fransisco Bay area. Tribal bellydance has taken on many forms today, which includes the fusion of many styles including traditional bellydance, ATS, Hip-Hop, Popping, Flamenco, Khatak and more. Tulle-bi-telli – Net fabric with slivers of metal woven in indicate patterns. Arabic meaning “net with metal” see Assuit Undulation – Term used by Western belly dancers to describe the flowing bellydance movements of the hips and torso, such as figure eights, circles, belly rolls, etc. Veil – The use of a veil in Bellydance was added in the early part of the 20th century in Egypt. As the dance became more modernized and moved to the professional stage, more traveling steps and turns were added, as well as a veil. Before then, the dance was done in small coffee houses, private homes and moulids (religious festivals). In the Middle East the veil is used for the bellydancer’s grand entrance to the stage (see Megeance), not as a dance within itself as is performed in the Western world. Wahda Khabira – 8/4 rhythm, also known as Chiftitelli (see Chiftitelli). Also spelled Wahda Kabira, Wahda Kebira. Wahda w Noss – Arabic meaning “one and a half”. It is also another name for the 4/4 rhythm known as Maqsoum (see Maqsoum) Ya Laylee – Arabic meaning, Oh night! The vocal improvisation, Mawwal (see entry), is also referred to as “Ya Laylee” when the singer sings of the night (Ya laylee, Ya layleeeee, ya, ya ,ya, Layleeeee…Oh night, Oh night, Oh, Oh, Oh night!) Zaar (or zar) – a custom that involves an individual (usually female) possessed by a spirit. The zaar ritual releases the individual of the spirit, or protects them from the spirit, through ritual music and dance. Observed in Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, southern Iran and other parts of the Middle East. Zaghareet – A high-pitched ululation done with the tongue. It is a sound of celebration associated with weddings, parties, and other joyful occasions in Arabian countries. American bellydancers like to zaghareet at dance events to show appreciation for a dancer’s performance. However, in the Middle East, zaghareet is not a show of applause at music and dance performances. It’s celebratory when getting good news, or at a joyous event, for example, “as the bride and groom entered the room, they were greeted with loud zaghareet by many of the guests.” Singular is zagharoot. Zeffah – (also zeffa, zaffa, zaffah) Arabic meaning “procession”. Traditional procession leading the bride through the streets from her home to her new life with her husband. The procession traditionally involves dancers and musicians, as well as family and friends leading the bride. Nowadays, the zeffah is done in a banquet hall, hotel, or other facility where a wedding would be held. Zeffah Al Arousa – Arabic meaning “procession of the bride” Zeffah Rhythm: A slow rhythm accompanying the bride’s walk, during the wedding procession. Drum Pattern: Dumm ta ka tak tak dumm tak tak Zills – Finger cymbals played by bellydancers – Turkish zils. “Zills” is the most common term for finger cymbals used by bellydancers in America. Also see Sagat Zurna – (also spelled Zorna) Turkish wind instrument. See Mizmar

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As I discussed in Chapter One, the history of the Internet is strongly rooted in the utopian idealism of the 1960s. Today, the medium is still frequently heralded for its potential to circulate information and enable new possibilities for interpersonal communication, identity performance, and community formation. Many find that the anonymous and text-based nature of the Internet offers users a safe space for disclosing personal information and pursuing romantic interests. Online social networks, in particular, facilitate the spread of information based on established networks of trust and reciprocity. By visually displaying such networks and their membership in them, people may derive an increased sense of communal belonging. Furthermore, individuals can also easily promote and distribute their own content in various forms, such as audio players, video clips, and photo galleries. On a collective level, the Internet provides a platform for the spread of information and ideas that can bring like-minded individuals into contact with one another regardless of temporal or spatial distance. Such perceived potential provides support for utopian ideologies, such as “neotribalism” and “technoshamanism,” that purport to promote the sanctity of humankind- the “sacred” campfire ritual and shamanistic practices described at the beginning of this thesis- utilizing modern technologies to tap into the “collective un/consciousness.” Despite the many claims that mediated communication is less valuable than face-to-face communication, in the absence of physical co-presence, people have long sought and will continue to seek out contact with others across boundaries of time and space. For those grappling with a dearth of face-to-face contact in their everyday lives, computer-mediated communication can provide a meaningful form of social interaction. Having recently transferred to Wesleyan, Isabelle found the “Events” feature of Facebook particularly useful for informing her about what was going on socially on campus. Lola observes that “it's nice to sign on and see that little notification that you have a new Friend Request,” and few deny this pleasure in practice, though they commonly try to in face-to-face conversation. “Everyone acts like they are not that into Facebook,” my friend Teresa commented, “but everyone so is.” At Wesleyan, joining Facebook is practically requisite, an indicator of one’s membership in the community. “I think it does help me sort of establish myself,” said Maddie, a freshman, “as like, ‘I’m a Wesleyan student.’” A sense of solidarity, a feeling that “everybody’s doing it,” effectively cancels out any potentially negative social consequences of simply having an online Profile. Conversely, those who are not on Facebook or MySpace (a minority among my social network) may be viewed as “too cool” for the medium, a paradigm that is mirrored in the social construction of cell phone ownership. A study conducted by Ellison et al; (2006) of 800 Michigan State University students found a high correlation between intensive Facebook use and increased social capital for those with relatively low self-esteem and school satisfaction. The somewhat anonymous nature of online communication provides a low-stress environment for communicating with and learning about others, regardless of the social setting or the strength of one’s relationship to the addressee. Online social networks, while they simulate offline social bonds, are nevertheless fundamentally mediating. It is this spatial distance that allows people to represent themselves to and communicate with others in ways unhindered by the limitations of physical co-presence. For instance, the user is granted a high degree of authorship over her self-disclosure, able to construct an identity grounded in written text and (usually) chosen, static images, which may be edited and revised at any time. Nevertheless, this form of expression is also limiting, for it demands a certain level of “cultural capital” and prior training in the medium to represent oneself effectively. The “truthfulness” of one’s online identity is, for the most part, up to the individual, however it is also largely dependent on the extent to which one’s online identity is linked to offline relationships and activities. Furthermore, a user may “lurk” undetected, thus deriving the voyeuristic satisfaction of consuming social information without risking self-disclosure, let alone initiating interaction. Many find this security especially beneficial for pursuing romantic interests. With a few clicks of the mouse, one can look up a new crush and find out his relationship status. “If you’re interested in someone,” an anonymous Wesleyan student writes, “send hir a message via Facebook or e-mail.” On college campuses, Facebook interactions have come to be an accepted way of indicating interest toward a person one may not otherwise run into, and in this way the medium changes the way that people build relationships with others. Carla, after meeting someone briefly at a party, sent him a Facebook message immediately afterwards saying that they should hang out again. She also started a fling with another man she had been admiring from a distance by way of Facebook messaging. “At Wesleyan, it’s especially important to look at sexuality,” wrote Leah, a sophomore girl. Facebook simplifies what is often a complicated process of outwardly identifying oneself as queer, enabling individuals to mark the gender(s) they are interested in and search for others who have indicated that they’re interested in the same sex. For those desirous of more fluid gender and sexual identity options, there’s SGO (Sex Gender Orientation)- an application that allows one to choose from a number of fields pertaining to gender and sexual identity: Though this application is used by only 137 Facebook members, 10 of them are Friends of mine from Wesleyan. This fact is indicative of the importance placed by Wesleyan students especially on tolerance and awareness of the full spectrum of gender and sexual identities. Jordan provided a more extreme example of the role Facebook has played in relationship formation. He once looked up all the people who were going to an upcoming music festival on campus and found a cute girl he had never seen before. He went on to tell me the story of their serendipitous encounter: These and other anecdotes make it clear that, rather than substituting for social interactions, Facebook is becoming integrated into the everyday processes of relationship formation on college campuses. Facebook users are granted the capacity to build upon chance encounters and sustain long-distance friendships. For the most part, interactions in the Facebook realm center on playfulness and are quite casual. A person one normally sees only in random chance encounters can instead be contacted through a Facebook message or Poke, or at the very least, one is able to see which parties he has RSVP’d to for the coming weekend by scanning his Mini-Feed. Both are common practices on college campuses MySpace is avidly used for romantic pursuits by high school students as well as adults; it was initially developed as a medium for online dating. Demetri, who has met many women on MySpace and dated two of them, has been involved in a great deal of “MySpace drama,” which he describes as a “modern-day soap opera.” During one conversation, he ranted at length about the often lewd, transgressive character of the site: His last statement referenced a story I’d told him earlier on in the conversation, about receiving just such a proposition from a Middletown couple via MySpace. It is quite common to encounter such “inappropriate” behavior on the site, and violating social norms of respectable conduct is one of the principle pleasures of the online medium- which, as Demetri aptly points out, functions as a “social lubricant” through reducing social risk. To include one’s location on one’s MySpace Profile is to voluntarily list oneself in an online directory of potential sexual partners. This use of the site is especially popular amongst high school students, who constituted the original majority of MySpacers in the site’s infancy. “I didn’t use the site, but all the girls did,” my brother recalls, “they were always talking about boys from other schools they found on MySpace.” It would seem that MySpace was commonly used by girls at my high school to expand the dating pool beyond the tiny insular community of Clinton, where classmates of the opposite sex often seemed more like little brothers than potential romantic partners. While it is a popular activity on MySpace to initiate correspondence with strangers, the site is also frequently utilized to track down people one has met offline and would like to get to know better. One afternoon, a freshman boy named Tom replied to a call for stories I had posted on the Anonymous Confession Board, initiating a conversation with me via Instant Messenger in order to tell me a tale of his “MySpace romance:” As the conversation continued, I realized that the pursuant was also male. “Oh, a him?” I wrote, “That’s interesting…” “Why?” he replied. “There is more social risk involved in asking out a random member of the same sex… and the Internet reduces social risk,” I responded. “That makes sense,” he wrote back: When asked why he ended the relationship, Tom went on to write: A classic example of “reduced social risk,” indeed! Tribe is representative of another kind of “safe space”- it is a niche site where the “alternative” is not only accepted, it’s the norm. Tribe is relatively unknown to those unassociated with Burning Man or psytrance culture. While the more popular MySpace and Facebook encourage self-censorship to some degree, on Tribe it is common to come across message board threads publicly discussing such topics as bondage, drug use, mysticism, and shamanism with the sort of frankness normally reserved for close friends. A novice drug user, posting a thread entitled “lsd versus mushrooms,” received 122 responses of advice from more experienced members. In a Tribe called “Au Naturel,” a post entitled “how many of you drive naked?” incited friendly camaraderie and support in the form of 51 responses. A Tribe called “3+ Male Relationships” describes itself as “A tribe for Gay men that are interested in LTR [long-term] relationships of 3 or more,” and has 121 members. Clearly, the site is an excellent source of information and social support that would be difficult to come across via mainstream media or in everyday life. Social networking sites have become popular tools for keeping in touch with new acquaintances and friends, increasingly replacing other forms of networking (such as exchanging cell phone numbers). Last month, vacationing in Mexico, I befriended several Canadians who happened to also be fervent Facebook enthusiasts. We promised to post the photos we’d taken of our adventures, and to keep track of one another through the site. MySpace has enabled me to stay in touch with those I meet who do not attend university and thus are less likely to have a Facebook account. In addition, I regularly add musicians I enjoy listening to, as well as authors who have had an important influence on my life. Tribe, alternately, helps me befriend and remain connected to people I may know only through our shared presence on the dance floor, and to “meet” Trancers from other parts of the world (such as Mexico, Romania, India, Canada, the UK, and Portugal). This sort of transnational networking triggers an intense feeling of belonging to a global underground community, tied together through shared beliefs, music tastes, and party styles. Much of the research that has been conducted on online social networking highlights the benefits of the medium for strengthening weak social bonds. Donath and boyd (2004: 80) contend that while use of social networking sites does not necessarily increase one’s strong ties, the sites enable one to form and maintain a greater number of weak ties, thus increasing and diversifying various kinds of information and opportunities. The vast majority of those I interviewed would agree that online social networks simply make life easier. Those seeking information about a homework assignment, for instance, may (and often do) use Facebook to find others enrolled in the same course. Additionally, the sites are often utilized to “introduce” one friend to another, in more or less useful ways. On occasion, these sites have served me as vehicles for finding others interested in my field of research. “Get in touch with my friend Leo,” Tara wrote on my Wall, “Facebook: Leo Patterson. He goes to Harvard and has some crazy ideas about/fun with social networking sites. Also one of the smartest people I've had the pleasure of knowing.” More common, however, is the practice of “checking out” new acquaintances. Online Profiles allow one “to learn about where [someone is] from, who else they are friends with, this that and the other thing. And like, you know, what groups they represent,” according to Jordan. He went on to discuss how Facebook has facilitated his own repository of “useful information”: Drawing on the aforementioned study as well as the work of Robert Putnam (2000), Ellison et al; (2006) distinguish between two forms of social capital: bridging social capital, which refers to the weak ties between individuals who may share information and differing perspectives, but not usually emotional support; and bonding social capital, which refers to the strong, emotional ties typically found within families and close friendships. In addition, they included a new form of social capital- high school social capital- in reference to the particular audience supported by the Facebook platform (high school students moving out of the home and into a university setting). Facebook was found to be particularly useful for keeping in touch with old high school friends and acquaintances, thus increasing bridging social capital (2006: 1162). In particular, they note that the site is often used to activate “latent ties” by allowing users to discover how such ties may be more applicably useful in various contexts. For example, I recently utilized Facebook in order to find out more information about a new housemate, and discovered that we have 15 Facebook Friends in common, that he is an experimental musician, and that he is from Germany. Upon discovering these facts, I breathed a sigh of relief that my soon-to-be-neighbor is most likely laid-back and interesting- an assessment based primarily on our mutual acquaintances. (First post to my blog, miss.anthropology, January 2008) Online social networks are but one of many new forms of web applications that fall within the spectrum of “Web 2.0.” Web 2.0 has myriad definitions, but can best be understood as the shift from a one-way flow of information to information tailored by and for the users themselves, many-to-many. Wikipedia, for example, allows anyone to edit the enormous database of encyclopedia entries that have been produced over the past five years. However, while with Wikipedia the entries themselves are the common reference point among participants, online social networks perpetuate a plethora of “ego-centered” flows of information directly pertaining to one’s virtually established relationships, which are more often than not pre-established in the offline world. This is best exemplified by Facebook’s News Feed, where I can learn about Events that my Friends plan to attend, who has recently updated their Profile photos, what one Friend wrote on the Wall of another, and that John and Paige are now engaged. All three sites allow members to upload or link to various forms of media, such as video, music, and still images. Most everything that is uploaded to an online social network can potentially become a subject of “conversation” in the form of Comments. For example, Facebook notifies me when someone has Commented on a photo in which my name is Tagged, prompting me to revisit the photo and perhaps respond. The nature of responses is typically light-hearted and casual, often joking. Unlike telephone conference calls, anyone who is able to view the photos may potentially contribute to the conversation at any point in time. Users may also Tag others if they wish them to be notified of a Note they’ve posted, nearly ensuring that their words will be read by an intended audience, and encouraging reciprocal feedback. On MySpace, members are informed when their Friends post blog entries or broadcast “Bulletins”: Above is an example of recent Bulletins posted by my MySpace Friends. Kelly, my younger sister, posts lengthy surveys with her answers to such frivolous questions as “Coke or Pepsi?” Lama-Jigme is a Buddhist monk I stumbled across on the site, found his thoughtful Bulletins interesting, and added as a Friend. KatAlyst, a local Middletown friend, informs his MySpace Friends about an upcoming party in New York City. The rest are musicians I either am a fan of (Chemical Brothers), know personally (Laura), or whose Friend Requests I’ve accepted after checking out the music they’ve uploaded to their Profiles. The “searchability” and transparency of the Internet is another important facet of the “Information Revolution.” With regard to social networking sites, finding others who share such eclectic interests as “Javanese Gamelan” is as simple as typing the phrase into a search bar. Individuals may also join or create groups composed of like-minded enthusiasts around the world, thus diversifying and extending “communities” based on shared interests. Moreover, the sheer popularity of MySpace and Facebook means they are often the first places to look for tracking down old friends and acquaintances, much like phonebooks. Unlike phonebooks, however, online Profiles provide a glimpse into the lives of others without the potential awkwardness of direct interaction that a phone call entails. Such transparency has given rise to the widespread linguistic use of “Google” as a verb. It is now common practice, for instance, for employers to “Google” potential employees . One of the greatest appeals of online social networking is the ability to observe without being observed. Rather than being the sole right of state agencies and corporate marketers, individuals themselves are granted this observational power, promoting a proliferating array of “lateral gazes” in a way that may compensate for these “vertical gazes” of authority. As I log onto Tribe, I am greeted with an array of content in the form of Local Posts (set to show posts pertaining to New York City) and Blog Entries (posted by those in my network of Friends). A cursory glance at the posts informs me about upcoming concerts, parties, astrological events, and spiritual musings of the “New Age” variety. Many of those with whom I’ve discussed Tribe have admitted that they rarely log onto the site. “When I do,” remarked Ted, “I’m usually looking for discussions about, say, ayahuasca , or certain audio programs…” For those seeking discursive information regarding alternative political and artistic ideas and practices, Tribe is bursting with conversation. My search for political activity on Tribe has inevitably led me to discussions pertaining to the 9/11 “conspiracy,” tirades against President Bush, and issues of global interest. Often, this sort of information is not easily accessible, as the majority of members pride themselves on their rejection of mainstream media, representing themselves as the “global underground.” Both MySpace and Facebook, in contrast, have become important sites for more mainstream political activities and interests. In 2006, Facebook launched a feature called “Election Pulse,” enabling members to indicate which candidates they support, learn about and discuss political issues, and gauge how candidates are faring among Facebookers through polls organized by state. MySpace, in turn, recently launched “Impact Channel,” fulfilling essentially the same functions as its Facebook counterpart but reaching an even greater audience. Furthermore, the “Channel” is heavily video-oriented, featuring a series of dialogues with the candidates in collaboration with MTV’s “Rock the Vote” initiative. Visitors to the site are able to submit videos of themselves asking questions of the candidates, promoting a sense of being directly involved in political democracy. Similar collaborative endeavors between network television and online social networks include the YouTube/CNN presidential debate in June of 2007 and the Facebook/ABC presidential debate in January of 2008. As the 2008 presidential election approaches, candidates have been rushing to capture the elusive yet desirable youth vote. Unsurprisingly, the Democratic party has been considerably more effective with its use of new social media to drive campaigns. In a CNN article, “The social networking election,” dated 12 September 2007, a Republican pollster is quoted as saying: "Our party is really behind in learning how to maximize this and use it to our best benefit. We were very proactive in learning how to use talk radio. When it comes to the Internet, especially social networking sites, we're really behind.” On MySpace, Barack Obama leads the popularity contest with over 340,000 Friends (as of April 2008)- not counting the thousands of Friends who link to alternate Obama Profiles created to represent each individual state in the U.S. His Profile consists of a regularly-updated blog, YouTube videos of his past speeches, links to further information, photographs, podcasts, and various buttons linking to his other “online habitats” on sites such as YouTube, Facebook, and LinkedIn. Such practices serve to humanize politicians and breach the disconnect felt by voters, and are particularly oriented toward the purportedly politically “apathetic” youth generation of the United States today. Members of online social networks, in turn, have begun utilizing the sites to display their support for particular candidates on their Profiles (much like bumper stickers), research and discuss political issues, and run local campaigns in the form of Groups. The public nature of the Internet makes it an ideal medium for promoting one’s craft or agenda to large groups of people. Online social networks are particularly useful vehicles for finding others who share similar interests, due in large part to their “searchability.” By articulating that I am interested in psytrance, for example, psytrance DJs and producers around the globe can find my Profile and request my Friendship. Shared interests, especially with regard to music tastes, serve as a foundation for expressions of camaraderie and implied intimacy, as exhibited by the following Comment on my MySpace Profile: For emerging artists, MySpace is the place to promote one’s creations online. Rather than being relegated to the ethically controversial and illegal practice of pirating music that is protected under copyright, MySpace serves as a legal platform for listening to a wide variety of music. Musicians can upload audio files directly onto special MySpace Music Profiles, allowing visitors to listen to their songs for free with a simple click of the “Play” button. Many also allow fans to purchase albums directly from the site if they so choose. Established artists are likely to draw their own following of “Fans” (the term used in place of “Friends”) and thereby accumulating cultural capital (as opposed to social capital), while emerging musicians often search for and send Friend Requests to large numbers of users in hopes of drawing potential Fans and converting social into cultural capital. Musician Profiles also serve to inform Fans about upcoming shows and concerts, either through a calendar on their Profiles or through event invitations. Fans may RSVP to upcoming events and share invitations with their Friends, a form of secondhand promotion that is often highly effective. Tribe also allows users to edit their Profiles substantially, and particularly emphasizes group discussion in the form of message boards. Tribes such as “Creative Writing” and “Electronic Music Production” encourage members to post links to original material, comment on and critique the work of others, and engage in dialogue with other artists involved in the field. One of the unique features of the site enables members to write reviews of artists, musicians, bands, DJs, writers, and filmmakers, which can then be posted to appropriate Tribes as well as on one’s Profile: The viral nature of social networking sites also makes them ideal platforms for promoting activist causes and generating political support. On Facebook (originally a service geared toward upper-tier college students), student activists across the country form groups aimed at raising awareness of various issues and garnering collective solidarity and support. In order to gauge how the site is used for activist purposes, a research partner and I interviewed the founder of the Facebook group “400,000 Faces,” which sought to promote public awareness of the genocide in Darfur in the following manner: A widespread critique of this kind of Group is that little is actually accomplished: one can consider herself an “activist” simply by clicking a button to join a Group. This perspective was expressed by Isabelle: Ben, the founder of the group, responded to this critique more optimistically: “400,000 Faces” reached their goal about four months after its inception, and, Ben states, “[it was all done by] friends inviting friends inviting friends…I would guess that there are very few schools throughout the entire nation that do not have at least one member of 400,000 Faces.” This form of viral networking is how a similar Group, called “For Every 1,000 People That Join This Group, I Will Donate $1 to Darfur,” accumulated over half a million Facebook members in less than a week. When my Friends began joining this Group, I (like nearly every member on Facebook) watched its popularity evolve through my News Feed. Given their demonstrated success in conglomerating individuals around shared attitudes and tastes, it is little wonder that online social networking sites have attracted the vociferous attention of advertisers, corporations, activists and artists alike. A common promotional practice on MySpace is the use of robots, commonly called “bots,” that will send Friend Requests to users en masse: This practice is greatly disparaged by casual MySpacers and often cited as its most unappealing facet. However, the average user is typically unaware of the extent to which content is proliferated throughout the site. Bots are used by spammers as well as musicians, pornography sites as well as young entrepreneurs- with varying degrees of success. One such entrepreneur, a 21-year old Wesleyan sophomore who runs his own line of t-shirts, commented bleakly: “I have a bot that ‘friends’ people on MySpace. I have over 7,000 friends, but I’ve only sold 3 or 4 shirts this way!” He proceeded to ask me how he could more effectively promote his business, as my friend standing next to me responded derisively, “oh, you’re one of those!” I suggested, first, a more personal approach through direct messages rather than mass “friending.” Secondly, I recommended that he check out Tribe as a source of networking with other artists and aficionados of DIY (Do It Yourself) enterprises. -Hakim Bey, The Temporary Autonomous Zone (1985) In my virtual wandering through the thousands of bulletin boards that make up Tribe, two terms I’d never heard of before quickly caught my attention: technoshamanism and neotribalism. Both terms evoke a romantic notion of merging modern technologies with ancient tribal wisdom. For instance, certain kinds of electronic music are attributed the capacity to induce trance-like states that can be shared by a group of people through ecstatic dance, evoking images of shamanic tribal rituals in various parts of the world (such as South America, India, and Africa). Synthetic drugs such as LSD (acid) and MDMA (ecstasy) are frequently ingested as well, to aid in inducing trance-like states, altering visual and auditory perceptions, and enhancing feelings of connectedness to others and the “divine within.” In the words of one Tribe member: Underlying the ideology of neotribalism is the concept of a universal consciousness that has been lost and forgotten in the wake of civilization, and that must be rediscovered if humanity is to survive. These ideas/beliefs have parallels in many religious or “cult” movements: prophetic figures have emerged throughout the past half-century (such as Timothy Leary, Terence McKenna, Alex Grey and Daniel Pinchbeck), some of whom espouse the apocalyptic belief (traces of which can be found throughout the site) that the world will come to an end in the year 2012 . “The tribes and the primitive people will survive,” predicts a 50-year old Californian man, “know how to get all that you need from the earth. Nothing else can be expected to survive.” Like the Back-to-the-Land movement of the 1960’s, neotribalists seek a return to humanity’s “ancestral roots” through developing local, self-sustaining communities, with an emphasis on creating a global network of interconnected “tribes.” With its unifying power, the Internet is one of those modern technologies that is utilized by technoshamans as a means of tapping into the “collective neural network.” As I previously mentioned, Tribe was founded on the principals established by Craigslist- namely, local trust-based communities sharing information, unhindered by advertising and aided by displaying how members are connected to one another. Members join “Tribes” based on shared localities, lifestyles, interests, and niches. When asked why he spends so much time on Tribe, a party promoter I have befriended and partied with after meeting on the site replied, “there are just so many cool people on there, people who know what’s up.” Being “in the know” is a key value in the formation of the “underground,” through which members of a subculture pride themselves on possessing special knowledge (subcultural capital) that distinguishes them from the imagined “mainstream.” A primary use of the site is to organize and promote artists’ collectives. Last year, a friend of mine created the Tribe “Chrysalis Cuddle,” in reference to a group of Wesleyan students (myself included) dedicated to throwing “underground” raves on and around campus. The Tribe had a short-lived period of activity over a winter break period, during which five of us exchanged ideas about future events. Though we were all in separate parts of the country, we could participate in the conversation at any time. The thread remains accessible today, though it has been inactive for over a year. Most importantly, the nature of message boards is such that our posts were well thought out and attentive to previous responses, allowing for a constructive dialogue unhindered by the burdens of co-presence (such as hesitations, interruptions, and “filler” words). In 1962, Marshall McLuhan’s landmark novel The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man described the changes that had been taking place since the invention of the Gutenberg press; namely, the increasing collapse of spatial and temporal barriers, enabling people to communicate on a global level. His notion of the “global village” has since become a popular metaphor for describing the Internet and the World Wide Web. Utopian visions of a vast, interconnected global community, connected through cybernetic technology, abound in books, movies, and television. Equally common, however, are apocalyptic and ominous depictions of a world governed by Big Brother, divided by war and poverty, or destroyed entirely by the ignorance of humanity. “Technoshamans” seek to put forth positive energy in order to bring about the healing seen as imperative for creating a better world and reclaiming our ancient roots: Despite the anxieties and fears that online social networking evokes, the medium continues to be integrated into the everyday practices of many. Its immense popularity can be attributed to a number of factors, such as extending older forms of two-way communication (like the radio and the telephone) to include new possibilities for interaction through multimedia, as well as allowing for the voyeuristic pleasures of one-way observation. I have frequently found myself signing into Facebook when telling a story or mentioning someone unknown to my listener(s); this is a common practice amongst my friends. By scrolling through our “Mutual Friends,” the individual in question may be recognized, albeit unilaterally. When I lost my phone, Facebook became my primary means of getting in touch with my friends; when I got a new phone, the site was extremely useful for obtaining phone numbers. As I am looking to move to New York City in a few months, I posted a “Request” for housing recommendations on Tribe, where my chances of finding potential housemates compatible with my lifestyle and worldview are considerably increased. Unlike MySpace or Facebook, which are more place-based in nature and involve social class, Tribe is less place-based and prioritizes shared subcultural preferences. All three sites serve as sources of social and political information tailored to my personal network and interests, and keep me informed about upcoming events I might be interested in and which of my friends are planning to attend. Online social networking has become a highly effective tool for promoting such events, as well as engendering visible support for musicians, writers, activists and politicians. When a friend recommends a musician to me, I invariably ask for their MySpace address (unless, as is often the case, I’m introduced to the musician by being shown their MySpace Profile) in order to listen to some of their music easily and freely. Novice and established authors alike can find an audience for their written work, effectively sidestepping the middleman through publishing freely and publicly online. In a similar vein, both activists and politicians have discovered that these sites enable not only discourse and dissemination of ideas, but also a means to build quantitative support. Indeed, the more Friends one is connected to or members who join one’s group through online social networks, the more one’s name will appear in the networks of others, instigating a form of viral proliferation that exponentially increases one’s social capital. A recent survey by the PEW Internet & American Life Project (2007: 27) found that 1 in 3 adults have posted creative content online. Alongside blogging, wikis, and other forms of collaborative and interactive technologies labeled “Web 2.0,” social networking sites are one of the primary tools heralded as enabling the “Information Revolution.” The term “revolution” is somewhat grandiose, thus “evolution” may be a better fit. Print media became secularized with the advent of nation-building; electronic media has arguably become democratized in this period of globalization. Thus, one of the primary pleasures emphasized by my informants is the way in which these sites allow members to experience themselves as producers of culture, rather than simply audiences or consumers. “We’re making the media,” Demetri asserts, “We’re the content creators.” This is certainly true, particularly within online social networks that enable members to post and share personal photo albums, homemade videos, blogs, and other various forms of art. In this way, users feel empowered to take on active, productive positions as producers of culture, sources of information, and agents of the observational gaze. Furthermore, “Web 2.0” technologies have instigated a shift in the role of the media from “gatekeeper” to “matchmaker” (Levinson 1999: 129-131). Once upon a time, information was something either pre-packaged (in the case of newspapers and network television) or sought after in libraries. With the advent of modern web technologies, one can not only find information on any subject conceivable, but also filter such information through recommendations and referrals. For example, my iGoogle homepage, which appears whenever I open my web browser, neatly displays the “feeds” of my choosing: popular technology blogs, blogs of fellow anthropology and media researchers, the blogs of my friends, my email inbox, and the most popular stories recently posted to Digg . Such an emphasis on individual taste preferences reflects and reinforces the growing importance of “lifestyle” in identity formation, especially among young people, linked in turn to the increasing importance of global media culture and patterns of consumption. In 1962, Marshall McLuhan popularized the notion of the “Global Village” in a book entitled The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man. His discussion of the Global Village predicted the onset of an era of “electronic interdependence,” characterized by a shift away from individualism and fragmentation and toward a collective, “tribal” identity based in the aural and oral nature of electronic media. His ideas became embedded in the cultural vernacular to such an extent that the Internet is often referred to as a global village. The “neotribal” ideologies of “technoshamans” seek to ensure that the cognitive changes currently under way do not become usurped by totalitarian rule and fear, as McLuhan warned, but rather are guided by those who see themselves as in tune with man’s original “tribal” nature and the collective good. The metaphor of the “virtual campfire” has been extended in this chapter to describe the ways in which these sites allow members to reinforce individual and collective identity, extend and diversify social ties, promote their art and ideas to others, tailor information to their particular interests and network of trustworthy referrers, and potentially connect to a kind of “collective consciousness” that some see as having the capacity to transform humanity into a “neotribal” state. The question then becomes: to what extent and in what ways can these media be made truly “empowering”? In the next and final chapter, I discuss a particular ancient ritual- that of memorializing and commemorating the deceased- as it is recreated by members of online social networking sites. © Jenny Ryan 2008

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Summa Theologica, by St. Thomas Aquinas, , at sacred-texts.com In proper sequence, we must consider charity; and (1) charity itself; (2) the corresponding gift of wisdom. The first consideration will be fivefold: (1) Charity itself; (2) The object of charity; (3) Its acts; (4) The opposite vices; (5) The precepts relating thereto. The first of these considerations will be twofold: (1) Charity, considered as regards itself; (2) Charity, considered in its relation to its subject. Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry: (1) Whether charity is friendship? (2) Whether it is something created in the soul? (3) Whether it is a virtue? (4) Whether it is a special virtue? (5) Whether it is one virtue? (6) Whether it is the greatest of the virtues? (7) Whether any true virtue is possible without it? (8) Whether it is the form of the virtues? Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not friendship. For nothing is so appropriate to friendship as to dwell with one's friend, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 5). Now charity is of man towards God and the angels, "whose dwelling [Douay: 'conversation'] is not with men" (Dan. 2:11). Therefore charity is not friendship. Objection 2: Further, there is no friendship without return of love (Ethic. viii, 2). But charity extends even to one's enemies, according to Mat. 5:44: "Love your enemies." Therefore charity is not friendship. Objection 3: Further, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 3) there are three kinds of friendship, directed respectively towards the delightful, the useful, or the virtuous. Now charity is not the friendship for the useful or delightful; for Jerome says in his letter to Paulinus which is to be found at the beginning of the Bible: "True friendship cemented by Christ, is where men are drawn together, not by household interests, not by mere bodily presence, not by crafty and cajoling flattery, but by the fear of God, and the study of the Divine Scriptures." No more is it friendship for the virtuous, since by charity we love even sinners, whereas friendship based on the virtuous is only for virtuous men (Ethic. viii). Therefore charity is not friendship. On the contrary, It is written (Jn. 15:15): "I will not now call you servants . . . but My friends." Now this was said to them by reason of nothing else than charity. Therefore charity is friendship. I answer that, According to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 2,3) not every love has the character of friendship, but that love which is together with benevolence, when, to wit, we love someone so as to wish good to him. If, however, we do not wish good to what we love, but wish its good for ourselves, (thus we are said to love wine, or a horse, or the like), it is love not of friendship, but of a kind of concupiscence. For it would be absurd to speak of having friendship for wine or for a horse. Yet neither does well-wishing suffice for friendship, for a certain mutual love is requisite, since friendship is between friend and friend: and this well-wishing is founded on some kind of communication. Accordingly, since there is a communication between man and God, inasmuch as He communicates His happiness to us, some kind of friendship must needs be based on this same communication, of which it is written (1 Cor. 1:9): "God is faithful: by Whom you are called unto the fellowship of His Son." The love which is based on this communication, is charity: wherefore it is evident that charity is the friendship of man for God. Reply to Objection 1: Man's life is twofold. There is his outward life in respect of his sensitive and corporeal nature: and with regard to this life there is no communication or fellowship between us and God or the angels. The other is man's spiritual life in respect of his mind, and with regard to this life there is fellowship between us and both God and the angels, imperfectly indeed in this present state of life, wherefore it is written (Phil. 3:20): "Our conversation is in heaven." But this "conversation" will be perfected in heaven, when "His servants shall serve Him, and they shall see His face" (Rev. 22:3, 4). Therefore charity is imperfect here, but will be perfected in heaven. Reply to Objection 2: Friendship extends to a person in two ways: first in respect of himself, and in this way friendship never extends but to one's friends: secondly, it extends to someone in respect of another, as, when a man has friendship for a certain person, for his sake he loves all belonging to him, be they children, servants, or connected with him in any way. Indeed so much do we love our friends, that for their sake we love all who belong to them, even if they hurt or hate us; so that, in this way, the friendship of charity extends even to our enemies, whom we love out of charity in relation to God, to Whom the friendship of charity is chiefly directed. Reply to Objection 3: The friendship that is based on the virtuous is directed to none but a virtuous man as the principal person, but for his sake we love those who belong to him, even though they be not virtuous: in this way charity, which above all is friendship based on the virtuous, extends to sinners, whom, out of charity, we love for God's sake. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not something created in the soul. For Augustine says (De Trin. viii, 7): "He that loveth his neighbor, consequently, loveth love itself." Now God is love. Therefore it follows that he loves God in the first place. Again he says (De Trin. xv, 17): "It was said: God is Charity, even as it was said: God is a Spirit." Therefore charity is not something created in the soul, but is God Himself. Objection 2: Further, God is the life of the soul spiritually just as the soul is the life of the body, according to Dt. 30:20: "He is thy life." Now the soul by itself quickens the body. Therefore God quickens the soul by Himself. But He quickens it by charity, according to 1 Jn. 3:14: "We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love the brethren." Therefore God is charity itself. Objection 3: Further, no created thing is of infinite power; on the contrary every creature is vanity. But charity is not vanity, indeed it is opposed to vanity; and it is of infinite power, since it brings the human soul to the infinite good. Therefore charity is not something created in the soul. On the charity, Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 10): "By charity I mean the movement of the soul towards the enjoyment of God for His own sake." But a movement of the soul is something created in the soul. Therefore charity is something created in the soul. I answer that, The Master looks thoroughly into this question in Q of the First Book, and concludes that charity is not something created in the soul, but is the Holy Ghost Himself dwelling in the mind. Nor does he mean to say that this movement of love whereby we love God is the Holy Ghost Himself, but that this movement is from the Holy Ghost without any intermediary habit, whereas other virtuous acts are from the Holy Ghost by means of the habits of other virtues, for instance the habit of faith or hope or of some other virtue: and this he said on account of the excellence of charity. But if we consider the matter aright, this would be, on the contrary, detrimental to charity. For when the Holy Ghost moves the human mind the movement of charity does not proceed from this motion in such a way that the human mind be merely moved, without being the principle of this movement, as when a body is moved by some extrinsic motive power. For this is contrary to the nature of a voluntary act, whose principle needs to be in itself, as stated above (FS, Q, A): so that it would follow that to love is not a voluntary act, which involves a contradiction, since love, of its very nature, implies an act of the will. Likewise, neither can it be said that the Holy Ghost moves the will in such a way to the act of loving, as though the will were an instrument, for an instrument, though it be a principle of action, nevertheless has not the power to act or not to act, for then again the act would cease to be voluntary and meritorious, whereas it has been stated above (FS, Q, A) that the love of charity is the root of merit: and, given that the will is moved by the Holy Ghost to the act of love, it is necessary that the will also should be the efficient cause of that act. Now no act is perfectly produced by an active power, unless it be connatural to that power of reason of some form which is the principle of that action. Wherefore God, Who moves all things to their due ends, bestowed on each thing the form whereby it is inclined to the end appointed to it by Him; and in this way He "ordereth all things sweetly" (Wis. 8:1). But it is evident that the act of charity surpasses the nature of the power of the will, so that, therefore, unless some form be superadded to the natural power, inclining it to the act of love, this same act would be less perfect than the natural acts and the acts of the other powers; nor would it be easy and pleasurable to perform. And this is evidently untrue, since no virtue has such a strong inclination to its act as charity has, nor does any virtue perform its act with so great pleasure. Therefore it is most necessary that, for us to perform the act of charity, there should be in us some habitual form superadded to the natural power, inclining that power to the act of charity, and causing it to act with ease and pleasure. Reply to Objection 1: The Divine Essence Itself is charity, even as It is wisdom and goodness. Wherefore just as we are said to be good with the goodness which is God, and wise with the wisdom which is God (since the goodness whereby we are formally good is a participation of Divine goodness, and the wisdom whereby we are formally wise, is a share of Divine wisdom), so too, the charity whereby formally we love our neighbor is a participation of Divine charity. For this manner of speaking is common among the Platonists, with whose doctrines Augustine was imbued; and the lack of adverting to this has been to some an occasion of error. Reply to Objection 2: God is effectively the life both of the soul by charity, and of the body by the soul: but formally charity is the life of the soul, even as the soul is the life of the body. Consequently we may conclude from this that just as the soul is immediately united to the body, so is charity to the soul. Reply to Objection 3: Charity works formally. Now the efficacy of a form depends on the power of the agent, who instills the form, wherefore it is evident that charity is not vanity. But because it produces an infinite effect, since, by justifying the soul, it unites it to God, this proves the infinity of the Divine power, which is the author of charity. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not a virtue. For charity is a kind of friendship. Now philosophers do not reckon friendship a virtue, as may be gathered from Ethic. viii, 1; nor is it numbered among the virtues whether moral or intellectual. Neither, therefore, is charity a virtue. Objection 2: Further, "virtue is the ultimate limit of power" (De Coelo et Mundo i, 11). But charity is not something ultimate, this applies rather to joy and peace. Therefore it seems that charity is not a virtue, and that this should be said rather of joy and peace. Objection 3: Further, every virtue is an accidental habit. But charity is not an accidental habit, since it is a more excellent thing than the soul itself: whereas no accident is more excellent than its subject. Therefore charity is not a virtue. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Moribus Eccl. xi): "Charity is a virtue which, when our affections are perfectly ordered, unites us to God, for by it we love Him." I answer that, Human acts are good according as they are regulated by their due rule and measure. Wherefore human virtue which is the principle of all man's good acts consists in following the rule of human acts, which is twofold, as stated above (Q, A), viz. human reason and God. Consequently just as moral virtue is defined as being "in accord with right reason," as stated in Ethic. ii, 6, so too, the nature of virtue consists in attaining God, as also stated above with regard to faith, (Q, A) and hope (Q, A). Wherefore, it follows that charity is a virtue, for, since charity attains God, it unites us to God, as evidenced by the authority of Augustine quoted above. Reply to Objection 1: The Philosopher (Ethic. viii) does not deny that friendship is a virtue, but affirms that it is "either a virtue or with a virtue." For we might say that it is a moral virtue about works done in respect of another person, but under a different aspect from justice. For justice is about works done in respect of another person, under the aspect of the legal due, whereas friendship considers the aspect of a friendly and moral duty, or rather that of a gratuitous favor, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. viii, 13). Nevertheless it may be admitted that it is not a virtue distinct of itself from the other virtues. For its praiseworthiness and virtuousness are derived merely from its object, in so far, to wit, as it is based on the moral goodness of the virtues. This is evident from the fact that not every friendship is praiseworthy and virtuous, as in the case of friendship based on pleasure or utility. Wherefore friendship for the virtuous is something consequent to virtue rather than a virtue. Moreover there is no comparison with charity since it is not founded principally on the virtue of a man, but on the goodness of God. Reply to Objection 2: It belongs to the same virtue to love a man and to rejoice about him, since joy results from love, as stated above (FS, Q, A) in the treatise on the passions: wherefore love is reckoned a virtue, rather than joy, which is an effect of love. And when virtue is described as being something ultimate, we mean that it is last, not in the order of effect, but in the order of excess, just as one hundred pounds exceed sixty. Reply to Objection 3: Every accident is inferior to substance if we consider its being, since substance has being in itself, while an accident has its being in another: but considered as to its species, an accident which results from the principles of its subject is inferior to its subject, even as an effect is inferior to its cause; whereas an accident that results from a participation of some higher nature is superior to its subject, in so far as it is a likeness of that higher nature, even as light is superior to the diaphanous body. In this way charity is superior to the soul, in as much as it is a participation of the Holy Ghost. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not a special virtue. For Jerome says: "Let me briefly define all virtue as the charity whereby we love God" [*The reference should be to Augustine, Ep. clxvii]: and Augustine says (De Moribus Eccl. xv) [*De Civ. Dei xv, 22] that "virtue is the order of love." Now no special virtue is included in the definition of virtue in general. Therefore charity is not a special virtue. Objection 2: Further, that which extends to all works of virtue, cannot be a special virtue. But charity extends to all works of virtue, according to 1 Cor. 13:4: "Charity is patient, is kind," etc.; indeed it extends to all human actions, according to 1 Cor. 16:14: "Let all your things be done in charity." Therefore charity is not a special virtue. Objection 3: Further, the precepts of the Law refer to acts of virtue. Now Augustine says (De Perfect. Human. Justit. v) that, "Thou shalt love" is "a general commandment," and "Thou shalt not covet," "a general prohibition." Therefore charity is a general virtue. On the contrary, Nothing general is enumerated together with what is special. But charity is enumerated together with special virtues, viz. hope and faith, according to 1 Cor. 13:13: "And now there remain faith, hope, charity, these three." Therefore charity is a special virtue. I answer that, Acts and habits are specified by their objects, as shown above (FS, Q, A; FS, Q, A). Now the proper object of love is the good, as stated above (FS, Q, A), so that wherever there is a special aspect of good, there is a special kind of love. But the Divine good, inasmuch as it is the object of happiness, has a special aspect of good, wherefore the love of charity, which is the love of that good, is a special kind of love. Therefore charity is a special virtue. Reply to Objection 1: Charity is included in the definition of every virtue, not as being essentially every virtue, but because every virtue depends on it in a way, as we shall state further on (AA,8). In this way prudence is included in the definition of the moral virtues, as explained in Ethic. ii, vi, from the fact that they depend on prudence. Reply to Objection 2: The virtue or art which is concerned about the last end, commands the virtues or arts which are concerned about other ends which are secondary, thus the military art commands the art of horse-riding (Ethic. i). Accordingly since charity has for its object the last end of human life, viz. everlasting happiness, it follows that it extends to the acts of a man's whole life, by commanding them, not by eliciting immediately all acts of virtue. Reply to Objection 3: The precept of love is said to be a general command, because all other precepts are reduced thereto as to their end, according to 1 Tim. 1:5: "The end of the commandment is charity." Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not one virtue. For habits are distinct according to their objects. Now there are two objects of charity---God and our neighbor---which are infinitely distant from one another. Therefore charity is not one virtue. Objection 2: Further, different aspects of the object diversify a habit, even though that object be one in reality, as shown above (Q, A; FS, Q, A, ad 1). Now there are many aspects under which God is an object of love, because we are debtors to His love by reason of each one of His favors. Therefore charity is not one virtue. Objection 3: Further, charity comprises friendship for our neighbor. But the Philosopher reckons several species of friendship (Ethic. viii, 3,11,12). Therefore charity is not one virtue, but is divided into a number of various species. On the contrary, Just as God is the object of faith, so is He the object of charity. Now faith is one virtue by reason of the unity of the Divine truth, according to Eph. 4:5: "One faith." Therefore charity also is one virtue by reason of the unity of the Divine goodness. I answer that, Charity, as stated above (A) is a kind of friendship of man for God. Now the different species of friendship are differentiated, first of all, in respect of a diversity of end, and in this way there are three species of friendship, namely friendship for the useful, for the delightful, and for the virtuous; secondly, in respect of the different kinds of communion on which friendships are based; thus there is one species of friendship between kinsmen, and another between fellow citizens or fellow travellers, the former being based on natural communion, the latter on civil communion or on the comradeship of the road, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. viii, 12). Now charity cannot be differentiated in either of these ways: for its end is one, namely, the goodness of God; and the fellowship of everlasting happiness, on which this friendship is based, is also one. Hence it follows that charity is simply one virtue, and not divided into several species. Reply to Objection 1: This argument would hold, if God and our neighbor were equally objects of charity. But this is not true: for God is the principal object of charity, while our neighbor is loved out of charity for God's sake. Reply to Objection 2: God is loved by charity for His own sake: wherefore charity regards principally but one aspect of lovableness, namely God's goodness, which is His substance, according to Ps. 105:1: "Give glory to the Lord for He is good." Other reasons that inspire us with love for Him, or which make it our duty to love Him, are secondary and result from the first. Reply to Objection 3: Human friendship of which the Philosopher treats has various ends and various forms of fellowship. This does not apply to charity, as stated above: wherefore the comparison fails. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not the most excellent of the virtues. Because the higher power has the higher virtue even as it has a higher operation. Now the intellect is higher than the will, since it directs the will. Therefore, faith, which is in the intellect, is more excellent than charity which is in the will. Objection 2: Further, the thing by which another works seems the less excellent of the two, even as a servant, by whom his master works, is beneath his master. Now "faith . . . worketh by charity," according to Gal. 5:6. Therefore faith is more excellent than charity. Objection 3: Further, that which is by way of addition to another seems to be the more perfect of the two. Now hope seems to be something additional to charity: for the object of charity is good, whereas the object of hope is an arduous good. Therefore hope is more excellent than charity. On the contrary, It is written (1 Cor. 13:13): "The greater of these is charity." I answer that, Since good, in human acts, depends on their being regulated by the due rule, it must needs be that human virtue, which is a principle of good acts, consists in attaining the rule of human acts. Now the rule of human acts is twofold, as stated above (A), namely, human reason and God: yet God is the first rule, whereby, even human reason must be regulated. Consequently the theological virtues, which consist in attaining this first rule, since their object is God, are more excellent than the moral, or the intellectual virtues, which consist in attaining human reason: and it follows that among the theological virtues themselves, the first place belongs to that which attains God most. Now that which is of itself always ranks before that which is by another. But faith and hope attain God indeed in so far as we derive from Him the knowledge of truth or the acquisition of good, whereas charity attains God Himself that it may rest in Him, but not that something may accrue to us from Him. Hence charity is more excellent than faith or hope, and, consequently, than all the other virtues, just as prudence, which by itself attains reason, is more excellent than the other moral virtues, which attain reason in so far as it appoints the mean in human operations or passions. Reply to Objection 1: The operation of the intellect is completed by the thing understood being in the intellectual subject, so that the excellence of the intellectual operation is assessed according to the measure of the intellect. On the other hand, the operation of the will and of every appetitive power is completed in the tendency of the appetite towards a thing as its term, wherefore the excellence of the appetitive operation is gauged according to the thing which is the object of the operation. Now those things which are beneath the soul are more excellent in the soul than they are in themselves, because a thing is contained according to the mode of the container (De Causis xii). On the other hand, things that are above the soul, are more excellent in themselves than they are in the soul. Consequently it is better to know than to love the things that are beneath us; for which reason the Philosopher gave the preference to the intellectual virtues over the moral virtues (Ethic. x, 7,8): whereas the love of the things that are above us, especially of God, ranks before the knowledge of such things. Therefore charity is more excellent than faith. Reply to Objection 2: Faith works by love, not instrumentally, as a master by his servant, but as by its proper form: hence the argument does not prove. Reply to Objection 3: The same good is the object of charity and of hope: but charity implies union with that good, whereas hope implies distance therefrom. Hence charity does not regard that good as being arduous, as hope does, since what is already united has not the character of arduous: and this shows that charity is more perfect than hope. Objection 1: It would seem that there can be true virtue without charity. For it is proper to virtue to produce a good act. Now those who have not charity, do some good actions, as when they clothe the naked, or feed the hungry and so forth. Therefore true virtue is possible without charity. Objection 2: Further, charity is not possible without faith, since it comes of "an unfeigned faith," as the Apostle says (1 Tim. 1:5). Now, in unbelievers, there can be true chastity, if they curb their concupiscences, and true justice, if they judge rightly. Therefore true virtue is possible without charity. Objection 3: Further, science and art are virtues, according to Ethic. vi. But they are to be found in sinners who lack charity. Therefore true virtue can be without charity. On the contrary, The Apostle says (1 Cor. 13:3): "If I should distribute all my goods to the poor, and if I should deliver my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing." And yet true virtue is very profitable, according to Wis. 8:7: "She teacheth temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men can have nothing more profitable in life." Therefore no true virtue is possible without charity. I answer that, Virtue is ordered to the good, as stated above (FS, Q , A). Now the good is chiefly an end, for things directed to the end are not said to be good except in relation to the end. Accordingly, just as the end is twofold, the last end, and the proximate end, so also, is good twofold, one, the ultimate and universal good, the other proximate and particular. The ultimate and principal good of man is the enjoyment of God, according to Ps. 72:28: "It is good for me to adhere to God," and to this good man is ordered by charity. Man's secondary and, as it were, particular good may be twofold: one is truly good, because, considered in itself, it can be directed to the principal good, which is the last end; while the other is good apparently and not truly, because it leads us away from the final good. Accordingly it is evident that simply true virtue is that which is directed to man's principal good; thus also the Philosopher says (Phys. vii, text. 17) that "virtue is the disposition of a perfect thing to that which is best": and in this way no true virtue is possible without charity. If, however, we take virtue as being ordered to some particular end, then we speak of virtue being where there is no charity, in so far as it is directed to some particular good. But if this particular good is not a true, but an apparent good, it is not a true virtue that is ordered to such a good, but a counterfeit virtue. Even so, as Augustine says (Contra Julian. iv, 3), "the prudence of the miser, whereby he devises various roads to gain, is no true virtue; nor the miser's justice, whereby he scorns the property of another through fear of severe punishment; nor the miser's temperance, whereby he curbs his desire for expensive pleasures; nor the miser's fortitude, whereby as Horace, says, 'he braves the sea, he crosses mountains, he goes through fire, in order to avoid poverty'" (Epis. lib, 1; Ep. i, 45). If, on the other hand, this particular good be a true good, for instance the welfare of the state, or the like, it will indeed be a true virtue, imperfect, however, unless it be referred to the final and perfect good. Accordingly no strictly true virtue is possible without charity. Reply to Objection 1: The act of one lacking charity may be of two kinds; one is in accordance with his lack of charity, as when he does something that is referred to that whereby he lacks charity. Such an act is always evil: thus Augustine says (Contra Julian. iv, 3) that the actions which an unbeliever performs as an unbeliever, are always sinful, even when he clothes the naked, or does any like thing, and directs it to his unbelief as end. There is, however, another act of one lacking charity, not in accordance with his lack of charity, but in accordance with his possession of some other gift of God, whether faith, or hope, or even his natural good, which is not completely taken away by sin, as stated above (Q, A; FS, Q, A). In this way it is possible for an act, without charity, to be generically good, but not perfectly good, because it lacks its due order to the last end. Reply to Objection 2: Since the end is in practical matters, what the principle is in speculative matters, just as there can be no strictly true science, if a right estimate of the first indemonstrable principle be lacking, so, there can be no strictly true justice, or chastity, without that due ordering to the end, which is effected by charity, however rightly a man may be affected about other matters. Reply to Objection 3: Science and art of their very nature imply a relation to some particular good, and not to the ultimate good of human life, as do the moral virtues, which make man good simply, as stated above (FS, Q , A). Hence the comparison fails. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not the true form of the virtues. Because the form of a thing is either exemplar or essential. Now charity is not the exemplar form of the other virtues, since it would follow that the other virtues are of the same species as charity: nor is it the essential form of the other virtues, since then it would not be distinct from them. Therefore it is in no way the form of the virtues. Objection 2: Further, charity is compared to the other virtues as their root and foundation, according to Eph. 3:17: "Rooted and founded in charity." Now a root or foundation is not the form, but rather the matter of a thing, since it is the first part in the making. Therefore charity is not the form of the virtues. Objection 3: Further, formal, final, and efficient causes do not coincide with one another (Phys. ii, 7). Now charity is called the end and the mother of the virtues. Therefore it should not be called their form. On the contrary, Ambrose [*Lombard, Sent. iii, D, 23] says that charity is the form of the virtues. I answer that, In morals the form of an act is taken chiefly from the end. The reason of this is that the principal of moral acts is the will, whose object and form, so to speak, are the end. Now the form of an act always follows from a form of the agent. Consequently, in morals, that which gives an act its order to the end, must needs give the act its form. Now it is evident, in accordance with what has been said (A), that it is charity which directs the acts of all other virtues to the last end, and which, consequently, also gives the form to all other acts of virtue: and it is precisely in this sense that charity is called the form of the virtues, for these are called virtues in relation to "informed" acts. Reply to Objection 1: Charity is called the form of the other virtues not as being their exemplar or their essential form, but rather by way of efficient cause, in so far as it sets the form on all, in the aforesaid manner. Reply to Objection 2: Charity is compared to the foundation or root in so far as all other virtues draw their sustenance and nourishment therefrom, and not in the sense that the foundation and root have the character of a material cause. Reply to Objection 3: Charity is said to be the end of other virtues, because it directs all other virtues to its own end. And since a mother is one who conceives within herself and by another, charity is called the mother of the other virtues, because, by commanding them, it conceives the acts of the other virtues, by the desire of the last end.

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To understand how the day of September 17, 1939 is significant for every Belarusian, who loves their country, it is necessary to recall the circumstances of the appearance on the map of Europe, the second of the Commonwealth. As soon as it appeared the state, the Polish dictator Jozef Pilsudski attacked ravaged by civil war and the intervention of Soviet Russia, snip off the east part of its territory — Western Ukraine, Western Byelorussia, parts of Lithuania. Not satisfied with grips on the east and gifts of the Versailles Treaty, Poland and was active in the West — in the territories of the German population … By organizing riots in Upper Silesia, the Polish and occupied it. Together with Katowice. Then Poland captured in Galicia, Austria, and later, in 1930, added to their acquisitions and pieces of Czechoslovakia, which she shared with the Nazis. All of these "feats" It was not difficult to make, as Russia and Germany were defeated by their own revolutions, and Austria-Hungary, with the blessing of Britain, dismembered winners. August 17, 1920 in Minsk began the Soviet-Polish negotiations, and Pilsudski secretly diet prepared and made another seizure of the Lithuanian territory. October 9 of the same year, the troops of General Pilsudski associate L.Zheligovskogo were within Lithuania (particularly marked — a non-Soviet), and capturing and Wilno Wilno area, declared it "the median Lithuania", which immediately and annexed to Poland. All attempts to regain the League of Nations Lithuania land occupied Poland were not successful. And the more empty sound was a protest of the Soviet government, and sought at the time in the world to Poland. The day before the signing of the Treaty of Riga, all Polish diplomatic missions abroad have received specific instructions: "We must continue to support the hostile elements of Soviet Russia, as Russian and Ukrainian, Belarusian and Caucasian. Our interests in the East do not end on the line of our borders … We are not indifferent to the fate of the historic lands of the Commonwealth, separated from us by the future Riga Treaty. " March 18, 1921 the contract was signed, and Poland has become almost an empire in which the Poles made up only 65% of the total population. Incidentally, while Poland had one of the largest armies in Europe: 700 million people, with 14 thousand officers. The French army consisted of 660 thousand people, and Germany, according to the Treaty of Versailles, has reduced his army to 100 thousand people. Now with Poland had considered everything, especially when you consider its close relations with France. A few words about "humanism" is almost European Commonwealth. According to the 2nd (intelligence) Department of the General Staff of the Polish Army in February 1919 — October 1920. prisoners were taken more than 146 thousand Red Army soldiers. The fate of tens of thousands of people out of these extremely tragic — they were killed by the inhumane conditions in the concentration camps Pilsudski regime that emerged in Europe long before the Nazi. For example, one of the favorite activities of the Polish (the best in Europe) troopers were — to put Red Army prisoners around the huge cavalry parade ground and learn how to "pull down from the waist up" with the whole "heroic" shoulder at full gallop man. Brave lords hacked unarmed and exhausted prisoners "with the fly, with a turn." The parade ground for the "training" in the wheelhouse of the cavalry had set. As well as the death camps. In Bialystok, Pulawy, Brest, Pikulitse, Korosten, Zhytomyr, Alexandrov, onion, Island-Lomzhinskom, Rombertove, Zdunskoy Will, Torun, Dorohusk, Plock, Radom, Przemysl, Lviv, Fridrihovke, Zvyagele, Dabie, Strzalkowo, Tuchola, Baranavichi … Garrisons brave troopers stood in every town. Only in one of the Polish death camps — from the most infamous abuse Tuchola, cane discipline, cold, hunger, disease killed more than 22 thousand prisoners of war … In relation to the occupied territories Pilsudski took a hard polonization. Orthodox churches were closed. Ukrainian and Belarusian schools and cultural organizations were persecuted. By the mid-1930s, 43% of Belarusians are illiterate, and the students of the Belarusians in all of Poland, and there were not two hundred people. 17 June 1934 on the orders of Pilsudski in Brest, near the border with what was then the Soviet Union, Birch Kartuzskaya opened a new camp, this time for political prisoners. From the report of the Bialystok governor Ostashevskiy to the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Poland, entitled "Problems of strengthening Polish holding positions in Bialystok province": "Sooner or later, the Belarusian population to be polonization. They represent a passive mass, without broad popular consciousness without their own national traditions. Wanting to speed up this process, we must defeat the ancient Belarusian culture … In the townships, home to the Belarusian population — must surely be raised to a higher level of material culture of the Poles. This is one of the fundamental conditions of the Polish expansion … In a nutshell, our attitude to Belarusians can be formulated as follows: we want one, and insist that it is a minority thought in Polish — not to give anything back and do nothing in a different direction. " If the need arises, "this population and to give something than either his interest," it can only be done in order to "make it think in Polish and Polish-studied in the spirit of the Polish state … It is necessary to make a decision, that every stock or private land parcelling Polish exactly happens if the transfer of the land to the Poles and, if possible Belarusian elements, only the form of a tendency polonisation. Proletariziruyuschiysya Belarusian element, going from village to town to be there at a more rapid assimilation than in the country … The point is not to reduce land holdings of the Poles, because from the point of view of the policy of the country — are above those in whose hands the land … "( GAOO GO f.6195, op.1 Street 28, l. 4, 16). By 1939, all Belarusian schools were finally converted into Polish, and two-thirds of the Orthodox churches converted into churches. "KRES Wshodnia" as styled Belarusian and Ukrainian lands Poles were only agrarian and raw material appendage of their country, but also served as a source of cannon fodder. And the use of his brave lords planned in both the East and the West. Mnya itself a great power, the second Rzeczpospolita dreamed not only of Europe, but also the African colonies! "Living space" is not enough! Since the beginning of 1937 the Poles began to exaggerate the theme of his dissatisfaction with the state of affairs in the decision of the colonial question. April 18, 1938 the whole of Poland is widely celebrated Day of the colonies. All this was accompanied by mass demonstrations demanding the grant of the great Polish nation overseas colonies. In the churches sent a solemn service on this occasion. The plans in Europe clearly demonstrates an excerpt from the minutes of the meeting number 25 of 03/10/1935, the chief of staff at the Polish Army: "The rule is — developing the" East ", and then try to solve the" West "in the plan" East "." ( Explanation: The plan of the "East" — a plan of the war with the Soviet Union, a plan of the "West" — a plan of war with Germany.). In dated December 1938 report of the 2nd Division of the Polish General Staff stated: "The dismemberment of Russia is at the heart of Polish politics in the East … So our possible position will be reduced to the following formula: who will take part in the division. Poland should not remain passive in this great historical moment. The challenge is to prepare well in advance physically and spiritually … The main objective — the weakening and destruction of Russia »(Z dziejow stosunkow polsko-radzieckich. Studia i materialy. T.lll. Warszawa, 1968. S.262, 287). USSR could reasonably be considered Poland the most hostile country of all, which bordered directly. In the 1930-ies. within the military planning guidance of the Soviet Union came from the fact that in the coming conflict would be the main opponent of Poland in alliance with Germany. The fact is that in 1932 in a war against the USSR, Poland undertook to put 60 divisions. By the way, the apotheosis of becoming Nazi Germany was the conclusion of January 26, 1934 German-Polish treaty "On the friendship and non-aggression." Interestingly, in 1939 the Poles started their mobilization ahead of the Germans. Already on March 22, that is, six months (!) To alleged sudden and treacherous attack by the Nazis in Poland was announced the first partial and indirect mobilization (five compounds) in order to provide cover mobilization and concentration of the main forces of the Polish army! Just how successful it was, evidenced, for example, the entry in his diary the Army Chief of Staff Halder Germany on August 15: "Update on Poland: Mobilizing in Poland will be over 27.08. Therefore, we will fall behind the Poles with the end of mobilization. To complete mobilization of the same date, we must start 21.08. Then our divisions 27.08 3rd and 4th lines will also be ready. " August 18, 1939 the Polish ambassador in Paris Yu.Lukasevich in an interview with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of France Zh.Bonne boldly declared that "not Germans and the Poles will break deep into Germany in the early days of the war!". "… Dressed in steel and armor, led Rydz-Rydz, we'll go march to the Rhine …" — sung in Warsaw … But for some reason after a few days, in the first days of September 1939, the courageous Polish cavalry (the best in Europe) quickly tired to chop the cabbage German tanks. And after finally convinced that they are "not out of plywood," surrendered "true Aryans" land "from sea to mozha" (from sea to sea) for two days and two weeks. The reason for such a long delay was that due to the general mobilization regiments formed from the Belarusians (Baranavichy, Slonim, Lida and others) who are forced to take the first deadly attack German troops on the western borders of the Polish "Oychyzny" immediately prisoner did not give up. Brave Polish Lancers at this time more often instead of "Cheers," shouted the famous "Gentlemen, utsekay». This hearty cry came immediately after panstvo became convinced that Germany, driven more recently the Western allies to utter poverty and economic collapse, was "as much iron" (for tanks) that the Germans may be able to get it to Smolensk. To avoid this, 17 September, when the then Polish government, abandoning his people simply fled, and the German army approached the Brest and Lviv and stormed Warsaw, began a campaign of the Red Army ended accession to the Soviet state of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine. D.Lloyd-George wrote to the Polish ambassador in London in the autumn of the same year that "… the USSR occupied territory who are not Polish and who were forcibly seized by Poland after World War II … It would be an act of criminal folly to put the Russian advance on a par with the promotion Germany. " It is highly significant that initially was scheduled another, held far west of the border — along the rivers Vistula and San — but by the will of the Soviet Union did not. American historian William Shirer wrote in 1959 about Stalin's decision to abandon the actual Polish territories, "Well having learned a lesson the long history of Russia, Stalin knew that the Polish people had never come to terms with the loss of their independence." Today's Polish historiography of the events interesting for its thoroughness — up until the detection of a degree of courage of a lancer and the number of strokes of his sword. Once all this petty detail does not answer the one big and important question: why such a bold and desperate in 1919 Lancers surrendered their very large by European standards, the state in 1939 for a couple of weeks? For example, they took in the 1919 Minsk as easily as in 1939 gave Warsaw. Nabivshaya-old reference to "a stab in the back" and "war on two fronts," to put it mildly, is not relevant. In 1919, this is the war on two fronts did not prevent Poland simultaneously capture huge chunks of territory in the East and the West. Just a fact: by September 1, 1939, the Commonwealth had a 3.5-million mobilized the army. Over the entire period of the September fighting the army lost in killed about 66.300 people (less than 2%) … and gave up. As for the "stab in the back", then, as the historian J. Gross, in a monograph published in the United States published by Princeton University Press (1988), at a time when the Soviet army entered the land of Western Byelorussia and the Ukraine, the Polish authorities on these territories was totally disorganized as a result of the defeat of Polish troops and the influx of refugees. In turn, the local people "armed against the Poles and the Polish authorities. Large-scale civil war was averted, "says an American historian," but thanks to the rapid deployment of Soviet troops … ". As an example of actions of the Poles themselves can cause suppression of the uprising of the local population in Grodno and Skidel in September 1939, the Polish lancers, gendarmes and ozonovtsami (members OZONE — Union of Polish nationalist parties, created in 1935). The uprising began on September 17 when a Polish state did not exist, and the Polish army was crushed by the military machine of the Reich. The president and the government of Poland, escaped from Warsaw, in the very first days of the war, by the middle of the month were first in Romania, and then fled to Paris, then to London. Working Skidel revolted once learned that the Red Army crossed the border collapsed Rzeczpospolita. The rebels captured the post office, police station, and the police were disarmed and released to their homes. So did the soldiers who were in military train at a railway station Skidel … After a few hours in the city there were Polish soldiers, reinforced by a company of gendarmes Grodno … In the small town of great atrocities began. 30 people punitive immediately shot dead. Were shot and those who just came to hand. Tortured before being shot: one gouged out his eyes, cut other languages, the third broke the butts of his fingers. A wounded member of the underground District L.Pochimku IPPC ears cut off, eyes gouged out, front and back cut out stars. Then he gathered up to two hundred people. Do not disassemble neither men nor women. Rounded up to the Orthodox Church, made to lie face down and beaten with rifle butts on the head, forced to eat and kiss the ground, screaming at the same time: 'That land is ours, Polish, you do not dwell on it! "While some executioners taunted Belarusians at the church, others were throwing grenades and flares at home supporters of the Soviet Union. Extinguish the neighbors were not given distilled shots. Burned 19 houses, some were burnt alive, women and children. But this small town tragedy was not over. Late in the afternoon of the two hundred people who had lain all day at the church, seized the "most active rebels" and drove to the beach to be shot KOTRA. When the first five-torn people snatched from the crowd and put doomed to be shot because of a grove seemed wedge with a red star on board. This is the rescue of the rebels in Skidel hurry flying squad led by captain Chernyavskiy — two armored cars and two tanks. They were loaded with weapons. Captain armed with this weapon of peasants from the surrounding villages. With their help Skidel been completely cleared of the executioners. Their Soviet reports: "On the morning of September 19 tank battalions of the 100th and 2nd Infantry Divisions and broneroty intelligence battalion of the 2nd Division was formed by a group of 16th Motorized Infantry Corps under the command of the brigade commander Rozanov … At 7:00 on September 20 she was given attack the problem of Grodno. Moving to the city, motogruppa in Skidel faced with the Polish detachment (about 200 people), the overwhelming anti-Polish performance of the local population. This punitive raid killed 17 local residents, including 2 teenagers 13 and 16 years old. Turning, motogruppa attacked the enemy in Skidel from both flanks. Hoping to stop the tanks, Poles set fire to the bridge, but the Soviet tankers sent a car through the fire and managed to slip through the burning bridge that collapsed after the passage of tanks, on the other bank of the river Skidel. " A similar tragedy occurred in those September days in Grodno. Two days of bullets, beatings and fire killed about thirty people, including children, the wounded and beaten — up to a hundred people. The agony of the Second Polish Republic for the residents of Grodno and Skidel turned bloody massacre. As the mortally wounded beast, created Pilsudski regime, going from political life, brought human sacrifice their own ambitions, avenging people for their own failure and defeat in the war with Nazi Germany. According to the historian AD Markov, almost everywhere in the east of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth "Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews organized rebel groups … attacking the retreating Germans on the Polish side … turned the non-Polish population Polish flags, taking them from the white stripes in red, covered with CEE ¬ Tami columns of the Red Army … It indicates where the Poles hid their weapons, took part in the removal of small pieces of Polish "… This is a" non-Polish "population ranged from 67 to 90%! Entered the territory of the so-called "KRES Wshodnia" as liberators, the Soviet troops avoided, where possible, clashes with Polish troops. Chief of Staff at the rate of the Polish army chief General V. Stahevich in the report noted: "The Soviet soldiers did not fire on our own, strongly demonstrate their location …" Deputy Chief of Staff General J. Yaklich in those days, wrote in his diary: "The Bolsheviks had crossed the border at dawn tank and motorized units. The tanks are open to the white flag … Our army disoriented. Some have a stubborn resistance, others miss the Soviet troops. Those bypass them and move on. " All Western researchers noted that the incidents at the time of entry of the Red Army had local and wide sizes are not accepted. Celebrated the fact that the Soviet troops advanced slowly deliberately, allowing the Polish part of the waste to the Romanian border. Particularly slow progress was going to the south of the city. The Germans, as admitted later the German ambassador in Bucharest Fabricius, "were furious that the Russian did not try as quickly as possible to close the corridor for the Polish Romanian authorities and the army …". Most of these same researchers came to the conclusion that the actions of the Soviet Union could not change anything, the defeat of Poland in the war with Germany was almost a fait accompli. September 22, 1939 in English and French General Staff had prepared the report, to characterize the actions of the USSR against Germany as a "pre-emptive" and notes that they have been taken only when it became apparent the final defeat of Poland, with which history has played a cruel joke. As noted by the American historian B. Budurovich, in June 1936, Poland has prevented the adoption of international sanctions against fascist Italy, seized the territory of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) is due to the fact that the latter, according to the head of the Polish J. Beck, supposedly "ceased to exist as a state." In September, 1939, and second, the Commonwealth itself similarly fell apart "from the waist up," scattered "on all four sides," as the saying goes, "with the fly, with a turn."

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Download PDF K-12 Engineering Education September 1, 2009 Volume 39 Issue 3 Fall 2009 Issue of The Bridge on K-12 Engineering Education The Status and Nature of K-12 Engineering Education in the United States Tuesday, September 1, 2009 Author: Linda Katehi, Greg Pearson, and Michael Feder K–12 engineering education has significant implications for the future of STEM education. K–12 engineering education has slowly been making its way into U.S. K–12 classrooms. Today several dozen different engineering programs and curricula are offered in schools around the country. In the past 15 years, several million K–12 students have received some formal engineering education, and tens of thousands of teachers have attended professional development sessions to learn how to teach engineering-related coursework. The presence of engineering in K–12 classrooms is an important phenomenon, not because of the number of students impacted, which is still small compared to other school subjects, but because of the implications of engineering education for the future of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. In recent years, educators and policy makers have reached a consensus that the teaching of STEM subjects in U.S. schools must be improved. The focus on STEM topics is closely related to concerns about U.S. competitiveness in the global economy and about the development of a workforce with the knowledge and skills to address technical and technological issues (e.g., CCNY, 2009; NAS et al., 2007; NSB, 2007). To date, most efforts to improve STEM education have been concentrated on mathematics and science, but an increasing number of states and school districts have been adding technology education to the mix, and a smaller but significant number have added engineering. In contrast to science, mathematics, and even technology education, all of which have established learning standards and a long history in the K–12 curriculum, the teaching of engineering in elementary and secondary schools is still very much a work in progress, and a number of basic questions remain unanswered. How should engineering be taught in grades K–12? What types of instructional materials and curricula are being used? How does engineering education “interact” with other STEM subjects? In particular, how does K–12 engineering instruction incorporate science, technology, and mathematics concepts, and how are these subjects used to provide a context for exploring engineering concepts? Conversely, how has engineering been used as a context for exploring science, technology, and mathematics concepts? And what impact have various initiatives had? Have they, for instance, improved student achievement in science or mathematics? Have they generated interest among students in pursuing careers in engineering? In 2006 the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and National Research Council Center for Education established the Committee on K–12 Engineering Education to begin to address these and other questions. Over a period of two years, the committee held five face-to-face meetings, two of which accompanied information-gathering workshops. The committee also commissioned an analysis of many existing K–12 engineering curricula; conducted reviews of the literature on areas of conceptual learning related to engineering, the development of engineering skills, and the impact of K–12 engineering education initiatives; and collected preliminary information about a few pre-college engineering education programs in other countries. This article summarizes some of the committee’s findings and presents selected recommendations from the committee’s report. General Principles The way engineering is taught varies from school district to school district, and what takes place in classrooms in the name of engineering education does not always align with generally accepted ideas about the discipline and practice of engineering. To provide a vision of what K–12 engineering might look like, the committee set forth three general principles. These principles, particularly Principle 3, which relates to engineering “habits of mind,” are aspirational rather than a reflection of current K–12 engineering education, or even post-secondary engineering education. Principle 1. K–12 engineering education should emphasize engineering design. The design process, the engineering approach to identifying and solving problems, is (1) highly iterative, (2) open-ended, in that a problem may have many possible solutions, (3) a meaningful context for learning scientific, mathematical, and technological concepts, and (4) a stimulus to systems thinking, modeling, and analysis. In all of these ways, engineering design is a potentially useful pedagogical strategy. Principle 2. K–12 engineering education should incorporate important and developmentally appropriate mathematics, science, and technology knowledge and skills. Some science concepts, and some methods of scientific inquiry, can support engineering design activities. Some mathematical concepts and computational methods can also support engineering design, especially in the areas of analysis and modeling. Technology and technology concepts can illustrate the outcomes of engineering design, provide opportunities for “reverse engineering,” and encourage the consideration of social, environmental, and other impacts of engineering design decisions. The following concepts and methods should be used, as appropriate, to support engineering design, particularly at the high-school level: testing and measurement technologies, such as thermometers and oscilloscopes; software for data acquisition and management; computational and visualization tools, such as graphing calculators and CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and manufacturing) programs; and the Internet. Principle 3. K–12 engineering education should promote engineering “habits of mind.” Engineering habits of mind2 are aligned with what many believe are essential skills for citizens in the 21st century.3 These include (1) systems thinking, (2) creativity, (3) optimism, (4) collaboration, (5) communication, and (6) ethical considerations. Systems thinking equips students to recognize essential interconnections in the technological world and to appreciate that systems may have unexpected effects that cannot be predicted from the behavior of individual subsystems. Creativity is inherent in the engineering design process. Optimism reflects a world view in which possibilities and opportunities can be found in every challenge and every technology can be improved. Engineering is a “team sport”; collaboration leverages the perspectives, knowledge, and capabilities of team members to address design challenges. Communication is essential to effective collaboration, to understanding the particular wants and needs of a “customer,” and to explaining and justifying the final design solution. Ethical considerations draw attention to the impacts of engineering on people and the environment, including possible unintended consequences of a technology, the potential disproportionate advantages or disadvantages for certain groups or individuals, and other issues. No reliable data are available on the precise number of U.S. K–12 students who have been exposed to engineering-related coursework. With a few notable exceptions,4 the first formal K–12 engineering curriculum programs in the United States emerged in the early 1990s. Since that time, fewer than 5 million students are estimated to have had some kind of formal engineering education. By comparison, the projected enrollment for grades pre-K–12 for U.S. public and private schools in 2008 was nearly 56 million (DOEd, 2008). No reliable data are available on the number of teachers involved in K–12 engineering education. At most, 18,000 teachers have received pre- or in-service professional development training to teach engineering-related coursework. The relatively small number of curricular and teacher professional development initiatives for K–12 engineering education were developed independently, often have different goals, and vary in how they treat engineering concepts, engineering design, and relationships among engineering and the other STEM subjects. Claims for the benefits of teaching engineering to K–12 students range from improved performance in related subjects, such as science and mathematics, and increased technological literacy to improvements in school attendance and retention, a better understanding of what engineers do, and an increase in the number of students who pursue careers in engineering. The most intriguing possible benefit of K–12 engineering education is improved student learning and achievement in mathematics and science. For example, students who took courses developed by “Project Lead the Way,” currently the largest K–12 engineering program in the United States, scored significantly higher on science and mathematics in the federally administered National Assessment of Educational Progress than students in a random, stratified comparison group (Bottoms and Anthony, 2005; Bottoms and Uhn, 2007). Overall, however, the small number, uneven quality, and small size of these studies cannot provide unqualified support for any of these claims. For engineering to become a mainstream component of K–12 education, there will have to be much more, and much higher quality outcomes-based data to guide its development. To address this challenge, the committee recommends that foundations and federal agencies with an interest in K–12 engineering education support long-term research to confirm and refine the findings of earlier studies of the impacts of engineering education on student learning in STEM subjects, student engagement and retention, understanding of engineering, career aspirations, and technological literacy. Curricula The committee identified more than 30 K–12 engineering education curricula, more than half of which were reviewed in detail.5 The curriculum analyses revealed that engineering design, the central activity of engineering, is predominant in most curricula (and professional development programs). The treatment of key ideas in engineering, such as constraints, optimization, and analysis, is much more uneven and, in some cases, suggests a lack of understanding on the part of curriculum developers. These shortcomings may be the result, at least in part, of the absence of a clear description of the most important engineering knowledge, skills, and habits of mind, how they relate to and build on one another, and how and when (i.e., at what age) they should be introduced to students. Unlike the other three STEM subjects, no content standards for K–12 engineering education have been established. The topic of state-level standards for K–12 engineering is addressed by Foster in this issue. Although there are a number of natural connections between engineering and the other STEM subjects, existing curricula in K–12 engineering education do not fully explore them. For example, scientific investigation and engineering design are closely related activities that can be mutually reinforcing. Although most curricula include some instances in which this connection is exploited (e.g., using scientific inquiry to generate data to inform engineering design decisions or using engineering design to provide contextualized opportunities for science learning), the connection is not systematically emphasized to improve learning in both domains. Similarly, mathematical analysis and modeling are essential to engineering design, but very few curricula or professional development initiatives use mathematics in ways that support modeling and analysis. To help address these shortcomings, the committee recommends that the National Science Foundation and U.S. Department of Education fund research to determine how science inquiry and mathematical reasoning can be integrated with engineering design in K–12 curricula and teacher professional development. The review of curricula revealed that technology in K–12 engineering education has primarily been used to illustrate the products of engineering and to provide a context for thinking about engineering design. In only a few cases were examples of engineering used to elucidate ideas related to other aspects of technological literacy, such as the nature and history of technology or the cultural, social, economic, and political dimensions of technology development. Teacher Professional Development Compared with professional development for teaching science, technology, and mathematics, professional development programs for teaching engineering are few and far between. Nearly all in-service initiatives are associated with a few existing curricula, and many do not provide ongoing in-classroom or online support following formal training or other follow-up steps that have been proven to promote teacher learning. The issue of professional development is discussed at length by Custer and Daugherty and Cunningham in this issue. There are no pre-service initiatives that are likely to contribute significantly to the supply of qualified engineering teachers in the near future. Indeed, the “qualifications” for engineering educators at the K–12 level have not even been described. Graduates from a handful of teacher preparation programs have strong backgrounds in STEM subjects, including engineering, but few if any of them teach engineering classes in K–12 schools. To address this major gap, the committee suggests that the American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE), through its Division of K–12 and Pre-College Education, begin a national dialogue on preparing K–12 engineering teachers to address the very different needs and circumstances of elementary and secondary teachers and the pros and cons of establishing a formal credentialing process. Diversity The lack of diversity in post-secondary engineering education and the engineering workforce in the United States is well documented (e.g., NACME, 2008). Based on evaluation data, analyses of curriculum materials, anecdotal reports, and personal observation, the committee concluded that the lack of diversity is probably an issue for K–12 engineering education as well. This problem is manifested in two ways. First, the number of girls and underrepresented minorities who participate in K–12 engineering education initiatives is well below their numbers in the general population. Second, with a few exceptions, curricular materials do not portray engineering in ways that seem likely to excite the interest of students from a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. For K–12 engineering education to yield the many benefits its supporters claim, access and participation will have to be expanded considerably. To begin to address this problem, the committee recommends that K–12 engineering curricula be developed with special attention to features that appeal to students from underrepresented groups (see Cunningham this issue). In addition, programs that promote K–12 engineering education should be strategic in their outreach to these populations. Both curriculum developers and outreach organizations should take advantage of recent market research that suggests effective ways of communicating about engineering to the public (NAE, 2008). Policy and Program Issues Although many questions about K–12 engineering education remain unanswered, engineering is being taught in K–12 schools around the country, and it appears that the trend is upward. Thus it is imperative that we begin thinking about ways to guide and support engineering education in the future. An underlying question for policy makers is how engineering concepts, skills, and habits of mind should be introduced into the school curriculum. There are at least three options—ad hoc infusion, stand-alone courses, and integrated STEM education. These options vary in terms of ease of implementation: Ad hoc infusion, or introduction, of engineering ideas and activities (i.e., design projects) into existing science, mathematics, and technology curricula is the most direct and least complicated option, because implementation requires no significant changes in school structure. The main requirements would be (1) willingness on the part of teachers and (2) access to instructional materials. Ideally, teachers would also have a modicum of engineering pedagogical content knowledge to deliver the new material effectively. The ad hoc option is probably most useful for providing an introductory exposure to engineering ideas rather than a deep understanding of engineering principles and skills. Stand-alone courses for engineering, which are required for implementing many of the curricula reviewed for this project, presents considerably more challenges for teachers and schools. In high schools, the new material could be offered as an elective. If that is not possible, it would either have to replace existing classes or content, perhaps a science or technology course, or the school day would have to be reconfigured, perhaps lengthened, to accommodate a new course(s). Stand-alone courses would also require teacher professional development and approval of the program at various levels. This option has the potential advantage of providing a more in-depth exposure to engineering. Fully integrated STEM education, that is, using engineering concepts and skills to leverage the natural connections between STEM subjects, would almost certainly require changes in school structures and practices. Research would be necessary to develop and test curricula, assessments, and approaches to teacher professional development. New interconnected STEM programs or “pilot schools” might be established to test changes before they are widely adopted. These three options, as well as others that are not described here, are not mutually exclusive. Indeed, no single approach is likely to be acceptable or feasible for every district or school. The need for qualified teachers to teach engineering in K–12 classrooms also raises a number of policy and program issues. The current ad hoc approach of mostly in-service training may not be adequate to train enough teachers if K–12 engineering education continues to grow. A variety of traditional and alternative mechanisms should be evaluated as part of the suggested ASEE-led initiative described above (“Teacher Professional Development”). Moving toward STEM Literacy The “siloed” teaching of STEM subjects has impeded efforts to generate student interest and improve performance in science and mathematics. It also inhibits the development of technological and scientific literacy, which are essential to informed citizens in the 21st century. Thus increasing the visibility of technology and, especially engineering, in STEM education in ways that address the interconnections in STEM teaching and learning could be extremely important. In an ideal future for K–12 STEM education in the United States, all students who graduate high school would have a level of STEM literacy sufficient to (1) ensure their successful employment, post-secondary education, or both, and (2) prepare them to be competent, capable citizens in our technology-dependent, democratic society. Because of the natural connections between engineering education and science, mathematics, and technology, engineering might serve as a catalyst for achieving this vision. A worthwhile subject for future study would be to determine the qualities that characterize a STEM-literate person. To this end, the committee suggested that the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Education support research to characterize, or define, “STEM literacy.” Researchers should consider not only core knowledge and skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, but also the “big ideas” that link the four subject areas. Pursuing the goal of STEM literacy in K–12 schools will require a paradigm shift for students, teachers, administrators, textbook publishers, and policy makers, as well as the many scientists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians involved in K–12 education. As a result of that shift, students would be better prepared for life in the 21st century and would have the tools they need to make informed career decisions or pursue post-secondary education. References AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science). 1990. Science for All Americans. Washington, D.C.: AAAS. Bottoms, G., and K. Anthony. 2005. Project Lead the Way: A Pre-Engineering Curriculum That Works. Southern Regional Education Board. Available online at http://www.sreb.org/programs/hstw/publications/briefs/ 05V08_Research_PLTW.pdf (accessed May 9, 2008). Bottoms, G., and J. Uhn. 2007. Project Lead the Way Works: A New Type of Career and Technical Program. Southern Educational Review Board. Available online at http://www.sreb.org/programs/hstw/publications/2007pubs/ 07V29_Research_Brief_PLTW.pdf (accessed January 15, 2009). CCNY (Carnegie Corporation of New York). 2009. The Opportunity Equation—Transforming Mathematics and Science Education for Citizenship and the Global Economy. Available online at http://www.opportunityequation.org/TheOpportunityEquation. pdf (accessed July 15, 2009). DOEd (U.S. Department of Education). 2008. National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics, 2007 (NCES 2008-022), Table 3. Available online at http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=65 (accessed October 1, 2008). ECCP (Engineering Concepts Curriculum Project). 1971. The Man-Made World. New York: McGraw Hill. NACME (National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering). 2008. Confronting the “New” American Dilemma—Underrepresented Minorities in Engineering: A Data-Based Look at Diversity. Available online at http://www.nacme.org/pdf/NACME 08 ResearchReport.pdf (accessed July 16, 2009). NAE (National Academy of Engineering). 2008. Changing the Conversation: Messages for Improving Public Understanding of Engineering. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. NAE and NRC (National Research Council). 2009. Engineer-ing in K–12 Education: Understanding the Status and Improving the Prospects. L. Katehi, G. Pearson, and M. Feder, eds. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. NAS, NAE, and IOM (National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine). 2007. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. NSB (National Science Board). 2007. A National Action Plan for Addressing the Critical Needs of the U.S. Science, Technology, Education, and Mathematics Education System. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation. FOOTNOTES 1 This article is adapted from the executive summary of Engineering in K–12 Education: Understanding the Status and Improving the Prospects (NAE and NRC, 2009). 2 The term “habits of mind,” as used by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Science for All Americans (1990), refers to the values, attitudes, and thinking skills associated with engineering. 3 See, for example, The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, online at www.21stcenturyskills.org. 4 See, for example, The Man-Made World (ECCP, 1971). 5 The review was overseen by Prof. Ken Welty, University of Wisconsin, Stout, a consultant to the project. About the Author:Linda Katehi is chancellor, University of California, Davis, an NAE member, and chair of the NAE/NRC Committee on K-12 Engineering Education. Greg Pearson is senior program officer, National Academy of Engineering. Michael Feder is program officer, Center for Education, National Research Council.

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slowly, possibly, uneasily, lovely, gently, beautifully, basically, definitely In this lesson we're looking at rules such as dropping or keeping the 'e' with ly, when there's a double l + ly, and changing y to i + ly Matching words include Aguly, airly, amply, apply, aptly, badly, bally, belly, bialy and bigly. Author: eSpindle Learning. Patents pending. A word turns into vocabulary as you learn it âby heart.â Itâs that moment when you no longer have to think about it before you use it. Description: This is a list of words ending with suffix "ty" , meaning "state, condition or quality".. For example, if we take the adjective “slow” and add the bound morpheme “ly” to it, we get the adverb “slowly.”Moreover, some adjectives come from nouns and verbs. Supporting Link: http://www.espindle.org/suffix.html. Words ending in ly normally tell how or how often something is done. We have been using adjectives in the English language as one of the most important parts of the language. This list is understandably not completely exhaustive. It is commonly added to an adjective to form an adverb, but in some cases it is used to form an adjective, such as ugly or manly. Sleepless sleepless nightsdancing with databases. The suffix "ly" generally means ‘in this way’ or describes a manner of being. The meanings of the words are also given for the convenience of students. Adding the suffix -ly, turns an adjective (a describing word for a noun) into an adverb (a describing word for a verb). 300. The Most Incredibly Disregarded Answer for Pay for Essay, The Sole Approach You Should Be Using for How to Write a Essay Revealed, Marijuana Recommendation Online Fundamentals Explained. Leave a Comment / Uncategorized / By Admin. Unleash my powers, dear master!Itâs all laid out for you, for one-click magic! 3. https://www.thefreedictionary.com/words-that-end-in-ly, Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary. 3. Words that rhyme Sometimes it changes the way the word is used. Subject: English vocabulary. Premium members support our global literacy campaign, Vocabulary Junction, and the expansion of our collaborative learnersâ dictionary. Year 3 spellings: suffix -ly [adverb]: 4 main rules: Presentation [ppt] and table cards for each main rule [1-4]. You will never forget it. Wordsies.com is an online word list generator; you can use it to find all of the words matching a pattern (in this case, Words With Suffix ION) and share them by sending them a link. Words ending with ter (-ther) ; daughter, father. We check off words you know, so you focus your energy on those that need more practice. -ly definition, a suffix forming adverbs from adjectives: gladly; gradually; secondly. sincere ly. or click here for instant support. English words suffixed with -ly (adverbial) (0 c, 80 e) Pages in category "English words suffixed with -ly " The following 200 pages are in this category, out of 12,392 total. Tell us what was your favorite book you read at school and why. Or use our Unscramble word solver to find your best possible play! The students, either individually, with a partner or with a small group, take turns reading the words aloud and sorting them into the correct suffix category. Email us This suffixes sorting center is for students to practice reading and identifying words with the suffixes -y, -ty and -ly. For example: nice becomes nicely. immediate ly. Subjects: English Language Arts, Grammar, Spelling. It's typically applied to adverbs. You can also remove words once they have been added to your account. without emotion. Your wordly wish is my command! extreme ly. Definitions from multiple sources 100s of usage examples Good job! If the root word ends in a ‘y’, change the ‘y’ to an ‘i’ and then add ‘ly’ [angrily, cheekily]. Copyright © 2005 and after - LearnThat Foundation. LearnThatWord is a complete solution. Words ending with er (-ar, -or, -yer); painter, baker, beggar, sailor, lawyer. Here is the key! You can also remove words once they have been added to your account. Related: Words that start with ly, Words containing ly. Common Adverbs Ending with -ly. different answers possible. Actually, adverbs ending with the bound (suffix) morpheme “ly” come from adjectives. Some examples of adverbs ending in '-ly' are 'quickly', 'happily' and 'helpfully'. Questions? Make sure they work with those words that show up on ‘hard to spell’ lists like the ‘dirty 30’ of my last post. Prefix and Suffix are two different things with the same concept: a group of letters being added to a word. Our members love them for their smart design and effectiveness. Add this list Hide words. Found 19410 words that end in ly. Some of the most representative words that include it are: kindly, decently, firmly. Pronunciations from around the world Weâre your virtual mom, catering to your every need and helping you be the best you can be. Author: eSpindle Learning. Advance on your word journey in fast, easy steps. 2. 1. Verb conjugations 13,856 elements in total. Generally, words ending with the suffix “ly” are adverbs. Don’t teach only the exceptions. Keywords/tags: suffix, suffixes, root words, word roots, words ending in "ly". Learning from over30 vocabulary experts. Tutoring comments and trivia. 2- Verbs Words ending with se, to make ; cleanse, rinse. Explore words through: Videos Actual + ly = … For even more examples of adverbs, be sure to read our list of 100 adverbs. 496 words with the suffix ly. abasedly, abdominally, aberrantly, abhorrently, abidingly... See the full list of words here! There are also several adjectives ending in '-ly', which are words that describe objects or people. Comments: Clicking "modify" list will make a copy of this list, so you can add or remove words. This suffixes sorting center is for students to practice reading and identifying words with the suffixes -y, -ty and -ly. English Suffixes English Vocabulary Words English Learning Nouns 1- Denoting agent or doer Words ending with ster ; spinster, punster, songster. We create every session just for you.Nothing is out-of-the-box! for example ant, ful, able etc.. A prefix modifies a word whereas a suffix changes a word’s meaning. The students, either individually, with a partner or with a small group, take turns reading the words aloud and sorting them into the correct suffix category. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional. suffixes. Youâll meet each word repeatedly over time and explore its nuances and âflavors.â Our multimedia resources bring words to life. Also sometimes we add suffixes to those adjectives to get a proper meaning to the words. All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. Keywords/tags: suffix, suffixes, root words, word roots, words ending in "ty" Comments: Clicking "modify" list will make a copy of this list, so you can add or remove words. At LearnThatWord, every session is targeted, interesting, and made just for you. Once you reach this level of âautomaticity,â the word is yours forever. Youâll appreciate the fast progress you make even more than the rewards and prizes you earn. Integrated in each quiz is our Open Dictionary of English, ODE. 400. make a sentence with the word: Friendless He/she is _____ because _____ . 'happy' becomes 'happily'. Adverbs with the suffix "-ly" (1,000) Words with a certain ending; Adverbs with the suffix "-ly" This morpheme tends to mean "to act in a way that is?". See more. Images Learn about the words: The suffix -ly using Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check, spelling games, spelling tests and printable activities. Ly suffix meaning. All words containing LY are listed here. If someone is emotionless, what is he like? Your individualized learning plan presents the right words for review at the right time. The suffix-ly in English is usually a contraction of -like, similar to the Anglo-Saxon lice and German lich. Get lasting results 10x faster than with any other vocabulary study tool. pick 2 words and add the suffix -ly to them. Win against friends in word games with this full list LearnThatWord and the Open Dictionary of English are programs by LearnThat Foundation, a 501(c)3 nonprofit. You can figure out meanings of words if you recognize the suffix. Abasedly; Abjectly; Aborally; Abruptly; Absently; Absurdly; Achingly; Actively; Actually; Adorably; Adroitly; Aerially; Affinely; Aguishly; Aimfully; Alderfly; Alpinely; Amazedly; Amenably; Amicably; Amorally; Amusedly; Animally; Annually; Anodally; Apically; Ardently; Arguably; Arrantly; Artfully; Assembly; Astrally; Astutely; Atonally; Augustly; Aversely; Avowably; Avowedly; Badgerly Get Free Access See Review. When "-ly" is used to form an adjective, it is attached to a noun instead of an adjective (i.e., friendly, lovely). Word list activities: Year 4 Suffix ly. We provide unlimited free tutoring to students worldwide. Just add -ly [gladly, quietly]. See the full list below: Showing only 1,000 items. LearnThatWord is the only fully managed solution that builds this automaticity. Upgrade anytime to enjoy premium features. Or use our Unscramble word solver to find your best possible play! Boost your skills in privacy, at your own speed, without grades, pressure, or embarrassment. Feedback? Browse our Scrabble Word Finder, Words With Friends cheat dictionary, and WordHub word solver to find words that end with ly. 2. Lesson Planet. The above video may be from a third-party source. I'm WordGenieâ¢, your personal coach. 'nice' becomes 'nicely'. Your job is done! Itâs the richest and most interesting learnersâ dictionary available. Sessions are lightning-fast and hassle-free. Hearing without practising makes it just another rule to remember. Adding the suffix -ly, turns an adjective into an adverb. These 8 worksheets comprise an entire week worth of spelling. A prefix is a group of letters being added to the beginning of a word for example an, anti, dis etc. 8 Letter words that end with ly. Years and years of obsessingabout words. Description: This is a list of words ending with suffix "ly", meaning "in what manner.". Find more words at wordhippo.com! Words with the suffix ‘ly’ Here are a few commonly used words which have suffix Ly. plainly, ply, properly, publicly, purely, quickly, quietly, safely, readily, really, recently, rely, reply, roughly, severely, simply, slightly, sly, suddenly, supply, surely, swiftly, truly, wily, wonderfully, yearly, curly, finally, badly, clearly, criminally. 496 words that end with ly. Browse our Scrabble Word Finder, Words With Friends cheat dictionary, and WordHub word solver to find words that end with ly. Idioms and limericks definite ly. Find all words ending with LY. many possible answers. Then, the student o We accept no responsibility for any videos from third-party sources. We also have a Our goal is to empower you by giving you the vocabulary you need to succeed with confidence. Suffix Word Cards - This handy list gives lots of examples of words with the suffixes '-ful', '-ness', '-ly' and '-ment' - perfect for a display! Some examples of these would be 'oily', 'holy' and 'cuddly'. However, here are 64 examples of adverbs ending with -ly to get you started: accidentally; accusingly; adamantly; angrily; anxiously; argumentatively; automatically; badly; beautifully; boldly; bravely Let your students experience the fact that, most of the time, you add -ly without changing anything. Interactive thesaurus Found 19410 words that end in ly. Let me guide you on your word journey, so youâll advance in well-planned, logical steps. Proven study methods, accelerated by adaptive and individualized coaching, make words âstick.â New words turn into vocabulary that moves you forward. Then, the student o. rainy foggy snowy stormy misty windy cloudy chilly breezy clearly quickly loudly quietly dimly roughly smoothly easily angrily noisily lazily daily sleepily busily merrily Suffixes -y, -ly, -ily GeneralizationA suffix is a word part added to the end of a base word that creates a new word … 300. Many words which end in the suffix '-ly' are adverbs, meaning they are used to describe an action. Focus on learning whatâs important to you; weâll manage your progress behind the scenes. Here are a few commonly used words which have suffi... ly suffix - meaning, words. Word list activities: The suffix -ly. We display the words in groups of 20; if you want to see more words, use the prior/next buttons to scroll through the list of words until you've found one that fits your needs. The word week is a base word. If the word ends with 'y', the 'y' becomes an 'i', and then add -ly. Learn about the words: Year 4 Suffix ly using Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check, spelling games, spelling tests and printable activities. Origin and root word information We are so confident in the results, we guarantee them! We donât depend on gimmicks or âeffectsâ to make sessions fun. Adjective forming Suffixes List with Example Words. How does that change the meaning of the word? Words ending in ly. Explore each wordâs context, its nuances and flavors, to get a sense of how to use it. A suffix is a group of letters being added to the end of a word. We want to hear from you! Deep analysis of millions of texts. In this suffix activity, learners spell words using the 'ly' suffix and then write the 'ly' words into sentences. Synonyms, antonyms A suffix is a letter or letters added to the end of a word that changes its meaning. Translations in 37 languages Students write their own sentences for the last set of 'ly' words. The suffix "ly" generally means ‘in this way’ or describes a manner of being. Spelling: Suffixes and Consonant Doubling For Students 3rd - 4th. Valid Scrabble words and scores. From adjectives: gladly ; gradually ; words with the suffix ly to find words that with. To read our list of words ending in '-ly ' are adverbs, aptly, badly,,! To life above video may be from a third-party source against Friends in word games this. 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Corporate Political Power Know Thine Enemy A Brief History of Corporations by Joel Bleifuss In These Times magazine, February 1998, their internet address: http://inthesetimes.com/ Corporations can't cast a ballot, but they do vote with their wallets. In the 1995-96 election cycle, corporations and corporate PACs contributed $147 million to candidates running for federal office. The United States is one of the few democracies where such donations are legal. The Supreme Court affirmed the right of corporations to pay for electoral campaigns in the 1978 case First National Bank v. Bellotti. Writing for the majority, Justice Lewis Powell explained that giving cash to influence the outcome of an election "is the type of speech indispensable to decision making in a democracy, and this is no less true because the speech comes from a corporation rather than an individual." Indeed, under the prevailing interpretation of the Constitution, corporations have the same rights as individuals. This was not always the case: American corporations gained these protections in the 19th century, when the Supreme Court, in a series of rulings, defined the relationship between business and the state. Those rulings shielded companies from government regulation and thus allowed the corporation to become the dominant form of economic organization. [In] the 21st century, the combined gross revenues of the 200 largest corporations exceed the GDP of all but the nine richest nations. In this context, it is important to know how corporations came to hold such sway over our everyday lives, and what can be done about it. The first corporations appeared in 17th-century Europe, during capitalism's infancy. At the time, the government chartered all corporations-that is, it gave them a specific public mission in exchange for the formal right to exist. The United States was settled by one such corporation, the Massachusetts Bay Company, which King Charles I chartered in 1628 in order to colonize the New World. The practice of chartering companies was a crucial part of the mercantile economic system practiced by the epoch's great powers-Holland, Spain and England. By allowing investors to pool their capital, the monarch made it possible for companies to launch ventures that would have been beyond the means of one person. And in exchange for the charter, companies expanded their government's wealth and power by creating colonies that served both as sources of raw materials and as markets for exported goods. But in the 18th century, the Enlightenment challenged this model of economic organization by putting forward the idea that people need not be subjects in feudal structures but could act as individuals. American revolutionaries, inspired by radical notions of "unalienable rights" to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness," fought for independence not only from the Crown, but from the corporate bodies it had chartered. The Boston Tea Party, for example, was a protest against the British East India Company's monopoly of Eastern trade. Another critic was Adam Smith, whose Wealth of Nations was published in the same year as the Declaration of Independence. Influenced by John Calvin, Smith believed that human resourcefulness and industry were earthly signs of God's favor, and thus that wealth obtained in a market economy was an expression of "natural justice." Smith, however, did not think that corporations were a natural part of this order. Arguing that large business associations limit competition, he wrote, "The pretense that corporations are necessary to the better government of the trade is without foundation." In the infancy of the republic, Americans gave little thought to corporations. In 1787, fewer than 40 corporations operated in the United States. By 1800, that number had grown to 334. Like the British corporations before them, these companies were typically chartered by the state to perform specific public functions, such as digging canals, building bridges, constructing turnpikes or providing financial services. In return for this public service, the state granted corporations permanence, limited liability and the right to own property. American manufacturers began to form corporations only when trade with Europe was shut down by President Thomas Jefferson's embargo of France and Britain from 1807 to 1809 and by the War of 1812. In order to supply the domestic market with the manufactured goods that had previously come from England, Americans formed new companies to amass the capital needed to build factories. The rise of these associations-created not to fulfill a public mission, but to create private wealth-led to a legal dilemma: How would these new forms of business enterprise be treated under the law? That task fell to the Supreme Court, then under the leadership of John Marshall, a staunch federalist from Virginia. The Marshall Court (1801-1835) created a national market by striking down trade barriers between the states. It also set precedent for later pro-business interpretations of the Constitution by invoking the Constitution's "obligation of contracts" clause (Article 1, Section 10), which states that "no state shall ... pass any ... Iaw imparing the obligation of contracts." For example, in Fletcher v. Peck (1810), the Supreme Court refused to allow the Georgia legislature to right a wrong committed by a previ- \) ous heavily corrupt legislature, because to do so would entail voiding contracts that had been made in good faith. Not all justices agreed that business reigned supreme. Chief Justice Roger Taney, an Andrew Jackson appointee who served from 1836 to~ 1864, tried to ameliorate the Marshall Court's rulings on the sanctity of contracts. In Charles River Bridge v. the Proprietors of the Warren Bridge (1837), he wrote for the majority, "The continued existence of a government would be of no great value, if by implications and presumptions, it was disarmed of the powers necessary to accomplish the ends of its creation; and the functions it was designed to perform, transferred to the hands of privileged corporations." In the 1880s and 1890s, the Supreme Court allowed state courts to apply the Marshall Court's principles on a larger scale. At the time, states with strong Populist movements were passing laws to regulate corporations and the robber barons who owned them. But the courts, using Marshall's interpretation of the inviolability of contracts, struck down numerous attempts to regulate the workplace and protect collective bargaining. The hand of capital was further strengthened by an unlikely legal sword: the 14th Amendment, which states that "no state shall deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law." The amendment was adopted during Reconstruction to protect recently emancipated slaves in a hostile South. But in the landmark case of Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad (1886), the Court, invoking the 14th Amendment, defined corporations as "persons" and ruled that California could not tax corporations differently than individuals. It followed that, as legal "persons," corporations had First Amendment rights as well. Using this definition of corporations as persons, the Court proceeded to strike down a whole range of state regulations. In 1938, Justice Hugo Black noted that in the 50 years after Santa Clara, "less than one-half of I percent [of Supreme Court rulings that invoked the 14th Amendment] invoked it in protection of the Negro race, and more than 50 percent asked that its benefits be extended to corporations." Corporations suffered a setback in the '30s, when the Great Depression discredited laissez-faire economics. In West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937), the Court redefined the due process clauses of the 14th Amendment. In a rebuke of the Marshall Court's ruling in Fletcher v. Peck, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote, "The Constitution does not speak of freedom of contract. It speaks of liberty and prohibits the deprivation of liberty without due process of law." That --- In the same year, the Court, which had previously struck down key components of Roosevelt's New Deal, upheld the National Labor Relations Act and Social Security legislation. As Justice William Douglas observed in Williamson v. Lee Optical of Oklahoma (1955), "The day is gone when the Court uses the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to strike down state laws, regulatory of business and industrial conditions because they may be ... out of harmony with a particular line of thought." Although courts now permit government regulation of business, corporations have managed to retain the First Amendment rights they were granted in Santa Clara. Few, if any, mainstream voices consider the question: Should corporations have the same rights as people have? Corporations based in the United States wield vast economic and political power. They can live forever. They feel no pain. They do not need clean air to breathe, potable water to drink or healthy food to eat. Their only goal is to grow bigger and more powerful. Rather than treating these institutions as if they were flesh and blood, the political and legal system should acknowledge the fact that corporations are merely one way that people organize themselves to do business. They are not "endowed by the creator with unalienable rights" but rather are human-made creatures that can just as easily be unmade if they cease to serve a worthwhile public function. To begin this retooling process, we need to expose the absurdity of granting First Amendment rights to corporations. We can draw our inspiration from both the 17th-century English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who decried corporations as "worms in the body politic," and from Hobbes' star pupil, King Charles II. In 1664, the owners of the Massachusetts Bay Company protested when Charles II tried to investigate their company's operations. The Crown responded, "The King did not grant away his sovereignty over you when he made you a corporation.... When his majesty gave you authority over such subjects as live within your jurisdiction, he made them not your subjects, nor you their supreme We should be as wise. As a product of the relation with government is corporate welfare--jk by Ralph Nader What are poverty welfare programmes (e.g. a $300 monthly cheque given a welfare mother), says well-known consumer advocate Ralph Nader, compared to the corporate welfare programmes that shovel huge amounts of taxpayer money to corporations through inflated government contracts, subsidies, loan guarantees, etc? The issue of concentration of power and the growing conflict between the civil society and the corporate society is not a conflict that you read about or see on television. So unfortunately, most of us grow up corporate; we don't grow up civic. If I utter the following words, what images come to mind: crime, violence, welfare and addictors? What comes to mind is street crime; people lining up to get their welfare cheques; violence in the streets; and drug dealers - the addictors. And yet, by any yardstick, there is far more crime, and far more violence, and far more welfare disbursement (and there are far more addictors) in the corporate world than in the impoverished street arena. The federal government's corporate welfare programmes number over 120. They are so varied and embedded that we actually grow up thinking that the government interferes with the free enterprise system, rather than subsidising it. It's hard to find a major industry today whose principal investments were not first made by the government - in aerospace, telecommunications, biotechnology and agribusiness. Government research and development money funds the drug and pharmaceutical industry. Government research and development funds are given freely to corporations, but they don't announce it in ads the next day. Corporate welfare has never been viewed as debilitating. Nobody talks about imposing workfare requirements on corporate welfare recipients or putting them on a programme of 'two years and you're out'. Nobody talks about aid to dependent corporations. It's all talked about in terms of 'incentives'. At the local community level, in cities that can't even refurbish their crumbling schools - where children are without enough desks or books - local governments are anteing up three, four, five hundred million dollars to lure very profitable baseball, football and basketball sports moguls who don't want to share the profits. Corporate sports are being subsidised by cities. Corporations have perfected socialising their losses while they capitalise on their profits. There was the savings-and-loan debacle - and you'll be paying for that until the year 2020. In terms of principal and interest, it was a half-trillion-dollar bailout of 1,000 savings-and-loans banks. Their executives looted, speculated and defrauded people of their savings - and then turned to Washington for a bailout. Foreign and domestic corporations can go on our land out West. If they discover gold, they can buy the acreage over the gold for no more than $5 an acre. That's been the going rate since the Mining Act of 1872 was enacted. That is taking inflation-fighting too far. There's a new drug called Taxol to fight ovarian cancer. That drug was produced by a grant of $31 million of taxpayer money through the National Institutes of Health, right through the clinical testing process. The formula was then given away to the Bristol-Myers Squibb company. No royalties were paid to the taxpayer. There was no restraint on the price. Charges now run $10,000 to $15,000 per patient for a series of treatments. If the patients can't pay, they go on Medicaid, and the taxpayer pays at the other end of the Yet what is the big issue in this country and in Washington when the word 'welfare' is spoken? It is the $300 monthly cheque given a welfare mother, most of which is spent immediately in the consumer economy. But federal corporate welfare is far bigger in dollars. At the federal, state and local levels there is no comparison between the corporate welfare and poverty welfare programmes. We have 179 law schools and probably only 15 of them (and only recently) offer a single course or seminar on corporate crime. You think that's an accident? Law school curricula are pretty much shaped by the job market, and if the job market has slots in commercial law, bankruptcy law, securities and exchange law, tax law or estate planning law, the law schools will oblige with courses and seminars. One professor studying corporate crime believes that it costs the country $200 billion a year. And yet you don't see many congressional hearings on corporate crime. You see very few newspapers focusing on corporate crime. Yet 50,000 lives a year are lost due to air pollution, 100,000 are lost due to toxics and trauma in the workplace, and 420,000 lives are lost due to tobacco smoking. The corporate addictor has a very important role here, since it has been shown in recent months that the tobacco companies try to hook youngsters into a lifetime of smoking from age 10 to 15. When you grow up corporate, you don't learn about the reality of corporate welfare. The programmes that shovel huge amounts of taxpayer dollars to corporations through inflated government contracts via the Pentagon, or through subsidies, loan guarantees, giveaways and a variety of clever transfers of taxpayer assets get very little attention. Knowing What's Ours We grow up never learning what we own together, as a commonwealth. If somebody asks you what you and your parents own, you'd say homes, cars and artifacts. Most of you would not say that you are owners of the one-third of America that is public land or that you are part-owners of the public airwaves. When you ask students today who owns the public airwaves you get the same reply - 'the networks', or maybe 'the government'. We own the public airwaves and the Federal Communications Commission is our real estate agent. The radio and TV stations are the tenants who are given licences to dominate their part of the spectrum 24 hours a day, and for four hours a day they decide who says what. You pay more for your auto licence than the biggest TV station pays for its broadcast licence. But if you, the landlord, want in on its property, the radio and TV stations say, 'Sorry, you're not going to come in.' These companies say they've got to air trash TV - sensual TV, home shopping and rerun movies. We have the greatest communications system in the world and we have the most demeaning subject matter and the most curtailed airing of public voices (known in the trade as 'sound bite'). The sound bite is down to about five seconds now. You and your parents also may be part-owners of $4 trillion in pension funds invested in corporations. The reason this doesn't get much attention is that although we own it, corporations control it. Corporations, banks and insurance companies invest our pension money. Workers have no voting mechanism regarding this money. If they did, they'd have a tremendous influence over corporations that have major pension trust investments. Not controlling what we own should be a public issue, because if we begin to develop control of what we own, we will marshal vast existing assets that are legally ours for the betterment of our society. That will not happen unless we talk about why people don't control what All of the reforms require a rearrangement of how we spend our time. The women who launched the women's right-to-vote movement decided to spend time - in the face of incredible opposition. The people who fought to abolish slavery also decided to spend time. The workers who formed the unions gave time. The Power of Civic Action Historically, how have we curbed corporate power? By child labour prohibition, by occupational health and safety rules, by motor vehicle standards and food and drug safety standards. But the regulatory agencies in these areas are now on their knees. Their budgets are very small - far less than 1% of the federal budget. Their job is to put the federal cop on the corporate beat against the illegal dumping of toxics. But these laws do not get high compliance by corporations, and the application of regulatory law and order against corporate crime, fraud, abuse and violence is at its lowest ebb. I've never seen some of these agencies as weak as they are now. President Ronald Reagan started it and President George Bush extended it. And now we have 'George Ronald Clinton' making the transition very easy. The dismantling of democracy is perhaps now the most urgent aspect of the corporatisation of our society. And notice, if you will, two pillars of our legal system - tort law and contract law. The principle of tort law is that if you are wrongfully injured, you have a remedy against the perpetrator. That's well over 200 years old. And now, in state legislatures and in Congress, laws have been passed, or are about to be passed, that protect the perpetrators, the harm-doers - that immunise them from their liability. When the physicians at the Harvard School of Public Health testify that about 80,000 people die in hospitals every year from medical malpractice - a total larger than the combined fatalities in motor vehicle accidents, homicides and death by fire each year in the US - it raises the issue of why our elected representatives are vigorously trying to make it more difficult for victims of medical malpractice to have their day in court. [Note:President Clinton vetoed one such far-reaching tort reform bill.] As in the Middle Ages, 1% of the richest people in this country own 90% of the wealth. The unemployment rate doesn't take into account the people who looked for a job for six months and gave up, and it doesn't take into account the underemployed who work 20 hours a week. Part of growing up corporate is that we let corporations develop the yardsticks by which we measure the economy's progress. Democracy is the best mechanism ever devised to solve problems. That means the more we refine it - the more people practise it, the more people use its tools - the more likely it is we will not only solve our problems or at least diminish them, we also will foresee and forestall risk levels. When you see corporations dismantling democracy, you have to to take it very seriously and turn it into a public Among the five roles that we play, one is voter-citizen, another is taxpayer, another is worker, another is consumer and another is shareholder through worker pension trusts. These are critical roles in our political economy. Yet they have become weaker and weaker as the concentration of corporate power over our political and cultural and economic institutions has increased year by year. We're supposed to have a government of, by and for the people. Instead we have a government of the Exxons, by the General Motors and for the DuPonts. We have a government that recognises the rights and liabilities and privileges of corporations, which are artificial entities created by state charters, against the rights and privileges of ordinary people. warned us that the purpose of representative government is to counteract 'the excesses of the monied interests' - then the merchant class; now the corporations. Beware of the government that doesn't do that. This essay is excerpted from a speech Nader delivered at Pennsylvania's Haverford College. This article first appeared in Earth Island Journal ('It's Time to End Corporate Welfare As We Know It', Fall 1996). And it has only gotten worse under Bush’s watch—jk. If there lips are moving they are lying. The one thing you can be sure that they stand for, is to get elected. If there lips are moving they are lying (said of politician) To understand developments in our political system (both parties) one must understand the role of neoliberalism. Any analysis which misses this connection is grossly inadequate. (Neocons follow neoliberalism economic We have an evil, evil system. Words such as imperialism, greed, corporate greed, neoliberalism, neoconservate, globalism, bought politicians, control of media are descriptive. There are reasons why the labor movement has collapsed. It is the politics of neoliberalism, an out growth of corporate greed. Given how it opposes the public weal, we have devoted a section to expose just what neoliberalism is—a thing that the five corporations which own broadcasting will not do. THE BRINK OF ECONOMIC COLLAPSE Things have gotten worse, the hole the neocons has dug is much deeper. The economic stats are worse than bad: the trend is toward greater disparity of wealth and on top of that the U.S. is loaded with debt and imbalance of trade. The debt can through fiscal austerity can be paid off (as some of it was under Clinton), but the trade imbalance will only grow due to the dismantling of are industrial base and the setting up of free trade agreements such as NAFTA. The current foreign debt is equaled to over 70% of GDP, a ratio unmatched by far among industrialized nations. To find out what economics is called the dismal science and the role of neoliberalism.

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U.S. Republic Constitution includes Declaration Of Independnce. Treaty Of Peace & Friendship Inter Caetera Divina Divine Law and Nature's Law are relative and Supreme. The Common Laws that govern Civilization are derived from a study of these laws. Most of the important documents of the World, Treaties, Agreements and legitimate Contracts and Covenants are written in the Spirit of Divine Law for the purpose of governing Click on any Numbered Items on this page, Read, Print or Download, for your review. This Page contains Constitutions, Treaties, Agreements, Church Bullas, Contracts, and other important National and International Documents and Correspondences. Most were written in the Spirit of preserving principled government, with emphasis on the protection of Substantive Rights, Birthrights, and basic Human Rights and Principles for All. However, many dishonorable and disingenuous men have violated these Noble and Ancient Principles, which are also embodied within the Constitution for the United States of America. Many people mistakenly think these Rights Preservations do not apply to them! …. Says Who? The governed are still, and always have been, the source where delegated governmental authority is derived. The preservation and protection of the Peoples’ Rights are why government exists. If and when Government Officials fail to uphold and support the Constitution, upon which they have taken their Official Oaths to uphold and support, then they are in violation of law; have abandoned their fiduciary duties; have 'quit’ their jobs; and thereupon possess no lawful authority. officials, including local Policemen and Firemen in the Cities and Burroughs, must take an Official Oath on the Constitution. If the natural people and citizens lack knowledge, they will often fail to recognize when an “Ordinance” or “Statute”, passed by politicians, violates the “Supreme Law of the Land”. No Ordinances or Statutes, or Laws of any of the several States, can contradict or violate the Supreme Law of The Land (See Article VI) and be held as constitutional. Physical, mental and spiritual oppression has taken such a negating toll on the misinformed and miseducated masses, that many have become apathetic, and appear not to care – showing a lack of interest in their own welfare or that of their and miseducated people are limited in knowledge to protect their Substantive Rights. Naivety subjects them, and their children, to multiple abuses against their Rights. They can, and sometimes do, complain. More often then not, they get involved with self-serving associations that rarely produce solutions. If one does not know the nature or cause of their condition or problem, one is not likely to find or effectuate solutions. Many others, who remain civically inactive, are even more unlikely and unable to solve their social and political problems. They often remain stagnated, while waiting for someone else to 'fix' their condition. Consequently, this passive ‘state of mind’ deems it almost impossible for them to protect or defend themselves from ‘colorable’ acts of ‘colorable - government’. Knowledge redeems, and improves the capacity of any active natural person or citizen to better serve man and mankind. Enforcing the Constitution is a civic duty, responsibility, and progressive action. Supporting principles of Justice is the duty of all civilized People. This lends encouragement and support to a civilized world. Did you know that the first Constitution was The 'Articles of Association' (1774); the second was the 'Articles of Confederation (1781-1788); the third was 'The Declaration of Independence (1776); and the fourth, is the present 'United States Constitution', adopted (1789)? Article VI of the United States Constitution demonstrates the connectivity and Unity in Law of all the foregoing Constitutions, Articles Of Associations, Articles of Confederation, Declaration Of Independence, Treaty Of Peace and Friendship and all Treaties made under the Authority of the Constitution, are the Supreme Law of the Land. Scholars, and the erudite of Jurisprudence recognize these documents of Law as being ONE Constitution. As for Moorish Americans, relate the Treaty of Peace and Friendship from this perspective. Article VI of the Constitution For The United States of North America: debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 1. American Constitution For United States of America - North Continent (1789) About The Treaty of Peace and Friendship – Between Morocco and The United States By Taj Tarik Bey When reading, studying and / or analyzing “The Treaty of Peace and Friendship Between the Moors and the United States of 1787 A.D.”, one must be cognizant of the history and truth involving the relationship between the two political entities. A sound and prudent knowledge of the history of Europe and its adoption of governmental principles from the Moors is crucial to any serious historian. The logical recognition of the ancient presence of the Asiatic Moabite / Moorish presence in the Americas, coupled with world history, will definitely clear up most misrepresentations as have been effected by the destructive hands of the “Re-constructors of American History” and the traditional condition of ignorance as caused by the Colonial book – burners and slave holders. See Article VI of The Constitution For The United States of America. 2. Treaty Of Peace & Friendship 1787 2A. Authentic Treaty of Peace and Friendship from Congressional Records About The Articles Of Confederation 1781--1788 Articles of Confederation are referred to in the Constitution in Article VI, as a treaty or agreement entered into before the adoption of this Constitution. Therefore, it can be stapled to the Constitution, as it was not overridden or eliminated. During this Constitution, it clearly noted that all men are created equal, and since that constitution (articles) were never changed, there is no need for the 14th and 15th amendment. 3. Articles Of Confederation 1781--1788 About The Declaration Of Independence 1776 The Declaration of Independence is one of the four Constitutions. The European was in fact in slavery and they were of 3/5ths of a man. They were treated with despotism and wanted to be considered as equal. Thus, this famous and important document of their unanimous declaration, led to the fairer treatment of them with humane principles. The purpose of these contemporary interfacings and writings involved bringing them into the Constitutional fold of government. Much of the unspoken and uncommunicated history of this period involves the systematic subversion of the union agreements between the Moors / Sovereigns and the European colonial companies / guilds. The Europeans used force of arms, the power of the pen, and their newly learned Masonic principles of government, and conjoined them with negative law, to overthrow the Moors. This betrayal of trust led to the practiced Inquisition policies which have become the institutionalized "dead-culture", corrupted politics that marks the negative side of North America's colonial human rights abuses practices. These practices have been falsely mis-labeled as racism. The greater negative part of the dead-culture includes land thefts, birthrights thefts, color-of-law activities, and the systematic slaughtering of the Aboriginals / Indigenes. These Niceno-Constantinopolitan war-rituals, inclusive of mental warfar strategies are particularly apparent in acts and symbolisms during harvest celebration, which came to be known and celebrated as “Thanks Giving”. The labels, “negro”, “colored”, “black", etc., were coined to mis-classify the natural people and take them outside of the fundamental principles of Proper-Person status. 4. Declaration OF Independence 1776 About the Articles of Association The Articles of Association are what is referenced when saying the Constitution of 1774, which has not changed. Therefore is again, an agreement entered into prior to the Constitution. Upon reviewing it, you will see that these are 'rules of engagement for the European colonist, who were British subjects in America and were given some sort of comfort and exile in America, of which they mention America as being dominioned by the British and their ancient civil principles. In this document it says "to dispose the inhabitants to act with hostility against the free Protestant colonies. Moors did no want the colonist to be here and sabotaged some of the efforts for imports, particularly the British (Brutish) Moors, of which the slavic europeans were subjects or rather slaves of. Again further proof these are NOT the dominions of foreign Europeans and they CANNOT become Americans, by default. only by naturalization, and there exist no flag of their nation, as thi sis NOT their nation, they aare subjects with granted privileges, including land grants, but not the true possessors. As naturalized citizens, they possess NO POLITICAL AUTHORITY!! The people who were ALREADY here were not Colonist -- OBVIOUSLY!!! The Congress is mentioned and ALREADY existed, and the people who were here were not Indians, thus not members, and no need to be members, of the "Bureau of Indian Affairs". It is clear that the people DID NOT want the coloinist to be here, to have any privileges, so in a sense Moors suffered a karmic consequence. However, it is what it is and the karmic debt is OVER!!!!! Now Moors MUST be who they are and be free and accessible to their own ancient civil principles, of which ancient civil principles and prejudices are mentioned in the document and so is ancient limits. It all makes so much sense and proves a willingness to accept others in the land, with a limited authority and not at the expense of losing all connection with self. Unfortunately this is not honored by those who were granted privileges, they prefer to say they don't know who or what a Moor is. 5. The Articles Of Association About The Letter From Benjamin Bannekar (Chief Justice Ben Bey) To Thomas Jefferson 1791 The Letter to Thomas Jefferson from Chief Justice Benjamin Bannekar Bey, clarifies his participation in teaching government to the Colonist, in creating the Almanac that he gave as a gift to Thomas Jefferson, and his participation in designing the “White House” for the use of the Colonist as a connection to their motherland as defined in what a Colonist is. The European Colonist are not Americas, they are European Colonist who have managed through trickery, deceit, and murder to sit in the seats of power. These seats ought to be occupied by the true American; those who think they are negro, colored, blacks, etc., and who think their homeland is limited to Africa in the East, as we know it to be today. 6. Letter from Benjamin Banneker To Thomas Jefferson 1791 About Letter From George Washington To The Sultan Of Morocco 1789 letter to the Sultan of Morocco, from President George Washington is one of the favorites amongst the Documents of American History, as it clearly indicates the newly formed “United States of America”, under the first Masonic President, George Washington, was subordinate to and dwelling on the dominions of the Moroccan Empire. Anything other than that holds no standing, as to why George Washington would write a letter as such to the Sultan of Morocco. It indicates without contradiction that the Moors were in the superior position, that George Washington was the newly appointed President of the United States of America in the North American Continent, under the rule and Dominion of the Sultan of Morocco. 7. Letter From George Washington To Sultan Of Morocco (1789) About "Inter Caetera Divina" The Church Bulla of 1493 A.D. Divina is a “password” used by most European Colonist descendants, who have overthrown, settled, or occupied other lands or countries. Divina, in most instances, appears unthreatening to the unknowing ear, when Europeans find cause to refer to their ‘pseudo-religious doctrine’, which is politically and socially inculcated with terse policies and regulatory constructs. However, it must be noted and brought to the attention of all Aboriginal natural peoples, that “Divina” was, and is, used as a war-reference and control guide-point for “Colonial Inquisition Operations in North America”. The formal name of the Divina Doctrine of Christianity is, “Inter Caetera Divina”. Its origin is from Pope Alexander VI, one of many iconic social / political / religious representative Vicars dedicated to policies for world dominance. The Germanic form or word, Gott / Guth / Gud / God, was introduced to the world during the Middle Ages, which is the period of European history that divides Ancient and Modern times, being 500 A.D. to 1450 A.D. The naïve converts among the Aboriginals, who have naively accepted their teachings, are deceived by the propagated beliefs that the Christians were embracing ideas of a universal Creator, or Supreme Being, overflowing with teachings of filial and universal love, etc. Little did the ‘Conversios’ know that (in reality) Divina, (from the European Colonial-conquest mindset) is an institutionalized religious - war ‘sanction’ tool, justifying genocide, rape, theft, sadistic human oppression, land thefts, .... With the advent of the Spanish Inquisition, (Inquisitio) the maxims of inflicting creative forms of human torture, drowning, burnings, skinning, mutilations, death, and other horrors, became as normal to ‘justified’ Christendom—supremacy culture as their penchant for highly stylized rituals of prayer. These same ‘self-righteous’, self-appointed merchants of godliness, are also the supreme masters of sadism. The Aboriginal, natural peoples of the planet have suffered more deaths, slavery, artificially-induced diseases, and other sadistic mistreatments, at the hands of these pseudo-religious propagandists, than by that of the most vile and deviant soldiers amongst the known military armies of the world. 8. Bull Inter Caetera Intent (1493) About The Willie Lynch Letter 1712 Lynch Letter, which is psuenonymous with Roman Conquest Culture as adopted for Social / Political Interfacings and interchagnes with Aboriginal and Indigenous Peoples. Theory is the epitome of Roman / European Colonial psychic warfare methodologies. It encapsulates the social and political aim s of Christendom, in its economic, social and political relationships to the suppressed and branded’ descendants of the fallen Asiatic Moorish Empire; and sets the standards for the means and attitudes to be taken, artificially maintained and practiced by the dominant European Colonialists occupying the Americas—particularly North America. Many Sociologists and Social Engineers in North America, have referred to the Willie Lynch Letter adn its characeristics merely as a theory. However, a theory means a thought , a viewing or mental contemplation as distinguished from an actual action or doing. It must be determined by the reader or student of History and experience, wether or not what is mentioned in the Willie Lynch letter has manifested n North American servitude activities or not. If such activities and culture have manifested in slave culture in North America, then it cannot be a theory. 9. Willie Lynch Letter 1712 About The Christian Black Codes of 1724 The Christian Black Codes of 1724 are the resulting list of 54 Christian Protocols and Acts, written to augment and institutionalize the William Lynch Theories of ‘Suppression and Control Methodologies’. These socialization tools are generally referred to as, ‘The 10. Christian Black Codes Of 1724 About The United Nations (UN) The Aboriginal and Indigenous Natural Peoples (Moors) of North America (and of the world) have a vested interest in knowing about, learning about, and preserving their Unalienable Rights, Substantive Rights, and Birthrights. Particular emphasis must be put on the fact that European Colonist Demo-operations are constantly violating Constitution principles and International Law. Officers, Politicians and Policemen, etc., are repeatedly breaking the Laws of Nations, in order to effectuate their ‘Color-of-Law’ practices of stealing the Birthrights of the Natural Peoples of the Land – particularly those of the Moorish Americans (who have been ‘branded’ as, negroes, blacks, coloreds, West Indians, Latinos, etc.). The United Nations (being the nation members, listed below - in agreed unity of law) deals with matters of Human Rights supports and violations, and issues such Proclamations of Law (concerning these issues) through, and from, the General Assembly. People from different nations may, from time to time, file violation claims or complaints, etc., by way of The World Court (an Organ of the United Nations). Therefore, it is incumbent upon active Moors (and all ‘true’ American Citizens) to be aware of the six (6) different Organs of the United Nations and of their general purposes and functions...... 11. Click here for full Article "About The United Nations" About The Universal Declaration Human Rights 1948 Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,... 12. Universal Declaration Of Human Rights 1948 About The Declaration of Rights of Child - Preamble From The United Nations Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have, in the Charter, reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights and in the dignity and worth of the human person, and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, United Nations has, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status,..... 13. Declaration Of The Rights Of The Child (1959) BACK TO TOP OF PAGE Back To Home Page

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Islam is a comprehensive religion and a way of life. It came to raze people’s erring living patterns and furnish them with such as are based upon the heavenly paradigm instead. The Islamic theory of urban planning and development is as old as the Muslim community. Its fundamental principles have been comprehensively laid in the Holy Qur’an as well as in the sayings and practices of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Certainly, the best manifestation of the earliest planning and urbanization in Islam was the establishment of the Muslim community in the Prophet’s city of Madinah in the wake of the migration from Makkah (Hijrah) in 622 AC. In Islamic vocabulary, the term Hijrah denotes the migration of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his followers from Makkah to Madinah in search of a better setting for the propagation and realization of the Islamic message. At the time of the Hijrah, the ongoing revelation of Islam was already about thirteen years old and the Muslims were yet to set up a free and autonomous state of their own. Once the city of Madinah with most of its inhabitants wholeheartedly welcomed the new religion, so fiercely disapproved of by many where it had originated, i.e., in Makkah, the wait finally came to an end and the stage was set for broadening the focus of the young community’s undertakings. As a result, the focus of revelation was likewise widened. The religion of Islam thus began to assert itself as a universal code of life overlooking no segment of human existence, a momentous development indeed, after it had been portrayed as an inclusive belief system alone during the precarious episode in Makkah. From the point of general planning, development and urbanization, the whole duration of the Islamic city-state of Madinah headed by Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) — a period of approximately 10 years — was exceptionally eventful too. It is the nature of Islam that provides humanity with basic rules of morality and guidelines of proper conduct in those spheres of life which are not related to prescribed ritual worship, such as the spheres of urban planning and development, for example. Upon such general principles and guidelines people can establish systems, regulations, views and attitudes in order to comprehend and regulate their worldly life in accordance with their time, regions and needs. Since every age has its own problems and challenges, the solutions and perceptions deduced from the fundamental principles and permanent values of life have got to be to some extent different. Their substance, however, due to the uniformity and consistency of the divinely given foundation and sources from which they stem, will always be the same. Islam is based on essential human nature, which is constant and not subject to change according to time and space. It is the outward forms which change while the fundamental principles, the basic values and the essential human nature together with man’s basic needs remain unchanged. Islam and the idea of work In the wake of the arrival of Islam and Muslims in Madinah from Makkah, a major change in the economic life of the former occurred. The phenomenon, however, was just a part of a total change that was sweeping across the Madinah oasis, and which appear to have been spontaneous and natural, after such splendid concepts of Islam as work considered a form of ‘ibadah (worship), almsgiving (Zakah), charity, honest and just wealth acquisition and distribution, equality and equity, financial prudence, humility, etc., had been comprehensively institutionalized and imbibed by the people. Such was the case also because – as Isma’il Raji al-Faruqi put it – “in contrast to Christianity’s separation of Church and state, Islam holds that the “church” demands the “state”; that the existence and good health of the state are of the essence of religion, and similarly, economic activity. The economy of the Ummah and its good health are of the essence of Islam, just as Islam’s spirituality is inexistent without just economic action.” Of the first things that the Prophet (pbuh) soon upon his arrival in Madinah has emphasized to both the Migrants and Helpers (al-Ansar or the natives of Madinah) was the idea of work as an act of worship and as an avenue to realizing some of the finest goals of the nascent Islamic community. The people have been fervently encouraged to seek work opportunities and labor vigorously so that everyone in line with his/her ability may be turned quickly into a community asset, rather than to remain its liability. The people were to satisfy their innate cravings for food, shelter and comfort, and to realize balance and harmony in their relations with men and nature. The earth was to be thus transformed into a beautiful, productive and friendly workshop or a plant, a fertile farm, and a beautiful garden or an orchard. In doing so, nonetheless, spirituality was never to be bartered for the trivial delights of this world. Maximum efforts were always to be made towards absorbing fully the Word of God, putting it then into action and disseminating it to whoever, wherever and however possible, making it stand highest among all other sham and pretentious ‘words’. The net result of this strategy in the end could only be the procuring of benefits and the warding off of injuries for the perfection of people’s welfare in this world and in the next. The assertion that work and matters directly and indirectly related to it attracted a good deal of the Prophet’s attention could be backed up by the fact that the Prophet (pbuh) was habitually encouraging people to revive and cultivate the land, to build houses if they were homeless, and to do just any legitimate work so that they did not have to ask others to fulfill some of their basic needs. The bounty of Allah, the Creator and Sustainer of the universe, is the privilege of nobody, and one of the best things that one could do is to eat from the earnings of his own manual labor. It is illegitimate for a healthy adult male to be dependent in terms of acquiring basic life provisions on another individual, organization, or the government. The Prophet (pbuh) said: “By Him in whose hand myself is, to take your rope and gather firewood on your back is better for you than that you come to a man to whom Allah has given some of His favor and ask him, so he gives to you or refuses.” Also: “Nobody has ever eaten a better meal than that which one has earned by working with one’s own hands. The Prophet of Allah, Dawud (David) used to eat from the earnings of his manual labor.” Also: “If anyone brings barren land into cultivation, it belongs to him, and the unjust vein has no right.” Also: “If anyone reaches a water which has not been approached before by any Muslim, it belongs to him.” The narrator of this hadith remarked that having heard these words the people went out running and marking (on the land). Also: “There is none amongst the Muslims who plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, but is regarded as a charitable gift for him.” Accordingly, land cultivation amounts to a form of sadaqah jariyah (long-lasting charity). Also: “Whoever takes a piece of the land of others unjustly, he will sink down the seven earths on the Day of Resurrection.” Also: “Beware, if anyone wrongs a contracting man, or diminishes his right, or forces him to work beyond his capacity, or takes from him anything without his consent, I shall plead for him on the Day of Judgment.” However, if the idea of work and sustenance procurement is misconstrued, in turn becoming one’s egocentric goal of life, then the whole thing instead of being a vehicle for achieving God’s pleasure in both worlds, could turn out to be the source of one’s sorrow and misery in this world as well as in the Hereafter. Certainly, this the Prophet (pbuh) had in mind when he proclaimed on seeing a coulter (sikkah) and some land cultivation tools: “No sooner do these enter a house than God brings about ignominy to it.” Material wealth is to remain a means, an instrument, a carrier of the spiritual. Islamic message never approves of it to be transformed into a goal of one’s existence; to do so is to renounce the spiritual. Since work in Islam is a form of ‘ibadah it goes without saying that only those efforts which are infused with the spirit of excellence, merit and genuineness are acceptable, for the reason that God is good and He loves and accepts only that which is good. Premeditated mediocrity, procrastination, laziness, apathy, frivolity, ineptitude, and the other similar qualities, are all foreign to Islam and are thus intolerable. Striving for comprehensive excellence is in fact one of the major characteristics of Islam. It should be borne in mind here that both men and Jinns have not been created save to worship God. They are to do so not only in their plain religious rituals and in the places designated for the purpose, but in every utterance, undertaking and thought of theirs, every time and everywhere, (al-Dhariyat 56). Hence, as far as the Muslims are concerned, the life is all about worship and total submission to God; it is all one sweet song of praise to the Creator and Lord of the universe. However, if the same is not anchored in talking, living out and proliferating comprehensive excellence, then it may remain short of reaching the state of stipulated perfection and, as such, may fail to secure God’s full appreciation and reward. God says: “Say: ‘Shall we tell you of those who lose most in respect of their deeds? Those whose efforts have been wasted in this life, while they thought that they were acquiring good by their works.” (al-Kahf 103-104) Madinah and its economic dynamism When the Migrants migrated to Madinah, they came almost without anything in their hands, while the Helpers possessed lands and date palms. In actual fact, while in Makkah some Migrants were fairly rich, but on deciding to migrate as Muslims to Madinah, the Makkans did not let them transfer their wealth. Everything that they had left behind in Makkah, the Makkans dispensed with by either putting it up for sale or simply destroying it. A wholesome illustration of this appalling situation was the migration of a companion Suhayb b. Sinan. Suhayb was supposed to migrate together with the Prophet (pbuh) and Abu Bakr. However, the Makkans decided to prevent at all costs the migration of the Prophet (pbuh) and intending to kill him, they set several traps. The Prophet (pbuh) and Abu Bakr by Allah’s blessing evaded the traps, but Suhayb fell into one of them and so was hindered for some time from emigrating. Eventually, he somehow managed to get rid of the infuriated Makkans and instantly went following in the footsteps of the other Muslims across the desert. However, the Makkans sent their hunters to follow him. When they reached him, they agreed to take away his wealth in exchange for letting him go freely. The Makkans told Suhayb: “You came to us as a poor wretch. Your money increased in our land and among us you claimed high rank and now you want to escape together with your money?” Suhayb guided his foes to the place where he had hidden his fortune, and then they parted their ways as agreed beforehand. Suhayb continued hurriedly his journey towards Madinah, and when he came into view, the Prophet (pbuh) was sitting surrounded by his companions. No sooner had the Prophet (pbuh) noticed him than he called to him cheerfully: “O Abu Yahya, a profitable sale, a profitable sale!” Hereupon, the following Qur’anic verse was revealed: “And there is the type of man who gives his life to earn the pleasure of Allah; and Allah is full of kindness to (His) devotees.” Originally, after the Migrants had arrived in Madinah, the Helpers asked the Prophet (pbuh) to divide the date-palm trees between them and their brethren from Makkah, which he nevertheless disapproved of. Then they all concurred that the Helpers divide their properties with the Migrants on the condition that the latter would give half the fruit from the orchards every year, and they would recompense the Helpers by working with them and putting in labor. This situation continued for several years and was as good as over subsequent to the conquest of Khaybar in the seventh year when all the Migrants economically became virtually self-sufficient. So concerned have the companions of the Prophet (pbuh) been about planting and land cultivation – aside from other modes of work – that both the Migrants and Helpers were regularly dubbed as the people of planting and cultivation (ahl zar’). Such a dominant milieu of Madinah has been implied, even though humorously, yet clearly, on an occasion when the Prophet (pbuh) narrated a story from the life in Paradise or Jannah. He said: “One of the inhabitants of Jannah will ask Allah to allow him to cultivate the land. Allah will ask him: ‘Are you not living in the pleasures you like?’ He will say: ‘Yes, but I like to cultivate the land.” The Prophet (pbuh) said that the man will be then allowed to sow the seeds and the plants will grow up and get ripe, ready for reaping and so on till they will be as huge as mountains within a wink. Allah will then say to the man: “O son of Adam, take here you are, gather (the yield); nothing satisfies you.” Of those who were listening to the Prophet’s address was a bedouin who remarked on hearing the account: “The man must be either from Quraysh (a Migrant) or a Helper, for they are farmers, whereas we are not farmers.” The Prophet (pbuh) just smiled (at this). The latest developments in Madinah made the management, distribution and consumption of water, land irrigation, and digging up and sharing inland waterways, of the most significant factors impinging on the Madinah economic reality. There is a well documented case in which a Helper argued with al-Zubayr, a Migrant, in the presence of the Prophet (pbuh) about the Harra canals used for irrigating the date-palms. The Prophet (pbuh), passing his judgment, said: “O al-Zubayr, irrigate your land first and then let the water flow to the land of others.” On that, the Helper said to the Prophet (pbuh): “Is it because he is your aunt’s son?” On that, the color of the Prophet’s face changed and he said giving al-Zubayr his full right: “O al-Zubayr, irrigate your land and withhold the water till it reaches the walls that are between the pits around the trees and then stop (i.e. let the water go to the other’s land).” The following Qur’anic verse was revealed in that connection: “But no by thy Lord, they can have no (real) Faith until they make thee judge in all disputes between them, and find in their souls no resistance against thy decisions, but accept them with the fullest conviction.” (al-Nisa’ 65) However, the appellation that both the Helpers and Migrants have been the people of planting and cultivation was more of a personification of the Prophet’s companions’ attitude towards the subject of work, production and sustainable development by means of agriculture, in particular, and towards the subject of realizing balance and harmony in their relations with men and nature, in general, rather than an attempt to categorize the real means of making their respective livelihoods. This is so because the Helpers were generally famous for their interest and expertise in land cultivation, whereas the Migrants were known rather as merchants both before and after the Hijrah. Then again, the Madinah society was so much oriented towards integration, brotherhood and unity that its radical transformation process before long started rendering the delineation of the Helpers as farmers and the Migrants as traders – in so far as the latest economic experiences of the Madinah city-state were concerned – something of an impracticality. There have been Helpers who were very successful traders prior to and after the advent of Islam and the Prophet (pbuh) in Madinah, as there have been many a Migrant who quickly, against all odds, started excelling in agriculture. Even some women were reported to have been practicing a degree of trade in Madinah, under the conditions which had called for it, and the Prophet (pbuh) voiced no objection whatsoever to it. As a result, in addition to being a fertile oasis bent on agriculture, Madinah was likewise recognized as a noteworthy trade point in which the Jews, nonetheless, have been economically much stronger than the Arabs. The strategic geographical location of Madinah was pivotal in encouraging its people to indulge in business, not only internally but also with the outside world. It was lying near the bustling trade route between A companion ‘Abd al-Rahman b. ‘Awf has shed some light on the nature of the developments which the new Muslim community was putting up in Madinah in the wake of the Hijrah. He said: “When we came to Madinah as emigrants, the Prophet (pbuh) established a bond of brotherhood between me and Sa’d b. al-Rabi’. Sa’d b. al-Rabi’ said to me: “I am the richest among the Helpers, so I will give you half of my wealth and you may look at my two wives and whichever of the two you may choose I will divorce her, and when she has completed her prescribed period (before marriage) you may marry her.” ‘Abd al-Rahman replied: “I am not in need of all that. Is there any market-place where trade is practiced?” Sa’d replied: “The market of Banu Qaynuqa’ (the Jewish tribe).” ‘Abd al-Rahman went to the market the following day. He continued going there regularly, and few days later he came having traces of yellow (scent) on his body. The Prophet (pbuh) asked him whether he had got married and ‘Abd al-Rahman replied in affirmative. Then the Prophet (pbuh) asked him to give a wedding banquet (walimah) even if with one sheep. ‘Abd al-Rahman b. ‘Awf ultimately emerged as one of the wealthiest Prophet’s companions dubbed alongside such as were like him as Khuzzan Allah (Allah’s treasurers). The Prophet’s companion Abu Hurayrah once while disclosing the reasons why neither the Migrants nor the Helpers narrate from the Prophet (pbuh) as much as he does, portrayed vividly the state of the Muslims’ eagerness for work and productivity in Madinah: “My brothers from the Migrants were busy in the market while I used to stick to the Prophet (pbuh) content with what fills my stomach; so I used to be present when they were absent and I used to remember when they used to forget. And my brothers from the Helpers used to be busy with their properties and I was one of the poor men of suffah. I used to remember the narrations when they used to forget.” Isma’il Raji al-Faruqi wrote: “Upon arrival in Madinah, after his Hijrah, the Prophet (pbuh) asked the Ansar (Muslims of Madinah) to adopt the Muhajirin, their fellow Muslims who emigrated thence, running away from death at the hands of their enemies. Many of the Muhajirin accepted to be adopted, to be thus relieved of the trials of having to reestablish themselves. Some accepted a little loan to start with, and which they paid back later. Those who pleased the Prophet (pbuh) most, however, were those who were too proud to accept any aid. Without capital, tools, or a profession, they went to the open fields to gather timber for fuel, to carry it on their backs for sale in the city; and, little by little, they made for themselves a niche in the business world.” It was reasonable, therefore, that the Prophet (pbuh) after expelling the Jewish tribe Banu al-Nadir from Madinah in the fourth year, gave most of their land and plentiful date-palm trees to the Migrants, to the absolute consent and delight of the Helpers. Only to two Helpers did the Prophet (pbuh) grant of the abandoned property. He did so just because the two were truly destitute and so in need as much as the Migrants. The members of the Banu al-Nadir tribe were allowed to leave Madinah in safety carrying along of their riches only that which their camels could carry. Endorsing the actions of the Prophet (pbuh) pertaining to the treatment of Banu al-Nadir, as well as to the distribution of their confiscated possessions, the Qur’an said in the chapter al-Hashr (the Gathering or Banishment) which was revealed in consequence of the conflict with Banu al-Nadir: “(Some part is due) to the indigent Muhajirs, those who were expelled from their homes and their property, while seeking Grace from Allah and (His) Good Pleasure, and aiding Allah and His Messenger: such are indeed the truthful.” (al-Hashr 8) Praising the splendid attitude of the Helpers, not only during the incident with Banu al-Nadir, but also throughout the trials and tribulations that they in particular and the Muslims in Madinah in general have been constantly going through, Allah says in the same chapter and aptly in the next verse: “And those (the Helpers) who before them, had homes (in Madinah) and had adopted the Faith, – show their affection to such as came to them for refuge, and entertain no desire in their hearts for things given to the (latter), but give them preference over themselves, even though poverty was their (own lot). And those saved from the covetousness of their own souls, – they are the ones that achieve prosperity.” (al-Hashr 9) Yusuf Ali, the translator and commentator of the Qur’an, commented on the latter verse: “…Until the Ummah got its own resources, the Helpers regularly gave and the Refugees (the Migrants) regularly received. The Helpers counted it a privilege to entertain the Refugees, and even the poor vied with the rich in their spirit of self-sacrifice. When the confiscated land and property of the Banu al-Nadir was divided, and the major portion was assigned to the Refugees, there was not the least jealousy on the part of the Helpers. They rejoiced in the good fortune of their brethren. And incidentally they were themselves relieved of anxiety and responsibility on their behalf.” How Islam views the idea of work (seeking of Allah’s bounty) and how it can be related to other religious and societal duties at various stages or grades has been to some extent encapsulated in the verses wherein the Qur’an speaks about the Muslim weekly Day of Assembly, Friday, and its mandatory congregational prayer: “O ye who believe! When the call is proclaimed to prayer on Friday (the Day of Assembly), hasten earnestly to the Remembrance of Allah, and leave off business (and traffic): that is best for you if ye but knew! And when the Prayer is finished, then may ye disperse through the land, and seek of the Bounty of Allah: and remember Allah frequently that ye may prosper.” (al-Jumu’ah 9-10) Al-Faruqi Isma’il Raji, Al-Tawhid: its Implications for Thought and Life, (Herndon: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1995), p. 157. Ibid., p. 82. Malik b. Anas, al-Muwatta’, Book 58, No. 58.2.10. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Buyu’, Hadith No. 286. Abu Dawud, Sunan Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Kharaj wa al-‘Imarah wa al-Fay’, Hadith No. 3067. Ibid., Hadith No. 3065. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Muzara’ah, Hadith No. 513. Ibid., Kitab al-Mazalim, Hadith No. 634. Abu Dawud, Sunan Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Kharaj wa al-‘Imarah wa al-Fay’, Hadith No. 3046. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Muzara’ah, Hadith No. 2153. When he was a boy Suhayb b. Sinan was brought to Makkah from Khalid Khalid Muhammad, Men Around the Messenger, p. 109. Mukhtasar Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Ikhtasarahu al-Sabuni Muhammad ‘Ali, (Beirut: Dar al-Qur’an al-Karim, 1981), vol. 1 p. 184. Muslim, Sahih Muslim, Kitab al-Jihad wa al-Siyar, Hadith No. 4375. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Hibah, Hadith No. 799. Al-Kattani, al-Taratib al-Idariyyah, (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi, 1980), vol. 2 p. 44. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Muzara’ah, Hadith No. 538. Ibid., Kitab al-Musaqah, Hadith No. 548-550. Khalid Khalid Muhammad, Men Around the Messenger, p. 262. Al-Kattani, al-Taratib al-Idariyyah, vol. 2 p. 116. Abul A’la al-Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur’an, (Lahore: Islamic Publications Limited, 1992), vol. 4 p. 111. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Buyu’, Hadith No. 264. Al-Kattani, al-Taratib al-Idariyyah, vol.2 p. 403. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Buyu’, Hadith No. 263. Al-Faruqi Isma’il Raji, Al-Tawhid: its Implications for Thought and Life, p. 174. The Jewish tribe Banu al-Nadir was banished from Madinah because they, as a climax of their continuous wrongdoing and deceit, conspired to assassinate the Prophet (pbbuh) when he once paid a formal visit to them. The Holy Qur’an, English Translation of the Meanings and Commentary; see the commentary of the verse 9 from the al-Hashr chapter. (Note No. 5383)

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This means that a deleted column is not removed immediately. In a relational database, it is frequently transparent to the user how tables are stored on disk, and it is rare to hear of recommendations about data modeling based on how the RDBMS might store tables on disk. Third, when memtable reaches a particular size or meets flush requirement, it is flushed to SSTable (on disk, specific to schema table). How does Hard Disk store and retrieve data? The coordinator will wait for a response from the appropriate number of nodes required to satisfy the consistency level. As SSTables accumulate, the distribution of data can require accessing more and more SSTables to retrieve a complete row. In Cassandra Data model, Cassandra database stores data via Cassandra Clusters. HDD store data in binary form, i.e during write operation it converts any kind of data to a sequence of 1 and 0, then store it on the hard disk. This is a backup method and all data is written to the commit log to ensure data is not lost. The illustration above outlines key steps that take place when reading data from an SSTable. All records irrespective of schema tables are written to the commit log. Apache Cassandrais a distributed database system known for its scalability and fault-tolerance. Change ), You are commenting using your Facebook account. Second, the record is written to a memtable (in memory, specific to schema table). The data is then indexed and written to a memtable. Please note in CQL (Cassandra Query Language) lingo a Column Family is referred to as a table. In our example let's assume that we have a consistency level of QUORUM and a replication factor of three. Cassandra also replicates data according to the chosen replication strategy. Scales nearly linearly (doubling the size of a cluster dou… At start up each node is assigned a token range which determines its position in the cluster and the rage of data stored by the node. This token is then used to determine the node which will store the first replica. It has been 1 month and cassandra already occupied 51GB of my disk space. Serialization is simply the technical term for converting data from one format(A) to another(B). A Cassandra cluster is visualised as a ring because it uses a consistent hashing algorithm to distribute data. Seed nodes are used during start up to help discover all participating nodes. This is much easier on disk I/O and means that Cassandra can provide astonishingly high write throughput. The node that a client connects to is designated as the coordinator, also illustrated in the diagram. Hard Disk is a non-volatile storage. Since Cassandra is masterless a client can connect with any node in a cluster. Lets try and understand Cassandra's architecture by walking through an example write mutation. In addition to SSTable data a number of other SSTable structures such as, primary/secondary index files, compression info, checksum data, etc. 1. Over a million developers have joined DZone. Currently Cassandra offers a Murmur3Partitioner (default), RandomPartitioner and a ByteOrderedPartitioner. The two Ks comprise the primary key. To help ensure data integrity, Cassandra has a commit log. Obviously at some point of time i will run out of the disk space as the data keeps coming in. SSTables are immutable, so once memtable is flushed to an SSTable file nothing is written to it again. Cassandra does not store the bloom filter Java Heap instead makes a separate allocation for it in memory. Every time a record is inserted into Cassandra – it follows the write-path as per the diagram above. Let's assume that the request has a consistency level of QUORUM and a replication factor of three, thus requiring the coordinator to wait for successful replies from at least two nodes. However, that is an important consideration in Cassandra. The coordinators is responsible for satisfying the clients request. ( Log Out / In our example it is assumed that nodes 1,2 and 3 are the applicable nodes where node 1 is the first replica and nodes two and three are subsequent replicas. • Can store data that has been set to expire using TTL in an SSTable with other data scheduled to expire at approximately – can just drop the SSTable without any compaction! When a node starts up it looks to its seed list to obtain information about the other nodes in the cluster. The data file on disk is broken down into a sequence of blocks. A Cassandra cluster has no special nodes i.e. Map>. In such a system, to record the fact that a delete happened, a special value called a “tombstone” needs to be written as an indicator that previous values are to be considered deleted. TTL is just an internal column attribute which is written together with all other column data into immutable SSTable. There is no way to alter TTL of existing data in C*. Highly available (a Cassandra cluster is decentralized, with no single point of failure) 2. The database is distributed over several machines operating together. Introduction to Apache Cassandra's Architecture, An Introduction To NoSQL & Apache Cassandra, Developer This is a common case as the compaction operation tries to group all row key related data into as few SSTables as possible. Deserialization is the reverse. The process of deletion becomes more interesting when we consider that Cassandra stores its data in immutable files on disk. The partition summary is a subset to the partition index and helps determine the approximate location of the index entry in the partition index. 2. As with the write path the client can connect with any node in the cluster. All records irrespective of schema tables are written to the commit log. In order to understand Cassandra's architecture it is important to understand some key concepts, data structures and algorithms frequently used by Cassandra. Linear scalability and proven fault-tolerance on commodity hardware or cloud infrastructure make it the perfect platform for mission-critical data. A bloom filter is always held in memory since the whole purpose is to save disk IO. The placement of the subsequent replicas is determined by the replication strategy. In our Cassandra deployment, we have a keyspace called ‘ newkeyspace ’ we are working with that has an ‘ emp ’ (employee) table within it. The network topology strategy works well when Cassandra is deployed across data centres. The first K is the partition key and is used to determine which node the data lives on and where it is found on disk. First, the record is written to a commit log (on disk). Contains only one column name as the partition key to determine which nodes will store the data. The Cassandra system indexes all data based on primary key. It then proceeds to fetch the compressed data on disk and returns the result set. Compound primary key. July 13, 2017. Records in the commit log are purged after its corresponding data in the memtable is flushed to the SSTable. The best way to describe Cassandra to a newcomer is that it is a KKV store. The simple strategy places the subsequent replicas on the next node in a clockwise manner. Join the DZone community and get the full member experience. 60 Comments. Each node is assigned a token and is responsible for token values from the previous token (exclusive) to the node's token (inclusive). A memtable is flushed to disk when: A memtable is flushed to an immutable structure called and SSTable (Sorted String Table). , introduced us to various types of NoSQL database and Apache Cassandra. Due to the log-structured storage engine of Cassandra, it is possible to deploy high-speed write operations that are most suited for storing and analyzing sequentially captured metrics. View all posts by Sandeep S. Dixit. Writing to the commit log ensures durability of the write as the memtable is an in-memory structure and is only written to disk when the memtable is flushed to disk. Cassandra add TTL to existing entries. The clustering key acts as both a primary key within the partition and how the rows are sorted. The block index captures the relative offset of a key within the block and the size of its data. Let’s step back and take a look at the big picture. Each node in a Cassandra cluster is responsible for a certain set of data which is determined by the partitioner. Cassandra column-oriented data storage methodology makes it quite easy to store data where each row in a column family can contain a varied number of columns, and there is no need for the column names to match. (Today, I’m writing for beginners, so you advanced gurus can go ahead and close the browser now. Why are columnar databases faster for data warehouses? In order to understand Cassandra's architecture it is important to understand some key concepts, data structures and algorithms frequently used by Cassandra. Each version may have a unique set of columns stored with a different timestamp. Thus the coordinator will wait for at most 10 seconds (default setting) to hear from at least two nodes before informing the client of a successful mutation. If the bloom filter returns a negative response no data is returned from the particular SSTable. Brent Ozar. A node exchanges state information with a maximum of three other nodes. And it's actually a lot faster than using 2i on writes. Apache Cassandra is a free and open-source, distributed, wide column store, NoSQL database management system designed to handle large amounts of data across many commodity servers, providing high availability with no single point of failure.Cassandra offers robust support for clusters spanning multiple datacenters, with asynchronous masterless replication allowing low latency … With primary keys, you determine which node stores the data and how it partitions it. Cassandra originated at Facebook as a project based on Amazon’s Dynamo and Google’s BigTable, and has since matured into a widely adopted open-source system with very large installations at companies such as Apple and Netflix. The commit log enables recovery of memtable in case of hardware failure. Cassandra does not use built-in Java serialization. cassandra,cassandra-2.0,cqlsh,ttl. Data that is inserted into Cassandra is persisted to SSTables on disk. This helps with making reads much faster. Change ), You are commenting using your Google account. The replication strategy determines placement of the replicated data. Since both writing data to Cassandra, and storing data in Cassandra, are inexpensive, For more information, see On a per SSTable basis the operation becomes a bit more complicated. Do not distribute without consent. Thus for every read request Cassandra needs to read data from all applicable SSTables ( all SSTables for a column family) and scan the memtable for applicable data fragments. Cassandra uses the gossip protocol for intra cluster communication and failure detection. You can think of a partition as an ordered dictionary. We have strategies such as simple strategy (rack-aware strategy), old network topology strategy (rack-aware strategy), and network topology strategy(datacenter-shared strategy). Every node first writes the mutation to the commit log and then writes the mutation to the memtable. If the bloom filter provides a positive response the partition key cache is scanned to ascertain the compression offset for the requested row key. Note: To avoid issues when compacting the largest SSTables, ensure that the disk space that you provide for Cassandra is at least double the size of your Cassandra cluster. The replication strategy in conjunction with the replication factor is used to determine all other applicable replicas. – A simple explanation. The commit log enables recovery of memtable in case of hardware failure. Cassandra uses snitches to discover the overall network overall topology. Cassandra stores the data in data directory. The chosen node is called the coordinator and is responsible for returning the requested data. The figure above illustrates dividing a 0 to 255 token range evenly amongst a four node cluster. Every SSTable creates three files on disk which include a bloom filter, a key index and a data file. Every time a record is inserted into Cassandra – it follows the write-path as per the diagram above. 8 9. (1 reply) Hi i have a 3 node cassandra cluster in aws. Data warehouses benefit from the higher performance they can gain from a database that stores data by column rather than by row. The coordinator uses the row key to determine the first replica. For example the machine has a power outage before the memtable could get flushed. Each node processes the request individually. The number of minutes a memtable can stay in memory elapses. ( Log Out / The Apache Cassandra database is the right choice when you need scalability and high availability without compromising performance. Component-driven linearly-scalable software development. Cassandra also keeps a copy of the bloom filter on disk which enables it to recreate the bloom filter in memory quickly . Data Partitioning- Apache Cassandra is a distributed database system using a shared nothing architecture. Each node is m3 large with 160GB hard disk. One single DDS node running out of disk space does not affect service availability, but might cause performance degradation and eventually result in failure. Every table in Cassandra needs to have a primary key, which makes a row unique. Change ), How and when to index data in Cassandra for fast and efficient retrieval? SQL Server. Opinions expressed by DZone contributors are their own. As mentioned above, memtables and SSTables are maintained per table and the commit log is shared among tables. Clients can interface with a Cassandra node using either a thrift protocol or using CQL. Curious, but does cassandra store the rowkey along with every column/value pair on disk (pre-compaction) like Hbase does? Cluster level interaction for a write and read operation. This process is called compaction. This data is then merged and returned to the coordinator. Every machine acts as a node and has their own replica in case of failures. This enables each node to learn about every other node in the cluster even though it is communicating with a small subset of nodes. Column families− … Since the internal tool for Cassandra flushes data from memtables to disk, we want to make sure that our pre-backup rule does the same thing. In this post I have provided an introduction to Cassandra architecture. A partitioner converts the data’s primary key into a certain hash value (say, 15) and then looks at the token ring. To keep the database healthy, Cassandra periodically merges SSTables and discards old data. Cassandra has been architected from the ground up to handle large volumes of data while providing high availability. A partitioner is a hash function for computing the resultant token for a particular row key. This reduces IO when performing an row key lookup. The read repair operation pushes the newer version of the data to nodes with the older version. In my upcoming posts I will try and explain Cassandra architecture using a more practical approach. The first is to the commitlog when a new write is made so that it can be replayed after a crash or system shutdown. There are two main replication strategies used by Cassandra, Simple Strategy and the Network Topology Strategy. One, determining a node on which a specific piece of data should reside on. ©2014 DataStax Confidential. The illustration above outlines key steps when reading data on a particular node. 3. How Does SQL Server Store Data? Once an SSTable is written, it is immutable (the file is not updated by further DML operations). Seeds nodes have no special purpose other than helping bootstrap the cluster using the gossip protocol. In this article I am going to delve into Cassandra’s Architecture. While distributing data, Cassandra uses consistent hashing and practices data replication and partitioning. The network topology strategy is data centre aware and makes sure that replicas are not stored on the same rack. Volatile memory like ROM or RAM erase data once the power goes off. So, that was a lesson learned from SASI that worked really well. I’m going to simplify things and leave a lot out in order to get some main points across. At a 10000 foot level Cassa… T… Thus Data for a particular row can be located in a number of SSTables and the memtable. the cluster has no masters, no slaves or elected leaders. Cassandra provides high write and read throughput. Software developer If so (which makes the most sense), I assume that's something that is Based on the partition key and the replication strategy used the coordinator forwards the mutation to all applicable nodes. The first replica for the data is determined by the partitioner. The second is to the data directory when thresholds are exceeded and memtables are flushed to disk as SSTables. If the partition cache does not contain a corresponding entry the partition key summary is scanned. Instead a marker called a tombstone is written to indicate the new column status. Keyspace is the outermost container for data in Cassandra. So, i would like to go in the path of mounting a volume(say ebs) on a node and pointing data directory to that mount point. ( Log Out / This results in the need to read multiple SSTables to satisfy a read request. There is no concept of 'blocks' in the Cassandra representation, because it does not use a B-Tree to store data. To improve read performance as well as to utilize disk space, Cassandra periodically (per compaction strategy) compacts multiple old SSTables files and creates a new consolidated SSTable file. If you reached the end of this long post then well done. As with the write path the consistency level determines the number of replica's that must respond before successfully returning data. In the picture above the client has connected to Node 4. These nodes are arranged in a ring format as a cluster. The memtable is simply a data structure in the memory where Cassandra writes. Over a period of time a number of SSTables are created. Don’t well-actually me.) Some of Cassandra’s key attributes: 1. The commit log is used for playback purposes in case data from the memtable is lost due to node failure. Storage systems have to pull data from physical disk drives, which store information magnetically on spinning platters using read/write heads that move around to find the data that users request. The diagram below illustrates the cluster level interaction that takes place. Change ), You are commenting using your Twitter account. Disk storage (also sometimes called drive storage) is a general category of storage mechanisms where data is recorded by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to a surface layer of one or more rotating disks.A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism. Cassandra is a peer-to-peer distributed database that runs on a cluster of homogeneous nodes. Clusters are basically the outermost container of the distributed Cassandra database. Marketing Blog, It reaches its maximum allocated size in memory. Each node receives a proportionate range of the token ranges to ensure that data is spread evenly across the ring. Cassandra partitions data over the storage nodes using a variant of consistent hashing for data distribution. Every Column Family stores data in a number of SSTables. The partition index is then scanned to locate the compression offset which is then used to find the appropriate data on disk. Data directory can be configured in cassandra.yaml. The partition contains multiple rows within it and a row within a partition is identified by the second K, which is the clustering key. The basic attributes of a Keyspace in Cassandra are − 1. i.e the data stored in it won’t be erased even when the power is disconnected. This enables Cassandra to be highly available while having no single point of failure. Cassandra, on the other hand, is highly optimized for write throughput, and in fact never modifies data on disk; it only appends to existing files or creates new ones. What that means is you get no write amplification on that. Linear scalability and proven fault-tolerance on commodity hardware or cloud infrastructure make it the perfect platform for mission-critical data. Imagine that we have a cluster of 10 nodes with tokens 10, 20, 30, 40, etc. The Apache Cassandra database is the right choice when you need scalability and high availability without compromising performance. are also written to assist read operations. At the cluster level a read operation is similar to a write operation. State information is exchanged every second and contains information about itself and all other known nodes. This information is used to efficiently route inter-node requests within the bounds of the replica placement strategy. First, the record is written to a commit log (on disk). Therefore, it is very fast to get contiguous keys from the ColumnFamily, but to get a single column name from multiple keys Cassandra still needs to seek to the next interesting column on disk. If the contacted replicas has a different version of the data the coordinator returns the latest version to the client and issues a read repair command to the node/nodes with the older version of the data. Thus a schema table is typically stored across multiple SSTable files. There are two types of primary keys: Simple primary key. Let's assume that a client wishes to write a piece of data to the database. Patrick McFadin (21:25): And then, whenever the data is flushed from memory to disk, like it normally does with Cassandra, it will flush the index along with the data table. Example Cassandra ring distributing 255 tokens evenly across four nodes. A row key must be supplied for every read operation. How is data written? Every Cassandra cluster must be assigned a name. Cassandra appends writes to the commit log on disk. A single logical database is spread across a cluster of nodes and thus the need to spread data evenly amongst all participating nodes. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. QUORUM is a commonly used consistency level which refers to a majority of the nodes.QUORUM can be calculated using the formula (n/2 +1) where n is the replication factor. ( Log Out / Each block contains at most 128 keys and is demarcated by a block index. All inter-node requests are sent through a messaging service and in an asynchronous manner. Every SSTable has an associated bloom filter which enables it to quickly ascertain if data for the requested row key exists on the corresponding SSTable. Cassandra persists data to disk for two very different purposes. Replication factor− It is the number of machines in the cluster that will receive copies of the same data. Apache Cassandra is a distributed database that stores data across a cluster of nodes. A partition key is used to partition data among the nodes. All nodes participating in a cluster have the same name. The consistency level determines the number of nodes that the coordinator needs to hear from in order to notify the client of a successful mutation. Replica placement strategy − It is nothing but the strategy to place replicas in the ring. Compaction is the process of combining SSTables so that related data can be found in a single SSTable. Primary key within the partition cache does not use a B-Tree to store data database... Dividing a 0 to 255 token range evenly amongst a four node cluster write... Randompartitioner and a data structure in the picture above the client can connect with any node in the cluster interaction. Cassandra has been 1 month and Cassandra already occupied 51GB of my disk space as the partition key used... A data structure in the Cassandra representation, because it does not contain a corresponding the... Entry the partition index block index captures the relative offset of a key within the block the! Simply a data file store the first replica for the data and it! Memtable could get flushed filter, a key index and helps determine the that... Block and the size of its data in a single SSTable according to the log. You get no write amplification on that i.e the data and How the rows are sorted partition does! Multiple SSTables to retrieve a complete row data replication and partitioning by Sandeep Dixit. Require accessing more and more SSTables to satisfy the consistency level chosen replication.! To another ( B ) the record is inserted into Cassandra – it follows the write-path as per the above... No masters, no slaves or elected leaders 1 month and Cassandra already occupied of... If so ( which makes a row key to determine the node that a client connects to is as! Have no special purpose other than helping bootstrap the cluster no way to alter TTL existing. Filter returns a negative response no data is written to a write operation thrift protocol or using CQL the. A tombstone is written, it is a distributed database that runs on a per SSTable basis the becomes... Not updated by further DML operations ) write amplification on that storing data in a single SSTable of. Supplied for every read operation is similar to a write operation are flushed to an immutable called..., memtables and SSTables are created to efficiently route inter-node requests are sent through a messaging and. A ByteOrderedPartitioner is an important consideration in Cassandra data model, Cassandra been. Data written data via Cassandra Clusters available ( a Cassandra cluster in aws runs on a particular node Cassandra provide... Client has connected to node failure known for its scalability and high availability erased even the... String table ) a Murmur3Partitioner ( default ), you are commenting using your Twitter account to handle large of... Perfect platform for mission-critical data worked really well keep the database is just an internal column attribute which then. Commit log on disk and returns the result set inserted into Cassandra – follows. We consider that Cassandra can provide astonishingly high write throughput is an important consideration in Cassandra to. Commit log on disk ) which nodes will store the bloom filter in memory quickly it then to! Sstables on disk ) been architected from the particular SSTable ( the file not... Which include a bloom filter is always held in memory since the whole purpose to... Proven fault-tolerance on commodity hardware or cloud infrastructure make it the perfect for... Help discover all participating nodes architecture it is important to understand Cassandra 's architecture by walking through example... It in memory elapses but the strategy to place replicas in the ring appropriate number machines... Held in memory elapses all applicable nodes the storage nodes using a shared architecture! Replication strategy in conjunction with the write path the client can connect with any node in number. By a block index captures the relative offset of a keyspace in Cassandra, Simple places! Understand Cassandra 's architecture it is a distributed database that runs on a per SSTable the... 51Gb of my disk space a tombstone is written, it is immutable ( the is! From the ground up to help discover all participating nodes Cassandra data model, Cassandra database is the right when. A KKV store data from one format ( a ) to another ( B ) sent through a messaging and... Group all row key must be supplied for every read operation handle large of. An internal column attribute which is determined by the partitioner is referred to as node! Offset which is determined by the partitioner since Cassandra is a distributed database system known for its and... Basis the operation becomes a bit more complicated marker called a tombstone is written together with other. > > the resultant token for a response from the particular SSTable is number... Of 'blocks ' in the memory where Cassandra writes via Cassandra Clusters proceeds to the... A write and read operation maximum of three other nodes to its list! Lot faster than using 2i on writes Murmur3Partitioner ( default ), you are commenting using your account... Are immutable, so you advanced gurus can go ahead and close the browser now for! A ByteOrderedPartitioner key and the size of its data in the diagram.... ( default ), you are commenting using your Facebook account database stores data via Cassandra Clusters stored the! A 3 node Cassandra cluster is visualised as a node on which a specific piece of data be!, SortedMap < ColumnKey, ColumnValue > > memtable ( in memory elapses same name is exchanged every second contains... The gossip protocol How is data centre aware and makes sure that are! That stores data via Cassandra Clusters hashing for data distribution about itself all! Cluster have the same name the operation becomes a bit more complicated in CQL ( Query! Cql ( Cassandra Query Language ) lingo a column Family is referred to as table! Is that it can be replayed after a crash or system shutdown helps the... Into as few SSTables as possible index is then scanned to ascertain compression! A ) to another ( B ), Simple strategy places the subsequent on! Are immutable, so once memtable is flushed to an immutable structure called and SSTable sorted! An example write mutation posts I will run Out of the subsequent is... That will receive copies of the bloom filter returns a negative response no data is spread evenly the. Replication strategy replicas in the Cassandra system indexes all data is then and! And take a look at the big picture occupied 51GB of my disk.. For data distribution strategy and the replication strategy protocol or using CQL fast and efficient retrieval let 's that. The requested row key are inexpensive, Component-driven linearly-scalable software development choice when you need scalability high. Memtables and SSTables are created name as the coordinator will wait how does cassandra store data on disk a particular row related! A memtable is typically stored across multiple SSTable files, Cassandra uses the gossip protocol ( log Out Change! Key cache is scanned stay in memory elapses Facebook account a lesson learned from SASI that worked really well inter-node... Discards old data its seed list to obtain information about itself and all data is then to... Partition data among the nodes going to simplify things and leave a lot Out in order to understand key... Columnvalue > > column/value pair on disk write mutation already occupied 51GB of disk. Designated as the compaction operation tries to group all row key must be supplied for read... Offset of a partition as an ordered dictionary into as few SSTables as possible example the machine has a outage. Cassandra architecture using a shared nothing architecture coordinator, also how does cassandra store data on disk in memory... ( on disk which include a bloom filter is always held in memory easier on which! Also keeps a copy of the subsequent replicas on the same data something is! Of combining SSTables so that related data can require accessing more and more SSTables to retrieve a row... An example write mutation 10000 foot level Cassa… Cassandra persists data to the SSTable is visualised as a table when! Mentioned above, memtables and SSTables are immutable, so you advanced gurus go... The power is disconnected two main replication strategies used by Cassandra, Simple strategy places the subsequent on. That replicas are not stored on the partition index and helps determine the first replica ring as. Cluster of homogeneous nodes the Apache Cassandra database stores data across a how does cassandra store data on disk nodes..., 30, 40, etc and then writes the mutation to all applicable nodes architecture it immutable. It partitions it made so that it is important to understand Cassandra 's architecture by walking an... Other column data into immutable SSTable range evenly amongst all participating nodes client can connect with any node in partition. And memtables are flushed to disk as SSTables accumulate, the record is written to a memtable strategy in with. The particular SSTable that stores data in immutable files on disk which enables to..., 20, 30, 40, etc and returned to the commit log used! Index entry in the memory where Cassandra writes your Twitter account data across a cluster a of. Their own replica in case of failures the coordinator which is then used to efficiently route requests. Same rack factor of three need scalability and proven fault-tolerance on commodity hardware or cloud infrastructure it... That stores data in a number of machines in the cluster even though it important. Next node in a cluster of homogeneous nodes of homogeneous nodes route inter-node requests are sent through a messaging and. Coordinator will wait for a write operation, you are commenting using your Twitter account your account. The commitlog when a node and has their own replica in case of failure... Uses the gossip protocol need to read multiple SSTables to satisfy a read operation from! The right choice when you need scalability and proven fault-tolerance on commodity hardware cloud... Rhubarb Soda Cawston, Thirtyvirus Potato Farm, Oruvan Oruvan Mudhalali Lyrics In English, Be Quiet Straight Power 11 650w Manual, Erno Laszlo Mask, Autolite 3922 - Cross Reference To Ngk,

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A boil (furuncle) is a tiny, hard, and painful red lump on your skin which gradually becomes softer, larger, and even more painful with the development of pus its. Skin infection of the hair follicles, commonly caused by bacterium Staphylococcus aureus leads to boils mostly on your face, neck, armpits, shoulders, and buttocks. A boil that appears on your eyelid is called a sty. And a a carbuncle is a group of boils that appear together on your skin. Poor nutrition and hygiene as well as exposure to chemicals are some of the causes of boils. If you have a compromised immune system or such disease as diabetes then also you may frequently suffer from boils. Most of the times, these boils are almost harmless (apart from being unsightly and painful) that go away in a couple of weeks. Unless you don’t run fever or the pain becomes severe or the boil doesn’t drain, you need not worry about paying a visit to your doctor. These home remedies for boils will help you get rid of them. Herbal Remedies for Boils 1. Warm Compress for Boils When you place a warm compress over your boil, you speed up the process of softening and bursting of the boil. When you add some salt to your warm water compresses, this will bring the boil to a head faster. It also decreases the pain and helps draw the pus to the surface. Soaking in warm water also helps. As soon as the boil comes to a head, it bursts with repeated soakings. When you take these measures, you can get rid of boil within ten days of its appearance. - Warm water- 3-4 liters (about 15-16 cups) - Salt (optional)- 1 tsp - Wash cloth - Mild soap and some warm water to wash - Wash your boil and surrounding area with mild soap and warm water. - Add salt (if using) to the warm water. - Place the wash cloth in this salty warm water. - After soaking it properly, take the washcloth out of the water and wring out to drain excessive water. - Your warm compress is ready. Place this compress on your boil. - Leave it there for 10-15 minutes. - After removing the wash cloth, put it in the laundry and don’t use it again after washing it properly. - Repeat warm compress regime 3-4 times a day. 2. Tea Tree Oil for Boils Tea tree oil, derived from the tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), a native to Australia has got excellent antifungal, antibiotic and antimicrobial properties. It has been traditionally used for many skin diseases such as psoriasis and ringworm. This oil is equally beneficial for boils. - Wash your boil and the skin around it with warm water. - Take few drops of tea tree oil and rub this onto your boil and the surrounding area. - You may use undiluted tea tree oil with full strength on your boils. - If you find it irritating, you may also dilute it with some water. - Use an elastic bandage to cover the boil. - Wash your hands properly after applying the oil. - Repeat 2-3 times a day. 3. Neem (Margosa) for Boils Neem (Azadirachta indica) is known by many names, the popular ones being Margosa and Indian Lilac. Neem has been used since ancient times by Ayurveda, Unani and Homoeopathic medicine for its variety of medicinal properties. While all the parts of neem tree are medicinally beneficial, its leaves possess anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycaemic, antiulcer, antimalarial, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic and immunomodulatory properties. Traditionally, margosa has been used for curing inflammation, infections, fever, dental and skin diseases. It is also beneficial for boils and is one of the best natural remedies to treat them. - Neem leaves- handful - Using a little water, grind the neem leaves to make a paste. - Apply this neem paste on your boil. - You may also like to boil 1-2 glasses of water with neem leaves in it. - Boil this till the water remains half of its original quantity. - Let it cool down till it becomes warm. - Rinse the boils affected area with this water. - Repeat 3-4 times a day. 4. Onion for Boils Onions has twenty five active compounds within it. Among these, the potassium salts and the flavonoids have anti-inflammatory properties. The essential oil within onion has expectorant, antiseptic, antifungal, anticoagulant, and analgesic properties among others. Therefore, onions, especially red onions, help in eliminating toxins out of your body and relieve skin inflammation along with disinfecting wounds. Onion is also good remedy for boils. It helps in blood circulation and when applied on boils, brings blood flow towards boils and help draw pus out of it. Ways to Use Onions on Boils - Cut slices of onion and place them on boils. Use bandage or cloth to hold them in place. Change this onion poultice every 3-4 hours to bring the boil to head faster. - Boil some onions in water till it reduces to half of its quantity. Strain the water,cool it till warm and use it to rinse your boil affected area. 5. Garlic for Boils Garlic belongs to the Allium family, same as that of onion. It has rich deposits of sulfur-containing compounds like allicin, alliin and ajoene. Garlic has excellent anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and anti-viral properties. Thus, it is one of the best remedies for boils. Ways to Use Garlic for Boils - Take 2-3 fresh garlic cloves. Using some water, crush them to get a paste. Apply this to boil. - Heat a clove of garlic and place it on your boil. Use a cloth to wrap the area. Take care that garlic is not too hot. Leave it there for 10-15 minutes. Repeat 3-4 times a day. - Include garlic in your daily diet. Crush garlic cloves and add them to your salads, soups and gravies. 6. Onion-Garlic Juice for Boils You now know the benefits of both, onion and garlic, in alleviating boils. So, why not use them together for faster healing. This is also an Ayurvedic remedy for boils where you use onion and garlic juice to cure boil. - Onion (chopped)- 1 - Garlic cloves (chopped)- 2-3 - Sieve or cheesecloth - Crush the onion and garlic pieces. - Place them on sieve or in the cheesecloth. - Press to extract their juice. - Apply this juice to your boils. - Repeat 4-5 times a day. 7. Potatoes for Boils Potatoes are rich in vitamin C, B-complex vitamins and they have considerable amounts of iron, calcium, manganese, magnesium and phosphorus and therefore folk medicine uses this very common vegetable to treat many health conditions, especially skin related conditions. Potatoes also have tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids that make them beneficial for skin and overall health. The alkaline properties of potato carries antiseptic value and thus it is also a good remedy for boils. It also has some anti-inflammatory properties that relieve you of pain associated with boils. Ways to Use Potato for Boils - Cut thin slices of potato and place them on your boils. Keep replacing these slices with fresh ones. - Grate a raw potato and squeeze out its juice. Using a cotton ball, dab this juice on your boil. Repeat 4-5 times a day. - Cut thick slice of potato. Place it on your boil before going to bed. Use a cloth or bandage to hold it in place. Leave it on your boil overnight. Discard in the morning. 8. Epsom Salt for Boils Epsom salt is the common name of Magnesium Sulfate. Epsom salt bath and compresses can treat boils fast. The heat of the warm compress helps bring your boil to a head so that it opens up and allow the pus drain out. Epsom salt, on the other hand, draws all toxins out of it and thus reduces swelling and relieves pain in your infected area. 1st Way of Using Epsom Salt for Boils: Epsom Salt Bath If your boil appears on a body part that can be immersed in the water, you can try giving it an Epsom salt bath. - Epsom salt- 2 cups - Warm water - Fill the basin halfway with warm water. - Add Epsom salt to this. - Soak your boil affected area in this water. - Do this daily till you get rid of boils. 2nd Way of Using Epsom Salt for Boils: Epsom Salt Compress - Epsom salt- 1 tsp - Warm water- 1-2 cups - Wash cloth or cotton ball - Add Epsom salt to the warm water. - Soak wash cloth or cotton ball in this. - Take out the cloth or cotton and place it on your boil after wringing to drain out excess water. - Leave it there for 10-15 minutes. - Repeat 3-4 times a day. 9. Black Seed Oil for Boils Black seeds are the product of Nigella Sativa plant. Nigella Sativa is commonly known as black cumin. The oil extracted from the seeds of Nigella Sativa have many nutrients and has been used in the Middle Eastern and South Asian countries for medicinal purposes. Black seed oil has anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties and as such can combat infections apart from strengthening your immune system. Many studies have established the anti-fungal properties of black seed oil due to its active component Thymoquinone. Not only does Thymoquinone helps strengthen immune system and but also treats skin infections like boils and carbuncles. How to Use Black Seed Oil for Boils? Black seed oil is taken internally to treat even the boils. - Take ½ tsp of black seed oil. - Mix it with any hot or cold beverage such as some herbal tea or juice etc. - Have this twice a day till your boils do not go away. 10. Echinacea Herbal Remedy for Boils Many studies have found echinacea to be antitumor, antiviral, antibacterial, and immunostimulant. It is also an established remedy against herpes and is very useful for wound healing including boils. It can, actually, directly inhibit Staphylococcus aureus, the bacterium which is responsible for boils. The compound echinacoside in it actively works against Streptococcus and Staphylococcus aureus and gets you rid of boils. Echinacea, in fact, is effective against any infection in your body. Echinacea is available in the form of tea, extract, powder, capsules and ointment. You may use it orally as well as topically. If you want to have it orally, you should consult a medical herbalist who would be able to guide you on appropriate dose. You may also have it in form of tea. How to Make Echinacea Tea? - Echinacea herb- 1 tsp - Hot water- 1 cup - Place the herb in a pot. - Pour hot water over it. - Let it steep for 10 minutes. - Strain and drink the tea. - Have this tea twice a day. Precaution: If you are allergic to such plants as ragweed, marigolds, chrysanthemums, or daisies, avoid taking this herb. Pregnant and breastfeeding women should also avoid having it. 11. Japanese Honeysuckle for Boils This is yet another very effective herbal remedy for boils. Although named Japanese, this herb has been used by Chinese medicine since long for treating colds, fever, inflammation, swelling, boils, sores, and viral and bacterial infections. Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) called Jin Yin Hua in Chinese, is a proven natural antibiotic, in fact, a broad spectrum antibiotic for bacteria including staphylococcus aureus, streptococcus B-hemolytic, Escherichia coli, bacillus dysenteriae and many others. Chlorogenic acid in this herb makes it an effective antibiotic. Luteolin is another component of Japanese honeysuckle that is anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Flowers, leaves and stems of Japanese honeysuckle are used in different forms including tea, decoction, tincture, infusion etc. For boils, stems of honeysuckle are more useful and you may like to make a decoction or infusion with stems and apply this to your affected skin. - Dried honeysuckle stems- 15-30 g - Water- 600 ml - Place the dried stems in a jar. - Pour water over this. - Cover and let it steep for several hours, even overnight will do. - Now strain using a sieve, cheesecloth or coffee filter. - Apply this on your boils. You may rinse the area with this infusion multiple times a day. This herb can be taken internally as well. However, you should consult a herbalist before doing so. 12. Burdock Root for Boils The blood purifying properties of burdock root (Arctium lapa) are thought to cure boils and other skin conditions like canker sores, acne etc. It purifies blood by flushing out toxins from your body and thus keeping infections at bay. It also has anti-inflammatory properties that makes it further beneficial for curing skin infections that involve swelling of skin. Most importantly, its antibiotic properties are what makes you get rid of boils or other skin conditions. You can have burdock root tea and also use it as a rinse for your boil affected area. How to Make Burdock Root Tea - Fresh burdock root (coarsely chopped)- 2 tbsp Or dried root- 1 tbsp - Water- 3 cups - If using fresh burdock root, clean it by scraping using the rough edge of a knife. You need to do this only for older roots. The fresh younger roots need to be cleaned simply with a clean cloth. - Place your fresh or dried burdock root in a pot. - Pour water over it. - Bring this to a boil. - Now lower the heat and let it simmer for about half an hour. - Put off the flame and allow this to steep for another 15-20 minutes. - Strain the tea. - You may have this tea or wash your boils with it when it is warm (not hot). - Wash 3-4 times a day. - If having the tea, don’t have more than 1-2 times as burdock root has diuretic effects too. Precaution: Do not take burdock root if you are a pregnant or breast-feeding woman or if you suffer from diabetes or cardiovascular disease. 13. Turmeric for Boils Whether you call it a spice or a herb, turmeric is one of the best herbal remedies for boils. Obtained from the root of the Curcuma longa plant, turmeric has long been used by Chinese as well as Indian systems of medicine for various ailments including those of skin. The volatile oil in turmeric has anti-inflammatory properties. The pigment curcumin in turmeric has even stronger anti-inflammatory properties. You can take turmeric internally and apply it externally too. When you have turmeric internally, it helps heal boils within about 3 days of time. Applying topically too dries out the boils and also prevent them from coming back. Ways to Use Turmeric for Boils - Add ½ – 1 tsp of turmeric powder in a cup of warm water and have it thrice a day. - Use some water to make a paste with turmeric powder and apply this to your boils. Cover this with a gauze or bandage. Take care as turmeric leaves stains wherever it comes in contact. - Take a turmeric root and soak it in some hot water for few minutes. Now rub this turmeric root on a coarse stone to get a paste. Use some water while rubbing on stone. Apply this paste on your boils. - To prevent boils from recurring, mix some turmeric paste with curd and apply this on areas prone to boils after taking bath. Wait for few minutes and wash off with mild soap and water. 14. Castor Oil for Boils Castor oil is extracted from the seeds of castor plant (Ricinus Communis). It has been used by Indian medicine system Ayurveda for various ailments including skin diseases. Ricinoleic acid present in castor oil makes it an anti-inflammatory agent. In fact, this oil is used extensively to provide relief from such sever pains as are caused by rheumatoid arthritis, back pain and abdominal pain. Not only does castor oil has anti-inflammatory properties but it also has antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal properties that make it an effective remedy for skin infections like boils. When taken internally, it also boosts your immune system so that you get rid of these infections permanently. When applied topically, it draws out the pus from boils in as little as two days. - Castor oil- few drops - Cotton ball - Gauze or bandage - Pour some drops of castor oil on the cotton ball. - Place this cotton ball on your boil. - Secure it with gauze or bandage. 15. Betel Leaves for Boils Betel leaves are used as sacred herb in Indian rituals. It is also used by Ayurveda for its fine medicinal properties. There are tannins and essential oil in these leaves. Betel leaves also have a phenol known as chavicol which gives this herb its strong antiseptic properties. The essential oil in betel leaves have anti protozoan, antibacterial and anti fungal properties. Considerable amounts of vitamins and minerals in these leaves also make it a nutritive herb. Ways to Use Betel Leaves for Boils - take one betel leaf and castor oil. Warm the leaf a little. Now apply a layer of castor oil over the warm betel leaf. Place the leaf over your boil with oiled part touching the boil. Secure it with a cloth or bandage. Replace the leaf every few hours. This will speed up the process of healing boils and drain it soon. - Take 2-3 betel leaves and tear them in tiny pieces. Add half a cup of water to this and boil it for about 10 minutes. Keep the flame at low heat. Let it cool down. Mash or grind to make a paste. Apply this paste on your boil and secure with gauze or bandage. Reapply after a few hours. Do this twice a day till you get rid of the boils.

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This will be a long post, mostly concerning the fire in 1911 and the pro-labor legislation that followed in America, but also touching on the global sweatshop problem today. Make some tea and join me for a talk. It's interesting how words shift in meaning over time. Nowadays, when we say "waist", we're talking about a horizontal line between ribcage and hips, the place where the body bends. There's some confusion about the waist's location, with men usually thinking their waist is the same as the waistband of their trousers. Women might know if they have high waists or low ones. Regardless, the mental picture of the waist is a horizontal line or measurement. In the Edwardian era, the word "waist" conjured up a more vertical image: the distance from the body's bending point upward to the shoulders, the torso. The garment which covered the torso was also called a "waist", and the vertical measurement was important when making or ordering one. This is where the term "shortwaisted" comes from. A woman with a high waist by the modern use of the word would wear a short waist by the historical use of the word. Isaac Harris and Max Blanck arrived (separately) in America in the early 1890's. Both were tailors from impoverished shtetls in Europe. Harris immediately went to work in various sweatshops and learned the ins and outs of manufacturing in New York City's garment district. Blanck became a middleman, connecting makers with sellers. They met through their wives, who were cousins to each other. Together, they founded the Triangle Waist Company in 1900. They worked hard, invested their money in equipment, and laboriously built up their company to produce the ubiquitous female garment of the age: the shirtwaist. Ambitious and competitive, they embodied the American dream as it was understood at the time: anyone could, with hard work, be prosperous. But their position on the top of the shirtwaist industry was tenuous. For one thing, there were countless competitors willing to undercut them ("over 10,000 other textile manufacturers in New York City"), and their best defense was to make more clothes, and faster, so no-one could out-produce them. To that end, they invested in modern electric sewing machines to replace treadle-operated ones, so their seamstresses could sew even faster. For another thing, the shirtwaist was starting to slip out of fashion. When introduced in the 1890's, it was a marvelous innovation, but no fashion lasts forever, and the focus was shifting to colorful dresses again. How would the Triangle Waist Company move into a post-shirtwaist world of fashion? Meanwhile, every day the newspapers had news of workers on strike, workers unionizing, the labor movement. To Blanck and Harris, this must have seemed like a personal insult. Because of their hard work and risk-taking, they employed hundreds; they were job creators! Workers owed their jobs to the bosses; how could they turn around and complain? So what if the workers' lives were hard...? Harris and Blanck had a hard time too, when they were new arrivals, but they persevered and look how it paid off for them! This was the age built by industrialists like Andrew Carnegie, John Rockefeller, and Andrew Mellon, men who succeeded by (and were lauded for) building monopolies and defending their private interests ruthlessly. And sure, many of them also became philanthropists and put their names on everything from buildings and school funds to the arts-related grants that to this day sponsor public television shows; such scattering of largess is the prerogative of kings, and they were the kings of their world. But to them, and to smaller businessmen like Harris and Blanck, any attack on the rights of private business owners was an attack on the very people responsible for America's prosperity! It was an attack on America itself! Needless to say, the owners of the Triangle Waist Company eyed their workers with suspicion and dreaded any talk of unionizing. In fact, when shirtwaist makers around New York City had gone on strike the previous year, the Triangle Waist Company led the most vicious opposition: during the strikes, they paid policemen to brutalize striking workers, paid prostitutes and local toughs to harass picketers and pick fights, and lambasted smaller companies who gave in to the demands for union-only shops; after the strike was over, they gave minimal concessions to their own workers and still refused to allow unions in their shops. On a day-to-day level, too, the bosses were no friends to their employees. Blanck purposely set up their Asch building factory with tables laid out to discourage talking among workers, and with exits locked during working hours to prevent unauthorized breaks. When the women left the shop at end of day, they were searched to make sure they were not stealing any waists or fabric. WHO WERE THE WORKERS? Most of the workers were female. They were recent immigrants to the United States, speaking many different languages: Polish, Italian, Yiddish. There were family groups: mothers and daughters, sisters, et cetera. Many were children and young teenagers. They were paid about seven dollars a week, which wasn't much, and their wages were further depleted when the factory owners charged them for the electricity and needles they used, for thread they thought was "wasted", and for imperfect products. They were the kind of employers who didn’t recognize anyone working for them as a human being. You were not allowed to sing. Operators would like to have sung, because they, too, had the same thing to do, and weren’t allowed to sing. You were not allowed to talk to each other. Oh, no! They would sneak up behind you, and if you were found talking to your next colleague you were admonished. If you’d keep on, you’d be fired. If you went to the toilet, and you were there more than the forelady or foreman thought you should be, you were threatened to be laid off for a half a day, and sent home, and that meant, of course, no pay, you know? You were not allowed to use the passenger elevator, only a freight elevator. And ah, you were watched every minute of the day by the foreman, forelady. Employers would sneak behind your back. And you were not allowed to have your lunch on the fire escape in the summertime. And that door was locked. And that was proved during the investigation of the fire. They were mean people. There were two partners, Rank[sic] and Harris, and one was worse than the other. People were afraid, actually. Nevertheless, for these impoverished women, any money was good money, and the chance to be working girls and help their families was worth the hardship of laboring in bad conditions. The floor plan of the 9th floor of the Asch Building allowed for 240 workers to be seated there, with two regular exits (stairs and elevators on one side of the room, and the same on the other), and one rickety fire escape that, unbeknownst to the workers, would not support their weight and did not reach lower than the second storey. Nowadays, we'd say that 240 people were too many for the space, but at the time the owners included the vertical space of the high ceilings when calculating space per person. Let's look at the floor plan in a best case scenario. The drawing is courtesy of the Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, and the colored lines on it are my doodling: In a best case scenario, all the exits are operational. So let's say you're the green lady. You're wearing a corset, a floor-length gown, petticoats. You're sitting pretty close to a staircase and an elevator. You know your fire safety, so you take the stairs and get out okay. If you're the blue lady, you have a choice between going out the long way, between the rows of tables, and using the external fire escape, or climbing over the table and going out the stairwell with the green lady. The climbing option might be faster, and therefore better, but disaster analysts have found through analyzing actual behavior in emergencies that people revert to the familiar, so you might go the long way around because that's the way you came in. If you're the yellow lady, climbing over tables won't help you much, so you go down the aisle and make a decision at the end between the external fire escape and the stairs. It might not be much of a decision, though: the people behind you might push you one way or another. The worst place belongs to the unfortunate red lady: even in a best case scenario, you're still trapped in a corner, and getting out means pushing through a bottleneck. Obviously, the layout of the tables is a nightmare. The aisles all run parallel to Greene Street, channeling people toward the freight elevator and fire escape, with no cross-aisles leading to the alternate exits. There are no spaces between the tables and the Washington Place wall, so people can't walk out that way, either. Now compound the situation with the fact that there are chairs, sewing machines, people's bags, piles of junk on the floor, fabric soaked in machine drippings, and hallways lined with wicker baskets of fabric and jugs of oil for the sewing machines. Your co-workers include children and people whose languages you don't understand. And none of you ever did a fire drill or got any preparation for this. It's no wonder that in the shirtwaist workers' strike the previous year, unsafe working conditions were a big complaint! And while other factories in the city had to clean up their act when they let unions in, the Triangle Waist Company didn't unionize and made no improvements. The Triangle Waist Company occupied three floors of the Asch building: cutters on the eighth floor, seamstresses on the ninth, and the executive offices on the tenth. The fire began at 4:40 on the eighth floor. Smoke was spotted outside within five minutes, and the fire department was called. The approximately two hundred fifty people on the eighth floor all escaped, but not before someone called up to the tenth to warn the executives, who escaped to the roof. But there was no phone and no alarm for the ninth floor workers, so their first warning of the fire was when smoke and flames came up through the Greene Street stairwell. Though certain YouTube trolls like to suggest arson was the cause of the fire--either arson by the owners to collect insurance money since they knew their shirtwaists were going out of style, or arson by union organizers trying to prove how bad conditions were--there is no evidence of arson in this case, and no-one seriously suspected it either then or now. It's worth noting that the fire started on the eighth floor while the Harris and Blanck were on the tenth. Not only that, but they had brought their children to work that day. It would be insane for them to start a conflagration that might kill themselves and their loved ones just to get insurance money. As for union organizers, why would they target the very people they were passionately trying to help? Since the cutters on the eighth floor were known to smoke cigarettes, even though it was against the rules, a stray spark or carelessly disposed cigarette is the likeliest cause of the fire. Unfortunately for the ninth floor workers, they did not have the best case scenario I drew above. For one thing, the factory was even more crowded than the plan for it shows. William L. Beers, a fire marshal interviewed after the fire, reported that there were actually 288 machines on the ninth floor (not 240), and 310 people there at the time of the fire. For another thing, the supervisors had a policy of locking the Washington Place exit door to prevent women from slipping out for unauthorized breaks or stealing shirtwaists or letting union organizers up to agitate. In the early moments of the fire, the supervisor who had the key to that door made his own escape without unlocking it, so that stairwell was unusable. The Greene Street stairwell was full of flames from the lower floor. So let's revisit the fire escape plan from before, this time with the added problems: The flames were coming from below, from the eighth floor, so some people took the counter-intuitive step of going up the Greene Street stairwell to the tenth floor, and thence escaping to the roof. NYU students in the neighboring building bridged the gap between the two roofs with ladders and many were saved by crawling across. That's how the tenth floor people evacuated the building. But for the ninth floor workers, that path of escape was blocked within three minutes, and then the Greene Street stairwell was entirely out of commission. Others went for the elevators. None of the sources I've read specify which elevators they took, but Pauline Newman (interview here) does mention that normally workers were barred from the passenger elevators, and used the freight elevators instead, so perhaps they tried to use them during the fire, too, out of habit. On the other hand, the freight elevators were right next to the burning stairwell, and human instinct is to run away from fire. Moreover, several sources I read specify that the elevators used during the fire couldn't hold a lot of people and had to make multiple trips, which sounds more like passenger elevators. So I'm imagining a woman in a burning building, running away from smoke and flames on the Green Street side of the building toward the stairwell on the Washington Place side. Finding the stairs locked, she'd then try the passenger elevators which were right there. I could be wrong, but based on my understanding of things at this moment, I've assumed they used the passenger elevators and drawn that escape route in orange. The elevator operators were heroic: Gaspar Mortillalo and Joseph Zito traveled up and down several times to get passengers, even though the panicking people crushed in so tightly that the doors wouldn't close. After the elevators went down, desperate people prised the elevator doors open and jumped into the shaft, or tried to climb down on the cable, but were pushed or fell. Some died falling many storeys onto the top of the car. When the heat of the fire warped the metal mechanisms of his elevator, Mortillalo had to stop his work. Zito had to stop when his car buckled from people falling on it. Many people tried to escape by the external fire escape. That was a shoddy thing tacked on the outside of the building to get around the building codes that required the factory to have three exits. The iron was not strong or well attached, and couldn't bear the weight of more than several people. It was, according to Fire Marshal William Beers, "Too small and too light, and the iron shutters on the outside of the building when opened would have obstructed the egress of the people passing between the stairway and the platform." In the heat of the fire, and under the weight of the escaping workers, the thing twisted free and dropped about twenty people to their deaths a hundred feet below. By now the conflagration was roaring through the sewing factory: there were shirtwaists, piles of fabric, wooden tables, sewing machine oil, and lint everywhere. Even the air was thick with lint and could catch fire. Outside, the fire brigade had arrived with ladders... ladders that only reached to the sixth floor. They also had nets to catch jumpers, but those there not meant to take the force of people falling from so high, and when multiple women jumped at once, the nets tore. For the majority of workers, there was now a grisly choice and only minutes to make it: stay and die in the fire, or jump out a window and die of the fall. And jump they did. In the smoke and terror, the windows were the natural place to run, and once there, what could they do? The falls were long and ended in heavy thuds on the sidewalk, or impalement on a metal fence. The first to jump was a man. Another man was seen chivalrously helping women climb up so they could jump. However, most jumpers--indeed, most victims--were women. The rain of bodies crushed the fire hoses and impeded the firefighters' work. Here's a harrowing eyewitness account. Though it was written many years after the event, you can tell the images are indelible in his memory: . . . the Asch Building at the corner of Washington Place and Greene Street was ablaze. When we arrived at the scene, the police had thrown up a cordon around the area and the firemen were helplessly fighting the blaze. The eighth, ninth, and tenth stories of the building were now an enormous roaring cornice of flames. The whole thing happened so quickly, it's hard to believe. Within twenty minutes it was all over but the clean-up and the mourning. Bodies were picked up off the sidewalk. Firefighters pushed their way into the building, forcing open doors that opened inward and were blocked from within by piles of burnt bodies. Charred lumps of once-human clay were carefully lowered from windows, with helpers standing inside the windows along the bodies' path to keep them from bumping and scraping on the walls on their way down. Policemen reported being shaken to recognize among the dead the same women they'd arrested the year before during the shirtwaist makers' strike. The emotional toll was so high that there needed to be constant shift changes as the men dealing with the dead couldn't bear it for more than an hour. The dead were brought to a makeshift morgue at the Charities Pier, and grieving family went there to try to identify people by jewelry, shoes, or the way their hair was braided. Many faces were beyond recognition, and the work of identifying people progressed partly by process of elimination (who was alive/identified already) and family reports of who was missing. Six victims were buried without names, and only the far more recent work of historian and genealogist Michael Hirsch gives them names, a century after their deaths. Of the 310 people William Beers reported being on the ninth floor at the time of the fire, either one hundred forty-five or one hundred forty-six, about 47%, died. (Most recent research now says 146, but when I looked for accurate breakdowns of how people died, I kept getting 145, perhaps because the breakdowns were based on older research). Twenty three were men; the rest were women. The one-person discrepancy between the sources was probably a woman, since men were better documented at the time. What was a woman more or less... except to her family? That rough breakdown is inexact; many women would have been crushed to death in the press against the closed doors, but as they burned eventually they were listed as fire deaths. Shocked grief was the first response, but outrage soon followed. A crowd of 400,000 watched the funeral procession, which was filled with mourners, protesters, unionizers, et cetera. Politicians who had previously been indifferent to the cause of Labor, or opposed it because of pressure from wealthy businessmen, now found they could ride the Labor wave to more votes and power. Two years after the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, a New York commission investigating factory conditions around the city exposed terrible truths, and this led to thirty new laws, covering topics like fire safety, child labor, maximum hours, and minimum wages. That trend continued. THE LAWS WE HAVE NOW The system of entirely private industry, unregulated or checked by public policy, did not continue. Regulations were passed so that even private business owners had to answer to the government for how they treated workers. Exactly what the striking workers had wanted and the business owners feared became a reality... a reality that I live in today, as an American worker. This is not an exhaustive list. Laws vary by jurisdiction, but these are the common ones we have today: EXPORTING THE PROBLEM While it's tempting to look at the history of labor laws in the US and say that we've improved since 1911, and that workplaces are safer, people less greedy, and the overall trajectory for the human race upward, that's only a portion of the picture. In the past few decades, something called "fast fashion" has taken root in the global economy. While fashion designers used to produce two to four collections a year (synched with the seasons), clothing retailers now produce 52 "collections" a year, completely changing their store inventory every week. This caters to shopaholics who always want to see something new. Instead of thinking "Oh, I'll go to Woolworth's for my clothes this year," people think "Oh, I'll go to Forever 21 today and see what's new." Fast fashion stores strive to be a destination, an experience, an addiction, but in order to do so, they must provide constant novelty. Why would anyone go to H&M every week if the clothes were the same every time? The impact of fast fashion is disastrous. Made super-cheap and on a time crunch, the clothes are not engineered to last. This contributes to people shopping more, because what they buy doesn't work for their bodies, doesn't stand up to laundering, or doesn't fit right. As for the environment: the waste of resources, the damage to ecosystems, and the damage to farmers is horrifying. And for the workers who make the clothes... the story is the same I've just told you above. When a fast fashion retailer like WalMart tells its manufacturing company that they want a t-shirt that will retail for $6.97, they have to underpay the people who grow the cotton, the people who make the jersey, the seamstresses who sew the shirt, et cetera. Obviously, it's impossible to make a shirt for that cost in the US, with our labor laws protecting workers. But overseas? Those workers have no protection. Emphasis on low cost and high profit in an environment of few or no worker rights leads to the same kind of disasters in the developing world as New York City saw in 1911: Bangladesh's Dhaka district has seen a disastrous garment factory fire and a building collapse, for instance, with depressingly similar accounts of employers locking employees inside and disregarding safety concerns. Of course, retailers will loudly proclaim that they do not work with those factories... and they are technically right: they work with middlemen who subcontract with those factories so that the retailers can pretend they have nothing to do with labor abuses. So America didn't solve its sweatshop problem, it exported it. IDEAS UNDERLAY EVERYTHING There are lots of ideas to deconstruct here. One is the common refrain nowadays, usually spoken by pro-business advocates who oppose pro-worker regulations, that "What's good for business is good for everybody", or "a rising tide lifts all boats". Yet we know that overworking and underpaying workers is "good for business"--that's why companies do it--and it's definitely not good for everybody. All creatures inherently strive to exist and thrive. And when they are threatened, they become selfish. That accounts for the behavior of people and companies, which are, after all, creations of people. The Triangle Waist Company wanted to exist and thrive, so it cut costs and policed its workers and locked them in to keep its goods safe. That makes sense. The workers wanted to exist and thrive, so they took bad jobs when those were their only options. And when they were barricaded in a burning building, they pushed and shoved and clawed their way out if they could. That makes sense. The logical next question is whose rights trump whose? How much protection do businesses get and how much the workers? Businesses, as useful and necessary as they are, are not people. They don't have souls or lives or families. So when the business' bottom line endangers worker lives, the workers' rights must take precedence. Of course businesses always promise that they'll self-regulate, that they'll police themselves and inspect their own factories for safety, et cetera, but when human rights and company profits clash, we see workplace abuses and disasters. I'm not trying to vilify all companies, truly, but even when there's no ill will from the company, safety measures can easily get neglected when times get tough. That's why we have labor laws! That's why we need them around the world. The most practical lessons I take from this: Beers, William L. Transcript of his testimony before the Factory Investigation Commission. State of New York, Preliminary Report of the Factory Investigating Commission, 1912, Vol. II (Albany: The Argus Company, Printers, 1912). Republished by permission by HISTORY MATTERS - The U.S. Survey Course on the Web: "No Way Out: Two New York City Firemen Testify about the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Fire." Accessed 9/8/2018: http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/57 "Final Six Victims Identified in 2011." Remembering the 1911 Triangle Factory Fire. Kheel Center for Labor- Management Documentation and Archives, Martin P. Catherwood Library, Cornell University. © 2018 Cornell University. Accessed 9/1/2018: Newman, Pauline. Interview by Joan Morrison. American Mosaic: The Immigrant Experience in the Words of Those Who Lived It, by Joan Morrison and Charlotte Fox Zabusky. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1980, 1993. Republished by permission by HISTORY MATTERS - The U.S. Survey Course on the Web: “Working for the Triangle Shirtwaist Company." Accessed 9/8/2018: "Plan of the Ninth Floor" (line drawing). Colored lines added by me. ILGWU. Leon Stein papers. 5780/087. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Martin P. Catherwood Library, Cornell University. Used by permission. “Shirtwaist Kings.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 2011. Accessed 9/3/2018: Sweeney, Deborah. “Fashion Moments – The Shirtwaist.” Genealogy Lady, 30 May 2015. Accessed 9/5/2018: https://genealogylady.net/2015/05/30/fashion-moments-the-shirtwaist/ "Victims List." Remembering the 1911 Triangle Factory Fire. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Martin P. Catherwood Library, Cornell University. © 2018 Cornell University. Accessed 9/1/2018: http://trianglefire.ilr.cornell.edu/victimsWitnesses/victimsList.html Waldman, Louis. Labor Lawyer. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1944; pp. 32-33. Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire: A chronicle of a tragic fire that occurred at New York City's Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in 1911. The American Experience: the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire 1911. Excerpt from "New York: A Documentary film," PBS, 1999. The Triangle Factory Fire Scandal (1979). A feature film. This YouTube video is screwy in its continuity, and the movie's cast is very small, which fails, I think to capture the size of the disaster. Triangle Shirt Waist Factory Fire: Lessons From The Ashes. Richard French Live. For thoughts on the global sweatshop economy today, watch the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire: The Race to the Bottom. Quilting, dressmaking, and history plied with the needle... Blogs I Read

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What is Dual-Band Wi-Fi? To provide the highest possible speed wireless connectivity for the widest range of devices, both new and old, Wi-Fi routers and Access Points often transmit and receive radio signals on two separate frequency bands. This capability, which can now be found in most advanced Wi-Fi equipment, is known as dual-band Wi-Fi. The frequencies of these bands are 2.4 and 5 GHz respectively. If your Wi-Fi access devices and your Wi-Fi access points (or wireless routers) both support dual-band Wi-Fi, but the latter are not equipped with Client Steering technology, you may still be able to improve the performance and reliability of your wireless network by manually selecting the band chosen by each of your access devices. For short distances with relatively few physical obstructions to the signal path (such as walls or ceilings), then the 5GHz band, since it allows for multiple channels to be bonded together, provides a faster connection and thereby offers more bandwidth to the user. The 5GHz band also has the advantage of being less susceptible to interference from non-Wi-Fi devices such as wireless phones, cameras, or microwave ovens – most of which operate across the 2.4GHz band. At longer distances however, especially where the signal must traverse multiple obstructions, and where interference from other devices is at a minimum, then the 2.4GHz band may ultimately offer a more reliable connection. In such cases, the easiest way to force connection at one band or another is to set the access points' SSIDs to separate identifiers for each band and to then configure each client device’s WLAN preferences to first attempt connection to the preferred band.802.11ac vs 802.11n? Which Wi-Fi technology should I use? With its higher capacity and speed (currently up to 1.75Gbps), 802.11ac is generally recommended for any new deployment where usage is typical of today’s modern multi-media web applications. Even in cases where lower speed is adequate for the time being, the current exploding demand for Wi-Fi bandwidth will almost certainly necessitate an upgrade in the not too distant future.However, faster Wi-Fi does not always translate to faster performance for users of the network. For example, if the applications and data being accessed are located at the other end of a 500Mbps pipe, then there is no benefit in connecting to that pipe at a rate any faster than 500Mbps. Similarly, if none of the critical applications require more than 2 or 3 Mbps, and the number of concurrent connections is less than 100, again there would be no discernable speed advantage to deploying 802.11ac. What is Client Steering? Band Steering? To maximize throughput and performance for the maximum number of wireless devices, without having to resort to manual band selection (see 802.11ac vs 802.11n? Which Wi-Fi technology should I use?), the more advanced dual-band Wi-Fi routers and Access Points are able to intelligently allocate bands based upon the capabilities of each client and its apparent signal strength. This capability is known as client steering.What is beamforming? Beamforming is a technology common to all 802.11ac access points which focuses radio coverage in the direction of their connected devices. Traditionally, Wi-Fi access points radiate their Wi-Fi signals in just one pre-defined pattern. Typically, this pattern is more or less spherical (or hemispherical for ceiling-mounted units), providing roughly equivalent signal strength in all directions. This works fairly well in situations where the access point can be located in the middle of a large unobstructed area with relatively few sources of competing interference. However, in most real-world situations, such a static beam pattern is inefficient and leads to inconsistent performance and connectivity across the full distribution of access devices. By using a phased array of multiple antennas and varying the signal phase of each so that amplitudes combine at the precise locations of connected devices, signal strength is increased for those devices, with a resulting improvement in connectivity and throughput. This capability is known as beamforming.How much signal attenuation (loss) should I expect from walls and floors? Signal attenuation will vary according to the material, thickness and construction of any barrier, as well as the band being used (2.4GHz or 5GHz), but the following provides a rough guide: - Dry wall: 2 – 4 dB - Brick wall: 6 – 10 dB - Glass partition: 8 – 12 dB - Cubicle wall (fabric): 18 – 30 dB - Concrete wall: 18 – 30 dB - Floor: 30 – 40 dB Will a wireless network allow us to install less network cabling in a building? Generally, no; We feel that it may be short-sighted not to install the minimum recommended amount of copper data wiring into every room in the building.How does wireless work? Basically, it's a radio signal between a transmitter and a receiver, which provides users access to the Internet and network resources. The Wireless LAN Card replaces the Ethernet cable, so you do not need to be plugged into a network socket. For wireless cards to work, users must be within the range of a Wireless Access Point. One of the main advantages of the wireless network is that it provides mobility, allowing movement around the campus while still connected to the network. Students can study together in groups where access to the network is usually unavailable. You will be able to carry out research, study, access the internet, check your mail & obtain your files using your own Laptop, PDA or Tablet anytime, anywhere.What is a Wireless site survey? A wireless site survey, sometimes called an RF site survey or wireless survey, is the process of planning and designing a wireless network, to provide a wireless solution that will deliver the required wireless coverage, data rates, network capacity, roaming capability and Quality of Service (QoS). The survey usually involves a site visit to test for RF interference, and to identify optimum installation locations for access points. This requires analysis of building floor plans, inspection of the facility, and use of site survey tools. Interviews with IT management and the end users of the wireless network are also important to determine the design parameters for the wireless network. As part of the wireless site survey, the effective range boundary is set, which defines the area over which signal levels needed support the intended application. This involves determining the minimum signal to noise ratio (SNR) needed to support performance requirements.Wireless site survey can also mean the walk-testing, auditing, analysis or diagnosis of an existing wireless network, particularly one which is not providing the level of service required. What are the types of wireless site surveys? There are three main types of wireless site surveys: passive, active, and predictive. During a passive survey, a site survey application passively listens to WLAN traffic to detect active access points, measure signal strength and noise level. However, the wireless adapter being used for a survey is not associated to any WLANs. For system design purposes, one or more temporary access points are deployed to identify and qualify access point locations. This used to be the most common method of pre-deployment wifi survey. During an active survey, the wireless adapter is associated with one or several access points to measure round-trip time, throughput rates, packet loss, and retransmissions. Active surveys are used to troubleshoot wifi networks or to verify performance post-deployment. During a predictive survey, a model of the RF environment is created using simulation tools. It is essential that the correct information on the environment is entered into the RF modellinging tool, including location and RF characteristics of barriers like walls or large objects. Therefore, temporary access points or signal sources can be used to gather information on propagation in the environment. Virtual access points are then placed on the floor plan to estimate expected coverage and adjust their number and location. The value of a predictive survey as a design tool versus a passive survey done with only a few access point is that modelleded interference can be taken into account in the design.Additionally, some survey applications allow the user to collect RF spectrum data using portable hardware spectrum analysers, which is beneficial in case of high RF interference from non-802.11 sources, such as microwave ovens or cordless phones. . What is a PTZ camera? PTZ stands for Pan, Tilt, Zoom. A PTZ camera can be remotely controlled allowing it to move up and down as well as zoom in on potentially important targets. You can also program a tour between pre-set points. In theory PTZ cameras sound great, they can cover large areas and even zoom in when more detail is required. There are 2 frequencies in use, 2.4GHz and 5.8GHz. In theory 5.8 GHz wireless transmission is supposed to suffer less interference than 2.4 GHz but that is changing as more and more devices switch to the higher frequency. The higher frequency also tends to be blocked more readily by solid objects such as walls. Whether you choose 2.4 or 5.8 GHz there is one thing which is unavoidable, the power limit imposed on unlicensed wireless devices in the UK. Keep this in mind if you ever watch a demonstration of wireless CCTV technology, was it made in the UK using unlicensed equipment or overseas where no such limitations exist?What is a NVR? A network video recorder (NVR) is a software program that records video in a digital format to a disk drive, USB flash drive, SD memory card or other mass storage device. An NVR contains no dedicated video capture hardware. However, the software is typically run on a dedicated device, usually with an embedded operating system. Alternatively, to help support increased functionality and serviceability, standard operating systems are used with standard processors and video management software. An NVR is typically deployed in an IP video surveillance system. Network video recorders are distinct from digital video recorders (DVR) as their input is from a network rather than a direct connection to a video capture card or tuner. Additional processing may be done at the NVR, such as further compression or tagging with meta data.How does motion detection work? Through the camera or software? Motion detection works through the software in the NVR system by recording video when pixels in the image change. Most Security NVR’s offer a sensitivity scale so the user can set the sensitivity of the motion detection.What's the difference between Hardware Compression and Software Compression? Hardware Compression: Both Capturing Video Signal and Compressing Video Signal are done by DSP chipset integrated on NVR Board. It doesn't need the computer's CPU to do this work. It's low cost of CPU and RAM resources. In this system the computer CPU's task focus on answering network request, streaming the video/audio to network and saving recorded data to local hard disk. Software Compression: The NVR Board only capture video signal but doesn't compress it, it is the computer CPU and RAM to do this compression work. It's high cost of CPU and RAM resources. In this system the computer CPU and RAM are often overloaded. It is easier to crash than hardware compression system.Why do I have a clear sharp picture during the day and it is out of focus at night? This is due to the depth of field changing as the light conditions change and can be easily overcome by following set procedures.Does the 'f' stop matter when choosing a lens? Yes, lenses are usually specified as having a minimum and maximum 'f' stop rating; the 'f' stop is a measure of how efficiently the lens allows light from the scene, to pass through the lens and onto the camera CCD sensor. The maximum aperture (when the lens is fully open), is the minimum 'f' stop number and the minimum aperture, (just before the lens completely closes) is the maximum 'f' stop number.ONVIF Open Network Video Interface Forum is a global and open industry forum with the goal of facilitating the development and use of a global open standard for the interface of physical IP-based security products – or, in other words, to create a standard for how IP products within video surveillance and other physical security areas can communicate with each other. ONVIF is an organization started in 2008 by Axis Communications, Bosch Security Systems and Sony. It was officially incorporated as a non-profit Delaware corporation on November 25, 2008. ONVIF membership is open to manufacturers, software developers, consultants, system integrators, end users and other interest groups that wish to participate in the activities of ONVIF. The ONVIF specification aims to achieve interoperability between network video products regardless of manufacturer.What camera housing should I use and at what IP Rating? Camera housings come in various shapes and sizes. With regard to the correct IP rating protection, this will range from dust and water ingress. This system is governed by a number of European and British standards.IP55 Protected against dust - limited ingress. Protection against low-pressure jets of water.IP65 Protection against low pressure jets of water from all directions - limited ingress permittedWhat is a ground loop? An AC current that can be produced in a cable. This is usually caused by parts of the system being fed from different electrical sources resulting in different earth potentials at each end. The result is interference on the signal, usually in the form of dark bands across the monitor and on occasion tearing in the top third of the image.How can I eliminate ground loop faults? This can be achieved in a number of ways, the easiest of which is the installation of a Ground Loop Isolation Transformer. This is best installed at the monitor or recording end of the system. What is access control? Directing who is admitted into your building or office, which areas they are allowed in and at what times defines the process of access control. Managed access control allows the user to keep their focus on their work, not their doors and alarms. Basic access control systems can be purchased and installed by a vendor, or self-installed, but are not supported by a service staff. With managed access control, a company assists you in running everything access control related at your property. A managed access control provider walks you through each step of the process and continues to work with you throughout the life of your system. In addition to the installation and maintenance of your system, managed access control provides programming assistance (activating and de-activating credentials, changing permission levels, hours, etc.) and monitors your doors and office space.What are key fobs? Key fobs are small, plastic devices individually programmed with your access privileges. It has a small hole to fit on a key ring. Treat your key fob like you would a regular key—because it is a kind of key!Will my key fob be okay going through airport security? Yes, your key fob can go through security and it won’t get deprogrammed. Do keep it with your other keys and personal items in the basket when you go through screening.How many people can i control? From one person to thousands of people. There is no limit, in terms of technology, to how many people, or how many doors you want to control.Who can access the secure information? Anyone who has access to your network with the correct level of authority.PC Controlled Access Control Systems There are many manufacturers of these systems, and a wide variety of ‘bolt on’ options. It’s critical to choose the right system or ‘platform’ as you will be stuck with it in the future. Once you have made the investment in the software, training, badge technology and hardware, it’s prohibitive, in terms of cost to switch to another manufacturer. The principle of these systems is that from a central location, you can truly control who goes in or out of any door, anywhere on the system, during what hours. There are a variety of alerts that can be enabled, such as if a door has been held open, or forced open, or if the emergency break glass has been broken. Typically, there is a reading device at each door, which accepts swipe cards, or more typically is a proximity reader. This device can ‘read’ the information on a badge or fob from 2 or 3 inches. There are other readers with a longer read range, that help people comply with the Disability Discrimination Act.What are the limitations of Access Control? It is often wrongly considered that Door Access Control will always provide full secure control of who is restricted and who is granted access through doors. A door can be held open for someone or it is sometimes impractical to control a very busy door that sees a lot of pedestrian traffic. Only the use of pedestrian turnstiles and barriers can physically limit the number of individuals who pass through at one time and can allow provision for accurate control/monitoring. Depending upon what is trying to be achieved, an Access Control system needs to be planned and given consideration.I only want to control some of my doors? What are my options? You have a variety of options. Firstly, you must decide how many doors you want to control initially, and how many you are likely to want to control in the future. You need to decide if you want to link a variety of sites together, so that a person can be given access rights to a variety of doors in a variety of properties - the ‘One Badge’ principle. What is Structured Cabling? Structured cabling system or structured wiring refers to all the cabling and components installed in a logical and organized way. It's designed to be relatively independent of the type of equipment that uses it. Structured cabling is the design and installation of a cabling systems that will support multiple hardware uses systems and be suitable for today’s needs and those of the future. With a correctly installed system your requirements of today and of tomorrow will be catered for and whatever hardware you choose to add will be supported.Can I use CAT 5 Cable in Power over Ethernet applications? Cat5e and Cat6 can both effectively run POE applications up to 90m. However due to power dissipation there is better performance and power efficiently with Cat6a cabling running POE devices if being incorporated into a new design.What is a patch cable? A patch cable is used at the cabinet end for linking the dedicated cabling port to the required equipment in the communications cabinet. For example, an outlet could be “patched” from the panel to a Data Switch, Telephone Switch, CCTV Switch, WIFI Switch Etc. The difference to standard cable is Patch cable is stranded for flexibility, whereas standard cable is solid copper.Fibre optic cabling – when is it better to use Fibre? Fibre cable carries greater Bandwidth and over longer distances. It is not limited by the 90/100m limit of copper cable and has distance potential of 40km in some cases. It also isn’t affected by noise or outside influences as are copper cables so is a perfect solution when linking cabinets through risers in a building. As a standard guide when linking separate cabinet’s fibre optic links should be used.Should CAT 6 replace CAT 5e? Industry predictions indicate that 80 to 90 percent of all new installations will be cabled with category 6. The fact that category 6 link and channel requirements are backward compatible to category 5e makes it very easy for customers to choose category 6 and supersede category 5e in their networks. Applications that worked over category 5e will work over category 6. Cat6A and above are also taking over specifications for new installations, especially in data centres and Audio Visual Installations.Cat5/Cat6 what’s the difference? The general difference between Cat5e cabling and Cat6 cabling is in the transmission performance, and extension of the available bandwidth from 100 MHz for category 5e to 250 MHz for category 6. This includes better insertion loss, near end crosstalk (NEXT), return loss, and equal level far end crosstalk (ELFEXT). These improvements provide a higher signal to noise ratio, allowing higher reliability for current applications and higher data rates for future applications.Do you repair fibre cables? Yes we can fault find to within 1.8 metres with our ODTR test equipment and repair your cable onsite with the Fusion Splicer.What's the difference between CAT 5e patch cable and CAT 5e crossover cable? The difference has to do with the wiring of the cable and the situation in which you will use the cable. On a CAT 5e patch cable, the wiring configuration is identical on both ends of the cable. On a CAT 5e crossover cable, the wiring of pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 are "crossed-over" to pins 3, 6, 1, and 2. CAT 5e crossover cables are used in situations where two devices have the same interface, for example, connecting a hub to a hub, or a switch to a switch, or even when patching a hub or switch into a wall plate.What's the longest (maximum length) CAT 5 patch or crossover cable I can use without signal loss? The maximum length (maximum certifiable length) for CAT 5 patch or crossover cables is 328 feet (100 meters). Beyond that, you run the risk of signal loss, attenuation and reduced data throughput.Can I join lengths of Cat5 using an RJ45 coupler? Yes. Joining two or more lengths of Cat5 cable using an RJ45 coupler will work just fine, but it should be considered a temporary solution to whatever connectivity issue required the use of it in the first place. The more "connection points" that you have in a cable, or in a network for that matter, provide additional points where signal loss can occur. If you must join Cat5 cable using a coupler, make sure to rectify the problem with a proper length cable as soon as possible to restore maximum performance to the device using it.What is the difference between CAT 6 and CAT 5e cable? Cat5e cable of good quality can run near or at gigabit speeds, it just cannot be "certified" for this use. By comparison, Cat6 is designed especially for gigabit use, and is certified to operate at said speed. It becomes a matter of whether you want to pay all that extra money, for little or no noticeable improvement in the performance of you network. Unless every single component in the network is gigabit rated, then you will never have a gigabit network, because your network will always run at the speed of your slowest device.

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What lies at the heart of all full of life concern is not a fire, not hot breath, not a spark of life. It is information, words, instructions, Richard Dawkins stated in 1986. Already one of the worlds foremost evolutionary biologists, he had caught the moving picture of a supplementary age. The cells of an organism are nodes in a in large quantities interwoven communications network, transmitting and receiving, coding and decoding. spread itself embodies an ongoing clash of information between organism and environment. If you want to comprehend life, Dawkins wrote, dont think just about vibrant, throb gels and oozes, think virtually guidance technology. We have become surrounded by counsel technology; our furniture includes iPods and plasma displays, and our skills tally up texting and Googling. But our aptitude to understand the role of instruction has been sorely taxed. TMI, we say. Stand back, however, and the taking into account does arrive back into focus. The rise of counsel theory aided and abetted a new view of life. The genetic codeno longer a mere metaphorwas bodily deciphered. Scientists spoke grandly of the biosphere: an entity composed of all the earths life-forms, teeming with information, replicating and evolving. And biologists, having absorbed the methods and vocabulary of communications science, went new to make their own contributions to the promise of opinion itself. Jacques Monod, the Parisian biologist who shared a Nobel Prize in browse this site (quizzes.chathamnc.org) 1965 for operating out the role of messenger RNA in the transfer of genetic information, proposed an analogy: just as the biosphere stands above the world of nonliving matter, hence an abstract kingdom rises above the biosphere. The denizens of this kingdom? Ideas. Ideas have retained some of the properties of organisms, he wrote. Like them, they tend to perpetuate their structure and to breed; they too can fuse, recombine, segregate their content; indeed they too can evolve, and in this progress selection must surely play in an important role. Ideas have spreading power, he notedinfectivity, as it wereand some more than others. An example of an infectious idea might be a religious ideology that gains sway more than a large organization of people. The American neurophysiologist Roger Sperry had put refer a same notion several years earlier, arguing that ideas are just as real as the neurons they inhabit. Ideas have power, he said: Ideas cause ideas and assist progress additional ideas. They interact taking into consideration each additional and behind other mental forces in the thesame brain, in neighboring brains, and thanks to global communication, in far and wide distant, foreign brains. And they with interact later the outdoor surroundings to fabricate in toto a burstwise benefits in development that is far afield beyond everything to hit the evolutionary scene yet. Monod added, I shall not hazard a theory of the selection of ideas. There was no need. Others were willing. Dawkins made his own jump from the expansion of genes to the expansion of ideas. For him the starring role belongs to the replicator, and it scarcely matters whether replicators were made of nucleic acid. His find is All vivaciousness evolves by the differential survival of replicating entities. Wherever there is life, there must be replicators. Perhaps on supplementary worlds replicators could arise in a silicon-based chemistryor in no chemistry at all. What would it plan for a replicator to exist without chemistry? I think that a extra kind of replicator has recently emerged on this completely planet, Dawkins proclaimed close the end of his first book, The greedy Gene, in 1976. It is staring us in the face. It is yet in its infancy, nevertheless free clumsily nearly in its olden soup, but already it is achieving evolutionary regulate at a rate that leaves the dated gene panting far and wide behind. That soup is human culture; the vector of transmission is language, and the spawning dome is the brain. For this bodiless replicator itself, Dawkins proposed a name. He called it the meme, and it became his most memorable invention, far more influential than his greedy genes or his sophisticated proselytizing adjoining religiosity. Memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation, he wrote. They compete taking into account one marginal for limited resources: brain get older or bandwidth. They compete most of all for attention. For example: Ideas. Whether an idea arises uniquely or reappears many times, it may proliferate in the meme pool or it may dwindle and vanish. The belief in God is an example Dawkins offersan ancient idea, replicating itself not just in words but in music and art. The belief that Earth orbits the Sun is no less a meme, competing afterward others for survival. (Truth may be a cooperative setting for a meme, but it is only one in the midst of many.) Tunes. This song has increase for centuries across several continents. Catchphrases. One text snippet, What hath God wrought? appeared prematurely and progress snappishly in more than one medium. Another, Read my lips, charted a strange passage through late 20th-century America. Survival of the fittest is a meme that, like extra memes, mutates wildly (survival of the fattest; survival of the sickest; survival of the fakest; survival of the twittest). Images. In Isaac Newtons lifetime, no more than a few thousand people had any idea what he looked like, even though he was one of Englands most well-known men. nevertheless now millions of people have quite a certain ideabased upon replicas of copies of rather in poor health painted portraits. Even more pervasive and indelible are the smile of Mona Lisa, The Scream of Edvard Munch and the silhouettes of various fictional extraterrestrials. These are memes, bustling a vigor of their own, independent of any living thing reality. This may not be what George Washington looked next then, a tour lead was overheard saying of the Gilbert Stuart portrait at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but this is what he looks as soon as now. Exactly. Memes emerge in brains and travel outward, establishing beachheads on paper and celluloid and silicon and anywhere else recommendation can go. They are not to be thought of as elementary particles but as organisms. The number three is not a meme; nor is the color blue, nor any simple thought, any more than a single nucleotide can be a gene. Memes are mysterious units, clear and memorableunits later staying power. Also, an point is not a meme. The hula hoop is not a meme; it is made of plastic, not of bits. following this species of toy spread worldwide in a mad epidemic in 1958, it was the product, the living thing manifestation, of a meme, or memes: the compulsion for hula hoops; the swaying, swinging, twirling skill set of hula-hooping. The hula hoop itself is a meme vehicle. So, for that matter, is each human hula hoopera strikingly functioning meme vehicle, in the prudence neatly explained by the philosopher Daniel Dennett: A wagon gone spoked wheels carries not only grain or freight from area to place; it carries the bright idea of a wagon taking into consideration spoked wheels from mind to mind. Hula hoopers did that for the hula hoops memesand in 1958 they found a new transmission vector, market television, sending its messages immeasurably faster and farther than any wagon. The touching image of the hula hooper seduced new minds by hundreds, and after that by thousands, and after that by millions. The meme is not the dancer but the dance. For most of our biological archives memes existed fleetingly; their main mode of transmission was the one called word of mouth. Lately, however, they have managed to adhere in strong substance: clay tablets, cave walls, paper sheets. They attain longevity through our pens and printing presses, magnetic tapes and optical disks. They expansion via spread recommended you read around towers and digital networks. Memes may be stories, recipes, skills, legends or fashions. We copy them, one person at a time. Alternatively, in Dawkins meme-centered perspective, they copy themselves. I give a positive response that, fixed idea the right conditions, replicators automatically band together to create systems, or machines, that carry them with reference to and conduct yourself to favor their continued replication, he wrote. This was not to suggest that memes are enliven actors; unaided that they are entities taking into account interests that can be furthered by natural selection. Their interests are not our interests. A meme, Dennett says, is an information-packet with attitude. when we talk of stroke for a principle or dying for an idea, we may be more literal than we know. Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor….Rhyme and rhythm back up people remember bits of text. Or: rhyme and rhythm encourage bits of text acquire remembered. Rhyme and rhythm are qualities that aid a memes survival, just as strength and enthusiasm aid an animals. Patterned language has an evolutionary advantage. Rhyme, rhythm and reasonfor reason, too, is a form of pattern. I was promised upon a time to have excuse for my rhyme; from that epoch unto this season, I expected nor rhyme nor reason. Like genes, memes have effects on the wide world over themselves. In some cases (the meme for making fire; for wearing clothes; for the resurrection of Jesus) the effects can be powerful indeed. As they promote their involve upon the world, memes consequently shape the conditions affecting their own chances of survival. The meme or memes comprising Morse code had strong distinct feedback effects. Some memes have evident further for their human hosts (Look past you leap, knowledge of CPR, belief in hand washing past cooking), but memetic talent and genetic ability are not the same. Memes can replicate considering impressive virulence while leaving behind swaths of collateral damagepatent medicines and psychic surgery, astrology and satanism, racist myths, superstitions and (a special case) computer viruses. In a way, these are the most interestingthe memes that proliferate to their hosts detriment, such as the idea that suicide bombers will locate their reward in heaven. Memes could travel wordlessly even before language was born. Plain mimicry is tolerable to replicate knowledgehow to chip an arrowhead or start a fire. in the course of animals, chimpanzees and gorillas are known to acquire behaviors by imitation. Some species of songbirds learn their songs, or at least song variants, after hearing them from next to birds (or, more recently, from ornithologists gone audio players). flora and fauna develop tune repertoires and song dialectsin short, they exhibit a birdsong culture that predates human culture by eons. These special cases notwithstanding, for most of human archives memes and language have later hand in glove. (Clichs are memes.) Language serves as cultures first catalyst. It supersedes mere imitation, spreading knowledge by elimination and encoding. Perhaps the analogy once disease was inevitable. back anyone understood all of epidemiology, its language was applied to species of information. An emotion can be infectious, a song catchy, a infatuation contagious. From see to look, contagious through the crowd / The siren runs, wrote the poet James Thomson in 1730. Lust, likewise, according to Milton: Eve, whose eye darted contagious fire. But abandoned in the extra millennium, in the become old of global electronic transmission, has the identification become second nature. Ours is the age of virality: viral education, viral marketing, viral e-mail and video and networking. Researchers studying the Internet itself as a mediumcrowdsourcing, combine attention, social networking and resource allocationemploy not on your own the Look At This [https://seropositiv.de] language but afterward the mathematical principles of epidemiology. One of the first to use the terms viral text and viral sentences seems to have been a reader of Dawkins named Stephen Walton of new York City, corresponding in 1981 next the cognitive scientist Douglas Hofstadter. Thinking logicallyperhaps in the mode of a computerWalton proposed easy self-replicating sentences along the lines of Say me! Copy me! and If you copy me, Ill take over you three wishes! Hofstadter, next a columnist for Scientific American, found the term viral text itself to be even catchier. Well, now, Waltons own viral text, as you can look here in the past your eyes, has managed to take control of the services of a extremely powerful hostan entire magazine and printing press and distribution service. It has leapt aboard and is noweven as you right of entry this viral sentencepropagating itself madly throughout the ideosphere! Hofstadter gaily declared himself mixed by the meme meme. One source of resistanceor at least uneasewas the shoving of us humans toward the wings. It was bad tolerable to say that a person is merely a genes exaggeration of making more genes. Now humans are to be considered as vehicles for the propagation of memes, too. No one likes to be called a puppet. Dennett summed going on the suffering this way: I dont know roughly you, but I am not initially attracted by the idea of my brain as a sort of dung accrual in which the larvae of extra peoples ideas renew themselves, since sending out copies of themselves in an informational diaspora…. Whos in charge, according to this visionwe or our memes? He answered his own ask by reminding us that, afterward it or not, we are seldom in charge of our own minds. He might have quoted Freud; instead he quoted Mozart (or suitably he thought): In the night taking into consideration I cannot sleep, thoughts crowd into my mind…. Whence and how accomplish they come? I get not know and I have nothing to attain in the manner of it. Later Dennett was informed that this well-known mention was not Mozarts after all. It had taken upon a simulation of its own; it was a fairly well-to-do meme. For anyone taken later than the idea of memes, the landscape was changing faster than Dawkins had imagined realistic in 1976, later than he wrote, The computers in which memes bring to life are human brains. By 1989, the era of the second edition of The selfish Gene, having become an gifted programmer himself, he had to correct that: It was obviously predictable that manufactured electronic computers, too, would eventually measure host to self-replicating patterns of information. instruction was passing from one computer to other when their owners pass floppy discs around, and he could see another phenomenon upon the near horizon: computers associated in networks. Many of them, he wrote, are literally wired occurring together in electronic mail exchange…. It is a absolute milieu for self-replicating programs to flourish. Indeed, the Internet was in its birth throes. Not deserted did it find the money for memes taking into account a nutrient-rich culture medium, it in addition to gave wings to the idea of memes. Meme itself speedily became an Internet buzzword. preparedness of memes fostered their spread. A notorious example of a meme that could not have emerged in pre-Internet culture was the phrase jumped the shark. Loopy self-reference characterized every phase of its existence. To jump the shark means to pass a pinnacle of vibes or popularity and begin an irreversible decline. The phrase was thought to have been used first in 1985 by a assistant professor student named Sean J. Connolly, in citation to an episode of the television series Happy Days in which the quality Fonzie (Henry Winkler), upon water skies, jumps over a shark. The lineage of the phrase requires a positive amount of version without which it could not have been initially understood. Perhaps for that reason, there is no recorded usage until 1997, following Connollys roommate, Jon Hein, registered the domain proclaim jumptheshark.com and created a web site devoted to its promotion. The web site soon featured a list of frequently asked questions: Q. Did jump the shark originate from this web site, or did you create the site to capitalize on the phrase? A. This site went in the works December 24, 1997, and gave birth to the phrase jump the shark. As the site continues to ensue in popularity, the term has become more commonplace. The site is the chicken, the egg and now a Catch-22. It progress to more normal media in the bordering year; Maureen Dowd devoted a column to explaining it in the additional York time in 2001; in 2002 the thesame newspapers On Language columnist, William Safire, called it the popular cultures phrase of the year; soon after that, people were using the phrase in speech and in print without self-consciousnessno insinuation marks or explanationand eventually, inevitably, various cultural observers asked, Has jump the shark jumped the shark? with any good meme, it spawned mutations. The jumping the shark admittance in Wikipedia advised in 2009, See also: jumping the couch; nuking the fridge. Is this science? In his 1983 column, Hofstadter proposed the obvious memetic label for such a discipline: memetics. The examination of memes has attracted researchers from fields as far and wide apart as computer science and microbiology. In bioinformatics, chain letters are an strive for of study. They are memes; they have evolutionary histories. The utterly try of a chain letter is replication; whatever else a chain letter may say, it embodies one message: Copy me. One student of chain-letter evolution, Daniel W. VanArsdale, listed many variants, in chain letters and even earlier texts: Make seven copies of it exactly as it is written (1902); Copy this in full and send to nine friends (1923); And if any man shall take away from the words of the collection of this prophecy, God shall undertake away his allowance out of the book of life (Revelation 22:19). Chain letters flourished in imitation of the help of a supplementary 19th-century technology: carbonic paper, sandwiched amongst sheets of writing paper in stacks. after that carbon paper made a symbiotic partnership later than substitute technology, the typewriter. Viral outbreaks of chain letters occurred all through the ahead of time 20th century. Two subsequent technologies, similar to their use became widespread, provided orders-of-magnitude boosts in chain-letter fecundity: photocopying (c. 1950) and e-mail (c. 1995). Inspired by a fortuitous conversation upon a hike in the Hong Kong mountains, suggestion scientists Charles H. Bennett from IBM in extra York and Ming Li and box Ma from Ontario, Canada, began an analysis of a set of chain letters collected during the photocopier era. They had 33, every variants of a single letter, like mutations in the form of misspellings, omissions and transposed words and phrases. These letters have passed from host to host, mutating and evolving, they reported in 2003. Like a gene, their average length is very nearly 2,000 characters. in the manner of a potent virus, the letter threatens to kill you and induces you to pass it upon to your friends and associatessome variation of this letter has probably reached millions of people. in the manner of an inheritable trait, it promises facilitate for you and the people you pass it upon to. past genomes, chain letters undergo natural selection and sometimes parts even acquire transferred together with coexisting species. Reaching over these glamorous metaphors, the three researchers set out to use the letters as a test bed for algorithms used in evolutionary biology. The algorithms were intended to agree to the genomes of various broadminded creatures and play in backward, by inference and deduction, to reconstruct their phylogenytheir evolutionary trees. If these mathematical methods worked as soon as genes, the scientists suggested, they should feat taking into consideration chain letters, too. In both cases the researchers were skillful to pronounce mutation rates and relatedness measures. Still, most of the elements of culture fiddle with and blur too easily to qualify as stable replicators. They are rarely as neatly answer as a sequence of DNA. Dawkins himself emphasized that he had never imagined founding anything following a extra science of memetics. A peer-reviewed Journal of Memetics came to cartoon in 1997published online, naturallyand then faded away after eight years partly spent in self-conscious debate exceeding status, mission and terminology. Even compared later genes, memes are hard to mathematize or even to clarify rigorously. thus the gene-meme analogy causes uneasiness and the genetics-memetics analogy even more. Genes at least have a grounding in inborn substance. Memes are abstract, intangible and unmeasurable. Genes replicate following near-perfect fidelity, and increase depends on that: some variation is essential, but mutations habit to be rare. Memes are seldom copied exactly; their boundaries are always fuzzy, and they mutate taking into account a wild adaptableness that would be fatal in biology. The term meme could be applied to a suspicious cornucopia of entities, from small to large. For Dennett, the first four notes of Beethovens Fifth Symphony (quoted above) were clearly a meme, along taking into account Homers Odyssey (or at least the idea of the Odyssey), the wheel, anti-Semitism and writing. Memes have not still found their Watson and Crick, said Dawkins; they even dearth their Mendel. Yet here they are. As the arc of recommendation flow bends toward ever greater connectivity, memes move ahead faster and move forward farther. Their presence is felt if not seen in herd behavior, bank runs, informational cascades and financial bubbles. Diets rise and fall in popularity, their very names becoming catchphrasesthe South beach Diet and the Atkins Diet, the Scarsdale Diet, the Cookie Diet and the Drinking Mans Diet all replicating according to a working just about which the science of nutrition has nothing to say. Medical practice, too, experiences surgical fads and iatro-epidemicsepidemics caused by fashions in treatmentlike the iatro-epidemic of childrens tonsillectomies that swept the united States and parts of Europe in the mid-20th century. Some untrue memes development afterward disingenuous assistance, afterward the apparently unkillable notion that Barack Obama was not born in Hawaii. And in cyberspace all other social network becomes a supplementary incubator of memes. Making the rounds of Facebook in the summer and fall of 2010 was a unchanging in extra garb: Sometimes I Just want to Copy Someone Else’s Status, Word for Word, and see If They Notice. Then it mutated again, and in January 2011 Twitter wise saying an outbreak of: One day I want to copy someone’s Tweet word for word and look if they notice. By after that one of the most popular of all Twitter hashtags (the hashtag swine a geneticor, rather, memeticmarker) was comprehensibly the word #Viral. In the competition for spread in our brains and in the culture, the enthusiastic combatants are the messages. The new, oblique, looping views of genes and memes have enriched us. They provide us paradoxes to write upon Mbius strips. The human world is made of stories, not people, writes the novelist David Mitchell. The people the stories use to say themselves are not to be blamed. Margaret Atwood writes: As taking into account all knowledge, bearing in mind you knew it, you couldnt imagine how it was that you hadnt known it before. taking into account stage magic, knowledge in the past you knew it took place since your unquestionably eyes, but you were looking elsewhere. Nearing death, John Updike reflected on A liveliness poured into wordsapparent waste intended to preserve the thing consumed. Fred Dretske, a philosopher of mind and knowledge, wrote in 1981: In the arrival there was information. The word came later. He further this explanation: The transition was achieved by the progress of organisms following the gift for selectively exploiting this guidance in order to survive and perpetuate their kind. Now we might add, thanks to Dawkins, that the transition was achieved by the opinion itself, long-lasting and perpetuating its kind and selectively exploiting organisms. Most of the biosphere cannot look the infosphere; it is invisible, a parallel universe humming with ghostly inhabitants. But they are not ghosts to usnot anymore. We humans, alone in the midst of the earths organic creatures, stimulate in both worlds at once. It is as though, having long coexisted once the unseen, we have begun to build the needed extrasensory perception. We are aware of the many species of information. We make known their types sardonically, as though to reassure ourselves that we understand: urban myths and zombie lies. We save them liven up in air-conditioned server farms. But we cannot own them. later than a jingle lingers in our ears, or a fad turns fashion upside down, or a hoax dominates the global chatter for months and vanishes as nimbly as it came, who is master and who is slave? If you have any concerns relating to where and how you can utilize recommended you read (tinyarrows.com), you can call us at the web site.

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Key Points Answered in this Article 1. What constitutes a spillover? 2. What are the contributing factors? 3. How does SARS-CoV-2 cause infection in human pneumocytes 4. What are the contributing factors to more severe disease. The United States prepares itself for the impact of COVID-19 that will likely be unprecedented. Although we can say that most people who become infected will have a milder disease, we cannot always predict who is at greater risk for a severe outcome. Particular attention goes to healthcare workers, lower-income communities, and people with advanced age and chronic health conditions. To those unfortunate ones who develop severe disease and require hospitalization, the US health system faces shortages of ventilators, personal protective equipment (PPE), bedspace and the even the healthcare workers to attend to them. Worst-case scenarios project hospitals to become flooded with those who have severe disease, particularly if cases were to occur with the same momentum as Italy or China. The hope is that through the social distancing measures recently implemented, we may be able to blunt the outbreak peak and prevent overburdening our healthcare system. The general audience has had access to many resources on COVID-19, such as the CDC, WHO, health blogs, video posts, and primary literature. As we face this outbreak, never before has the nation’s working knowledge of viral infections been greater. Since the outbreak was declared in December, we have had three months to learn more about this virus. This post will go one step further into understanding the contributing factors to a viral emergence and how this likely is not the last outbreak we will have in the coming years. What happens when a virus infects our bodies? What occurs inside that leads to a certain presentation of a disease state? Although COVID-19 is shrouded in mystery, it adheres to natural rules, many of which we still need to define. The mechanism by which a pathogen causes an infection is a clue to how it can be defeated. Viruses are Host and Cell-specific, until they cross species. Viruses are intracellular pathogens that are species- and cell-specific. This means that they are usually only capable of infecting one animal. Though there may be some fluidity to this concept. A virus can reside in an animal, whether it is actively infecting the animal or not. An animal virus is called a zoonotic virus, and the animal carrying it is a reservoir. In viral zoonotic spread, mammals (e.g. bats, primates, etc) are the most common reservoir followed by birds. When the conditions are right and several barriers are able to be breached, viruses can jump species, infecting other animals including humans. The process by which a virus jumps species and causes human infection is termed a spillover, an example of which is our current COVID-19 pandemic. Over 75% of new or emerging diseases originate from animals. From 1940 to 2004,Jones et al. (2008) determined that there were a total of 335 emerged diseases, 60% originating from animals. In most outbreaks, human behaviors shaped the conditions that made it possible. The principal factor relates to human encroachment into animal habitats. It is no coincidence that an acceleration of outbreak has occurred in the last sixty years (fourfold increase) in the setting of a massive population boom. Eerily, a Times article describing spillovers written in May 2017 was entitled The World is Not Ready for the Next Pandemic. “We cut the trees; we kill the animals or cage them and send them to markets. We disrupt ecosystems, and we shake viruses loose from their natural hosts. When that happens, they need a new host. Often, we are it.” David Quammen, author of Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Pandemic writing in New York Times. From the 1800’s, it took approximately 127 years for the population to increase by one billion, i.e. from one to two billion, an achievement that only took thirteen year intervals over the last several decades to achieve 7 billion. The population growth may be a driving force for disputes over settlements, habitat invasion, the use of exotic animals as a food source in the setting of growing food insecurity, or the trade and introduction of exotic animals to be used as products or pets. Certain features directly related to the virus, including mutations, deletions and recombination, enable the virus to survive and then flourish within an introduced animal. Adapted form Nat Rev Microbiol. 2017; 15(8): 502–510.doi: 10.1038/nrmicro.2017.45 Ingredients for a Spillover Event. Although outbreaks are infrequent events, current conditions may allow for an increased risk. For a virus to jump species from an animal reservoir to to human to human spread, usually several conditions would need to be met. First, animals infected with a virus need to be stable and have persistent shedding of virus, while not succumbing to it. Second, the animals would need to be in close proximity to humans. Next, an exchange of infected fluids, such as saliva, mucus, feces or blood, or the ingestion of an animal allows for a sufficient amount of virus to be introduced into the new animal by its usual infection route. While inside the human, some of the virus must possess a specific (enough) receptor mutation to allow for avidity (or connection) of the virus to a host receptor to gain entry into the specific cell. Finally, it must be able to propagate and infect other cells, without being identified and neutralized by the host’s innate immunity. Once it is able to survive and replicate within the human host, it must be able to be transmitted from one human to another. If any of these conditions are not sustained, a spillover does not occur. From the “Street Light Diagram,” yellow (level 2) is intended to connote caution. Red (level 3) indicates higher risk of pandemic potential, but certain viral and non-viral kinetics (e.g. population density, behaviors) prevent easy transmission. These factors influence the basic reproductive number (Ro), with an Ro of greater than one to allow for risk of exponential growth. The black (level 4) designation is related to epidemic spread. For a detailed list of RNA viruses that are recognized as causing infections in humans and their respective levels, refer to Woolhouse M. et al (list). Of particular concern are the 180 and counting (2 newly identified per year) RNA viruses capable of infecting humans, the majority (89%) of which are zoonotic. Examples of recent RNA viruses that have emerged include HIV, influenza virus, NIPAH virus and the Coronaviruses SARS, MERS and SARS-CoV-2. RNA viruses may more easily jump species, because of their tendency to mutate and adapt more easily when introduced. Not all RNA pathogens that cause infection in humans from animals are capable of being spread from human to humans. The majority of zoonotic RNA viruses are restricted to level 2 (approx 107 out of 180 species). An example of this would be avian influenza (H5, N2 or H9, N2), which does readily not cause human-to-human transmission. It may be related to the cell type infected, the sialic acid receptor, which is in the upper respiratory tract of poultry and lower in humans. This is fortunate because it has an estimated case fatality rate of 14-30%. Level 3 spread is seen only in about 73 species and spread is limited in 26 of these RNA viruses. The remainder (47 Level 4 RNA viruses) can spread human to human, causing epidemics.. Very rarely, a virus may already be able to adapt to a human and lead to an outbreak, termed “off-the-shelf” viruses. More likely, viruses eventually adapt from repeated animal to human transmission and evolve to be more transmissable between humans (Level 3 to Level 4). HIV probably crossed over from chimpanzees to humans in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1920’s, possibly from hunters who ate “bush meat” or had cuts and wounds contaminated with chimpanzee blood infected with Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a milder disease which does not alter the lifespan of the infected animal. The ability of HIV to cause a prolonged infection and be transmitted via various routes including bloodborne and sexually enabled it to become a level 4 pathogen and reach global transmission. SARS-CoV-2 emerged likely from bats with the possiblity of a secondary animal reservoir the pangolin. Bats are known carriers of coronaviruses and have been determined to be the likely reservoirs for SARS and MERS. Andersen et al. published a recent correspondence entitled the proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. The authors discussed several possible and contributing scenarios. On account of a 96% identical genome with a sampled bat coronavirus, bats were likely the original reservoir of SARS-CoV-2. However, SARS-CoV-2 may have evolved the protein stucture of the S-spike to allow for better binding to human ACE2 receptors from pangolin through natural selection. It is possible that a polybasic cleavage site (necessary for cell-cell fusion) may have evolved after being introduced into humans. From Spillover to Infection and Disease When COVID-19 emerged from an animal source and was capable of human to human transmission, humans had no prior memory of this virus. The immune system was caught off-guard with minimal defense. As a virus infects cells and increases its numbers in the host, the disease develops, a time when a person presents with signs and symptoms. Even in the setting of a novel virus, most of the way a disease manifests is due to the host inflammatory response and not because of a distinct genetics, appearances (e.g. receptor sites) and other characteristics of a virus. A virus is an obligatory intracellular pathogen, meaning it can only thrive within cells. A specific virus infects a specific type of cell. Hepatitis C virus infects hepatocytes; BK virus infects the transitional cells of the bladder; influenza virus and coronaviruses infect type I and type II pneumocytes in the respiratory tract; HIV infects CD4 lymphocytes and Langhans cells. The specificity of cell-type is not accidental and relates to a lock-and-key mechanism that a virus has with the cell it infects. Think of it as a parasite requiring the mechanics of the host to build more copies of itself. It enters the lining of the respiratory tract and attaches onto cells by means of a receptor interaction. Specifically, this is between an outer membrane receptor of the virus (Spike glycoprotein (S)) and a receptor(s) on the host cell. The virus then enters the cell by a process known as endocytosis. Upon entry, the virus hijacks the cell’s ability to read nucleic acids and produce proteins. COVID-19 is a positive strand RNA virus, with the viral RNA serving as a messenger RNA, leading to the production of hundreds of copies of virus RNA and proteins in a single cell (known as replication). These copies self-assemble and form multiple viruses, or progeny. This results in stress on the cell and cause changes in the cell membrane (membrane rearrangements), damages the infected cell, and go on to infect other cells. The extent to which a virus can infect cells in known as its pathogenicity. The speed at which a virus can spread through the body and infect other cells is known as the virus lifecycle. In the case of viruses, typically thousands of copies can be generated in a period of a day and lead to significant inflammatory changes in the body as a response to infection. ACE2 as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor The S receptor on the SARS-CoV-2 binds to a specific receptor that lines the cells of the lung tissue, as well as heart kidney, endothelium (the inner lining of blood vessels) and the intestines, known as the Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. This interaction is a required step for viral entry into the cell. Using a mouse model, an increased expression of the ACE2 receptor allowed for more viral entry into the cells and resulted in greater disease severity. Further studies will have to sort out the speculation that medications such as ACE inhibitors, Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), ibuprofen, or thiazolidinediones, all of which upregulate ACE2 receptors would potentially worsen COVID-19 disease. As for now, it does not appear to be the case. In the realm of vaccine and therapy options, it remains to be seen if blocking these receptors, for instance through antibody therapies, or providing a vaccine that triggers antibodies to the S receptor would alter pathogenesis of the virus. How does our immune system recognize these invaders? The evolution of the immune system occurred in the face of the continuous onslaught of microbes from the environment.The human immune system consists of innate and adaptive immunity. Innate Immune System The innate immune system is the first branch to respond to a viral assault. The components of the innate immune system include cells, such as natural killer cells, dendritic cells, monocytes and neutrophils, and complement proteins. The innate system senses changes that occur to the cell from viral products and cell damage (Pattern Recognition Receptors). This triggers the release of interferons (IFN), which promote inflammation (activate molecules known as cytokines) and reduce virus replication. The cytokines signal special cells, known as natural killer and dendritic cells, which destroy infected host cells to reduce the spread of the viral infection. The PRRs also trigger a process known as autophagy, in which an infected cell degrades itself to reduce (or the intent to reduce) further infection. The complement system consists of several proteins that form a complex, leading to cell breakdown (lysis). They can also signal certain cells such as activated macrophages to engulf infected cells, a process known as opsonization. Adaptive Immune System Adaptive immunity requires antibody production and cell-mediated mechanisms. Some natural antibodies may already be circulating for a given virus that can provide some initial immunity (known as IgM class antibodies). These are generated by antibody-producing white blood cells known as B cells. Otherwise specific cells known as Activated macrophages can engulf cells to produce antigen that express more pathogen-specific antibodies by B cells. The dominant antibody types in humans are IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE, each of which has specific roles in the immune response. The IgG is involved in the memory responses and form to neutralize a virus. Another white blood cell line, known as T lymphocytes (T cells), are produced in a small gland known as the thymus, which is inside the front part of the chest (behind the sternum and in between the lungs). These T cells provide cell-mediated immunity. Specific cells are produced that have receptors for a given pathogen and can neutralize them. From Infection to Disease When a person becomes infected with a virus or bacteria, there is a period of time at which s/he is symptomatic. The term that is used from onset of the infection and expression of the disease is known as incubation period. Various viral infections have different incubation periods. For instance, influenza’s incubation period is one to four days; COVID-19 may take one to fourteen days (average of 6) to show symptoms. During the prodromal phase, the person develops early symptoms of a viral disease. This could be the beginning of nasal congestion, sore throat, cough and tiredness. After a threshold is reached and enough cells become infected, a more sizable inflammatory response is generated. It is at this time, the person becomes symptomatic. During the invasive phase, the number of circulating virus intensifies, while the body responds to the infection with a maelstrom of inflammatory markers. The severity of the presentation correlates to the intensity of infection and the inflammatory response. Eventually, the inflammation subsides as neutralization of the virus as a result of the immune system. It is at this point that a person’s symptoms gradually resolve. Viral Disease: It’s all about inflammation In approximately 80-85% of those infected with SARS-CoV-2, only a mild disease is seen. In the remaining, a severe infection can lead to hypoxia (low oxygen levels) and need for mechanical ventilation. Owing to increased cellular damage, the subsequent inflammatory response may pose a threat on life. Risk Factors: In a study of clinical course and risk factors for mortality in COVID-19, risk factors were identified in almost half of the patients, with hypertension, diabetes and coronary heart disease. Smoking likely leads to a two-fold risk of more severe disease than a non-smoker. Advanced age is also a significant mortality risk. From the Wuhan epicenter data: 80+ years, 14.8%; 70-79 years, 8%; 60-69 years, 3.6%; 50-59 years 1.3%. This is likely on account of dysfunctional innate immunity, IL-2 signaling (not down-regulating) and T-cell mediated immune system with aging. What still remains unknown for COVID-19 infection is whether there exist genetic determinants (as seen in other viral diseases) that lead to a greater risk of a more severe infections. This could explain why we are hearing reports of severe disease in the “otherwise healthy” youth. Pathogenecity and Inflammation Contribute to Disease Manifestations. The extent to which someone presents with more severe disease relates to an interaction of amount of cell destruction from viral burden and host response. Below is a depiction of the contributing effects of Viral Pathogenicity and Host Inflammatory Response in disease. Increased viral infection burden is likely an important contributor to a greater immune response. It may be that type 2 pneumocyte infection in the lower respiratory tract may cause a greater cytokine release than infection in upper respiratory cells. The most common symptoms on admission were fever and cough, sometimes with sputum production and fatigue. Interestingly, the average time of presentation of respiratory complaints, such as shortness of breath, is approximately 7 days and need for invasive ventilation is 14.5 days (range 12-19 days), suggesting that the latter part of infection may be when greater inflammation develops “cytokine storm”. The most frequently observed complication was sepsis, followed by respiratory failure, ARDS, heart failure and septic shock. **The shortness of breath (“Dyspnea” in blue) started around day 7 in both groups** Laboratory Findings for Hospital Management There is a significant inflammatory response in more severe infections of COVID-19. Patients may develop ARDS, which is the leading cause of mortality. Several findings of the disease support a hypercytokine, hyperinflammatory response that contribute to a more severe presentation. These patients have a persistent fever, low white blood cell count, elevated cytokines (IL-2, IL-7, IL-6, GM-CSF, Interferon gamma and others), an elevated ferritin, and an elevated D-dimer. In an unprecedented move, the FDA has granted emergency authorization for the use of hydroxychloroquine along with azithromycin based on early clinical data that there may be a benefit of hydroxychloroquine in reducing viral load and inflammatory state. We await further progress in other therapeutics and vaccine trials, many of which are now underway. The COVID-19 outbreak was a spillover event of a novel coronavirus from an animal reservoir that led human to human transmission. Further research is required to understanding the way the infection can lead to various disease manifestations, including who may be susceptible to more severe presentations. Hydroxychloroquine along with azithromycin may provide some benefit in treating those with severe disease. As for now, we await for the results on the treatment and vaccination fronts. References are embedded in the Text Simon A, Hollander G, McMichael A. Evolution of the immune systen in humans from infancy to old age. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 22 Dec 2015. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan, G, Liu Y, Liu Z et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. The Lancet. Vol 395, issue 10229, p 1054-1062. 28 Mar 2020.

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To use all functions of this page, please activate cookies in your browser. With an accout for my.chemeurope.com you can always see everything at a glance – and you can configure your own website and individual newsletter. - My watch list - My saved searches - My saved topics - My newsletter The influenza vaccine or flu shot is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza virus. The annual flu kills an estimated 36,000 people in the United States. The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2007–2008 season consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses. Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become dominant. Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation usually works for only about a year. The World Health Organization coordinates the contents of the vaccine each year to contain the most likely strains of the virus to attack the next year. The flu vaccine is usually recommended for anyone in a high-risk group who would be likely to suffer complications from influenza. Additional recommended knowledge History of the flu vaccine Vaccines are used in both humans and nonhumans. Human vaccine is meant unless specifically identified as a veterinary or poultry or livestock vaccine. Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease that infects birds and mammals (primarily of the upper airways and lungs in mammals) and is caused by an RNA virus of the Orthomyxoviridae family (the influenza viruses). The most common and characteristic symptoms of influenza in humans are fever, pharyngitis (sore throat), myalgia (muscle pains), severe headache, coughing, and malaise (weakness and fatigue). Hippocrates first described the symptoms of influenza in 412 B.C. Since then, the virus has undergone mutations and shifts and has caused numerous pandemics. The first influenza pandemic was recorded in 1580, since this time, various methods have been employed to eradicate its cause. The etiological cause of influenza, the orthomyxoviridae was finally discovered by the Medical Research Council (MRC) of the United Kingdom in 1933. Known flu pandemics: Flu vaccine origins and development In the world wide Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, "Physicians tried everything they knew, everything they had ever heard of, from the ancient art of bleeding patients, to administering oxygen, to developing new vaccines and sera (chiefly against what we now call Hemophilus influenzae—a name derived from the fact that it was originally considered the etiological agent—and several types of pneumococci). Only one therapeutic measure, transfusing blood from recovered patients to new victims, showed any hint of success." "In 1931, viral growth in embryonated hens' eggs was discovered, and in the 1940s, the US military developed the first approved inactivated vaccines for influenza, which were used in the Second World War (Baker 2002, Hilleman 2000). Greater advances were made in vaccinology and immunology, and vaccines became safer and mass-produced. Today, thanks to the advances of molecular technology, we are on the verge of making influenza vaccines through the genetic manipulation of influenza genes (Couch 1997, Hilleman 2002)." Flu vaccine acceptance The current egg-based technology for producing influenza vaccine was created in the 1950s. "The WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network was established in 1952. The network comprises 4 WHO Collaborating Centres (WHO CCs) and 112 institutions in 83 countries, which are recognized by WHO as WHO National Influenza Centres (NICs). These NICs collect specimens in their country, perform primary virus isolation and preliminary antigenic characterization. They ship newly isolated strains to WHO CCs for high level antigenic and genetic analysis, the result of which forms the basis for WHO recommendations on the composition of influenza vaccine for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere each year." In the U.S. swine flu scare of 1976, President Gerald Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. The vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, but about 24% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled with much concern and doubt about flu vaccination. According to the CDC: "Influenza vaccination is the primary method for preventing influenza and its severe complications. [...] Vaccination is associated with reductions in influenza-related respiratory illness and physician visits among all age groups, hospitalization and death among persons at high risk, otitis media among children, and work absenteeism among adults. Although influenza vaccination levels increased substantially during the 1990s, further improvements in vaccine coverage levels are needed". Influenza research includes molecular virology, molecular evolution, pathogenesis, host immune responses, genomics, and epidemiology. These help in developing influenza countermeasures such as vaccines, therapies and diagnostic tools. Improved influenza countermeasures require basic research on how viruses enter cells, replicate, mutate, evolve into new strains and induce an immune response. The Influenza Genome Sequencing Project is creating a library of influenza sequences that will help us understand what makes one strain more lethal than another, what genetic determinants most affect immunogenicity, and how the virus evolves over time. Solutions to limitations in current vaccine methods are being researched. "Today, we have the capability to produce 300 million doses of trivalent vaccine per year - enough for current epidemics in the Western world, but insufficient for coping with a pandemic." Clinical trials of vaccines A vaccine is assessed in terms of the reduction of the risk of disease produced by vaccination, its efficacy. In contrast, in the field, the effectiveness of a vaccine is the practical reduction in risk for an individual when they are vaccinated under real-world conditions. Measuring efficacy of influenza vaccines is relatively simple, as the immune response produced by the vaccine can be assessed in animal models, or the amount of antibody produced in vaccinated people can be measured, or most rigorously, by immunising adult volunteers and then challenging with virulent influenza virus. In studies such as these, influenza vaccines showed high efficacy and produced a protective immune response. For ethical reasons, such challenge studies cannot be performed in the population most at risk from influenza - the elderly and young children. However, studies on the effectiveness of flu vaccines in the real world are uniquely difficult. The vaccine may not be matched to the virus in circulation; virus prevalence varies widely between years, and influenza is often confused with other flu-like illnesses. Nevertheless, multiple clinical trials of both live and inactivated influenza vaccines have been performed and their results pooled and analyzed in several recent meta-analyses. Studies on live vaccines have very limited data, but these preparations may be more effective than inactivated vaccines. The meta-analyses examined the efficacy and effectiveness of inactivated vaccines in adults, children, and the elderly. In adults, vaccines show high efficacy against the targeted strains, but low effectiveness overall, so the benefits of vaccination are small, with a one-quarter reduction in risk of contracting influenza but no effect on the rate of hospitalization. In children, vaccines again showed high efficacy, but low effectiveness in preventing "flu-like illness", in children under two the data are extremely limited, but vaccination appeared to confer no measurable benefit. In the elderly, vaccination does not reduce the frequency of influenza, but may reduce pneumonia, hospital admission and deaths from influenza or pneumonia. The measured effectiveness of the vaccine in the elderly varies depending on whether the population studied is in residential care homes, or in the community, with the vaccine appearing more effective in an institutional environment. This apparent effect may be due to selection bias or differences in diagnosis and surveillance. Overall, the benefit of influenza vaccination is clearest in the elderly, with vaccination in children of questionable benefit. Vaccination of adults is not predicted to produce significant improvements in public health. The apparent contradiction between vaccines with high efficacy, but low effectiveness, may reflect the difficulty in diagnosing influenza under clinical conditions and the large number of strains circulating in the population. Who should get it Yearly influenza vaccination should be routinely offered to patients at risk of complications of influenza: In the United States a person aged 50–64 is nearly ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than a younger person, and a person over age 65 is over ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than the 50–64 age group. Vaccination of those over age 65 reduces influenza-associated death by about 50%. However, it is unlikely that the vaccine completely explains the results since elderly people who get vaccinated are probably more healthy and health-conscious than those who do not. As mortality is high among infants who contract influenza, the household contacts and caregivers of infants should be vaccinated to reduce the risk of passing an influenza infection to the infant. Data from the years when Japan required annual flu vaccinations for school-aged children indicate that vaccinating children—the group most likely to catch and spread the disease—has a strikingly positive effect on reducing mortality among older people: one life saved for every 420 children who received the flu vaccine. This may be due to herd immunity or to direct causes, such as individual older people not being exposed to influenza. For example, retired grandparents often risk infection by caring for their sick grandchildren in households where the parents can't take time off work or are sick themselves. Side effects of the inactivated/dead flu vaccine injection are: These problems usually begin soon after the injection, and last 1-2 days. Side effects of the activated/live/LAIV flu nasal spray vaccine: Some children and adolescents 2-17 years of age have reported mild reactions, including: Some adults 18-49 years of age have reported: Flu vaccine virus selection Selecting viruses for the vaccine manufacturing process is very difficult. At the U.S.'s Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research's Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee's 101st meeting of February 16 2005, an extensive discussion and vote was held concerning the following year's flu vaccine virus selection, but began with a summary of the previous year: Response to unexpected difficulties Flu vaccine manufacturing Flu vaccines are available both as an injection of killed virus and as nasal spray of live attenuated influenza virus (LAIV) (sold as FluMist). Clinical trials suggest that the live virus may be more effective at preventing infection. FluMist previously was not approved in the United States for use in children younger than 5. Starting in 2006 it is available to healthy children aged 2 and older. Flu vaccine is usually grown in fertilized chicken eggs. Both types of flu vaccines are contraindicated for those with severe allergies to egg proteins and people with a history of Guillain-Barré syndrome. On October 5 2004, Chiron Corporation, a corporation contracted to deliver half of the expected flu vaccine for the United States and a significant portion to the UK, issued a press release that stated it was unable to dispense its stock for the 2004-2005 season, due to suspension of the corporation's license to produce the vaccine by the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention took swift action to enlist the help of other companies such as MedImmune and Sanofi pasteur to supply vaccine in high-risk populations in the United States. Most injection based flu vaccines intended for adults in the United States still contain Thiomersal, despite having been banned in many countries. There are several H5N1 vaccines for several of the avian H5N1 varieties, some for use in humans and some for use in poultry. H5N1 continually mutates, meaning vaccines based on current samples of avian H5N1 cannot be depended upon to work in the case of a future pandemic of H5N1. While there can be some cross-protection against related flu strains, the best protection would be from a vaccine specifically produced for any future pandemic flu virus strain. Dr. Daniel Lucey, co-director of the Biohazardous Threats and Emerging Diseases graduate program at Georgetown University has made this point, "There is no H5N1 pandemic so there can be no pandemic vaccine." However, "pre-pandemic vaccines" have been created; are being refined and tested; and do have some promise both in furthering research and preparedness for the next pandemic. Vaccine manufacturing companies are being encouraged to increase capacity so that if a pandemic vaccine is needed, facilities will be available for rapid production of large amounts of a vaccine specific to a new pandemic strain. Problems with H5N1 vaccine production include: Cell culture (cell-based) manufacturing technology can be applied to influenza vaccines as they are with most viral vaccines and thereby solve the problems associated with creating flu vaccines using chicken eggs as is currently done. The US government has purchased from Sanofi Pasteur and Chiron Corporation several million doses of vaccine meant to be used in case of an influenza pandemic of H5N1 avian influenza and is conducting clinical trials with these vaccines. Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh have had success with a genetically engineered vaccine that took only a month to make and completely protected chickens from the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus. According to the United States Department of Health & Human Services: Chiron Corporation is now recertified and under contract with the National Institutes of Health to produce 8,000-10,000 investigational doses of Avian Flu (H5N1) vaccine. MedImmune and Aventis Pasteur are under similar contracts. The United States government hopes to obtain enough vaccine in 2006 to treat 4 million people. However, it is unclear whether this vaccine would be effective against a hypothetical mutated strain that would be easily transmitted through human populations, and the shelflife of stockpiled doses has yet to be determined. The New England Journal of Medicine reported on March 30, 2006 on one of dozens of vaccine studies currently being conducted. The Treanor et al. study was on vaccine produced from the human isolate (A/Vietnam/1203/2004 H5N1) of a virulent clade 1 influenza A (H5N1) virus with the use of a plasmid rescue system, with only the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes expressed and administered without adjuvant. "The rest of the genes were derived from an avirulent egg-adapted influenza A/PR/8/34 strain. The hemagglutinin gene was further modified to replace six basic amino acids associated with high pathogenicity in birds at the cleavage site between hemagglutinin 1 and hemagglutinin 2. Immunogenicity was assessed by microneutralization and hemagglutination-inhibition assays with the use of the vaccine virus, although a subgroup of samples were tested with the use of the wild-type influenza A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (H5N1) virus." The results of this study combined with others scheduled to be completed by Spring 2007 is hoped will provide a highly immunogenic vaccine that is cross-protective against heterologous influenza strains. On August 18, 2006. the World Health Organization changed the H5N1 strains recommended for candidate vaccines for the first time since 2004. "The WHO's new prototype strains, prepared by reverse genetics, include three new H5N1 subclades. The hemagglutinin sequences of most of the H5N1 avian influenza viruses circulating in the past few years fall into two genetic groups, or clades. Clade 1 includes human and bird isolates from Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia and bird isolates from Laos and Malaysia. Clade 2 viruses were first identified in bird isolates from China, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea before spreading westward to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa. The clade 2 viruses have been primarily responsible for human H5N1 infections that have occurred during late 2005 and 2006, according to WHO. Genetic analysis has identified six subclades of clade 2, three of which have a distinct geographic distribution and have been implicated in human infections: On the basis of the three subclades, the WHO is offering companies and other groups that are interested in pandemic vaccine development these three new prototype strains: [...] Until now, researchers have been working on prepandemic vaccines for H5N1 viruses in clade 1. In March, the first clinical trial of a U.S. vaccine for H5N1 showed modest results. In May, French researchers showed somewhat better results in a clinical trial of an H5N1 vaccine that included an adjuvant. Vaccine experts aren't sure if a vaccine effective against known H5N1 viral strains would be effective against future strains. Although the new viruses will now be available for vaccine research, WHO said clinical trials using the clade 1 viruses should continue as an essential step in pandemic preparedness, because the trials yield useful information on priming, cross-reactivity, and cross-protection by vaccine viruses from different clades and subclades." As of November 2006, the United States Department of Health and Human Services still had enough H5N1 pre-pandemic vaccine to treat about 3 million people (5.9 million full-potency doses) in spite of 0.2 million doses used for research and 1.4 million doses that have begun to lose potency (from the original 7.5 million full-potency doses purchased from Sanofi Pasteur and Chiron Corp.). The expected shelf life of seasonal flu vaccine is about a year so the fact that most of the H5N1 pre-pandemic stockpile is still good after about 2 years is considered encouraging. 2003–2004 season (Northern Hemisphere) The production of flu vaccine requires a lead time of about six months before the season. It is possible that by flu season a strain becomes common for which the vaccine does not provide protection. In the 2003–2004 season the vaccine was produced to protect against A/Panama, A/New Caledonia, and B/Hong Kong. A new strain, A/Fujian, was discovered after production of the vaccine started and vaccination gave only partial protection against this strain. Nature magazine reported that the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project, using phylogenetic analysis of 156 H3N2 genomes, "explains the appearance, during the 2003–2004 season, of the 'Fujian/411/2002'-like strain, for which the existing vaccine had limited effectiveness" as due to an epidemiologically significant reassortment. "Through a reassortment event, a minor clade provided the haemagglutinin gene that later became part of the dominant strain after the 2002–2003 season. Two of our samples, A/New York/269/2003 (H3N2) and A/New York/32/2003 (H3N2), show that this minor clade continued to circulate in the 2003–2004 season, when most other isolates were reassortants." According to the CDC: During September 28, 2003–May 22, 2004, WHO and NREVSS collaborating laboratories in the United States tested 130,577 respiratory specimens for influenza viruses; 24,649 (18.9%) were positive. Of these, 24,393 (99.0%) were influenza A viruses, and 249 (1.0%) were influenza B viruses. Among the influenza A viruses, 7,191 (29.5%) were subtyped; 7,189 (99.9%) were influenza A (H3N2) viruses, and two (0.1%) were influenza A (H1) viruses. The proportion of specimens testing positive for influenza first increased to >10% during the week ending October 25, 2003 (week 43), peaked at 35.2% during the week ending November 29 (week 48), and declined to <10% during the week ending January 17, 2004 (week 2). The peak percentage of specimens testing positive for influenza during the previous four seasons had ranged from 23% to 31% and peaked during late December to late February. As of June 15, 2004, CDC had antigenically characterized 1,024 influenza viruses collected by U.S. laboratories since October 1, 2003: 949 influenza A (H3N2) viruses, three influenza A (H1) viruses, one influenza A (H7N2) virus, and 71 influenza B viruses. Of the 949 influenza A (H3N2) isolates characterized, 106 (11.2%) were similar antigenically to the vaccine strain A/Panama/2007/99 (H3N2), and 843 (88.8%) were similar to the drift variant, A/Fujian/411/2002 (H3N2). Of the three A (H1) isolates that were characterized, two were H1N1 viruses, and one was an H1N2 virus. The hemagglutinin proteins of the influenza A (H1) viruses were similar antigenically to the hemagglutinin of the vaccine strain A/New Caledonia/20/99. Of the 71 influenza B isolates that were characterized, 66 (93%) belonged to the B/Yamagata/16/88 lineage and were similar antigenically to B/Sichuan/379/99, and five (7%) belonged to the B/Victoria/2/87 lineage and were similar antigenically to the corresponding vaccine strain B/Hong Kong/330/2001. In December 2003, one confirmed case of avian influenza A (H9N2) virus infection was reported in a child aged 5 years in Hong Kong. The child had fever, cough, and nasal discharge in late November, was hospitalized for 2 days, and fully recovered. The source of this child's H9N2 infection is unknown. During January–March 2004, a total of 34 confirmed human cases of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection were reported in Vietnam and Thailand. The cases were associated with severe respiratory illness requiring hospitalization and a case-fatality proportion of 68% (Vietnam: 22 cases, 15 deaths; Thailand: 12 cases, eight deaths). A substantial proportion of the cases were among children and young adults (i.e., persons aged 5–24 years). These cases were associated with widespread outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza among domestic poultry. During March 2004, health authorities in Canada reported two confirmed cases of avian influenza A (H7N3) virus infection in poultry workers who were involved in culling of poultry during outbreaks of highly pathogenic H7N3 on farms in the Fraser River Valley, British Columbia. One patient had unilateral conjunctivitis and nasal discharge, and the other had unilateral conjunctivitis and headache. Both illnesses resolved without hospitalization. During the 2003–2004 influenza season, a case of avian influenza A (H7N2) virus infection was detected in an adult male from New York, who was hospitalized for upper and lower respiratory tract illness in November 2003. Influenza A (H7N2) virus was isolated from a respiratory specimen from the patient, whose acute symptoms resolved. The source of this person's infection is unknown. 2004 season (Southern Hemisphere) The composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2004 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization was: 2004–2005 season (Northern Hemisphere) According to the CDC: 2005 season (Southern Hemisphere) The composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2005 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization was: 2005–2006 season (Northern Hemisphere) The vaccines produced for the 2005–2006 season use: In people in the U.S., overall flu and pneumonia deaths were below those of a typical flu season with 84% Influenzavirus A and the rest Influenzavirus B. Of the patients who had Type A viruses, 80% had viruses identical or similar to the A bugs in the vaccine. 70% of the people testing positive for a B virus had Type B Victoria, a version not found in the vaccine. "During the 2005–06 season, influenza A (H3N2) viruses predominated overall, but late in the season influenza B viruses were more frequently isolated than influenza A viruses. Influenza A (H1N1) viruses circulated at low levels throughout the season. Nationally, activity was low from October through early January, increased during February, and peaked in early March. Peak activity was less intense, but activity remained elevated for a longer period of time this season compared to the previous three seasons. The longer period of elevated activity may be due in part to regional differences in the timing of peak activity and intensity of influenza B activity later in the season." 2006 season (Southern Hemisphere) The composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2006 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization was: 2006–2007 season (Northern Hemisphere) The 2006–2007 influenza vaccine composition recommended by the World Health Organization on February 15, 2006 and the U.S. FDA's Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee (VRBPAC) on February 17, 2006 use: 2007 season (Southern Hemisphere) The composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2007 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization on September 20, 2006 was: 2007-2008 season (Northern Hemisphere) The composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2007–2008 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization on February 14, 2007 was: 2008 season (Southern Hemisphere) The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2008 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization on September 17-19, 2007 was: Flu vaccine for nonhumans "Vaccination in the veterinary world pursues four goals: (i) protection from clinical disease, (ii) protection from infection with virulent virus, (iii) protection from virus excretion, and (iv) serological differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (so-called DIVA principle). In the field of influenza vaccination, neither commercially available nor experimentally tested vaccines have been shown so far to fulfil all of these requirements." Horses with horse flu can run a fever, have a dry hacking cough, have a runny nose, and become depressed and reluctant to eat or drink for several days but usually recover in 2 to 3 weeks. "Vaccination schedules generally require a primary course of 2 doses, 3–6 weeks apart, followed by boosters at 6–12 month intervals. It is generally recognised that in many cases such schedules may not maintain protective levels of antibody and more frequent administration is advised in high-risk situations." Poultry vaccines for bird flu are made on the cheap and are not filtered and purified like human vaccines to remove bits of bacteria or other viruses. They usually contain whole virus, not just hemagglutin as in most human flu vaccines. Purification to standards needed for humans is far more expensive than the original creation of the unpurified vaccine from eggs. There is no market for veterinary vaccines that are that expensive. Another difference between human and poultry vaccines is that poultry vaccines are adjuvated with mineral oil, which induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. "Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85 percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99 percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens are smaller and you only need to protect them for six weeks, because that's how long they live till you eat them,' said Dr. John J. Treanor, a vaccine expert at the University of Rochester. Human seasonal flu vaccines contain about 45 micrograms of antigen, while an experimental A(H5N1) vaccine contains 180. Chicken vaccines may contain less than 1 microgram. 'You have to be careful about extrapolating data from poultry to humans,' warned Dr. David E. Swayne, director of the agriculture department's Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory. 'Birds are more closely related to dinosaurs.'" Researchers, led by Nicholas Savill of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, used mathematical models to simulate the spread of H5N1 and concluded that "at least 95 per cent of birds need to be protected to prevent the virus spreading silently. In practice, it is difficult to protect more than 90 per cent of a flock; protection levels achieved by a vaccine are usually much lower than this." Swine influenza virus (SIV) vaccines are extensively used in the swine industry in Europe and North America. Most swine flu vaccine manufacturers include an H1N1 and an H3N2 SIV strains. Swine influenza has become a greater problem in recent decades. Evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the problem when the virus strains match enough to have significant cross-protection and custom (autogenous) vaccines made from the specific viruses isolated are created and used in the more difficult cases. SIV vaccine manufacture Novartis paints this picture: "A strain of swine influenza virus (SIV) called H3N2, first identified in the US in 1998, has brought exasperating production losses to swine producers. Abortion storms are a common sign. Sows go off feed for two or three days and run a fever up to 106° F. Mortality in a naïve herd can run as high as 15%." Sources and notes |This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Influenza_vaccine". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia.|

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What is Shekhinah? The Shekhinah (שכינה, šekīnah, Shekina(h)) is the English transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning “dwelling” or “settling” and denotes the dwelling or settling of the divine presence of God. This term does not occur in the Bible, and is from rabbinic literature. The word shekhinah is not present in the Bible, and is first encountered in the rabbinic literature. The Semitic root means “to settle, inhabit, or dwell”. The root word is often used to refer to birds’ nesting and nests (“Every fowl dwells near its kind and man near his equal.”) and can also mean “neighbor” (“If two Tobiahs appeared, one of whom was a neighbour and the other a scholar, the scholar is to be given precedence.”) The word for the Tabernacle, mishkan, is a derivative of the same root and is used in the sense of dwelling-place in the Bible, e.g. Psalms 132:5 (“till I find a place for the LORD, a dwelling for the Mighty One of Jacob.”) and Numbers 24:5 (“How beautiful are your tents, Jacob, your dwelling places, Israel!” where the word for “your dwelling places” is mishkenotecha). In classic Jewish thought, the shekhinah refers to a dwelling or settling in a special sense, a dwelling or settling of divine presence, to the effect that, while in proximity to the shekhinah, the connection to God is more readily perceivable. The concept is similar to that in the Gospel of Matthew 18:20, “Where two or three are gathered together in my name there am I in their midst. “Some Christian theologians have connected the concept of shekhinah to the Greek term parousia, “presence” or “arrival,” which is used in the New Testament in a similar way for “divine presence“. The shekhinah represents the feminine attributes of the presence of God, shekhinah being a feminine word in Hebrew, based especially on readings of the Talmud. Main Article: Sakina and Itmi’nan (Serenity and Peacefulness) The shekhinah is referred to as manifest in the Tabernacle and the Temple in Jerusalem throughout rabbinic literature. It is also reported as being present in the acts of public prayer. In the Mishna the noun is used twice: once by Rabbi Hananiah ben Teradion (c. 135 CE): ‘If two sit together and the words between them are of the Torah, then the shekhinah is in their midst’; and Rabbi Halafta ben Dosa: ‘If ten men sit together and occupy themselves with the Law, the shekhinah rests among them. ‘So too in the Talmud Sanhedrin 39a, we read: “Whenever ten are gathered for prayer, there the Shekhinah rests”; it also connotes righteous judgment (“when three sit as judges, the Shekhinah is with them.” Talmud tractate Berachot 6a), and personal need (“The Shekhinah dwells over the headside of the sick man’s bed.” Talmud tractate Shabbat 12b; “Wheresoever they were exiled, the Shekhinah went with them.” Talmud tractate Megillah 29a). In particular, the shekhinah is a holy fire that resides within the home of a married couple. The shekhinah is the highest of six types of holy fire. When a married couple is worthy of this manifestation, all other types of fire are consumed by it. There is no occurrence of the word in pre-rabbinic literature such as the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is only afterwards in the targums and rabbinic literature that the Hebrew term shekhinah, or Aramaic equivalent shekinta, is found, and then becomes extremely common. McNamara considers that the absence might lead to the conclusion that the term only originated after the destruction of the temple in 70 CE, but notes 2 Maccabees 14:35 “a temple for your habitation”, where the Greek text suggests a possible parallel understanding, and where σκηνώση skēnōsē “a tent-building”, a variation on an early loan word from Phoenician (Ancient Greek: ἡ σκηνή skēnē “tent”), is deliberately used to represent the original Hebrew or Aramaic term. The shekhinah is associated with the transformational spirit of God regarded as the source of prophecy: After that thou shalt come to the hill of God, where is the garrison of the Philistines; and it shall come to pass, when thou art come thither to the city, that thou shalt meet a band of prophets coming down from the high place with a psaltery, and a timbrel, and a pipe, and a harp, before them; and they will be prophesying. And the spirit of the LORD will come mightily upon thee, and thou shalt prophesy with them, and shalt be turned into another man.— 1 Samuel 10:5–6 The prophets made numerous references to visions of the presence of God, particularly in the context of the Tabernacle or Temple, with figures such as thrones or robes filling the Sanctuary, which have traditionally been attributed to the presence of the shekhinah. Isaiah wrote “I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne high and lifted up, and his train filled the Temple” (Isaiah 6:1). Jeremiah implored “Do not dishonor the throne of your glory” (Jeremiah 14:21) and referred to “Thy throne of glory, on high from the beginning, Thy place of our sanctuary” (Jeremiah 17:12). The Book of Ezekiel speaks of “the glory of the God of Israel was there [in the Sanctuary], according to the vision that I saw in the plain” (Ezekiel 8:4). In the Targum the addition of the noun term shekhinah paraphases Hebrew verb phrases such as Exodus 34:9 “let the Lord go among us” (a verbal expression of presence) which Targum paraphrases with God’s “shekhinah” (a noun form). In the post-temple era usage of the term shekhinah may provide a solution to the problem of God being omnipresent and thus not dwelling in any one place. The Talmud also says that “the Shekhinah rests on man neither through gloom, nor through sloth, nor through frivolity, nor through levity, nor through talk, nor through idle chatter, but only through a matter of joy in connection with a precept, as it is said, But now bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass, when the minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon him (II Kings 3:15)”. (Tractate Shabbat 30b) The 17th blessing of the daily Amidah prayer said in Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform services is “[Blessed are You, God,] who returns His Presence (shekhinato) to Zion” (הַמַּחֲזִיר שְׁכִינָתוֹ לְצִיּוֹן) as can be seen in any siddur (Jewish daily prayer book). Liberal Jewish prayer-book for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur (Machzor Ruach Chadashah) contains a creative prayer based on Avinu Malkeinu, in which the feminine noun shekhinah is used in the interests of gender neutrality. The concept of Holy Spirit in Judaism The concept of shekhinah is also associated with the concept of the Holy Spirit in Judaism (ruach ha-kodesh), as can be seen in the Yiddish song: Vel ikh, shkhine tsu dir kumen “Will I, Shekhinah, to you come”. The theme of the shekhinah as the Sabbath Bride recurs in the writings and songs of 16th century Kabbalist, Isaac Luria. The Asader Bishvachin song, written in Aramaic by Luria (his name appears as an acrostic of each line) and sung at the evening meal of Shabbat is an example of this. The song appears in particular in many siddurs in the section following Friday night prayers and in some Shabbat song books: Let us invite the Shechinah with a newly-laid table and with a well-lit menorah that casts light on all heads. Three preceding days to the right, three succeeding days to the left, and amid them the Sabbath bride with adornments she goes, vessels and robes May the Shechinah become a crown through the six loaves on each side through the doubled-six may our table be bound with the profound Temple services A paragraph in the Zohar starts: “One must prepare a comfortable seat with several cushions and embroidered covers, from all that is found in the house, like one who prepares a canopy for a bride. For the Shabbat is a queen and a bride. This is why the masters of the Mishna used to go out on the eve of Shabbat to receive her on the road, and used to say: ‘Come, O bride, come, O bride!’ And one must sing and rejoice at the table in her honor … one must receive the Lady with many lighted candles, many enjoyments, beautiful clothes, and a house embellished with many fine appointments …” The tradition of the shekhinah as the Shabbat Bride, the Shabbat Kallah, continues to this day. As feminine aspect Kabbalah associates the shekhinah with the female. According to Gershom Scholem, “The introduction of this idea was one of the most important and lasting innovations of Kabbalism. …no other element of Kabbalism won such a degree of popular approval.” The “feminine Jewish divine presence, the Shekhinah, distinguishes Kabbalistic literature from earlier Jewish literature.” “In the imagery of the Kabbalah the shekhinah is the most overtly female sefirah, the last of the ten sefirot, referred to imaginatively as ‘the daughter of God’. … The harmonious relationship between the female shekhinah and the six sefirot which precede her causes the world itself to be sustained by the flow of divine energy. She is like the moon reflecting the divine light into the world.” Nativity and life of Moses The Zohar, a foundation book of kabbalah, presents the shekhinah as playing an essential role in the conception and birth of Moses.Later during the Exodus on the “third new moon” in the desert, “Shekhinah revealed Herself and rested upon him before the eyes of all.” The Tenth Sefirah In Kabbalah, the Shekhinah is the tenth sefirah, and the source of life for humans on earth below the sefirotic realm. Shekhinah is sometimes seen as a divine winged being, dwelling with the people of Israel and sharing in their struggles. Moses is the only human considered to have risen beyond Shekhinah into the sefirotic realm, reaching the level of Tiferet, or the bridegroom of the shekhinah. Merged with the Ruach Hakodesh (Holy Spirit) The Shekhinah, as understood by Judaism, is directly merged into the related Jewish concept of the Ruach HaKodesh to create a common theology which becomes in Christianity the presence or indwelling of the Holy Spirit in the believer, drawing parallels to the presence of God in Solomon’s Temple. As a result of the merged Christian understanding, “Shekhinah” is occasionally used as a secondary Hebrew name for the concept of the Holy Spirit, but not often in mainstream denominations. Where references are made to the Holy Spirit as manifestations of the glory of the Lord associated with his presence, Christians find numerous occurrences in the New Testament in both literal (as in Luke 2:9 which refers to the “glory of the Lord” shining on the shepherds at Jesus’ birth), as well as spiritual forms (as in John 17:22, where Jesus speaks to God of giving the “glory” that God gave to him to the people). In accord with Judaism’s understanding of the Ruach Hakodesh(and the Shekhinah), the Christian understanding of the Holy Spirit is linked to prophecy: “For no prophecy ever came by the will of man: but men spake from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit.” In the Quran Sakīnah (سكينة) signifies the “presence or peace of God“. As “support and reassurance” it was “sent by God into the hearts” of Muslims and Muhammad, according to John Esposito. A modern translator of the Quran, N. J. Dawood, states that “tranquility” is the English word for the Arabic meaning of sakīnah, yet it could be “an echo of the Hebrew shekeenah (the Holy Presence).” Another scholar states that the Arabic Sakīnah derives from the Hebrew/Aramaic shekhinah. In the Quran, the Sakīnah is mentioned six times, in surat al-Baqara, at-Tawba and al-Fath. Their prophet said to them: “The sign of his kingship is that the Ark will come to you in which there is tranquility from your Lord and a relic from the family of Moses and the family of Aaron, borne by the angels. In this is a sign for you if you are true believers. [Quran2:248 (Translated by Tarif Khalidi)] Sakīnah means “tranquility”, “peace”. “calm”, from the Arabic root sakana: “to be quiet”, “to abate”, “to dwell”. In Islam, Sakīnah “designates a special peace, the “Peace of God”. Although related to Hebrew shekhinah, the spiritual state is not an “indwelling of the Divine Presence” The ordinary Arabic use of the word’s root is “the sense of abiding or dwelling in a place”. A story in Tafsir and Isra’iliyyat literature relates how Ibrahim and Isma’il, when looking for the spot to build the Kaaba found sakīnah. Newby writes that it was like a breeze “with a face that could talk”, saying “build over me.” “Associated with piety and moments of divine inspiration, sakinah in Islamic mysticism signifies an interior spiritual illumination.” Comments regarding Sakina Al-Qurtubi mentions in his exegesis, in explanation of the above-mentioned verse :24, that according to Wahb ibn Munabbih, sakinah is a spirit from God that speaks, and, in the case of the Israelites, where people disagreed on some issue, this spirit came to clarify the situation, and used to be a cause of victory for them in wars. According to Ali, “Sakinah is a sweet breeze/wind, whose face is like the face of a human”. Mujahid mentions that “when Sakinah glanced at an enemy, they were defeated”, and ibn Atiyyah mentions about the Ark of the Covenant (at-Tabut), to which the sakina was associated, that souls found therein peace, warmth, companionship and strength. According to Sunni Islam, when Muhammad was persecuted in Mecca, the time came for him to emigrate to Medina. Seeking to be hidden from the Meccans who were looking for him, he took temporary refuge with his companion, Abu Bakr, in a cave. In the work by anthropologist Raphael Patai entitled The Hebrew Goddess, the author argues that the term shekhinah refers to a goddess by comparing and contrasting scriptural and medieval Jewish Kabbalistic source materials. Patai draws a historic distinction between the shekhinah and the Matronit. In his book Patai also discusses the Hebrew goddesses Asherah and Anat-Yahu. - The Quran mentions the sakina, or tranquility, referring to God’s blessing of solace and succour upon both the Children of Israel and Muhammad. - Shekhinah, often in plural, is also present in some gnostic writings written in Aramaic, such as the writings of the Manichaeans and the Mandaeans, as well as others. In these writings, shekinas are described as hidden aspects of God, somewhat resembling the Amahrāspandan of the Zoroastrians. - McNamara, Martin (2010). McNamara, Martin (ed.). Targum and Testament Revisited: Aramaic Paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible: A Light on the New Testament (2nd ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-80286275-4. Whereas the verb shakan and terms from the root škn occur in the Hebrew Scriptures, and while the term shekhinah/shekhinta is extremely common in rabbinic literature and the targums, no occurrence of it is attested in pre-rabbinic literature. - S. G. F. Brandon, ed., Dictionary of Comparative Religion (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1970), p. 573: “Shekhinah“. - Dan, Joseph (2006). Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19530034-5. The term “shekhinah” is not found in the Bible, and it was formulated in talmudic literature from the biblical verb designating the residence (shkn) of God in the temple in Jerusalem and among the Jewish people. “Shekhinah” is used in rabbinic literature as one of the many abstract titles or references to God. - AlHaTorah Concordance: שָׁכַן - Numbers 23:9 - Bava Kamma 92b - Exodus 25:8 - Exodus 3:22, Ketubot 85b - Numbers 24:5 - Psalms 132:5 - Unterman, Alan, Rivka G. Horwitz, Joseph Dan, & Sharon Faye Koren (2007). “Shekhinah.” In M. Berenbaum & F. Skolnik (Eds.), Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd ed., Vol. 18, pp. 440–444). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. “SHEKHINAH… or Divine Presence, refers most often in rabbinic literature to the numinous immanence of God in the world. The Shekhinah is God viewed in spatio-temporal terms as a presence, particularly in a this-worldly context: when He sanctifies a place, an object, an individual, or a whole people – a revelation of the holy in the midst of the profane.” “In origin Shekhinah was used to refer to a divine manifestation, particularly to indicate God’s presence at a given place.” “The Shekhinah, however, although grammatically feminine, remains male or at the very least androgynous in early rabbinic literature.” - Ginsburgh, Yitzchak (1999). The Mystery of Marriage. Gal Einai. ISBN 965-7146-00-3. - Eisenberg, Ronald L. The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions. The Jewish Publication Society, 2004. ISBN 0-8276-0760-1 - For example: Isaiah 6:1; Jeremiah 14:21; Jeremiah 17:12; Ezekiel 8:4 - Pirkei Avot 3:6, 3:3 - Talmud Sanhedrin 39a - Tractate Shabbat 30b - Paul V.M. Flesher, Bruce D. Chilton The Targums: A Critical Introduction 900421769X 2011 – Page 45 “The first comprises the use of the term “Shekhinah” (…..) which is usually used to speak of God’s presence in Israel’s worship. The Hebrew text of Exodus 34:9, for instance, has Moses pray, “let the Lord go among us” which Targum …” - Carol A. Dray Studies on Translation and Interpretation in the Targum to … 9004146989 2006 – Page 153 “The use of the term Shekhinah, as has been noted previously,61 appears to provide a solution to the problem of God being omnipresent and thus unable to dwell in any one place. This is not the only occasion in TJ Kings when the Targumist …” - Rabbis Drs. Andrew Goldstein & Charles H Middleburgh, ed. (2003). Machzor Ruach Chadashah (in English and Hebrew). Liberal Judaism. p. 137. - Ruth Rubin Voices of a people: the story of Yiddish folksong p234 - The Family Zemiros (Second, Fifth Impression ed.). USA: Mesorah Publications, Ltd. 1987. p. 38. ISBN 0-89906-182-6. - Gershom G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism(Jerusalem: Schocken 1941, 3d rev’d ed: reprint 1961), p. 229 (quote). - Tzahi Weiss, “The Worship of the Shekhinah in Early Kabbalah” (Academic 2015), p. 1 (quote), cf. pp. 5–8. [See “External Links” below for text of article]. - Alan Unterman, Dictionary of Jewish Lore and Legend (London: Thames and Hudson 1991), p. 181. Cf. p. 175 re sefirot. The 10th sefirot is Malkuth ‘kingdom’ or Shekhinah. - Zohar Shemot, 11a - Zohar. The Book of Enlightenment, translation and introduction by Daniel Chanan Matt (New York: Paulist Prss 1983), pp. 99-101, quote at 101; notes to text at pp. 235–238, 311. Text: standard edition, vol. 2, pp. 11a–b. - Cf. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941, 1961), pp. 199–200, 226–227. - Green, Arthur (2003). Guide to the Zohar. Stanford University Press. pp. 51–53. - Neal DeRoo, John Panteleimon Manoussakis, Phenomenology and Eschatology: Not Yet in the Now By, Ashgate, 2009, p. 27. - General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh-Day Adventists, page found 2010-09-14. - Esposito, John L. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 274. ISBN 9780199757268. “Sakinah The presence or peace of God. As mentioned in the Quran (48:4) and elsewhere, it was sent by God into the hearts of believers and upon His messenger, Muhammad, as support and reassurance. Associated with piety and moments of divine inspiration, sakinah in Islamic mysticism signifies an interior spiritual illumination.” - The Koran (Penguin 1956, 4th rev’d ed. 1976), translated by Dawood, p. 275, note 2 (quote). - Newby, Gordon (2013). A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Oneworld Publications. p. 189. ISBN 9781780744773. “Arabic from Hebrew/ Aramaic: spirit of God” “In another sense, also in the Qur’ân, it refers to the spirit of God. This meaning is found in tafsı̂r and isrâ’ı̂liyyât literature, as, for example, when Ibrâhı̂m and Ismâ’ı̂l are looking for the place to build the Ka’bah, the sakı̂nah circles around the right spot, saying, “Build over me; build over me.” It is supposed to be like a wind, but with a face that can talk.” - 2/248 9/26, 9/40, 48/4, 48/18, 48/26. - Glassé, Cyril (1989). The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Harper & Row. p. 343. ISBN 9780060631239. - Watt, William Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Clarendon Press. p. 151. Muhammad and Abu Bakr hid in a cave south of Mecca for a day or two during Hegira - Patai, Raphael (1967). The Hebrew Goddess. ISBN 0-8143-2271-9. - Jonas, Hans, The Gnostic Religion, 1958, p. 98. - Davidson, Gustav. A Dictionary of Angels, Including the Fallen Angels. New York, NY, USA. 1967. The Free Press, p. 272. “Shekinah”. - Jewish Encyclopedia (1906). - “Who Is Shechinah and What Does She Want From My Life?”, Chabad. Adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Quadriceps Muscle Contusion Definition/Description[edit | edit source] Charley horse/cork thigh/dead leg. A quadriceps contusion is a traumatic blow, a deep bruise to the anterior lateral or medial aspect of the thigh. If examination confirms an area of swelling and tenderness with (terrible) pain on passive stretch and active contraction, the diagnosis is a Quadriceps contusion with resultant hematoma. The contusion is the result of an external force that can damage the muscle but can’t eliminate its function completely. Quadriceps contusions can lead to two serious complications: Compartment Syndrome and myositis ossificans. A contusion is the most common acute thigh injury in contact sport such as football, rugby and basketball. Contusions are caused by external forces like a direct blow from an opponent's knee. Thus, muscle contusions are classified as acute direct muscle injuries .The most frequently injured muscles are the exposed rectus femoris and the intermediate vastus, lying next to the bone, with limited space for movement when exposed to a direct blunt blow. Localized bleeding may increase tissue pressure and tissue damage. The bleeding can be intramuscular or intermuscular. The intramuscular hematoma is more painful and restrictive of range of motion than the intermuscular hematoma. Clinical Relevant Anatomy[edit | edit source] The Quadriceps femoris is a hip flexor and a knee extensor. It’s located in the anterior compartment of the thigh. This muscle is composed of 4 subcomponents: Epidemiology/Etiology[edit | edit source] Quadriceps contusions are mainly common by contact sports like rugby, football, basket, kick boxing . A systematic review resulted in a frequency from 10% to 40% of all football injuries were categorized as contusion, strains or sprains. The injury is caused by a sudden force to the quadriceps muscle causing significant muscle damage. This force is usual due to another player (in sports), a sport attribute or a misplaced fall on a severe object. Risk factors[edit | edit source] - Contact sports and sports that require quick starts, i.e. running races and other track events. - Warm up and cool down habits. - Off season/preseason/season training habits. - Poor muscle conditioning. - Playing position. - Level of competition. - Protective equipment use. - Playing experience. - Injury history, especially to the thigh, hip and/or knee. - Medical history of any bleeding disorder. - Poor nutrition. - Smoking history. Clinical Presentation[edit | edit source] A massive blunt force mostly to the anterior or lateral thigh causes rupture to the muscle fibers. In the beginning there are negligible symptoms, but after 24 hours this will lead to hematoma formation within the muscle causing: pain, swelling, stifness and impairment of functional quadriceps excursion. Pathophysiology[edit | edit source] The injury consists of a well-defined sequence of events involving microscopic rupture and damage to muscle cells, macroscopic defects in muscle bellies, infiltrative bleeding, and inflammation. The repair of the tissue can be thought of as a race between remodeling and scar formation. Several physiological responses may occur after a deep thigh contusion including: • Broken blood vessels resulting in bleeding (hematoma) into the injured area • Crushed muscle tissue resulting in hip and knee dysfunction If there is major untreated and/or unresolved bleeding deep in the muscle tissue, a serious condition known as myositis ossificans can occur. Contusion injury can lead to either diffuse or circumscribed bleeding that displaces or compresses muscle fibres causing pain and loss of motion. It happens that muscle fibres are torn off by the impact, but typically muscle fibres are not torn by longitudinal distraction. Therefore, contusions are not necessarily accompanied by a structural damage of muscle tissue. For this reason athletes, even with more severe contusions, can often continue playing for a long time, whereas even a smaller indirect structural injury forces the player often to stop at once. Classification[edit | edit source] Next to muscle strains is traumatic muscle contusions the most frequent type of quadriceps injury in sports. A direct external forceful blow to the quadriceps causing significant muscle damage is the usual mechanism of this injury. In comparison to strains, contusions will cause rupture to the muscle fibers at or directly adjacent to the area of impact. This typically leads to hematoma formation within the muscle causing pain and loss of motion. The extent of pain and loss of movement will be dependent on the amount of fore and the impact of the force at the time of trauma. Quadriceps contusions are graded mild, moderate or severe between 12 and 24 hours. A mild contusion has more than 90 degrees of knee flexion; moderate between 45 and 90 degrees of knee flexion and severe less than 45 grades of knee flexion. There are three grades in contusions: |Pain||Active knee flexion||Gait||Description||Average loss of activity| |Moderate||45 - 90 degree||Antalgic|| |Severe||< 45 degree||Severely antalgic|| ||> 60 days| Diagnostic Procedures[edit | edit source] The diagnosis is made by questioning an accurate history from the patient and completing a physical examination. Physical examination[edit | edit source] - Palpation along the injured muscle: to localize the pain and exact site of muscle damage and also to determine if there is any associated injury. The palpation test involved systematic digital probing from the lateral border of the vastus lateralis to the medial side of the thigh with the patient in long sitting, after which the physiotherapist subjectively noted, then recorded, the muscles injured and the area of injury (distal third, middle third or proximal third of the thigh). - Muscle firmness testing was performed with fingertip palpation, with the muscle firmness at the site of the injury compared with the firmness of the same site on the uninjured leg, and rated on an 11-point scale from -5 (comparatively decreased muscle firmness) to +5 (comparatively increased muscle firmness). A zero rating was applied if the muscle firmness of the injury site was similar to the muscle firmness of the non-injured thigh - Circumference measures were taken at the suprapatellar border, and at 10 and 20 centimetres proximal to this site on both thighs, using a purpose-made device which was designed to ensure that the distances above the suprapatellar border were constant for all subjects. The bottom of the Velcro strap was positioned in line with the suprapatellar border and the tape measures applied such that they were just in contact with the skin surface of the thigh.Measurements were recorded to the nearest millimetre - Passive knee range of motion testing was performed with the subject in prone, with the hip in neutral, and the foot and distal third of the shank over the edge of the plinth to enable positioning of the Baseline digital inclinometer Prior to performing a joint angle measure, the tester passively flexed both knees three times until the available end of range was reached as determined by the first onset of pain on the injured leg, and restriction on the non-injured leg.This was done as a control for any preconditioning effect. The inclinometer was set to zero on the horizontal surface of the plinth, and placed on the distal end of the tibia to measure joint angle as the tester flexed the knee Subsequently, the difference in flexion range between knees and the relative percentage of knee range retained were determined. - The brush-swipe and tap tests were performed with the patient in long sitting. In the first of these, the examiner was required to stroke the medial side of the patella, proximally towards the hip joint, two or three times followed by a stroke down the lateral side of the patella. A positive test was registered when a visible wave of fluid was evident on the medial side of the knee joint and below the patella border .The tap test was performed by applying a slight tap or pressure over the patella. A positive test was present when a large amount of intracapsular swelling produced a floating patella so that, on tapping, a downward movement of the patella could be felt by the tester. - Strength testing of the quadriceps: that contains resisting knee extension and hip flexion, compared to the uninjured side. This will help in assessing severity of injury. - Measurement of knee flexion is used as a prognostic indicator in quadriceps contusions. Based on this, thigh contusions can be graded into 3 groups that are based on the severity of injury: Outcome Measures[edit | edit source] The ‘Lower Extremity Functional Scale’ is used to evaluate the functionality for a wide range of lower limb conditions to know whether the person is having any difficulty with certain activities. Imaging[edit | edit source] The best techniques for measuring the soft tissue damage and for complications caused by the initial injury are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and diagnostic ultrasound. Both have been highly sensitive to oedema and haemorrhage. These methods are expensive but can speed up the healing process by detecting the severity quick. Ultrasound can be used to identify a localized hematoma formation caused from a contusion and provide real-time imaging for needle aspiration. If there is concern for bony involvement, radiographs will evaluate for bony injury. Subsequently, radiographs are useful in identifying heterotopic bone formation, known as myositis ossificans (MO), which is a delayed complication of severe muscle contusions. Magnetic resonance imaging[edit | edit source] MRI provides excellent lesion detection and localisation. The images are anatomical and clearly understood by healthcare professionals and patients alike. Depending on the magnet used, even the largest of athletes can be imaged without difficulty. However, MRI is a scarce resource, expensive, time-consuming, uncomfortable and acquires static images. A 32-year-old male professional footballer with a deep surface thigh haematoma. (a) Coronal and (b) axial short tau inversion–recovery MRI of the anterior thigh demonstrating a large haematoma deep to the vastus intermedius muscle (arrowheads) adjacent to the femoral cortex (F). Note the laceration into the muscle (arrow) and the layering of blood products on the axial image (curved arrow). The player was imaged 2 weeks after the original injury and had completed two full games in the interval between the injury and the MRI scan. MRI appearances of evolving muscle haematoma[edit | edit source] |Stage||Blood product||T1 Signal intensity||T2 Signal intensity| |Hyperacute (<4 h)||Intracellular oxyhaemoglobin||Intermediate||Bright| |Acute (4 - 6 h)||Extracellular oxyhaemoglobin||Intermediate||Dark| |Early subactute (6-72 h)||Intracellular methaemoglobin||Bright||Dark| |Late subacute ( 72h - 4 weeks)||Extracellular methaemoglobin||Bright||Bright| |Chronic ( >4 weeks)||Haemosiderin||Dark||Dark| Ultrasound[edit | edit source] On ultrasound, a contusion is seen as an ill-defined area of hyperechogenicity within the muscle that crosses fascial boundaries . In the hyperacute situation, the injured muscle initially appears swollen and may be isoechoic with adjacent unaffected muscle.In the first 24–48 h, the haematoma will appear as an irregularly outlined muscle laceration separated by hypoechoic fluid with marked increased reflectivity in the surrounding muscle . During this period, the haematoma may solidify and become hyperechoic to the surrounding muscle. After 48–72 h, the haematoma develops into a clearly defined hypoechoic fluid collection with an echogenic margin. This echogenic margin gradually enlarges and “fills in” the haematoma in a centripetal fashion. If the haematoma is causing intense pain and/or exerts local mass effect on adjacent neurovascular structures, or is placing the limb at risk of compartment syndrome, then evacuation of the clot may be necessary. This is usually performed under ultrasound guidance 10–14 days after the initial injury , A 26-year-old male professional footballer with thigh haematoma. (a) Axial sonogram of the anterolateral thigh 2 days following a direct blow to the lateral side. Note the echogenic torn muscle tissue (arrow). (b) Axial sonogram taken 2 weeks later showing filling in of the haematoma. Medical Management[edit | edit source] NSAIDs can be useful short term for decreasing pain, but their long-term effect on muscle healing is not known . Long-term use of NSAIDs for contusions is usually not necessary and is discouraged. However, NSAIDs have been promoted for prevention of myositis ossificans after severe quadriceps contusions. Evidence for this use is inferred from studies showing a decrease in heterotopic bone formation after total hip replacement in those patients given indomethacin for at least 7 days. Similar to quadriceps muscle strains, corticosteroids are not recommended in the treatment of contusion injuries. After three to four weeks, if the patient still moves with pain and isn’t able to perform a painless, full range of motion, radiographic imaging should be performed. This is to detect whether myositis ossificans is present. Myositis ossificans results in lasting pain and limited knee flexion. Surgical excision is then recommended. An MRI should also be considered to check for the presence of intramuscular hematoma or seroma. An MRI can also determine osteomyelitis of the femur. In that case, the solution is a resection of the infected bone and antibiotics. Physical Therapy Management[edit | edit source] - For patients with a quadriceps muscle contusion, there are several treatments from which a physical therapist can choose. The first option is cryokinetics. It is a revalidation technique that consists out of ice application followed by progressive, active exercises. Once the affected thigh is getting numbed, you can begin with passively stretch the leg. A second aspect of the treatment program can be soft tissue massage around the periphery of the contusion. This leads to a better fluid resolution. A third option is electrotherapy in order to reduce the pain. Very important is that the patient avoid activities that excessively load the quadriceps during the physical therapy. - The principles of treatment for quadriceps contusions are essentially the same as for quadriceps strains, with one major exception.It is recommended the injured leg be placed in a position of flexion for the first 24 h post-injury to limit hematoma formation. Practically, this can be done by placing the patient in a hinged knee brace at 120° of knee flexion or using elastic compression wrap to maintain this position of flexion. This needs to be done as soon as possible after injury. - The main goals of therapy with patient with a quadriceps muscle contusion are relieving the pain and improving the ROM. The treatment is mostly non-operative and exists out of three phases: - Rest, ice, compression.Compression is important in order to limit the hemorrhage for the first 24 to 48 hours.If the patient rests with his knee flexed, it helps to avoid muscle stiffness. - Active and passive quadriceps muscle stretching with emphasis on knee flexion.After 24 h, the brace or wrap should be removed and gentle, active, pain-free range of motion at the knee should be instituted along with stretching and isometric quadriceps strengthening. The active phase of treatment, including functional rehabilitation, can begin when pain-free, active knee flexion of at least 120° is attained. - Improve the functionality and a return to sport when full motion and strength are achieved. Return to sports criteria[edit | edit source] Criteria are similar to muscle strains for return to sports in contusions of the quadriceps. The athlete should be pain free, attain 120° of knee flexion with hip extended, and perform all aspects of functional field testing without limitations . Protective thigh padding is recommended prior to resuming sports in order to reduce recurrence. Clinical Bottom Line[edit | edit source] Contusions are one of the most common muscle injuries besides muscle-strains. They can sometimes evolve to a more complicated injury such as myositis ossificans or compartment syndrome, to which you have to pay attention. The options for treatment are mostly physiotherapy and in some serious complications an operation will be needed. Physiotherapy is designed to reduce the pain and improve the ROM of the patients, by giving cryokinetics, soft tissue massage and electrotherapy. References[edit | edit source] - Kary JM. Diagnosis and management of quadriceps strains and contusions. Current reviews in musculoskeletal medicine. 2010 Oct 1;3(1-4):26-31 Level of evidence 2A - Alonso A, Hekeik P, Adams R. Predicting a recovery time from the initial assessment of a quadriceps contusion injury. Aust J Physiother. 2000;46(3):167-77.Level of evidence 1A - Christopher M. Larson, MD; Louis C. Almekinders, MD; Spero G. Karas, MD; William E. Garrett, MD, PhD. Evaluating and managing muscle contusions and myositis ossificans.2002 Feb;30(2):41-50.Level of evidence 5 - Mueller-Wohlfahrt HW, Haensel L, Mithoefer K, Ekstrand J, English B, McNally S, Orchard J, van Dijk CN, Kerkhoffs GM, Schamasch P, Blottner D. Terminology and classification of muscle injuries in sport: a consensus statement. Br J Sports Med. 2012 Oct 1:bjsports-2012. - Diaz JA, Fischer DA, Rettig AC, Davis TJ, Shelbourne KD. Severe quadriceps muscle contusions in athletes: a report of three cases. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2003 Mar;31(2):289-93.Level of evidence 3A - Huntoon EA. Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. InMayo Clinic Proceedings 2003 Apr 1 (Vol. 78, No. 4, p. 291). Elsevier. - Quadriceps Contusion (Cork Thigh).Available from https://sma.org.au/resources-advice/injury-fact-sheets/quadriceps-contusion-cork-thigh/. Accessed on 17 August 2018. - Shawn Bonsell,* MD, Paul T. Freudigman, MD, and Howard A. Moore, MD. Quadriceps Muscle Contusion Resulting in Osteomyelitis of the Femur in a High School Football Player. American journal of sports medicine. 2001;29(6)818-820. Level of evidence 3B - Beiner JM, Jokl P. Muscle contusion injury and myositis ossificans traumatica. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (1976-2007). 2002 Oct 1;403:S110-9. - Faude O, Rößler R, Junge A. Football injuries in children and adolescent players: are there clues for prevention?. Sports medicine. 2013 Sep 1;43(9):819-37 Level of evidence 2A - G. Pasta, G. Nanni, [...], and S. Bianchi. Journal of ultrasound. Sonography of the quadriceps muscle: Examination technique, normal anatomy, and traumatic lesions. 2010 Jun; 13(2):76-84. Level of evidence 2A - Lee JC, Mitchell AW, Healy JC. Imaging of muscle injury in the elite athlete. The British journal of radiology. 2012 Aug;85(1016):1173-85.

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This quotation from Alexander Pope, written shortly after his death, illustrates the reverence that Newton's contemporaries felt towards him, and in particular, for his work on gravitation. In the words of the French physicist Laplace, since there is only one universe, it could be given to only one person to discover its fundamental law, the universal law of gravitation that governs the motion of the planets, as Isaac Newton did in his Principia Mathematica, one of the greatest scientific books of all time. Well look at the Principia later, but first I'd like to summarise his life and his earlier works. Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day 1642, in the tiny hamlet of Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. He was born prematurely, apparently so small that they could have fit him into a quart pot. His father had died three months earlier and when young Isaac was three his mother remarried, and he was brought up by his grandmother. This event was to scar him and could well have led to his rather unpleasant character although if things had been otherwise, Newton might have ended up as illiterate as his parents, neither of whom could sign his birth certificate. When Isaac was eleven his mother's new husband died, and he was soon to be sent away to the grammar school in Grantham. The schoolroom still exists, and his signature can be seen carved on the window sill. Newton was apparently a great one for graffiti. The local church at Colsterworth has a sundial he carved on it, apparently when he was nine, and Woolsthorpe Manor also has several drawings on the wall, supposedly by him. From the beginning, Newton enjoyed constructing models for example, he made a small windmill that actually ground flour, powered by a small mouse. In later life he was to make the equipment for his experiments for example, he made the equipment that enabled him to grind his own lenses for his optics experiments. As Newton himself remarked: If I had staid for other people to make my tools and other things for me, I had never made anything of it. Its important to remember that Newton was as much a practical scientist as a constructor of grand theories. At school, his achievements gave no indication as to what would develop later, but he enjoyed mathematics there and probably learned more from his teacher, Mr Stokes, than he did later from his tutor in Cambridge. When he was seventeen, Newton returned to Woolsthorpe to manage the estate, but he was an unqualified failure. His mind was so full of problems that he wanted to solve, and he had no interest in the matters in hand. Indeed, the story is told probably apochryphal that he was once leading a horse up a hill when it slipped its bridle. Newton didn't notice, and went on leading the bridle up the hill. Fortunately, Newton's uncle, William Ayscough, rector of the nearby church in Boothby Pagnell and a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Mr Stokes, Newton's mathematics master, had both noticed his talent, and persuaded his uneducated mother that Isaac should return to school and prepare for entrance to Cambridge. Before we come to his student years at Cambridge, we should briefly mention what else was happening at the time. Newton's childhood years were highly turbulent ones with the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642 just before he was born, leading to the rise of Oliver Cromwell, the subsequent beheading of Charles I in January 1649, and eventually, after Cromwell's death in 1658, to the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the return of Charles II during Newton's last year at Grantham. The previous century had also been an exciting time for science, with the revolutionary advances in astronomy by Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo, the founding of the Gresham Professorships of Geometry and Astronomy in London and the corresponding Savilian Chairs at Oxford University, the invention of logarithms by Napier, the rise of experimental science as propounded in England by Francis Bacon, and the development of analytic geometry by Pierre de Fermat and René Descartes in France. Well return to some of these later, when we see how Newton built upon them. 'If I have seen further,' Newton said, 'it is by standing on the shoulders of giants'. This was not an indication of Newton's humility rather, it was a conventional remark to make at the time and had a long history: for example, there are stained glass windows at Chartres Cathedral, showing the evangelists on the shoulders of the prophets. Newton went up to Trinity College, Cambridge in June 1661. His rooms at Trinity were on the first floor near the Great Gate. Because he was not of gentry stock, he was a subsizar, required to wait on his tutor at table, clean his shoes, and do other menial tasks this lasted until 1664, when he was made a scholar. As for his studies, he did not take to the Aristotelian approach to physics and philosophy current in the ancient universities, and increasingly devoted his time to reading the great scientific works, such as Euclid's Elements. In particular, Newton spent much time studying Descartes' Geometry. This was originally a 100-page appendix to Descartes' Discourse on Method of 1637, written in French. In this work, Descartes could be said to have started a movement from geometry towards algebra, using algebraic methods to solve problems in geometry. One of these was an ancient Greek problem of Pappus of Alexandria (c. 300 AD), concerning the locus of a point that moves in such a way that it always makes fixed angles with a number of given lines. Descartes' approach to the problem was to call one length on the diagram x and another length y, and then to prove that the path of the point satisfies a quadratic equation in x and y, and is therefore a conic an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola. Thus, Descartes introduced x and y into geometry, but he did not introduce the xy-Cartesian coordinates that are named after him as they came later. In the late 1650s a much expanded Latin version of Descartes' Geometry appeared, written by the Dutch writer Frans van Schooten and incorporating many of the developments that had occurred over the ensuing twenty years. Newton spent much time on this edition, and according to the Newton scholar Tom Whiteside, reading it in the summer of 1664 made Newton into the mathematician that he became. Another writer that Newton read avidly was John Wallis, originally from Cambridge but by this time Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford, a post that he held for fifty-four years, until his death in 1703. Wallis had been a code-breaker for the Parliamentarians during the Civil War, and although he knew little mathematics, he was chosen for the Oxford post when in 1648 the Parliamentary Visitors replaced all the Oxford professors with Royalist sympathies. In the event, it proved to be a most successful appointment, and Wallis became the greatest English mathematician of his day, after Newton. Wallis wrote two important books in the 1650s. One was on conic sections, and included the first use of the symbols for infinity, and greater than or equal to. The other book, Arithmetica infinitorum, published in 1655, deals with infinite series expressions that we now write as which go on for ever. Their sum is 2, but how can we add infinitely many terms and still get a finite answer? Wallis' book dealt with such questions. Amazingly, this important work has never been translated into English, but an English version with scholarly commentary is currently being prepared for Oxford University Press by Jackie Stedall, who wrote her PhD thesis on the mathematical works of John Wallis, and who gave a Gresham College lecture last October on the life and work of John Pell. Newton's first researches into mathematics were inspired by Wallis' work on infinite series. In particular, he was concerned to extend the binomial theorem. It had been known for centuries how to expand (a + b)n, where n is any positive integer: for example, Euclid gave a geometrical proof that (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2, and we can also multiply out (a + b)3, (a + b)4, and so on the coefficients that arise are the numbers that appear in the so-called Pascal triangle, although the triangle was known to Islamic mathematicians such as Omar Khayyam many centuries before Pascal. Newton investigated the corresponding problem when the exponent is a fraction, in which case we get an infinite series. For example, he showed that Newton had an aversion to publishing his results, and his generalised binomial theorem did not appear in print until 1704, as an appendix to his Optics. Newton graduated from Trinity College in 1665, but soon afterwards had to leave Cambridge because of the plague which had devastated London and was now moving around the country. The university was closed for two years, and Newton returned to Lincolnshire not to Woolsthorpe (as it says in most books), but to Boothby Pagnell where his uncle William Ayscough was rector of the church and where there was a nice orchard of apple trees. Newton described his achievements during his two years back in Lincolnshire in the following words, which are worth quoting in full. As you will see, his activities included infinite series, the calculus, optics and gravitation: In the beginning of the year 1665 I found the Method of approximating series & the Rule for reducing any dignity of any Binomial into such a series. The same year in May I found the method of Tangents of Gregory and Slusius, & in November had the direct method of fluxions & the next year in January had the Theory of Colours & in May following I had entrance into the inverse method of fluxions. And the same year I began to think of gravity extending to the orb of the Moon & deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their Orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve: & thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon in her Orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth, & found them answer pretty nearly. All this was in the two plague years of 1665-1666. For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since. Before I talk about these in greater detail, it is worth recording that, in some sense, Newton considered himself to have been placed on earth to solve the great problems of the world how the planets move, how light and sound work, the nature of matter, and even the nature of God. For the last of these Newton, as an anti-Trinitarian, held rather unusual views, but he certainly knew his ancient Biblical texts as well as any clergyman in the country and spent more time on theology than he did on physics, using ancient sources in Latin, Greek and Hebrew to reconstruct the plan of Solomon's temple, calculate the date of the Creation, and many other things besides. However we now regard this work, we must acknowledge that, for Newton, it was an important preoccupation at least as central to his thinking as physics or mathematics. It was during this period that the story of Newton and the apple originated. We have two sources for this story his niece, who looked after him in later life, and the eighteenth-century Astronomer Royal James Bradley, who had known Newton personally. Seeing an apple fall, Newton realised that the force that draws the apple to earth is the same universal force that keeps the moon in orbit around the earth, and the earth and planets in orbit around the sun. Moreover, as Newton came to realise, this force is governed by a universal law of gravity, that the force of attraction between any two objects is proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the distance between them so if the distance increases ten-fold, the force decreases a hundred-fold. Although his main writings on the subject were not to appear for twenty years, in the Principia, his initial ideas came from these plague years. Newton's other mathematical preoccupation was the calculus. For many years mathematicians had been working on two, seemingly unrelated, problems: how fast things move or change, and how large they are. The former, now called differentiation, concerns velocities of objects as represented by the slopes of tangents, and was known to Newton as fluxions, while the latter, now called integration, concerns finding areas under and within curves, and was known to Newton as quadrature. During the seventeenth century it was becoming clear that fluxions and quadrature were intimately related in fact, that they are inverse processes. For example, if you start with a mathematical function, such as the one that maps x to x2, or to sin x, and integrate it and then differentiate the result, you always arrive back at your starting point. This inverse relationship seems to have first been noticed in the 1640s by Torricelli, a mathematics student of Galileo and inventor of the barometer, and was later developed by Isaac Barrow, a Cambridge colleague of Newton's and Gresham Professor of Geometry from 1662 to 1664. It was Newton, during the plague years, who really explained for the first time why these processes are inverse to each other, obtaining what we now call the fundamental theorem of calculus. This work was later, and independently, developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, leading to no end of trouble, as well see. Arriving back in Cambridge after the plague years, Newton was elected a Fellow of Trinity College, and lectured on mathematics and optics. Within a couple of years he had been appointed to the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, whose first holder, Isaac Barrow had gone to London to take up a London appointment in Charles IIs court; the current holder of the Lucasian Chair is Stephen Hawking. Newton's Chair required him to lecture, but his lectures were so poorly presented that so few went to hear Him, & fewer yt understood him, yt oftimes he did in a manner, for want of Hearers, read to ye Walls. This was recorded by his assistant Humphrey Newton (no relation), who is the only person ever to claim to have heard Newton laugh. In 1669 Newton produced De Analysi, an important mathematical treatise which he circulated to his friends but did not publish. This contained his rules for finding areas under curves, including the first formula for curves of the form y = xm/n, obtaining the formula we use today. De Analysi also contains what we now call Newton's method for approximating the solution to an equation. Two years later Newton followed De Analysi with his book on fluxions. It is most unfortunate that this was never published, as well see, as it could have prevented the priority disputes on the origin of the calculus. Up to now I haven't mentioned the Royal Society, whose early history is intimately connected with Gresham College. In the 1650s a group of Oxford scholars, sometimes known as the Oxford Experimental Philosophy School, met regularly in Oxford they included John Wallis, Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke (who together worked on the air pump and discovered Boyle's law) and the young astronomer (as he was then) Christopher Wren. In 1657 Lawrence Rooke (the Gresham Professor of Astronomy) switched over to become Gresham Professor of Geometry, and Wren was appointed in his place and the Oxford group regularly came down to London to hear them. Indeed, it was after attending a Gresham College lecture given by Christopher Wren in 1660, around the time of the return of Charles II, that they decided to form a new society later known as the Royal Society. Like Gresham College, this new society was to popularise experimental science, rather than the Aristotelian variety still taught in the ancient universities. The Royal Society met in Gresham College until 1666, until they had to move out for seven years after the Great Fire. The Society's Curator of Experiments was Robert Hooke, who was Gresham Professor of Geometry for thirty-seven years. In 1672 Newton made contact with the Royal Society, presenting his design for a reflecting telescope. Newton had been interested in optics since the plague years, when he carried out his important experimentum crucis (crucial experiment) on the refraction of coloured light through prisms. Back in Cambridge he had discussed optics with Isaac Barrow, and lectured on the subject. One current difficulty was that of chromatic aberration in telescopes telescopes were becoming larger and larger, and since red and blue light are refracted through different amounts when they pass through a prism, the images were coloured around the outside red on one side and blue on the other. To avoid this, Newton proposed his reflecting telescope only six inches long and containing a mirror which solved the problem. The Royal Society elected him a Fellow in 1672. Shortly afterwards, Newton sent a paper to the Royal Society on the nature of light essentially that it consists of corpuscles, rather than Huygens' view that it consisted of waves. This brought him into a bitter dispute with Robert Hooke (both disagreeable types) and a lengthy correspondence in the pages of the Society's Philosophical Transactions. From then on, Newton vowed not to publish, or waste his time explaining his discoveries to lesser mortals. He had bigger fish to fry… His work on light continued in 1675 when he studied the interference pattern between two plates of glass. The concentric circles that appear had been studied by Hooke, who had obtained some useful results. But Hooke's discoveries were completely overshadowed by Newton's, who used equipment that he had ground himself and who thereby obtained far more accurate results. At one stage he found an error of less than one-hundredth of an inch. He refused to ignore it but stalked it relentlessly until he found that the two faces of his lens differed in curvature … No one else in the seventeenth century would have paused for an error twice the size. The pattern is now known as Newton's rings. Needless to say, his success in this area increased the animosity between him and Hooke. It was around this time that Leibniz visited London. Leibniz had been working independently on the calculus, being more concerned with the geometry of the situation, rather than in any ideas of velocity or motion. In the autumn of 1675, Leibniz introduced the familiar integral sign and the d-notation for differentiation both of these are still used today. In 1676 Newton turned his attentions in a different direction to the classification of curves of the third degree (cubic curves). By this time it was well known that curves of the second degree, involving terms in x2, y2 and xy, were of just three different types ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas. At that time, no-one in their right mind would have looked at the corresponding classification problem for cubic curves involving such terms as x3, y3, x2y, etc. but Newton did. By projecting the curves onto a plane, he first categorised the projections into five classes, and then by working backwards he found all 78 types of cubic curve. In 1704, as an appendix to his Optics, he published 72 of them. Why he didn't include all 78 types I don't know, because he knew all of them but it was an incredible piece of work, and many years ahead of its time. In 1684 an important event happened. Edmond Halley had been talking with Robert Hooke and Christopher Wren at the Royal Society about whether an inverse-square law of force between the sun and a planet must necessarily produce an elliptical orbit. To clarify his thoughts he repaired to Cambridge to see Isaac Newton, and asked him directly what the orbit would be: Sir Isaac replied immediately that it would be an ellipsis; the Doctor struck with joy and amazement asked him how he knew it. Why, said he, I have calculated it, whereupon Dr Halley asked him for his calculation without any further delay. Sir Isaac looked among his papers but could not find it, but he promised him to renew it, and then to send it to him. Newton set to work and produced his De Motu Corporum in Gyrum (On the motion of bodies in an orbit) in late 1684. This he expanded over the next two years, with much encouragement, cajoling and flattering by Halley, eventually producing the Principia Mathematica, which was published in 1687. But it very nearly didn't appear. Hooke complained that a result of his was not credited, and Newton refused to do so. Moreover, the Royal Society, who should have paid for the publication, ran out of money after producing a very expensive History of Fishes, and so Halley himself paid for the entire publication. His only recompense from the Royal Society was fifty free copies of the History of Fishes plus a further twenty copies for lack of earnings. What does the Principia contain? It starts with a poem by Halley, which concluded: This is followed by Newton's three laws of motion: first, the law of inertia, derived from Galileo, that every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it; second, the change of motion (that is, the acceleration of the body) is proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed; and third, that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. If I press on a table, then the table presses back on me. The main part of the Principia consists of three books, of which the third The System of the World, is the climax. Newton recommends that the reader proceed directly to this third book, referring back whenever necessary. But well go through them in order. The main purpose of Book I is to explain Kepler's laws of planetary motion, so lets remind ourselves of these. In 1543 Copernicus had proposed that the planets travel in circular orbits around the sun, in contrast to the Greek Ptolemaic system in which the sun and planets orbit the earth. Johannes Kepler, using the extensive and highly accurate observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, observed some discrepancies, and was eventually to ditch the circles and propose that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus. Kepler was very interested in conics, and the word focus (actually, Latin for fireplace) is due to him. Assuming the existence of an inverse-square law of gravity, Newton proved Kepler's law, that the planets orbit in ellipses and also obtained the converse result, that if a planet under a central law of gravitation travels in an elliptical orbit, then the law of gravity must be an inverse-square one. Kepler's second law was that the line from the sun to each planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times: if it is far from the sun it travels slowly, and if it is near the sun it travels fast but it always traces out the same area of sky in any fixed period of time. Newton's proof of this appeared in his Proposition 1 of Book I. Kepler's third law concerned the periods of different planets that the square of a planets period is proportional to the cube of its orbits mean radius. This was also proved by Newton in Book I, under the assumption of an inverse-square law of gravitation. Book II is concerned with the movement of objects in resisting media such as a ball bearing in treacle. Here, Newton demolished a rival theory of the universe due to Descartes, that all the planets move around the heavens in mini-vortices, or whirlpools. In Book III, Newton obtains a number of amazing results these include the calculation of the speed that a projectile needs to travel in order to escape from the earths atmosphere; results on the precession of the equinoxes; the motion of comets; and the shape of the earth as it rotates. This last one proved to be decisive. Under Newton's hypotheses, the rotation of the earth causes a flattening at the poles so that the earth is onion-shaped, whereas under Descartes' vortex theory the rotation of the earth causes an elongation at the poles so that the earth is lemon-shaped. It was not until the late-1730s, when geodetic missions were sent to measure the time-periods of a pendulum in Lapland near the North Pole, and in Peru on the equator, that Newton's prediction was found to be correct. Newton's Principia made him famous. Although people read it, and even fewer understood it, everyone knew that it was a great work, rather like Einstein's theory of relativity over two hundred years later. As Voltaire, a great enthusiast for Newton, remarked: Newton has very few readers, because it requires great knowledge and sense to understand him. Everybody however talks about him. But it certainly had its flaws. As Tom Whiteside has said: The logical structure is slipshod, its level of verbal fluency none too high, its arguments unnecessarily diffuse and repetitive and its very content on occasion markedly irrelevant to its professed theme … but these faults … can largely be excused by the very rapidity with which the Principia was written. Newton found that he enjoyed all this adulation, and he became a public figure. When the Catholic King James II demanded that Cambridge University award a degree to a Benedictine monk, Newton was one of the delegation that protested without success to the infamous Judge Jeffreys. The next year he was elected Member of Parliament for Cambridge University Oxford and Cambridge Universities had separate MPs different from those for Oxford and Cambridge themselves, until the Second World War. He probably wasn't a very good MP: it is said that he spoke only once to ask a steward to open a window. By 1696 Newton felt the need to go to London, and in that year he was appointed Warden of the Royal Mint, living in the Tower of London. Although the post was normally a sinecure, Newton became fully involved, introducing milling on the edge of coins to counteract the shaving of silver by forgers and Newton was quite content to send forgers off to be hanged for their crimes. For his pains, Newton was promoted to Master of the Mint in 1701, and relinquished his Lucasian Chair in Cambridge. In 1703 the ailing Robert Hooke died, and with him out of the way Newton felt happy to become involved again with the Royal Society, which had become almost defunct. He worked tirelessly for this institution, resurrecting it, especially since Gresham College had becoming somewhat inactive and wanted to expel the Royal Society from its premises. Eventually, Newton found new premises in Crane Court, and built up the Royal Society from there. For some inexplicable reason, the portrait of his rival Robert Hooke got lost in the move, so that now we have no likeness of him. It was a good time for Newton. In 1704, with no Hooke to disagree with him, he published his second-greatest book, the Opticks. Unlike the Principia, which was difficult to understand and written in Latin, the Opticks was in English and easy to read, describing in user-friendly terms the results of various optical experiments. The next year, Newton was knighted by Queen Anne and became the first scientist ever to be so rewarded although it was probably for his work at the Royal Mint, rather than his scientific work, that he was recognised. As President of the Royal Society, the senior scientific post in England, Newton was in a position to wield great power and he did, often ruthlessly. He arranged for his supporters to be appointed to appropriate positions for example, it was almost certainly Newton who secured the post of Astronomer Royal for Edmond Halley, following the death in 1720 of John Flamsteed, another of his rivals. One very unpleasant example of Newton's behaviour was the report, the Commercium Epistolicum, on the origins of the calculus. As we have seen, Newton was probably the first to obtain his important results on the calculus, but he did not publish them. Leibniz, working independently, introduced a far better notation, that we still use, and then published his results (somewhat obscurely, it must be admitted) in 1684 and 1686. The Swiss brothers Jakob and Johann Bernoulli then developed Leibniz' work and in their hands, and those of Leonhard Euler and others, Continental calculus then moved ahead in leaps and bounds, while British calculus remained largely at a standstill. There was so much ill feeling between Britain and the Continent on the priority issue, that Newton arranged for an independent commission to investigate the issue. For this purpose, Newton chose the members of the commission, and wrote much of the evidence for them to consider, so you can guess how they decided. In the 1720s Newton became increasingly ill with gout and other ailments, and he died in March 1727 at the advanced age (for those days) of 84. Here's his death mask. He lay in state in Westminster Abbey for a week preceding his funeral. At the ceremony, his pall was borne by two dukes, three earls and the Lord Chancellor. No previous scientist had ever been so honoured.

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MANAGEMENT OF U.S. FISHERIES FOR HIGHLY MIGRATORY SPECIES CRS Report for Congress Management of U.S. Fisheries for Highly April 21, 2000 Eugene H. Buck Senior Analyst in Natural Resources Policy Resources, Science, and Industry Division Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress This document provides general background and identifies current issues of concern in the domestic and international management of highly migratory fish species (e.g., billfish, shark, and tuna). Also discussed are differences among species management in various U.S. coastal regions. Current legislation and related issues are summarized for proposals to modify management of sharks, to restrict finning and to ban or restrict pelagic longline fisheries. This document will be updated periodically as these issues evolve. Legislation on these issues is tracked in CRS Report IB10010, Fishery,th Aquaculture, and Marine Mammal Legislation in the 106 Congress. Management of U.S. Fisheries for Highly Migratory Species Domestic and international management of highly migratory fish species (e.g., marlin, sailfish, swordfish, shark, and tuna) is complex and controversial because these species migrate across many jurisdictions and are caught in various fisheries where commercial and sport fishermen compete for harvests. Increasing environmental concern and user competition for a shrinking resource have led groups to ask Congress to consider several initiatives that would modify how the United States manages these fisheries. Domestically, the National Marine Fisheries Service and regional fishery management councils have developed management measures for highly migratory species (HMS) fisheries under the authority of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Internationally, the United States participates as a Party to several agreements for managing these species cooperatively. In addition, a Multilateral High-Level Conference on Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Central and Western Pacific is in the final stages Swordfish management concerns include overfishing in the Atlantic, with proposals seeking to prohibit pelagic longline fishing in certain areas of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico and to finance a buyout of longline vessel permits. Legislation has been introduced in the 106th Congress to implement these proposals (H.R. 3331, H.R. 3390, S. 1911) or to prohibit all pelagic longline fishing in U.S. Atlantic waters (H.R. 3516). Shark finning (i.e., removal of fins and discarding of the rest of the shark carcass) is controversial and currently is prohibited in the Atlantic but allowed in the Pacific. Legislation (H.R. 3535) in the 106th Congress proposes to prohibit this practice in the Pacific. General management issues relate to establishing better means of monitoring the far-ranging fisheries for HMS, using a combination of satellite technology (e.g., vessel monitoring systems) and onboard observers, and to minimizing incidental bycatch of non-target species, such as sea turtles and marine mammals, by HMS fishing gear. This document will be updated periodically as these issues evolve. Background ................................................ 1 HMS Management Issues.....................................3 Monitoring ............................................. 3 Bycatch and Protected Species Interactions....................4 Individual Fishery Concerns....................................5 Billfish ................................................ 5 Sharks ................................................ 6 Tuna ................................................. 7 Additional General Considerations...............................7 List of Tables Table 1: 1998 U.S. Commercial Landings of Highly Migratory Fish Species (metric tons).......................1 Management of U.S. Fisheries for Highly Under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA; 16 U.S.C. 1802(20)), highly migratory species (HMS) are defined as tunas, oceanic sharks, and billfishes — marlins (Tetrapturus spp. and Makaira spp.), sailfishes (Istiophorus spp.), and swordfish (Xiphias gladius). HMS are managed differently from most fish because their extensive migrations necessitate coordinated management across many jurisdictions. These fish are caught by U.S. sport and commercial fishermen in inshore state-managed waters, within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), in the EEZs of central and western Pacific island nations under treaty agreement, and in international waters. Most of the U.S. commercial catch of swordfish and sharks is taken within the U.S. EEZ. However, in the Pacific, the majority of tuna, sharks, and swordfish caught by U.S. commercial fishermen is taken in international or foreign waters. Table 1: 1998 U.S. Commercial Landings of Highly Migratory Fish Species (metric tons)1 Species/Distance from shore0-3 miles3-200 milesHigh seas or foreign Swordfish 25 5,108 1,713 Tuna 221 21,486 195,769 Sharks (other than dogfish)6185,2561,135 Because of concerns about coordination and logistics, HMS in the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea are managed by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, rather than by individual regional fishery management councils.2 On May 28, 1999, NMFS published a final rule to begin implementing a new coordinated HMS fishery management plan (FMP) for 1National Marine Fisheries Service. Fisheries of the United States, 1998. Washington, DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Department of Commerce, Current Fishery Statistics No. 9800, July 1999. p. 14-19. 2Under the MSFCMA, eight regional fishery management councils generally develop plans and recommendations for regional fisheries, which NMFS then implements. tuna, sharks, and swordfish in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico.3 Regulations implementing amendments to a separate FMP governing billfish management in the Atlantic and Gulf were published at the same time. More recently, NMFS completed a Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation for Atlantic Highly Migratory Species (SAFE 2000)4 providing updated background information for managing all Atlantic In the central and western Pacific (e.g., Hawaii and U.S. Pacific islands), the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council has a “pelagic” (i.e., open ocean) FMP for managing HMS, while the Pacific Fisheries Management Council is in the process of developing an FMP for HMS fisheries along the U.S. west coast. The Pacific Council’s FMP will likely bring together Washington, Oregon, and California state regulations relevant to HMS, and may consider limiting entry to control capacity and effort in west coast HMS fisheries to enhance the economic position of the existing fleet.5 The Pacific Council’s plan has raised concerns about possible capacity shifts6 among HMS fishermen. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) coordinates international management of tuna and swordfish in the Atlantic.7 In theo eastern tropical Pacific (east of 150W longitude), the long-established Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) sets quotas for two tuna species (yellowfin and bigeye), has work groups dealing with important management issues (e.g., fleet capacity, bycatch, management of fisheries on fish aggregating devices), and is addressing major administrative concerns (e.g., financing, compliance, renegotiation of its convention). Renegotiating its convention will bring the IATTC into line with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea and its Implementing Agreement (Agreement on Conservation and Management of8 Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks). If the renegotiated IATTC convention involves major changes and is signed by the United States, the Senate may consider its consent to ratification. In the central and western Pacific (west of 150oW longitude), the Multilateral High-Level Conference (MHLC) on Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Central and Western Pacific9 is in the last stages of its 364 Federal Register, p. 29089-29160, May 28, 1999. 4NMFS documents are available at [http://www.nmfs.gov/sfa/hmspg.html]. 5The west coast states already limit entry to most fisheries, including the driftnet fishery for swordfish and sharks off California and Oregon. 6Continued restrictions on groundfish could prompt fishermen to shift to the albacore fishery. Such a move might exacerbate existing economic concerns arising from too much product being available without added markets for this seasonal fishery. 8The Department of State’s Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs is coordinating U.S. involvement in these renegotiations. 9Material related to negotiation of the MHLC are available at negotiations, focusing primarily on tunas.10 The MHLC likely will implement a vessel monitoring system (VMS) and national quotas as well as limiting both effort and capital investment by nation. Since the late 1980s, U.S. purse seine vessels have been authorized to fish in the exclusive economic zones of many Pacific Island nations under a treaty between those nations and the United States.11 Many of the principles and measures (e.g., VMS, observers, and regional vessel registry) of the South Pacific Tuna Treaty are being adopted into the MHLC, reflecting the favorable experience with the United States under this Treaty. If the MHLC convention is signed by the United States, the Senate may consider its consent to ratification. The United States has ratified the Agreement on Conservation and Management12 of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. When this Agreement comes into force, the United States and its flag fishing vessels will be bound by the decisions of ICCAT and IATTC as well as any MHLC Convention or similar agreement which enters into force, even if the United States does not sign the MHLC Convention or even join the international organization. HMS Management Issues Monitoring. Monitoring of fleet activities is necessary for good data collection and effective enforcement over the extensive range of HMS fisheries. Due to the multi-jurisdictional and far-ranging nature of HMS fisheries, there is increasing interest in using satellite technology and naval/coast guard resources to regulate HMS fisheries and apprehend “flag of convenience” vessels catching HMS fish illegally. To better manage the pelagic longline fishery in the Atlantic and identify where individual vessels are fishing, NMFS is implementing a vessel monitoring system (VMS) for U.S. pelagic longliners in the Atlantic beginning September 1, 2000.13 In the Pacific, NMFS conducted a Hawaii longline pilot VMS study between January 1, 1996, and March 15, 1997. VMS is seen by many as the most effective way to enforce the closing of fishing areas and monitor where vessels fish. However, issues such as proprietary interests (since fisherman make their living by knowing where to fish) and who should pay (since VMS is fairly expensive) make VMS implementation controversial. Indeed, a lawsuit challenging the VMS requirement in the Atlantic is 10The Western Pacific Fishery Management Council has coordinated U.S. involvement in the negotiation process along with the Department of State’s Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs. 11Treaty on Fisheries Between the Governments of Certain Pacific Island States and the Government of the United States of America, Port Moresby, 1987. 12See: [http://www.tufts.edu/fletcher/multi/texts/ilm1542.txt]. The Senate approved a resolution of ratification for this agreement (Treaty Doc. 104-24) on June 26, 1996. 1364 Federal Register, p. 29089-29160, May 28, 1999, with several subsequent delays in VMS implementation announced by NMFS. pending in the courts.14 The minimal guidance and apparent lack of authority in the Magnuson-Stevens Act has impeded the development of monitoring programs such as onboard observers and VMS, especially regarding the use of industry assessments to cover program costs so that an entire fleet bears the cost instead of only the vessels in the fleet that participate in the monitoring program. Bycatch and Protected Species Interactions. Minimizing interactions with protected species (e.g., marine turtles) is a concern in the management of fishing gear for several HMS fisheries. On November 23, 1999, a U.S. District Court judge ordered NMFS to close a large area off Midway Island to Hawaiian longline fishermen, to protect sea turtles. Since most of the affected waters are outside the U.S. EEZ, fishermen from other countries and even other U.S. states (particularly California) are allowed to fish in the area. Only Hawaiian fishermen are directly affected by regulations implementing this order.15 The Atlantic longline fishery for swordfish has a similar problem with sea turtle interactions. In the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean (ETP), changes to U.S. tuna/dolphin regulations16 in response to the International Dolphin Conservation Program Act (IDCPA; P.L. 105-42) have modified the definition of “dolphin-safe,” allowing yellowfin tuna caught using purse seine nets to be imported into the United States if1718 no dolphins were observed to have been killed or severely injured. The IDCPA mandates that parties cooperate in the conservation and management of the fish stocks and deal with such issues as bycatch in the purse seine fisheries. Despite the continued relatively low mortality of dolphins in the ETP,19 the new NMFS regulations are highly controversial and were challenged in federal courts by a coalition of animal protection groups as being insufficiently protective of dolphins. On Apr. 11, 2000, U.S. District Court Judge Thelton Henderson blocked NMFS implementation of more relaxed standards for what tuna might qualify to be labeled as “dolphin-safe,” saying that NMFS had failed to assess whether the proposed labeling change would cause harm to dolphin populations. Judge Henderson concluded that NMFS failed to complete critical stress research testing of dolphins that were repeatedly captured and released. 14Blue Water Fishermen’s Association, et al. v. Daley, Civil Action No. 99CV2846 (RWR) (United States District Court for the District of Columbia). 1564 Federal Register, p. 72290-72291, December 27, 1999. 1665 Federal Register, p. 30-59, January 3, 2000. 17IATTC guidelines require all vessels harvesting tuna in the eastern tropical Pacific to carry 18For additional information, see archived CRS Report IB96011, Dolphin Protection and 19Combined U.S. and foreign dolphin mortality in 1999 was less than 1,500 animals, a fraction of the estimated several hundred thousand dolphins killed annually in the early 1970s. Individual Fishery Concerns Billfish. Other than the commercial harvest of swordfish, billfish are taken incidentally as bycatch in other commercial fisheries and are targeted and caught by sport fishermen, many of whom practice catch-and-release and tagging to allow fish to survive. The commercial catch of swordfish is landed primarily in California (21.4% of 1998 landings), Florida (11.5%), Massachusetts (9.1%), Louisiana (4.9%), and Hawaii (much of the remaining 53%). In late August 1999, the Billfish Foundation, the Coastal Conservation Association, the American Sportfishing Association, and the Blue Water Fishermen’s Association signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) wherein both sport and commercial interests agreed to closing certain areas of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico to commercial pelagic longline fishing for swordfish and to participating in financing a buyout of permits for pelagic longline vessels that are responsible for much of the incidental mortality to undersized swordfish and billfish (i.e., bycatch). Legislation (H.R. 3331, H.R. 3390/S. 1911) introduced in the 106th Congress would20 implement this MOU. On December 15, 1999, NMFS published a proposed rule, differing from the MOU and the introduced bills, that would close different areas in the Gulf of Mexico21 to reduce billfish bycatch but would provide no permit buyout. Some question the equity of both proposals because the closures in the South Atlantic leave few areas open to domestic swordfishermen in Florida. In addition, seafood processors in affected areas claim that, without commercial longlining in the winter months, they might face bankruptcy. Others are concerned that, without a buyout, the NMFS proposal might displace commercial vessels to other areas and fisheries. Some suggest possible benefits from the proposed longline closures for related species, recalling the improvements in the yellowfin tuna fishery after Japanese longline fishermen departed from the Gulf of Mexico. In March 1999, NMFS banned the import of undersized Atlantic swordfish.22 Those regulations assure accurate monitoring of swordfish imports by requiring the identification of the catching vessel flag (i.e., country of vessel documentation), certifying that pieces are not from undersized Atlantic fish, and increasing dealer reporting requirements. Some question whether harvesting only larger swordfish might raise problems with meeting the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s maximum allowable level of 1.0 ppm of methylmercury for these fish. In an effort to address overfishing of Atlantic swordfish, SeaWeb and the Natural Resources Defense Council instituted the “Give Swordfish a Break” campaign to discourage consumers from eating swordfish.23 2164 Federal Register, p. 69982-69987, December 15, 1999. 2264 Federal Register, p. 12903-12907, March 16, 1999. In the Pacific, billfish are valuable for both commercial and recreational fisheries. Striped marlin are a prized gamefish off California and cannot be sold in the state. Blue marlin, wahoo, mahimahi, and the tunas are key gamefish in Hawaii and in some other parts of the western Pacific; however, all of these species are also valued as commercial products. Only one stock (blue marlin) is thought to be below the maximum sustainable yield level, although it probably is not overfished as that term is defined in the Magnuson-Stevens Act. A major problem throughout the Pacific, including U.S. territories and Hawaii, is the general dearth of recreational catch and effort data for billfish. While there are some catch data from tournaments, there is a general lack of effort data, e.g., how many boats are fishing on any day. Those data need to be linked to the catch data to provide effective catch per unit effort to better monitor the stock status for individual Sharks. U.S. commercial shark fisheries occur primarily off Louisiana (19.2% of 1998 landings), Florida (19.0%), California (7.9%), North Carolina (7.5%), and Hawaii (much of the remaining 46%). Most sharks caught by sport anglers are While NMFS prohibits shark finning24 in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, this practice is still permitted in the Pacific, where blue shark populations (the primary species finned) are considered to be robust. Shark finning is quite controversial, and several conservation and animal welfare groups are seeking to prohibit this practiceth in the Pacific. In the 106 Congress, HCon.Res. 189, H.R. 3078, and H.R. 3535 were introduced to address these concerns by studying Pacific shark fisheries and/or prohibiting shark finning. Early in 2000, the Hawaii legislature was also considering passage of state law to prohibit shark finning. More recently, NMFS received a petition for rulemaking to prohibit shark finning and require full utilization of sharks harvested in fisheries managed by the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council.25 In May 1997, some commercial shark fishermen filed suit against NMFS, challenging commercial harvest quotas for Atlantic sharks. A federal court injunction resulted in NMFS foregoing its more restrictive management measures, including26 lower quotas slated to take effect on July 1, 1999. In June 1999, a coalition of sport fishing groups also filed suit against NMFS, charging that shark management focused inequitably on limiting recreational fishing. No final ruling has yet been made on In March 1999, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) adopted a voluntary International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks, requiring participating nations to adopt by 2001 a national plan for reducing catch in shark fisheries as well as shark bycatch in other fisheries. 24The practice of catching sharks to harvest only the fins for the lucrative Asian shark fin market, discarding the remainder of the shark carcass as waste. 2565 Federal Register, p. 19734, April 12, 2000. 26Southern Offshore Fishing Ass’n v. Daley, 995 F. Supp. 1411 (M.D. Fla. 1998). NMFS is preparing, but has not yet published, a proposal for U.S. implementation of the FAO shark initiative. Tuna. Commercially, 67% of the world’s tuna harvest is taken in the Pacific. Because of this, some of the top U.S. ports for tuna landings are in the Western Pacific (e.g., American Samoa, Guam).27 However, Pacific tuna harvest statistics are often omitted from NMFS reports because much of the U.S. harvest is caught outside the U.S. EEZ and is landed in American ports in Samoa, Guam, and elsewhere, along with sizeable foreign landings. Mainland states with significant commercial tuna landings include California (7.5% of total 1998 U.S. tuna landings), Washington (2.9%), Oregon (2.2%), and Louisiana (0.6%). Recreational harvest estimates are available for yellowfin tuna, with 1998 catch primarily in the South Atlantic region (62.2% of estimated number of sport-caught fish in 1998), Mid-Atlantic (20.5%), and Southern California (15.3%). The Atlantic bluefin tuna fishery is managed through the International28 Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). Rebuilding the population of this species is encouraged by strict harvest quotas. Current ICCAT concerns focus on minimizing illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) harvests as well as ensuring that all parties to ICCAT abide by Commission guidelines and quotas. Unilateral U.S. efforts to rebuild Atlantic bluefin tuna populations have been frustrated by lax enforcement of ICCAT guidelines elsewhere. Additional General Considerations Additional general concerns relating to how NMFS and regional councils manage HMS fisheries include (not in any particular order): 1) integrating pelagic species fisheries management, especially when one fishery’s bycatch is the target species of another fishery, and accounting for bycatch in quota calculations and fishing effort estimates; 2) incorporating diversity (e.g., differences among commercial gear types and between sport and commercial users) within and among various user groups to achieve a sustainable fishery, maintain social equity, and estimate the effects of proposed regulatory plans, particularly their economic effects; 3) evaluating the need for a mandatory reporting system for economic data to adequately evaluate the effects of proposed regulatory changes; 4) determining the cumulative impacts of HMS regulations on the fishing industry; 5) improving the objectivity and transparency of NMFS scientific assessment procedures (e.g., more field data collection and analysis involving stakeholders and independent scientists; less reliance on computer modeling) that support management and regulatory actions to enhance agency credibility and forestall litigation; 6) making the role and responsibility of NMFS’s Atlantic HMS Advisory Panel comparable to that of a regional council to improve accountability for HMS management decisions; 7) assuring that U.S. fishermen who abide by international management guidelines are not denied a reasonable opportunity to harvest the shared resource; and 8) providing sufficient 28For additional information, see CRS Report 95-367 ENR, Atlantic Bluefin Tuna: International Management of a Shared Resource. resources to NMFS and the Department of State to allow the United States to make a significant and lasting contribution to international organizations (e.g., IATTC, MHLC, South Pacific Tuna Treaty) that are working to achieve compatible management regimes throughout the ranges of HMS stocks in the Pacific. Environmental concern for declining HMS populations as well as increased competition between sport and commercial fishermen for preferential allocation of the less-abundant stocks have brought HMS issues before Congress. The 106th Congress may choose to address HMS issues when considering whether to close areas to pelagic longline fishing (H.R. 3331, H.R. 3390, H.R. 3516, S. 1911), whether to take action on shark finning in the Pacific (HCon.Res. 189, H.R. 3078, H.R. 3535), and whether to modify management of HMS fisheries during reauthorization and amendment of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. HCon.Res. 189, expressing the sense of Congress regarding shark finning in Pacific waters, was the focus of a hearing by the House Subcommittee on Fisheries Conservation, Wildlife, and Oceans on October 21, 1999. This measure was reported (H.Rept. 106-428) and agreed to by the House on November 1, 1999. Pelagic longlining was the subject of two hearings held by the House Resources Subcommittee on Fisheries Conservation, Wildlife, and Oceans — a July 15, 1999 oversight hearing on NMFS’s regulations implementing the FMP for HMS of Atlantic Tunas, Swordfish and Sharks, specifically as it affects yellowfin tuna; and a February 29For updated legislative action, see CRS Report IB10010, Fishery, Aquaculture, and Marine Mammal Legislation in the 106th Congress.

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The National Mall is a broad, tree-lined green in Washington, DC, that extends from the foot of Capitol Hill to the Washington Monument. It is a public space used for recreational activities, cultural events, and democratic discourse. Museums and gardens flank the north and south sides. The United States Capitol building lies to the east and the monuments of West Potomac Park lie to the west. Both as a national icon and a civic space, the Mall is a key landmark of the nation’s capital. Alternate Names: Public Grounds Site Dates: 1791–present Site Owner(s): U.S. National Park Service Associated People: Pierre-Charles L’Enfant (1754–1825, urban designer); Robert Mills (1781–1855, architect); Andrew Jackson Downing (1815–1852, landscape designer) View on Google maps The origins of the National Mall can be traced to a preliminary plan for the city of Washington sketched by Thomas Jefferson in March 1791. Jefferson laid out the city in a gridiron formation, envisioning the Capitol building and the President’s House as opposite ends of a prominent east-west axis connected by "public walks" [Fig. 2]. Over the next several months, the military engineer Pierre-Charles L’Enfant expanded upon Jefferson’s ideas in his official plan for the city, which adapted abstract geometry to the natural topography of the site, which featured a park-like setting of rolling hills, a wooded terrain, and proximity to the Potomac River. Influenced by recent developments in French urban planning, L’Enfant’s ambitious design called for a “Grand Avenue, 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length” leading from “the Congress Garden” on Jenkins Hill (now Capitol Hill) to the “President’s park” and a “well-improved field” near the banks of the Potomac, which would be the site of a projected equestrian statue of George Washington (view citation). The view from that point back to the Capitol would feature a cascade falling from a height of forty feet down to a canal running alongside the Mall to the Potomac. L’Enfant conceived of the wide urban avenue as a social as well as a scenic space: a “place of general resort,” bordered by gardens and the stately residences of the city’s elite, as well as playhouses, assembly rooms, academies, “and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the l[e]arned and afford diver[s]ion to the idle” (view citation). L’Enfant would later remark that he “changed the whole face of the city ground, from a savage wilderness into a compleat heden [sic] garden.” Development of the Mall stalled over the next several decades while a variety of alternative plans were advanced. Benjamin Henry Latrobe, then Supervising Architect of the United States Capitol, proposed a design in 1815 that called for a canal originating in a circular basin at the foot of the Capitol and running the full length of the Mall to a cascade and lagoon at the opposite end [Fig. 1]. Nothing came of this proposal, nor of others advanced by the architects Charles Bulfinch (in 1822) and Robert Mills (in 1831). Sections of the Mall were cultivated on a piecemeal basis; for example, in 1821 the Columbian Institute began carrying out improvements on five acres at the Mall’s east end for a botanical garden, which included cultivating a hedge enclosure, excavating an elliptical pond with an island, laying out gravel walks, and planting borders with specimens of native and exotic trees and shrubs. In 1841, as part of his design for the building that would ultimately house the Smithsonian Institution, Robert Mills submitted a comprehensive plan for a great public park extending from the Washington Monument to the Capitol. As conceived by Mills, the Mall would be laid out as a picturesque assemblage of gardens of contrasting styles: informal plantings and serpentine paths in the English style surrounding the Washington Monument and botanic gardens would be contrasted with more formal, geometric plantings near the Capitol [Fig. 3]. Mills’s design was novel for its holistic integration of architecture and landscape, as well as for its botanical emphasis, which reflected the influence of the contemporary English theory of the gardenesque formulated by J. C. Loudon. At the same time, Mills’s design was consistent with the long-held objective of locating a publicly accessible botanic garden in the nation’s capital—an idea first broached in the 1790s by influential advocates including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Mills’s plan had little immediate impact on the landscaping of the Mall, which remained in a undeveloped state in 1845, when a member of the Smithsonian Institution Building Committee “urged the expediency and policy of rescuing the Mall from its present state of degradation and of ornamenting it at least with the different trees of this country, and protecting it with a decent enclosure.” That same year, 2,000 indigenous trees (representing 200 species and varieties) were planted on the Mall, and additional plantings and enclosures were added in the years that followed. Robert Mills’s conception of the Mall as a locus for scientific inquiry and display, and his adoption of the romantic aesthetic of naturalism set the tone for future landscaping of the area. Botanical interests informed the landscape plan designed in 1851 by the architect and horticulturalist Andrew Jackson Downing, who conceived of the Mall as “a national park” and a “public museum of living trees and shrubs” that would both influence taste by providing an example of the natural style of landscape gardening (illustrated by a sequence of contrasting landscape “scenes”), and educate visitors to the popular and scientific names, habits, and growth of botanical specimens suited to Washington’s climate (view citation) [Fig. 4]. Rather than carry out Downing’s plan systematically, individual federal agencies developed portions of the Mall on an ad hoc basis, creating a loosely connected network of meandering walks, gardens, and groves. Under the McMillan Plan of 1902, the existing landscape was cleared and leveled in order to create a more unified, open space with unobstructed vistas in keeping with the spirit of L’Enfant’s original plan. Landscape and hardscape construction projects continue to reshape the Mall and its surroundings into the 21st century. - L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles, June 22, 1791, describing in a report to George Washington his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 151–53) back up to history - “I placed the three grand Departments of State contigous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the park and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique walk and avenue to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] the distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, accademies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.” [Fig. 5] - L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles, August 19, 1791, describing his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 157) - “The grand avenue connecting the palace and the Federal House will be magnificent, with the water of the cascade [falling] to the canal which will extend to the Potomac; as also the several squares which are intended for the Judiciary Courts, the National Bank, the grand Church, the play house, markets and exchange, offering a variety of situations unparallelled for beauty, suitable for every purpose, and in every point convenient, calculated to command the highest price at a sale.” - L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles, January 4, 1792, from notes on “Plan of the City” describing Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 163–65) back up to history - “F. Grand Cascade, formed of water from the sources of the Tiber. - “G. Public walk, being a square of 1200 feet, through which carriages may ascend to the upper Square of the Federal House. - “H. Grand Avenue, 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a slope from the houses on each side. This Avenue leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the - “I. President’s park and the - “K. well-improved field. . . .” [Fig. 6] - “It is a most commanding and beautiful prospect, variegated with woods, cleared land, gentle mounts and vales, and the waters of the Potomac and Tiber Rivers in the distant view; while there is revealed a glimpse of the navy yard where eight frigates of the United States Navy lie in mooring.” - Anonymous, January 2, 1808, describing in the Washington Expositor the National Mall, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 99–100) - “At present these large appropriations afford an increase to the pasturage of the city, more beneficial to the poor citizens, than their culture in the ordinary courses. . . . by laying off those in their occupancy so as to afford ample walks open at seasonable hours and under proper regulations to the public, it will give to the city, much earlier than there is otherwise reasonable cause to hope for, agreeable promenades, as conducive to the health of the inhabitants, as to the beauty of the places.” - Hunt, Henry, William P. Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, describing the National Mall, Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138) - “That, with a view to promote the public good, and to ornament and improve the public grounds, they would recommend that the water of Tiber Creek be brought to the Capitol Square; and, after forming a reservoir, be carried in pipes to the Botanic Garden, and thrown up in a jet d'eau of 30 or 40 feet high, and then be used in watering the surrounding grounds. That a wall five feet high, with a stone coping, be put round the ground appropriated for a Botanic Garden; and that suitable buildings be erected, and the Garden be properly laid out, and cultivated as a National Garden; to effect which important national objects, a sum not exceeding 30,000 dollars will be required.” - Commissioner of Public Buildings, June 9, 1827, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 133) - “The new section of the Washington Canal was laid out along a line drawn through the middle of the Capitol and of the Mall. The pathway, canal and plantation in the garden do not coincide with this line, but diverge from it at an acute angle.” - Bulfinch, Charles, January 21, 1829, proposal to the House Committee on Public Buildings regarding the National Mall, Washington, DC (quoted in Rathburn 1917: 49) - “The Capitol being now finished with the exception of these particular objects, I beg leave to suggest that the public grounds immediately adjacent should conform in some degree to the importance and high finish of the building.” - Mills, Robert, c. 1841, in a letter to Robert Dale Owen, describing the proposed Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) - “Three spacious avenues (of the city) center within these grounds, which at some future day when improved will form three interesting vistas.” - Mills, Robert, February 23?, 1841, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett, describing his design for the National Mall, Washington, DC (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) - “Agreeably to your requisition to prepare a plan of improvement to that part of the Mall lying between 7th and 12th Street West for a botanic garden . . . I have the honor to submit the following Report. . . . - “Drawing No. 1 presents a general plan of the entire Mall, including that annexed to the President’s house, with the particular improvement proposed of that part intended for the Institution and its objects. . . .[See Fig. 3] - “The relative position of the Capitol, President’s House, and other public buildings are laid down, as also the position of the proposed buildings for the Institution; the adjacent streets and avenues are also shown, with the line of the Canal which courses through the City, at the foot of the Capitol hill to the Eastern Branch near the Navy Yard, thus making of the south western section, a complete island. . . . - “The principle upon which this plan is founded is two fold, one is to provide suitable space for a Botanic garden, the other to provide locations for subjects allied to agriculture, the propagation of useful and ornamental trees native and foreign, the provision of sites for the erection of suitable buildings to accommodate the various subjects to be lectured on and taught in the Institution. . . . - “The Botanic garden is laid out in the centre fronting and opening to the south. On each side of this the grounds are laid out in serpentine walks and in picturesque divisions forming plats for grouping the various trees to be introduced and creating shady walks for those visiting the establishments. . . . - “A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the square which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick wall to serve as a shelter and to secure the various hot houses and other buildings of inferior character. - “The main building for the Institution is located about 300 feet south of the wall fronting the Botanic garden, from which it is separated by a circular road, in the centre of which is a fountain of water from the basin of which pipes are led underground thro’ the walks of the garden, for irrigating the same at pleasure, the fountains may be supplied from the canal flowing near the north wall of inclosure. . . . - “By means of Groups and vistas of trees, picturesque views may be obtained of the various buildings and other such objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here.” - Mudd, Ignatius, 1849, describing the grounds of the United States Capitol and the reconstruction of the National Mall, Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 31st Congress, 1st Session, doc. 30) - “A disposition on the part of Congress to make the public grounds what they were originally designed to be. . . . An ornament and attraction to the capital of the nation.” - Downing, A. J., December, 1851, “The State and Prospects of Horticulture” (Horticulturist 6: 540–41) - “The plan [for a public ground in Washington] embraces four or five miles of carriage-drive—walks for pedestrians—ponds of water, fountains and statues—picturesque groupings of trees and shrubs, and a complete collection of all the trees that belong to North America. It will, if carried out as it has been undertaken, undoubtedly give a great impetus to the popular taste in landscape-gardening and the culture of ornamental trees; and as the climate of Washington is one peculiarly adapted to this purpose—this national park may be made a sylvan museum such as it would be difficult to equal in beauty and variety in any part of the world.” - Downing, A. J., 1851, describing plans for improving the public grounds in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 54–55) back up to history - “My object in this Plan has been three-fold: - “1st: To form a national Park, which should be an ornament to the Capital of the United States; 2nd: To give an example of the natural style of Landscape Gardening which may have an influence on the general taste of the Country; 3rd: To form a collection of all the trees that will grown in the climate of Washington, and, by having these trees plainly labelled with their popular and scientific names, to form a public museum of living trees and shrubs where every person visiting Washington could become familiar with the habits and growth of all the hardy trees. [Fig. 7] - “The Public Grounds now to be improved I have arranged so as to form six different and distinct scenes: viz. - “1st: The President’s Park or Parade. - “This comprises the open Ground directly south of the President’s House. Adopting suggestions made me at Washington I propose to keep the large area of this ground open, as a place for parade or military reviews, as well as public festivities or celebrations. A circular carriage drive 40 feet wide and nearly a mile long shaded by an avenue of Elms, surrounds the Parade, while a series of foot-paths, 10 feet wide, winding through thickets of trees and shrubs, forms the boundary to this park, and would make an agreeable shaded promenade for pedestrians. - “I propose to take down the present small stone gates to the President’s Grounds, and place at the end of Pennsylvania Avenue a large and handsome Archway of marble, which shall not only form the main entrance from the City to the whole of the proposed new Grounds, but shall also be one of the principal Architectural ornaments of the city; inside of this arch-way is a semicircle with three gates commanding three carriage roads. Two of these lead into the Parade or President’s Park, the third is a private carriage-drive into the President’s grounds; this gate should be protected by a Porter’s lodge, and should only be open on reception days, thus making the President’s grounds on this side of the house quite private at all other times. . . . - “2nd: Monument Park. - “This comprises the fine plot of ground surrounding the Washington monument and bordered by the Potomac. To reach it from the President’s Park I propose to cross the canal by a wire suspension bridge, sufficiently strong for carriages, which would permit vessels of moderate size to pass under it, and would be an ornamental feature in the grounds. I propose to plant Monument Park wholly with American trees, of large growth, disposed in open groups, so as to al[l]ow of fine vistas of the Potomac river. . . . - “An arrangement of choice trees in the natural style, the plots near the Institution would be thickly planted with the rarest trees and shrubs, to give greater seclusion and beauty to its immediate precincts. - “This Park would be chiefly remarkable for its water features. The Fountain would be supplied from a basin in the Capitol. The pond or lake might either be formed from the overflow of this fountain, or from a filtering drain from the canal. The earth that would be excavated to form this pond is needed to fill up low places now existing in this portion of the grounds. - “6th: The Botanic Garden. - “This is the spot already selected for this purpose and containing three green-houses. It will probably at some future time, be filled with a collection of hardy plants. I have only shown how the carriage-drive should pass through it (Crossing the canal again here) and making the exit by a large gateway opposite the middle gate of the Capitol Grounds. . . . - “The pleasing natural undulations of surface, where they occur, I propose to retain, instead of expending money in reducing them to a level. The surface of the Parks, generally, should be kept in grass or lawn, and mown by the mowing machine used in England, by which, with a man and horse, the labor of six men can be done in one day. . . . - “A national Park like this, laid out and planted in a thorough manner, would exercise as much influence on the public taste as Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, has done. Though only twenty years have elapsed since that spot was laid out, the lesson there taught has been so largely influential that at the present moment the United States, while they have no public parks, are acknowledged to possess the finest rural cemeteries in the world. The Public Grounds at Washington treated in the manner I have here suggested, would undoubtedly become a Public School of Instruction in every thing that relates to the tasteful arrangement of parks and grounds, and the growth and culture of trees, while they would serve, more than anything else that could be devised, to embellish and give interest to the Capital. The straight lines and broad Avenues of the streets of Washington would be pleasantly relieved and contrasted by the beauty of curved lines and natural groups of trees in the various parks. By its numerous public buildings and broad Avenues, Washington will one day command the attention of every stranger, and if its un-improved public grounds are tastefully improved they will form the most perfect background or setting to the City, concealing many of its defects and heightening all its beauties.” - Richard W. Stephenson, “A Plan Whol[l]y New”: Pierre Charles L’Enfant’s Plan of the City of Washington (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993), 17–19, see also 38–43, view on Zotero; Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC 1791–1852,” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989, 15–21, view on Zotero. - Michael J. Lewis, “The Idea of the American Mall,” in The National Mall: Rethinking Washington’s Monumental Core, ed. Nathan Glazer and Cynthia R. Field (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 13–15, view on Zotero; Pamela Scott, “‘This Vast Empire’: The Iconography of the Mall, 1791–1848,” in The Mall in Washington, ed. Richard Longstreth, Studies in the History of Art, Center for Advanced Studies in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers, XIV (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1991), 39–40 and 55, n.20, view on Zotero; O’Malley 1989, 26–48, 95–97,view on Zotero; H. Paul Caemmerer, The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), 151–53, 157–59, 163–65, view on Zotero. - O’Malley 1989, 50, view on Zotero. - Scott 1991, 46–50, view on Zotero. - Scott 1991, 46, view on Zotero; Therese O’Malley, “‘Your Garden Must Be a Museum to You’: Early American Botanic Gardens,” Huntington Library Quarterly 59 (1996): 218–20, view on Zotero; O’Malley, 1989, 122–36,view on Zotero. - O’Malley 1989, 150–51, 158–61, 169–72, view on Zotero. - O’Malley 1996, 213–26, view on Zotero; Scott 1991, 48–49, view on Zotero; O’Malley 1989, 98–105, 112, view on Zotero. - Quoted in O’Malley 1989, 181, view on Zotero. - O’Malley 1989, 180–82, view on Zotero. - Thomas J. Schlereth, “Early North American Arboreta,” Garden History 35 (2007): 211–13, view on Zotero; Kirk Savage, Monument Wars: Washington, DC, the National Mall, and the Transformation of the Memorial (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2005), 70–73, view on Zotero; Therese O’Malley, “‘A Public Museum of Trees’: Mid-Nineteenth Century Plans for the Mall,” in Longstreth, 1991, 65–72, view on Zotero; O’Malley 1989, 196–98, view on Zotero. - Savage 2005, 75, view on Zotero; David C. Streatfield, “The Olmsteds and the Landscape of the Mall,” in Longstreth, 1991, 117–18, view on Zotero; O’Malley 1991, 72, view on Zotero. - Peter R. Penczer, The Washington National Mall (Arlington, VA: Oneonta Press, 2007), 21–121, view on Zotero; Sue Kohler and Pamela Scott, eds., Designing the Nation’s Capital: The 1901 Plan for Washington, DC (Washington, DC: U. S. Commission of Fine Arts, 2006), view on Zotero; Savage 2005, 147–313, view on Zotero; Therese O’Malley, “The Mall: 1992–2002,” in Longstreth, 2002, ix–xii, view on Zotero. - Caemmerer 1950, view on Zotero. - Caemmerer 1950, view on Zotero. - Caemmerer 1950, view on Zotero. - H. M. Pierce Gallagher, Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781–1855 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), view on Zotero. - O’Malley 1989, view on Zotero. - O’Malley 1989, view on Zotero. - Richard Rathburn, “The Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences,” United States National Museum’s Bulletin 101 (1917): 45–46. view on Zotero - Pamela Scott, The Papers of Robert Mills (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), view on Zotero. - Scott 1990, view on Zotero. - Andrew Jackson Downing, “The State and Prospects of Horticulture,” The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste 6, no. 12 (December 1851): 537–41, view on Zotero. - Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” AIA Journal 47, no. 3 (March 1967): 52–59. view on Zotero

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Return to RMEHA Home page> The health condition of Environmental Illness (EI), or severe intolerance, or multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) goes by many names, including: A common description for the environmental illness of a sensitivity or severe intolerance to chemical exposures is multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). This name that has been used in the medical literature for several decades. All of these above names illustrate that many of us have immune, detoxification, blood-brain barrier, voronasal, or neurological system injuries that are or were probably caused by our ever-more-toxic environment. Recent research has found medical records going back to the 1880's or so, when people were plumbing coal gas into homes for heating and lighting, that appear to describe what is now called MCS. People can become supersensitive or hypersensitive, as much as a hundred to a thousand times more so than most people, and find that exposures to many common materials encountered in daily life trigger serious physical symptoms that may take hours or days to recover from. A person with the illness of chemical sensitivity is usually referred to as having multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), or a sensitivity, a hypersensitivity, or a severe intolerance. The term "EI's" is often used in referring to several people with MCS. Most people with the health condition refer to themselves as "I have MCS." There are hundreds of medical papers going back several decades that use the term "MCS." The term MCS will be used throughout this website. MCS is reported as being a problem for up to 26 percent of the American population. Comparable numbers are reported in most industrialized countries worldwide. There is still no cure for the condition; there are (sometimes expensive) supportive medical treatments. The most practical and effective approach to dealing with MCS is to identify the offending materials that are troublesome for you and comprehensively avoid them. Also locate a health professional who supports MCS - such as an Environmental Medicine doctor, a Clinical Ecologist, Chiropractor, or a Naturopathic doctor.. You must ultimately become a medical expert on your body, and develop your personal healing process to live as effectively as possible. In 1998, the New Mexico state epidemiologist estimated that the state was be loosing some 15 million dollars a year in tax revenues because of the low earning capacity of people with MCS. Extrapolating that value out to the nation, as of 1998, as much as 2.32 billion dollars in tax revenues were lost every year by all states. MCSis a technical illness. That technicality can be a problem for the sufferer who may not be aware of the components in an offending material. The technicality can also be a problem for family and friends who do not understand that our society suppresses the details of the contents of many materials in common use, or the consequences of exposures to special populations. The technicality can be a challenge for medical professionals who have had access to limited information about many of the materials they routinely handle during medical procedures, or may have had limited exposure to the concept of hypersensitivity. The technicality is a problem at the social and political levels where the MCS illness is too often regarded as just "socially inappropriate" behaviour. Recent neurological studies consider many of the primary aggravants for the basic MCS injury process, except for mercury, to be materials that entered the human environment in only the last 150 years or so. These materials, such as pesticides, formaldehyde based materials, and many petrochemicals, such as perfumed cleaning products, petro-based perfumes, and immunosuppressice medical drugs, are often the most serious MCS aggravants. Some specific examples - Some of the MCS literature lists acetone as an aggravant, and gives Finger Nail Polish Remover as an example. In practice, yes, people with MCS do find that a breath of Finger Nail Polish Remover does cause an immediate and severe reaction. But they have negligible reaction to industrial strength acetone used in an open-air environment. The manufacturing chemicals, instead of the acetone, are the MCS aggravant. People with MCS commonly avoid eating peppers, saying that they sometimes make them sick. Research now recognizes Capsaicin, the main ingredient in hot peppers, as aggravating the NMDA neural receptor, which in turn brings on the MCS syndrome. This shows up just from nibbling a bite of raw Jalepeno pepper and suffering a wipeout the rest of the day. When some people are beginning to develop the MCS neural injury process, they find that a breath of tobacco smoke causes an immediate reaction. Given the widespread emotionalism that defends the act of smoking in our society, any efforts to find medical relief often become "inappropriate social behaviour" instead of dealing responsibly with a health condition. Sadly, this situation has not been helped by the tobacco industry's long-standing "there is no allergy to tobacco" campaign. Many of these sensitive people have now found out, via clinical testing, that they are probably reacting to the the oxidation products of the pesticides that are common in most tobacco smoke. A breath of some newspaper inks, especially those commonly used in the advertising sections, sets off the MCS reaction for some people - weak, dopey, dizzy the rest of the day. Some of the medical information sources now do talk about "allergies," or a contact dermatitis, but do not mention sensitivities, which is very unbalanced consumer information. (If advertisers really want to contact potential buyers, they should specify the printers use safer inks!) Some people develop MCS from a single short term, high level exposure. Very small low-dose, prolonged exposures to aggravants can cause gradual, subtle, but long term health damage, that can be hard to detect and prevent, but does degenerate into MCS. People vary greatly in their response to chemical exposures. Some will hardly react while others may become very ill. Among the most vulnerable are women, unborn babies, allergy sufferers, workers in high-risk occupations, the poor, the young, the elderly, and the chronically ill. The causes of the MCS illness are varied. And they can be arguable because there is often a considerable time lag between exposure and the development of medically identifiable symptoms. Based on a study across nine European countries in 2005, the Danish Ministry for the Environment considered the following materials as initiators: The report concluded that solvents and pesticides are the most common MCS initiators and noted that claims that stress or psychosocial factors can initiate MCS are questionable. Another aspect of the MCS illness that is getting attention is the concept of a body burden buildup and collapse process. The body burden is an accumulation of supposedly non-toxic chemicals, often ones that came into the human environment in only the last 150 years or so, that the human body does not have explicit evolutionary protection for. These chemicals are often sequestered in fatty tissue, especially in the brain. During a serious illness, the body can draw energy from those fatty tissue reserves. If the tissue had a buildup of chemicals, those supposedly non-toxic chemicals can be released back into the body in a sudden avalanche. If the release is within the blood chemistry of the brain, a wide range of subtle neurological injury processes are possible. It is a common story from MCS sufferers that they think they got their MCS from a long illness, or extreme exercise, or general weight loss that did not necessarily have anything to do with pesticide, etc., exposure, that they just "never recovered from." And then their health deteriorated into the MCS condition. I.E., The illness forced the body to use fatty tissue energy reserves that caused a release of sequestered toxins. More information is at the Environmental Working Group site - DNA studies are showing that many people with MCS often have a genetic impairment in one or more bodily detoxification processes, such as the Cytochrome P450 pathway. Some people with MCS also appear to often have a genetic impairment that may facilitate the subsequent neurological injury processes. EI symptoms are frequently non-specific (the "sick-all-over" feeling) and traditional medical practices, such as those provided by "classical allergy" specialists, are often of little help. EI sufferers become ill from eating, breathing, or absorbing small amounts of widely-used "safe" chemicals. Some people can further become sensitive to "natural" substances such as cotton, certain foods, molds, etc., but with a hypersensitivity of perhaps 1,000 times that of a normal person, there is always the question of whether a low level contamination with one or more of the MCS aggravants that our current science claims is "safe" is to blame. The following criteria are considered diagnostic of MCS as of 1999 - Source - The Environmental Illness Resource, located in Harrogate, North Yorkshire, HG3 2UB, GB Sophisticated research procedures, such as challenge QEEG evoked potentials, SPECT scans, and PET scans do demonstrate unique neurological damages that appear to be associated with an MCS reaction. But much more research is needed to develop easily accessible and reliable biomarker tests. Recent research is demonstrating another metabolic disorder that appears to be part of the MCS puzzle, Orders of Porphyrinopathy. This disorder also shows up in people with chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, dental mercury amalgam problems, and silicone implants.Recent biomarker based research in Paris, France supports regarding MCS as an injury to the blood brain barrier that allow exogenous materials into the limbic area of the brain. This in turn causes cellular inflammation, which in turn degrades immune system roots that in turn cause the many and apparently unrelated MCS symptoms. The emerging field of epigenetics may be involved, where environmental influences, such as pesticides, are observed to alter DNA molecule decoding that in turn causes erratic physiological development. Much more research is needed in this area. Finding a doctor who recognizes MCS and provides some degree of effective support and treatment is often a challenge. Medical specialty possiblities to check include the group often called "Alternative Medicine practitioners," such as members of the American Academy of Environmental Medicine, Chiropractors, Naturopaths, and Homeopaths. Yes, it can be an imposition on your health care practitioner, but given the widespread lack of understanding in this illness, do get a written statement for your MCS or severe intolerance diagnosis. The following papers give detailed summaries of the many physiological changes that are consistently associated with MCS. A book, published in 2003, "Defining Chemical Injury", by Dr. G. Heuser, gives another detailed summary of the many physiological changes that appear to be common to people with chemical injury. MCS is recognized as a disabling condition by the Department of Housing and Development (HUD), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the National Academy of Sciences. MCS is considered a valid condition for workman's compensation claims, liability, tort, and regulatory The governors of many states have signed proclamations recognizing MCS . (See MCS Awareness Month Proclamation in Colorado.) MCS has been accepted as a disabling illness by Social Security, with a diagnostic code of DI 24515.064.More information is available on the RMEHA Disability Resources page. There are several models that attempt to give a detailed physiological and neurological picture of the MCS injury mechanism, including - A website describing the Neurological Inflammation or OO/NOO model is at - A page describing Toxicant Induced Loss of Tolerance is at - An emerging hypothesis for MCS amounts to a cascade of several neural and immune system injuries. First is a genetic deficiency or an injury to the blood brain barrier, possibly caused by exposure to materials, such as mold toxins, or often materials that contain large organic molecules with mercury, phosphorus, chlorine or bromine atoms, or aggravated by a body burden collapse, or by a serious electromagnetic radiation exposure. The initial injury is then followed by a subsequent neurological injury cascade process that is aggravated by primary toxins that came into the human environment in only the last 150 years or so and produces neural sensitivities as much as 100 to 1,000 times normal. Poorly detoxified toxins from the neurological injury then appear to set the stage for MCS and several multi-system illnesses, such as chronic fatigue syndrome, and others. An apoptosis failure in the injured neural cells then appears to permit mitochondria fragments to get into the bloodstream which provokes a mini-blood-poisoning condition that may bring on the many autoimmune and classical allergy conditions that are so common with MCS. There is no International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code in America for the health condition of environmental illness. So the ICD-9 code 989.9, "intolerance to other substances, non-specified" is often used as a diagnosis. MCS is explicitly identified in the ICD codes of several European and countries and actions are underway to recognize it in the ICD codes of all European countries. It must be noted that sensitivities are not allergies. Use of the word "allergy" amounts to a dangerous semantic minefield, because there are situations where an "allergy-appropriate" emergency response or medical treatment (such as treatment with an immunosuppressive drug) can do more harm than good. Allergies and sensitivities can both cause symptoms that range from being a minor to severe, life threatening reactions, but there are very different physical injury mechanisms involved. Unfortunately, many people (including some medical staff, even researchers!) understand "allergy" to be a much milder condition than a sensitivity. The discovery of the immune system in the early 1900's established that sensitivity is not an allergy; this is a point some elements of the classical allergy profession have been defending very emphatically ever since. In MCS, there is no immediate immune system recognition of the primary chemical injury process, although allergies may subsequently develop along with sensitivities because toxins released by the sensitivity injury also can degrade the immune system. Definitely check with your health care professional about this area before accepting just "any" medical treatment. Many aspects of dealing with medical situations are covered in the following paper - Another label being applied to environmental illnesses is idiopathic environmental intolerance or IEI. The dictionary definition of "idiopathic" is of interest - "Of unknown cause." In other words, not caused by chemical exposure, and thus imaginary. This label came about from a conference in Berlin in the 1990's sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO) that was going to "solve the chemical injury issue." Information developed in the 1880's when people were having problems from coal gas plumbed into their homes for heating and lighting was ignored. The immune system was discovered in the early 1900's, and since there was no obvious immune system physical reaction - per the science of that time - the reaction was assumed "impossible;" much attention was paid to that assumption. The conference paid limited attention to research developed in the 1950's and 1960's when doctors began to accept this illness and develop supporting therapies that apparently helped many people. Representatives of the European MCS community were not allowed access to the Berlin conference! The European Commission had recommended that both proponents and critics of MCS be included in the conference. But instead, the only non-governmental representatives were full-time employees of the BASF, Bayer, Coca Cola, and Monsanto companies. The "American position" on MCS was presented by a Ronald Gots, who has been claiming for a long time that MCS is not an illness and was reported to be involved with an industry trade organization, Environmental Sensitivities Research Institute (ESRI), that was founded to "serve the needs of industries affected by MCS litigation". In practice, ESRI supplies "expert witnesses" for opposing legal actions that involve chemical injury, such as applications for disability. Although the internal report first using the label IEI was embargoed for release, it was published anonymously in the journal Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology with an acknowledgement that the publication was made possible by a grant from ESRI, and it was implied that the publication had full WHO sanction. WHO then published a statement "A workshop report to WHO ... presents the opinions of the invited experts and does not represent the decision or stated policy of WHO." The WHO disclaimer went on to say "with respect to MCS, WHO has neither adopted nor endorsed a policy or scientific opinion." Also of interest, the conference minutes made a special point of expressing appreciation to several pharmaceutical/pesticide and tobacco companies for their extensive financial support in facilitating the conference. As of ten years after the conference, a final conference report never appeared because people could not agree on conclusions. As of summer of 2013, web references to ESRI have disappeared and their web site, esri.org, has been taken over by a commercial company. The IEI label has no medical or scientific basis; it amounts to a sophisticated industry sponsored "confusion science" attempt to derail MCS from being accepted as a serious illness that deserves medical acceptance and real scientific research. Very similar to what our society has seen with the PCB, Dioxin, asbestos, tobacco, pesticide misdirections that delayed our society from coming to grips with the many public health issues that were caused by those materials. The IEI label was obsolete when it was invented; there is extensive science-based, independent, peer-reviewed research that says this label should be no longer used to disaccomodate people with with the illness of MCS. A reality we live with is a belief held by some people that MCS is somehow "controversial." This belief disaccomodates people with MCS; it is extremely demoralizing to people with MCS; it has diverted people with MCS from appropriate medical support and it generates an common attitude or information environment throughout our society that this illness does not need to be taken seriously. But this label really has several very different meanings. There are various perspectives about whether any illness should be named describing the cause of the injury process, such as a chemical exposure, or whether the name should the name reflect the body damages that occur because of the injury, such as toxic encephalopathy. The discussions about these perspectives are sometimes called controversial. MCS is "controversial" because state medical boards have disbarred from medical practice doctors, such as alternative, clinical ecology or environmental medicine specialists, who diagnose and offer support and treatment for the health condition. Such actions have been a disaster for people developing MCS who have been to many doctors, finally find a doctor who supports the health condition, and then finds that he disappears from the community and nobody is willing to talk about it. Such actions are apparently based on anonymous complaints which are extra-constitutional because the accused doctor cannot face his accuser. The proceedings of state medical boards should be open and the boards should not accept complaints fron vested interests or people with narrow agendas. There should be a sunset law on all medical board hearings that discloses all actions of medical boards after some reasonable time frame, such as ten years. In any field of study, a hypothesis goes through several stages before it becomes generally recognized as a theory. An important stage is criticism. People who don't agree, or have other views, report their suggestions, criticisms, and very importantly - with documentation. After perhaps many repetitions, the hypothesis becomes generally accepted and adopted as a theory. The understanding of MCS has gone through many variations of this criticism and refinement. This is the way a robust and inquisitive scientific research process works. Unfortunately, people who are perhaps not familiar with the scientific process often seize upon this process as implying MCS is not real, or is not accepted or is controversial. That process has not been the case with MCS. Sadly, we need to admit that there are vested interests that regard the existance of the illness of MCS as an imposition or affront to their perceived belief system about "how things should be." A paper that discusses these attitudes and their consequences for EI's in detail is - For one example, in 1990, the Chemical Manufacturers Association (now called the American Chemistry Council), a trade organization supporting many private chemical industry companies, explicitly adopted a position to work with state medical associations to block recognition of MCS. [CMA Environmental Illness Briefing Paper, 1990] A reality is that MCS is recognized as a health problem for some 11 to 16 percent of the American population. Most people with the health condition refer to themselves as "I have MCS". There are hundreds of medical papers going back several decades that refer to the health condition explicitly as "MCS." Comparable numbers are reported worldwide in most industrialized countries. If someone says your - whatever - health condition that was diagnosed by a board certified doctor with many years of experience is "controversial," tell them to provide documentation. MCS is a real, serious and sometimes devastating, 24/7 illness that deserves the full acceptance and support of our society at the personal level, at the social level, at the medical level, and especially at the political level. It is a very reasonable question from people without environmental illness to ask "How does one accept, accommodate and respect a person with this condition?" See the following page for a discussion of this area which is a very big challenge for everyone of us. See the following page for one example of an MCS medical support regimen that has been reported to have helped people - See the following paper from MCS-America for summaries of several MCS treatment and support protocols. The National Institute of Health Sciences (NIEHS) has the following definition of Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) - (Full URL no longer available.) As of 2004, research was been published that demonstrates significant genetic differences between people with or without MCS. The study found that some of the body's enzymes that are important to detoxification of toxic compounds are significantly lower in people with MCS. See the study published July 15, 2004 in the International Journal of Epidemiology by Gail McKeown-Eyssen and her colleagues. Not only were the MCS patients more likely to have significant differences is several genes that would impair their ability to detoxify toxic compounds, but some of them were reported to be more than 18 times more likely to have a specific combination of two forms of the genetic differences. Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), where people report being exquisitely sensitive to a wide range of organic chemicals, is almost always described as being "controversial." Often without any documentation. The main source of this supposed controversy is that there has been assumed to be no plausible physiological mechanism for MCS and consequently, it was difficult to interpret the puzzling reported features of this condition. As discussed below, this is no longer true and consequently the main source of such controversy has been laid to rest. There still are many very important issues concerning MCS, such as how it should be diagnosed and treated. These may well be allayed by further studies of the mechanism discussed in the following web publication. Articles by Dr. Pall - Dr. Pall has also written a book - "Explaining 'Unexplained Illnesses,'" dated 2007, ISBN 978-0-7890-2388-9, that has an extensive discussion of a common neurological injury cascade mechanism that appears to explain many aspects of MCS, Post-Traumatic Disorder, Fibromyalgia, Gulf War Syndrome, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and other multi-system illnesses. Notably, this book has some 110 pages of recent small-print citations throughout the medical literature.Much more and recent information is available at Dr. Pall's web site - The Governor of Colorado, Bill Ritter, signed a proclamation recognizing May 2011 as Multiple Chemical Sensitivity and Toxic Injury Awareness Month. The proclamation reads as follows - "Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) and toxic injury affects people of all ages, ethnicity, cultures, and religions; and MCS and toxic injury are often characterized by heightened sensitivity to minute amounts of air pollution, petrochemicals, and other toxins; and MCS and toxic injury are chronic conditions for which there is no known cures, creating multiple, often disabling illnesses, which can be life-threatening; and raising public awareness to educate citizens of the dangers of MCS and toxic injury is one of the many ways we can battle the devastating effects of this chronic incurable condition."A copy, formatted for printing, is available at - The Wikipedia online encyclopedia has become a significant web resource for information about a wide range of issues. Wikipedia does have a page devoted to MCS, but the page lacks much significant information, omitting even such basic details as the prevalence of MCS in the population. For reference, current studies report some 10 ... 15 percent of the people in most industrialized nations are affected. The article does not reference the current very considerable modern research about MCS, and amounts to presenting a very distorted and unrealistic picture of this devastating illness. See the following for their definition of MCS - Do keep in mind that Wikipedia is an open-source edited website. It has extensive disclaimers that nothing on the website should be trusted. Anyone on the earth can register themselves as a Wikipedia editor, there are no requirements for the expertise to present accurate or reliable information. Editors can make any change they wish, and it goes online immediately. It is an involved process, but check the authors of Wikipedia pages before taking them seriously. Some authors may have a poor understanding of current research; they may have vested interests; they may have agendas that have nothing to do with presenting a balanced view of MCS. There is Help! Many of the people in RMEHA have come to a much better understanding of their physical condition and have learned what to do (and not do) to feel healthier, happier and live as effectively as possible within the challenging confines of this illness. Through assistance from Environmental Medicine physicians, books and magazines, web information, appropriate nutrition and supplements, avoiding aggravants, and mutual support, many of our members have improved their health. We would be delighted to hear about your experiences and share the resources we have accumulated! Please contact and/or join RMEHA! Here are several search engines in case you wish to do more research from this page - Follow the links below to learn more about RMEHA and Environmental Illness. :  :  :

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Various authors and prominent leaders define leadership as an influence or the ability of one person to lead, guide, or positively impact other individuals or an entire organization to follow him or her. Leadership is a serious and difficult task. Other people say that leaders are born. They say that they are innately born with a charismatic personality. But, leadership is far more than just the appeal and charm of a person to persuade others to follow his or her leading. It actually involves a lot of hard work which people often can’t see for their labors are done mostly behind the platform. If you are looking for the best definition of leadership which goes beyond the charisma and the looks, the best examples and guidelines are found in the ageless and most well-known book— the Bible. Scripture provides us with the best Bible verses about leadership. The Bible gives undying wisdom on leadership. Though many are well versed in leadership, only a few fully understand the heart of leadership shown in the Bible. From the journey of the Israelites out of Egypt to the life of the early Christian churches, leadership is an eminent subject. God uses leaders like Moses, Joshua, King Saul, David, and Solomon to lead His people in the Old Testament and another bunch of amazing disciples in the New Testament to lead people back to Christ. Even Adam and Eve were God’s stewards over the Garden of Eden. Taking care of everything God created must have required them to have good leadership. As we can see, leadership is a well-conversed theme in the Bible. This is not a mystery however, for God Himself is King and Ruler of everything. Let’s go through the following Bible verses about leadership to have a great grasp of Biblical and Spiritual leadership. Bible Verses About Leadership And Servitude The best leadership style every Christian leader should master is servant leadership or, servitude. Jesus Himself showed us the best way to lead, and this is through servanthood. The Bible tells us that to lead means to serve. Service as a form of leadership is quite unpopular for many leaders. Various leaders are not comfortable with the idea of serving because they are usually entitled to give instructions. The truth about servant leadership which Jesus showed for leaders to follow is often hard to swallow. Humility is not just a word, it’s the core principle of servant leadership. Jesus was humble. He did three things that showed true leadership Christians should follow. First, Jesus took the humble position of a slave. Second, He gave up His divine privileges and born in human form. Lastly, He humbled himself even further by dying scandalously as a criminal on the cross (Philippians 2:5-8). A popular story shows the kind of leadership Jesus wants his disciples to follow, which is the washing of their feet (John 13:1-17). He then instructed them to wash each other’s feet. This act taught them to serve each other for Jesus knew that a time will come when he will no longer be with them. Great leaders are servant leaders (Mark 10:43-44). They lead by serving first. They seek to put first the interest of those they lead. Selfish ambition has no place in spiritual leadership, especially in the Church. Here are some of the best Bible verses about Leadership and servitude. - Matthew 20:28 Even as the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many. - Philippians 2:5-7 You must have the same attitude that Christ Jesus had. Though he was God, he did not think of equality with God as something to cling to. Instead, he gave up his divine privileges; he took the humble position of a slave and was born as a human being. When he appeared in human form - Philippians 2:8 And he humbled himself even further, going so far as actually to die a criminal’s death on a cross. - Mark 10:43-44 But it shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be slave of all. - Philippians 2:4 Let each of you look not only to his own interests but also to the interests of others. - John 13:13-14 You call me Teacher and Lord, and you are right, for so I am. If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. - James 3:14-18 But if you have bitter jealousy and selfish ambition in your hearts, do not boast and be false to the truth. This is not the wisdom that comes down from above but is earthly, unspiritual, demonic. For where jealousy and selfish ambition exist, there will be disorder and every vile practice. But the wisdom from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, open to reason, full of mercy and good fruits, impartial and sincere. And a harvest of righteousness is sown in peace by those who make peace. - Matthew 20:26 It shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant - Philippians 2:3 Do nothing from selfish ambition or conceit but in humility count others more significant than yourselves. - John 3:30 He must increase, but I must decrease. - Matthew 20:27 And whoever would be first among you must be your slave - Mark 9:35 Sitting down, Jesus called the Twelve and said, “Anyone who wants to be first must be the very last, and the servant of all.” Bible Verses about Leadership in the Church Leadership in the Church is a serious position. The New Testament is full of reminders on how to choose the right person to lead the entire congregation. The ministry of a church leader is never a playground. So, the Bible provides guidelines on how a church leader should live. Some of these Bible verses about leadership in the Church shows the weight of being a Shepherd to a flock. The task is quite heavy but we also know that the reward for this labor is incomprehensible. This is a noble task, an honorable position, an excellent and good work(1 Timothy 3:1). The weight of this position is heavy because it is the life, leadership, and character of Christ that one should model as he or she leads others to God. The following Bible verses about leadership reveals what it means to lead a Church. - Hebrews 13:7 Remember your leaders, those who spoke to you the word of God. Consider the outcome of their way of life, and imitate their faith. - Hebrews 13:17 Obey your leaders and submit to them, for they are keeping watch over your souls, as those who will have to give an account. Let them do this with joy and not with groaning, for that would be of no advantage to you. - James 3:1-2 Dear brothers, don’t be too eager to tell others their faults, for we all make many mistakes; and when we teachers of religion, who should know better, do wrong, our punishment will be greater than it would be for others. If anyone can control his tongue, it proves that he has perfect control over himself in every other way. - 1 Timothy 3:1 This is a trustworthy saying: “If someone aspires to be a church leader, he desires an honorable position.” - 1 Timothy 3:2 Therefore an overseer must be above reproach, the husband of one wife, sober-minded, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach. - Hebrews 13:18 Pray for us, for we are sure that we have a clear conscience, desiring to act honorably in all things. - 1 Timothy 3:3 He must not be a heavy drinker or be violent. He must be gentle, not quarrelsome, and not love money - 1 Timothy 3:6 A church leader must not be a new believer, because he might become proud, and the devil would cause him to fall. - Acts 20:28 Pay careful attention to yourselves and to all the flock, in which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to care for the church of God, which he obtained with his own blood. - 1 Timothy 3:4-5 He must manage his own family well, having children who respect and obey him. For if a man cannot manage his own household, how can he take care of God’s church? - 1 Timothy 3:8-10 Church officers should be serious. They must not be liars, heavy drinkers, or greedy for money. And they must have a clear conscience and hold firmly to what God has shown us about our faith. They must first prove themselves. Then if no one has anything against them, they can serve as officers. Modeling Christ’s character is the top priority of a Church leader in living a life worthy of his calling. Aside from servanthood, there are many things a church leader should do. In the Bible, there are expectations when we hold the task of overseeing the people of God. The Bible verses about leadership show a leader should live a life above reproach, meaning a life that is above shame or disgrace. Thus, though not perfect, a leader should try living a life that pursues righteousness and holiness. Bible Verses about Leadership Qualities What does it take to be a leader? The standard for a Church leader is high because they carry the mission of Jesus being God’s footstool here on earth. But what about other leadership positions? In organizations, businesses, or in ministries, what should a good leader have to be effective and be able to positively impact those he or she leads. A good leader is a good example. Before they can lead other people towards their goals, leaders should be the first to walk on that goal. A good leader is also a good listener. In contrast to assumptions of leaders always having the last say, the truth is that the people also want to be heard. Communication should not just flow downward. A leaders’ task is not concentrated on giving orders telling people to do this or that. They should have patience and an open mind to listen. If a leader continues to lead on his own without attending to the voices of those he leads, he will lose the people who were once eager to follow him. An effective leader also has creativity and initiative. Leaders should always think of better ways to serve his people by listening to their suggestions and issues with current happenings. The following Bible verses about leadership show us better ways to serve. Matthew 24:45 tells us that a good leader is wise and faithful. Whatever group you are leading today; however small or big your place of meeting is, the Lord tells us to be faithful to those whom we lead. - Proverbs 22:29 Do you see any truly competent workers? They will serve kings rather than working for ordinary people. - 2 Timothy 2:15 Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved, a worker who has no need to be ashamed, rightly handling the word of truth. - 2 Timothy 2:6-7 It is the hard-working farmer who ought to have the first share of the crops. Think over what I say, for the Lord will give you understanding in everything. - Proverbs 27:23-24 Know well the condition of your flocks, and give attention to your herds, for riches do not last forever; and does a crown endure to all generations? - Luke 12:48 “The servant who knows what his master wants and ignores it, or insolently does whatever he pleases, will be thoroughly thrashed. But if he does a poor job through ignorance, he’ll get off with a slap on the hand. Great gifts mean great responsibilities; greater gifts, greater responsibilities!” - 2 Timothy 1:7 For the Spirit God gave us does not make us timid, but gives us power, love and self-discipline. - Romans 12:11 Never be lacking in zeal, but keep your spiritual fervor, serving the Lord. - Philippians 4:8 Finally, brothers and sisters, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or praiseworthy—think about such things. - Daniel 6:3Now Daniel so distinguished himself among the administrators and the satraps by his exceptional qualities that the king planned to set him over the whole kingdom. - Colossians 3:23 Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters Bible Verses about Excellence in Leading Aside from the qualities seen in Bible verses about leadership, one of the best qualities of a leader is excellence. Why do some leaders become effective? It is because of the excellence and value they put into what they do. They strive to excel in all things. Do you want to excel? Everything God created is full of excellence; beautifully and wonderfully made (Psalm 139:14). His mighty works are excellent (Deuteronomy 32:4). God’s way is excellent and perfect (2 Samuel 22:31). Even the name of God is excellent (Psalm 8:9). The Lord is the author of excellence. Whatever God creates and does, it is in the form of excellence. He is an excellent Creator, Leader, and Savior. Excellence flows in Him as natural as how blood flows in our veins. Thus, if we desire for excellence, let’s ask God to equip us. How important is excellence for a leader? These Bible verses about leadership tell us why. Daniel was an excellent man and leader which distinguished him from all other administrators, leading the King to entrust him with running his whole kingdom (Daniel 6:3). Joseph the Dreamer was also a man of faithfulness and excellence that wherever he went, he leads. When he was in prison he became in charge of all the prisoners and when he met the Pharaoh, he became in charge of all Egypt. Excellent workers do not serve ordinary people. Rather, they serve Kings and high-ranking officials (Proverbs 22:29). On the other hand, warns us that a worker who does a poor job through ignorance will get off with a slap on the hand (Luke 12:48). - Matthew 24:45-47 “Who then is the faithful and wise servant, whom his master has set over his household, to give them their food at the proper time? Blessed is that servant whom his master will find so doing when he comes. Truly, I say to you, he will set him over all his possessions.” - 1 Timothy 4:12 Let no one despise you for your youth, but set the believers an example in speech, in conduct, in love, in faith, in purity. - 2 Timothy 2:24 And the Lord’s servant must not be quarrelsome but kind to everyone, able to teach, patiently enduring evil. - Titus 1:7 For an overseer, as God’s steward, must be above reproach. He must not be arrogant or quick-tempered or a drunkard or violent or greedy for gain - Proverbs 22:29 - Titus 1:7-8 For an overseer, as God’s steward, must be above reproach. He must not be arrogant or quick-tempered or a drunkard or violent or greedy for gain, but hospitable, a lover of good, self-controlled, upright, holy, and disciplined. - Titus 1:9 He must hold firm to the trustworthy word as taught, so that he may be able to give instruction in sound doctrine and also to rebuke those who contradict it. - Proverbs 29:2When the godly are in authority, the people rejoice. But when the wicked are in power, they groan. - Proverbs 29:4 A just king gives stability to his nation, but one who demands bribes destroys it. - James 4:10 Humble yourselves before the Lord, and he will exalt you. Scriptures about Wise Leadership Problems and Difficulties are inevitable in leadership. In fact, resolving team conflicts are part of a leader’s responsibilities. Leaders are accountable to resolve whatever problems that arise while they are leading. It is their duty to give effective and immediate solutions. For this reason, every leader needs a wise game plan in leading their team. Problem-solving skills are a good strength for any leader. There’s no need to fear when facing difficulties for you can always seek advice from wiser individuals who have expertise in leadership (Proverbs 11:14). Leaders need guidance because it is treacherous to lead without it. Moreover, if anyone lacks wisdom, they should ask God (James 1:5). He surely has an ample supply of problem-solving and critical thinking skills leaders will need. Even Moses, the most influential leader of Israel faced difficulties in leading the Israelites. He found difficulty in resolving the problems of the Israelites. They come to him when they have a dispute and Moses will decide between one person and another. Imagine how exhausting this is for Moses! When his father-in-law Jethro saw this, he gave Moses a piece of wise advice. He told Moses to chose able men from all Israel and make them heads over the people. Small matters would be brought to them. Bigger issues that these able men cannot resolve will be taken to Moses. In this way, they will not wear each other out and problem-solving becomes organized and systematic. What a relief this is for Moses and the Israelites. This is wise leadership— that leads others to be leaders also. - 2 Timothy 2:2 And what you have heard from me in the presence of many witnesses entrust to faithful men, who will be able to teach others also. - Exodus 18:17-20 Moses’ father-in-law said to him, “What you are doing is not good. You and the people with you will certainly wear yourselves out, for the thing is too heavy for you. You are not able to do it alone. Now obey my voice; I will give you advice, and God be with you! You shall represent the people before God and bring their cases to God, and you shall warn them about the statutes and the laws, and make them know the way in which they must walk and what they must do. - Exodus 18:21-23 Moreover, look for able men from all the people, men who fear God, who are trustworthy and hate a bribe, and place such men over the people as chiefs of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties, and of tens. And let them judge the people at all times. Every great matter they shall bring to you, but any small matter they shall decide themselves. So it will be easier for you, and they will bear the burden with you. If you do this, God will direct you, you will be able to endure, and all these people also will go to their place in peace.” - Titus 1:5-6 This is why I left you in Crete, so that you might put what remained into order, and appoint elders in every town as I directed you— if anyone is above reproach, the husband of one wife and his children are believers and not open to the charge of debauchery or insubordination. - Exodus 18:25 Moses chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people, chiefs of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties, and of tens. - Exodus 18:26 And they judged the people at all times. Any hard case they brought to Moses, but any small matter they decided themselves. - Psalm 78:72 With an upright heart, he shepherded them and guided them with his skillful hand. - Proverbs 11:14 Where there is no guidance, a people falls, but in an abundance of counselors, there is safety. - Proverbs 16:12 Good leaders abhor wrongdoing of all kinds; sound leadership has a moral foundation. Encouraging Bible Verses for Leaders Aside from the issues of the team or members of the organization, leaders face other difficulties including discouragement, frustrations, weariness, and despair. There is no easy way to lead others especially if you are leading them to Christ. There will be moments of hopelessness and times when you become unsure if you’re doing the right thing. Doubts are lurking around you which can lead you into questioning God is really by your side as you do your mission. There are many encouraging Bible verses about leadership that will help you endure and surpass the trials you are facing as a leader. What you are experiencing as a leader can be really difficult. You might feel alone sometimes as you lead. At some point, you will feel unheard and neglected. Other times, it feels like however hard you strive to improve the team you are leading, nothing happens. The Bible gives us much encouragement in the midst of our discouragement. The Bible verses about leadership remind us that in sharing with Christ’s suffering as good soldiers of Jesus, there is favor (Mark 10:27). The God who called you for His purpose will be with you, before you, behind you, and within you. He is always at work for the good of those who love him and those who serve him (Romans 8:48). If you are discouraged right now or you feel alone and lost in your leadership, the Lord is saying that He will help you, strengthen you, and uphold you with his righteous right hand (Isaiah 41:10). The right hand of God secures your provisions and favor. He has not called you for a purpose to leave you lost and alone. He will do great things. - Galatians 6:9 And let us not grow weary of doing good, for in due season we will reap, if we do not give up. - Isaiah 41:10 Fear not, for I am with you; be not dismayed, for I am your God; I will strengthen you, I will help you, I will uphold you with my righteous right hand. - 2 Timothy 2:3-5 Share in suffering as a good soldier of Christ Jesus. No soldier gets entangled in civilian pursuits since his aim is to please the one who enlisted him. An athlete is not crowned unless he competes according to the rules. - Romans 8:28 We know that God is always at work for the good of everyone who loves him. They are the ones God has chosen for his purpose - James 1:12 Blessed is the one who perseveres under trial because, having stood the test, that person will receive the crown of life that the Lord has promised to those who love him. - Mark 10:27 Jesus looked at them and said, “With man, this is impossible, but not with God; all things are possible with God.” - Luke 12:32 So don’t be afraid, little flock. For it gives your Father great happiness to give you the Kingdom. Inspiring Bible Verses About Leadership Most Christians shun away from the thought of leading a church or a ministry. They are skeptical and have doubts about their purpose, abilities, and strengths. After all, serving in the Church is no easy task. It will require anyone his or her whole life to lead a congregation or a group of people who will follow Christ. Despite these truths, the calling to lead others to Christ is so important for God’s kingdom. The Lord is looking for leaders to oversee His flock. He is in search of a person after his own heart to appoint a leader of His people (1 Samuel 13:14). The Church is badly in need of leaders. Any organization will not progress without leaders. There will be chaos. The task of the team will be a lot more difficult without someone to lead them and will not be able to accomplish their task. The Church also cannot grow without a leader who is devoted to living a life above reproach and to lead others to Christ. Unlike other leaders, spiritual leaders do not just come out of election or appointment. It is the Lord who chooses them, molds them, and equips them. Spiritual leadership is not attained by strength and personality. The Lord can choose the weak to magnify His strength. He always looks at the heart. It is important to consult God if anyone aspires to lead. Perhaps, you never dreamt of leading a church or a ministry but there is a burden in you about leadership that is strong, lift it to God and ask His guidance towards your purpose. To set your mind better on the purpose of Christ, meditate on some of these Bible verses about leadership. - Jeremiah 1:5 Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the nations. - 2 Timothy 2:20-21 Now in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver but also of wood and clay, some for honorable use, some for dishonorable. Therefore, if anyone cleanses himself from what is dishonorable, he will be a vessel for honorable use, set apart as holy, useful to the master of the house, ready for every good work. - Psalm 37:5 Commit everything you do to the Lord. Trust him, and he will help you. - Philippians 4:12-13 I know how to be brought low, and I know how to abound. In any and every circumstance, I have learned the secret of facing plenty and hunger, abundance, and need. 13 I can do all things through him who strengthens me. - Ephesians 4:11-12 And he gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the shepherds and teachers, to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ - Psalm 37:3-4 Trust in the Lord, and do good; dwell in the land and befriend faithfulness. Delight yourself in the Lord, and he will give you the desires of your heart. - Romans 8:31 What then shall we say to these things? If God is for us, who can be against us? Great Leaders are Followers In Christian Leadership it is impossible and foolish to lead without following Jesus first. A blind man cannot lead another blind man, they will both fall into a pit (Matthew 15:14). A leader cannot lead other people to follow Christ if he is not following Christ. We begin to follow Christ the day we receive Him in our lives. If anyone desires to lead others to Christ, he must first spend time in fellowship with God. Since a good leader isn’t made in a day, it matters that leaders and those who aspire to be leaders learn how to follow God positively. The inner life of a leader matters as much as their life is seen by their followers. Leaders teach with their own actions. May the Bible verses about leadership help you not just understand true Biblical leadership, but also in desiring to lead under God’s strength.

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Sometimes in life, when we look back to ancient teachings we can find infinite wisdom that still rings true today. This collection from the great Lao Tzu proves that some of the wisest words ever written or spoken came centuries before our time. Lao Tzu was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer who’s believed to be the author of the Tao Te Ching (a collection of sayings describing the principal Taoist teachings), and the father of Chinese Taoism (a philosophy that advocates living a simple life.) Also known as Laozi, Lao Tzu existed in the 6th century B.C and is considered a central figure in Chinese culture. Although very little is known about his life, Lao Tzu’s teachings have been passed down through the centuries and have influenced many different people, regardless of culture. Below are some amazing Lao Tzu quotes to instill his timeless wisdom and inspire you to be the best you can be. Remember to also read our selection of thoughtful quotes by Confucius and Diogenes of Sinope quotes. We also have a collection of inspirational courage quotes that will inspire you to fight for your dreams. Be sure to read that as well. Top Lao Tzu Quotes “From wonder into wonder existence opens.” “The best fighter is never angry.” “If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading.” “The snow goose need not bathe to make itself white. Neither need you do anything but be yourself.” “Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is strength; mastering yourself is true power.” “Knowledge is a treasure, but practice is the key to it.” “To a mind that is still the whole universe surrenders.” “Those who know do not speak. Those who speak do not know.” “Be like water.” “To understand the limitation of things, desire them.” “Be still. Stillness reveals the secrets of eternity.” “Respond intelligently even to unintelligent treatment.” “There is a time to live and a time to die but never to reject the moment.” “To know that you do not know is the best. To think you know when you do not is a disease. Recognizing this disease as a disease is to be free of it.” “Because of a great love, one is courageous.” “An over sharpened sword cannot last long. “ “Watch your thoughts, they become your words; watch your words, they become your actions; watch your actions, they become your habits; watch your habits, they become your character; watch your character, it becomes your destiny.” “When you accept yourself, the whole world accepts you.” “Sincere words are not fine; fine words are not sincere.” “The way of heaven is to help and not harm.” “Music in the soul can be heard by the universe.” “He who talks more is sooner exhausted.” “Time is a created thing. To say ‘I don’t have time,’ is like saying, ‘I don’t want to.” “As soon as you have made a thought, laugh at it.” “A scholar who cherishes the love of comfort is not fit to be deemed a scholar.” “A man with outward courage dares to die; a man with inner courage dares to live.” “One who is too insistent on his own views finds few to agree with him.” “A bad man is a good man’s job.” “Love is of all the passions the strongest, for it attacks simultaneously the head, the heart, and the senses.” “When the student is ready the teacher will appear. When the student is truly ready… The teacher will disappear.” “Being deeply loved by someone gives you strength, while loving someone deeply gives you courage.” “Take care with the end as you do with the beginning.” “The further one goes, the less one knows.” “When goodness is lost there is morality.” Lao Tzu on Letting Go “To hold, you must first open your hand. Let go.” “A good traveler has no fixed plans and is not intent on arriving.” “Stop thinking, and end your problems.” “If you are depressed you are living in the past. If you are anxious you are living in the future. If you are at peace you are living in the present.” “When there is no desire, all things are at peace.” “The more laws and order are made prominent, the more thieves and robbers there will be.” “If you try to change it, you will ruin it. Try to hold it, and you will lose it.” “Stop leaving and you will arrive. Stop searching and you will see. Stop running away and you will be found.” “He who obtains has little. He who scatters has much.” “If you want to lead them you must place yourself behind them.” “Give evil nothing to oppose and it will disappear by itself.” “Those who flow as life flows know they need no other force.” “Water is fluid, soft, and yielding. But water will wear away rock, which is rigid and cannot yield. As a rule, whatever is fluid, soft, and yielding will overcome whatever is rigid and hard. This is another paradox: what is soft is strong.” “He who acts, spoils; he who grasps, lets slip.” “If you wish to be out front, then act as if you were behind.” “To attain knowledge, add things everyday. To attain wisdom, remove things every day.” “Become totally empty. Quiet the restlessness of the mind only then will you witness everything unfolding from emptiness.” “If you realize that all things change, there is nothing you will try to hold on to. If you are not afraid of dying, there is nothing you cannot achieve.” “Care about what other people think and you will always be their prisoner.” “Life is a series of natural and spontaneous changes. Don’t resist them; that only creates sorrow. Let reality be reality. Let things flow naturally forward in whatever way they like.” “Everything under heaven is a sacred vessel and cannot be controlled. Trying to control leads to ruin. Trying to grasp, we lose. Allow your life to unfold naturally. Know that it too is a vessel of perfection. Just as you breathe in and breathe out, there is a time for being ahead and a time for being behind; a time for being in motion and a time for being at rest; a time for being vigorous and a time for being exhausted; a time for being safe and a time for being in danger.” Laozi on Living The Tao “The Tao is nowhere to be found. Yet it nourishes and completes all things.” “When men lost their understanding of the Tao, intelligence came along, bringing hypocrisy with it.” “Manifest plainness, Embrace simplicity, Reduce selfishness, Have few desires.” “The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao. The name that can be named is not the eternal name. The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth. The named is the mother of ten thousand things. Ever desireless, one can see the mystery. Ever desiring, one can see the manifestations. These two spring from the same source but differ in name; this appears as darkness. Darkness within darkness. The gate to all mystery.” “Be content with what you have; rejoice in the way things are. When you realize there is nothing lacking, the whole world belongs to you.” “The key to growth is the introduction of higher dimensions of consciousness into our awareness.” “Kindness in words creates confidence. Kindness in thinking creates profoundness. Kindness in giving creates love.” “Because one believes in oneself, one doesn’t try to convince others. Because one is content with oneself, one doesn’t need others’ approval. Because one accepts oneself, the whole world accepts him or her.” “At the center of your being you have the answer; you know who you are and you know what you want.” “I have three precious things which I hold fast and prize. The first is gentleness; the second is frugality; the third is humility, which keeps me from putting myself before others. Be gentle and you can be bold; be frugal and you can be liberal; avoid putting yourself before others and you can become a leader among men.” “Treat those who are good with goodness, and also treat those who are not good with goodness. Thus goodness is attained. Be honest to those who are honest, and be also honest to those who are not honest. Thus honesty is attained.” “I have just three things to teach: simplicity, patience, compassion. These three are your greatest treasures.” “If you understand others you are smart. If you understand yourself you are illuminated. If you overcome others you are powerful. If you overcome yourself you have strength. If you know how to be satisfied you are rich. If you can act with vigor, you have a will. If you don’t lose your objectives you can be long-lasting. If you die without loss, you are eternal.” “Colors blind the eye Sounds deafen the ear. Flavors numb the taste. Thoughts weaken the mind. Desires wither the heart.” – Tao Te Ching “Respond to anger with virtue. Deal with difficulties while they are still easy. Handle the great while it is still small.” “Trying to control the future is like trying to take the master carpenter’s place. When you handle the master carpenter’s tools, chances are that you’ll cut your hand.” “Be careful what you water your dreams with. Water them with worry and fear and you will produce weeds that choke the life from your dream. Water them with optimism and solutions and you will cultivate success. Always be on the lookout for ways to turn a problem into an opportunity for success. Always be on the lookout for ways to nurture your dream.” “If a person seems wicked, do not cast him away. Awaken him with your words, elevate him with your deeds, repay his injury with your kindness. Do not cast him away; cast away his wickedness.” “A leader is best When people barely know he exists Of a good leader, who talks little, When his work is done, his aim fulfilled, They will say, ‘We did this ourselves.’” “Accomplish but do not boast, accomplish without show, accomplish without arrogance, accomplish without grabbing, accomplish without forcing.” “Love is a decision – not an emotion!” Perspectives on Existence “Go to the people. Live with them, learn from them, love them.” “Your own positive future begins in this moment. All you have is right now. Every goal is possible from here.” “If lightning is the anger of the gods, then the gods are concerned mostly about trees.” “Men are born soft and supple; dead they are stiff and hard. Plants are born tender and pliant; dead, they are brittle and dry. Thus whoever is stiff and inflexible is a disciple of death. Whoever is soft and yielding is a disciple of life. The hard and stiff will be broken. The soft and supple will prevail.” “Health is the greatest possession. Contentment is the greatest treasure. Confidence is the greatest friend.” “If you do not value rare treasures, you will stop others from stealing.” “A violent wind does not last for a whole morning; a sudden rain does not last for the whole day.” “There is no disaster greater than not being content; there is no misfortune greater than being covetous.” “Water is the softest thing, yet it can penetrate mountains and earth. This shows clearly the principle of softness overcoming hardness.” “The reason why the universe is eternal is that it does not live for itself; it gives life to others as it transforms.” “Ordinary men hate solitude. But the Master makes use of it, embracing his aloneness, realizing he is one with the whole universe.” “Do you have the patience to wait until your mud settles and the water is clear?” “Do you imagine the universe is agitated? Go into the desert at night and look at the stars. This practice should answer the question.” “The flexible are preserved unbroken. The bent become straight. The empty are filled. The exhausted become renewed. The poor are enriched. The rich are confounded. Therefore the sage embraces the one. Because he doesn’t display himself, people can see his light. Because he has nothing to prove, people can trust his words. Because he doesn’t know who he is, people recognize themselves in him. Because he has no goal in mind, everything he does succeeds. The old saying that the flexible are preserved unbroken is surely right! If you have truly attained wholeness, everything will flock to you.” “So the unwanting soul sees what’s hidden, and the ever-wanting soul sees only what it wants.” “When wealth and honors lead to arrogancy, this brings its evil on itself.” than the silent balance between yin and yang.” “Governing a great nation is like cooking a small fish – too much handling will spoil it.” “People in their handlings of affairs often fail when they are about to succeed. If one remains as careful at the end as he was at the beginning, there will be no failure.” “Hope and fear are both phantoms that arise from thinking of the self. When we don’t see the self as self, what do we have to fear?” “I do not concern myself with gods and spirits either good or evil nor do I serve any.” “He who defends with love will be secure; Heaven will save him, and protect him with love.” “Just remain in the center; watching. And then forget that you are there.” “In dwelling, live close to the ground. In thinking, keep to the simple. In conflict, be fair and generous. In governing, don’t try to control. In work, do what you enjoy. In family life, be completely present.” “The Wise Man is square but not sharp, honest but not not malign, straight but not severe, bright but not dazzling.” “The softest things in the world overcome the hardest things in the world. Through this I know the advantage of taking no action.” “The hard and mighty lie beneath the ground While the tender and weak dance on the breeze above.” “Spring comes, and the grass grows by itself.” “Do not conquer the world with force, for force only causes resistance. Thorns spring up when an army passes. Years of misery follow a great victory. Do only what needs to be done without using violence.” “The master observes the world but trusts his inner vision. He allows things to come and go. He prefers what is within to what is without.” “If there is to be peace in the world, There must be peace in the nations. If there is to be peace in the nations, There must be peace in the cities. If there is to be peace in the cities, There must be peace between neighbors. If there is to be peace between neighbors, There must be peace in the home. If there is to be peace in the home, There must be peace in the heart.” “If the people must be ever fearful of death, then there will always be an executioner.” “Our enemies are not demons, but human beings like ourselves.” “When you are at one with loss, the loss is experienced willingly.” “Is it not through her selflessness that she is able to perfect herself?” “He who knows he has enough is rich. Perseverance is a sign of will power. He who stays where he is endures. To die but not to perish is to be eternally present.” “If I had just a little bit of wisdom I should walk the great path and fear only straying from it.” “Composure is the ruler of instability.” “With few there is attainment. With much there is confusion.” “Fill your bowl to the brim and it will spill. Keep sharpening your knife and it will blunt.” “He who knows that enough is enough will always have enough.” “There is no greater danger than underestimating your opponent.” “Would you like to save the world from the degradation and destruction it seems destined for? Then step away from shallow mass movements and quietly go to work on your own self-awareness. If you want to awaken all of humanity, then awaken all of yourself. If you want to eliminate the suffering in the world, then eliminate all that is dark and negative in yourself. Truly, the greatest gift you have to give is that of your own self-transformation.” “To bear and not to own; to act and not lay claim; to do the work and let it go: for just letting it go is what makes it stay.” “Do your work, then step back. The only path to serenity.” “To realize that you do not understand is a virtue; not to realize that you do not understand is a defect.” “Not seeking, not expecting, she is present, and can welcome all things.” “Chanting is no more holy than listening to the murmur of a stream, counting prayer beads no more scared than simply breathing, religious robes no more spiritual than work clothes.” “Fame or integrity: which is more important? Money or happiness: which is more valuable? Success or failure: which is more destructive? If you look to others for fulfillment, you will never truly be fulfilled. If your happiness depends on money, you will never be happy with yourself. Be content with what you have; rejoice in the way things are. When you realize there is nothing lacking, the whole world belongs to you.” “The wise man does not lay up his own treasures. The more he gives to others, the more he has for his own.” “When pure sincerity forms within, it is outwardly realized in other people’s hearts.” “When the people of the world all know beauty as beauty, there arises the recognition of ugliness. When they all know the good as good, there arises the recognition of evil.” “The difficult problems in life always start off being simple. Great affairs always start off being small.” “Shape clay into a vessel; It is the space within that makes it useful. Cut doors and windows for a room; It is the holes which make it useful. Therefore benefit comes from what is there; Usefulness from what is not there.” “If you are untrustworthy, people will not trust you.” “It is better to do one’s own duty, however defective it may be, than to follow the duty of another, however well one may perform it. He who does his duty as his own nature reveals it, never sins.” “Ambition has one heel nailed in well, though she stretches her fingers to touch the heavens.” “When you are content to be simply yourself and don’t compare or compete, everyone will respect you.” “Simulated disorder postulates perfect discipline; simulated fear postulates courage; simulated weakness postulates strength.” We hope you’ve enjoyed reading this huge collection of Lao Tzu quotes! May they bring you peace and show you the Way

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About Us › Teaching Comic Books “Good comic book writers think in pictures as well as words.” —Anina Bennett I created a concise comic book writing guide for a workshop I taught some years back, and I’ve used it many times since then. Friends in the comics business tell me they regularly send students to read it, so I’m keeping it available online and supplementing it with recommended books and resources. You can read the HTML version below, or download it as a free PDF. (The HTML version is more up to date, while the PDF has some additional visuals.) If you like bulleted lists, you can also download the slides I made for a different version of my writing workshop. And if the process images on this page caught your eye, they’re from the “Creative Chaos” presentation I did with Paul, which shows different types of comic book plots, scripts, and art. My writing guide is intended for newbies, and parts of it may need a little updating. For more in-depth and current resources, see my Comic Book Creators page. This whole section of our site is devoted to serving as a gateway to helpful information about making, teaching, and reading comic books. I add new links periodically, so send me your suggestions! Visual Language: Writing for Comic Books Many people, especially in the U.S., equate comic books with the superhero genre or dismiss them as kiddie fare. In fact, comics are not a genre, but a medium of expression — like movies or prose — that can communicate a wealth of ideas and emotions spanning all genres. If you want to write mysteries, science fiction, autobiography, or even surrealist montages, you can do it in comic book form. Your stories can be verbose or wordless, serialized or self-contained, funny or tragic, color or black-and-white. In this workshop we’ll concentrate on writing for linear, narrative comic books. Scott McCloud spends the first nine pages of his groundbreaking work Understanding Comics developing a definition of comics as a medium. What it boils down to is that all comics employ sequential art: a series of static images arranged in sequence to tell a story or express thoughts and feelings. It may seem odd to jump from an aesthetic discussion to hard, cold business facts. But the reality is that before you start writing a comic book story, you should know a little something about the comics industry and community. The publishing scene is in the midst of a sea change. Currently, comics publishers come in about six flavors: This means there are more options in terms of format and genre — though not necessarily in terms of how to make a living. For a long time, monthly, serialized comics from major publishers were the best bet for steady income. That's still true to some extent, but now there are more publishers and more diverse content. You can make a living doing YA graphic novels, educational comics, or licensed properties. Speaking of format, there are essentially two types, one of which allows for more variation: Another side of the business you’ll need to understand is the three varieties of intellectual property ownership: The first two are occasionally blended together. If you’re expecting to own the characters and stories you create, watch out for contracts that give you only partial ownership. For example, owning the copyright to a story without owning the trademark to the main character is almost useless, because you can’t use the character without your publisher’s permission — but your publisher can use the character without your permission. If you don’t own either the character or the story, you’re doing work for hire. There are also different pay structures in comics, usually depending on the type of ownership and publisher: If you’re earning a page rate or flat fee, pay close attention to the payment period when you sign your contract. Some publishers pay within 30 days of publication, but others wait as long as 90 days. If the deal is a profit split, make sure you understand how the net profit will be calculated and when the publisher will send you statements and payments. And if you plan to give away or sell copies of your own book, see if the publisher will agree to sell you books at cost instead of at the “standard” discount. Like good screenwriters, good comic book writers think in pictures as well as words. They visualize the images in their stories, then describe them to artists via scripts. Unlike most screenwriters, though, comics writers usually give the illustrator a fair amount of direction about how to portray each scene. These are core skills that are useful in other types of writing too. To hone your visual thinking, write concise descriptions of familiar people, scenery, or events, as if you were describing them for an illustrator to draw. Read comics with a critical eye, thinking about the visual choices made by writers and artists — what’s shown and not shown, and how it’s depicted. Try to imagine how the writer described each image in his or her script. Writing your own panel descriptions of published comics may help too. Now let’s consider the basic components and terminology of comic books. Campy sound effects like the old Batman TV show’s “Biff! Bang! Pow!” are only a tiny (and trite) part of the picture. The essential elements of a comic book page are: 1. Panel: One still image in a sequence of juxtaposed images. A comics writer can call for panels of any shape or size that’ll fit on a page: square, round, triangular, narrow vertical, shallow horizontal, diagonal, etc. There are specialized terms for different types of panels: Although panels are usually bounded by heavy lines called borders, parts of the art sometimes pop outside panel borders for dramatic or ironic effect. Borderless images can also qualify as panels. 2. Lettering: Any text on a comics page. Bold lettering is used to emphasize words, large letters in dialogue represent shouting, and small dialogue lettering usually stands for whispering. Dialogue and caption lettering was traditionally all uppercase, but these days there's more room for variation, and many creators use upper/lowercase. Display lettering includes sound effects and any other text that is not contained in a balloon or caption (store signage, license plates, words on a computer screen, etc.). Lettering and balloon placement are crucial but often underappreciated skills. 3. Word balloon: A bordered or borderless shape containing dialogue, usually with a tail that points to the speaker. Tailless balloons sometimes denote “voice-over” or off-panel dialogue. As with panels, balloons come in various shapes, the most common being ovoid. You can use different shapes for different characters or moods. To avoid distancing your readers, though, it’s best not to mix balloon shapes and styles willy-nilly. (In the U.K., balloons are often called “bubbles.”) 4. Thought balloon: A bordered or borderless shape containing a character’s unspoken thoughts. Thought balloons almost always have bumpy, cloudlike borders and tails that look like trails of bubbles. Do not overuse them, especially not for lengthy internal monologues — that’s a terrible cliché in comics. As in movies, the maxim is “show, don’t tell.” 5. Caption: A tool often used for narration, transitional text (“Meanwhile...”), or off-panel dialogue. Captions usually have rectangular borders, but can also be borderless or floating letters. 6. Sound effects (SFX): Stylized lettering that represents noises within a scene. Most SFX are floating letters, and sometimes they’re an integral part of the imagery. As with many other elements of comics, overuse of sound effects is distracting. They should be reserved for significant sounds, whether large (explosions) or small (a door softly closing on a lonely room). 7. Borders: The lines that enclose panels, balloons, and captions. Various styles and line weights can be used to evoke different effects or moods. Typical examples include rough or jagged borders for anger or distress; thin, wavy borders for weakness or spookiness; “electric” balloons and tails for radio, TV, or telephone dialogue; burst or double-bordered balloons for very loud shouting, and rounded panel corners or uneven borders for flashbacks. In some comics, such as Sandman (DC/Vertigo), major characters have their own distinctive balloon border and lettering styles. Different background colors or borders can also be used to denote different characters or types of dialogue/narration. A more recent trend is to use borderless shapes for balloons, tails, and captions, as in Paper Girls. 8. Gutter: The space, usually white, between and around panels. Colored or shaded gutters can help establish mood, denote flashbacks, or be used purely for aesthetic effect. Gutters are an almost subliminal part of the comic book reading process, since they represent the events between panels and pages. No matter how you combine these elements, always keep in mind that each comics panel and page should read in the same order as a page of text: from left to right and top to bottom. For example, when two characters are speaking to each other in the same panel, whoever talks first should be on the left side. In some cultures, comics are read from right to left. Traditional manga, for example, are read in what looks to most Westerners (hard-core manga fans excepted) like back-to-front order. You probably won’t need to worry about writing comics that are read this way, but you should be aware that reading order is a primary determinant of certain visual storytelling techniques. Obviously, the main action in comics is portrayed within panels. But gutters play a crucial role by connecting sequential panels into a coherent story. Whether two seconds or two years elapse between consecutive panels, the gutter is where that unseen action occurs. Through the phenomenon Scott McCloud calls “closure” (Understanding Comics, Chapter 3), readers imagine some of what happens in the gutters — thus they experience sequential art as a unified narrative rather than a series of isolated, disconnected panels. Abrupt or unclear shifts between panels can confuse readers and distance them from a story, so most comic book creators strive to create smooth transitions. This is especially true for comics that have a potential bookstore, as opposed to comic book shop, audience. Believe it or not, reading comics is something of a learned skill. People who rarely read comic strips or comic books may have a hard time perceiving sequential art as anything more than a series of disconnected images. Or they may simply ignore the images in favor of the words if the layout is confusing. McCloud identifies six categories of panel-to-panel transitions (see attachments in PDF): If you’ve ever sat through an Andy Warhol film, you know just how boring “realtime” looks on screen. Showing every single action in continuous sequence is the least efficient (and often dullest) way of staging a scene and telling a story. One means by which both movies and comic books make fiction more dramatic than real life is the manipulation of time. They show certain significant moments within their stories, while omitting others. Comics, unlike cinema, do so through still images, absorbed by different readers at their own speeds. Reading comics is a more interactive process than watching films, relying partly on the reader’s actions and partly on the writer’s and artist’s control of pacing. Because of this interactivity, there are two interrelated types of pacing in comics: The pace at which time seems to move within the story, and the pace at which your audience reads the story. Factors that influence the reader’s pace include panel size and shape, dialogue and caption length, page layout and pagination, the type of scene being depicted, and the level of visual detail within each panel. Wordy panels almost always slow down the reader, for example. However, because these elements all work in combination, any one technique can have different effects depending on context. For example, a large, silent panel in a contemplative scene may slow the reader. But a large, sparsely worded panel in an action scene may quicken the reader’s pace. This is another aspect of visual storytelling that deserves close attention when you’re reading comics critically. Your primary tool for controlling the pace of time within the story is panel arrangement. You can heighten the impact of certain moments either by telescoping them into a sequence that seems slower than realtime, or by compressing them into a quicker sequence with more time elapsing between panels. In Chapter 4 of Understanding Comics, McCloud shows five different ways of slowing down time during a conversation (see attachments in PDF): And in Chapter 3, he shows how a long story can be increasingly compressed by removing entire sequences and individual panels, even to the point of paring it down to two simple yet clearly sequential and interrelated panels: A longer version of the same tale might include the main character (Carl) buying beer, getting in his car, veering off the road, in an ambulance, and at the hospital. Note the efficient use of subject-to-subject and action-to-action transitions to show only the moments most crucial to this brief narrative. The final scene-to-scene jump in the two-panel version transports the reader seamlessly from the story’s beginning to its end. Time within individual panels is also malleable. One panel can depict a single moment in time, several moments, or a longer sequence of interdependent moments such as a back-and-forth conversation. However, avoid writing panel descriptions containing multiple sequential actions that are impossible to depict in one image (“The Hulk uproots a tree, turns, and throws it at the Humvee”). This can sometimes be achieved by showing multiple or blurred images of a character or object in the same panel (the Flash superspeeding from one action to the next), but such tricks should be used only when necessary to the story. Have you ever gone to a movie, then later described the story to a friend? Well, that was a plot summary, and you probably even focused on the film’s dramatic turning points — moments at which the main character undergoes the significant changes that define his/her arc. To work out your story structure, write an outline that at least covers your opening, turning points, climax, and resolution, focusing on characters as well as events. Try to keep the plot loose at this stage, since it’ll likely change as you write your script. Start by getting to know your main character(s). Write brief personality profiles or bios of them. Then ask yourself: Where are these characters, physically and psychologically, at the story’s beginning and at its end? What must they do to make that journey — face their fears? Forgive someone? Commit a crime? Make a sacrifice or compromise? Suffer a loss? Seek help? The characters’ goals and actions are the skeleton of your story, its crucial support structure. Once you’ve got a handle on them, you can flesh things out with specific events, settings, and relationships that help propel your characters along their arcs. Here’s an example of a bare-bones plot synopsis: A young boy and his parents are walking home in the city one night. They’re a happy, wealthy-looking family. But everything changes when a mugger accosts them, then panics and shoots the parents. The boy, devastated, watches his mother and father die in the street. He vows vengeance. The boy grows into a driven young man. For years he trains in martial arts and hones his skills as a detective, all the while building his inherited fortune into a commercial empire. He adopts the public persona of a flighty playboy to mask his inner obsession with justice. At last, as an adult, he deems himself ready to exact his revenge on the criminal underworld. Inspired by a creature glimpsed flying past his window, he dons a dark costume and sets out to fight crime... as the Batman. Now pretend you don’t know that Batman’s been a famous superhero for decades. From the simple plot outlined above, you could spin your story in several different directions. 1. Expand on his training period, adding emotional and physical obstacles: 2. Condense his backstory and show his early crime-fighting career. For instance, what would happen if: Under any of these what-if scenarios, would Bruce Wayne become more callous or more caring? Would he give up being Batman and seek other ways of pursuing justice, or is he fated to wear the cape and cowl? As you ask and answer questions such as these, write as much as you need to — then strip your story down to its essentials. Focus on turning points and on making every scene contribute to the progression of plot as well as characters. Many narrative comics, like movies, follow a classic three-act structure that, at its most basic, is divided into beginning, middle, and end: Act 1: Introduction and establishment of the central characters, setting, and problem or conflict. Act 2: Development of the same, including complications, setbacks, reversals, suspense, and interim resolutions (“rising action”), leading to a climactic resolution. Act 3: “Falling action” or “denouement,” in which we see the post-climactic major resolution and learn what/who has changed, and why it matters. Don’t short-shrift the third act, or you’ll leave your audience unsatisfied and possibly angry. Some writers follow a general formula when structuring their plots in three acts and breaking each act into pages: 25% first act, 65% second act, and 10% third act. You needn’t adhere to this if it doesn’t work for your story, but it’s a good guideline to start with. Test out your outline on someone who’s unfamiliar with your story. If it holds their interest and makes them want to read more, you’ve done a bang-up job! Whatever their reaction is, be sure to ask for feedback on your plot’s clarity, plausibility, pacing, and emotional impact. There’s always room for improvement. For a handy guide to developing character profiles, see Chapter 3 of Making a Winning Short by Edmond Levy. And for an excellent discussion and critique of narrative structures, see Alternative Scriptwriting by Ken Dancyger and Jeff Rush (listed on my page of resources for comic book creators). One piece of good news for budding writers and artists is that comics come in many formats these days. You can aim for anything from a one-page short story (Carol Lay’s Story Minute strips), to a paperback-sized graphic novel (Craig Thompson’s Blankets), to an ongoing monthly series (DC’s Wonder Woman). You can even publish comics in chapters online, building up an audience, then collect them in print. Thanks to the popularization of manga, which are typically published as a series of small graphic novels, you now also have the option of writing longer tales broken down into large chapters. (In addition, manga offer another form of paying gig: rewriting translated scripts. The translations can be stiff, so manga publishers often hire writers to polish the dialogue and captions.) In some cases, the plot dictates the format. In others, usually when you’ve already established a relationship with an editor or publisher and are doing work for hire, the format controls the plot structure. The not-so-good news is that you need to consider your story’s marketability and your professional goals even at this early stage. If you want to make a living by writing comics, concentrate on serial titles published by big companies, as mentioned in “Know the Biz.” Don’t be overambitious in this arena — you may want to write an epic 24-issue series, but publishers are unlikely to take such a gamble on a beginning comics writer. If, on the other hand, you want to either (1) just get published and possibly make a few bucks on the back end or (2) work your way up to the big leagues, try small press or self-publishing. Indie publishers tend to offer a wider range of content and book formats. They can also be a good way to break in, giving you a chance to cut your teeth and gradually get noticed by fans, trade press, and other publishers. You’d better truly love writing and/or comics, though — if you don’t, your work probably won’t earn you any emotional or financial rewards, and it may become sheer drudgery. The book publishers that are dabbling in graphic novels may be worth pitching to, but are probably a long shot for novices. So far they’re busy picking up established small-press creators, and they seem particularly interested in writer-artist auteurs. Keep an eye on them nonetheless, and check out educational publishers too. In a nutshell: Examine what’s being published by various companies, think about your writing goals and your story’s needs, then choose your preferred page count and format. Combine that with your character profiles and plot outline, and you should be ready to do a page breakdown (see samples), then start on your script. As you work on your plot, imagine how it’ll play out visually. Try doing rough sketches of some scenes at first, to help yourself visualize panel and page layouts. Estimate how many pages you’ll need for each scene. Consider factors such as: Is there a built-in limit on the total number of pages? Which scenes are turning points that may require extra space and emphasis? What kind of mood(s) and pace do you want to establish? Can any scenes be cut or condensed to improve the pacing? Will the story be serialized or self-contained? Now estimate the total page count of your story — and be generous. Allow extra room for elements such as establishing shots, action sequences, crowd scenes, sweeping vistas, and text-heavy pages. If the story will be serialized, add chapter breaks at appropriately suspenseful points. Always bear in mind the left-hand/right-hand pagination described in “Learn the Lingo.” One way to help practice doing page breakdowns is to analyze published comics that are similar in genre and format to your story. Pick a comic, write a summary of its plot and action, then compare that to the comic. Break down each scene in your summary according to how many pages are devoted to it in the printed comic. You can also use this technique to get a feel for how many panels per page are used for different types of scenes, how the panel size and page layout affect pacing, and how much visual information you can comfortably fit into different sizes of panels. If you’re writing for monthly, serialized comics (which I call “floppies” because they’re, well, floppy), be aware that the page count of each issue is almost always inflexible. Most floppy comics are saddle-stitched and 32 pages long, but contain only 22 to 26 pages of story. You won’t usually be given the option of departing from the standard page count. Even in serialized comics and manga, each issue or book should end with a resolution of some sort (character arc, subplot, and/or major plot thread) as well as an element of mystery or suspense. The trick is to both satisfy the reader and leave her wanting more, which can be a difficult balancing act. Creating comic books, like filmmaking, is largely a collaborative process, excepting those few talented auteurs who can write, draw, letter, and color their own comics. The usual sequence of creation is writing, pencilling, lettering, inking, then coloring, with variations depending on the creative team, schedule, and publishing model. Monthly comics usually follow this process in assembly-line fashion to stay on schedule as much as possible. If the writer blows a script deadline, it puts pressure on everyone else down the line to catch up. There are two basic methods of writer/artist collaboration in comics: We’ll focus on the full-script method, but you can see examples of both in my “Creative Chaos” process slides. Comic book scripts are somewhat similar to screenplays in format, except that there’s no single standard format (see samples). The most important thing is to make your script format clear and easy to follow. It should have clearly labeled page and panel numbers, with indented paragraphs for all balloons, captions, sound effects, and display lettering. Once you’ve settled on a format, create a template, styles, and auto-text in your word-processing software if possible, so you won’t have to constantly reformat text and type “Panel” over and over. Page layout: The visual composition of each page is determined by a combo of the individual panel compositions and how the panels all work together. One of your goals is to lead the reader smoothly through the page, with no jarring transitions or discontinuity. In addition, each panel should advance the story or character arc, and/or contain important information about character, setting, or mood. This all means you’ve got a lot to think about when writing a single comic book page. For the most part, especially when you’re just starting out, it’s best to stick with some variation on a basic grid of rectangular panels, using wider and taller panels to suit the demands of your story. It’s okay to toss other panel shapes into the mix occasionally, but don’t go hog wild with them (unless your intent is to confuse or challenge the reader). Unusual page layouts and panel shapes make it harder for you to control pacing and visual flow. And if the visual flow is unclear, your reader will be frustrated, distracted, and less involved in your story. Also be judicious in your use of splashes and double-page spreads. Save them for establishing shots, climactic action, or significant turning points. Like many storytelling techniques, big panels lose impact when overused. Conversely, don’t try to cram too many panels into a page. The average number of panels per page is usually five. Using more panels per page tends to compress time, whereas using fewer panels per page tends to telescope time, as in action scenes. This is one of your main methods of shaping a story’s pacing and rhythm. If you have a specific reason for employing scads of tiny panels, give it a shot — after you consider the pacing effects and the fact that it’ll probably alienate plenty of people who would otherwise have read your comic. Panel descriptions: There’s a certain tension in the way comics writers think and write. You must show visual information to the reader, but verbally tell the artist how to draw that information. And you need to do it as efficiently as possible, giving complete direction while still allowing room for the illustrator’s own interpretation and imagination. Try to strike a balance between directing, inspiring, and entertaining the artist. A script that’s fun to read is also more saleable to editors. Panel descriptions are similar to, but usually more detailed than, shot descriptions in screenplays. Comics writers often use cinematic directions such as “establishing shot,” “close-up,” “up angle,” “background,” and the like, while avoiding motion-related terms such as “pan” or “track.” Don’t overload your descriptions with meaningless detail, but don’t make them too sparse either. And, as with page layouts, don’t clutter up your panels with too much text or visual information. Important visual elements — such as objects or characters that will play a significant role in a later panel or scene, or even what time of day it is — should always be mentioned in establishing shots so the artist knows about them from the start. Even if an element isn’t seen in the establishing shot, it’s a good idea to mention it so the artist has a complete mental image from the start. One sure way to make your artist mad is to wait until the end of a scene, then finally announce that it’s sunrise, or there’s a blood stain on the wall, or the coffee table is floating in mid-air, or one of the characters is wearing a hideous necktie that’ll later serve as a crucial clue. When visualizing panels, you also need to keep track of the left-to-right composition and try not to reverse it unexpectedly. In other words, don’t move your mental “camera” to the opposite side of the subject. On the comic book page, this will look like the scene has been abruptly rotated 180 degrees, which can be very disorienting for the reader, especially if there’s motion in the panels. Sometimes the effect is unintentionally comical too. Dialogue and other text: Ideally, the words and images in a panel should be interdependent. Avoid verbiage that merely echoes the visual information in a panel (sometimes called “Mickey-Mousing”), unless you’re intentionally going for a repetitive effect. For example, if we can see in the art that it’s raining, you don’t need to waste space by telling us the same thing in words — but you might want to tell us that it’s been raining for 40 days, or that the hero hates rain. Chapter 6 of Understanding Comics demonstrates the effects of several different types of word/image interplay for the same scene (see attachments). Write your dialogue, captions, and SFX in the order in which they should appear in the panel. Remember that characters must always appear in speaking order. If character A talks first, she should be on the left side of the panel, and character B should be to her right. Violating this rule will result in awkward balloon placement and probably confuse your readers. Dialogue scenes in comics often employ one of the following visual layouts: Here comes the mantra again: Don’t overuse any one of these techniques. Vary them according to your story’s needs, along with different shot sizes and word/image juxtapositions (e.g., dialogue from off-panel, voice-over captions, SFX, or thought balloons). Steer clear of “talking heads” scenes that merely show characters conversing and nothing else. There are many ways around this: give your characters something visually interesting to do while they’re talking, put them in a visually compelling environment, focus on symbolic details in their environment, etc. If you have specific lettering effects in mind, give the letterer some direction in your script. For example, for a mortally wounded character, you might write “NELSON (weak letters): Kiss me, Hardy.” Boldface any words that you want to be emphasized in the lettering, based on natural speech rhythms. And (all together now) don’t overuse bold emphasis or it will be distracting and less effective. To get a grasp on how much text you can comfortably fit into each panel, use a technique similar to the one described earlier for plot breakdowns: grab a published comic and type all the dialogue and captions in the same format you’ll use for your script, omitting panel descriptions. This will help give you a visual sense of how much room your typed text takes up in a lettered comic book panel, and you’ll soon be able to “eyeball” your own scripts to determine whether you’ve overwritten the in-panel text. Action: Whether they involve clashing superheroes, runaway baby carriages, or dogs chasing cats, comic book action sequences usually have one thing in common: they’re primarily visual, not verbal. They also tend to telescope time, often spending several pages on an event that might only last two minutes in realtime. Significant moments are usually depicted in large splash panels, and only the most visually exciting, dynamic, or suspenseful moments are shown. Dialogue and other text are best kept to a minimum and used as a counterpoint to or commentary on the action. Rewriting: You probably already know that “writing is in the rewriting.” If you have time, get a little distance on your work by setting it aside for a few weeks, so you can read it with a fresh eye. Don’t get so attached to your script that you can’t bear to delete dialogue, panels, characters, or whole scenes if necessary. Strong scripts tend to be very economical in their storytelling, conveying a great deal of information and emotional impact in deceptively simple form. Before revising your script, try these evaluation methods: Finally, always watch out for some of the common weaknesses mentioned in various sections above: Many comics scribes have the itch to write stories about their favorite characters, or about fascinating historical figures. Research is especially important when you’re writing existing characters, be they fictional or factual. Don’t think of research as a chore, though — it’s a great opportunity to read, cogitate, and discover new story ideas. For fictional people, whether company-owned (Spider-Man) or licensed (Princess Leia), first find out if the publisher has a “bible”; if so, get your hands on a copy of it. The bible will give you necessary info on the character, her world, and editorial preferences. Don’t ignore the bible or try to radically re-invent a character, unless you’re working with an editor who specifically suggests a new approach. If you plan to send in a blind submission, check to see if the publisher has submission guidelines; if so, acquire a copy and follow them. The guidelines should tell you whether or not the publisher accepts unsolicited writing submissions for company-owned or licensed characters. Many publishers do not. Even if they do, unsolicited submissions to the larger publishers are rarely successful and may not even get a response. Smaller publishers are sometimes more receptive. In any case, it’s usually best if you can make personal contact with an editor — at a comic book convention, through a mutual acquaintance, or via correspondence or an online forum — then ask if she’ll look at your proposal. Once you’ve found a publisher or editor who’s willing to accept your submission, read the bible (if any) and published stories featuring the character(s) you want to write. Again, read the stories critically. Ask yourself if there are facets of this person that haven’t been fully explored, or new situations in which you could reexamine familiar facets. Keep a sharp eye out for unresolved plot threads from previous stories, as well as minor characters who may be worth resurrecting. Examine work by your favorite authors on every level. Think about why characters act or react as they do, how stories are structured, and what storytelling techniques the writer used that really got you involved. Factual people can be more difficult to write, since their lives often don’t conform to the dramatic structures of fiction. You can take one of two general approaches to writing real-life characters: If you choose the latter route, consider cluing your readers in as to which parts of the story are true, maybe in endnotes or an introductory or concluding essay. In either case, do extensive research on the people involved, and ask the same kinds of questions you would while creating fictional characters. Another way to add depth to your characters is by drawing on your own experiences and observations. Think of yourself and everyone you meet as characters, each with their own backstory, arc, and subplot. What motivates you? How does your past affect your actions in the present? What circumstances form and change your personality? Exaggerate the patterns you notice in reality and apply them to fiction, and your characters’ lives will resonate with those of your readers. Comics publishers range in size from self-publishing artists to large bureaucracies, each with its own methods and priorities. Target your proposal at companies that publish the genre and format you’re working in. As noted in the previous section, a good approach is to make contact with editors of works you admire, then arrange to send your proposal directly to them. You probably shouldn’t attempt to pitch your story to an editor at a convention, though, because (1) she will probably be far too stressed out to listen to you for more than a few minutes, and (2) editors need time and privacy to read and properly evaluate writing submissions. When you meet an editor in person, find out a little about what she’s looking for and determine whether she’ll accept a submission. Then ask for the editor’s business card so you can follow up by sending a copy of your proposal. Your proposal package should include: The proposal, excluding the script pages and illustrations, should be about two pages long for a short or single-issue story, or five pages for a graphic novel or multi-issue tale. If you’re sending it to a submissions editor, consult the publisher’s guidelines to find out whether or not you should follow up on the submission. Most publishers get reams of unsolicited submissions and won’t reply to subsequent pestering. If you’re sending your proposal to an editor you’ve made personal contact with, wait about a month, then call or write to inquire about the status of your pitch. You may need to do this multiple times, as most comics editors are woefully overworked. And once your proposal is accepted… then the really hard work begins! Text © Anina Bennett. All excerpts from Understanding Comics are © Scott McCloud. Used with permission.

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ISSA Proceedings 1998 – Practical Guidelines For Justifying Decisions About Major Projects Quite a few American inventions have become a worldwide success: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of them. This policy instrument was introduced in 1970 by President Nixon, through the National Environmental Policy Act. Today, EIAs are applied in almost every country in the world. An EIA is carried out before work is started on a major project, such as the construction of a railroad, highway or airport. The purpose of an EIA is to rationalize the decision-making process involved with such a project. In order to achieve that purpose, the parties involved are obliged to follow certain rules when exchanging information. These rules can be seen as a code of conduct: they specify the rights and obligations of the project proponent, the competent authority that has to decide on the project, and the citizens and interest groups that make use of the possibility of public participation (Wood 1995, Robinson 1992). What Environmental Impact Assessment comes down to is that the decision-making process is divided into two successive discussions. In the first discussion, the main role is played by the project proponent, who has to draft a public document – an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). An example of an EIS that was written in the United States is the one about a controversial plan to transform the top of Mount Graham, Arizona, into a so-called astrophysical area studded with telescopes (United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1988). A Dutch EIS about a very controversial project is that concerning the extension of Schiphol Airport by means of adding an extra runway (Project Mainport en Milieu Schiphol, 1993a). In documents such as these, the project proponent has to explain his plans and indicate any reasonable alternative options for the proposed activity. Furthermore, he has to forecast and evaluate the effects of the project and of the alternative options. The project proponent’s forecasts and value judgements are not taken for granted: they have to be substantiated by arguments which support the accuracy of the predictions and the acceptability of the value judgements. The EIS serves as the input for the second discussion, in which the competent authority takes the lead. The competent authority has to decide whether or not the project may be carried out and, if so, in what way. This means that the competent authority has to choose between the alternative options described in the EIS. The final decision is then made public in a so-called Record of Decision (ROD), which has to be supported by argumentation showing that the information provided by the EIS played an important role in the decision-making process. This argumentation is also required so that opponents of the project may challenge the decision in a court of law; to be able to criticize a decision successfully, it is necessary to know the grounds for the decision (Wood 1995: 183). 2. This paper The pragma-dialectical argumentation theory developed by van Eemeren and Grootendorst (van Eemeren & Grootendorst 1992) provides an instrument for analysing and evaluating discussions. This instrument consists of an ideal model for a critical discussion, that indicates which moves have to be made by participants who are trying to resolve a difference of opinion in a reasonable way. The ideal model may serve as a framework for the analysis and evaluation of real-life discussions. As we will demonstrate in this paper, there is a striking resemblance between this pragma-dialectical ideal model and the first discussion in the procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment, dealing with alternatives and their consequences. However, the second discussion, in which the competent authority justifies the decision, clearly deviates from the model. The difference between these discussions is already evident from the size of the documents: the output of the first discussion – the EIS – is usually much more voluminous than that of the second discussion – the ROD. But, of course, size as such is not the issue. The issue is that the competent authority’s obligations in the second discussion are poorly defined, which is not very beneficial to the rationality of the decision-making process about major projects. This observation is not just a theoretical one. The analysis of Dutch RODs shows that the argumentation in these documents often has important shortcomings. This means that there is a need for guidelines for improving the quality of the argumentation in an ROD. That is what we focus on in this paper. 3. Evaluating argumentation systematically and critically The pragma-dialectical ideal model makes clear that parties who want to resolve a difference of opinion as reasonably as possible have to pass through four stages (van Eemeren & Grootendorst 1992: 35): 1. the confrontation stage, in which it becomes clear that there is a difference of opinion; 2. the opening stage, in which the parties agree on certain rules for the discussion they are about to undertake; for instance, agreement has to be reached on the criteria that will be used for evaluating the argumentation put forward; 3. the argumentation stage, in which argumentation is put forward and evaluated, not on an ad hoc basis but using the mutually agreed criteria from the opening stage as starting point; 4. the concluding stage, in which the parties jointly establish the result of the discussion. In the case of an Environmental Impact Assessment, the first discussion focuses on the questions: what does the plan amount to? What are the alternative options? And what about the effects of the plan and of the alternative options? The way in which this discussion is organized has striking similarities with the ideal model. The most convincing example is that the argumentation the project proponent puts forward in support of his factual claims and value judgements is not evaluated ad hoc: it is systematically tested, using criteria agreed upon at an earlier stage of the discussion. What is the case? The procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment includes a stage in which so-called guidelines for the Environmental Impact Statement are laid down (in EIS jargon, ‘the scoping stage’) before the writing of the EIS has actually started. It is these guidelines that are indicative for the evaluation of the information presented in an EIS. So, the evaluation of an EIS can be called ‘systematic’, just like the evaluation of argumentation in a critical discussion, since it is based on criteria that the parties have agreed on beforehand. The evaluation of an EIS is also critical. In Reconstructing Argumentative Discourse, van Eemeren, Grootendorst, Jacob’s and Jackson have clearly and convincingly outlined that the pragma-dialectical ideal model presupposes all kinds of conditions that are not always met in practice (van Eemeren et al. 1993: 30-34); for instance, the condition that the parties involved have no interest in a specific outcome of the discussion, that they are open-minded and (e.g.) that a proponent who defends a standpoint is absolutely willing to be open to any criticism of his argumentation. In the case of an EIA, one cannot make the assumption that the parties involved are open-minded: the project proponent wants to have it his way and very often the competent authority also has an interest in the implementation of the project. So, in the case of an EIA, important conditions for a rational procedure are usually not met. However – as van Eemeren, Grootendorst, Jacobs and Jackson have pointed out – the very purpose of institutionalized rules is to deal with such unfavourable circumstances. And that is what happens in the procedure of EIA, at least in the Dutch and the Canadian procedure. To guarantee that the EIS is not only systematically but also critically tested, in these countries the evaluation of this document is left to a committee of independent experts, who have no interest at all in the implementation of the project (Commission for Environmental Impact Assessment 1998, Ross 1987). All in all, reaching agreement about the relevant evaluation criteria beforehand, together with a systematic and critical testing afterwards, results in a rational development of the first discussion in a procedure of EIA. It also justifies a certain confidence in the accuracy and acceptability of the forecasts and evaluations of effects presented in the concluding chapter of an EIS. In this chapter, the effects are usually presented in a matrix, with the alternative options on one axis and the relevant criteria on the other axis, and the criteria scores in the cells of the matrix. 4. Record of Decision In the second discussion, the competent authority has, as already mentioned, the duty to make a decision and to justify this decision in a so-called Record of Decision. In almost every country that applies Environmental Impact Assessment, the obligation to justify the decision is laid down by law. However, concrete requirements for the ROD have not been formulated in any of these countries. The American regulations, for instance, only mention the requirement that an ROD should contain the following elements (Wood 1995: 185): 1. a statement explaining the decision; 2. an explanation of the alternatives considered; 3. the social, economic and environmental factors considered by the agency in making its decision. So, it is obvious that the decision on a project has to be justified, but it is not clear how that should be done. Contrary to the project proponent who writes the EIS, the competent authority is not committed to any rules. Freedom in itself is of great value, of course, but in the case of decision-making on major projects that same freedom results in RODs that vary considerably from case to case and often raise many questions. What lies at the heart of the problem? As to an ROD, one could say: something goes in, and something comes out. The matrix in the EIS can be seen as the input, and the outcome is the final decision; that is, the choice of one of the alternatives described in the EIS (among which is the no-action alternative, which means that the project will not be implemented at all). If we take a close look at Dutch RODs, it appears that in general the input as well as the outcome are quite clearly presented. However, the problem does not concern input or output, but the ‘missing link’ in between: the process of balancing, of weighing the effects of the options. In this respect, the ROD about the expansion of Schiphol Airport is a clear example. In this ROD, the Dutch government justifies its choice to expand Schiphol Airport by building a fifth runway. This option is compared with “a more environmentally friendly alternative”. Including such an alternative in an EIS is a legal obligation in the Netherlands. The expansion of the airport has a twofold objective: firstly, it should enable the airport to develop into a so-called mainport; secondly, it should improve the environmental quality of the surroundings, which means for example that it has to lead to noise reduction and a reduction of the safety risks posed by plane crashes. The ROD refers to this twofold objective as “the core of the balancing process”; however, it adds that “criteria in terms of spatial quality and costs” are also part of the balancing process (Project Mainport en Milieu Schiphol, 1993b: 9). Both the fifth runway and the ‘environmental alternative’ turn out to meet the mainport objective, which means that the choice depends on the environmental effects and on the – apparently also relevant – spatial and financial effects of the options. The striking thing here is that the government’s preferred option fails to meet the safety standard: instead of reducing safety risks, it will increase them. According to the government, this requires “supplementary policy”; however, the government does not clarify what it means by that. Moreover, it is explicitly stated that the environmental alternative is better for the environmental quality than the preferred alternative. Then why not choose the environmental alternative? The justification is extraordinarily short: “The government considers the spatial and financial consequences to be not acceptable” (Project Mainport en Milieu Schiphol, 1993b: 9-10). Criteria that do not belong to the “core of the balancing process” have apparently been decisive. But why? What part have the spatial and financial consequences played in the decision-making process? And where exactly can one draw the line between acceptable and unacceptable? These questions remain unanswered. 5. What to do? We confine ourselves here to providing only one example illustrating the problems in Dutch RODs: as a rule, the input (facts and values with regard to alternative options) and the output (the decision) are crystal clear; the balancing process in between, however, is a black box. All in all, there is a remarkable discrepancy between the project proponent’s obligation to provide full and fair disclosure in the first discussion and the competent authority’s freedom in dealing with a crucial step in the second discussion. The final question is: is there a way to justify a decision more rationally? The answer to this is yes, and inspiration can be drawn from the pragma-dialectical ideal model for a critical discussion. As explained before, the first discussion (about alternatives and effects) is rational because the evaluation of the argumentation presented by the project proponent in an EIS is not ad hoc, but based on criteria the parties have mutually agreed upon beforehand. This concept could also be applied to enhance the rationality of RODs in the second discussion. In 1990 a Dutch quality newspaper published an interview with the Canadian philosopher and fallacy expert John Woods about fallacies (NRC Handelsblad, 19 June 1990). The title of the article was taken from a remark Woods made about his sister: Women are bad drivers. Look at my sister. The first part serves as a standpoint; this standpoint is supported by the second part, the argumentation. The connection between the two is made by the unexpressed premise, that in everyday conversation is usually left implicit. The missing premise here is: what goes for my sister, goes for women in general. This premise makes clear what argumentation scheme has been applied; in this case the scheme of ‘reasoning by example’. If one wants to evaluate the argumentation, it is not enough to evaluate the standpoint and the argument separately; the unexpressed premise also has to be evaluated (van Eemeren & Grootendorst 1992: 94-102). For the evaluation of this premise, two questions are relevant: 1. Is it acceptable to justify a general statement with an example? 2. If so, is the example used in this specific case an appropriate one? In other words, for the evaluation of the argumentation here, two questions are relevant: 1. Is it acceptable to apply this argumentation scheme? 2. If so, has the scheme been applied correctly? For the argumentation to be valid, the applied argumentation scheme must be acceptable and have been applied correctly in this specific argumentation. Whether or not this is the case can be tested by the commitments the participants made at the opening stage of the discussion. Argumentation in an ROD could be evaluated in a similar way. The decision functions as a standpoint, and this standpoint is supported by the facts and values from the matrix, serving as arguments. The connection can be made through the method that is used in the decision-making process and is left implicit here. In decision theories, this method is referred to as a ‘decision rule’. The missing link here, i.e. the decision rule, has much in common with the unexpressed premise in a single argumentation. So, for the evaluation of the support of the decision and the missing link here, similar questions could be asked: 1. Is it acceptable to apply decision rule X? 2. If so, has decision rule X been applied correctly? The first question suggests that decision makers may choose from a whole set of decision rules. And that in fact is the case. Much research on decision rules has been done by researchers in such disciplines as psychology, economics and sociology. Descriptive as well as normative research has provided insight into a number of issues: what decision rules are available? How do people use them? And how should they be used in specific situations? There are also researchers – for instance, the Dutch sociologists Gallhofer and Saris – who, through textual analysis, made a reconstruction of decision rules that were applied in specific political situations. Two examples of rules that are often applied in decision-making about major projects are the following. First of all: the conjunctive rule, or as Gallhofer and Saris – with reference to Herbert Simon – call it: ‘Simon’s rule’ (Gallhofer & Saris 1996: 36-38). This rule entails that for certain effects or aspects minimum requirements or critical values are set. The strategy that leads only to satisfactory outcomes, will be selected. In the Schiphol case this rule was intended to be applied: the chosen measure would have to meet two requirements, i.e. that of the mainport and that of the environment. The second example is a rule known as ‘maximizing number of attributes with greater attractiveness’. Montgomery and Svenson provide the following definition: “This rule implies that the alternative with the greater number of favorable attributes is chosen. That is, if one alternative is more attractive than another alternative on a greater number of attributes, then the former alternative should be chosen” (Montgomery & Svenson 1976: 286). Decision makers have several decision rules at their disposal, but they usually fail to make clear in their RODs which rule they have applied. This is problematic, because if the decision rule itself remains unclear, it will not be possible to evaluate the acceptability of the rule or to check its application. In other words: the balancing process remains a black box. A solution would be to select one rule and make it compulsory for all major projects, but that is not a very realistic idea. The best thing to do is to demand that it is clearly explained in an ROD what decision rule has been taken as a starting point and why. That is what readers need to know and what decision makers should pay attention to. 6. Concluding remarks Environmental Impact Assessment is supposed to rationalize the decision-making process. As we have seen, this policy instrument achieves this purpose as far as the input of the decision-making is concerned. But at the same time, the instrument is remarkably ‘liberal’ with regard to the discussion in which the competent authority has to justify its decision. Further improvement of the rationality of decision-making processes requires that more attention be paid to these RODs, and especially to ‘the missing link’, the bridge between input and outcome. This can be achieved by obliging a competent authority to divide its ROD into three parts: 1. input (with reference to the main conclusions of the EIS) 2.1 explanation and justification of the decision rule that is applied 2.2 application of the chosen decision rule to the case at hand 3. decision: given 1 and 2, what is the best alternative? RODs that are structured in this way create better opportunities for a critical evaluation, because two crucial choices of a competent authority are made explicit: the selection of the appropriate decision rule and its application. This makes it easier to debate the final decision in an orderly fashion – which, in the end, is what RODs are all about. On top of that, a starting point for rationality is that arguments and criteria for evaluating those arguments precede a conclusion. In the case of major projects, one often suspects that it is the other way around: the conclusion comes first – “We want that fifth runway, period” – and the arguments are ‘collected’ afterwards. This is possible because there are no prior commitments a competent authority has to deal with while justifying a decision. Decisions about major projects may, however, result in private citizens and the environment suffering significant damage. Therefore, at an early stage of the second discussion agreement should preferably be reached on how to balance the pros and cons of alternative options. The opening stage of the ideal model for a critical discussion is obviously present when the project proponent writes the EIS. It would definitely be beneficial to a systematic and critical evaluation of the argumentation in an ROD to oblige the competent authority to make certain commitments in advance. It should at least commit itself at an early stage to the use of a particular decision rule. Together with the application of the three-part structure we have provided, this commitment would certainly improve the quality of Records of Decision. Eemeren, F.H. van and R. Grootendorst (1992). Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies; A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Eemeren, F.H. van, R. Grootendorst, S. Jackson and S. Jacobs (1993). Reconstructing Argumentative Discourse. Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press. Commission for Environmental Impact Assessment (1998). New Experiences on EIA in The Netherlands; Process, Methodology, Case Studies.Utrecht: Commission for EIA. Gallhofer, I.N. and W.E. Saris (1996). Foreign Policy Decision-making; A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Political Argumentation. Westport, Connecticut and London: Praeger. Montgomery, H. and O. Svenson (1976). On decision rules and information processing strategies for choices among multiattribute alternatives. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 17, 283-291. Project Mainport en Milieu Schiphol (1993a). Planologische Kernbeslissing Schiphol en omgeving, deel 1, Ontwerp Planologische Kernbeslissing. Den Haag: SDU-DOP. Project Mainport en Milieu Schiphol (1993b). Integraal Milieu-effectrapport Schiphol en Omgeving. Den Haag: Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat. Robinson, N.A. (1992). International Trends in Environmental Impact Assessment. Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 19, 3, 591-621. Ross, W.A. (1987). Evaluating Environmental Impact Statements. Journal of Environmental Management 25, 137-147. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (1988). Final Environmental Impact Statement, Proposed Mt. Graham Astrophysical Area, Pinaleno Mountains, Coronado National Forest. Tucson. Wood, C. (1995). Environmental Impact Assessment; A Comparative Review. London: Longman Scientific & Technical.

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Different types of arthritis exist, each with different causes including wear and tear, infections, and underlying diseases. However, they all involve inflammation in one way or another. Inflammation means that there is an increase in the surface of the cells called inflammation. This can occur naturally or be brought on by factors outside of the body. For example infections or illness. The result of this is that the joints in people affected by arthritis become inflamed. The main result of inflammation is pain. It can be mild or severe and it can be constant or intermittent. The source of pain lies in the swelling around the joint and this is why it is so hard for someone suffering from arthritis to use a joint. It is very tender to touch. Arthritis is an umbrella term for more than 100 different disorders and diseases. It refers to one particular disease of the joints in the body. The joints are the moving parts of the body containing smooth cartilage at their ends. Within the cartilage is a lubricating fluid that functions quite differently from blood in that it has its own circulatory system and a nerve system and an endocrine system. This allows it to function quite differently from other parts of the body. For example your skin can be very rough to the touch but once we use it the way we want to, it becomes much smoother. The joints are subject to the same laws of nature, with the exceptions that they are much more complex and the tissues are more complex. This means that the articular cartilage can slowly wear away. Arthritis is a common medical condition which refers to inflammation in the joints. Arthritis also refers to the disease affecting the joints. * The inflammation of articular cartilage can occur as the result of an infection in the joint, trauma to the joint, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Other causes include systemic diseases such as multiple system diseases like hepatitis. * Articular cartilage is subject to degenerative processes. This means that there is a decrease in its ability to keep pace with the rest of the body’s cartilage. It can actually wear away in certain areas, resulting in joint pain. * The first step in the process is inflammation caused by an infection of the joint. This is called infectious arthritis and it is the most common form of arthritis affecting older people. * The second step is the swelling of the articular cartilage from inflammation. This swelling is called pannus. Pannus is a very painful swelling and can limit joint movement. * It is believed that some people develop the cartilage diseases at an earlier age than others. There are a number of theories as to why this may be but some researchers believe that genetics may play a role. Almost everyone has low back pain at some point in life. Low back pain is most common among males between the ages of 30 and 40, which is also the peak of men’s reproductive function. Men’s low back pain can be attributed to his work, sports, or general use of the body. Many factors increase or decrease the chances of experiencing low back pain, one of the most important factors, is the position in which a person is sleeping. Sleeping on his stomach increases the chances of low back pain while sleeping on one side. A position with knees bent is another effective way to decrease low back pain while sleeping, this can be easily done by putting a pillow between the knees to relieve pressure from the lower back. When a person is sitting, one of the most effective ways to reduce low back pain is to elevate the legs with a footrest. One of the best ways to reduce low back pain while driving, is to place a rolled up towel between the foot and the seat. Sleeping on a firm mattress also reduces the chances of experiencing low back pain. To reduce the chance of experiencing low back pain while walking on the treadmill, it is a good idea to sleep with a pillow under the knees. In conclusion, to reduce the chances of experiencing low back pain, it is important to sleep on a firm mattress and avoid sitting for extended periods. How to minimize low back pain while lifting heavy objects: 1) When you are lifting an object off of the ground, it is a good idea to bend your knees and squat down, while you are bending forward, you should bend at the knees and keep your back straight, while your legs are on the floor, place the object on your lower back. 2) Do this exercise when you are picking up an object from the ground, keep your feet flat on the floor, bend your knees and bring the object towards your abdomen. Bend down, keep your buttocks on the floor. Lift the object with your legs. 3) Do this exercise when you need to pick up an object off of a chair, place the object on the chair with your hands, keep your buttocks flat on the floor and lift your leg and hip up, while you are lifting your leg straight up, squeeze your buttocks together, keep on the floor, put your hands on your hips and bend from the waist up. Then slowly lower your leg and return to the squatting position. 4) Do this exercise when you are picking up from the floor on the ball, keep your feet flat on the floor, squat down, and put one leg up on the ball. The ball should be as close to your abdomen as you can get, lift and straighten your leg. Email marketing is one of the most profitable ways to make money online. You need to be able to write a subject line, a headline, and a body copy to get prospects to open the email, click through to your link, and buy your product. The first thing you need to write is the headline. The headline is the email “teaser” copy. The goal is to get someone to at least open the email and to have them click through to your sales letter page. In your headline you want to capture their attention in the first line. The purpose here is to move them from the “blank page” to your sales letter page. The headline must be compelling. You want to get past the first line of defense that keeps them from reading further. The purpose of the headline is to get them to open the email and to make them want to click on your links to learn about your product. You will want to keep your headline short, and make it as enticing as possible. If you write the headline too long, it is very likely that they won’t read through to the end. If they get to the sales letter page and you don’t give them a reason to take action, they will go back to their inbox, not the sales letter page. If they go back to their inbox, they won’t take action. This is very important. This is what you need to focus on. If you use the power of personalization, as an example we’ll use the same headline, but this time I’ve personalized it for you. This is what is needs to do to move the prospects through the sales cycle and move them towards a sale. The subject line needs to be something about your product and not a question. The question is a problem of amplification. When we do these sales letter copywriting tests, we find that subjects like ‘What Are Your Solutions?’ or ‘Where Are You Now?’ get the most opens. When I’m doing my own email marketing, I always use what I like to call the “power word.” I use it when I’m having trouble getting a prospect to open up my email and I’m almost afraid to click on it. If I use more than one power word in the subject line, the click through rates tend to suffer, but if you do a subject with a power word, you should see an increase of clicks throughs. The body copy is the email copy that is going to get those clicks throughs. The body copy needs to be personal. I have an open email with an open letter to my friend. It’s very personal and I’m almost always successful using that. I’m not trying to tell you that you shouldn’t have a long copy. I’m simply trying to tell you to be careful with the copy. Be personal. Be honest with the copy. If you can be honest, you will get more clicks throughs. If you would like to hire an immigration lawyer, this is usually due to you having a family member who is facing deportation or some sort of immigration problem. If this is the case, you will need to find a lawyer who will be able to help you with the paperwork and appeal processes on your behalf while you are trying to figure out what you are going to do next. A number of lawyers will help you with the appeals and such, but in reality each one will be trying to get your business by telling you it is the best option for you. It’s very important to find the right lawyer. You can’t possibly handle all these legal problems if you don’t have someone helping you with the details. You are the primary source of the problem, you need to figure out what you want or need. If it’s just the appeals, you need to find someone who knows which appeal to file. If it’s a more complicated issue, such as immigration and naturalization, you need someone who can help you through the process. You will want someone who will be able to help you with all the paperwork, filing appeals, and such. There are a variety of lawyers that offer this service, but you need someone who is able to help you with the details. There may be a lot of legal things you need dealt with and you need someone who has a thorough grasp of all of them so you don’t go crazy. In most cases you don’t have a choice if you want to stay in this country, but if there is something that needs doing, you need someone who can help you. If you want to apply for citizenship, this is the type of immigration attorney you will need. When you have decided you want to come to this country, there are a number of steps that need to be taken. This is a fairly major decision, and if you don’t know what you need to do, you may simply go crazy. This is why you need to find the best person to help you. If you need help with immigration, you want someone who has the knowledge and experience to help you. You need someone who can get the job done well. That is why many immigration attorneys will also be able to handle the appeal process for you. They will have the skills, knowledge, and experience to handle all of the appeal issues for you, as well as the legal knowledge to help you figure out what appeal to file. Most immigration attorneys can also help with the appeal processes, and can help you figure out what appeals process to file if you have an appeal denial letter. You’ll need a lawyer who can help you get the job done right the first time. If you have filed to get a fiance visa, and you will be coming to the U.S. so that you can marry your American fiancé, this is where the immigration attorneys will be in the best position to help you. You want a good lawyer to be familiar with the law governing the visa. That’s what an immigration attorney will know which means this attorney can help you get through the visa process. Some of the most common visas are what you will find immigration attorneys also knowledgeable in naturalization and deportation law. Most importantly they know the law which means that they can help you figure out which way to file to make U.S. citizenship happen. If you want to become naturalized American citizen, you want someone who has the legal experience and knowledge to help you out and figure out which path to take. These attorneys will have the skills to handle all of the appeal processes that are sure to come up for you. They will also have the knowledge to know which way to file to get your citizenship so if you want to go the appeal route you have someone who knows all the legal tricks. Acne is a common condition faced by many teenagers and many adults who are very much concerned about their looks. Many people suffer with this common skin ailment for years while others find it suddenly appear. There is no one cause of acne but many causes. It is caused by hormonal imbalance that causes oil glands to produce much more oil than normal and this oil can clog pores and cause breakouts. The most common cause of acne is due to hormonal imbalance. Acne can also be due to a food allergy also. Acne can be caused by stress too. However, there are some other possible causes of acne and they are: Diet Changes: If you make some changes in your diet, you can get rid of acne easily. Some foods cause acne while other foods help in fighting with acne. One change in your diet that I recommend is to avoid dairy products such as milk and cheese. These products contain hormones that can stimulate the production of excess amount of sebum and this can lead to acne. I also recommend to avoid red meat. There are many foods in the world that are known to contain hormone. The best way to get rid of acne is to change your diet by avoiding the foods that produce excess amount of oil, as they promote acne. You can get rid of acne by making some simple changes in your diet. Mixed Food & Drink: You should always try to get a variety of different food and drink. Food that contain sugar are not good for acne. Drink that contain alcohol may cause acne to flare up. Drink that contain high amounts of caffeine are bad for acne. If you keep up your new diet regularly, you will be able to keep acne off your skin. Daily Skincare Routine: I advise to wash your face with soap 2 times a day. This soap can contain salicylic acid that can reduce the inflammation and flakiness of your pimples. After washing your face, use a moisture lotion that contain Aloe Vera. These lotions have moisturizers that can keep your skin fresh. This will not only keep your skin healthy but it will also reduce the flare up of acne. Follow these simple steps everyday and within a few months, you will see a big difference on your acne. Life without parole in Wisconsin, like life without parole in many other states, has proven to be a cruel joke. It’s a punishment which, for the longest time, was unknown in Wisconsin until the late ’80s. In 1982, the Dane County Board of Sentencing found that life without parole is cruel and unusual punishment. The court’s ruling stated, “In order to satisfy that ‘cruel and unusual punishment’ canon, the state must demonstrate that the punishment denies the convicted individual ‘the basic right of personal security and physical integrity.'” In the state of Wisconsin, the decision has led to more prisoners serving life without parole and higher rates of recidivism. It was a ruling which forced the state to look at the issue. The result of that change is that prisoners are now serving life without parole which, by Wisconsin law and constitution, is not life without parole. “In order to satisfy that ‘cruel and unusual punishment’ canon, the state must demonstrate that the punishment denies the convicted individual the basic right of personal security and physical integrity.” – Dane County Circuit Ct. of Sess. Ch. 1079 (1982). However, the “basic right of personal security” doesn’t include a right to die in peace. A convicted individual’s body may be violated without any injury to the mind. That is cruel (and unusual) and unusual punishment. To violate the body without any injury to the mind is not cruel (except in the mind of the offender). In the case of inmate rights in Wisconsin, as elsewhere, the punishment must meet the test of cruelty and unusualness. In the state of Wisconsin, however, a life term with no possibility of parole has been found to be cruel (except in the mind of the offender) and unusual. In fact, as early as 1979, the Wisconsin Criminal Sentencing Review Commission has identified a lack of opportunity for release as “cruel and unusual.” And in 2002, the Wisconsin Department of Corrections issued an advisory stating that “the lack of opportunity for release is both unusual and cruel in the sense that the lack of opportunity for release may cause suffering not typically associated with punishment.” Wisconsin courts have found that inmates have legal rights to have a parole hearing. And the Wisconsin Courts have stated that prisoners have a right to a hearing in the Wisconsin Supreme Court, even though they are on parole. Thus, prisoners still have a right to an appeal. There is no question that life without parole violates a person’s basic constitutional rights. And, Wisconsin is a different country than 1973, when the Eighth Amendment was adopted. And today, a person’s basic rights are not necessarily the same as those in 1973. There has been a constant evolution of rights, and that evolution continues today. The evolution of rights is not simply that of the Court of Human Rights, but a more sophisticated and informed public, with more knowledge and better research, has evolved that has influenced the Court on human rights. That is what has led to an evolution of rights, not a creation of rights as was often claimed for centuries by people who did not want to go through that evolution. In fact, many in the Human Rights movement that have worked to realize an evolution of rights believe that an originalist view is the most progressive way to realize rights. That is why the Human Rights group of prisoners have formed a movement of people who are on the front lines of the rights movement. The best way to get affiliates for your product is by giving away something for free. This is an excellent way for you to get their attention and get them interested in promoting your product. Here’s a scenario you can use. Let’s say you’re selling a product that helps you build model homes on your property. So in addition to products that have help you build model homes, you’re also going to offer a free coaching session to help them get started. In this coaching session you’re going to give them some tips on getting started online, give them some tools for them to use in their model home, and give them some helpful hints as they’re building it. In short you’re going to give them free advice as to what you’ve done. If they want more information about how they can use those tools, you can send them to an affiliate site where they can get more information. This is great for them and you because you get free marketing with an advise that they didn’t have to pay for. Here’s a little secret for you. It doesn’t matter if you sell a product that has help you build model homes or a product that has help you lose 10 pounds immediately. When you send someone to an affiliate site that has help them to lose 10 pounds immediately, and you give them the free advice that you got for free, they will be way more inclined to use the product than someone who sees a website with an ugly piece of software and thinks, “Wow, this site sure does love to scam me.” This is the power of the word of mouth effect. If you’ve done your marketing, you’ve given them quality information, they’ve used the tool, they’ve gotten some free advice, and they’ve gotten free training from you, they are way more inclined to purchase your product than someone who sees a piece of junk and thinks, “No thanks, I don’t need it.” This is a power you’ve just uncovered. Get out of the way so other people can do the real work. Teeth stain for many reasons, including your food and drink choices, oral hygiene, and medication use. Although not the sole cause of stain, certain bacteria naturally present in your mouth, may contribute to teeth discoloration. In addition, the surface structure of your teeth also can contribute to stain. This article discusses the various whitening methods available. Most toothpastes contain chemical agents that help protect teeth from cavities and decay. Whiteners are those chemical agents which change the color of the tooth enamel. Most whiteners contain hydrogen peroxide, a bleaching agent that erases superficial stains but cannot penetrate the enamel. Whitening toothpastes contain mild abrasives that scrub stains off the surface of teeth. They are most effective if used several times per day, usually for 30 minutes to 1 hour. Over-The-counter toothpastes contain abrasives as active ingredients. Whitening toothpastes can help whiten teeth by 10 shades or more, and are safe to use daily, provided the teeth are healthy and the gums are healthy. Other whitening solutions contain triclosan, sodium lauryl sulfate, or some other type of chemical solution that bleaches the tooth enamel. Most over-the-counter whiteners include a gel base. These solutions can be applied to the teeth directly using a small brush, or via toothpaste trays that fit your teeth like a mouthguard. The best way to know the difference between the whiteners and the over-the-counter solutions is to ask your dentist about your whitening options. Although many whitening products include a toothpaste base, they are not the same thing. A tooth paste works differently each time you use it. Your tooth paste works better if it’s used every day (usually for about a week or two) and if you keep the tray in your teeth for longer periods of time. It is an addiction, and a very serious one at that… It is a bad habit that should be confronted wherever it rears its ugly head. A habit like smoking, or drinking alcohol, or eating too much, or not brushing your teeth, or taking drugs, or getting into scrapes, or not doing your chores, too much talking, too much thinking, too much worry, or getting sicker than your stomach can take. It is a habit you don’t want to have control of your life, so don’t allow yourself to be controlled by it. It is an addiction like any other, in that you need to get rid of it for your best interests to be served. It is not the same as, “I’ll just stop drinking or smoking, it will make me healthy enough to compete in the Olympics.” That has many different variables. It is not the same as “I’ll just stop eating red meat, it will make me less racist.” All habits have varying degrees of influence in our lives, so you need to be aware of the types of habits you are challenging. If this is your situation, then the following tips will come in handy. You need to be very conscious of your triggers and areas of vulnerability as you try to get rid of your habit. Identify your habits The way to truly rid yourself of an addiction is to identify the habit at hand. It could mean going to counseling, going to treatment, or meeting with a therapist or life coach to discuss your situation. Once you have identified that habit, then you need to start identifying the triggers that happen in your daily life. The idea is to recognize what is going on in your life that will lead you to do your addiction. Then you need to find ways to change that behavior so that it no longer takes place in your life. For example, if you get into scrapes, then you need to learn to dress so that you are not tempted to picking through trash. You might be interested in working with a coach to identify your triggers and weaknesses, and work on ways to change how you live your life in general that are less likely to lead to your addictive behavior. The most important thing in getting rid of any habit or addiction is to learn to live without it. It is about being conscious of your behaviors and learning to do things differently so you don’t get yourself into sticky situations that lead you to doing the habit you want to get rid of. If you take it one step further and identify your triggers and areas of vulnerability, then you can start working on ways to reduce the potential for you feeling tempted or driven to do the addiction. 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Reconciling Gospel and Torah: The Catechism Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (1994) This essay was originally written for a Jewish-Christian encounter in Jerusalem in February 1994 and was republished in various forms, including the first section of Many Religions, One Covenant. The history of the relationship between Israel and Christendom is drenched with blood and tears. It is a history of mistrust and hostility, but also - thank God - a history marked again and again by attempts at forgiveness, understanding and mutual acceptance. After Auschwitz, the mission of reconciliation and acceptance permits no deferral. Even if we know that Auschwitz is the gruesome expression of an ideology that not only wanted to destroy Judaism but also hated and sought to eradicate from Christianity its Jewish heritage, the question remains, What could be the reason for so much historical hostility between those who actually must belong together because of their faith in the one God and commitment to his will? Does this hostility result from something in the very faith of Christians? Is it something in the "essence of Christianity," such that one would have to prescind from Christianity's core, deny Christianity its heart, in order to come to real reconciliation? This is an assumption that some Christian thinkers have in fact made in the last few decades in reaction to the horrors of history. Do confession of Jesus of Nazareth as the Son of the living God and faith in the cross as the redemption of mankind contain an implicit condemnation of the Jews as stubborn and blind, as guilty of the death of the Son of God? Could it be that the core of the faith of Christians themselves compels them to intolerance, even to hostility toward the Jews, and conversely, that the self-esteem of Jews and the defense of their historic dignity and deepest convictions oblige them to demand that Christians abandon the heart of their faith and so require Jews similarly to forsake tolerance? Is the conflict programmed in the heart of religion and only to be overcome through its repudiation? In this heightened framing of the question, the problem confronting us today reaches far beyond an academic interreligious dialogue into the fundamental decisions of this historic hour. One sees more frequent attempts to mollify the issue by representing Jesus as a Jewish teacher who in principle did not go beyond what was possible in Jewish tradition. His execution is understood to result from the political tensions between Jews and Romans. In point of fact, he was executed by the Roman authority in the way political rebels were punished. His elevation to Son of God is accordingly understood to have occurred after the fact, in a Hellenistic climate; at the same time, in view of the given political circumstances, the blame for the crucifixion is transferred from the Romans to the Jews. As a challenge to exegesis, such interpretations can further an acute listening to the text and perhaps produce something useful. However, they do not speak of the Jesus of the historic sources, but instead construct a new and different Jesus, relegating the historical faith in the Christ of the church to mythology. Christ appears as a product of Greek religiosity and political opportunism in the Roman Empire. One does not do justice to the gravity of the question with such a view; indeed one retreats from it. Thus the question remains: Can Christian faith, left in its inner power and dignity, not only tolerate Judaism but accept it in its historic mission? Or can it not? Can there be true reconciliation without abandoning the faith, or is reconciliation tied to such abandonment? In reply to this question which concerns us most deeply, I shall not present simply my own views. Rather, I wish to show what the Catechism of the Catholic Church released in 1992 has to say. This work has been published by the magisterium of the Catholic Church as an authentic expression of her faith. In recognition of the significance of Auschwitz and from the mission of the Second Vatican Council, the matter of reconciliation has been inscribed in the catechism as an object of faith. Let us see then how the catechism sounds in relation to our question in terms of its definition of its own mission. 1. JEWS AND PAGANS IN THE ACCOUNT OF THE MAGI (MT. 2:1-12) I begin with the text of the catechism explaining the significance of the account of the journey of the Magi from the East. It sees in the Magi the origin of the church formed out of the pagans; the Magi afford an enduring reflection on the way of the pagans. The catechism says the following: The Magi's coming to Jerusalem in order to pay homage to the king of the Jews shows that they seek in Israel, in the messianic light of the star of David, the one who will be king of the nations. Their coming means that the pagans can discover Jesus and worship him as Son of God and savior of the world only by turning toward the Jews and receiving from them the messianic promise as contained in the Old Testament. The Epiphany shows that the "full number of the nations" now takes its "place in the family of the patriarchs," and acquires "Israelitica dignitas" (are made "worthy of the heritage of Israel").(CCC 528) In this text we can see how the catechism views the relationship between Jews and the nations as communicated by Jesus; in addition, it offers at the same time a first presentation of the mission of Jesus. Accordingly, we say that the mission of Jesus is to unite Jews and pagans into a single people of God in which the universalist promises of the Scripture are fulfilled which speak again and again of the nations worshiping the God of Israel — to the point where in Trito-Isaiah we no longer read merely of the pilgrimage of the nations to Zion but of the proclamation of the mission of ambassadors to the nations "that have not heard my fame or seen my glory.... And some of them also I will take for priests and for Levites, says the Lord" (Is. 66:19, 21). In order to present this unification of Israel and the nations, the brief text — still interpreting Matthew 2 — gives a lesson on the relationship of the world religions, the faith of Israel and the mission of Jesus: The world religions can become the star which enlightens men's path, which leads them in search of the kingdom of God. The star of the religions points to Jerusalem, it becomes extinguished and lights up anew in the word of God, in the sacred Scripture of Israel. The word of God preserved herein shows itself to be the true star without which or bypassing which one cannot find the goal. When the catechism designates the star as the "star of David," it links the account of the Magi furthermore with the Balaam prophecy of the star which shall come forth out of Jacob (Nm. 24:17), seeing this prophecy for its part connected to Jacob's blessing of Judah, which promised the ruler's staff and scepter to him who is owed "the obedience of the peoples" (Gn. 49:10). The catechism sees Jesus as the promised shoot of Judah who unites Israel and the nations in the kingdom of God. What does all this mean? The mission of Jesus consists in leading the histories of the nations in the community of the history of Abraham, in the history of Israel. His mission is unification, reconciliation, as the Letter to the Ephesians (2:18-22) will then present it. The history of Israel should become the history of all, Abraham's sonship become extended to the 'many.' This course of events has two aspects to it: The nations can enter into the community of the promises of Israel in entering into the community of the one God who now becomes and must become the way of all because there is only one God and because his will is therefore truth for all. Conversely, this means that all nations, without the abolishment of the special mission of Israel, become brothers and receivers of the promises of the chosen people; they become people of God with Israel through adherence to the will of God and through acceptance of the Davidic kingdom. Yet another observation can be important here. If the account of the Magi, as the catechism interprets it, presents the answer of the sacred books of Israel as the decisive and indispensable guide for the nations, in doing so the account of the Magi varies the same theme we encounter in John's Gospel in the formula: "Salvation comes from the Jews" (4:22). This heritage remains abidingly vital and contemporary in the sense that there is no access to Jesus, and thereby there can be no entrance of the nations into the people of God without the acceptance in faith of the revelation of God, who speaks in the sacred Scripture which Christians term the Old Testament. By way of summary we can say: Old and New Testaments, Jesus and the sacred Scripture of Israel, appear here as indivisible. The new thrust of his mission to unify Israel and the nations corresponds to the prophetic thrust of the Old Testament itself. Reconciliation in the common recognition of the kingdom of God, recognition of his will as the way, is the nucleus of the mission of Jesus in which person and message are indivisible. This mission is efficacious already at the moment when he lies silent in the crib. One understands nothing about him if one does not enter with him into the dynamic of reconciliation. 2. JESUS AND THE LAW: NOT TO ABOLISH, BUT TO "FULFILL" Nevertheless, the great vision of this text gives rise to a question. How will that which is foreshadowed here in the image of the star and those who follow it be historically realized? Does the historic image of Jesus, do his message and his work correspond to this vision, or do they contradict it? Now there is nothing more contested than the question of the historical Jesus. The catechism as a book of faith proceeds from the conviction that the Jesus of the Gospels is also the only true historical Jesus. Starting here, it presents the message of Jesus first under the all encompassing motto "kingdom of God," in which the various aspects of the good news of Jesus coalesce, so that they receive from here their direction and their concrete content (541-560). Then the catechism goes on to show the relation Jesus-Israel from three vantage points: Jesus and the law (577-582), Jesus and the temple (583-586), Jesus and the faith of Israel in the one God and savior (587-591). At this juncture our book comes finally to the decisive fate of Jesus, to his death and resurrection, in which Christians see the Passover mystery of Israel fulfilled and brought to its final theological depth. The central chapter on Jesus and Israel interests us here particularly. It is also fundamental for the interpretation of the concept of kingdom of God and for the understanding of the Easter mystery. Now, to be sure, the very themes of law, temple and the oneness of God are the volatile ones supplying the material for Jewish-Christian disputes. Is it even possible to view these things simultaneously in fidelity to history, according to faith, and under the primacy of reconciliation? It is not only earlier interpretations of the history of Jesus which have given generally negative images to Pharisees, priests and Jews. Indeed, crass contrasts have become a cliché in modern and liberal descriptions where Pharisees and priests are portrayed as the representatives of a hardened legalism, as representatives of the eternal law of the establishment presided over by religious and political authorities who hinder freedom and live from the oppression of others. In light of these interpretations one sides with Jesus, fights his fight, by coming out against the power of priests in the church and against law and order in the state. The images of the enemy in contemporary liberation struggles fuse with those of Jesus' history, which is reduced to a struggle against religiously veiled domination of man by man, the inauguration of that revolution in which Jesus is to be sure the underdog but precisely by his defeat establishes a first step which will necessarily lead to definitive victory. If Jesus is seen thus, if his death must be conceived in terms of this constellation of antitheses, his message cannot be one of reconciliation. It goes without saying that the catechism does not share this outlook. Rather it holds principally to the portrayal of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, seeing in Jesus the Messiah, the greatest in the kingdom of heaven; as such he knew he was "to fulfill the law by keeping it in its all embracing detail ... down to 'the least of these commandments'" (578). The catechism thus connects the special mission of Jesus to his fidelity to the law; it sees in him the servant of God who truly brings justice (Is. 42:3) and thereby becomes "a covenant to the people" (Is. 42:6; Catechism, 580). Our text is far removed here from any superficial smoothing over of Jesus' conflict laden history, however. Instead of interpreting his way superficially in the sense of an ostensibly prophetic attack on hardened legalism, it strives to fathom its real theological depth. This is seen clearly in the following passage: The "principle of integral observance of the law not only in letter but in spirit was dear to the Pharisees. By giving Israel this principle they had led many Jews of Jesus' time to an extreme religious zeal. This zeal, were it not to lapse into 'hypocritical' casuistry, could only prepare the people for the unprecedented intervention of God through the perfect fulfillment of the law by the only righteous one in place of all sinners" (579). This perfect fulfillment includes Jesus taking upon himself the "'curse of the law' incurred by those who do not 'abide by the things written in the book of the law, and do them (Gal. 3: 10)'" (580). The death on the cross is thus theologically explained by its innermost solidarity with the law and with Israel; the catechism in this regard presents a link to the Day of Atonement and understands the death of Christ itself as the great event of atonement, as the perfect realization of what the signs of the Day of Atonement signify (433; 578). With these statements we find ourselves at the center of the Christian-Jewish dialogue, we reach the juncture where we are faced with the decisive choice between reconciliation and alienation. Before we pursue further the interpretation of the figure of Jesus as it emerges here, we must, however, first ask what this view of the historic figure of Jesus means for the existence of those who know themselves to be grafted through him onto the "olive tree of Israel," the children of Abraham. Where the conflict between Jesus and the Judaism of his time is presented in a superficial, polemical way, a concept of liberation is derived which can understand the Torah only as a slavery to external rites and observances. The view of the catechism derived essentially from St. Matthew's Gospel and finally from the entirety of the tradition of the Gospels, leads logically to quite a different perception, which I would like to cite in detail: The law of the Gospel fulfills the commandments of the law (= the Torah). The Lord's Sermon on the Mount, far from abolishing or devaluing the moral prescriptions of the old law, releases their hidden potential and has new demands arise from them: It reveals their entire divine and human truth. It does not add new external precepts but proceeds to renew the heart, the root of human acts, where man chooses between the pure and impure, where faith, hope and charity are found, and with them the other virtues. The Gospel thus brings the law to its fullness through imitation of the perfection of the heavenly Father. (1968) This view of a deep unity between the good news of Jesus and the message of Sinai is again summarized in the reference to a statement of the New Testament which is not only common to the synoptic tradition but also has a central character in the Johannine and Pauline writings: The whole law, including the prophets, depends on the twofold yet one commandment of love of God and love of neighbor (Catechism, 1970; Mt. 7:20; 22:34-40; Mk. 12:38-43; Lk. 10:25-28; Jn. 13:34; Rom. 13:8-10). For the nations, being assumed into the children of Abraham is concretely realized in entering into the will of God, in which moral commandment and profession of the oneness of God are indivisible, as this becomes clear especially in St. Mark's version of this tradition in which the double commandment is expressly linked to the "Sch'ma Israel," to the yes to the one and only God. Man's way is prescribed for him he is to measure himself according to the standard of God and according to his own human perfection. At the same time, the ontological depth of these statements comes to the fore. By saying yes to the double commandment man lives up to the call of his nature to be the image of God that was willed by the Creator and is realized as such in loving with the love of God. Beyond all historic and strictly theological discussions, we find ourselves placed in the middle of the question of the present responsibility of Jews and Christians before the modern world. This responsibility consists precisely in representing the truth of the one will of God before the world and thus placing man before his inner truth, which is at the same time his way. Jews and Christians must bear witness to the one God, to the Creator of heaven and earth, and do this in that entirety which Psalm 19 formulates in an exemplary way: The light of the physical creation, the sun, and the spiritual light, the commandment of God, belong inextricably together. In the radiance of the word of God, the same God speaks to the world who attests to himself in the sun, moon and stars, in the beauty and fullness of creation. In the words of the German hymn, "Die sonne ist des himmels ehr, doch dein gesetz, Herr, noch viel mehr." 3. JESUS' INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW: CONFLICT AND RECONCILIATION The inevitable question follows. Does such a view of the relationship between the law and the Gospel not come down to an unacceptable attempt at harmonization? How does one explain then the conflict which led to Jesus' cross? Does all of this not stand in contradiction to St. Paul's interpretation of the figure of Jesus? Are we not denying here the entire Pauline doctrine of grace in favor of a new moralism, thereby abolishing the "articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesiae," the essential innovation of Christianity? With respect to this point, the moral section of the catechism from which we took the discussion of the Christian way corresponds closely to the depiction of Christ taken from the dogmatic section. If we attend carefully we see two essential aspects of the issue in which the answer to our questions lies. a) In its presentation of the inner continuity and coherence of the law and the Gospel which we have just discussed, the catechism stands squarely within the Catholic tradition, especially as it was formulated by St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. In this tradition the relationship between the Torah and the proclamation of Jesus is never seen dialectically: God in the law does not appear "sub contrario," as it were, in opposition to himself. In tradition, it was never a case of dialectics, but rather of analogy, development in inner correspondence following the felicitous phrase of St. Augustine: "The New Testament lies hidden in the Old; the Old is made explicit in the New." In regard to the interrelation of both testaments, the catechism cites a significant text of St. Thomas: "There were ..., under the regimen of the Old Covenant, people who possessed the charity and grace of the Holy Spirit and longed above all for the spiritual and eternal promises by which they were associated in the new law. Conversely, there exist carnal men under the New Covenant" (Catechism 1964; Sum. Theol. I-II 107, 1, ad 2). b) The above also means that the law is read prophetically, in the inner tension of the promise. What such a dynamic-prophetic reading means appears in the catechism first in twofold form: The law is led to its fullness through the renewal of the heart (1968); externally this results in the ritual and juridical observances being suspended (1972). But here, needless to say, a new question arises. How could this happen? How is this compatible with fulfillment of the law to the last iota? For, to be sure, one cannot simply separate out universally valid moral principles and transitory ritual and legal norms without destroying the Torah itself, which is something integral, which owes its existence to God's address to Israel. The idea that, on the one hand, there are pure morals which are reasonable and universal, and on the other that there are rites that are conditioned by time and ultimately dispensable mistakes entirely the inner structure of the five books of Moses. "The Decalogue" as the core of the work of the law shows clearly enough that the worship of God is completely indivisible from morals, cult and ethos. "In Jesus' exchange with the Jewish authorities of his time, we are not dealing with a confrontation between a liberal reformer and an ossified traditionalist hierarchy. Such a view, though common, fundamentally misunderstands the conflict of the New Testament and does justice neither to Jesus nor to Israel." However, we stand here before a paradox. The faith of Israel was directed to universality. Since it is devoted to the one God of all men, it also bore within itself the promise to become the faith of all nations. But the law, in which it was expressed, was particular, quite concretely directed to Israel and its history; it could not be universalized in this form. In the intersection of these paradoxes stands Jesus of Nazareth, who himself as a Jew lived under the law of Israel but knew himself to be at the same time the mediator of the universality of God. This mediation could not take place through political calculation or philosophical interpretation. In both of these cases man would have put himself over God's word and reformed it according to his own standards. Jesus did not act as a liberal reformer recommending and himself presenting a more understanding interpretation of the law. In Jesus' exchange with the Jewish authorities of his time, we are not dealing with a confrontation between a liberal reformer and an ossified traditionalist hierarchy. Such a view, though common, fundamentally misunderstands the conflict of the New Testament and does justice neither to Jesus nor to Israel. Rather Jesus opened up the law quite theologically conscious of, and claiming to be, acting as Son, with the authority of God himself, in innermost unity with God, the Father. Only God himself could fundamentally reinterpret the law and manifest that its broadening transformation and conservation is its actually intended meaning. Jesus' interpretation of the law makes sense only if it is interpretation with divine authority, if God interprets himself. The quarrel between Jesus and the Jewish authorities of his time is finally not a matter of this or that particular infringement of the law but rather of Jesus' claim to act "ex auctoritate divina," indeed, to be this "auctoritas" himself. "I and the Father are one" (Jn. 10:30). Only when one penetrates to this point can he also see the tragic depth of the conflict. On the one hand, Jesus broadened the law, wanted to open it up, not as a liberal reformer, not out of a lesser loyalty to the law, but in strictest obedience to its fulfillment, out of his being one with the Father in whom alone law and promise are one and in whom Israel could become blessing and salvation for the nations. On the other hand, Israel "had to" see here something much more serious than a violation of this or that commandment, namely, the injuring of that basic obedience, of the actual core of its revelation and faith: Hear, O Israel, your God is one God. Here obedience and obedience clash, leading to the conflict which had to end on the cross. Reconciliation and separation appear thus to be tied up in a virtually insolvable paradox. In the catechism's theology of the New Testament the cross cannot simply be viewed as an accident which actually could have been avoided nor as the sin of Israel with which Israel becomes eternally stained in contrast to the pagans for whom the cross signifies redemption. In the New Testament there are not two effects of the cross: a damning one and a saving one, but only a single effect, which is saving and reconciling. In this regard, there is an important text of the catechism which Christian hope interprets as the continuation of the hope of Abraham and links to the sacrifice of Israel: Christian hope has its origin and model in the hope of Abraham, who was blessed abundantly by the promise of God fulfilled in Isaac, and who was purified by the test of the sacrifice" (1819). Through his readiness to sacrifice his son, Abraham becomes the father of many, a blessing for all nations of the earth (cf. Gn. 22). The New Testament sees the death of Christ in this perspective, in analogy to Abraham. That means then that all cultic ordinances of the Old Testament are seen to be taken up into his death and brought to their deepest meaning. All sacrifices are acts of representation, which in this great act of real representation from symbols become reality so that the symbols can be foregone without one iota being lost. The universalizing of the Torah by Jesus, as the New Testament understands it, is not the extraction of some universal moral prescriptions from the living whole of God's revelation. It preserves the unity of cult and ethos. The ethos remains grounded and anchored in the cult, in the worship of God, in such a way that the entire cult is bound together in the cross, indeed, for the first time has become fully real. According to Christian faith, on the cross Jesus opens up and fulfills the wholeness of the law and gives it thus to the pagans, who can now accept it as their own in this its wholeness, thereby becoming children of Abraham. 4. THE CROSS The historic and theological judgment about the responsibility of Jews and pagans for the cross derives in the catechism from this understanding of Jesus, his claim and fate. a) There is first the historic question of the course of the trial and execution. The headings to the four sections in the catechism which treat this matter already show the direction: "Divisions among the Jewish authorities concerning Jesus," "Jews are not collectively responsible for Jesus' death." The catechism recalls that esteemed Jewish personages were followers of Jesus according to the witness of the Gospels, that according to St. John, shortly before Jesus' death, "many even of the authorities believed in him" (Jn. 12:42). The catechism also refers to the fact that on the day after Pentecost, according to the report of the Acts of the Apostles, "a great many of the priests were obedient to the faith" (Acts 6:7). St. James is also mentioned, who commented, "How many thousands there are among the Jews of those who have believed; they are all zealous for the law" (Acts 21:20). Thus it is elucidated that the report of Jesus' trial cannot substantiate a charge of collective Jewish guilt. The Second Vatican Council is expressly cited: "Neither all Jews indiscriminately at that time, nor Jews today, can be charged with the crimes committed during his passion.... The Jews should not be spoken of as rejected or accursed as if this followed from holy Scripture" (597; "Nostra Aetate," 4). b) It is clear from what we have just now considered that such historical analyses— as important as they are— still do not touch the actual core of the question, since indeed the death of Jesus according to the faith of the New Testament is not merely a fact of external history but is rather a theological event. The first heading in the theological analysis of the cross is accordingly: "Jesus handed over according to the definite plan of God;" the text itself begins with the sentence: "Jesus' violent death was not the result of chance in an unfortunate coincidence of circumstances, but is part of the mystery of God's plan" (599). Corresponding to this, the part of the catechism which explores the question of responsibility for Christ's death closes with a section titled: "All sinners were the authors of Christ's passion." The catechism was able here to refer back to the Roman Catechism of 1566. There it states: If one asks why the son of god accepted the most bitter suffering, he will find that besides the inherited guilt of the first parents it was particularly the vices and sins which men have committed from the beginning of the world up until this day and will commit from this day on till the end of time.... This guilt applies above all to those who continue to relapse into sin. Since our sins made the Lord Christ suffer the torment of the cross, those who plunge themselves into disorders and crimes 'crucify the Son of God on their own account and hold him up to contempt' (Heb. 6:6). The Roman Catechism of 1566, which the new catechism quotes, then adds that the Jews according to the testimony of the apostle Paul "would never have crucified the Lord of glory had they recognized him" (1 Cor. 2:8). It continues: "We, however, profess to know. And when we deny him by our deeds, we in some way seem to lay violent hands on him" (Roman Catechism, 5,11; Catechism of the Catholic Church, 598). For the believing Christian who sees in the cross not a historical accident but a real theological occurrence, these statements are not mere edifying commonplaces in terms of which one must refer to the historical realities. Rather these affirmations penetrate into the core of the matter. This core consists in the drama of human sin and divine love; human sin leads to God's love for man assuming the figure of the cross. Thus on the one hand sin is responsible for the cross, but on the other, the cross is the overcoming of sin through God's more powerful love. For this reason, beyond all questions of responsibility, the passage of the "Letter to the Hebrews" (12:24) has the last and most important word to say on this subject, namely, that the blood of Jesus speaks another— a better and stronger— language than the blood of Abel, than the blood of all those killed unjustly in the world. It does not cry for punishment but is itself atonement, reconciliation. Already as a child — even though I naturally knew nothing of all things the catechism summarizes — I could not understand how some people wanted to derive a condemnation of Jews from the death of Jesus because the following thought had penetrated my soul as something profoundly consoling: Jesus' blood raises no calls for retaliation but calls all to reconciliation. It has become, as the "Letter to the Hebrews" shows, itself a permanent Day of Atonement of God. The presentation of the teaching of the catechism, which for its part intends to be an interpretation of Scripture, has taken a long time, longer than I foresaw. Thus I cannot draw any detailed conclusions for the mission of Jews and Christians in the modern secularized world. But I think the basic task has nevertheless become clearer without my having to do this. Jews and Christians should accept each other in profound inner reconciliation, neither in disregard of their faith nor in its denial, but out of the depth of faith itself. In their mutual reconciliation they should become a force for peace in and for the world. Through their witness to the one God, who cannot be adored apart from the unity of love of God and neighbor, they should open the door into the world for this God so that his will be done and so that it become on earth "as it is in heaven;" "so that his kingdom come."

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Memorandum submitted by the Shankill Stress and Trauma Group TRUTH, JUSTICE, RECONCILIATION, FORGIVENESS, BILL OF RIGHTS NI HEALING THROUGH REMEMBERING OF N IRELAND Countries through the world have a Bill of Rights, various in size and content and enshrine many written words, which are only just that "Words". In N Ireland our Bill of Rights must be written in words that the least educated can read, concise, precise and to the point. We believe they must not be open to interpretation by any grouping, Governmental, Political or Culture, but it must cater for the minority. Being no smaller minority than one I would believe our Bill of Rights must be an empowerment document for the individual person. Enshrined therein must we be clearly lead out an understanding that any grouping is only as powerful as the individual no more, no less, it must be an inter departmental approach to the singular need. From cradle to grave and beyond and encompassing the basic right to live in a civic society and have a voice which cannot be silenced by a louder one. It should not be designed to bewilder generations with little knowledge, and so it will not be a shiny fat document without any meaning, and prepared if necessary on a street to street consultation of the draft for approval 60 pages of sense and sensibility would be better than 600 of waffle and fudge. Truth & Reconciliation Prior to my thinking of this nature we must decide and so should Governments, was 1966 and onwards troubles, Conflict or War? Trouble by definition is something that causes inconvenience, upset, unrest, in our belief we did not have "Troubles". CONFLICT would indicate a Strife, Quarrel, to be in Variance with or to Struggle. So, did we have conflict? WAR Conflict between Nations or Parties, Military in context, to make War. Did we have War in N Ireland? The Government would indicate so, many people have War Pensions in one way or another, and Para-Militaries claimed prisoners of war status, so do we require, A War Crimes Trial? Having ruled out Troubles, Question Conflict and it is open for debate that would leave probability of War with Pensions and Prisoner Status, again a point to debate. Conflict may require inquiries, if we ever could prove liability or Truth, is the question running through every form of combatant it would seem Truth is down to memory recall Soldier or Para-Military Official Secrets Act to Oaths, which to date has caused more pain and anguish than Truth Recovery. What if we ALL woke up one morning in unison and spoke Truth, it would be our belief that our Communities on every side would either turn in on their own, and finally when we bury all our dead the final act may be to join together and destroy the Irish and British Government Buildings, with a tiny proportion of poplars left standing in our areas. We then proceed on the middle and upper classes who stood and watched whilst our communities suffered and who now have created a growth industry from victims, again these are points for discussion! Will the Truth really set us free, and from what? Don't all victims already know the Truth, thousands died leaving behind grieving families, as many more were blinded, deafened, amputees, walking wounded, and God only knows how many minds will never recover from the Trauma of our innocence in Northern Ireland. In an ideal world free from fear and harm, conflict and corruption all around, are we looking for Truth or are we looking for Recognition of a journey of Injustice, the same injustice has now transferred from the top to the lower classes on either side, it is called summary execution or near enough. "When will we ever learn"? The answers are really blowing in the wind, and perhaps my community are not living in the backwoods as they have great knowledge that the Truth may be more aching than the event that led many to seek it. Will we heal with Truth or open Scars that will be unending and a legacy for those even yet unborn. In the absence of Truth many have truly reconciled, one community to another by discovering we were all Pawns in a big boys game, we have taken risks, held out hands, listened to their pain and walked in others shoes. The WE were not always trusting or tolerant at one time. Perhaps today many are not yet there, but are keen to find a way through even in the wake of extreme hurt. These people are not the highly paid Community Worker, Solicitor, Judge, or Politician. These people are the same who are missing someone, hurting, mentally and physically, but when it boils down every day. Language we never saw in any documentation, "To Anne, a Para-Military, Republican, Loyalist, Soldier, Policeman, Shopper, Innocent or Guilty, Oh no it was always to Anne a son/daughter 7lbs l2ozs, Blood group neither orange or green. People and Governments should not label neither should we? We are of the opinion if all Truths were known and if one Truth only one is hidden reconciliation will never be possible, and so more Finance. 30 years of attempting to find a way forward has been thrown out of the bath along with the baby. Is life times wasted by those who kept our Communities sort of together, most of them givers of life "Women" with total support from their families who unknowingly gave them wings. Some do, some don't, some will, some won't. "To cease to feel resentment", To Pardon. It would be our belief as Christian reared and indeed our wish to say, "The Lords Prayer" in truth, but most of us who know our perpetrator, and it's a low percentage who actually do, and ever find it in our hearts to Pardon. Perhaps the easy answer is, there is a Judge who will be bigger and have full knowledge of each heart, and he does listen to excuses and lies. Many of our victims will know after death who was pardoned, who was not and that is also something else up for discussion and not by Churchmen unless they are victims. "To cease to feel resentment" many of us have learnt to put the author off a deed to the side, to forbid them free space in our head. It is a coping tool for many it has to be for even many more, as the percentage of ACTUAL killers and maimers caught was very low, makes you wonder about this effective policing, again worth discussion. At this stage and think about it many victims' families became perpetrators under the search for Justice. To many it is possible to be a victim and a perpetrator, Justice then became retribution, and for many this may have appeared right again up for discussion. For most of us had Justice been there for all, conflict in Ireland would have been avoidable, did Nationalists have Justice North or South, indeed not. Did Unionists have Justice North or South, indeed not, and it has to be understood that we were not only misruled but mislead into thinking we ever had. Our Fathers and Grandfathers fought two world wars for democracy, came home to no homes, no jobs, no votes, used abused and threw to one side. Some things don't change and will not if these don't change and will not if these perceptions are not challenged or accepted by all. There are graves across the UK filled with people who were tired, convicted and executed, Soldiers God knows how many executed for cowardice, frightened wee boys, abused women, people that observed the democratic right to speak or do, after execution by State or anyone else Truth was in short supply all around, can we raise them No! What is Justice? Memories are part of us, they often decide the roads we walk, some of them are pleasant and cause us complete mind break, and again we are being lead through the nose to have a free for all with our memories. In a natural death through illness memories of the actual death moment fade and usually in a few years we smile again and hold on to a person who once smiled with us, yes we go through our missing, our depression etc and forget the departing moment. However in the event of any loved ones life taken by another human being, it differs whether for Political or other reasons it is different, most of us are not given the opportunity to be there at the time of passing or any other family member. We hear in Court usually the end of a life story and that in itself differs the memory we focus forever on the event in memory, we remember words smothered, bled, tortured, cold, ditch. Field, wood, and therefore in memory recall each asks the same question. Did they say? Did they know? How long? Who was there? Did anyone pray? And so you get the picture we tend till the day we die not only to have our lovely memories, but the event memory, if we know the perpetrator they will be in the memory if we don't we make it up, and this face is always evil, judging by inquest perhaps satanic and that is where the memory of the person and event combine which it has done for. Are we actually seeking Truth from all and who is going to tell it? We have seen Official Secrets, oaths of groupings etc. At the Bloody Sunday investigation, we have or not seen faces at times, there is always a question unanswered, we are not taking issue with Martin McGuiness on this one, the same oath is taken by all Para-militaries as is only in part broken by paid informers. The Stevens Enquiry (Halted again by secret armies within armies, the ongoing Corry inquires, no doubt heading into the same difficulties, victims silenced within their own communities and running scared 24/7. Could we honestly take the Truth if your friend/neighbour was part of collusion on either side? We have even studied the Mull of Kintyre 29 information gathers complete with vital evidence on a journey in a vehicle with bad safety record is questionable. Which never reached its short destination, just at a time when there was soundings of a local assembly, lasting peace, justice for all. All of these matters have and will be mulled over for many years by individuals and families all over Ireland and beyond. We do not believe however that there is a Truth worth telling, and even were there are, are we in any condition to receive it. Ask any victim they will tell you the real truth that was not a casualty of war, the absence of it in the first place was also the reason for people in our communities entering into it. So do we learn from past mistakes or go on. Being fobbed off forever. A united victim front has always been feared, there is a choice, chase and dig back to 12,000 and whilst your wasting time and energy, the underclass's will never receive their place in the sun, even in North/West Belfast as it is now, look around wake up, some folk have three cars, no debits, food a plenty, eight/nine holidays per year, they don't work, have no profession, talk a lot. Some even run around Ferries carrying loose change of £70,000. All this and we still pursue Truth, tell us where to seek this Truth and we will prophesy my own demise, and not by the man with the small change, but the man that supplied it. Truth, Justice, Remembering and Forgiveness, Shankill Stress and Trauma Group have for over a year been exploring these issues. We from the knowledge that our district in general, has not only be victimised but created victims, and so from the beginning we were honest and up front before most groups and individuals. We acknowledge no hierarchy of victims, as a community we saw the first policeman shot dead, the first community to have been two people shot by the army, ordinary vigilantes becoming paramilitaries and two bombs in three months within a hundred yards. The first babies' deaths, 45 in total dead by bombs between Peter's Hill and Highfield, the first illegal radio station and a general expansion of community work by people for people, all voluntary. The source of redevelopment and the breakdown of a community infrastructure and with the death list going on to 2002. The demise of a great shopping centre over 30 years, the two biggest social gathering places in decline Pubs and Churches, the increase of alcohol and substance abuse, prescribed and illegal coming prominent, child abuse, single parents, the break up of a unionist voice so many UPs. The biggest employers must be in the community and Leisure Services and accountability for that now about to be so well scrutinised that small groups community led, may loose out. We appear to know those are not "Group" orientated. Then comes isolation of the vulnerable though thankfully we have unsung champions who still take time to invite the weak and vulnerable for a cuppa. In our field we get four or five shiny books each week supposedly about our community, but it's a collection of words followed by inaction. Given what has been, what is, and what we hope for we explored four issues with 200 people who are victims, some bereaved, some carrying mental and physical scars. We would never claim to speak for every victim/survivor, but one can only hope we reflect views of those who use our services, and some who wouldn't dream of it but give strong opinions. The word victim has as many interpretations as survivor, and is unique to the individual and we accept every interpretation, and as a group are very inclusive, though there is a lot of honest discussion within the group. 89% of 200 would question, as again there are as many truths as there are citizens, that reflects on the fact of all life changing events in families life, there were about the same per cent who never were charged. Seeking truth in N. Ireland is like needles in haystacks of 45 killed by bombs in The Greater Shankill. And for others in other places there were only one conviction, and many doubts of poor intelligence, were their indications? We don't believe we will ever know, and do we need to? If we need to leave ourselves open to a process which would open wounds, perhaps leave us with the only truth that the dead cannot be raised, bodies and minds may heal to a point, but you cannot erase a memory, or ever be totally whole again. We must face the fact that we have to function as best we can, as an individual, as a family and as a community. Our reckoning is, if we went on this road the cost to the Government in terms of inquiry could cost at the very least £50 million. Which in the generosity of spirit in our group fund, a memorial hospital dedicated to preserve life and dignity. There is no cause or justification that would be a satisfactory reason for any loss of life. Myths and legends stems from a history created not by anyone in working class areas in that way we cannot allow the past, which has impacted on our present, to exist in our future. Few of our group have lived through partition let alone prior, and therefore we won't be blamed or accept blame for it or a portion of blame for a history unknown to us. What we do know is this walk we were forced to take could never be justified. Neither do we wish it on any family we never want to see any more little white coffins leave any home in our Again is an individual and unique issue for bereaved and suffering. We know we don't want gardens. We have a local remembrance in the Heart of our community and multiple graveyards. A written or taped recording of an event which caused physical or mental pain, and a centre where exploration of variety of feelings can be expressed openly and honestly and cannot be divulged without consent. We remember the event how can we forget. But when stories are told the dead are valued for the family contribution the character the joker the wee imp the one who was the party animal. Favourite songs pleasure and privilege. They were ours, warts and all. This is a book to be written soon and individuals can and will contribute feelings about events, and our journeys will be written. But often will take the form of simple answers for children of a parent. Who they know little about or a husband or wife who wants to remember the things that made them love that person. It will be a community story of the individual. Those who were hurt in other ways, secondary victims will have a voice also and nothing will be published without full consent. It will be funny, sad, reflective and hopefully a lesson for the future. Our people are so aware that life and how we each live is so precious. We would protest we don't have to forgive to move on and if we forgive one, we blame another and the blame game has no end. Suffice to say not one of our group gives, (whoever the perpetrator if known) more than a passing thought. Most think they do not deserve that time. There are many issues on who was the perpetrator if known, did the punishment fit the deed, and can we indeed forgive those who stood by and let it all happen, played no part in our healing process and now inundate us with questionnaires and research. Whilst receiving a good living from this effort, we think not. Actively, after years seeking us out not to help but exploit us again. They also played a part by not understanding our pain and still don't. Come autumn there will be much work to be done, by the individual. By no means can we explore these issues while new victims are being created and expansion of all issues will be required. Be very aware of those who rejoice at tears on television, and fears that can be exploited. We must always remember the real experts in all these matters are those who have walked the hard road. Sometimes people can be helped through the worst periods by counselling, befriending, but for many it takes years before they realise what is reality. And for others they will use their own coping strategies. In a meeting only last week most present felt: 1. We will never be afforded the truth? 2. Justice would be that nothing had destroyed any family apart from bread and butter, issues and natural deaths? 3. Remembrance of a way of life or life itself would be a non-inflicted process. 4. Forgiveness is a quiet moving on with a new beginning for our young people and every individual journey. The Jury is still out on all accounts and progressive Leaving one comment by one individual: If 90% of all communities are peace loving and 10% involved in violence. Why is the tail wagging the dog? Where are the 90% of voices hiding? Someone has said, "Its too bad life can't be lived in reverse." If that was the case, we could use some of our mature knowledge to avoid making the mistakes that we ultimately regret later. But, that's not the way life is lived. We have to make the mistakes to gain the knowledge. And we all have made our share of mistakes. For the most part, the past holds many good memories. We remember the good times. We can certainly thank God for the good memories. Unfortunately, the past also has a dark side. The past can be a prison that put us in bondage. Along with the good memories, there also comes memories of our own failures and the hurt caused to us by the failure of others. Memories that seem to continually haunt us. Many people live today plagued by their past. (In the most extreme cases, they sit in mental and rehabilitation centres constantly reliving the tragic events of yesterday.) They have become victims. Ravaged by their past and living in a continual state of regret; they have become trapped by their past. Some people relive the past and recount it in great detail in their mind. All the negative emotions that they felt then, they feel again. Replaying regret steals our joy as we batter ourselves emotionally for events that are forever gone. Some people simply surrender to the past. They decide that they will never rise above the past and resign themselves to be what the past has made them. Others defy the past and refuse to be dominated by it. They recognise that while the past is unchangeable, they can do something to change how they deal with the memories of the past. They face their fears, take an honest look back at the things that haunt and hurt them and they realise that nine times out of 10 they were not even remotely responsible for the events that they were caught up in or the circumstances they were born We have to find a way to release ourselves from the bondage of the past and to move forward in a positive direction to a new way of life. We must recognise the past for what it isthe past. It is over, done, gone, finished, ended, passed. We can't change one thing that happened back then but we can change how we go about dealing with the past. Replace pessimism of the past with optimism for the future. We must always remember that today we have that most precious gift of choice, something that years ago we may not even have realised was our birthright. We lived our lives doing and saying what we thought others wanted us to do and say. Now we know we no longer have to do that and because we know better we can do better. In the past we did the best we could with the tools we had and even at our worst we was trying to do our best. However, sometimes we have to accept that there is a certain pay off for us living in our past. That pay of is self-pity. Our self-pity allows us to stay stuck and saves us having to face the fear of failure that might come with moving forward by ourselves on our own terms. But we have to come to see there is no such thing as failure as long as we are willing to try. Things may not turn out as we would have liked them to but that's not failurethat's just life. We come to realise that we now hold the power over how our lives develop emotionally. For today at least, we do not intend to hand that power back to those past memories. We must no longer condemn ourselves by carrying unrealistic guilt. We have to make a conscious decision that nothing or no one will deter us from moving forward as best we can. We have the choice to let go of the ghosts of the past or to choose to live in the bondage of our own and other people's past mistakes, failures So much of our thinking about the past is tied up with feelings of guilt We have probably said to ourselves many times over, "If only I had done this...", "If only I had done that. . ." "Why did I let that happen". Guilt can be one of the most difficult and distressing emotions. Unless it is dealt with carefully, guilt can also be one of the most destructive of emotions. Initially traumatised people find it difficult to realise that much of their "guilt" is imagined and unrealistic. With hindsight it is too easy to criticise what we have or have not done. When looking back on our past we must remember we acted with the information we had at the time. We must all ask ourselves honestly: How much of my guilt is imagined? Look at myself with the knowledge I had at the Have I allowed any blame from others to be laid Am I whipping myself with guilt to punish myself? We cannot be responsible for another person's actions or the circumstances we were born into. We cannot change the past but we can change the futurewe can either enjoy it or endure it. The choice is ours. I encourage you to choose life and then to start living it the way you have decided you want to live it. Be kind and gentle with yourself on the way and leave the past where it belongs. In the words of the Serenity prayer. God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change Courage to change the things I can. And the wisdom to know the difference. Imposing personal perspective and beliefs on others raises doubt not clarity.

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Why Does Eastern Canada Speak French, Yet Still Have Heavy Ties To Great Britain? – Welcome to French 101 comes through concert, the fastest simplest and the most enjoyable method to learn French salut, je m ‘appelle Ingrid Ashanti hi, I ‘m Ingrid great to fulfill you in this series. We are going to discover fundamental French expressions. It ‘s incredibly simple and it just takes 3 minutes in this lesson. You are going to learn how to present yourself in French. There are just 2 sentences. You require to do it, however initially it is important to clarify that in French there is a distinction in between the formal and the informal language. Let ‘s very first see how French people present themselves in a casual circumstance: salut, je m ‘appelle, Ingrid or Chantal o to Hong Kong, say hi, I ‘m Ingrid nice to fulfill you salut, je m ‘appelle, Ingrid ashanti, due to a house nation, start by saying, salut, je m ‘appelle then state your Name: salut, je m ‘appelle in Vida lastly state on Chantal o to home country, salut, je m ‘appelle Ingrid on shantae, doujin country and now, let ‘s see the same sentence: casual speech, Boudreau, je m ‘appelle in hedge, a justice on shantideva house country good morning, I ‘m in redeploy good to Meet you expand ja, je m ‘appelle, Ingrid gbg3, put on t do vu house nation. What has altered from the previous introduction? Let ‘s take a more detailed look at this together, salut has actually been replaced with the formal greeting, Bonjour French for excellent day. Je m ‘appelle Ingrid has not been altered. Je m ‘appelle stands in both case, for I am, however, throughout a formal self introduction. We constantly state our last name, so I said certainly here you would say your full-name finally focus on the ending. We went from 200 nation to country. What is changing. Is the French word for you in an official sentence. We use the more polite word who one more time. The informal way to present yourself in French is salut. Je m ‘appelle Ingrid Ashanti to Hong Kong say the official method to present ourselves is du jour, je m ‘appelle, undoubtedly, jabrai simply isn ‘t a duo nation. Now it ‘s time for English insights. When you introduce yourself, it ‘s a good routine to shake hands in France and if you are not sure whether to use on program table to home country or Horizonte the Wuhan nation just merely state or Shanthi. As I stated at the beginning of this lesson, if you use the appropriate sentence with French individuals, they are certainly going to be impressed in the last lesson. We discover how to introduce ourselves in French. Today we are going to discover how to utilize great manners as we thank people exactly. Are you all set hey there Zippity? Let ‘s start there are numerous ways to thank somebody. Let ‘s start with the most convenient, it is just one word untidy untidy unpleasant ways. Thank you when saying. Thank you very much. You simply require to add beaucoup. Merci, beaucoup, merci, beaucoup beaucoup suggests a lot, so merci beaucoup resembles stating. Thank you very much throughout the last lesson we discussed both the casual and the official way of speaking French maxi is the casual method to thank someone. There is another phrase you need to use uvula message sure charm hoo may see if you want to be more formal. Let ‘s break this expression, down sure is I and vu is the official word for you. Kumasi indicates appreciate. I provide thanks to you, je vous remercie. How do you address it ‘s simple? There are essentially 2 various ways to do it. The very first is: do ya? Do ya, do ya actually indicates it ‘s absolutely nothing, but it is the equivalent of you are welcome. The other method to state you are welcome. Is the expression service uncle Zhu, Zhu Zhu actually, this phrase suggests I plead you to do it. Oh, please do, but it has become a typical and polite method to react to someone thanking you. When somebody state you messy to you, we can simply reply with dunya or Dhruva zonkey. Now it ‘s time for Ingrid ‘s within, if you ‘re not exactly sure about whether to utilize messy or uvula messy, just keep it basic. You wear ‘t need to worry about official or informal scenarios. Messy can be used with just about anybody anywhere or anytime. In the last lesson, we found out how to be grateful to people by saying max. If, in this lesson, we ‘ll discover a few of the other most common greetings using buddies utilize it. Are you prepared, a lousy party? Let ‘s start the most use informal welcoming is salut. Salut salut suggests hi, hi or bye-bye. We utilize it when we fulfill, but likewise when we leave. We need to just use this meeting with family and friends, and now, let ‘s continue by discussing the official method to welcome people, the one you are probably utilized to hearing is normal boom rules, actually Bonjour means excellent day. We may also interpret it as excellent early morning or excellent afternoon as a guideline of thumb. We can utilize Boudreau only throughout the day time for early morning until night, throughout the night we say: bonsoir boom. Suave suave is French for night. So bonsoir indicates good night. Boudreaux and bonsoir are utilized when we fulfill someone, however when we leave, we wear ‘t say them again in this official situation: French individuals use au revoir, au revoir, au revoir suggests farewell. In French, we have an expression, indicating see you quickly. Why Does Eastern Canada Speak French, Yet Still Have Heavy Ties To Great Britain? That can be thought about both official and informal abdel. Ah, damn now you can welcome individuals in various ways in French: let ‘s review them all once again when fulfilling someone informally with a cell you, when meeting someone formally, we state bonjour bonsoir when residing in a formal circumstance of voix when living no matter, whether its formal Or informal scenario, I belong to it ‘s easily. Isn ‘t it now it ‘s time for Ingrid ‘s insights in formal scenario, French people typically greet each other by shaking hands. On the other hand, if we meet somebody, we are actually pal with we kiss each other on both cheeks. Don ‘t hesitate to do it with your French friends if regular in the last lesson, we learnt the most common forms of greetings in French. Do you remember them in this lesson? We are going to discover an extremely useful phrase. Do you speak English? If you find yourself in a situation where you need help in English, this expression can be a lifesaver and because you ‘re asking it in French, you can be sure that everybody will comprehend what you are saying. Even if their response is no here ‘s, the casual method to say it, escucha parle Anglais, a Sukkah pas Anglais in French verbs change depending upon the pronoun that is utilized. Please see the world in the middle of the sentence. Remember that this is the casual method to state you. The next word is the verb Palli, which suggests to speak since it ‘s referring to it ‘s conjugated to match an ESCO is an interrogative type to present the question. It is similar to the English word do here and you most likely acknowledge only the is English s catsup, a long way to learn how to correctly conjugate verbs like parley. Please look at the outright beginning series on French pad. Oh Alan Wong calm. You can find very in-depth grammar lessons and resources there. We are now going to make this sentence official. Initially, we require to utilize an official version of you, which is vu. We will conjugate parley in a different way if we change the word to rule. It becomes this, but it ‘s pronounced the exact same method partially es que vous parlez, Anglais, suku, vous, parlez Anglais, adding reason moi. Excuse me the sentence ends up being a lot more respectful. Excuse moi: let ‘s go for parle Anglais excuse-moi, asuka, vous, parlez Anglais. The reactions you will receive might be one of these three with yes, we amp a little huh. No, you understand friend Bangla. No, I wear ‘t speak English. No Junu Palpa just seen this last one is a negative statement. We require to state no prior to the verb buddy and pas after it discover that the verb friend is slightly various from parley. Remember the ferb modification, depending upon the pronoun used. We are now discussing sure French, for I. Thus I wear ‘t speak is Joon Appa Appa. Now it ‘s time for Ingrid insights, for those of you who are not just English speakers, you can clearly use this question with any other language. You require French people study other European languages at school, so perhaps you will get fortunate just substitute just with English Italian for Italian who ‘s, for Russian espanol, for Spanish almo for German and any other languages. In this lesson we mentioned the expression excusez-moi, however did you understand that this could likewise be used as an apology in the next lesson? We will discover this and other methods to apologize in French. It ‘s never too late to reveal your great manners with French people. I ‘ll see you in our next circle set on neighborhood. In the last lesson we discovered the expression reason i ‘ma scuffle parle Anglais. Excuse me: do you speak English? We discussed the word excusez-moi, which implies reason me in official French. In this lesson, we are going to learn how to utilize reason moi and other words when apologizing in French. We must utilize excuse moi, informal scenario such as when you are purchasing something in bars or dining establishments, for instance, excuse moi and cafe s ‘il vous plait. Excuse me a coffee, please excuse moi, I ‘m coffee shop s ‘il vous plait. We can likewise use it when asking a concern. Well, a to protect. Excuse me, where is the Eiffel Tower, reason moi, boo a litter? In some cases we likewise hear individuals stating s ‘il vous plait, which means the same thing when you wish to draw somebody ‘s attention. We always utilize this phrase in formal speech, s ‘il vous plait. The informal way to say, excuse me is excuse me excuse more. Why Does Eastern Canada Speak French, Yet Still Have Heavy Ties To Great Britain? Much like excuse moi. When asking a question or when apologizing we can also use the word pardon, we can use excuse moi. You might hear this expression equated as forgive me in English, but it ‘s not official or strong at all. French people utilize it in very casual circumstances. All of these phrases can be used for either excuse me or I ‘m sorry, however if you really want to apologize for something, it may be better to utilize a various phrase. That expression is just checked out quickly. It means I am sorry and can be utilized in both informal and official circumstances, simply 3d zhu-li. We have the familiar sure. Oh I next insert the French word for to be at when this is conjugated for sure in French, it is 3. We have the adjective dizzily, indicating sorry Juicery dizzily. Now it ‘s time for Ingrid ‘s insides. Please remember that in France, if you mistakenly bump it to someone, we put on ‘t say I ‘m sorry simply read quickly. Instead, we say, excuse me, excuse me, oh pardon, forgive me, are you able to count in French in the next lesson? We will find out the numbers in French from one to 10 I ‘ll, be waiting on you in the next lesson of content on community. I don ‘t opt for wan na speak real French from your very first lesson. Sign up for your totally free lifetime account at French pod 101. com, je m ‘appelle in hit hi everyone, I ‘m ingress! Welcome to French part, 101. com lose half a on community, the fastest simplest and the most fun method to discover French. In the last lesson, we find out some words utilized when apologizing in French, consisting of excusez-moi and simply check out easily. In this lesson, we are going to find out numbers in French, yes, numbers Linoone from one to ten and you are going to discover them in only 3 minutes qua minute. Are you prepared? Let ‘s start? Ah doo doo chat, chat, sank, sunk, sis, sis set, set width, satisfy nuff, nuff dis. This all right, now repeat after me, I ‘ll, state the numbers and provide you time to repeat every one: Oh dick ha yep sunk sis set with nuf this excellent task. So what is before uh? Do you understand it ‘s the same as in English, however with a various pronunciation? 0Z oho, you don ‘t have any more excuses. You can offer your good friends your telephone number in French. Let ‘s try together we ‘ll use a phrase Manu Meho, state bathroom, which means my number is mon brand-new Meho state: loo Manya me wholesaler wha set um du du chat, nerve, sis wit. Can you read it by yourself set? Ah, do the chat Nath, sis width best? Now it ‘s time for Ingrid ‘s insights when we go to the post workplace in France with often I need to stand in line with a number when it ‘s your rely on have a look at they shriek numero, nimi, oh jeez, and so on. Learn your numbers. Well, so you can be in the last lesson: we learnt the numbers from 1-10. Have you forgotten here I ‘ll inform you once again do tois chat such this set with Nath this and now, let ‘s continue from 11 in Ang ‘s deucey deucey, PES, pres, cattles ja, ja, vu chance ‘ chance ‘, says says this set this set the sweet Dee sweet organization. This is enough, and finally, we have the vow. Okay, now repeat after me, I ‘ll state the numbers and give you time to duplicate every one: Enza deucey please ‘ get those dolls states this set de suite this knife, though these numbers might appear more difficult to remember, but you actually simply have to remember, owns dues Prez teto ‘s Chance says and vow, however for D set this with this knife, the numbers constantly start with this: Oh 10, let ‘s not stop at 20, counting from 10 to 100 is very simple. Now I ‘ll give you the tense count. Jahan ‘s seconds sweats and sweats on DS, Jehovah, Kat Von D ‘s. So while you have to memorize a few of these numbers, there are a couple of tricks that will make memorizing them exceptionally easy. Not is that 60 is Wesen and 70 is Swami ‘s. Do you remember what this implies? Naturally it is the number 410, so 70 is simply 6010 sweats on this swath salt. This 80 is Kotova. Can you break this down? The very first part which we learned in the previous lesson, is cap. For the second part, we found out earlier in this lesson: what does it suggest? That ‘s right, training so completely saying 80 is like saying for trainees chat feline and ninety Katia van Dee ‘s is much like 70. Add 10 to the number prior to 80 plus 10 is 90 Kotova dis chat over this. The last thing to find out today is how to form compound numbers above 20. This is also extremely easy, take the tents and simply include the numbers you learned in the previous lesson. Let ‘s attempt it out, how would you state 56 in French, let ‘s take it step by action. 50 is seconds and then add: 6. Second, sis, it ‘s dumb! Isn ‘t that easy? Let ‘s make another number, for instance, 98, take 90 Kelvin this and add 8 with Java digits. One last difficult part: if you are attempting to add the number um in the compound number, for example, 21 or 31. Why Does Eastern Canada Speak French, Yet Still Have Heavy Ties To Great Britain? You require to include an e prior to our 21 is not van. It is van t. 31 is compensation a after just two lessons you ‘re, unable to count to one Android in French. In the next lesson we are going to put your number knowledge to utilize. Do you have the abilities to go shopping in France, if not I ‘ll, be waiting on you? In the next lesson, look on sale on tom units determine opponent. In the last lesson, we discover how to count in French. Because they will come in useful today, I hope you spend some time practicing the numbers. We are going to learn how to go shopping in France prior to we go. You need to understand how to say: just how much is it come dance? I could cool off, sir great, are you ready to shop in France? Let ‘s go you see something you want and like to ask the store clerk how much it costs. The very first thing to state to a shop tag is excuse moi. Do you remember what that indicates? Excuse me excuse moi, comme la circuit reason a ma-kun ha ha excellent. If you want to be more particular, when asking, how much is it and describe a specific kind of object, we first need to drop the word SAP. Next, we need to understand if the object is a manly or feminine things. If it is masculine, add sir, when referring to it or set for a feminine item and after that state the noun, for instance, hat is a manly word, chapeau reason moi, comme, un cuchillo chapeau. Excuse me: just how much is that hat excuse-moi cumbia might sue chapeau and skirt is a womanly noun, jib excusez-moi come young quid said jib. Excuse me, how much is this curd excuse moi cumbia might set rip at this moment. The shop clerk, a response by saying circuit, Saffy, Oh say, for example, circuit topnav, yo, SAFF, a hot knife – Oh Oh, state Tom nephew. I ‘m not telling you, alright, okay! It ‘s 39! Now it ‘s time for ingots in size a quicker way to ask how much is 2nd John, which actually implies just how much, even when you request for coffee, you can ask the cashier and coffee shops build-up will play one espresso, please. Just how much is it at this point? Can you count euros in French? We are going to find out how to do this and a lot more in the next lesson I ‘ll be waiting for you in our next lesson. Let ‘s start? Do you understand it ‘s the exact same as in English, but with a different pronunciation? Now it ‘s time for Ingrid ‘s insights when we go to the post office in France with often I have to stand in line with a number when it ‘s your turn to examine out they yell numero, nimi, oh jeez, and so on. I ‘m not informing you, fine, fine! It ‘s 39! Why Does Eastern Canada Speak French, Yet Still Have Heavy Ties To Great Britain?

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The Hindus classify the systems of philosophy into two classes, namely, the nâstika and the âstika. The nâstika (na asti “it is not”) views are those which neither regard the Vedas as infallible nor try to establish their own validity on their authority. These are principally three in number, the Buddhist, Jaina and the Cârvâka. The âstika-mata or orthodox schools are six in number, Sâ@mkhya, Yoga, Vedânta, Mîmâ@msâ, Nyâya and Vais’e@sika, generally known as the six systems. The Sâ@mkhya is ascribed to a mythical Kâpila, but the earliest works on the subject are probably now lost. The Yoga system is attributed to Patañjali and the original sûtras are called the Pâtañjala Yoga sûtras. The general metaphysical position of these two systems with regard to soul, nature, cosmology and the final goal is almost the same, and the difference lies in this that the Yoga system acknowledges a god (Îs’vara) as distinct from Âtman and lays much importance on certain mystical practices (commonly known as Yoga practices) for the achievement of liberation, whereas the Sâ@mkhya denies the existence of Îs’vara and thinks that sincere philosophic thought and culture are sufficient to produce the true conviction of the truth and thereby bring about liberation. It is probable that the system of Sâ@mkhya associated with Kâpila and the Yoga system associated with Patañjali are but two divergent modifications of an original Sâ@mkhya school, of which we now get only references here and there. These systems therefore though generally counted as two should more properly be looked upon as two different schools of the same Sâ@mkhya system—one may be called the Kâpila Sâ@mkhya and the other Pâtañjala Sâ@mkhya. The Pûrva Mîmâ@msâ (from the root man to think—rational conclusions) cannot properly be spoken of as a system of philosophy. It is a systematized code of principles in accordance with which the Vedic texts are to be interpreted for purposes of sacrifices. The Vedic texts were used as mantras (incantations) for sacrifices, and people often disputed as to the relation of words in a sentence or their mutual relative importance with reference to the general drift of the sentence. There were also differences of view with regard to the meaning of a sentence, the use to which it may be applied as a mantra, its relative importance or the exact nature of its connection with other similar sentences in a complex Vedic context. The Mîmâ@msâ formulated some principles according to which one could arrive at rational and uniform solutions for all these difficulties. Preliminary to these its main objects, it indulges in speculations with regard to the external world, soul, perception, inference, the validity of the Vedas, or the like, for in order that a man might perform sacrifices with mantras, a definite order of the universe and its relation to man or the position and nature of the mantras of the Veda must be demonstrated and established. Though its interest in such abstract speculations is but secondary yet it briefly discusses these in order to prepare a rational ground for its doctrine of the mantras and their practical utility for man. It is only so far as there are these preliminary discussions in the Mîmâ@msâ that it may be called a system of philosophy. Its principles and maxims for the interpretation of the import of words and sentences have a legal value even to this day. The sûtras of Mîmâ@msâ are attributed to Jaimini, and S’abara wrote a bhâ@sya upon it. The two great names in the history of Mîmâ@msâ literature after Jaimini and S’abara are Kumârila Bha@t@ta and his pupil Prabhâkara, who criticized the opinions of his master so much, that the master used to call him guru (master) in sarcasm, and to this day his opinions pass as guru-mata, whereas the views of Kumârila. It may not be out of place to mention here that Hindu Law accepts without any reservation the maxims and principles settled and formulated by the Mîmâ@msâ. The Vedânta sûtras, also called Uttara Mîmâ@msâ, written by Bâdarâya@na, otherwise known as the Brahma-sûtras, form the original authoritative work of Vedânta. The word Vedânta means “end of the Veda,” i.e. the Upani@sads, and the Vedânta sûtras are so called as they are but a summarized statement of the general views of the Upani@sads. This work is divided into four books or adhyâyas and each adhyâya is divided into four pâdas or chapters. The first four sûtras of the work commonly known as Catu@hsûtrî are (1) How to ask about Brahman, (2) From whom proceed birth and decay, (3) This is because from him the Vedas have come forth, (4) This is shown by the harmonious testimony of the Upani@sads. The whole of the first chapter of the second book is devoted to justifying the position of the Vedânta against the attacks of the rival schools. The second chapter of the second book is busy in dealing blows at rival systems. All the other parts of the book are devoted to settling the disputed interpretations of a number of individual Upani@sad texts. The really philosophical portion of the work is thus limited to the first four sûtras and the first and second chapters of the second book. The other portions are like commentaries to the Upani@sads, which however contain many theological views of the system. The first commentary of the Brahma-sûtra was probably written by Baudhâyana, which however is not available now. The earliest commentary that is now found is that of the great S’a@nkara. His interpretations of the Brahma-sûtras together with all the commentaries and other works that follow his views are popularly known as Vedânta philosophy, though this philosophy ought more properly to be called Vis’uddhâdvaitavâda school of Vedânta philosophy (i.e. the Vedânta philosophy of the school of absolute monism). Variant forms of dualistic philosophy as represented by the Vai@s@navas, S’aivas, Râmâyatas, etc., also claim to express the original purport of the Brahma sûtras. We thus find that apostles of dualistic creeds such as Râmânuja, Vallabha, Madhva, S’rîka@n@tha, Baladeva, etc., have written independent commentaries on the Brahma-sûtra to show that the philosophy as elaborated by themselves is the view of the Upani@sads and as summarized in the Brahma-sûtras. These differed largely and often vehemently attacked S’a@nkara’s interpretations of the same sûtras. These systems as expounded by them also pass by the name of Vedânta as these are also claimed to be the real interpretations intended by the Vedânta (Upani@sads) and the Vedânta sûtras. Of these the system of Râmânuja has great philosophical importance. The Nyâya sûtras attributed to Gautama, called also Ak@sapâda, and the Vais’e@sika sûtras attributed to Ka@nâda, called also Ulûka, represent the same system for all practical purposes. They are in later times considered to differ only in a few points of minor importance. So far as the sûtras are concerned the Nyâya sûtras lay particular stress on the cultivation of logic as an art, while the Vais’e@sika sûtras deal mostly with metaphysics and physics. In addition to these six systems, the Tantras had also philosophies of their own, which however may generally be looked upon largely as modifications of the Sâ@mkhya and Vedânta systems, though their own contributions are also noteworthy. Some fundamental Points of Agreement I. The Karma Theory. It is, however, remarkable that with the exception of the Cârvâka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance. The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by a deep craving after the realization of the religious purpose of life. It is surprising to note that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems. Whatever may be their differences of opinion in other matters, so far as the general postulates for the realization of the transcendent state, the summum bonum of life, were concerned, all the systems were practically in thorough agreement. It may be worth while to note some of them at this stage. First, the theory of Karma and rebirth. All the Indian systems agree in believing that whatever action is done by an individual leaves behind it some sort of potency which has the power to ordain for him joy or sorrow in the future according as it is good or bad. When the fruits of the actions are such that they cannot be enjoyed in the present life or in a human life, the individual has to take another birth as a man or any other being in order to suffer them. The Vedic belief that the mantras uttered in the correct accent at the sacrifices with the proper observance of all ritualistic details, exactly according to the directions without the slightest error even in the smallest trifle, had something like a magical virtue automatically to produce the desired object immediately or after a lapse of time, was probably the earliest form of the Karma doctrine. It postulates a semi-conscious belief that certain mystical actions can produce at a distant time certain effects without the ordinary process of the instrumentality of visible agents of ordinary cause and effect. When the sacrifice is performed, the action leaves such an unseen magical virtue, called the ad@r@s@ta (the unseen) or the apûrva (new), that by it the desired object will be achieved in a mysterious manner, for the modus operandi of the apûrva is unknown. There is also the notion prevalent in the Sa@mhitâs, as we have already noticed, that he who commits wicked deeds suffers in another world, whereas he who performs good deeds enjoys the highest material pleasures. These were probably associated with the conception of @rta, the inviolable order of things. Thus these are probably the elements which built up the Karma theory which we find pretty well established but not emphasized in the Upani@sads, where it is said that according to good or bad actions men will have good or bad births. To notice other relevant points in connection with the Karma doctrine as established in the âstika systems we find that it was believed that the unseen (ad@r@s@ta) potency of the action generally required some time before it could be fit for giving the doer the merited punishment or enjoyment. These would often accumulate and prepare the items of suffering and enjoyment for the doer in his next life. Only the fruits of those actions which are extremely wicked or particularly good could be reaped in this life. The nature of the next birth of a man is determined by the nature of pleasurable or painful experiences that have been made ready for him by his maturing actions of this life. If the experiences determined for him by his action are such that they are possible to be realized in the life of a goat, the man will die and be born as a goat. As there is no ultimate beginning in time of this world process, so there is no time at which any person first began his actions or experiences. Man has had an infinite number of past lives of the most varied nature, and the instincts of each kind of life exist dormant in the life of every individual, and thus whenever he has any particular birth as this or that animal or man, the special instincts of that life (technically called vâsanâ) come forth. In accordance with these vâsanâs the person passes through the painful or pleasurable experiences as determined for him by his action. The length of life is also determined by the number and duration of experiences as preordained by the fructifying actions of his past life. When once certain actions become fit for giving certain experiences, these cannot be avoided, but those actions which have not matured are uprooted once for all if the person attains true knowledge as advocated by philosophy. But even such an emancipated (mukta) person has to pass through the pleasurable or painful experiences ordained for him by the actions just ripened for giving their fruits. There are four kinds of actions, white or virtuous (s’ukla), black or wicked (k@r@s@na), white-black or partly virtuous and partly vicious (s’ukla-k@r@s@na) as most of our actions are, neither black nor white (as’uklâk@r@s@na), i.e. those acts of self-renunciation or meditation which are not associated with any desires for the fruit. It is only when a person can so restrain himself as to perform only the last kind of action that he ceases to accumulate any new karma for giving fresh fruits. He has thus only to enjoy the fruits of his previous karmas which have ripened for giving fruits. If in the meantime he attains true knowledge, all his past accumulated actions become destroyed, and as his acts are only of the as’uklâk@r@s@na type no fresh karma for ripening is accumulated, and thus he becomes divested of all karma after enjoying the fruits of the ripened karmas alone. The Jains think that through the actions of body, speech and mind a kind of subtle matter technically called karma is produced. The passions of a man act like a viscous substance that attracts this karma matter, which thus pours into the soul and sticks to it. The karma matter thus accumulated round the soul during the infinite number of past lives is technically called kârmas’arîra, which encircles the soul as it passes on from birth to birth. This karma matter sticking to the soul gradually ripens and exhausts itself in ordaining the sufferance of pains or the enjoyment of pleasures for the individual. While some karma matter is being expended in this way, other karma matters are accumulating by his activities, and thus keep him in a continuous process of suffering and enjoyment. The karma matter thus accumulated in the soul produces a kind of coloration called les’yâ, such as white, black, etc., which marks the character of the soul. The idea of the s’ukla and k@r@s@na karmas of the Yoga system was probably suggested by the Jaina view. But when a man is free from passions, and acts in strict compliance with the rules of conduct, his actions produce karma which lasts but for a moment and is then annihilated. Every karma that the sage has previously earned has its predestined limits within which it must take effect and be purged away. But when by contemplation and the strict adherence to the five great vows, no new karma is generated, and when all the karmas are exhausted the worldly existence of the person rapidly draws towards its end. Thus in the last stage of contemplation, all karma being annihilated, and all activities having ceased, the soul leaves the body and goes up to the top of the universe, where the liberated souls stay for ever. Buddhism also contributes some new traits to the karma theory which however being intimately connected with their metaphysics will be treated later on. 2. The Doctrine of Mukti Not only do the Indian systems agree as to the cause of the inequalities in the share of sufferings and enjoyments in the case of different persons, and the manner in which the cycle of births and rebirths has been kept going from beginningless time, on the basis of the mysterious connection of one’s actions with the happenings of the world, but they also agree in believing that this beginningless chain of karma and its fruits, of births and rebirths, this running on from beginningless time has somewhere its end. This end was not to be attained at some distant time or in some distant kingdom, but was to be sought within us. Karma leads us to this endless cycle, and if we could divest ourselves of all such emotions, ideas or desires as lead us to action we should find within us the actionless self which neither suffers nor enjoys, neither works nor undergoes rebirth. When the Indians, wearied by the endless bustle and turmoil of worldly events, sought for and believed that somewhere a peaceful goal could be found, they generally hit upon the self of man. The belief that the soul could be realized in some stage as being permanently divested of all action, feelings or ideas, led logically to the conclusion that the connection of the soul with these worldly elements was extraneous, artificial or even illusory. In its true nature the soul is untouched by the impurities of our ordinary life, and it is through ignorance and passion as inherited from the cycle of karma from beginningless time that we connect it with these. The realization of this transcendent state is the goal and final achievement of this endless cycle of births and rebirths through karma. The Buddhists did not admit the existence of soul, but recognized that the final realization of the process of karma is to be found in the ultimate dissolution called Nirvâ@na, the nature of which we shall discuss later on. 3. The Doctrine of Soul All the Indian systems except Buddhism admit the existence of a permanent entity variously called atman, puru@sa or jîva. As to the exact nature of this soul there are indeed divergences of view. Thus while the Nyâya calls it absolutely qualityless and characterless, indeterminate unconscious entity, Sâ@mkhya describes it as being of the nature of pure consciousness, the Vedânta says that it is that fundamental point of unity implied in pure consciousness (cit), pure bliss (ânanda), and pure being (sat). But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. The summum bonum of life is attained when all impurities are removed and the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated. The Pessimistic Attitude towards the World and the Optimistic Faith in the end Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Sâ@mkhya, Yoga, and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences was looked upon as nearing no peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth, and sorrow. What appear as pleasures are but a mere appearance for the attempt to keep them steady is painful, there is pain when we lose the pleasures or when we are anxious to have them. When the pleasures are so much associated with pains they are but pains themselves. We are but duped when we seek pleasures, for they are sure to lead us to pain. All our experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow-begetting. Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogin who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. The yogin is like the pupil of the eye to which even the smallest grain of disturbance is unbearable. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow as it comes, for the moment it is remedied another sorrow comes in. It cannot also be avoided by mere inaction or suicide, for we are continually being forced to action by our nature, and suicide will but lead to another life of sorrow and rebirth. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge which uproot sorrow once for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities. Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind, and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified, the self shines in its true light, and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this is once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. It becomes at this stage ultimately dissociated from citta which contains within it the root of all emotions, ideas, and actions. Thus emancipated the self for ever conquers all sorrow. It is important, however, to note in this connection that emancipation is not based on a general aversion to intercourse with the world or on such feelings as a disappointed person may have, but on the appreciation of the state of mukti as the supremely blessed one. The details of the pessimistic creed of each system have developed from the logical necessity peculiar to each system. There was never the slightest tendency to shirk the duties of this life, but to rise above them through right performance and right understanding. It is only when a man rises to the highest pinnacle of moral glory that he is fit for aspiring to that realization of selfhood in comparison with which all worldly things or even the joys of Heaven would not only shrink into insignificance, but appear in their true character as sorrowful and loathsome. It is when his mind has thus turned from all ordinary joys that he can strive towards his ideal of salvation. In fact it seems to me that a sincere religious craving after some ideal blessedness and quiet of self-realization is indeed the fundamental fact from which not only her philosophy but many of the complex phenomena of the civilization of India can be logically deduced. The sorrow around us has no fear for us if we remember that we are naturally sorrowless and blessed in ourselves. The pessimistic view loses all terror as it closes in absolute optimistic confidence in one’s own self and the ultimate destiny and goal of emancipation. Unity in Indian Sâdhana (philosophical, religious and ethical endeavours) As might be expected the Indian systems are all agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. That all passions are to be controlled, no injury to life in any form should be done, and that all desire for pleasures should be checked, are principles which are almost universally acknowledged. When a man attains a very high degree of moral greatness he has to strengthen and prepare his mind for further purifying and steadying it for the attainment of his ideal; and most of the Indian systems are unanimous with regard to the means to be employed for the purpose. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost everywhere essentially the same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is only in later times that devotion (bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vai@s@nava schools of thought. Thus it was that though there were many differences among the various systems, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and the means fur the attainment of the goal (sâdhana) being fundamentally the same, there was a unique unity in the practical sâdhana of almost all the Indian systems. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sâdhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings (Excerpts from “A History of Indian Philosophy”).

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Hong Kong Culture: an Interesting Guide to Hong Kongers Hong Kong culture is a mixture of traditional Han Cantonese ethnic culture of southeastern China and British and Western culture in general. Hong Kongers are being increasingly influenced by the culture of the Mainland Chinese. Their culture is sophisticated and mixes Confucian and British ethics, and they are international savvy. Local Hong Kongers are proud of their region and their accomplishments, and they want to preserve their culture. Understanding their culture involves understanding their history and present circumstances and becoming familiar with their language, customs, ideals, ethics, diet, and business practices. Their culture is a fusion of East and West. It is a unique culture and the world's most successful culture in several ways. What is Hong Kong Culture? Like Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong culture exhibits a mix of Chinese and Western. Hong Kong people often call themselves "Hong Kongers" in English. In a recent poll, about 67% self identified themselves as Hong Kongers. In Hong Kong, about 8 percent of the permanent residents are not of Chinese descent. Depending on how long they have lived in Hong Kong or whether they are first, second, or third generation Hong Kongers, they may share the same basic core values and ways of thinking, basically the same culture, as the ethnically Chinese Hong Kongers, and of course they also retain a lot of the culture of their ancestral countries too. Hong Kong culture is basically the culture of the native Chinese who were born there during the period of British rule or in the 22 years since the reversion to Chinese rule. Under British rule, through foreign media influence and their everyday contact with foreigners both in Hong Kong and abroad because many traveled for business, work, and education, during the last century and a half, their distinctive Western/Eastern fusion culture has emerged. Their culture is a fusion of the cultures of China, Britain and other Western countries. Hong Kong Culture is Different to Mainland China Culture Their everyday behavior, demeaner and attitudes are noticeably different even to tourists and travelers who have interacted with Mainlanders and local Hong Kongers just a short time. It is not just their Cantonese language that makes them different. They often smile more, seem happier, and are more polite and circumspect in public. Language: English and Cantonese are their official languages. They speak Cantonese in everyday discourse though they might also speak other Chinese languages and dialects. About 54% speak English. About 95 percent of the Hong Kong people speak Cantonese, and about 49 percent can speak Mandarin that is the official language of China. About 90 percent of the Hong Kong people speak Cantonese at home. See more on Hong Kong Languages: Background and Helpful Travel Tips. How Hong Kong's History Has Formed the Amazing Fusion Culture To understand the Hong Kong culture, it is good to know how Hong Kong originated as a semi-independent region. The basic underlying culture is the traditional culture of the Han people. The Han ethnic group started to expand from around the Beijing region of China about 4,000 years ago. Qin Empire (221–206 BC) troops conquered the region of Hong Kong about 221 BC, and after that, the area was the territory of successive Han, Mongol, and Manchu dynasties. So, much of Hong Kong culture derives from the ancient Han culture that developed in the Guangdong Province region during the last two millennia. A Different Cultural Trajectory of Development (about 800 AD to 1841) For various reasons, the Cantonese people in Guandong Province, on the outskirts of the big empires, have a culture different than the culture of most of the Han people north of them. Their Cantonese language is quite different than the dialects spoken by most of the Han Chinese who speak Mandarin or dialects that are somewhat more akin to Mandarin. Much foreign influence: But most importantly, for various historical reasons, the Guangdong Cantonese people have for many centuries had much more contact with foreigners and other countries, and they engaged in foreign trade and travel more than most Han Chinese. This experience has made them more entrepreneurial and internationally orientated. From about 220 AD to about 1100 AD, there were at times large numbers of foreigners in the Canton (Guangzhou) area engaging in trade since it was one of the main foreign trading cities. Nearby Macau became a Portuguese territory in 1557, and a large Portuguese town grew there during the past few centuries increasing the Cantonese people's experience with foreigners. Their culture was colored with foreign influences. During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), in 1684, the Emperor ordered that Canton, Zhuhai, and Macau (all towns and cities around Hong Kong) be three of the Qing Empires's few open trading ports. It 1757, the Canton Factories area in Guangzhou was made the only legal location for foreign trade in the Qing Empire. The foreign settlement there increased the Cantonese people's contact and business with Westerners. So for these historical reasons, the Cantonese have had much more contact with Westerners than most Han people for centuries, and through their trade and travel endeavors, their culture became more cosmopolitan and pluralistic. Westernized Under Early British Rule (1841 to 1941) The British have had the biggest foreign cultural influence on modern Hong Kongers. Hong Kong was a British colony from 1841 to 1997. The British government and other foreigners opened schools that taught mainly British Protestant ideals and philosophy and promoted the Christian religion and ideology. Around the turn of the 19th century, Hong Kong became a center for education and political and social activism for Cantonese people. The schools and universities in Hong Kong graduated many Chinese who wanted the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and for China to modernize and become more democratic. Sun Yat-sen was one of the first graduates of a Christian medical college in Hong Kong. He became very influential in the Hong Kong and Guangdong area. Along with fellow Hong Kong medical students, he started an organization to overthrow the Qing Empire and establish a new national government. He became the first President of China. Healthy Economic Development and the Tradition of Government after WWII (1945 to 1997) After 1949, hundreds of thousands of people fled to Hong Kong from China. Many of the people were educated, skilled, or had some capital. An industrial boom made Hong Kong one of the four “Asian Tigers” economies. However, unlike the other newly industrialized economies (NICs) in East Asia, under British rule the colony developed what is known as a laissez-faire economy where most people worked in small private firms and the government did little to promote or regulate industry. Taxation was set very low, and regulations and government intervention and corruption was comparatively little. Core Traditional British Values and Culture in Government Administration of the city was handled by the local Hong Kongers after WWII, and the local government and people adopted the best of the traditional British ethics and values of fairness, honesty, personal freedom, free speech and open political discourse. They developed a unique tradition of laissez faire business, and their government had little intervention and control of the people's daily lives. Hong Kongers became the only non-Western people in Asia living under a government with these ideals and traditions. In contrast, the cultures of East Asia generally emphasize governmental hierarchical control. Hong Kong was said to have the freest economy in the world for business. This environment gave the local Hong Kongers a sense of personal independence. They developed an appreciation for hard work and for the personal freedoms of others, and they became daring entrepreneurs. They also developed a greater sense of internationalism since many studied and worked overseas throughout the world, and their economy thrived from the export trade and foreign commerce. They became more pluralistic since hundreds of thousands of foreigners, a large part of the population, have worked and lived in Hong Kong for decades. Since the 1990s, there has been a foreign resident population of about 500,000 or more. The Big Foreign Social Influence The foreigners have much influenced Hong Kong's culture since tens of thousands have had much influence in the corporate world as executives and managers, and a large percentage of them have been teachers, church leaders or worked in the charitable and civic organizations. Hundreds of thousands of Hong Kong people have even lived with foreigners since domestic helpers lived in their houses. The foreigner population has included British and Commonwealth government staff, soldiers and police, business people from all over the world, South Asian immigrants, foreign workers, and hundreds of thousands of Filipino and Indonesian domestic helpers and laborers. They also developed an unusually high sense of civic responsibility since under British control and afterwards, the government has maintained a non-interventionist stance in the daily lives of the people. Many private charities, community organizations and civic organizations were formed to help the public and promote community welfare. These organizations built many hospitals, clinics, elderly homes, and even large educational and recreational facilities such as Ocean Park that have served the people well. Ocean Park is one of the world's largest and most popular amusement parks, and it doubles as an educational and research facility. Grew to Be a Successful Culture Economically Through their hard work and with their form of government and cultural ideals, the Hong Kong people prospered to become the wealthiest city in the world and one of the world's top cities for business and finance, and this success served to reinforce these core values and give Hong Kongers a sense of personal and civic pride in their region and culture. They also have become materialistic and highly fashion and wealth conscious. So the market for things like luxury fashion, brand name clothes, and the best and latest personal electronics is huge in Hong Kong since they are noticeable status symbols. Social status and even personal worth is determined by wealth and educational attainment to a high degree, so the locals work extremely hard compared to most people in the world. The Maintenance of the Local Culture Under Chinese Rule (1997 to the Present) In 1997, Hong Kong was transferred to China, and they became a Special Administered Region. It has been widely regarded as the world's most outstanding and well-run city in the world in the last fifteen years. The government is openly criticized and kept in toe by Hong Kong's vocal citizens and a media that is still fairly free to criticize the local government officials and their policy decisions and the police. Increasing Cultural Conflict between Mainlanders and Hong Kongers Mainland Chinese have been moving to Hong Kong since 1997, so now about 20 percent or 1.5 million of Hong Kong's residents are Mainland Chinese, and they are making the region's culture more like that of the Mainland. Their presence as well as the presence of hundreds of thousands of Chinese tourists on any given day is influencing the local culture, and cultural conflict is increasing. The locals generally resent their presence and fear for the future of their traditions and lifestyles. Such large numbers of Mainlanders are coming because they have more wealth and time for travel and tourism, and transportation to the region is becoming increasingly convenient and economical with the opening in 2018 of a mega-sized bridge over the sea to Macau and Zhuhai and a new bullet train that connects locations far away in China directly to Kowloon. Other large transportation facilities such as bridges and highways have been built in the past 12 years. In 2018, Hong Kong attracted a record number of 51 million mainland visitors. They were 4/5 of the record 65 million visitors in that year. This is by far the highest number of visitors in the world. However the frequent protests and occasional large demonstrations have helped to promote the Hong Kongers' sense of being different and their appreciation for their own Hong Kong local culture. Laws have been passed limiting the Mainlander presence in Hong Kong, but the number of tourists actually keep increasing anyway because Chinese are so eager to go there to shop, sightsee, and for recreation. For more about Hong Kong's history, see Hong Kong History. The Mixing and Conflicting of Eastern and Western Values From the Han Chinese tradition, the Hong Kongers have Confucian values, philosophy and religion such as a strong sense of social hierarchy especially within families and at the workplace, the shame-based concept of "face", and a very strong sense of the importance of education. Traditional Chinese customs, holidays, philosophy and religious ideas are part of everyday life. There is a respect for age. Another Han value is the value of investment in construction of huge megaprojects. Megaprojects are everywhere in Hong Kong from the world's tallest skyline with more skyscrapers than any other city to one of the world's biggest subway systems down below ground. However, the foreign and especially the British influence and example have instilled the Western values described above too. There is a universal appreciation and practice in Hong Kong of Western holidays such as Christmas, the English language, and English-language entertainment and media. There is an unusual love for nature that manifests in that most of the territory is still preserved as natural public country parkland even though the pressures for development and urban growth are very intense. Conflicting Western and Eastern Values and Ideals Hong Kong people have internal conflicts on which ideals and values to uphold and follow both in their own lives and in their practice in groups. It is obvious that the two value systems conflict, and based on age, religion, and social grouping, each individual Hong Kong person has had to determine what their own values and philosophy are. Many Hong Kong residents, about 12%, identify themselves as Christian, and they may not participate in traditional Chinese religious customs for example. Also, younger people in general tend to reject traditional values such as filial piety and obedience to leaders to a much higher degree than their elders. Younger people tend to be more individualistic than their elders who are more collectivistic and may seek to control their children's lives or the lives of their subordinates. These differences of opinion often lead to clashes within families, on the job, and in the public forum. See more about Hong Konger religions below. A Great Emphasis on Education There is an extreme emphasis on schooling, and the wealthiest families often send their children to be educated abroad in English-speaking countries, or their children attend private and Christian academies that are usually very expensive. The competition to enter and excel in these academies and the best schools and universities is intense, so Hong Kong children study unusually intensely and receive schooling and training from early ages. This might be what has contributed to Hong Kong being the region or country with the highest average IQ in the world of 107 compared to the usual 100 in the Mainland and many countries in the world. This emphasis on education in Hong Kong is comparable to the Japanese emphasis. Japan's average IQ is 105. About 24 percent of Hong Kongers have a college level degree or above, and Hong Kong's universities are regarded as some of the best in East Asia with first-rate facilities, faculty and research. The Culture Contributes to Hong Kong's Success It is intriguing that a relatively infertile and poor small area on the outskirts of China became one of the world’s main trade and financial centers, the world's wealthiest city with the highest IQ, the territory or country with the world's longest average lifespan, and the world's favorite city for tourism. Hong Kong is rated among the top or the very top city in the world in a number of important international comparisons. This unique mixing of Eastern and Western values and ideals has produced some outstanding results. The unusual honesty and good governance of the British cultural tradition along with the traditional value placed on education, hard work, and respect for authority has produced tangible good results. Better Government, Police and Judicial System For example, unlike in many countries around the world, the people don't automatically expect the local police to be corrupt on everyday nonpolitical matters but to even-handedly and efficiently deal with situations. People generally expect the justice system, police and government agencies to serve fairly well though locals in Hong Kong will tell you numerous instances when the appearance of justice or good government is just an appearance. People have the right to call in or write in complaints about anything to the various departments of government, and it is unusual in the world that people actually as a matter of course receive back well written, respectful, and thoughtful answers. They get reasonable explanations whether in English or Chinese. Hong Kongers perhaps more than other people in the world directly discuss matters online and by telephone with government staff. This honesty also comes across in how efficiently the transportation and infrastructure are managed. The public facilities are of good quality and operate efficiently and pleasantly. Due to the better government, tradition of honesty, and low taxes, Mainland Chinese shoppers and shoppers from around the world come in to benefit from the better quality and reliability of products sold in Hong Kong's stores. Hong Kong’s reputation for reliable products and good, honest service gives its retailers an edge over retailers in the Mainland. For Mainland Chinese, the perceived authenticity and reliability of the products in Hong Kong often outweigh price as a buying factor. World's Best MTR System As another example, Hong Kong has the most profitable metro system in the world. The MTR metro system is often rated the best metro system in the world too. Around the world, large public works such as these are rife with bad management and money theft and graft problems. But in Hong Kong, the local government concentrated on working with private companies to create a mass transit system that is the world's standard. In fact, the MTR corporation is so good it is actually self-funding. It doesn't receive government financing. The company has been invited to manage the mass transit in advanced and wealthy cities around the world. The World's Best Economy on Some Measures Hong Kong is usually voted the "Best Business City in the World" in the annual readers' poll organized by Business Traveller Asia Pacific magazine. In 2017, Hong Kong was ranked the world's richest city. It has the most billionaires in the world per capita. It is also rated tops in the 2019 Economic Freedom Index. It is thought to be the region or country with the most economic freedom. Longest Life Expectancy The medical care and public health measures are so good that Hong Kongers have the longest life expectancy of any territory or country in the world. Hong Kong recently surpassing Japan in this measure in the last two years. People live to be an average of 84.5 years in Hong Kong. Women live longer than 87 years in Hong Kong. Top for Tourism Both the 51 million Chinese coming from the Mainland and the 14 million foreign tourists and travelers who travel long distances to get to Hong Kong appreciated the HK culture and facilities in 2018. Safe and happy tourists: Tourists find that the huge country parks are well tended and are fairly safe to hike around in and that park facilities and area tourist attractions are well tended. Everything seems to be advanced and efficient in HK. The service people in the government institutions that foreign visitors may visit such as the museums, post offices, and libraries some across as respectful and efficient, and their facilities are quite modern, useful and tasteful. The culture is quite a delight and surprising compared to the demeanor and facilities presented in many other Asian countries. Basically, a foreigner will usually feel quite safe. The Outstanding or the Best in Other Ways Too Travelers to Hong Kong appreciate the world's largest and most popular old-fashioned tram system on Hong Kong Island, the world's most popular and well known ferry, the Star Ferry, and one of East Asia's best cities for dining. The tram surprisingly ranks as one of the top 20 tourist attractions of China. Highly rated culinary scene: The Hong Kong work ethic affords unusually good dining. Tourists highly appreciate Hong Kong's 63 Michelin-rated restaurants in 2019. There are more Michelin-starred restaurants in Hong Kong than in another other city in Asia except for cities in Japan. Read more about Hong Kong Facts: Top for Tourism, Business, Wealth, IQ... Hong Kong Customs and Traditions to Be Aware Of Greeting and visiting: Hong Kongers generally greet Westerners by shaking hands lightly. It is good etiquette to bring a gift when visiting someone's home, but there are various intricate customs and superstitions regarding colors, numbers, and kinds of gifts to avoid or to give. Always present gifts with two hands, but gifts usually are not opened until after the visit is over. Dining etiquette: When dining with a host, allow the host to tell you where to sit since there are seating arrangements that are usually based on seniority, age, status, and family relationships. Wait for the host to tell you to when to start eating or for him to begin eating. See more on How Dining is Done in Hong Kong. Business etiquette: Business people should be aware that a person's business card is considered to be representative of and reflect the person. So if a business card is not well designed and printed and given in good condition, it gives a bad impression of the person. The way one accepts a business card and treats it represents what he is doing to the person himself. So if you write on a business card, it is seen as an offence to the person (as if you wrote on him), or if you put a business card in a back pocket, it is considered as if you put the person in your back pocket (disrespectful). Hong Kong Festivals Government promoted WinterFest season: The government has sponsored and supported the Hong Kong WinterFest as a long winter festival. This might be mainly to promote tourism, but it does make the region more cheery and exciting in the winter season. This combines several holidays: Christmas, and Western New Year week, and the Spring Festival including the Lantern Festival). Special events festivals: There are also special theme or special events festivals such as the Hong Kong Sevens rugby championships. For a list of Hong Kong festivals, see Hong Kong Festivals. Hong Kong Religion Due to Hong Kong's diverse ethnic makeup and complex fusion of nationalities and cultures, Hong Kongers have a diversity of religions and philosophical beliefs. The majority of Hong Kong's ethnic Chinese practice to some extent a variety of folk religions including Taoism. The percentage of people who call themselves Buddhist is about 22%. The percentage who call themselves Christian is about 12%. About 2 to 3% are Muslim. About 22% are not religious. Would You Like to Taste Hong Kong's Culture? Hong Kongers love dining as well. In Chinese culture, a well known saying is: “Eating comes first." It is no different in Hong Kong. Hong Kongers emphasize eating for their health, as a pastime, and as a way to get together with others. Hong Kong's restaurant culture is in many ways unique to Hong Kong. So you can experience HK culture quite directly by eating! Go to the dim sum, noodle shops, and restaurants serving Cantonese cuisine that locals like to go to experience the traditional culinary culture. Dim sum and yum cha are a traditional brunch/lunch style of food that locals enjoy. Read How to Have Dim Sum and Yum Cha in Hong Kong to learn more about this style of food, its origins and the dining culture. Local Restaurants Are Social Gathering Places Restaurants are significant for Hong Kong people because they serve as social gathering places. Local people enjoy meal in groups with friends and family. Colleagues might share work-related news, and business people engage in business. Basically, restaurant-going strengthens the social relationships. For the best Cantonese food: Of course, the best Cantonese restaurants in the world are in Hong Kong. You can taste it as made originally, and the seafood is the Hong Kong forte. See our recommended Hong Kong Cantonese gourmet restaurants>> Experiencing Hong Kong Culture with Us To give a general description in summary, Hong Kongers are culturally sophisticated, intelligent, fun loving, hard working, broody, adept at operating in both Western and Eastern worlds, somewhat pessimistic, and have a tendency to be more traditional in thinking as well as Christian and Westernized. They are so work orientated and independent, both men and women, that they have a tendency to not have children. They have a birthrate of about 1.1 children per person, among the lowest in the world. We could help you experience Cantonese culture by touring touring, dining in the restaurants, sightseeing, and going to a festival event. Sightseeing Cantonese villages: Some small towns and areas are known for local cultural sightseeing. Among these, Kat Hing Wai (吉慶圍), a 17th century walled farming village, and Tai O, an old fishing village, stand out. Seeing a festival event: We could escort you to one of the local Hong Kong holiday festival events. Hong Kong's Christmas celebrations are known internationally, and tourists might be interested in watching the annual international Dragon Boat races. Visiting the museums: The Hong Kong History Museum and the Museum of Art are good places to become familiar with Hong Kong's culture. Our most popular Hong Kong tours, for inspiration: - Half-Day Hong Kong Island Tour: You will admire the ultimate view of Hong Kong Island's renowned skyline and explore a floating fishing village at Aberdeen. - One-Day Lantau Island Tour: This tour combines breathtaking natural beauty and fascinating culture.

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|English||wheel of life,| wheel of cyclic existence, (Wylie: srid pa'i 'khor lo; THL: sipé khorlo) |Glossary of Buddhism| |Part of a series on| The bhāvacakra (Sanskrit; Pāli: bhāvacakka; Tibetan: srid pa'i 'khor lo) is a symbolic representation of saṃsāra (or cyclic existence). It is found on the outside walls of Tibetan Buddhist temples and monasteries in the Indo-Tibetan region, to help ordinary people understand Buddhist teachings. It is used in Indian Buddhism & Tibetan Buddhism Bhāvachakra, "wheel of life,"[a] consists of the words bhāva and cakra. The Sanskrit word bhāva (भाव) is rooted in the term bhava, and means "emotion, sentiment, state of body or mind, disposition."[web 2] In some contexts it also means "becoming, being, existing, occurring, appearance" while connoting the condition thereof.[web 3] In Buddhism, bhava denotes the continuity of becoming (reincarnating) in one of the realms of existence, in the samsaric context of rebirth, life and the maturation arising therefrom. It is the tenth of the Twelve Nidanas, in its Pratītyasamutpāda doctrine. The word chakra is used to mean several different things in the Sanskrit sources: - "Circle," used in a variety of senses, symbolising endless rotation of shakti. - A circle of people. In rituals, there are different cakrasādhanās in which adherents assemble and perform rites. According to the Niruttaratantra, chakras in the sense of assemblies are of 5 types. - The term chakra is also used to denote yantras (mystic diagrams), variously known as trikoṇa-cakra, aṣṭakoṇa-cakra, etc. - Different nerve plexuses within the body. Legend has it that the historical Buddha himself created the first depiction of the bhavacakra, and the story of how he gave the illustration to King Rudrāyaṇa appears in the anthology of Buddhist narratives called the Divyāvadāna. Explanation of the diagram Elements of the bhavachakra The bhavachakra consists of the following elements: - The pig, rooster and snake in the hub of the wheel represent the three poisons of ignorance, attachment and aversion. - The second layer represents karma. - The third layer represents the six realms of samsara. - The fourth layer represents the twelve links of dependent origination. - The fierce figure holding the wheel represents impermanence. It is also Yama, the god of death. - The moon above the wheel represents liberation from samsara or cyclic existence. - The Buddha pointing to the white circle indicates that liberation is possible. Symbolically, the three inner circles, moving from the center outward, show that the three poisons of ignorance, attachment, and aversion give rise to positive and negative actions; these actions and their results are called karma. Karma in turn gives rise to the six realms, which represent the different types of suffering within samsara. The fourth and outer layer of the wheel symbolizes the twelve links of dependent origination; these links indicate how the sources of suffering—the three poisons and karma—produce lives within cyclic existence. The fierce being holding the wheel represents impermanence; this symbolizes that the entire process of samsara or cyclic existence is impermanent, transient, constantly changing. The moon above the wheel indicates liberation. The Buddha is pointing to the moon, indicating that liberation from samsara is possible. Hub: the three poisons In the hub of the wheel are three animals: a pig, a snake, and a bird. They represent the three poisons of ignorance, aversion, and attachment, respectively. The pig stands for ignorance; this comparison is based on the Indian concept of a pig being the most foolish of animals, since it sleeps in the dirtiest places and eats whatever comes to its mouth. The snake represents aversion or anger; this is because it will be aroused and strike at the slightest touch. The bird represents attachment (also translated as desire or clinging). The particular bird used in this diagram represents an Indian bird that is very attached to its partner. These three animals represent the three poisons, which are the core of the bhavacakra. From these three poisons, the whole cycle of existence evolves. In many drawings of the wheel, the snake and bird are shown as coming out of the mouth of the pig, indicating that aversion and attachment arise from ignorance. The snake and bird are also shown grasping the tail of the pig, indicating that they in turn promote greater ignorance. Under the influence of the three poisons, beings create karma, as shown in the next layer of the circle. Second layer: karma The second layer of the wheel shows two-half circles: - One half-circle (usually light) shows contented people moving upwards to higher states, possibly to the higher realms. - The other half-circle (usually dark) shows people in a miserable state being led downwards to lower states, possibly to the lower realms. These images represent karma, the law of cause and effect. The light half-circle indicates people experiencing the results of positive actions. The dark half-circle indicates people experiencing the results of negative actions. Ringu Tulku states: - We create karma in three different ways, through actions that are positive, negative, or neutral. When we feel kindness and love and with this attitude do good things, which are beneficial to both ourselves and others, this is positive action. When we commit harmful deeds out of equally harmful intentions, this is negative action. Finally, when our motivation is indifferent and our deeds are neither harmful or beneficial, this is neutral action. The results we experience will accord with the quality of our actions. Propelled by their karma, beings take rebirth in the six realms of samsara, as shown in the next layer of the circle. Third layer: the six realms of samsara The third layer of the wheel is divided into six sections that represent the six realms of samsara, or cyclic existence, the process of cycling through one rebirth after another. These six realms are divided into three higher realms and three lower realms. The wheel can also be represented as having five realms, combining the God realm and the Demi-god realm into a single realm. The three higher realms are shown in the top half of the circle: - God realm (Deva): the gods lead long and enjoyable lives full of pleasure and abundance, but they spend their lives pursuing meaningless distractions and never think to practice the dharma. When death comes to them, they are completely unprepared; without realizing it, they have completely exhausted their good karma (which was the cause for being reborn in the god realm) and they suffer through being reborn in the lower realms. - Demi-god realm (Asura): the demi-gods have pleasure and abundance almost as much as the gods, but they spend their time fighting among themselves or making war on the gods. When they make war on the gods, they always lose, since the gods are much more powerful. The demi-gods suffer from constant fighting and jealousy, and from being killed and wounded in their wars with each other and with the gods. - Human realm (Manuṣya): humans suffer from hunger, thirst, heat, cold, separation from friends, being attacked by enemies, not getting what they want, and getting what they don't want. They also suffer from the general sufferings of birth, old age, sickness and death. Yet the human realm is considered to be the most suitable realm for practicing the dharma, because humans are not completely distracted by pleasure (like the gods or demi-gods) or by pain and suffering (like the beings in the lower realms). The three lower realms are shown in the bottom half of the circle: - Animal realm (Tiryagyoni): wild animals suffer from being attacked and eaten by other animals; they generally lead lives of constant fear. Domestic animals suffer from being exploited by humans; for example, they are slaughtered for food, overworked, and so on. - Hungry ghost realm (Preta): hungry ghosts suffer from extreme hunger and thirst. They wander constantly in search of food and drink, only to be miserably frustrated any time they come close to actually getting what they want. For example, they see a stream of pure, clear water in the distance, but by the time they get there the stream has dried up. Hungry ghosts have huge bellies and long, thin necks. On the rare occasions that they do manage to find something to eat or drink, the food or water burns their neck as it goes down to their belly, causing them intense agony. - Hell realm (Naraka): hell beings endure unimaginable suffering for eons of time. There are actually eighteen different types of hells, each inflicting a different kind of torment. In the hot hells, beings suffer from unbearable heat and continual torments of various kinds. In the cold hells, beings suffer from unbearable cold and other torments. Among the six realms, the human realm is considered to offer the best opportunity to practice the dharma. In some representations of the wheel, there is a buddha or bodhisattva depicted within each realm, trying to help sentient beings find their way to nirvana. The outer rim of the wheel is divided into twelve sections that represent the Twelve Nidānas. As previously stated, the three inner layers of the wheel show that the three poisons lead to karma, which leads to the suffering of the six realms. The twelve links of the outer rim show how this happens—by presenting the process of cause and effect in detail. These twelve links can be understood to operate on an outer or inner level. - On the outer level, the twelve links can be seen to operate over several lifetimes; in this case, these links show how our past lives influence our current lifetime, and how our actions in this lifetime influence our future lifetimes. - On the inner level, the twelve links can be understood to operate in every moment of existence in an interdependent manner. On this level, the twelve links can be applied to show the effects of one particular action. The twelve causal links, paired with their corresponding symbols, are: - Avidyā lack of knowledge – a blind person, often walking, or a person peering out - Saṃskāra constructive volitional activity – a potter shaping a vessel or vessels - Vijñāna consciousness – a man or a monkey grasping a fruit - Nāmarūpa name and form (constituent elements of mental and physical existence) – two men afloat in a boat - Ṣaḍāyatana six senses (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind) – a dwelling with six windows - Sparśa contact – lovers consorting, kissing, or entwined - Vedanā pain – an arrow to the eye - Tṛṣṇa thirst – a drinker receiving drink - Upādāna grasping – a man or a monkey picking fruit - Bhava coming to be – a couple engaged in intercourse, a standing, leaping, or reflective person - Jāti being born – woman giving birth - Jarāmaraṇa old age and death – corpse being carried The figure holding the wheel: impermanence This figure is often interpreted as being Mara, the demon who tried to tempt the Buddha, or as Yama, the lord of death. Regardless of the figure depicted, the inner meaning remains the same–that the entire process of cyclic existence (samsara) is transient; everything within this wheel is constantly changing. Yama has the following attributes: - He wears a crown of five skulls that symbolize the impermanence of the five aggregates. (The skulls are also said to symbolize the five poisons.) - He has a third eye that symbolizes the wisdom of understanding impermanence. - He is sometimes shown adorned with a tiger skin, which symbolizes fearfulness. (The tiger skin is typically seen hanging beneath the wheel.) - His four limbs (that are clutching the wheel) symbolize the sufferings of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The moon: liberation Above the wheel is an image of the moon; the moon represents liberation from the sufferings of samsara. Some drawings may show an image of a "pure land" to indicate liberation, rather than a moon. The Buddha pointing to the white circle: the path to liberation The upper part of the drawing also shows an image of the Buddha pointing toward the moon; this represents the path to liberation. While in Theravada Buddhism this is the Noble Eightfold Path, in Mahayana Buddhism this is the Bodhisattva path, striving to liberation for all sentient beings. In Tibetan Buddhism, this is Lamrim, which details all the stages on the path, while Zen has its own complicated history of the entanglement of meditation practice and direct insight. Drawings of the Bhavacakra usually contain an inscription consisting of a few lines of text that explain the process that keeps us in samara and how to reverse that process. The Theravada-tradition does not have a graphical representation of the round of rebirths, but cakra-symbolism is an elementary component of Buddhism, and Buddhaghosa's Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) contains such imagery: It is the beginningless round of rebirths that is called the 'Wheel of the round of rebirths' (saṃsāracakka). Ignorance (avijjā) is its hub (or nave) because it is its root. Ageing-and-death (jarā-maraṇa) is its rim (or felly) because it terminates it. The remaining ten links (of the Dependent Origination) are its spokes (i.e. karma formations [saṅkhāra] up to process of becoming [bhava]). Western psychological interpretation Some western interpreters take a psychological point of view, explaining that different karmic actions contribute to one's metaphorical existence in different realms, or rather, different actions reinforce personal characteristics described by the realms. According to Mark Epstein, "each realm becomes not so much a specific place but rather a metaphor for a different psychological state, with the entire wheel becoming a representation of neurotic suffering." A painting of the bhavacakra from Bhutan. - Buddhism and psychology - Buddhist cosmology - Buddhist symbolism - Dependent origination - Dharmachakra – A symbol of Indian religions - Karma in Buddhism – Action driven by intention which leads to future consequences - Kleshas (Buddhism) – In Buddhism, mental states that cloud the mind - Rota Fortunae – Symbol of fate in medieval and ancient philosophy - The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things, by Hieronymus Bosch - Three poisons – in bouddhism three afflictions innate in a being and the cause of suffering - The term bhavachakra has been translated into English as: - Wheel of becoming - Wheel of cyclic existence - Wheel of existence - Wheel of life - Wheel of rebirth - Wheel of saṃsāra - Wheel of suffering - Wheel of transformation - Gethin 1998, pp. 158-159. - Thomas William Rhys Davids; William Stede (1921). Pali-English Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 499. ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7. - Julius Evola; H. E. Musson (1996). The Doctrine of Awakening: The Attainment of Self-Mastery According to the Earliest Buddhist Texts. Inner Traditions. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-89281-553-1. - Mallory, J.P; Adams, D.Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture (1. publ. ed.). London: Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 640. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. - Bhattacharyya, N. N. (1999). History of the Tantric Religion (Second Revised ed.). New Delhi: Manohar. pp. 385–86. ISBN 81-7304-025-7. - Dzongsar Khyentse (2004), p. 3. - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 1 - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 42–43. - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 41-43. - Sonam Rinchen (2006), p. 8-9. - Ringu Tulku (2005), p. 30. - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 4, 42. - Ringu Tulku (2005), p. 31. - Khandro Rinpoche (2003), p. 65-90. - Chögyam Trungpa (1999), p. 25-50. - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 5-8. - Dzongsar Khyentse (2005), p. 2-3. - Patrul Rinpoche (1998), p. 61-99. - Gampopa (1998), p. 95-108 - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 8 (from the Introduction by Jeffrey Hopkins) - Sonam Rinchen (2006), p. 9. - Thrangu Rinpoche (2001), pp. 3, 32 - Simmer-Brown (1987), p. 24 - Goodman, Location 1492 (Kindel edition) - Simmer-Brown (1987), p. 28 - Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 112. - Birmingham Museum of Art (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art: Guide to the Collection. London, UK: GILES. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-904832-77-5. Archived from the original on 2011-09-10. Retrieved 2011-07-12. - Khantipalo (1995-2011) - Thubten Chodron (1993), Part 1 of 5, p. 1 - Dalai Lama (1992), p. 43. - Thubten Chodron (1993), Part 2 of 5, p. 5 - Karunaratne, T. B. (2008), p. 14. - Epstein, Mark (2004), p. 17. - Chögyam Trungpa (1999). The Myth of Freedom and the Way of Meditation. Shambhala - Chögyam Trungpa (2000). The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo. Shambhala - Chögyam Trungpa (2009). The Truth of Suffering and the Path of Liberation. Shambhala - Dalai Lama (1992). The Meaning of Life, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins. Wisdom. - Dzongsar Khyentse (2004). Gentle Voice #22, September 2004 Issue. - Dzongsar Khyentse (2005). Gentle Voice #23, April 2005 Issue. - Epstein, Mark (2004). Thoughts Without A Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. Basic Books. Kindle Edition. - Gampopa (1998). The Jewel Ornament of Liberation: The Wish-Fulfilling Gem of the Noble Teachings, by Gampopa, translated by Khenpo Konchog Gyaltsen Rinpoche. Snow Lion. - Goodman, Steven D. (1992). "Situational Patterning: Pratītyasamutpāda." Footsteps on the Diamond Path, Crystal Mirror Series I-III. Dharma Publishing. - Geshe Sonam Rinchen (2006). How Karma Works: The Twelve Links of Dependent Arising. Snow Lion - Karunaratne, T. B. (2008). The Buddhist Wheel Symbol. Buddhist Publication Society. (http://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh137.pdf) - Khandro Rinpoche (2003). This Precious Life. Shambala - Patrul Rinpoche (1998). The Words of My Perfect Teacher, translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. Altamira. - Ringu Tulku (2005). Daring Steps Toward Fearlessness: The Three Vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism. Snow Lion. - Simmer-Brown, Judith (1987). "Seeing the Dependent Origination of Suffering as the Key to Liberation." Journal of Contemplative Psychotherapy, VOLUME IV. The Naropa Institute. (ISSN 0894-8577) - Thrangu Rinpoche (2001). The Twelve Links of Interdependent Origination. Nama Buddha Publications. - Thubten Chodron. Articles & Transcripts of Teachings on Lamrim: The Gradual Path to Enlightenment. Dharma Friendship Foundation. - Thubten Chodron (1993). The Twelve Links – Part 1 of 5 (PDF) - Thubten Chodron (1993). The Twelve Links – Part 2 of 5 (PDF) - Buswell, Robert E., Jr.; Lopez, Donald S., Jr., eds. (2013), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton University Press - Donath, Dorothy C. (1971), Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day, Julian Press, ISBN 0-07-017533-0 - Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-289223-1 - Teiser, Stephen (2007). Reinventing the Wheel: Paintings of Rebirth in Medieval Buddhist Temples. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295986494. - Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Archive: भव, bhava - भव Archived 2017-07-07 at the Wayback Machine, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany - Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Archive: भाव, bhAva |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bhavacakra.| - Interactive Tour of the Wheel of Life, buddhanet.net - Wheel of Life index page, Himalayan Art Resources – allows visitors to view a gallery of images from various public and private collections - Wheel of Life Thangka painting explained - The Wheel of Birth and Death by Bhikkhu Khantipalo, The Wheel Publication No. 147/148/149, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society 1970 - The Wheel of Suffering, quietmountain.org – brief description focusing on the six realms - Wheel of Life on Khandro.net

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The spatial distributions of magnetic field in the RHIC and LHC energy regions Relativistic heavy-ion collisions can produce extremely strong magnetic field in the collision regions. The spatial variation features of the magnetic fields are analyzed in detail for non-central Pb - Pb collisions at LHC = 900, 2760 and 7000 GeV and Au-Au collisions at RHIC = 62.4, 130 and 200 GeV. The dependencies of magnetic field on proper time, collision energies and impact parameters are investigated in this paper. It is shown that a enormous with highly inhomogeneous spatial distribution magnetic field can indeed be created in off-central relativistic heavy-ion collisions in RHIC and LHC energy regions. The enormous magnetic field is produced just after the collision, and the magnitude of magnetic field of LHC energy region is larger that of RHIC energy region at the small proper time. It is found that the magnetic field in the LHC energy region decreases more quickly with the increase of the proper time than that of RHIC energy region. Keywowds: Spatial distribution of chiral magnetic field, Non-central collision, chiral magnetic field pacs:25.75.Ld, 11.30.Er, 11.30.Rd The Chiral Magnetic Effect (CME) is the phenomenon of electric charge separation along the external magnetic field that is introduced by the chirality imbalance lab1 ; lab2 . It is proposed by Ref. lab3 ; lab4 ; lab5 ; lab6 ; lab7 that off-central relativistic heavy-ion collisions can create strong transient magnetic fields due to the fast, oppositely directed motion of two colliding nuclei. The magnetic field perpendicular to the reaction plane is aligned. Extremely strong (electromagnetic) magnetic fields are present in non-central collisions, albeit for a very short time. Thus, relativistic heavy-ion collisions provide a unique terrestrial environment to study QCD in strong magnetic field surroundings lab8 ; lab9 ; lab10 ; lab11 . This so-called chiral magnetic effect may serve as a sign of the local P and CP violation of QCD. By using relativistic heavy-ion collisions at the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider (RHIC) and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), one can investigate the behavior of QCD at extremely high-energy densities. In non-central collisions opposite charge quarks would tend to be emitted in opposite directions relative to the system angular momentum lab9 ; lab12 ; lab13 ; lab14 . This asymmetry in the emission of quarks would be reflected in an analogous asymmetry between positive- and negative-pion emission directions. This phenomenon is introduced by the large (electro-) magnetic field produced in non-central heavy-ion collisions. The same phenomenon can also be depicted in terms of induction of electric field by the (quasi) static magnetic field, which happens in the occurrence of these topologically nontrivial vacuum solutions. The induced electric field is parallel to the magnetic field and leads to the charge separation in that direction. Thus, the charge separation can be viewed as a nonzero electric dipole moment of the system. Experimentally, RHIC lab15 ; lab16 ; lab17 ; lab18 ; lab19 and LHC lab20 have published the measurements of CME by the two-particle or three-particle correlations of charged particles with respect to the reaction plane, which are qualitatively consistent with the CME. A clear signal compatible with a charge dependent separation relative to the reaction plane is observed, which shows little or no collision energy dependence when compared to measurements at RHIC energies. This provides a new insight for understanding the nature of the charge-dependent azimuthal correlations observed at RHIC and LHC energies. Recent years, lots of attentions lab21 ; lab22 ; lab23 ; lab24 ; lab25 have been paid to the chiral magnetic effect (CME). It is shown that this effect originates from the existence of nontrivial topological configurations of gauge fields and their interplay with the chiral anomaly which results in an asymmetry between left- and right-handed quarks. The created strong magnetic field coupled to a chiral asymmetry can induce an electric charge current along the direction of a magnetic field. The strong magnetic field will separate particles of opposite charges with respect to the reaction plane. Recently, possible CME and topological charge fluctuations have been recognized by QCD lattice calculations in gauge theory lab26 ; lab27 and in QCD + QED with dynamical quark flavors lab28 . Thus, such topological and CME effects in QCD might be recognized in relativistic heavy-ion collisions directly in the presence of very intense external electromagnetic fields. Lots of analytical and numerical calculations indicate existence of extremely powerful electromagnetic fields in relativistic heavy-ion collisions lab1 ; lab4 ; lab6 ; lab29 . They are the strongest electromagnetic fields that exist in nature lab1 ; lab4 ; lab6 ; lab29 . Ref. lab30 ; lab31 has discussed the electromagnetic response of the plasma produced by relativistic heavy-ion collisions. It is found that the effects to have an important impact on the field dynamics. An exact analytical and numerical solution for the space and time dependencies of an electromagnetic field produced in heavy-ion collisions was presented in Ref lab32 . It was confirmed that nuclear matter plays a crucial role lab33 in its time evolution. In Ref. lab34 ; lab35 , we used the Wood-Saxon nucleon distribution instead of uniform distribution to improve the calculation of the magnetic field of the central point for non-central collision in the RHIC and LHC energy regions. In this paper, we will use the improved magnetic field model to calculate the spatial distribution feature of the chiral magnetic field in the RHIC and LHC energy regions. The dependencies of the spatial features of magnetic fields on the collision energies, centralities, and collision time will be systematically investigated, respectively. The paper is organized as follows. The key points of the improved model of magnetic field are described in Sec. II. The calculation results of the magnetic field are present in Sec. III. A summary is given in Sec. IV. Ii The Improved model of chiral Magnetic field The improved model of magnetic field mainly contains three parts: (1) As shown in Fig.1, two similar relativistic heavy nuclei with charge and radius are traveling in the positive and negative direction with rapidity . At they go through a non-central collision with impact parameter at the origin point. The center of the two nuclei are taken at at time so that the direction of lies along the axis. The region in which the two nuclei overlap contains the participants, the regions in which they do not overlap contain the spectators. As the nuclei are nearly traveling with the speed of light in ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collision experiments, the Lorentz contraction factor is so large that the two included nuclei can be taken as pancake shape(as the plane). We use the Wood-Saxon nuclear distribution instead of uniform nuclear distribution lab1 . The Wood-Saxon nuclear distribution forms is: here = 0.54 fm, = 0.17 fm and the radius =1.12 A fm. Considering the Lorentz contraction, the density of the two-dimensional plane can be given by: where is the normalization constant. The number densities of the colliding nuclei can be normalized as (2) Secondly, in order to study the strength of the magnetic field caused by the two relativistic traveling nuclei, we can split the contribution of particles to the magnetic field in the time . The specific forms of expression for the contribution of particles to the magnetic field in the following way where and are the the contributions of the spectators and the participants moving in the positive or negative direction, respectively. For spectators, we assume that they do not scatter at all and that they keep traveling with the beam rapidity . Combining with Eq.(2), we use the density above and give where is the proper time, is the space-time rapidity, and In the other hand, the distribution of participants that remain traveling along the beam axis is given by Experimental data gives , which is consistent with the baryon junction stopping mechanism. The contribution of the participants to the magnetic field can be given by (3) In the third part, in order to study the spatial distribution of the magnetic field, we will calculate the and components of the chiral magnetic field from spectator and participant nuclei. The specific forms of the contribution of and components from the spectator and participant nuclei are given as follows: where is the component of magnetic field from spectators, and the component of magnetic field from spectators is given by: In the other hand, the component of magnetic field from participants is given by: and the component of magnetic field from participants is given by: Iii The calculation results In order to study the dependencies of magnetic field on proper time, we show the dependencies of magnetic field (at central point ) on proper time at = 200 GeV for Au - Au collisions with b=8fm and = 2760 GeV for Pb - Pb collisions with b = 8 fm, respectively. From Fig.2(a, b), one can find that at small proper time the magnetic field is mainly from the contribution of spectator nucleons, but as the proper time increases, more and more large contribution of the magnetic field is from participant nucleon. Figure 2(c,d) show the comparisons of the magnetic field and the ratio of at = 200 GeV and = 2760 GeV. One can find that at smaller proper time ( fm) the magnetic field at = 2760 GeV is greater than that of = 200 GeV, but when fm, the magnetic field at = 2760 GeV is less than that of = 200 GeV. From Fig.2(d) one can find that the contribution of magnetic field from participant nucleons increases with the increase of proper time. Figure 3 shows the dependencies of magnetic field (at central point )on central of mass energy at different proper time . It is argued that at smaller proper time ( = 0.001 and 0.0001fm) the magnetic fields increase with the increase of the CMS energy (), but with the increase of proper time (), the magnetic field decreases sharply with increasing collision energy of . It is found that when = 3 fm and GeV, the magnetic field approaches zero. For consistency with the experimental results, we take Au-Au collision with RHIC energy region and Pb-Pb collision with LHC energy region. When studying the spatial distribution characteristics of magnetic field, we choose the spatial regions of -10.0 fm 10.0 fm and -10.0 fm 10.0 fm. Figure 4 shows the magnetic field spatial distributions of with different collision energies = 62.4 GeV, 130 GeV and 200 GeV and proper time fm. The collision energies shown in Fig. 4 are in RHIC energy region. The spatial distributions of show obviously axis symmetry characteristics along and axes. There is a peak around central point , and the magnetic field get smaller and smaller when the location go farther away from the center position. When fm, On both sides of line, there are two symmetrical peaks. These two peaks are almost connected when = 62.4 GeV. As the collision energy increases, the two peaks start to separate and expose the valley between the two peaks when = 130 GeV and 200 GeV. The maximum of magnetic field in RHIC energy region reaches MeV. Compared with Fig.4, Fig.5 shows the magnetic field spatial distributions of in the LHC energy region. When the collision energy rises up to 900 GeV in LHC energy region, the distribution features of magnetic field have some differences from that of the RHIC energy region. For example the magnetic field distribution peak around and becomes flat at = 900 GeV, and begin to appear the phenomenon of two peaks. The maximum of magnetic field in LHC energy region reaches MeV, which is larger than that of RHIC energy region at = 0.0001 fm. From Fig.2 to Fig.5, we argue that the magnetic field spatial distributions of are highly inhomogeneous. The distribution features in the RHIC energy region is different from that of the LHC energy region. It is argued that at smaller proper time ( = 0.001 and 0.0001fm) the magnetic fields increase with the increase of the CMS energy (), but with the increase of proper time (), the magnetic field decreases sharply with increasing collision energy of central of mass . The above we make a discussion of magnetic field spatial distributions with the collision energy and impact parameter relations, we will make a study of magnetic field with the proper time. The magnitude of magnetic field is presented as: Sometimes, one often takes the component to approximately replace . This is the reason that is usually larger than . In order to verify the rationality of the substitution, we need a detailed study the relation between and . Figure 6 shows the dependencies of the ratio of on and at = 200 GeV and at different proper time = 0.02, 0.2 and 2.0 fm, respectively. The Fig.6(a, c and e) are for with at different proper time. From Fig.6(a, c and e), one can figure out that the ratio of with change is between 0.9 to 1.0. In this case, one can approximate the instead of . Compared with the relation of ratio with , the relationship of ratio with shown as Fig.6(b, d and f) is obviously different. The main different is the dip located at . The minimum value of the ratio at can be decreased to 0.5. In order to study the spatial distribution of magnetic field on proper time, we show the dependencies of magnetic field and (at points and ) on proper time at = 200 GeV for Au-Au collisions with b=8fm and = 2760 GeV and 7000 GeV for Pb - Pb collisions with b = 8fm, respectively. From Fig.7, one can find that at small proper time the the magnetic field increases with the increase of the collision energy, but the magnetic field of = 7000 GeV decrease more quickly than that of = 200 GeV with the increase of proper time. Fig.7(c,d) show that there is a relatively flat region with proper time at point than that at point . Iv Summary and Conclusion It is shown that an enormous magnetic field can indeed be created in off-central heavy-ion collisions. The magnetic field distributions of and are highly inhomogeneous, and and distributions are completely different. The enormous magnetic field is produced just after the collision, and the magnitude of magnetic field of LHC energy region is larger that of RHIC energy region at the small proper time( fm). We are really surprised to find that the magnetic field in the LHC energy region decreases more quickly with the increase of the proper time than that of RHIC energy region. As the proper time increases to a certain value fm, the magnitude of magnetic field in the RHIC energy region begin to be larger than that of LHC energy region. The dependencies of the ratio of on and at different collision energies at RHIC and LHC and at different proper time are analyzed in this paper. In most cases, the ratio approaches , so this is a good approximate by using to approximately replace . But one should note that the ratio is between along line. We systematically study the spatial distribution features of chiral magnetic field in relativistic heavy-ion collisions at energies reached at LHC and RHIC with the improved model of chiral magnetic field in this paper. The feature of chiral magnetic fields at = 900, 2760 and 7000 GeV in the LHC energy region and = 62.4, 130 and 200 GeV in the RHIC energy region are systematically studied. The dependencies of the magnetic field on proper time for at RHIC and LHC energy regions, respectively. Comparing with that of RHIC energy region, one finds that the magnitudes of the magnetic fields with proper time fall more rapidly at LHC energy region. The variation characteristics of magnetic field with impact parameter at RHIC energy region are different from that of LHC energy region. The maximum position is located in the small proper time ( fm), more off-central collisions and GeV. The maximum of magnetic field in our calculation is about when and GeV. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants Nos. 11375069, 11435054, 11075061, and 11221504), also by the Open innovation fund of the Ministry of Education of China under Grant No. QLPL2014P01. - (1) D.E. Kharzeev, L.D. McLerran, H.J. Warringa, Nucl. Phys. A 803, 227 (2008). arXiv:0711.0950 [hep-ph]. - (2) V. Skokov, A.Y. Illarionov, V. Toneev, Internat. J. Mod. Phys. A 24, 5925 (2009). arXiv:0907.1396 [nucl-th]. - (3) K. Fukushima, D. E. Kharzeev, and H. J. Warringa, Phys. Rev. Lett. 104, 212001 (2010). - (4) W. T. Deng and X. G. Huang, Phys. Rev. C 85, 044907 (2012). - (5) K. Fukushima, D. E. Kharzeev, and H. J. Warringa, Nucl. Phys. A 836, 311 (2010). - (6) A. Bzdak and V. Skokov, Phys. Lett. B 710, 171 (2012) - (7) D. E. Kharzeev, Ann. Phys. 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https://www.arxiv-vanity.com/papers/1410.6349/

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article Gender Gaps in Letter-Sound Knowledge Persist Across the First School Year - 1Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway - 2Reykjavík University, Reykjavík, Iceland - 3Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Literacy is the cornerstone of a primary school education and enables the intellectual and social development of young children. Letter-sound knowledge has been identified as critical for developing proficiency in reading. This study explored the development of letter-sound knowledge in relation to gender during the first year of primary school. 485 Norwegian children aged 5–6 years completed assessment of letter-sound knowledge, i.e., uppercase letters- name; uppercase letter -sound; lowercase letters- name; lowercase letter-sound. The children were tested in the beginning, middle, and end of their first school year. The results revealed a clear gender difference in all four variables in favor of the girls which were relatively constant over time. Implications for understanding the role of gender and letter-sound knowledge for later reading performance are discussed. Literacy is one of the main goals of primary education and is attained predominantly through reading, writing, speaking and listening (Rose, 2006). All of these domains facilitate children's intellectual, emotional and social development. A lack of basic reading skills at a young age is later associated with behavior problems and academic shortcomings (Adams, 1990; Elbaum et al., 2000; Tønnessen and Uppstad, 2015). At its most fundamental level, reading involves connecting vision to sound and attaching semantics toward these units of communication. Achieving a sufficient level of awareness and automaticity in reading requires a systematic knowledge of phonemes, i.e., knowing the sound of each letter in the alphabet (Hulme et al., 2012; Tønnessen and Uppstad, 2015). Importance of Letter-Sound Knowledge for Reading Development Literacy has a profound impact on the human brain (Dehaene, 2011). Recent brain imaging studies have identified specific locations in which symbols, such as letters, are processed. The importance of the visual word form area (VWFA) in the left lateral occipitotemporal sulcus is hypothesized to play a crucial role in human's processing of letters and words (Dehaene et al., 2002; Dehaene and Cohen, 2011). Dehaene and colleagues contend that the most influential factor for learning how to read is the attachment of meaning to symbols, of which letters and phonemes are the most crucial building block. In evolutionary term, reading is a relatively novel invention that relies on our finely tuned visual system to decode the meaning of symbols. This decoding process can be considered as a form of “neuronal recycling”: we use parts of the brain evolved for specific visual functioning in order to read. Connecting sound with these symbols, i.e., sublexical reading, is therefore of critical importance in order to decode whole words that compromise human language (Dehaene et al., 2010). As Tønnessen and Uppstad (2015) point out, the knowledge that words consist of a subset of sounds is an essential component of fruitful reading development. Furthermore, systematic phonics instruction seems to be essential in early reading skill acquirement (National Reading Panel, 2000; Ehri et al., 2001; Rose, 2006; Tønnessen and Uppstad, 2015). This includes learning all phonemes connected to each letter in the alphabet before learning to manipulate words, as this yields specific and advantageous cortical changes at an early stage in development (Dehaene et al., 2010; Dehaene, 2011). Hulme et al. (2012) found that letter-sound knowledge and phoneme awareness can both causally influence the development of early literacy skills. From a neurological perspective, the amount of systematic phonics teaching (i.e., learning letters one by one) in school seems to be the best predictor of reading comprehension in young children (Ehri et al., 2001). Similar results have been seen in adult readers, whereof grapheme- phoneme training yielded better results and more left lateralized specialization when learning to read texts with novel symbols (Yoncheva et al., 2015). Environmental factors seems not to be sufficient to explain the total variability in letter knowledge (Torppa et al., 2006), however, research concerning the cognitive basis of letter knowledge remain limited and largely unexplored (de Jong and Olson, 2004). Gender Differences in Reading Matthews et al. (2009) highlighted the growing gender gap in academic achievement. Girls tend to progress more efficiently academically and to attain higher levels of education than boys (Birch and Gary, 1998; Silverman, 2003). Results from PISA, PIRLS, and the Norwegian National Tests confirm this view by indicating a gender gap in reading performance (Mullis et al., 2012; Stoet and Geary, 2013; OECD, 2014). According to recent PISA results, there is a significant difference in reading of 15-year-old Norwegian boys and girls (OECD, 2014). Although both genders are above the OECD average in reading, Norwegian girls outperform boys with an average score of 528 vs. 481 respectively. The average difference between boys and girls across the OECD is 38. These, empirical observations raise questions as to how these gender differences arise. Maturation effects might explain some of the differences, for example, research has shown faster vocabulary growth in girls at an early age (Huttenlocher et al., 1991; McCune, 1992). Reznick and Goldfield (1989) found that vocabulary growth for children under 2 years old was faster for girls, and Hohm et al. (2007) found a significant difference between the genders at the age of 10 months in language in favor of the girls. Giedd et al. suggest that sex hormones might be an underlying factor (Giedd et al., 2012). The elevated levels of testosterone in the male fetal brain seem to slow the development of the left hemisphere, which could explain why boys are more likely to have reading difficulties (Geschwind and Galaburda, 1987; Tønnessen and Uppstad, 2015). Furthermore, boys seem to develop executive functions, such as processing speed and visuospatial working memory, at a slower rate than girls (Dekker et al., 2013; Stoet and Geary, 2013). Girls also seem to have deeper engagement and more motivation for reading (McKenna et al., 1995; Lynn and Mikk, 2009), as well as being more socially oriented; factors that could greatly affects language development from an early age (Halpern, 2012). Additionally, mothers tend to communicate verbally more frequently with girls than with boys (Halverson and Waldrop, 1970; Cherry and Lewis, 1978). Based on the current evidence, development of letter-sound knowledge seems to have a multicausal explanation (Stoet and Geary, 2013). Regardless, the education system is the most prevalent environmental factor in the development of reading skills and, therefore, has a responsibility to create fruitful learning environments for both genders. Letter-sound knowledge has been found to be crucial for later reading development (National Reading Panel, 2000; Piasta and Wagner, 2010; Hulme et al., 2012) and also shown to be the best predictor of children's future spelling and reading abilities (Scarborough, 1998; Hammill, 2004; Schatschneider et al., 2004). Research indicates a significant difference that favors girls, in letter-sound knowledge among Norwegian school-aged children (Sigmundsson et al., 2017a). However, research on gender differences in letter-sound knowledge is still limited (Dodd and Carr, 2003) and little is known on how these gender differences emerge in childhood. No studies have examined whether the gender gap in letter-sound knowledge changes longitudinally in a Norwegian speaking sample, this could be of importance since this language is considered to have a transparent orthography. Broadening our understanding about this critical reading skill is important as it could influence and inform future teaching approaches. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine how letter-sound knowledge develops in girls and boys during their first year of primary school. Based on the existing literature, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the gender-gap in letter-sound knowledge would tend to exist in the first year of school. Study Design and Participants A total of 485 children between five and six-years old were included in this study. The participants completed an assessment of letter-sound knowledge (Bokstavtesten) (Ofteland, 1992) at the beginning, middle, and end of the first year of primary school. The children (N = 485, 224 girls and 261 boys), were selected from 28 schools in Norway (convenience sampling as the schools were invited to participate). The mean chronological age of the entire group at the start of the project was 6.1 years (SD = 0.3); the overall range was 5.67–6.67 years. The schools varied in size and location (from urban to suburban), included pupils with different sociocultural- and economic backgrounds, and was representative of Norwegian 1st grade students. Exclusions criteria included; uncorrected visual deficit; behavioral, neurological or orthopedic condition; a history of learning difficulties or any other medical condition that could potentially interfere with the ability to carry out the tests. Letter-sound knowledge was assessed using the Norwegian version of the Letter-sound knowledge test (LSK test; “Bokstavtesten”; Ofteland, 1992). In the LSK test, participants are presented with the alphabet of printed letters, and verbally indicate how many of the uppercase- (e.g., “A, B, C,…”) and lowercase letter (e.g., “a, b, c,…”) they know the name and sound of. There are 29 letters in the Norwegian alphabet, which is based upon the Latin alphabet and is identical to the Danish alphabet. The LSK test takes about 10 min to complete and consists of two sheets, one for the uppercase letters and one for lowercase letters. The LSK test has proved to be a reliable and valid test of isolated word decoding proficiency (Ofteland, 1992). We estimated the convergent construct validity of the test battery by comparing the LSK ranking of the test scores of 20 Norwegian children (mean age 6.05 years, SD 0.28) with the rankings provided by the teacher of the same children. There was a moderate association between the rankings based on the teacher's evaluation and the rankings of test scores, with a Spearman rho correlation of 0.683. The relative test-retest reliability of the test-battery was estimated using ICC (2, 1) (Shrout and Fleiss, 1979). The results were indicative of good reliability for individual test item scores, with ICCs between test and retest scores ranging from 0.985 to 0.992 (mean age 6.05 years, SD 0.28) in Norwegian children (N = 20) (Sigmundsson et al., 2017a). Full ethical review and approval were not required for this study in accordance with the national and institutional guidelines, however, the study was carried out in compliance with the recommendations of the Norwegian Centre for Research Data and the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed documents were obtained from the parents of all participants prior to the study initiation. Identification numbers were used to maintain confidentiality. The assessment took place in a quiet room during school hours and was conducted according to the LSK manual. All of the participants were tested individually by teachers trained in the test protocols. Each test item was thoroughly explained before the participants started. Data Reduction and Analysis Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Version 19 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The occurrence of missing data was treated by listwise deletion. For the total score analysis and the analyses of lowercase letter-name and lowercase letter-sound the N was 411 (girls n = 186; boys n = 225). For the analyses of uppercase letter-name letter large name and uppercase letter-sound the N was 485 (girls n = 224; boys n = 261). Differences in letter-sound knowledge between girls and boys over time were assessed using the General Linear Model—repeated measure for the total scores of the four different measurements of letter-sound knowledge. Gender was used as the between-subjects factor, and time of testing was used as the repeated- measures factor. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Because the assumption of sphericity was violated in the data sets analyzed by repeated measures, we applied the Greenhouse–Geisser correction. Descriptive statistics of the scores for uppercase letters (name and sound), and lowercase letters (name and sound) for both genders over time are shown in Table 1. Higher scores indicate better performance (more knowledge of the letters and their sound). Table 1. Descriptive statistics of score for amount of uppercase letters name, uppercase letters sound, lowercase letters name, and lowercase letters sound for 5–6 year old girls and boys. General linear model (repeated measures, mixed model analysis of variance) revealed significant main effect of gender [F(1, 409) = 13,636, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.032]. Thus, there was an overall difference in letter-sound knowledge between girls and boys. A significant main effect was obtained for time [F(1.553, 635) = 1,030, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.716], both groups scores significantly higher on the letter-sound knowledge measures after a period of 9 months. However, there was no significant time x gender interaction [F(1.553, 635) = 0.456, ns; partial η2 = 0.001]. These results demonstrate that, over time, the development in letter-sound knowledge were similar for both girls and boys, but that the relative difference in performance between genders tended to persist (Figure 1). Figure 1. Letter–sound knowledge for girls and boys the first year at school. Mean score and standard error bars are presented. (A) Uppercase letter- name over time. (B) Uppercase letter-sound over time. (C) Lowercase letter- name over time. (D) Lowercase letter-sound over time. Time 1, September; Time 2, January/February. Time 3, May/June. The detailed results of the analysis of variance are reported below for each test item. A significant main effect was obtained for time [F(1.535, 741) = 776, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.617]. A significant main effect also was obtained for gender [F(1, 483) = 20.4, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.041]. There was no significant interaction effect [F(1.535, 741) = 0.717, p = ns; partial η2 = 0.001]. A significant main effect was obtained for time [F(1.577, 761) = 1,007, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.676]. A significant main effect also was obtained for gender [F(1, 483) = 14.4, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.029]. There was no significant interaction effect [F(1.577, 761) = 0.738, p = ns; partial η2 = 0.002]. A significant main effect was obtained for time [F(1.736, 709) = 779, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.656]. A significant main effect also was obtained for gender [F(1, 409) = 15.1, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.036]. There was no significant interaction effect [F(1, 736, 709) = 0.442, p = ns; partial η2 = 0.001]. A significant main effect was obtained for time [F(1, 670, 683) = 798, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.661]. A significant main effect also was obtained for gender [F(1, 409) = 13.1, p < 0.001; partial η2 = 0.031]. There was no significant interaction effect [F(1, 670, 683) = 0.351, p = ns; partial η2 = 0.001]. The aim of this study was to examine how letter-sound knowledge develops in girls and boys during their first year of primary school. Four letter-sound knowledge factors were tracked over a 9-month period from September to June. The main effect of gender revealed an overall difference in letter-sound knowledge between girls and boys, favoring girls on all the four factors. The boys performed worse than the girls in all four factors at all three-time points (Table 1 and Figure 1). These findings are in accordance with studies that report lower reading competency in 10-year-old (Mullis et al., 2003, 2007) and 14-year-old (OECD, 2014) boys. A significant mean effect of time indicated that both groups scored significantly higher on the letter-sound knowledge test after a period of 9 months. There was no significant interaction effect, indicating that the relative differences in letter-sound knowledge outcomes between the genders were maintained over time (see Figure 1). The relative difference between uppercase letter- name/sounds and lowercase letter name/sounds followed the same pattern. Firstly, the findings from our study indicate a gender gap in letter-sound knowledge that is already present when they first attend primary school, and secondly, that these differences tend to persist throughout their first year. Research has demonstrated the impact of letter-sound knowledge on future reading skills (Hulme et al., 2012; Torppa et al., 2018). The gender gap, already observed in 5-to-6-year-old children, accumulates and may be one of several factors that explain the gender differences found in PISA 2015. PISA 2015, which presents the performance of 15 year-old student's, reported that about 20% of students in OECD countries do not achieve baseline levels of reading proficiency. This percentage has remained stable since 2009. That study also revealed that girls outperform boys in all countries and economies (OECD, 2016). “In 2012, 14% of boys and 9% of girls did not attain the PISA baseline level of proficiency in any of the three subjects measured in PISA – reading, mathematics and science” (p. 13) (OECD, 2015). Since dropping out is a dynamic developmental process with various influencing factors such as social equalities, early action should be taken at multiple levels. However, it is possible to argue that gender differences contribute to this complex phenomenon. Early childhood literacy is fundamental for almost all school subjects and the substantial amount of boys who fail to attain proficient reading skills represents a major challenge for education systems (Stanovich, 1986; Entwisle et al., 2007). Furthermore, it is easy to imagine how poor performance in these basic skills leads to decreased motivation for further practicing and learning, thereby perpetuating the vicious cycle of demotivation. The education system might also be exacerbating these gender differences if adapted teaching methods are not initiated. Specific training and systematic practice (Kleim and Jones, 2008; Sigmundsson et al., 2013, 2017b) are required to effectively learn the letters of an alphabet and their phonetic usage. Therefore, one could reason that boys have less training/experience than girls at this age. In this respect, it seems wise to advocate for systematic and thorough learning of letters and their sounds as early as possible, at least by the first year of school. To close the gender gap, we need to firstly find out the level of each child in letter-sound knowledge and secondly provide each child with the right challenges for their intervention/training (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2008). Thirdly we need to have good follow-up of children in relation to new challenges/training (Kleim and Jones, 2008). This is in line with Dehaene (2011) who argues that: “Grapheme-phoneme correspondences must be systematically taught, one by one: the amount of such teaching is the best predictor of reading performance…” (p. 26). Hulme et al. (2012) also supports the importance of letter-sound knowledge and phonemic skills and suggest that these factors should be directly taught to all children in the early stages of their academic careers. 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Neuroreport 13, 321–325. doi: 10.1097/00001756-200203040-00015 Dehaene, S., Pegado, F., Brag, L. W., Ventura, P., Nunes Filho, G., Jobert, A., et al. (2010). How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science 330, 1359–1364. doi: 10.1126/science.1194140 Dekker, S., Krabbendam, L., Aben, A., de Groot, R., and Jolles, J. (2013). Coding task performance in early adolescence: a large-scale controlled study into boy-girl differences. Front. Psychol. 4:550. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00550 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., and Willows, D. M. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the national Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 71, 393–447. doi: 10.3102/00346543071003393 Elbaum, B., Vaughn, S., Hughes, M. T., and Moody, S. W. (2000). How effective are one-to-one tutoring programs in reading for elementary students at risk for reading failure? A metaanalysis of the intervention research. J. Educ. 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PLoS ONE 8:e57988. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057988 Torppa, M., Eklund, K., Sulkunen, S., Niemi, P., and Ahonen, T. (2018). Why do boys and girls perform differently on PISA Reading in Finland? The effects of reading fluency, achievement behaviour, leisure reading and homework activity. J. Res. Read. 41, 122–139. doi: 10.1111/1467-9817.12103 Torppa, M., Poikkeus, A. M., Laakso, M. L., Eklund, K., and Lyytinen, H. (2006). Prediciting delayed letter knowledge development and its relation to grade 1 reading achievement among children with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Dev. Psychol. 42, 1128–1142. doi: 10.1037/0012-16184.108.40.2068 Keywords: children, gender differences, uppercase, lowercase, letter-name, letter-sound, longitudinal Citation: Sigmundsson H, Dybfest Eriksen A, Ofteland GS and Haga M (2018) Gender Gaps in Letter-Sound Knowledge Persist Across the First School Year. Front. Psychol. 9:301. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00301 Received: 24 November 2017; Accepted: 22 February 2018; Published: 08 March 2018. Edited by:Ann Dowker, University of Oxford, United Kingdom Reviewed by:Dexin Shi, University of South Carolina, United States Julia Mary Carroll, Coventry University, United Kingdom Julia Ai Cheng Lee, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia Marina Leite Puglisi, Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil Copyright © 2018 Sigmundsson, Dybfest Eriksen, Ofteland and Haga. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. *Correspondence: Hermundur Sigmundsson, firstname.lastname@example.org

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Domestic violence includes physical and sexual attacks and threats. These violent acts are criminal and the batterer can be prosecuted for committing them. The acts are a means of controlling the victim’s thoughts, feelings and behavior. The violence does not lessen over time. The threats and / or beatings generally happen more often with time, last longer and cause greater physical injuries. Emotional abuse and insulting words are almost always part of the abuse pattern, but are not considered criminal acts. The wounds from these injuries, however, may be more difficult to heal. Domestic violence is not caused by or provoked by the actions or inactions of the victim. Domestic violence is not directly caused by alcohol or drug abuse, depression, lack of money, lack of a job, mental illness or abuse as a child. However, existing problems often create additional stress in a relationship and may increase the risk of violence. Many abusers blame the victim or other things for their violent acts and do not take responsibility for the abusive behavior. There is never an excuse for violence. WHAT IS DOMESTIC VIOLENCE? Domestic Violence or family violence is the abuse of power or control. It is behavior used by one person to control another through force or threats. A batterer makes a choice to strike, hit, kick, punch or threaten the victim. WHAT IS THE LEGAL DEFINITION OF ABUSE? Chapter 209A, the Massachusetts Abuse Prevention Act, defines abuse as : — actual physical abuse, or — an attempt to harm another, or — placing another in fear of serious physical harm, or — causing another to engage in sexual relations by force, threat of force or duress WHAT IS A 209A ORDER? An Abuse Prevention Order, called a “209A Order,” or a “protective order,” or “restraining order,” is a civil court order intended to provide protection from physical or sexual harm caused by force or threat of harm from a family or household member. You can obtain an order against: — a spouse or former spouse — present or former household member — a relative by blood or a present or former relative by marriage — the parent of your minor child — a person with whom you have or had a substantial dating relationship. WHERE CAN I GET A 209A ORDER? A 209A Order can be obtained in any District Court, Superior Court, or Probate and Family Court in Massachusetts. If you live in Plymouth, you can go to the Plymouth District Court at 52 Obery Street, Plymouth, MA #508-747-8400. An emergency 209A Order can be obtained through any police department after court hours, on weekends and holidays. You do not need a lawyer to file for a 209A Order, and there is no charge for filing. HOW CAN I GET AN ORDER IN DISTRICT COURT? Should you decide to go to a District Court for a 209A Order, you may go to the District Court in the area where you live or, if you have fled to another area to avoid abuse, you may go to the District Court in the area where you now live. Go to the Clerk’s Office in the court and ask for a “protective order” or a “209A Order,” You will receive a packet of forms to complete as an application for a protective order. In some courts, there may be a Court Advocate from a local battered women’s service agency to help you with the form. A Victim/Witness Advocate from the District Attorney’s Office is also usually available for assistance and to discuss the option of filing criminal charges against your abuser. Ask someone at the Clerk’s Office to direct you to the District Attorney’s Victim/ Witness Office for help. You do not have to file criminal charges in order to obtain a 209A Order. However, criminal charges can be helpful in holding a batterer responsible for criminal acts committed against you . If there is a criminal violation, the Court can also require a batterer to obtain counseling or other treatment. WHAT QUESTIONS ARE ASKED ON THE FORM? On the application or complaint forms for a 209A order, you need to make a sworn statement (affidavit) describing the facts of any recent or past incidents of abuse. It is important to provide as much information about the abuser as possible. You must also disclose any other existing 209A Orders from any court or any Probate Court action you are involved in, including any divorce or child custody proceedings. WHAT RELIEF CAN I ASK FOR ON THE APPLICATION? You may request the judge to order that the abuser: — stop or refrain from abusing you — have no contact with you or a child in your custody — vacate or move out of the house or apartment where you live. You may also request the judge to order that you receive support and temporary custody of your children, if the abuser has a legal duty to support or shares custody. You may request payment for medical costs incurred due to injuries caused by the abuser and related loss of wages. You may ask that the abuser not contact you at work or at a relative’s home, and that your new address be kept confidential from the abuser for your safety. WHAT ABOUT CHILD CUSTODY AND VISITATION? A 209A Order from a District Court can provide you with temporary support and custody of your minor children. Only the Probate and Family Court , however, can decide child visitation rights. A 209A Order from that court may be more helpful in dealing with abuse protection that also involves divorce, long term financial support, child custody and visitation issues. You may want to speak with a private attorney for Probate Court or call one of the legal services or victim’s services listed on this brochure for an attorney referral list. Pro bono (free) or reduced fee legal services may be available. WHAT HAPPENS NEXT? After you have completed the 209A complaint or application forms, return them to the Clerk’s Office and ask when the judge will hear the applications for protective orders. The Clerk’s Office will tell you the time and courtroom location for your hearing. At your hearing, the judge will ask why you need a protective order and will review your complaint or application forms and affidavit. The judge will be deciding whether it appears there is a substantial likelihood of immediate danger of abuse. He or she will probably ask you some clarifying questions. In some court’s, a “209A Briefing Session ” is held before the hearing and a Court Advocate or a District Attorney’s Victim / Witness Advocate will explain the hearing process and be with you in the courtroom. WHAT WILL THE JUDGE DO AFTER SPEAKING WITH YOU? The judge may grant or deny the 209A Order after speaking with you. If the judge grants the Order, you will receive a Temporary Order for up to ten days. A court date will be scheduled within 10 court days for you to return to court for a Permanent Order, which lasts for a year and can be renewed. Keep your copy of the Order with you at all times. The judge will also order the abuser to surrender all guns and gun permits he or she possesses. The police will deliver (serve) a copy of the Order to your abuser and will keep a copy on file at the police station. It is important to provide the abuser’s home, work, or other likely addresses so that the police can serve the Order as quickly as possible and provide the required notice of the next court date. A violation of certain terms of a 209A Order (orders to vacate the premises, refrain from abuse and have no contact with you) requires that the police arrest your abuser. A violation of a 209A Order, once the abuser has notice of the Order, is a criminal offense. WHAT IS A TEN DAY HEARING? The Ten Day Hearing requires that you return to the court on the date given on the Order. If you do not return to court, the Order will not be in effect after that date. The hearing offers the chance for both parties, you and the abuser, to come before the judge and offer information (evidence) as to why a permanent 209A Order, which lasts for one year, should or should not be granted. Bring any hospital records, photographs or police reports you may have for the judge to review. You may also bring a support person with you. The abuser may be present at the ten day hearing and may oppose the 209A Order . If the abuser is not present and has been served with the Order, the judge can still grant the Order for one year period. WHAT HAPPENS AT THE END OF A YEAR OR THE END OF THE EFFECTIVE DATE? If a 209A Order is issued by the judge for a year, you must return to the court for an extension of the Order at the end of that year or the Order will expire. WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOU WANT TO CHANGE THE TERMS OF THE ORDER? Any changes in the Order before that date must be made with both you and the abuser appearing in the same court where the Order was first given. A request to change or amend the Order can be made at the Clerk’s Office, and a hearing will be arranged before a judge. CAN A MINOR OBTAIN A 209A ORDER? A minor under 18 years old can obtain a 209A Order with some restrictions. Generally, a parent or guardian needs to be present, but the judge can decide to issue a 209A Order without a parent present if the minor appears to be in danger. In some cases, the Department of Social Services may offer assistance in gaining help for a minor. Many high schools and colleges also offer support groups for students in violent relationships. A parent may also obtain a protective order for his or her child. WHAT HAPPENS IF THE ORDER IS VIOLATED? Once a 209A Order is issued, violation of certain terms of the Order is a criminal offense. Violations of orders to refrain from abuse , to have no contact, and to vacate a household, multiple family dwelling or workplace, can be prosecuted criminally under chapter 209A. If the abuser violates the order, call the police immediately. Show the Order to the police and explain how it was violated ( a punch, slap, threat; entering your house or apartment or refusing to vacate; or, any contact with you at home or your workplace, either in person, by telephone or mail). The police must arrest the abuser if they believe or can see that the terms of the Order were violated. If you do not call the police, you may be able to file an application for a criminal complaint on your own at the Clerk’s Office in the District Court. A Victim/Witness Advocate can assist you with that process. If you put yourself in contact with the abuser, he is vulnerable to arrest. Therefore, if you want any terms of the order to no longer apply, you should return to court and ask that the order be modified or vacated. WHAT HAPPENS IF AN ARREST IS MADE? If the abuser is arrested, seek assistance from the Victim/ Witness Advocate in the District Attorney’s Office the next morning after a nighttime arrest, or at any time during the day at the courthouse. A Victim/Witness Advocate will explain what the charges mean and what will happen next. The Advocate will also offer ongoing information, referral for services and cases updates throughout the time the case is in court. WHAT CRIMES CAN BE CHARGED? In addition to the crime of violating a 209A Order, an abuser can be charged with a number of other crimes committed at or near the time of the violation, some of which may include: — Assault (G.L. c. 265, Section 13A), which is an attempt or offer to do bodily injury by force or violence or attempt to batter. — Assault and Battery ( G.L. c. 265, Section 13A), which is a harmful or unpermitted touching of another, no matter how slight, without a legal right to do so. — Assault and Battery by Means of a Dangerous Weapon ( G.L. c. 265, Section 15), which is a battery with a dangerous weapon, such as a baseball bat, a shod foot, a knife or other object either inherently dangerous or used in a way that may cause serious injury or death to another. — Threats (G.L. c. 27, section 4), which are verbal or written threats to do harm which a victim reasonably believes the abuser can commit. — Trespassing ( G.L. c. 266, section 120), which is entering or remaining in a house or on land in violation of a 209A Order. — Malicious Destruction Of Personal Property (G.L. c. 266, section 127), which is the destruction of or injury to personal property, a house or building in a manner that is willful and malicious. — Stalking (G.L. c. 265, section, 43 (a)), which is the willful, malicious and repeated following or harassing of an individual and the making of threats with the intent to place that person in imminent fear of death or serious bodily injury. The penalties are greater for a conviction of a stalking crime committed in violation of a 209A Order. WHAT HAPPENS AFTER AN ARREST? Once a criminal complaint has been issued or an arrest made, the abuser will be charged with the crime or crimes at an arraignment proceeding in the District Court. A bail hearing will be held to determine whether the defendant/abuser will be released from custody, the court must make a reasonable effort to notify you of the release, even if you are not present in court. WHAT HAPPENS AT THE ARRAIGNMENT? It is important to provide information to the Assistant District Attorney before the arraignment and bail hearing regarding the history of the abuse and a description of the most recent abuse, including any pictures or hospital records of injuries. You should also mention the location of any guns or other weapons that you believe the abuser has in his or her possession. The Assistant District Attorney ill bring this information to the attention of the judge, along with your safety concerns and fears at this time. The judge may also consider whether the defendant/ abuser should be jailed until trial; or, if the defendant/ abuser is to be released, what the bail and conditions of bail will be. The Assistant District Attorney represents the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in prosecuting the case , and works with the Victim/Witness Advocate to address your interests and assist you during trial. WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE ARRAIGNMENT? Interviews will be held with you before the trial, to gather information and evidence for prosecution. Every effort will be made to consider your needs and safety in going forward with the case. The safety of your children will also be priority . Prosecution may provide the means to gain batterer’s intervention services for the defendant/abuser as part of a sentence recommendation. Very few batterer’s seek or stay with these services on their own, without court orders and probation supervision. An Assistant District will speak with you about different sentences that can be imposed if the defendant /abuser is found guilty by a judge or jury or pleads guilty. The sentence asked for may include drug or alcohol counseling, required attendance at a batterer’s intervention program, supervised probation and /or jail time. WHAT IS A CERTIFIED BATTERER’S INTERVENTION PROGRAM? Certified batterer’s intervention programs provide services in very strict group settings to try to help batterer’s learn to accept responsibility for their violence, as well as understand and change their controlling and abusive behavior. The groups are led by certified batterer’s intervention counselor’s trained in dealing with domestic violence offenders. The programs work with the courts and victim services to help make sure that partners of batterer’s remain safe. The programs may involve weekly sessions of 1 to 2 hours in length. The batterer must participate in the program for a minimum of 80 hours. Group leaders feel your safety is a priority concern and will keep ongoing contact with you. WILL THE INTERVENTION STOP THE ABUSE? There are no guarantees that the violence will stop because the abuser attends a certified batterer’s intervention program. Many abusers drop out of programs or do not comply with the requirements, or only reduce their abuse temporarily. If the judge requires attendance as part of a sentence, dropping out may mean the defendant/ abuser may have to serve jail time. The abuser must want to change the abusive behavior and work hard at making those changes. Promises to change, flowers and apologies are not enough. You deserve to be safe and free from abuse. YOUR RISK OF HARM Statistically, the most dangerous time for victim is when leaving the batterer. The abuser may feel he is losing control and become dangerously angry. Take steps to protect yourself from abuse or punishment from your abuser. Please trust your instincts. If you are afraid that something may happen, take your feelings seriously and protect yourself. You know your situation better than anyone else. SUGGESTIONS FOR PROTECTION Develop a safety plan that includes an escape plan for you and your children should a violent incident occur. During an incident, try to move away from an area or room where access to weapons might increase your risk, such as the kitchen, or where you can be trapped or easily injured. Call the police or leave the house as soon as possible after an abusive incident. The police will respond and stay with you until you are safe or in a safe place. The police will also help you seek medical treatment, if needed. If you feel you may be in danger, dial the police number and hang up before it rings, so that the redial button will automatically call the police if you need them quickly. Be alert when leaving the courthouse. If you have any reason to believe your abuser may be waiting for you, please ask someone in the District Attorney’s Office or Court Advocate to help. A police officer or a court officer may be able to escort you to your car. Guns or weapons will be ordered turned over to the police by the judge, along with any license to carry the guns and firearms identification card. Inform the police of any guns/weapons the abuser may keep in the house. Consider changing the locks on your home. The judge can order the abuser to turn over the keys to your home and/or your car. Keep an extra set of keys in a safe place. Inform your neighbors if a 209A order is in place. Encourage them to call the police if they see or suspect that something is wrong. Make copies of important papers and keep them in a safe place. Make a list of the things you need to take with you (birth/medical records, marriage license, check/bank books, credit cards, medications). Keep emergency money and extra clothes for yourself and your children in a safe place or with someone you trust. Include a few toys and favorite things for the children. Keep the victim’s service agency number handy for emergency shelter and for support groups.; You do not have to leave the abuser or have a 209A Order to attend the support groups. Information and support in making decisions are important. Get Medical attention as you may be injured much more seriously than you realize. Go to a hospital emergency room or your private doctor as soon as possible for treatment. Ask for a copy of the treatment record. Have pictures taken of your injuries and bruises at the hospital, police department, shelter or District Attorney’s Office.

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Fountain Gate (Jerusalem) and surrounding region Maps Created using Biblemapper 3.0Additional data from OpenBible.info Then I went on to the spring gate and to the king's pool: but there was no place for the animal that was under me to pass. Nehemiah 3:15 The spring gate repaired Shallun the son of Colhozeh, the ruler of the district of Mizpah; he built it, and covered it, and set up its doors, its bolts, and its bars, and the wall of the pool of Shelah by the king's garden, even to the stairs that go down from the city of David. Nehemiah 12:37 By the spring gate, and straight before them, they went up by the stairs of the city of David, at the ascent of the wall, above the house of David, even to the water gate eastward. I. THE NAME 1. In Cuneiform 2. In Hebrew 3. In Greek and Latin 4. The Meaning of Jerusalem 5. Other Names II. GEOLOGY, CLIMATE AND SPRINGS 2. Climate and Rainfall 3. The Natural Springs III. THE NATURAL SITE 1. The Mountains Around 2. The Valleys 3. The Hills IV. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF JERUSALEM 1. Description of Josephus 2. Summary of the Names of the Five Hills 3. The Akra 4. The Lower City 5. City of David and Zion V. EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES 2. Wilson, and the Palestine Exploration Fund (1865) 3. Warren and Conder 7. Bliss and Dickie 8. Jerusalem Archaeological Societies VI. THE CITY'S WALLS AND GATES 1. The Existing Walls 2. Wilson's Theory 3. The Existing Gates 4. Buried Remains of Earlier Walls 5. The Great Dam of the Tyropoeon 6. Ruins of Ancient Gates 7. Josephus' Description of the Walls 8. First Wall 9. Second Wall 10. Third Wall 11. Date of Second Wall 12. Nehemiah's Account of the Walls 13. Valley Gate 14. Dung Gate 15. Fountain Gate 16. Water Gate 17. Horse Gate 18. Sheep Gate 19. Fish Gate 20. The "Old Gate" 21. Gate of Ephraim 22. Tower of the Furnaces 23. The Gate of Benjamin 24. Upper Gate of the Temple 25. The Earlier Walls VII. ANTIQUARIAN REMAINS CONNECTED WITH THE WATER SUPPLY 1. Gihon: The Natural Spring 2. The Aqueduct of the Canaanites 3. Warren's Shaft 4. Hezekiah's "Siloam" Aqueduct 5. Other Aqueducts at Gihon 6. Bir Eyyub 7. Varieties of Cisterns 8. Birket Israel 9. Pool of Bethesda 10. The Twin Pools 11. Birket Chammam el BaTrak 12. Birket Mamilla 13. Birket es Sultan 14. "Solomon's Pools" 15. Low-Level Aqueduct 16. High-Level Aqueduct 17. Dates of Construction of these Aqueducts VIII. TOMBS, ANTIQUARIAN REMAINS AND ECCLESIASTICAL SITES 1. "The Tombs of the Kings" 2. "Herod's Tomb" 3. "Absalom's Tomb" 4. The "Egyptian Tomb" 5. The "Garden Tomb" 6. Tomb of "Simon the Just" 7. Other Antiquities 8. Ecclesiastical Sites 1. Tell el-Amarna Correspondence 2. Joshua's Conquest 3. Site of the Jebusite City 5. Expansion of the City 7. Solomon's City Wall 8. The Disruption (933 B.C.) 9. Invasion of Shishak (928 B.C.) 10. City Plundered by Arabs 11. Hazael King of Syria Bought Off (797 B.C.) 12. Capture of the City by Jehoash of Israel 13. Uzziah's Refortification (779-740 B.C.) 14. Ahaz Allies with Assyria (736-728 B.C.) 15. Hezekiah's Great Works 16. Hezekiah's Religious Reforms 17. Manasseh's Alliance with Assyria 18. His Repair of the Walls 19. Josiah and Religious Reforms (640-609 B.C.) 20. Jeremiah Prophesies the Approaching Doom 21. Nebuchadnezzar Twice Takes Jerusalem (586 B.C.) 22. Cyrus and the First Return (538 B.C.) 23. Nehemiah Rebuilds the Walls 24. Bagohi Governor 25. Alexander the Great 26. The Ptolemaic Rule 27. Antiochus the Great 28. Hellenization of the City under Antiochus Epiphanes 29. Capture of the City (170 B.C.) 30. Capture of 168 B.C. 31. Attempted Suppression of Judaism 32. The Maccabean Rebellion 33. The Dedication of the Temple (165 B.C.) 34. Defeat of Judas and Capture of the City 35. Judas' Death (161 B.C.) 36. Jonathan's Restorations 37. Surrender of City to Antiochus Sidetes (134 B.C.) 38. Hasmonean Buildings 39. Rome's Intervention 40. Pompey Takes the City by Storm 41. Julius Caesar Appoints Antipater Procurator (47 B.C.) 42. Parthian Invasion 43. Reign of Herod the Great (37-4 B.C.) 44. Herod's Great Buildings 45. Herod Archelaus (4 B.C.-6 A.D.) 46. Pontius Pilate 47. King Agrippa 48. Rising against Florus and Defeat of Gallus 49. The City Besieged by Titus (70 A.D.) 50. Party Divisions within the Besieged Walls 51. Capture and Utter Destruction of the City 52. Rebellion of Bar-Cochba 53. Hadrian Builds Ella Capitolina 54. Constantine Builds the Church of the Anastasis 55. The Empress Eudoxia Rebuilds the Walls 57. Chosroes II Captures the City 58. Heracleus Enters It in Triumph 59. Clemency of Omar 60. The Seljuk Turks and Their Cruelties 61. Crusaders Capture the City in 1099 62. The Kharizimians 63. Ottoman Turks Obtain the City (1517 A.D.) X. MODERN JERUSALEM 1. Jews and "Zionism" 2. Christian Buildings and Institutions LITERATURE I. The Name. 1. In Cuneiform: The earliest mention of Jerusalem is in the Tell el-Amarna Letters (1450 B.C.), where it appears in the form Uru-sa-lim; allied with this we have Ur-sa-li-immu on the Assyrian monuments of the 8th century B.C. The most ancient Biblical form is yerushalem, shortened in Psalm 76:2 (compare Genesis 14:18) to Salem, but in Massoretic Text we have it vocalized yerushalaim. In Jeremiah 26:18 Esther 2:6 2 Chronicles 25:1; 2 Chronicles 32:9 we have yerushalayim, a form which occurs on the Jewish coins of the Revolt and also in Jewish literature; it is commonly used by modern Talmudic Jews. 2. In Hebrew: The form Hebrew with the ending -aim or -ayim is interpreted by some as being a dual, referring to the upper and lower Jerusalem, but such forms occur in other names as implying special solemnity; such a pronunciation is both local and late. 3. In Greek and Latin: In the Septuagint we get (Ierousalem), constantly reflecting the earliest and the common Hebrew pronunciation, the initial letter being probably unaspirated; soon, however, we meet with (Hierousalem)-with the aspirate-the common form in Josephus, and (Hierosoluma) in Maccabees (Books II through IV), and in Strabo. This last form has been carried over into the Latin writers, Cicero, Pliny, Tacitus and Suetonius. It was replaced in official use for some centuries by Hadrian's Aelia Capitolina, which occurs as late as Jerome, but it again comes into common use in the documents of the Crusades, while Solyma occurs at various periods as a poetic abbreviation. In the New Testament we have (Hierousalem), particularly in the writings of Luke and Paul, and (ta Hierosoluma) elsewhere. The King James Version of 1611 has Ierosalem in the Old Testament and Hierusalem in the New Testament. The form Jerusalem first occurs in French writings of the 12th century. 4. The Meaning of Jerusalem: With regard to the meaning of the original name there is no concurrence of opinion. The oldest known form, Uru-sa-lim, has been considered by many to mean either the "City of Peace" or the "City of (the god) Salem," but other interpreters, considering the name as of Hebrew origin, interpret it as the "possession of peace" or "foundation of peace." It is one of the ironies of history that a city which in all its long history has seen so little peace and for whose possession such rivers of blood have been shed should have such a possible meaning for its name. 5. Other Names: Other names for the city occur. For the name Jebus see JESUS. In Isaiah 29:1, occurs the name 'ari'el probably "the hearth of God," and in 1:26 the "city of righteousness." In Psalm 72:16 Jeremiah 32:24; Ezekiel 7:23, we have the term ha`ir, "the city" in contrast to "the land." A whole group of names is connected with the idea of the sanctity of the site; `ir ha-qodhesh, the "holy city" occurs in Isaiah 48:2; Isaiah 52:1 Nehemiah 11:1, and yerushalayim ha-qedhoshah, "Jerusalem the holy" is inscribed on Simon's coins. In Matthew 4:5; Matthew 27:53 we have he hagia polis, "the holy city," and in Philo, Hieropolis, with the same meaning. In Arabic the common name is Beit el Maqdis, "the holy house," or el Muqaddas, "the holy," or the common name, used by the Moslems everywhere today, el Quds, a shortened form of el Quds esh Sheref, "the noble sanctuary." Non-Moslems usually use the Arabic form Yerusalem. II. Geology, Climate, and Springs. The geology of the site and environs of Jerusalem is comparatively simple, when studied in connection with that of the land of Palestine as a whole (see GEOLOGY OF PALESTINE). The outstanding feature is that the rocks consist entirely of various forms of limestone, with strata containing flints; there are no primary rocks, no sandstone (such as comes to the surface on the East of the Jordan) and no volcanic rocks. The lime stone formations are in regular strata dipping toward the Southeast, with an angle of about 10 degrees. On the high hills overlooking Jerusalem on the East, Southeast and Southwest there still remain strata of considerable thickness of those chalky limestones of the post-Tertiary period which crown so many hilltops of Palestine, and once covered the whole land. On the "Mount of Olives," for example, occurs a layer of conglomerate limestone known as Nari, or "firestone," and another thicker deposit, known as Ka`kuli, of which two distinct strata can be distinguished. In these layers, especially the latter, occur pockets containing marl or haur, and in both there are bands of flint. Over the actual city's site all this has been denuded long ages ago. Here we have three layers of limestone of varying density very clearly distinguished by all the native builders and masons: (1) Mizzeh helu, literally, "sweet mizzeh," a hard, reddish-grey layer capable of polish, and reaching in places to a depth of 70 ft. or more. The "holy rock" in the temple-area belongs to this layer, and much of the ancient building stone was of this nature. (2) Below this is the Melekeh or "royal" layer, which, though not very thick-35 ft. or so-has been of great importance in the history of the city. This rock is peculiar in that when first exposed to the air it is often so soft that it can be cut with a knife, but under the influence of the atmosphere it hardens to make a stone of considerable durability, useful for ordinary buildings. The great importance of this layer, however, lies in the fact that in it have been excavated the hundreds of caverns, cisterns, tombs and aqueducts which honeycomb the city's site. (3) Under the Melekeh is a Cenomanian limestone of great durability, known as Mizzeh Yehudeh, or "Jewish mizzeh." It is a highly valued building stone, though hard to work. Geologically it is distinguished from Mizzeh helu by its containing ammonites. Characteristically, it is a yellowish-grey stone, sometimes slightly reddish. A variety of a distinctly reddish appearance, known as Mizzeh ahmar, or "red mizzeh," makes a very ornamental stone for columns, tombstones, etc.; it takes a high polish and is sometimes locally known as "marble." This deep layer, which underlies the whole city, comes to the surface in the Kidron valley, and its impermeability is probably the explanation of the appearance there of the one true spring, the "Virgin's Fount." The water over the site and environs of Jerusalem percolates with ease the upper layer, but is conducted to the surface by this hard layer; the comparatively superficial source of the water of this spring accounts for the poorness of its quality. 2. Climate and Rainfall: The broad features of the climate of Jerusalem have probably remained the same throughout history, although there is plenty of evidence that there have been cycles of greater and lesser abundance of rain. The almost countless cisterns belonging to all ages upon the site and the long and complicated conduits for bringing water from a distance, testify that over the greater part of history the rainfall must have been, as at present, only seasonal. As a whole, the climate of Jerusalem may be considered healthy. The common diseases should be largely preventable-under an enlightened government; even the malaria which is so prevalent is to a large extent an importation from the low-lying country, and could be stopped at once, were efficient means taken for destroying the carriers of infection, the abundant Anopheles mosquitoes. On account of its altitude and its exposed position, almost upon the watershed, wind, rain and cold are all more excessive than in the maritime plains or the Jordan valley. Although the winter's cold is severely felt, on account of its coinciding with the days of heaviest rainfall (compare Ezra 10:9), and also because of the dwellings and clothes of the inhabitants being suited for enduring heat more than cold, the actual lowest cold recorded is only 25 degrees F., and frost occurs only on perhaps a dozen nights in an average year. During the rainless summer months the mean temperature rises steadily until August, when it reaches 73, 1 degrees F., but the days of greatest heat, with temperature over 100 degrees F. in the shade at times, occur commonly in September. In midsummer the cool northwest breezes, which generally blow during the afternoons and early night, do much to make life healthy. The most unpleasant days occur in May and from the middle of September until the end of October, when the dry southeast winds-the sirocco-blow hot and stifling from over the deserts, carrying with them at times fine dust sufficient in quantity to produce a marked haze in the atmosphere. At such times all vegetation droops, and most human beings, especially residents not brought up under such conditions, suffer more or less from depression and physical discomfort; malarial, "sandfly," and other fevers are apt to be peculiarly prevalent. "At that time shall it be said.... to Jerusalem, A hot wind from the bare heights in the wilderness toward the daughter of my people, not to winnow, nor to cleanse" (Jeremiah 4:11). During the late summer-except at spells of sirocco-heavy "dews" occur at night, and at the end of September or beginning of October the "former" rains fall-not uncommonly in tropical downpours accompanied by thunder. After this there is frequently a dry spell of several weeks, and then the winter's rain falls in December, January and February. In some seasons an abundant rainfall in March gives peculiar satisfaction to the inhabitants by filling up the cisterns late in the season and by producing an abundant harvest. The average rainfall is about 26 inches, the maximum recorded in the city being 42, 95 inches in the season 1877-78, and the minimum being 12, 5 inches in 1869-70. An abundant rainfall is not only important for storage, for replenishment of the springs and for the crops, but as the city's sewage largely accumulates in the very primitive drains all through the dry season, it requires a considerable force of water to remove it. Snow falls heavily in some seasons, causing considerable destruction to the badly built roofs and to the trees; in the winter of 1910-11 a fall of 9 inches occurred. 3. The Natural Springs: There is only one actual spring in the Jerusalem area, and even to this some authorities would deny the name of true spring on account of the comparatively shallow source of its origin; this is the intermittent spring known today as `Ain Umm edition deraj (literally, "spring of the mother of the steps"), called by the native Christians `Ain Sitti Miriam (the "spring of the Lady Mary"), and by Europeans commonly called "The Virgin's Fount." All the archaeological evidence points to this as the original source of attraction of earliest occupants of the site; in the Old Testament this spring is known as GIHON (which see). The water arises in the actual bottom, though apparent west side, of the Kidron valley some 300 yards due South of the south wall of the Charam. The approach to the spring is down two flights of steps, an upper of 16 leading to a small level platform, covered by a modern arch, and a lower, narrower flight of 14 steps, which ends at the mouth of a small cave. The water has its actual source in a long cleft (perhaps 16 ft. long) running East and West in the rocky bottom of the Kidron valley, now many feet below the present surface. The western or higher end of the cleft is at the very entrance of the cave, but most of the water gushes forth from the lower and wider part which lies underneath the steps. When the water is scanty, the women of Siloam creep down into the cavity under the steps and fill their water-skins there; at such times no water at all finds its way into the cave. At the far end of the cave is the opening of that system of ancient tunnel-aqueducts which is described in VI, below. This spring is "intermittent," the water rising rapidly and gushing forth with considerable force, several times in the 24 hours after the rainy season, and only once or twice in the dry. This "intermittent" condition of springs is not uncommon in Palestine, and is explained by the accumulation of the underground water in certain cavities or cracks in the rock, which together make up a reservoir which empties itself by siphon action. Where the accumulated water reaches the bend of the siphon, the overflow commences and continues to run until the reservoir is emptied. Such a phenomenon is naturally attributed to supernatural agency by the ignorant-in this case, among the modern fellahin, to a dragon-and natives, specially Jews, visit the source, even today, at times of its overflow, for healing. Whether this intermittent condition of the fountain is very ancient it is impossible to say, but, as Jerome (Comm. in Esa, 86) speaks of it, it was probably present in New Testament times, and if so we have a strong argument for finding here the "Pool of Bethesda." In ancient times all the water flowed down the open, rocky valley, but at an early period a wall was constructed to bank up the water and convert the source into a pool. Without such an arrangement no water could find its way into the cave and the tunnels. The tunnels, described below (VI), were constructed for the purpose (1) of reaching the water supply from within the city walls, and (2) of preventing the enemies of the Jews from getting at the water (2 Chronicles 32:4). The water of this source, though used for all purposes by the people of Siloam, is brackish to the taste, and contains a considerable percentage of sewage; it is quite unfit for drinking. This condition is doubtless due to the wide distribution of sewage, both intentionally (for irrigation of the gardens) and unintentionally (through leaking sewers, etc.), over the soil overlying the rocks from which the water flows. In earlier times the water was certainly purer, and it is probable, too, that the fountain was more copious, as now hundreds of cisterns imprison the waters which once found their way through the soil to the deep sources of the spring. The waters of the Virgin's Fount find their way through the Siloam tunnel and out at `Ain Silwan (the "spring" of Siloam), into the Pool of Siloam, and from this source descend into the Kidron valley to water the numerous vegetable gardens belonging to the village of Siloam (see SILOAM). The second source of water in Jerusalem is the deep well known as Bir Eyyub, "Job's well," which is situated a little below the point where the Kidron valley and Hinnom meet. In all probability it derives its modern name from a legend in the Koran (Sura 38 5, 40-41) which narrates that God commanded Job to stamp with his foot, whereupon a spring miraculously burst up. The well, which had been quite lost sight of, was rediscovered by the Crusaders in 1184 A.D., and was by them cleaned out. It is 125 ft. deep. The supply of water in this well is practically inexhaustible, although the quality is no better than that of the "Virgin's Fount"; after several days of heavy rain the water overflows underground and bursts out a few yards lower down the valley as a little stream. It continues to run for a few days after a heavy fall of rain is over, and this "flowing Kidron" is a great source of attraction to the native residents of Jerusalem, who pour forth from the city to enjoy the rare sight of running water. Somewhere in the neighborhood of Bir Eyyub must have lain `En-Rogel, but if that were once an actual spring, its source is now buried under the great mass of rubbish accumulated here (see EN-ROGEL). Nearly 600 yards South of Bir Eyyub is a small gravelly basin where, when the Bir Eyyub overflows, a small spring called `Ain el Lozeh (the "spring of the almond") bursts forth. It is not a true spring, but is due to some of the water of Job's well which finds its way along an ancient rock-cut aqueduct on the west side of the Wady en Nar, bursting up here. The only other possible site of a spring in the Jerusalem area is the Chammam esh Shefa, "the bath of healing." This is an underground rock-basin in the Tyropeon valley, within the city walls, in which water collects by percolation through the debris of the city. Though once a reservoir with probably rock-cut channels conducting water to it, it is now a deep well with arches erected over it at various periods, as the rubbish of the city gradually accumulated through the centuries. There is no evidence whatever of there being any natural fountain, and the water is, in the dry season, practically pure sewage, though used in a neighboring Turkish bath. G.A. Smith thinks that the JACKAL'S WELL (which see) mentioned by Nehemiah (2:13), which must have been situated in the Valley of Hinnom, may possibly have been a temporary spring arising there for a few years in consequence of an earthquake, but it is extremely likely that any well sunk then would tap water flowing a long the bed of the valley. There is no such "spring" or "well" there today. III. The Natural Site. Modern Jerusalem occupies a situation defined geographically as 31 degrees 46 feet 45 inches North latitude., by 35 degrees 13 feet 25 inches East longitude. It lies in the midst of a bare and rocky plateau, the environs being one of the most stony and least fruitful districts in the habitable parts of Palestine, with shallow, gray or reddish soil and many outcrops of bare limestone. Like all the hill slopes with a southeasterly aspect, it is so thoroughly exposed to the full blaze of the summer sun that in its natural condition the site would be more or less barren. Today, however, as a result of diligent cultivation and frequent watering, a considerable growth of trees and shrubs has been produced in the rapidly extending suburbs. The only fruit tree which reaches perfection around Jerusalem is the olive. 1. The Mountains Around: The site of Jerusalem is shut in by a rough triangle of higher mountain ridges: to the West runs the main ridge, or water parting, of Judea, which here makes a sweep to the westward. From this ridge a spur runs Southeast and East, culminating due East of the city in the MOUNT OF OLIVES (which see), nearly 2,700 ft. above sea-level and about 300 ft. above the mean level of the ancient city. Another spur, known as Jebel Deir abu Tor, 2,550 ft. high, runs East from the plateau of el Buqei`a and lies Southwest of the city; it is the traditional "Hill of Evil Counsel." The city site is thus dominated on all sides by these higher ranges-"the mountains (that) are round about Jerus" (Psalm 125:2)-so that while on the one hand the ancient city was hidden, at any considerable distance, from any direction except the Southeast, it is only through this open gap toward the desert and the mountains of Moab that any wide outlook is obtainable. This strange vision of wilderness and distant mountain wall-often of exquisite loveliness in the light of the setting sun-must all through the ages have been the most familiar and the most potent of scenic influences to the inhabitants of Jerusalem. 2. The Valleys: Within the enfolding hills the city's proper site is demarked by two main valleys. That on the West and Southwest commences in a hollow occupied by the Moslem cemetery around the pool Birket Mamilla. The valley runs due East toward the modern Jaffa Gate, and there bends South, being known in this upper part of its course as the Wady el Mes. In this southern course it is traversed by a great dam, along which the modern Bethlehem road runs, which converts a large area of the valley bed into a great pool, the Birket es Sultan. Below this the valley-under the name of Wady er Rabadi-bends Southeast, then East, and finally Southeast again, until near Bir Eyyub it joins the western valley to form the Wady en Nar, 670 ft. below its origin. This valley has been very generally identified as the Valley of Hinnom (see HINNOM, VALLEY OF.) The eastern valley takes a wider sweep. Commencing high up in the plateau to the North of the city, near the great water-parting, it descends as a wide and open valley in a southeasterly direction until, where it is crossed by the Great North Road, being here known as Wady el Joz (the "Valley of the Walnuts"), it turns more directly East. It gradually curves to the South, and as it runs East of the city walls, it receives the name of Wady Sitti Miriam (the "Valley of the Lady Mary"). Below the Southeast corner of the temple-area, near the traditional "Tomb of Absalom," the valley rapidly deepens and takes a direction slightly to the West of South. It passes the "Virgin's Fount," and a quarter of a mile lower it is joined by el Wad from the North, and a little farther on by the Wady er Rababi from the West. South of Bir Eyyub, the valley formed by their union is continued under the name of Wady en Nar to the Dead Sea. This western valley is that commonly known as the Brook Kidron, or, more shortly, the "Brook" (hachal), or ravine (see KIDRON), but named from the 5th century onward by Christians the Valley of Jehoshaphat (see JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF). The rocky tongue of land enclosed between these deep ravines, an area, roughly speaking, a little over one mile long by half a mile wide, is further subdivided into a number of distinct hills by some shallower valleys. The most prominent of these-indeed the only one noticeable to the superficial observer today-is the great central valley known to modern times by the single name el Wad, "the valley." It commences in a slight depression of the ground a little North of the modern "Damascus Gate," and after entering the city at this gate it rapidly deepens-a fact largely disguised today by the great accumulation of rubbish in its course. It traverses the city with the Charam to its east, and the Christian and Moslem quarters on rapidly rising ground to its west. Its course is observed near the Babylonian es Silseleh, where it is crossed by an ancient causeway, but farther South the valley reappears, having the walls of the Charam (near the "wailing place" and "Robinson's arch") on the East, and steep cliffs crossed by houses of the Jewish quarter on the West. It leaves the city at the "Dung Gate," and passes with an open curve to the East, until it reaches the Pool of Siloam, below' which it merges in the Wady Sitti Miriam. This is the course of the main valley, but a branch of great importance in the ancient topography of the city starts some 50 yards to the West of the modern Jaffa Gate and runs down the Suwaikat Allun generally known to travelers as "David's Street," and thus easterly, along the Tarik bab es Silseleh, until it merges in the main valley. The main valley is usually considered to be the Tyropeon, or "Cheesemongers' Valley" of Josephus, but some writers have attempted to confine the name especially to this western arm of it. Another interior valley, which is known rather by the rock contours, than by surface observations, being largely filled up today, cuts diagonally across the Northeast corner of the modern city. It has no modern name, though it is sometimes called "St. Anne's Valley." It arises in the plateau near "Herod's Gate," known as es Sahra, and entering the city about 100 yards to the East of that gate, runs South-Southeast., and leaves the city between the Northeast angle of the Charam and the Golden Gate, joining the Kidron valley farther Southeast. The Birket Israel runs across the width of this valley, which had far more influence in determining the ancient topography of the city than has been popularly recognized. There is an artificially made valley between the Charam and the buildings to its north, and there is thought by many to be a valley between the Southeast hill, commonly called "Ophel" and the temple-area. Such, then, are the valleys, great and small, by which the historic hills on which the city stood are defined. All of them, particularly in their southern parts, were considerably deeper in ancient times, and in places the accumulated debris is 80 ft. or more. All of them were originally torrent beds, dry except immediately after heavy rain. The only perennial outflow of water is the scanty and intermittent stream which overflows from the Pool of Siloam, and is used to irrigate the gardens in the Wady Sitti Miriam. 3. The Hills: The East and West valleys isolate a roughly quadrilateral tongue of land running from Northwest-West to South-Southeast, and tilted so as to face Southeast. This tongue is further subdivided by el Wad into two long ridges, which merge into each other in the plateau to the North. The western ridge has its actual origin considerably North of the modern wall, being part of the high ground lying between the modern Jaffa road to the West, and the commencement of the Kidron valley to the East. Within the city walls it rises as high as 2,581 ft. near the northwestern corner. It is divided by the west branch of the Tyropeon valley into two parts: a northern part-the northwestern hill-on which is situated today the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the greater part of the "Christian quarter" of the city, and a southern hill-the southwestern-which is connected with the northwestern hill by but a narrow saddle-50 yards wide-near the Jaffa Gate. This hill sustains the citadel (the so-called "Tower of David"), the barracks and the Armenian quarter within the walls, and the Coenaculum and adjacent buildings outside the walls. This hill is from 2,500 to 2,350 ft. high along its summit, but drops rapidly on its southwestern, southern and southeastern sides. In its central part it falls much more gently toward the eastern hill across the now largely filled valley el Wad. The eastern ridge may be reckoned as beginning at the rocky hill el-Edhemiyeh-popularly known as Gordon's Calvary-but the wide trench made here by quarrying somewhat obscures this fact. The ridge may for convenience be regarded as presenting three parts, the northeastern, central or central-eastern, and southeastern summits. Read Complete Article...

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Black liquor is a mix of chemicals and wood waste left over from the paper making process and Maryland legislators have declared burning black liquor a “renewable” energy source. But, according to some environmental advocates, burning black liquor isn’t clean. LUKE, MD — The paper mill hulks over a bend in the Potomac River Valley, a castle of pale blue metal between steep green slopes. Clouds of steam billow from its towers. The Luke Mill, the largest employer in this tiny town, has powered the economy in this corner of Appalachia for generations, producing paper for countless Campbell’s soup labels and glossy covers for National Geographic and Playboy. Even as other factories in this stretch of Western Maryland have closed down, this mill has managed to survive. That’s in part because the 10-story-high boiler deep inside the mill burns a sludge known as black liquor. The substance, a mix of caustic chemicals and wood waste left over from thepapermaking process, was once pollution, a byproduct that fouled the rocky banks of the Potomac. Now, Maryland calls it green energy. It’s not a particularly clean form of energy. Burning black liquor releases carbon dioxide, the greenhouse gas that causes climate change. But because it’s a waste product that’s being used to generate power, state legislators declared it a renewable energy source. So the paper mill gets millions of ratepayer dollars from a state program created to promote the greening of Maryland. The subsidies were established in 2004 to help wind turbines, solar panels and other clean technologies compete with fossil fuels, which emit pollution that blankets the planet, melting polar ice, raising sea levels and making extreme weather more likely. The idea was to give a financial boost to alternative energy sources that are both clean and renewable, but expensive to develop. But many of the facilities that receive the subsidies — trash incinerators, wood-burning “biomass” plants, and the paper mill in Luke — spew millions of pounds of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year, plus toxins that are harmful to people and the environment. The subsidies earmarked for clean energy come from a fast-growing portion of Maryland electricity ratepayers’ bills. The payouts to carbon-emitting energy producers such as the Luke mill have totaled more than $100 million through 2015. That’s money that could and should have gone to wind power. Mike Ewall, director of the Energy Justice Network Share quote & link Black liquor — its formal name in the paper-making industry — is Maryland’s largest source of renewable power. Paper factories across the Eastern United States supply a quarter of Maryland’s renewable energy supply. Such wood-derived fuels make up the nation’s third-largest source of renewable energy. To Mike Ewall, who has spent years trying to convince lawmakers in Maryland and elsewhere to stop subsidizing carbon emissions, it’s a shocking contradiction. “That’s money that could and should have gone to wind power,” says Ewall, director of the Energy Justice Network, a nonprofit advocacy group. But Todd Downey, manager of the Luke mill, says black liquor “is clearly aligned” with Maryland’s goals to both recognize and develop a diverse portfolio of renewable energy. He says the mill “is helping to shape a cleaner energy future for all Marylanders.” And Greg Harvey, who ran the black liquor machine in Luke for a decade, takes it personally when mill workers are maligned as polluters — as if he’s being accused of valuing a paycheck above his community. “You’re questioning my integrity,” saysHarvey,the president of the union that represents most of the mill’s 700 workers. The battle over black liquor demonstrates the complicated struggle beneath efforts to shift to cleaner forms of energy. The waste-to-energy industry has also fought to win and maintain environmental incentives that were created to promote green power sources. The Wheelabrator trash incinerator on the Middle Branch in Baltimore is the city’s largest source of air pollution. Yet it has received close to $10 million in renewable energy subsidies since 2011. Such investments have meant there is much less money available to support cleaner forms of energy, such as wind and solar farms. At the same time, clean projects are running into resistance in their communities, where people who might support a green future in theory don’t necessarily want wind turbines or a solar array next door. State lawmakers have long wrestled with the question of what sort of energy should be considered renewable. Some argue: Certainly not black liquor. A company town Luke is a survivor of an era when blue-collar jobs were plentiful in rural America. The mill told workers where to live and provided the steam that heated their homes. For years, employees were paid in marks they could use at the company store. Audrey Nolan, 104, immigrated with her parents from Spain and settled in Luke in 1921. “We belonged to the mill,” she says. In its heyday, which lasted into the 1950s, the mill employed more than 2,000 people. Most of them lived in what are known as the Tri-Towns — Luke and Westernport in Maryland and Piedmont just over the river in West Virginia. Some were descendants of Hessians, the mercenaries who fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. Others were recent immigrants from Italy or Spain. Families assumed that sons would join their fathers in the paper-making business. Fazenbaker was one of the early family names in the mill, local historian Patrick McCarty is proud to say — it’s his mother’s maiden name. He would have joined the three generations before him had his father not insisted he go to college and work in a profession other than making paper. The mill community was like a family, McCarty said, making the Tri-Towns a cross between a company town and Mayberry. It was a place where McCarty could wander from the top of Westernport Hill across a bridge over the rocky Potomac to the top of Piedmont Hill by himself at age 6. “It was the most wonderful place in the world to grow up,” the retired school principal says. But longtime residents of the Tri-Towns also remember when their surroundings weren’t so beautiful. They remember how the steep slope across the Potomac from the mill was barren, stripped for lumber and too choked by pollution to recover. The river itself was opaque. “You could not see the water,” McCarty remembers of the 1940s and ’50s. The floes of black liquor and other waste from the mill “looked like icebergs,” he says — icebergs that reeked of the rotten-egg, cooked-cabbage scent for which the mill is still known. It was an uncomfortable part of life in a mill town, Nolan recalls. When black liquor would spill into the Potomac, she says, you didn’t talk about it at the pulp mill. A boost for clean energy Generations later, mill waste would become the renewable resource that helps keep the machines running. In 2004, to give clean power generation a head start, Maryland offered financial incentives to the renewable energy industry. The policy, known as a Renewable Portfolio Standard, was spreading across the country as a way for states to create high-paying jobs in high-tech industries and to advance a green energy agenda. The idea was to create a bonus revenue source for companies that generate power from renewable energy, such as wind and solar, to reward them for their environmental benefits. For each megawatt of electricity they produce and sell, they can sell a certificate. The state law requires utilities and retail electric companies such as Baltimore Gas and Electric, Direct Energy and Pepcoto buy those certificates from power producers within the PJM energy grid, which serves the Mid-Atlantic and part of the Midwest. Some of those producers are in Maryland, but most of the certificates bought by Maryland utilities come from producers in other states. The utilities pass the cost on to residents and businesses in the rates they charge for electricity. Proponents say it’s a reasonable way of attaching a value to the support many residents have for green energy. The amount residential ratepayers pay for the renewable energy certificates is at most a few dollars a month, but it adds up. Proceeds for all types of renewable energy in Maryland’s portfolio have grown to $127 million in 2015, the most recent year for which totals are available. For the largest energy producers, the incentives can reach millions of dollars. By 2020, Maryland utilities will need to buy enough of the credits to equal one-fourth of the state’s energy supply. By then, state legislative analysts predict, the cost to the average household will peak at somewhere between 77 cents and $3 per month. Maryland’s biggest suppliers of renewable energy — the generators that get the most money from the ratepayer subsidies — include paper mills in Covington, Va., and Kingsport, Tenn.; a biomass facility that burns logging waste in South Boston, Va.; and two trash incinerators in Maryland: the Wheelabrator Baltimore facility along Russell Street and Covanta Montgomery in Dickerson. More than three-quarters of the renewable energy subsidized by Maryland ratepayers is generated outside the state. To Ewall of Energy Justice Network, that statistic undermines arguments that the renewable energy incentives can grow jobs in the state. What, he asks, do Marylanders owe to a paper mill in Tennessee? “Why should all this Maryland ratepayer money flow to them?” he asks. Of equal concern to some is that the renewable energy credits are going to dirty sources such as black liquor. It was part of the program from the beginning, thanks to nearly a dozen amendments that MeadWestvaco Corp., then the Luke mill’s owner, persuaded lawmakers to adopt during the legislative process in 2004, General Assembly documents show. The paper industry argues that black liquor earns the “renewable” designation because it’s burned as part of an efficient process: As power is generated, the harsh chemicals used to create paper pulp are also being recovered from the sludge. They are reused in the next paper-making cycle. And as trees are consumed to make the paper, more can be planted. Richard Watro, the Luke mill’s manager from 2011 to 2015, likens it to harvesting and replanting corn to create ethanol. Verso Corp., which assumed ownership of the mill in 2015, says the carbon stored inside trees always makes its way into the atmosphere, whether through natural decomposition or forest fires. Burning black liquor is no different from the natural carbon cycle, company officials say, and the energy it generates means the mill can rely less on its other energy sources, coal or natural gas. Mill workers say the fuel’s main problem is its name. “If you called it ‘dandelion liquor,’ no one would care," Harvey says. If you called it ‘dandelion liquor,’ no one would care. Greg Harvey, president of United Steelworkers Local 676 Share quote & link Paper mills generate less energy than power plants, and emit less pollution. But they still give off millions of pounds of carbon dioxide every year. They also release other harmful pollutants, including smog-creating nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. Last year, as the Luke Mill burned a combination of coal, gas and black liquor, it gave off 20 pounds of lead and 100 tons of methane. That was about the same as the Brandon Shores and H.A. Wagner coal- and gas-fired power plant complex in Pasadena in 2015, according to the annual emissions inventories that power generators must file with the state. It’s better than burning coal, but it’s not renewable energy in my mind. State Del. Shane Robinson Share quote & link The paper mill emitted more than half as much sulfur dioxide, a pollutant that can trigger lung disease, as the power plants. “It’s better than burning coal, but it’s not a renewable energy source in my mind,” Del. Shane Robinson says. The Montgomery County Democrat haspushed legislation to stop rewarding black liquor as renewable energy. Paper mills in Maryland and other states received about $60 million of Maryland’s renewable energy subsidies through 2015 — nearly a fifth of the total. That included about $4 million for the Luke Mill, where black liquor produces about 40 percent of the mill’s energy, Public Service Commission data indicates. (The PSC does not release precise figures, only the number of certificates each facility sells and the average price of all certificates.) It was money that helped the mill amid the fluctuating demand for paper and pressure to reduce prices. Mill officials say demand for paper is declining at a rate of 5 percent each year. Beginning in 2013, the subsidy came under threat. Environmentalists began to focus on the subsidies going to Luke and the other paper mills. They felt a program intended to spur the development of clean energy was paying to perpetuate dirty energy. They decided it was time to try to cut the paper mills off. Mike Tidwell, director of the Chesapeake Climate Action Network, equated black liquor with pink slime, the maligned beef additive made from meat processing leftovers. He said black liquor seemed innocuous when lawmakers added it to the state’s menu of green power, and that no one knew how much of the subsidy money it would command. “Today we do know,” he says. “And it’s a lot." In Luke, this was a new danger to the community’s survival. Luke under siege For years, the community had weathered the combined pressures of environmental regulation, foreign competition and declining demand. The same forces had closed other blue-collar job centers around Cumberland — the Celanese textile plant in 1983 and the Kelly-Springfield tire factory in 1987. As the population thinned and tax revenue waned, the number of public high schools in Allegany County shrank from seven to three. Mill workers say pressure to cut pollution began in the 1950s, when a wastewater treatment plant opened just downriver from the mill. By the 1970s, a 600-foot smokestack rose from the mill to lift emissions high above the valley. Those and other investments likely improved the fortunes of the once-bare mountain opposite the river from the mill. The peak once called “Baldy” is now covered in thick forest. Verso, the mill’s current owner, says former and current management hasinvested more than $200 million since the 1950s in protecting the environment. That includes the installation of a succession of recovery boilers, which burn black liquor and capture chemicals that can be reused to make more paper. In a 1975 ad in the Cumberland Sunday Times, the mill touted a state-of-the-art boiler installed three years earlier, said to be the tallest building between Baltimore and Pittsburgh. It said the $10 million machine was part of a “progressive and costly effort” to invest some $37 million in pollution controls over the previous two decades — an amount worth at least $168 million today. The efforts helped restore the local environment. Today, groups of anglers catch trout downriver of the mill, and a bald eagle roosts near its lumber yard — wildlife that Harvey would never have expected to see when he started working at the mill in the 1980s. “I believe they have grown into being very good stewards of the environment,” Harvey says. But the outlay also made it more difficult for the mill to compete, especially as paper mills began appearing around the Pacific Rim in the 1980s. It was also the time when readership of printed magazines and newspapers began to decline. The combination of pressures wracked the Luke mill as it forced the closure of other paper mills across the country. Dozens of mills have closed since 2000, and more than 200,000 jobs have disappeared. The industry now employs about 370,000 people. Luke’s paper-making machines were closed down one by one. From as many as seven that ran through World War II, only two remain. (With new technology, they make the mill more efficient and productive than it has ever been.) The oldest paper machines, which press and heat wood pulp until it rolls out in massive rolls, were rendered obsolete and sold to Pakistan. With each contraction, mill workers grew more anxious. Gary Custer worked as an engineer and manager at the mill for some 25 years before leaving in 2014. “Every move that happens, the whole work force feels that and starts to wonder what’s going on,” he says. The turmoil is felt in Luke, where a town of more than a thousand people in 1930 has dwindled to 63, according to the census. For generations, steam from the mill heated Luke’s homes for no more than $20 a month. But that heating supply was cut off in 2010. New worries spring up every time the mill is sold to a new owner. In the past dozen years, it has passed from the Luke family business through two separate corporations to Verso. Neighbors say they used to be so close with mill managers, they would know when and why the mill might temporarily suspend production. Now, they say, with Verso’s corporate offices in Ohio, they find out only when the valley goes dark, and traffic disappears. Harvey, president of United Steelworkers Local 676, had never been to Annapolis when he and a dozen of his fellow mill workers loaded up in two vans on a chilly morning in March 2013 for the three-and-a-half-hour trek from Luke to the capital. They were nervous. The territory was unfamiliar, and the outcome uncertain. Environmentalists were urging the state to stop sending ratepayer money to paper mills. The steelworkers union and mill management had been working with lawmakers and the administration of Gov. Martin O’Malley on a compromise. The deal would maintain the subsidies — and the jobs they support — for the Luke mill only, not paper mills outside Maryland. But the deal fell apart. The Luke mill and its workers rejected it, saying that because the money was vital to the whole paper industry, they decided it wasn’t fair to accept special treatment. Now, Harvey and his comrades were in Annapolis tofight for the subsidy. The union and mill management thought workers’ voices could be most powerful against their opposition. At a Senate hearing on a bill to take away the subsidies, Harvey sat and waited for his turn to speak. He watched as Tidwell, of the climate action network, held up a vial of thick black liquor. Tidwell argued that the bill to cut off the subsidy to the paper mill was a rare “no-brainer” that should pass the General Assembly easily. A coalition of environmental groups urged lawmakers on with a slogan: “End the gimmicks. End the loopholes.” Administration officialssuggested that the paper industry didn’t need the subsidies because it would burn black liquor even without the extra money. “They have been doing this for decades,” said Kevin Lucas, then director of energy market strategies for the Maryland Energy Administration. “They will continue to do it as standard operating procedure, independent of whether we are paying them.” State Sen. Rob Garagiola, the bill’s sponsor, stressed that the state Renewable Portfolio Standard should channel ratepayer money only to new and clean energy technologies. “The RPS was not intended to be the crutch to keep a business open,” the Montgomery County Democrat said. The mill workers sat in the back of the hearing room. They wore matching T-shirts urging legislators to reject Senate Bill 684. Richard Watro, then the Luke mill’s manager, responded by expressing frustration at hearing the mill called “old” and “dirty” when he had seen hundreds of millions of dollars invested into new technology over three decades. Jim Strong, the steelworkers’ Maryland director, said the legislation threatened thousands of jobs in the paper business. “Once you lose an industry to another country, that industry doesn’t come back,” he said. Harvey was the last person to testify. His nerves were frayed. He practically shouted into the microphone. “I’m the guy who burns the black liquor,” he announced. He pleaded for lawmakers to spare his members another setback. The union had already fought through the foreign competition, the corporate mergers, the contract negotiations. “The last thing I want to do,” he said, “is go to my 617 union members and tell them, ‘By the way, you’re the next victim.’” The group left for the long drive home not knowing whether to be satisfied or relieved. They just wondered what would happen next. Within weeks, lawmakers came up with an offer similar to a proposal they’d floated before the hearing: The paper mills would lose the subsidies, but the governor would grant the Luke mill cash from state coffers each year to offset the loss. It was a win for environmentalists and for the workers of Western Maryland, or so it seemed. The mill balked again. They couldn’t be sure future governors would honor the deal. And they rejected the special treatment. The attempts at compromise by the Democratic governor and environmental allies in the General Assembly had failed. And the legislation was defeated. For the workers in Luke, it was a victory. But there was still a sense that Annapolis did not understand the town or the mill. “This is Appalachia,” says McCarty, the local historian. “The words for stranger and enemy are the same thing.” For three years, bills returned, and environmentalists repeated their arguments: Black liquor is dirty, and ratepayer subsidies should be reserved for new technologies. Harvey returned to Annapolis, begrudgingly. “We battle foreign competition and industry competitors,” he told legislators in 2014. “Now we have to fight changes in government regulation.” But then the winds changed. The Obama administration’s Environmental Protection Agency issued a draft report in which it affirmed that burning black liquor adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere — but said that with sustainable replanting, the cycle could be made carbon-neutral. The paper mill seized on it like a shield. Last year, the mill’s workers made their casein the form of a four-and-a-half minute video they delivered to Annapolis. To the soundtrack of a strumming banjo, lawmakers saw views of the lush forests and bubbling Potomac, all alongside the steaming smokestacks. Harry Stafford, a safety advocate at the mill, explains that the mill raised him and put his three daughters through college. “If this mill wasn’t here, there would be a giant void,” he says in the video. “Everything about it touches an awful lot of people.” The momentum shifted. Lawmakers said they had revived the issue at the behest of environmentalists, but they no longer believed that a bill ending the black liquor subsidy could pass. If this mill wasn’t here, there would be a giant void. Everything about it touches an awful lot of people. Henry Stafford, safety advocate at Luke Mill Share quote & link Del. Jeff Waldstreicher offered several bills over the years that would have ended the paper mills’ subsidies. It became obvious to the Montgomery County Democrat that the issue was stoking a conflict between key Democratic constituencies: environmentalists and labor. Dividing them would never allow enough votes to pass a black liquor measure. “Bills are about counting to a certain number in committee,” Waldstreicher says. “A frontal assault on this issue will not be successful.” And so environmentalists have largely given up the fight in Maryland. They have chosen to focus instead on expanding the state’s renewable energy supply to cover half or even all of Maryland’s energy needs, up from the current 25 percent goal for 2020. Groups including the Maryland Clean Energy Jobs Initiative and the Maryland League of Conservation Voters are campaigning to take the “renewable” label away from household trash, but not black liquor. Years after comparing black liquor to pink slime, Tidwell says, there is reluctance to antagonize the Luke mill any further. “The General Assembly came very close to closing the black liquor loophole in 2013,” he says. But he doesn’t think that could happen today — there is no longer the political will. About the series: This project was supported with a grant from the Society of Environmental Journalists, a professional organization dedicated to increasing and improving coverage of environmental issues. Read the second in the series: The Greenwashing of Trash: A trash incinerator in Southwest Baltimore has received millions of dollars in subsidies since state lawmakers declared it “green” in 2011, but residents who have endured a legacy of pollution hope to shut it down. Read the third in the series: Going Green: One wind farm project in Western Maryland is 16 years in the making but still battling community opposition, an example of the challenges that can arise as the green economy of the future becomes a reality.

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Ancient Roman sarcophagi in the Museo Ostiense‘Centauromachy’ by Nathaniel Todd McKee The Society May 4, 2019 Culture, Poetry, Short Stories 15 Comments This poem recounts the famous mythical battle, “Centauromachy.” It unfolds in the ancient home of the Lapiths in the region of Thessaly, Greece, a generation or two before the Trojan War. King Pirithous, Zeus’ son, prepares to wed Hippodamia (“horse-tamer” in Greek). Pirithous’ friend, Theseus, son of Aegeus, a hero from Athens, is present at the celebration, as well as Caeneus, a Lapithian hero. A large group of Centaurs are also there, led by their king, Eurytus. “Aeolian! Apollo’s son! Why from the banquet quickly run? Your robes are torn, your sash is rent, Your gilded herald’s staff is bent! What happened in those pillared halls, Where demi-god Pirithous calls Lapithian sons and daughters fair And lords of Thessaly to share A generous nuptial feast?” “There flowing wine, the harvest’s best, Should fill the cup of every guest, And bountiful boards of fresh-baked bread, Savory cheese, and meats on bed Of leafy greens, made fit to eat Once Hippodamia they meet. Her face unveiled, they see her blush, Her gorgeous smile the crowd would hush Before the sumptuous feast.” “Yet how can nuptials cause such harm To you, who run as if from war? Did rough carousing bruise your arm Or stumbling, drunken, to the floor?” The herald turned to him and said, “You’re partly right, Pirithous led Us guests to wait and kindly share His richest wine, while bridal hair Was cut, and ceremonial baths Were taken. Bride and Groom, their paths Entwined forever, stood as one, While holy bowls reflected sun As clearest, cleansing water poured Upon young lovers, here adored By heaven and earth at once.” “Yet as these wedding rites conclude, The centaurs gorged themselves on food. Their appetites enflamed by wine They wolfed down ample boards, laid fine With first-picked fruits, the country’s pride, To laud the horse-wise, glowing bride. But massive, hooved Eurytus led His brutish centaurs forth and said, ‘Why hunger till the bride’s appeared? Traditions are not by us feared – Let’s have our fill at once!’” “And that’s not all: Pirithous’ joy To see his bride, all comely-coy, When finally she parts her veil, Transformed to rage, a man-made gale! For when Eurytus saw her face, Beaming bright with bridal grace, He made a sudden forward leap, To make this damsel his to keep, Trapping her with brawny arms. His sudden flight upraised alarms, Unleashing mayhem’s ties!” “Now every centaur charged to steal Himself a maid and flee this meal, Fulfilling their rudest craving yet If they could just break through the men they met. For up to fight did each man spring, Led by the strength of their hero-king, Pirithous, who sprang on Eurytus’ back And smote his head in this first attack, A fist-blow landing on the ear! Eurythus reeled while groomsmen near Each threw his centaur foe.” “Yet elsewhere centaurs pummeled down The lesser-powered men in town And might have won this fateful day Had not lord Theseus stood to say, ‘My good Thessalian men, give ear, Let’s band together, no need to fear These centaur brutes. Caeneus and I, With others few and courage high, Will hold their forceful charges back While you these chairs and tables stack To make a barricade.’” “Assenting, each at once set forth And Theseus, guest of highest worth, With lordly Caeneus took his stand, Fighting centaurs hand-to-hand. With dexterous moves they’d out-wit foes, Then lay them low with mighty blows From make-shift implements of war, As others attempt to obstruct the door – The centaurs’ surest way to flee. For only that way could they be Outside confining halls.” “Alas! When time enough was won, Their hasty ramparts nearly done, Then Theseus shouted, ‘men, fall back Behind our lines, their brusque attack Redoubles now, see how they burn!’ The noble vanguard found safe return For all but one: Caeneus. His fall Was sealed when centaurs one and all With beastly strength threw basins, stools, And stones to bury him as pools Of blood foretold his death.” “Now heart-sick each man took his post While some escaped to fetch a host Of bows and arrows, javelins, spears, And massive shields to quench the jeers Of those ungrateful centaurs. Still The battle raged within until The weapons came and all could take A sturdy bow or spear and make The naked-handed half-men shrink From war and in the corner think Of how to save their skins.” “As men surrounded their mortal foes With bristling spears and full-bent bows, Pirithous spoke to end this strife, Preventing further loss of life. For huddling behind the centaurs’ knees, Causing weapons in hands to freeze, Lapithian maidens lay ensnared. To shoot towards them? No one dared! The king thus spoke to strike a deal And swiftly end this grisly meal, His woeful wedding day.” “‘Centaurs, we could kill you all. By whizzing arrows and spears you’d fall With one sign from my right hand. Keep still And listen now to my good will: Release the maidens, unmolested By parting blows, or you’ll be bested By raining shafts, just mark my words, Set them free as cageless birds. Do this now and you’ll be spared Even after all you’ve dared Within my pillared halls.’” “These beasts, though shameless, trusted him, Releasing maidens at his whim. Not waiting for their king’s command, They took the chance which lay at hand To flee through parted ranks of men, O’er barricades, and fallen kin To reach the freshly opened door. Once out, each centaur quickly tore Away from Peneus, its hill-ringed vales, Through wooded glades and mountain trails To coastal Pelion’s heights.” “The last of all Eurytus filed, Not planning to flee those halls as mild As other centaurs, for he spied A way to wreck Pirithous’ pride: He quickly grabbed a limply-held sword Then leaped to strike the Lapithian lord Upon the head, turned unaware, And send him down to Hades’ lair, A gruesome way to end this feast. Alas for him, the faithless beast, Undone by Theseus’ speed.” “For up the son of Aegeus sprang As Hippodamia shrilly sang, Her husband’s doom so close at hand, To bring dark grief o’er all that land. The brilliant hero took his spear And sent the bronze-point punching clear Through flesh and bone, which disemboweled The beast, who dropped the sword and howled, Falling violently down to breath His last as blood, life’s ember, seethed And soaked the stony ground.” “So now you know my disarray Has just excuse, I go to tell Those unaware about this day Which started glad but ended fell.” The townsman replied with thoughtful words, “A wedding is no place for herds Of brutish centaurs making eyes At well-bred maidens, our greatest prize. How did Pirithous such friends make? Are ties from youth so hard to shake? I’m sure with them he’d had his fun, Before his gorgeous bride was won Or princely path set straight.” “When Pelion’s coastal heights they reach These centaurs will mend their wounds and teach Their brethren that vengeance must be sought. I fear Pirithous has merely bought His kingdom time to arm for war And make defense its greatest chore. For surely Centaurs will return To fight and kindle a vengeful burn From this centauromachy.” Nathaniel McKee’s interest in classical poetry first grew while studying for a master’s in business administration at the University of Oxford, UK. Somehow this whimsical place deepened an already strong appreciation for the humanities, even as he studied business. Nathaniel’s literary interests include Greek and Roman classics, 18th-19th century English literature, 18th-19th century French literature, the Bible, and history in general. He currently purchases agricultural commodities and energy for a mid-sized food manufacturing company in the foothills of southeastern Tennessee, USA, where he lives with his wife, Bethany. NOTE: The Society considers this page, where your poetry resides, to be your residence as well, where you may invite family, friends, and others to visit. Feel free to treat this page as your home and remove anyone here who disrespects you. Simply send an email to firstname.lastname@example.org. Put “Remove Comment” in the subject line and list which comments you would like removed. The Society does not endorse any views expressed in individual poems or comments and reserves the right to remove any comments to maintain the decorum of this website and the integrity of the Society. Please see our Comments Policy here. Share this:Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)Click to print (Opens in new window)Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)Click to email this to a friend (Opens in new window)Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window) 15 Responses Sathyanarayana May 4, 2019 Fantastic, picturesque!!! Wow! Reply Nathaniel McKee May 4, 2019 Thank you, Sathyanarayana. Reply James A. Tweedie May 4, 2019 Vividly and marvelously told! It reads like a translation. Is it, perhaps, a poeticized improvement on an existing prose translation? On a lighter note, I suppose this poem spells doom for the “Take a centaur to lunch” movement. Reply Nathaniel McKee May 4, 2019 Thanks, James. This isn’t a translation, but it’s interesting you should say that it reads like one. I’m a huge fan of Robert Fagles’ translations of The Iliad, The Odyssey, and The Aeneid, so its very likely that I have subconsciously mimicked his style in my own writings. Reply Carolyn Clark May 4, 2019 An entertaining and well wrought tour de fotce from TN. Thanks for the fresh look at old material. Reply Nathaniel McKee May 4, 2019 Thanks, Carolyn! Reply Joseph S. Salemi May 4, 2019 The battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs was frequently depicted in Graeco-Roman art, and was taken as symbolic of the eternal struggle between civilization and barbarism. The Centaurs represent everything disgusting, savage, foreign, freaky, and beyond the pale; while the Lapiths are the defenders of civilized order, decorum, and tradition. Their big mistake was inviting the Centaurs to the wedding, thereby opening the door to drunkenness and rape. One might think of the SCP itself as a modern equivalent of the Lapiths. Let’s hope we won’t make the same blunder of welcoming Centaurs here. Reply Nathaniel McKee May 4, 2019 Thanks for your comments, Joseph, I definitely tried to tap into this symbolism. In my view, the battle can represent as much an internal struggle within each individual as an external one. Reply Sultana RAZA May 4, 2019 The flow of the poem is quite sweeping. It’s very difficult to write a poem set in antiquity because of the restrictions in terms of the words one can use. And this rather long passage could only be done in rhyming couplets. Well done, and bon continuation! Reply Nathaniel McKee May 4, 2019 Thanks, Sultana, couplets do lend themselves well to longer pieces because of their simplicity. I did use alternating rhyme in two short transition sections before a change in speaker. Do you think this disrupted the flow at all or did it help signal a transition? Reply David Gosselin May 4, 2019 Dear Nathanial, Love that you decided to take up a Greek myth and give it an original treatment. In our “contemporary” world, being original no longer means making some attempt to capture and communicate something truthful about the nature of man and the universe, and to do it with beauty, as the Greeks did, but instead what’s thought original is stylized writing, novel word-choice and imagery with no other aim than to induce some “feeling.” You took the time to tell a story, and told it well. Even more, you brought out some nice poetry. So I’m thankful to see that there are people like you inspired and taking up lofty themes like the Greek myths and doing something original with them. I wrote a ballad a while back, The Lament of Tros, which takes the myth of Ganymede and gives it a different treatment than the one generally used whether it be in Goethe’s Ganymede, or Ruben’s and the many Romanticized depictions of Zeus stealing a little boy from his parents in order to make him his “servant”. I was inspired by Rembrandt’s treatment of the theme in his “The Abduction of Ganymede.” https://www.thechainedmuse.com/single-post/2017/09/22/The-Lament-of-Tros Reply Nathaniel McKee May 5, 2019 Thank you, David, for your kind remarks and for sharing your poem. I enjoyed reading it; it’s the only piece I have read on the legend Ganymede other than Homer’s brief mentioning of it. Ancient legends deserve to be reinterpreted and re-told in interesting ways. Reply Monty May 5, 2019 Well, one thing’s for sure, Nath: you certainly don’t lack stamina. But it was as lengthy as it needed to be for a story so comprehensively relayed. What a ripping yarn; and told so vividly, it must be said, with a wide use of our language, and rich in detail (so rich, that I – as did another commenter above – initially thought that you’d rendered the poem from the same story in prose. I must point out a couple of ‘tense’ irregularities: The first 3 stanzas are in the ‘present’ tense, and at the start of the 4th stanza, the tense changes to ‘past’ (“Pitthous LED us guests..”), and remains in the ‘past’ until the 17th stanza. Thus, in the 1st line of the 5th stanza, ‘conclude’ should read ‘concluded’ (in the ‘past’, as does “gorged” in the following line, and “wolfed” two lines later). Again, in the 7th stanza, the 2nd line should read “the meal” (‘past’) and not “this meal” (present), hence matching the word “charged” (‘past’) in the 1st line. In the same stanza, the 4th line is also in the ‘present’ (“could just break”.. which should be “could’ve just broke”) . . but I feel that that’s the least of that line’s problems. It’s got too many syllables (even allowing for the inconsistency of meter throughout the piece); and the diction seems forced . . seemingly rushed. It doesn’t deserve to be in such a well-written poem. Regarding the two transition-sections: I don’t think the rhyme-alternation in any way “disrupts the flow”; if anything, I feel that it’s a clever way of emphasising the change of speaker. Jolly well written, Nath; and upon completion of such a mammoth task, I’d like to think that you afforded yourself a short holiday. Reply Nathaniel McKee May 5, 2019 Monty, thank you for your compliments and critiques. I must confess that I left the first tense irregularity you mentioned just because it rhymed so well in the present tense (more succinctly, laziness). Here’s a possible revision (5s,1): “As wedding rites were about to conclude” -+-+–+–+ Regarding your second comment, I agree, the line seems forced. Here’s how I might re-word the first four lines of the stanza (7s,1-4): “Now every centaur charged to steal -+-+-+-+ Himself a maid and flee the meal. -+-+-+-+ They rushed to gain the exit wide -+-+-+-+ As maidens kicked and screamed & cried.” -+-+-+-+ This would correct the tense issue as well as make the meter easier to follow. You mentioned “inconsistency of meter throughout the piece.” Are any of these what you would consider an incorrect use of meter? If so, could you provide an example or two? I tried to pick appropriate syllables for strong and weak “beats”, but what makes sense in one’s own mind often reads quite different another’s. Thanks again for the feedback. Reply Monty May 6, 2019 I feel that your alternative suggestion for S5,1 is also musically-awkward. There’s not a lot of room to correctly use the words you want to use, so it might be an idea to consider changing the whole couplet. The best I can come up with is: “And as the rites were being done, The centaurs gorged on food as one; Their appetites . . . ” Regarding your suggestion for S7,1-4: the word “wide” sounds redundant, and forced for rhyme-convenience. An alternative could be: “The centaurs seemed to sense their cue, And looked for maids to get their due; They upped, and pushed their plates aside As maidens all around them cried”. As for the ‘meter’, forgive me, Nath: my use of the word “throughout” was rash. There are certainly inconsistencies (S2,1.. S9,8.. S10,6.. S12,1.. S13,3.. S15,2-5-6.. S19,2-3), but I think I might’ve been getting mixed-up with the syllabic-inequality throughout. p.s. I meant, but forgot, to relay in my initial comment how much I admired the line “unleashing mayhem’s ties”. That is a most imaginative use of our language. Leave a Reply to Monty Cancel ReplyYour email address will not be published.CommentName* Email* Website Notify me of follow-up comments by email. 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Novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a viral respiratory illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 emerged in Wuhan City in late December 2019 and spread rapidly throughout China . Subsequently, cases have been reported in many other countries, and managing COVID-19 has become a global challenge regarding public health. COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March 2020. To date (23 April 2020), the epidemic is on-going in at least 200 countries, with over 2.7 million confirmed cases and more than 180,000 deaths worldwide . Exactly how coronavirus (COVID-19) spreads from person to person is unknown, but similar viruses can spread through cough droplets, close contact, aerosols, and potentially, other routes . The disease may progress rapidly and result in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Other organ-system dysfunctions (i.e., liver, kidney, cardiac, and coagulation systems) and death can occur in severe cases . However, COVID-19-associated organ system dysfunction is known, but has not been reported in depth. Our objective in this study was to retrospectively describe the clinical characteristics, laboratory examination findings, radiological features, and related organ system dysfunctions of 130 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 symptoms at Wuhan Seventh Hospital and Jiangan mobile cabin hospitals in Wuhan, Hubei province, China and to compare severe patients with mild- and moderate patients. Participants and Sources We enrolled all patients with COVID-19 who were admitted to Jiangan mobile cabin hospitals or Wuhan Seventh Hospital from 15 February 2020 to 15 March 2020. The first author worked in the fight against COVID-19 as a front-line doctor in two hospitals successively. All patients met the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia (Trial Version 7) released by the National Health Commission & State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China, on 3 March 2020 . The criteria including: 1) history of travel or residence in an epidemic area within 14 days before symptom onset; 2) contact history with patients confirmed with positive SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid test or patients with fever or respiratory symptoms from an epidemic area within 14 days before symptom onset; 3) clustering of cases; 4) fever and/or respiratory symptoms; 5) imaging features of pneumonia; 6) normal or decreased total white blood cell count and decreased lymphocyte count early in the disease; 7) positive SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid test by real-time fluorescence polymerase chain reaction testing (RT-PCR); 8) virus gene sequence highly homologous with the known SARS-CoV-2; and 9) SARS-CoV-2 specific Ig M and IgG are detectable in serum or IgG is detectable or reaches a titration of at least 4-fold increase during convalescence compared with the acute phase. Patients who satisfied any one of the epidemiological histories (criteria 1 - 3) as well as any two of the clinical manifestations (criteria 4 - 6) or three clinical manifestation with no definite epidemiological history were diagnosed as suspected cases. Suspected cases with one of the etiological criteria (criteria 7 - 9) were diagnosed as confirmed cases. Chest imaging of COVID-19 include: 1) small patchy shadows; 2) separated or mixed ground-glass opacities; 3) consolidation; 4) interstitial changes: vascular enlargement, interlobular septal thickening and reticulation. We excluded participants with the following conditions: 1) upper respiratory infections, viral pneumonia or mycoplasma pneumonia caused by other viruses, such as influenza virus, adenovirus or respiratory syncytial virus; 2) non-infectious diseases such as vasculitis, dermatomyositis, and organizing pneumonia. What’s more, patients with typical chest imaging manifestations but without positive results of the nucleic acid test were also enrolled after assessing the exclusion criteria. They were clinically classified as mild cases (mild clinical symptoms with no sign of pneumonia on imaging), moderate cases (showing fever and respiratory symptoms with radiological findings of pneumonia), severe cases (respiration≧30 breaths/min, oxygen saturation ≤ 93% at rest, arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2)/fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) ≤ 300 mmHg or obvious lesion progression within 24 - 48 hours > 50% in chest imaging) and critical cases (organ failures that requires alternative therapy and/or ICU care, or shock). Liver injury was assessed according to the protocol for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of liver injury in coronavirus disease 2019 and the Chinese diagnosis and treatment guidelines for drug-induced liver injury . We referred to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes clinical practice guidelines for acute kidney injury and the Expert Recommendations for Clinical Management of Myocardial Injury Associated with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (First Edition), when we evaluated kidney and myocardial injuries, respectively . This study was reviewed and approved by the Human Ethics Committee, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University (Approval number: 2020-013-1). Data were analyzed and interpreted by the author team. 3. Data Collection We retrospectively collected patients’ basic characteristics, namely epidemiological histories, clinical manifestations, and comorbidities on admission. We also evaluated patients’ chest computed tomography (CT) images, SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection results, blood laboratory examination results, therapeutic interventions (i.e., antiviral therapy, corticosteroid therapy, traditional Chinese medicine therapies), and outcomes, from patients’ electronic medical records, after admission. Serial monitoring of patients’ laboratory profile was performed according to their clinical progression. Oropharyngeal swab samples were collected for all patients in our study. SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid was detected with fluorescence RT-PCR assay according to the manufacturer’s protocol (Shanghai BioGerm Medical Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China). Testing to detect 2019-nCoV RNA was performed on admission, 3 days after the disappearance of symptoms, and 24 hours after negative RNA seroconversion. All patients must have had at least three consecutive negative RNA results to be considered recovered. We used standard lung window and mediastinal window views in chest imaging using dual-source CT for radiographic assessments. Chest CT was performed on admission and after two negative 2019-nCOV RNA detection test results. The frequency of chest CT scans was according to severity and dynamic changes of the disease. 4. Statistical Analysis Continuous variables were described as median (interquartile range) or mean ± standard deviation and categorical variables as frequencies or percentages (%). All data were analyzed using SPSS version 26.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). We used the independent samples t test to compare the means between two groups and the Mann–Whitney test to compare medians. Frequencies and percentages were compared using the chi-squared test or Fisher’s exact test, conditionally. p-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. 5.1. Patients’ Basic Characteristics Of the 130 patients with COVID-19, 7 patients were mild cases, 103 were moderate, and 20 were severe. Patients’ median age was 54 years (range: 16 - 87 years) (Figure 1), and severe patients were older than the mild/moderate patients (52.9 ± 13.1 years vs 60.1 ± 12.1 years, p = 0.028). There was a slight but non-significant difference in the prevalence in men between the severe and mild/moderate groups (65.0% vs 46.4%, p = 0.098). Seventy-five patients (57.7%) had comorbidities, namely hypertension (n = 31), type 2 diabetes mellitus (n = 18), chronic liver disease (n = 10), and coronary heart disease/arrhythmia (n = 11). Chronic live disease included nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (n = 5), chronic hepatitis B (n = 4) and autoimmune hepatitis (n = 1). Additionally, 31 patients had chronic gastritis (n = 9), prior cerebral infarction (n = 4), thyroid dysfunction (n = 5) and hyperuricemia/gout (n = 4) and so on. It is important to point out that 85.0% of severe patients had comorbidities, and the percentage was significantly higher than that of mild/moderate patients (p = 0.006) (Table 1). Figure 1. Age distribution of the 130 patients with COVID-19 in this study. Table 1. Basic characteristics of the patients with COVID-19. Others: Chronic gastritis, Prior cerebral infarction, Thyroid dysfunction, Hyperuricemia/Gout. MD, mean; SD, standard deviation; CT, computed tomography; RT-PCR, real-time polymerase chain reaction; RNA, ribonucleic acid; d, day. The interval between exposure to patients or epidemic areas and the onset of fever and/or cough ranged from 2 to 14 days. Of the 130 patients, the most common symptoms at presentation were fever (n = 87, 66.9%), cough (n = 74, 56.9%), fatigue (n = 73, 56.2%), and chest tightness (n = 54, 41.5%). Less common symptoms included diarrhea (n = 38, 29.2%), anorexia (n = 37, 28.5%), sore throat (n = 16, 12.3%), headache (n = 14, 10.8%), and runny nose (n = 3, 2.3%) (Table 1). Patients’ median body temperature was 38.2˚C and ranged from 36.2˚C to 39.5˚C. Rash, purpura, and lymphadenopathy were not seen in this cohort. 5.2. Family Medical History and Potential Route of Transmission In the 130 patients, 128 individuals were permanent residents of Wuhan, and the remaining two patients came from Huanggang City and Jinan City, respectively. Fifty-seven (43.8%) patients had infected family members, indicating that person-to-person contact among family members was likely the main transmission routine (Table 1). 5.3. Clinical Manifestations 5.3.1. Detection of 2019-nCoV RNA and Typical CT Imaging Features Admission of the patient depended on their epidemiological history, clinical manifestations, positive 2019-nCoV RNA detection, and chest CT imaging findings typical of COVID-19. All patients underwent oropharyngeal swab sample collection to detect 2019-nCoV RNA, and chest CT scans. Overall, 108 (83.1%) patients had both positive detection of 2019-nCoV RNA and typical chest CT imaging features of COVID-19 at admission. One patient showed only typical chest CT imaging findings for COVID-19 at admission, but had a 2019-nCOV RNA-positive result 4 days after admission. Fourteen (10.8%) patients had only typical chest CT features during hospitalization and negative or suspected results for RNA detection throughout hospitalization. The duration of continuously-detectable viral RNA in 116 patients ranged from 1 to 41 days, with a median of 10 days. There was no significant difference in duration between severely and non-severely affected patients. Of the 123 patients with abnormal chest radiographic findings, parenchymal abnormalities in the peripheral zone was the most common finding. Airspace ground-glass opacities, consolidation, or mixed ground-glass opacities developed in different patients during the course of the disease (Figure 2). Successful response to therapy was demonstrated by serial chest radiographs, which showed resolution of lung inflammation. The mean time to resolution or obvious absorbed of pneumonia was 19.5 ± 8.9 days, which was slightly but not significantly longer in severe vs non-severe patients (22.0 ± 8.9 days vs 19.3 ± 8.7 days, p = 0.219) (Table 1). 5.3.2. Hematological Findings Higher white blood cell and neutrophil counts (6.5 × 109/L vs 4.8 × 109/L, p = 0.003 and 4.6 ×109/L vs 3.3 ×109/L, p = 0.000, respectively). In contrast, lymphocyte counts were lower (median: 0.7 × 109/L vs 1.2 × 109/L, p = 0.001). Red blood cell counts and platelet counts were normal in both groups. There were significant differences in erythrocyte sedimentation rate (20.0 mm/h vs 12.5 mm/h, p = 0.011), C-reactive protein (37.5 mg/mL vs 12.2 mg/mL, p = 0.025), and serum amyloid A (103.6 mg/L vs 23.7 mg/L, p = 0.017) between severe and mild/moderate patients, respectively, indicating a systemic inflammatory response in the severe patients. Fasting blood glucose level, as a metabolic index, was markedly higher in severe patients (8.5 mmol/L vs 5.5 mmol/L, p = 0.000), echoing the higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the group (30.0% vs 10.9%, p = 0.034) (Table 1 and Table 2). 5.4. Clinical Analysis of the Extrapulmonary Manifestations 5.4.1. Liver Injury The general incidence of liver injury was 21.5% (28/130), 13.6% (15/110) in Figure 2. Typical features of COVID-19 in chest computed tomography images: (a) Airspace ground-glass opacities in the peripheral zone, (b) Mixed ground-glass opacities in the peripheral zone, (c) Mixed ground-glass opacities in the right lung, and (d) Consolidation. Table 2. Comparison of routine blood examination results and inflammatory markers between the two groups. mild/moderate patients and 65.0% (13/20) in severe patients. Seventeen of them had comorbidities and two were chronic liver disease. The incidence of liver injury in patients with comorbidities was 22.7% (17/75) and 20.0% (2/10) in patients with chronic liver disease. No significant difference was observed in the incidence between patients with and without comorbidities or chronic liver disease (22.7% vs 20.0% and 20.0% vs 21.7%, respectively, p > 0.05). The injury in majority (n = 23, 82.1%) were mild. Only five patients had increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT) or aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels > 3 times of the upper limit of normal (ULN). Especially, ALT and AST levels in one patient who had taken four medications (arbidol, oseltamivir, Lianhua Qingwen and moxifloxacin) for more than 5 days, were 983 IU/L and 380 IU/L, respectively, during hospitalization. No significant difference existed in the severity of liver injury between patients with and without comorbidities (Table 3). Furthermore, liver injury occurred before admission in 17 (60.7%) patients and after admission in 11 (39.3%) patients with no significant difference in the severity (Table 4). Liver injury in the former did not progress further after admission. The time point of liver injury occurred in the latter was about 10 days (Figure 3). 5.4.2. Kidney Injury Mild kidney injury occurred in 13 (10.0%) patients: 7 (35.0%) were severe and 6 (5.5%) were non-severe cases. The mean age of affected patients was 63.0 ± 11.5 Table 3. Albumin and liver enzyme levels in patients with COVID-19-related liver injury, according to the presence of comorbidities. P*: comparing albumin and liver enzyme levels according to the presence of comorbidities; P#: comparing liver enzyme levels between baseline and the subsequently increased values. Table 4. Albumin and liver enzyme levels in patients with COVID-19-related liver injury occurring at or after admission. P*: comparing albumin and liver enzyme levels between liver injury occurring at and after admission; P#: comparing liver enzyme levels between baseline and the subsequently increased values. Figure 3. Dynamic changes of transaminase levels in the 28 patients with liver injury; (a) alanine transaminase, and (b) aspartate aminotransferase. years, and 7 (53.8%) patients were men. Seven of them also had hypertension and diabetes at baseline. Serum creatinine levels were markedly higher in severe patients than in non-severe patients (75.0 μmol/L vs 57.0 μmol/L, p = 0.027), while the estimated glomerular filtration rate showed a converse change in severe vs non-severe cases (95 ml/min/1.72 m2 vs 123 ml/min/1.72 m2, p = 0.020) (Table 5). 5.4.3. Myocardial Injury Twenty-two (16.9%) patients developed myocardial injury associated with COVID-19. The average age of the 22 patients was 66.4 ± 8.5 years: 13 (59.1%) men and 9 (40.9%) women. The levels of myocardial injury markers, such as creatine kinase-MB, myoglobin, cardiac troponin T, and N-terminal B-type Table 5. Biochemistry examination results for the main organ systems between the two groups. natriuretic peptide precursor, were increased, especially in severe patients (Table 5). The incidence of COVID-19-related myocardial injury was significantly higher in severe patients than in mild/moderate patients (45.0% vs 11.8%, p = 0.001). However, no patients with myocardial injury developed heart failure, malignant arrhythmia, or cardiogenic shock. 5.4.4. Coagulation Function Prothrombin time remained normal in most patients. Coagulation dysfunction manifested mainly as increased D-dimer levels, which were increased in 32 (24.6%) patients; 13 severe patients and 19 mild/moderate patients. D-dimer levels were markedly higher in severely affected patients than in non-severe patients (median, 0.5 μg/ml vs 0.1 μg/ml, p = 0.003) (Table 5). No affected patients progressed to obvious blood clotting and bleeding disorders. 5.5. Treatment and Clinical Outcomes Routine doses of antiviral drugs supplemented by symptomatic supportive therapy and traditional Chinese herbal remedies were used in the management of COVID-19. The most common antiviral drugs were arbidol (n = 64, 49.2%), oseltamivir (n = 73, 56.2%), and the Chinese remedy Lianhua Qingwen (n = 73, 56.2%). Ribavirin (n = 24, 18.5%) and peginterferon alfa-1b (7, 5.4%) were also used in some patient. The duration of antiviral treatment was no more than 10 days. Antibiotic medication was also administered for either prevention or treatment of bacterial infections, and constituted moxifloxacin (n = 81, 62.3%) and azithromycin (n = 29, 22.3%). Single or combined antibiotic therapy depended on the type and severity of infection, including but not limited to, quinolones (levofloxacin), cephalosporins (ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cefixime, and cefoperazone tazobactam), beta-lactam antibiotics (amoxicillin, meropenem, and biapenem), and vancomycin. In addition to these treatments, patients with severe pneumonia or rapid deterioration received intravenous methylprednisolone (dose adjusted according to the disease state) for a median of 4 days (range: 2 - 11 days). The proportion of severe patients who received glucocorticoids was 60%, which was significantly higher than that in non-severe patients (13.6%). Moreover, severe patients received a significantly higher number of different types of drugs compared with non-severe patients (Table 1). All patients in this study recovered and were discharged from hospital after a median hospitalization time of 15 days (range: 3 - 36 days). The hospitalization time for severe patients was significantly longer than for non-severe patients (23.0 days vs 12.5 days, p < 0.001). COVID-19 spread rapidly throughout the world, and infected people may progress quickly to acute respiratory distress syndrome, multisystem organ failure, and ultimately, death. In the absence of specific therapeutic drugs or vaccines for COVID-19, it is essential to detect the disease at an early stage and immediately isolate an infected person from the healthy population. Investigating the clinical features and risk factors regarding the progression of COVID-19 might help identify a new case and control disease spread. In our study, people of all ages were susceptible to the virus (median: 54 years; range: 16 - 87 years), and 66% of the patients were ≥40 years of age. No significant difference was found regarding the prevalence of COVID-19 by sex; however, middle-aged and older men may be more likely to develop severe infections. Other than decreasing innate immunity related to aging, the male sex difference may also relate to the influence of comorbidities, such as diabetes, hypertension, and coronary heart disease. Outbreaks of family clusters occurred with 43.8% of the patients, similar to findings in a previous report stating that person-to-person spread is a major route of transmission and indicating the importance of isolation . Isolation at home, mobile cabin hospitals, and the 76-day lockdown of Wuhan City have been the most effective and immediate methods of controlling the spread of the 2019-nCoV virus in China, by which, the COVID-19 epidemic has been gradually controlled in China. The symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection vary widely, from asymptomatic disease to pneumonia and life-threatening complications. Fever, cough, fatigue, and shortness of breath/ difficulty breathing are the most common symptoms, but other symptoms are diarrhea, anorexia, sore throat, nausea/vomiting, sore muscles, and other non-specific symptoms. Some symptoms are similar to those seen with other respiratory illnesses, such as influenza, but it is important to identify and differentiate between these symptoms. In addition to epidemiological histories and clinical manifestations, SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection and chest imaging are the main measures in suspected cases to diagnose patients as confirmed cases. Among the overall population in our study, 83.8% of the patients had positive RNA detection test results and signs of pneumonia on CT scans at admission. Furthermore, 14 (10.8%) patients had typical COVID-19 chest imaging features without confirmed positive RNA detection with RT-PCR from throat swab samples during hospitalization. With limitations of sample collection and transportation, as well as test kit performance, the total positive rate with RT-PCR using throat swab samples has been reported to be insufficiently sensitive, indicating that a large number of COVID-19 patients will not be identified quickly. Unidentified infected patients may not receive appropriate treatment and carry a risk of infecting a larger population. Tao et al. proposed that for early diagnosis of COVID-19, chest CT imaging may be a more reliable, practical, and rapid method of diagnosing and assessing COVID-19 than RT-PCR. The period of detectable 2019-nCoV RNA in our patient groups varied greatly (range: 1 - 41 days). To differentiate mild and moderate patients, chest radiograph offers an important diagnostic clue . Typically, patients presented with unilateral, predominantly peripheral, areas of ground-glass consolidation. After approximately 5 - 7 days, progressive multifocal peripheral air-space ground-glass consolidation or bilateral patchy consolidation, with diffuse ground-glass opacities were observed in patients with the severe form of COVID-19. These patients presented with emergent COVID-19 signs, such as trouble breathing, chest pain or pressure, and other hypoxemia-associated manifestations. With disease progression, routine peripheral blood testing showed decreased lymphocytes, elevated white blood cell counts, neutrophils, and inflammatory markers (i.e., erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, and serum amyloid A). Other studies found that several other inflammatory cytokines, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, interferon gamma-inducible protein-10, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein-1A, and tumor necrosis factor-α, were increased in patients with COVID-19 in the intensive care unit . These findings suggest that cytokine storm is positively correlated with disease severity and may be related to an excessive inflammatory response in patients with severe COVID-19 and damage to innate and adaptive immunity . Other affected organ systems such as the liver, cardiac system, kidneys, and coagulation system may be affected by cytokine storm and manifest as abnormal serum biochemical test results, especially in severe patients. A notable mechanism of this virus is that it spreads through the bloodstream and settles mainly in the lungs, as well the gastrointestinal tract, heart, and kidney, presumably concentrating in tissues that can express angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the receptor for SARS-CoV-2 . Of the 130 patients with COVID-19 in our study, 21.5% presented with slightly abnormal ALT and/or AST levels, and 42.3% had reduced serum albumin levels. Patients with severe COVID-19 seem to have higher rates of liver dysfunction. The pathogenesis of COVID-19-associated liver injury involves five main aspects: direct damage caused by the virus, immune-mediated stress and inflammation, hepatic ischemia and hypoxia, reactivation or aggravation of underlying liver disease, and drug hepatotoxicity . We also observed that severe patients with pre-existing conditions (i.e., diabetes and hypertension) were more likely to develop liver injury. In contrast, few mild/moderate patients presented with abnormal or worsened liver function, regardless of comorbidities, such as fatty liver and chronic hepatis B. These findings are consistent with other clinical reports . In the early management of COVID-19 in China, drug therapy always consisted of combined antiviral, antibiotic, and herbal therapies. As a result, drug-induced liver injury could not be differentially diagnosed. One patient in our study with ALT levels > 900 U/L was diagnosed with drug-induced liver injury after comprehensive analysis of his status and therapy. Therefore, recording the exact drugs administered and intensive surveillance of liver enzymes is necessary in the treatment of COVID-19 to identify liver injury early and prevent deterioration. Abnormal myocardial enzyme levels (creatine kinase-MB, myoglobin, and cardiac troponin T) or elevated N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide precursor were found in 16.9% of our patients. Additionally, 10.0% of patients developed kidney dysfunction measured by urea and serum creatinine levels, and estimated glomerular filtration rate. Coagulation dysfunction manifested mainly as elevated D-dimer levels, which was seen in 24.6% of the patients. Damage to these organs and systems may be ascribed to anoxia and hypotension secondary to the inflammatory cytokine storm activated by SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, intestinal dysbacteriosis and endotoxemia in patients with severe COVID-19 can also influence liver and coagulation function. Organ system injuries, especially parenchymal cells within the organs, can also be aggravated by hypoalbuminemia. Therefore, myocardial, kidney, and coagulation function should be closely monitored when managing patients with COVID-19. Apart from oseltamivir and arbidol in our study, the most common antiviral drug was Lianhua Qingwen. Compound herbal remedies based on “syndrome differentiation” were also used as combination therapy in some patients. Patients with increased white blood cell numbers in peripheral blood or with suspected bacterial infection were treated with moxifloxacin and third-generation cephalosporins. Patients without liver injury could be treated with azithromycin, which may prevent bacterial superinfection and which has immunomodulatory properties, as adjunct therapy . These pharmacological therapies effectively prevented disease progression, in our study. Methylprednisolone was administered in patients with overly exuberant systemic inflammatory responses, to prevent rapid progression to acute respiratory disease syndrome and alleviate the related signs . In this study, 60% of severe patients were treated with corticosteroids for a short period of time (3 - 12 days), and all patients were discharged in better health. However, corticosteroid therapy is not recommended for viral pneumonia and is controversial, with no general agreement regarding its clinical use, in patients with COVID-19. Using corticosteroids as short-term, low-dose therapy is considered ideal, to avoid adverse effects such as bacterial infection and prolonged viral clearance time. With these treatments and close surveillance, all 130 of our patients were discharged from hospital with significant improvement. In conclusion, as a new acute respiratory infectious disease, COVID-19 has such a high efficiency of interpersonal transmission that clustered occurrences easily develop in people without protection. Middle-aged and older men with pre-existing conditions are more likely to develop severe COVID-19. Multiple organs or systems may be involved in the disease, and timely treatment is needed to prevent disease progression to life-threatening levels. With the global COVID-19 pandemic, the causative virus’ pathogenesis, clinical characteristics of different populations, and effective therapeutic strategies need to be clarified further in multicenter and large population-based clinical studies. The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Hebei Provincial Department of Science and Technology [Grant number: 20277713D]. COVID-19: Coronavirus Disease 2019 SARS-CoV-2: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 RT-PCR: Real-Time Reverse Transcription Polymerase chain Reaction 2019-nCoV: 2019-Novel Coronavirus ALT: Alanine Aminotransferase AST: Aspartate Aminotransferase *These authors contributed equally to this work. Wu, F., Zhao, S., Yu, B., Chen, Y.M., Wang, W., Song, Z.G., et al. (2020) A New Coronavirus Associated with Human Respiratory Disease in China. Nature, 579, 265-269. Morawska, L. and Cao, J.J. (2020) Airborne Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: The World Should Face the Reality. Environment International, 139, Article ID: 105730. Wang, D.W., Hu, B., Hu, C., Zhu, F.F., Liu, X., Zhang, J., et al. (2020) Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients with 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 323, 1061–1069. Chen, N., Zhou, M., Dong, X., Qu, J.M., Gong, F.Y., Han, Y., et al. (2020) Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of 99 Cases of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A Descriptive Study. Lancet, 395, 507-513. National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China and Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China (2020) Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Trial Version 7). Chinese Digestion Association, Chinese Medical Doctor Association, Chinese Society of Hepatology, Chinese Medical Association (2020) The Protocol for Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Corona Virus Infective Disease 2019. Chinese Journal of Hepatology, 28, 217-221. National Center for Gerontology/National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Cardiovascular Branch of Chinese Geriatrics Society, Imaging Group of Cardiovascular Department, Beijing Medical Association (2020) Expert Recommendations for Clinical Management of Myocardial Injury Associated With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (First Edition). Chinese Circulation Journal, 35, 326-330. Ai, T., Yang, Z.L., Hou, H.Y., Zhan, C.A., Chen, C., Lv, W.Z., et al. (2020) Correlation of Chest CT and RT-PCR Testing in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: A Report of 1014 Cases. Radiology, 296, E32-E40. Bernheim, A., Mei, X.Y., Huang, M.Q., Yang, Y., Fayad, Z.A., Zhang, N., et al. (2020) Chest CT Findings in Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19): Relationship to Duration of Infection. Radiology, 295, 685-691. Huang, C.L., Wang, Y.M., Li, X.W., Ren, L.L., Zhao, J.P., Hu, Y., et al. (2020) Clinical Features of Patients Infected with 2019 Novel Coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet, 395, 497–506. Chai, X.Q., Hu, L.F., Zhang, Y., Han, W.Y., Lu, Z., Ke, A.W., et al. (2020) Specific ACE2 Expression in Cholangiocytes May Cause Liver Damage After 2019-nCoV Infection. BioRxiv, Article ID: 931766. Guan, W.J. and Zhong, N.S., et al. (2020) Clinical Characteristics of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Infection in China. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 1708- 1720. Zarogoulidis, P., Papanas, N., Kioumis, I., Chatzaki, E., Maltezos, E. and Zarogoulidis, K. (2012) Macrolides: From in Vitro Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Properties to Clinical Practice in Respiratory Disease. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 68, 479-503. Zhou, Y.H., Qin, Y.Y., Lu, Y.Q., Sun, F., Yang, S., Harypursat, V., et al. (2020) Effectiveness of Glucocorticoid Therapy in Patients with Severe Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia: Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Chinese Medical Journal, 133, 1080-1086.

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The ability to recognize conspecifics is crucial for survival, and it has been demonstrated in a variety of species that visual cues are very important to this purpose, especially for social animals (i.e., Gronenberg, Ash & Tibbetts, 2007; Parr, 2011; Dahl et al., 2013; Somppi et al., 2014). One of the most useful visual cues for recognizing conspecifics is the face: a great amount of evidence has been collected on the ability to identify faces (e.g., Ramon, 2015), also indicating that the tendency to gaze at faces rather than other objects is an innate skill, not only in humans but also in other animals (Johnson et al., 1991; Sugita, 2008; Rosa Salva, Regolin & Vallortigara, 2010; Rosa Salva et al., 2011). Proof of the importance of facial recognition is the evidence of specific cerebral areas involved in face processing. A number of studies have shown that the fusiform gyrus, particularly in the right hemisphere, is the brain area specifically involved in face processing (Gross, Rocha-Miranda & Bender, 1972; Bruce, Desimone & Gross, 1981; McCarthy et al., 1997), so that this area has been named “fusiform face area” (Kanwisher, McDermott & Chun, 1997; Kanwisher & Yovel, 2006). Neuroscientists agree in identifying the right hemisphere as mostly involved in face processing (i.e., Rizzolatti, Umiltà & Berlucchi, 1971; Yovel, in press), a right-hemispheric—but not left-hemispheric—lesion causing prosopagnosia, that is the inability to recognize the identity of faces (Barton et al., 2002). Several studies investigated the possibility that the right-hemispheric advantage in face processing is really specific for this type of stimuli, as opposed to a specialization in processing all stimuli that demand acquired expertise. In other words, some authors have cast doubts on the real face-specific superiority of the right hemisphere, favoring the alternative view according to which the right hemisphere would be superior in the processing of familiar stimuli, faces being a sub-category of this class (e.g., Diamond & Carey, 1986; Gauthier & Tarr, 1997). However, a compromise between these two hypotheses is that the right-hemispheric superiority in face processing could be considered as advantageous specifically because of the high frequency of exposure to this familiar class of stimuli: it is reasonable, in fact, to hypothesize that because we are continuously exposed to conspecific faces in everyday life, our brain has evolved a specific neuronal circuit in order to selectively process these frequent stimuli in terms of both rapidity and accuracy. Some evidence in this regard have shown that humans are more capable to recognize own-race and own-gender faces than other-race and other-gender faces (Wright & Sladden, 2003; Wiese, Kaufmann & Schweinberger, 2014). This evidence agree with the hypothesis of a specialized neural circuit evolved because of the high frequency of exposure to faces. The “face inversion effect” (Yin, 1969) is referred to the impaired performance of observers who are asked to recognize upside-down faces. In this circumstance, it was shown that the right hemisphere maintained its superiority in face processing with respect to the left hemisphere, even if its performance worsened with respect to the processing of upright faces. Moreover, the fusiform face area has been shown to process faces presented both in upright and upside-down orientation (Kanwisher, Tong & Nakayama, 1998). A biological advantage would have led to evolve specific neural circuits devoted to processing faces as special stimuli, both at the phylogenetic and at the ontogenetic level (Vallortigara, 2012), due to the crucial role of this category of stimuli for survival. The assumption of a “cerebral social predisposition” is confirmed by a fast, subcortical route devoted to the processing of face-like stimuli in humans (Johnson, 2005), as well as in other species (Rosa Salva, Mayer & Vallortigara, 2015). Starting from this premise, we could hypothesize that the right-hemispheric superiority might also turn out to be resistant to other kinds of manipulations besides face inversion (Leder et al., 2001), as already demonstrated by means of geometric distortions (Hole et al., 2002), face caricaturing (Schulz et al., 2012), and so on. In this regard, Pichler and colleagues (2012) investigated the role of first-order versus second-order structure of faces in adaptation mechanisms: they used the so-called “exploded faces,” created by dividing faces into parts which were spaced apart from each other preserving the whole facial configuration (thus destroying the second-order structure), and “scrambled faces,” in which the facial configuration was destroyed by swapping face parts with each other (thus destroying the first-order structure). The authors found that exploded upright and upside-down faces generated identity after-effects on intact upright test faces, whereas scrambled faces did not, concluding that the face-like configuration (first-order structure) is necessary to activate face representations, and that the second-order structure of faces was contained in both orientations. These results were somehow in contrast with the idea according to which inverted faces should be processed as a mere collection of local features rather than as a global percept. The classical view on hemispheric competence about global/local processing is that of a right-hemispheric dominance for global analysis and a left-hemispheric dominance for local analysis (see Karim & Kojima, 2010 for a review). By means of inverted exploded faces, however, Pichler and colleagues (2012) showed that these stimuli allowed to sidestep this distinction and to investigate face processing by considering both global and local aspects altogether. In fact, in exploded faces, the spatial relationships among parts remain unaltered (i.e., the eyes are presented above the nose) and the local features are always present (the details of each part of the image remain intact), differently, for example, from blurred or scrambled images. Another study in which exploded faces were used (Moscovitch & Moscovitch, 2000, who referred to these stimuli as “fractured faces”), showed a “super face-inversion effect”: upside-down fractured faces were recognized worse than both upright fractured and upside-down whole faces (see also Moscovitch, Winocur & Behrmann, 1997). A right-hemispheric superiority in matching the identity of famous faces has been shown by Cooper and colleagues (2007), in a divided visual field paradigm, in which a prime face was centrally shown and then followed by a lateral target face. The authors found that the right hemisphere was superior to the left hemisphere in the matching of prime and target faces when the two stimuli were identical, whereas the authors did not find any lateralized bias when the stimuli were different images of the same face, or when they depicted two different familiar faces. Despite these behavioral results, electroencephalographic recordings showed a similar right temporal N250 modulation for the first two conditions (prime and target being the same image or different images of the same face). Cooper and colleagues concluded that a behavioral left visual field advantage (right-hemispheric superiority) in matching prime and target stimuli occurred only when they were the same image, but the event-related potentials revealed that the right hemisphere processed in the same way prime and target faces both when they were the same image and two different images of the same face (thus, confirming the ability to recognize a face, beyond a specific image). In an attempt to link the possible right-hemispheric superiority in face recognition with the processing of configural aspects of face stimuli, we investigated hemispheric abilities in the processing of upright, inverted, entire and exploded faces (and the combinations of these conditions), by means of a divided visual field paradigm. The hypothesis of the study was that, starting from the well-established right-hemispheric dominance in face processing, the right hemisphere should appear dominant also in the processing of exploded faces, confirming the cerebral asymmetry also for faces undergoing different spatial manipulations. To investigate this issue, in a same/different forced choice task we presented a sample face in the center of the screen, followed by the presentation of a lateralized target face, exploiting the tachistoscopic unilateral visual field paradigm. By manipulating the spatial orientation (upright/inverted) and the global configuration (different degrees of explosion) of the stimuli, we aimed to confirm that the right-hemispheric superiority in face processing would withstand to multiple spatial manipulations. Materials and Methods Thirty-seven volunteers (32 females) took part in the experiment (mean age: 24.73 ± 0.29 years). As in previous studies investigating the effects of face perception, the gender of participants was not controlled for (e.g., Ramon & Rossion, 2012; Cattaneo et al., 2014; Bourne & Hole, 2006), starting from the evidence that females and males did not differ in recognizing lateralized presented faces (Hirnstein, Hausmann & Güntürkün, 2008; Godard & Fiori, 2010). All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and were naïve about the purpose of the experiment. Two participants were left-handed and the other 35 were right-handed, as self-reported (left-handed participants were not excluded from the sample, as in previous studies in which lateralized faces were used as stimuli, e.g., Ramon & Rossion, 2012). The present study did not involve patients, children or animals, as well as drugs, genetic samples or invasive techniques, thus it was not subject to ethical review by the academic medical research board. Nevertheless, informed consent was obtained from all participants and the experiment was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards prescribed by the Declaration of Helsinki. Stimuli were created from photographs contained in the Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces (Lundqvist, Flykt & Öhman, 1998), a database of female and male faces depicted in emotional and neutral poses. Photographs of 3 female and 3 male Caucasian actors in neutral pose and in frontal view were selected and rendered in gray scale. In order to make the gender of faces well-distinguishable, all female actresses had long hair and all male actors had short hair. From each original photograph, a total of 4 images were obtained by means of the software Photoshop (Adobe Systems Inc., San Jose, CA, USA). Specifically, in order to create the “exploded faces,” 3 more images were created based on each original photograph, by cutting the original image into 9 parts having the same size, according to a virtual 3 × 3 grid. From the original image measuring 192 × 132 pixels (height × width, visual angle: 5.07° × 2.21°, seen at a distance of 72 cm), 9 parts were thus obtained, each measuring 64 × 44 pixels (1.69 × 0.74°). In order to create the exploded stimuli, the 8 external parts in the image were displaced away from the central part. The distance of the external parts from the central one determined the “level of explosion”: at level 0, the face was presented in its entirety—since all the pieces were juxtaposed to each other (original photograph); at level 1, each part was orthogonally spaced 8 pixels away from the neighboring parts; at level 2, each part was orthogonally spaced 32 pixels away from the neighboring parts; at level 3, each part was orthogonally spaced 64 pixels away from the neighboring parts (distances are intended from side to side, see Fig. 1). Stimuli were first created in canonical orientation (upright orientation), and a second set was then obtained rotating each stimulus 180° (inverted orientation). The task was controlled by means of E-Prime software (Psychology Software Tools Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, USA) and presented on a screen with a resolution of 1,280 × 1,024 pixels. Participants were tested individually, in a darkened room, sitting at a distance of 72 cm from the computer screen. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions, which had a similar structure, but differed for the spatial manipulations of sample and target stimuli (see Fig. 2). In all conditions the level of explosion of the sample face was blocked among trials, whereas the target face was presented at each of the four levels of explosion. A trial started with a sample face shown for 500 ms in the center of the screen; then a fixation cross was centrally presented for 1000 ms, and in the following 100 ms a target face was presented on the left side of the screen (50% of trials) or on the right side of the screen (50% of trials), the central fixation cross remaining visible (the center of the stimuli was placed at a distance of 5.37° of visual angle to the left or to the right of the central fixation cross). Then the screen became blank until the participant gave her/his response and—1,000 ms after the response—the next trial started. Target stimuli were presented for 100 ms in order to reduce the possibility of eye movements, starting from the evidence that not less than 110–120 ms are needed to carry out a saccadic movement (i.e., Trottier & Pratt, 2005). There were 32 trials for each of the 6 identities (3 female and 3 male): in 16 of such trials, the target face was the same as the sample face (i.e., female 1), in the other 16 trials the identity of the target face was different with respect to the identity of the sample face (i.e., in 8 of the unmatched trials in which the sample face was female 1, the target face was female 2, and in the other 8 trials the target face was female 3). The resulting 192 trials in each experimental condition were repeated three times. In the first experimental condition the sample face was presented upright and entire (level of explosion 0), and the target face was presented upright and at each of the 4 levels of explosion (levels: 0, 1, 2 and 3). This condition, in which sample and target stimuli are presented upright (from now on condition “Upright–Upright”), was administrated to 11 participants (7 females). In the second condition a further element of spatial manipulation was added, presenting the stimuli upside-down, as well as exploded: sample faces were presented upright and at level of explosion 2, and target faces were presented upside-down and at each of the 4 levels of explosion. This condition, in which the sample face was presented upright and the target face was presented in inverted spatial orientation (from now on condition “Upright–Inverted”), was administrated to 13 participants (12 females). In the third condition, the spatial orientation of the sample stimuli was also manipulated, in order to investigate the possibility to alter the expected right-hemispheric superiority when the initial coding was more difficult, due to face inversion: sample faces were presented upside-down and at level of explosion 2, and target faces were presented upright and at each of the 4 levels of explosion. This condition, in which the sample face was presented in inverted spatial orientation and the target face was presented in canonical spatial orientation (from now on condition “Inverted-Upright”), was administrated to 13 participants (all females). Written instructions were presented at the beginning of the task, in which participants were required to maintain their gaze on the central fixation cross and half of them were asked to press either a keyboard button with the left hand when the identity of the target face was the same as that of the sample face, or a button with the right hand when the identity of the sample and target faces differed, whereas the other half received the instructions with the opposite association between hand and response. Prior to the beginning of the task, participants were informed that stimuli could be presented as upright or upside-down, entire or exploded and they were shown some examples in order to familiarize with the stimuli. They were also informed that the gender of faces remained the same between sample and target stimuli in each trial. The presentation order of the trials was randomized within and across participants, and the task lasted about 25 minutes. Results were analyzed by means of the Statistica 8.0.550 software (StatSoft. Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA). In a first step, the frequencies of correct responses of the whole sample were transformed in percentages and the mean was compared to the 50% chance threshold by means of exact t-tests. This first analysis showed that participants did not respond by chance, since the t-test was significant (t(36)=12.79; p < .001), indicating that participants matched the identity of sample and target faces at a higher rate than chance (mean accuracy ± SEM: 61.71% ± 0.91%). The results were significant also considering each of the 3 groups separately (Upright–Upright: t(10) = 17.92; p < .001; Upright–Inverted: t(12) = 5.73; p < .001; Inverted-Upright: t(12) = 7.6; p < .001). A split-plot analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out, using Sex of faces (female, male), Hemifield of presentation of the target face (left visual field: LVF, right visual field: RVF) and Level of explosion of the target face (0, 1, 2, 3) as within-subject factors, Condition (Upright–Upright, Upright–Inverted, Inverted-Upright) as between-subject factor, and the percentage of correct responses as the dependent variable. Since we did not have specific hypotheses concerning the effect of gender and handedness of participants, these factors were not controlled for, and thus they were not included in the analysis. Post-hoc comparisons were computed by means of Duncan tests. All main effects were significant. The effect of Hemifield (F(1,34) = 99.99, p < .001, ), revealed that the target faces were correctly recognized more frequently when presented in the LVF (66.32 ± 0.67) than in the RVF (57.10 ± 0.51). The main effect of Sex of faces (F(1,34) = 91.61, p < .001, ) showed that Female faces were correctly recognized more frequently than Male faces (female faces: 65.73 ± 0.67; male faces: 57.68 ± 0.55). Post-hoc comparisons on the main effect of the Level of explosion (F(3,102) = 10.65, p < .001, ; level 0: 67.14 ± 0.94; level 1: 63.00 ± 0.97; level 2: 61.20 ± 0.90; level 3: 59.49 ± 0.87) showed that the correct matching rates were higher when target faces were presented at Level of explosion 0 with respect to Levels of explosion 2 (p = .017) and 3 (p < .001), and at Level of explosion 1 with respect to Levels of explosion 2 (p = .020) and 3 (p < .001). There were no differences between Levels 0 and 1, and between Levels 2 and 3. Finally, also the effect of Condition was significant (F(2,34) = 7.43, p = .002, ), and post-hoc comparisons showed that target faces were correctly recognized more frequently in Upright–Upright condition (65.89 ± 0.72) than in Upright–Inverted (58.34 ± 0.76; p < .001) and in Inverted-Upright (61.53 ± 0.82; p = .031) conditions. The significant interaction between Hemifield and Sex of faces (F(1,34) = 28.82, p < .001, ) confirmed that Female faces were correctly recognized more frequently than Male faces in both the LVF and the RVF, and that both Female and Male faces were correctly recognized more frequently when presented in the LVF than in the RVF (p < .001 for all comparisons). Finally, also the three-way interaction concerning Hemifield, Sex of faces and Condition was significant (F(2,34) = 5.01, p = .012, ; Fig. 3). Post-hoc comparisons showed a LVF advantage in all cases (p < .001 for all comparisons between LVF and RVF), with the exception of male faces in Upright–Inverted condition. Moreover, female faces were correctly recognized more frequently than male faces in both visual fields and in any condition (p < .001 for all comparisons), with the exception of faces presented in the RVF in the Upright–Inverted condition. The present study confirms the right-hemispheric superiority in face processing, extending this evidence to the unusual situation constituted by exploded and inverted faces. Indeed, the effect of the visual field was highly significant, showing that the identity of two faces was better matched when target stimuli were presented in the left visual field (right hemisphere) than in the right visual field (left hemisphere). This evidence is in line with a number of studies (Bourne & Hole, 2006; Cattaneo et al., 2014), strengthening the hypothesis of a right-hemispheric superiority in face processing, that goes beyond the idea of expertise with a specific class of stimuli: in fact, if this latter case can be applicable to the identification of an upright and entire face—a class of stimuli to which we are continuously exposed—it is not applicable to exploded and/or inverted faces. The results of the present study are also in line with those of Cooper and colleagues (2007), who found a similar right-hemispheric N250 modulation during the recognition of a target face that followed a prime face of the same identity, both when prime and target were the same image and when they were different images (even if the authors lacked to find a behavioral LVF advantage when prime and target were different images of the same person). These results showed that the right-hemispheric superiority in face recognition is not just based on a match-to-sample processing due to a pure mnemonic encoding of the perceptual characteristics of the stimuli, but it is based on higher-order processes, which seem to be resistant to perceptual changes (spatial manipulations or different views of the face). In line with this view, in a facial identity adaptation paradigm during fMRI, Verosky & Turk-Browne (2012) found that adaptation mechanisms occurred in the left fusiform face area only when a face had previously been processed by the RH, whereas they did not occur when the face had only been processed by the LH. The authors concluded that facial identity information is mainly processed by the RH, and then it can be transferred from the right to the left hemisphere. As regard the spatial manipulation of the stimuli, in a PET study Rossion and colleagues (2000) showed that cerebral asymmetries for part-based versus whole-based processing of faces take place in the fusiform gyrus, more activated in the LH for part-based processing, and in the RH for whole-based processing. The present study also showed that exploded faces were recognized with more difficulty than entire faces, and specifically that the entire or almost entire stimuli (levels of explosion 0 and 1) were better recognized than the exploded stimuli (levels of explosion 2 and 3), independently of their spatial orientation (i.e., upright/upside-down). We also found that the performance of the participants were lower when either the sample or the target face were presented exploded and in inverted orientation (Conditions 2 and 3) than when they were presented exploded and upright (Condition 1), in accordance with the “super face-inversion effect” (Moscovitch & Moscovitch, 2000). The results of the present study showed that female faces were better recognized than male faces. Importantly, however, as regard the hemispheric bias in interaction with the gender of the stimuli, the only occurrence in which the right-hemispheric superiority was not evident was that concerning male faces in condition “upright-inverted,” in which after the upright sample face, an upside-down target face was presented. An alternative explanation for the right-hemispheric superiority in face analysis is linked to a leftward spatial bias possibly attributable to the prevalence of right-handedness in humans and the higher likelihood of scanning the left side of others in face-to-face interactions (for a detailed review, see Marzoli, Prete & Tommasi, 2014). Moreover, a further explanation for the right-hemispheric superiority in face recognition, and in particular for female faces, takes into account an additional factor, concerning the early interactions between infants and caregivers, mainly mothers, namely a leftward bias in maternal cradling, that could be attributable to the fact that in this way the infant’s facial signals directly reach the mother’s right hemisphere, preferentially devoted to face processing (i.e., Huggenberger et al., 2009; see also Marzoli, Prete & Tommasi, 2014) and to emotion recognition (Gainotti, 1972; Prete et al., 2015a; Prete et al., 2015b). In line with this idea, it could be hypothesized that female faces are better recognized than male faces when presented in the LVF (right hemisphere) and in inverted orientation (“Upright–Inverted” condition), because of the exposure to the upside-down perspective of a female face in the early childhood: in this period, in fact, infants are held by mothers (preferentially on their left side) and are more likely exposed to the mother’s face from a variety of vantage points. Accordingly, a right-hemispheric bias for the recognition of female faces, using chimeric faces, was also found in both female and male observers by means of a gender recognition task carried out by Parente & Tommasi (2008), supporting the right-hemispheric dominance in female-face processing, independently of the observers’ gender. Moreover, no difference in the accuracy between female and male observers were found in a divided visual field paradigm in which participants were required to discriminate faces from non-faces (Hirnstein, Hausmann & Güntürkün, 2008), or to recognize the identity of a face (Godard & Fiori, 2010). To conclude, the present study confirms the right-hemispheric superiority in face processing and extends this ability also to stimuli transformed by multiple spatial manipulations (inverted and exploded faces). We speculate that this hemispheric superiority could possibly be linked to both right-handedness and the leftward bias in maternal cradling (Marzoli, Prete & Tommasi, 2014). This circumstance casts doubts on the possibility of a right-hemispheric superiority for all categories of stimuli with which we have expertise, because it is evident that exploded faces are unusual stimuli for observers (even more so if they are also inverted). The present findings should be intended as a further confirmation of the right-hemispheric dominance in face processing, showing the robustness of this neuropsychological fact even in cases of extreme spatial manipulations of the stimuli. These conclusions need further investigations. For instance, it has to be noticed that in the present study participants were asked to maintain their initial position during the whole task and to fixate the central cross, but neither eye movements nor head position were monitored, thus caution is needed in the interpretation of the present results, and possible further studies should investigate the strength of the present conclusions by adding direct measurements of both eye movements and head position during the lateralized presentation of the stimuli. Moreover, the hypothesis drawn in this study could be tested by using stimuli other than faces in order to directly compare performance and hemispheric abilities in the matching of different classes of stimuli, as well as by comparing the performance of female and male participants.

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In today’s hyper-competitive and complex global economy, organizations have started to realize the importance of selecting and recruiting the best talent. Along with the realization of the importance of recruiting, hiring, developing, and retaining a talented workforce, the need for managing talent as a critical resource has gained popularity among modern organizations. Broadly defined, the concept of talent management is the execution or implementation of integrated systems or strategies that are designed to increase employees’ productivity through the development of enhanced processes of attracting, recruiting, retaining, developing, and utilizing the right talent to meet both current and future organizational goals. Previously, organizations saw talent management as a responsibility best transferred to the personnel department. Today, however, talent management is seen as an organizational function. Talent management is largely influenced by external factors including but not limited to global expansion, the economy, and mergers and acquisitions. The critical success factors for talent management to be successful include its alignment with strategic goals, active participation of top management and human resource management. Over the years, some major themes have emerged, including but not limited to the role and responsibility of line leaders in talent development. Other themes include the involvement of top management, accountability, management, culture, and processes. Studies indicate that many organizations are moving from a reactive to proactive approach in a bid to harness their talent. Further, firms have different organizational capabilities brought about by the strategies employed to attract, motivate, retain, and develop talents and skills. In line with this argument, staffing plays an important role in terms of establishing and maintaining a competitive advantage for any organization. It is also important to note that the firm’s competence and resources can enhance its competitive advantage and create value for the consumer by reducing costs, providing unique products, or by combining the two. Drivers and Importance of Talent Management One of the drivers of talent management is the desire of the organization to get a competitive advantage. Talent management strategies are based on five primary areas including, attracting, selecting, hiring, developing, and retaining human resources. Top-tier organizations focus more on talent retaining and development. Sources of competitive advantage include convenience, speed, distribution, and first to market. The firm also needs to understand the importance of its staff with regard to their contribution to the overall business performance. Talent management as a function is driven by trends in the workforce. Factors such as increasing the virtual and global workforce, different age groups working together, autonomous and empowered workforce and improved life expectancy have the tendency to change the workplace (Lewis & Heckman 2006, p. 136). Owing to changes in demographics, the workforce is increasingly becoming diverse in relation to gender, age, cultural norms, ethnicities, and lifestyles. Organizations have already started to take the opportunities presented by the new trend. Another driver for talent management has anticipated a shortage of skills over the coming years. While it is expected that the skills shortage will not affect all players in the given industry, it is predicted that the skills supply will slump, forcing organizations to start competing for talent. For instance, customer care, technology repair, and computer support industries are only some of the areas that are currently dealing with skills’ shortage. Furthermore, the expected decline in the supply of talent will depend on the size of the organization, the industry, or the sector. For instance, large firms are more likely to be concerned with the problem of talent loss following the retirement of baby boomers. Similarly, public organizations are more concerned with the issue of losing talent as compared with private companies (Lewis & Heckman, 2006 p. 137). Another driver of talent management is key business strategies. For example, with increased demand for global technical expertise, competency development should be linked to the company’s strategic goals. As one of the organizational strategy, corporate branding also drives talent management. Modern firms are increasingly associating their brand with corporate and employees’ behavior. This strategy is in line with the framework for global talent challenges and global talent management initiative as identified by Schuler and his colleagues (2011, p. 508) and as illustrated below. The process of globalization has created a number of global talent challenges for modern business. According to Schuler and his colleagues (2011, p. 507), there are a number of factors that give rise to global challenges, including changing demographics, the process of globalization, increased demand for workers with a good level of competence and motivation, and supply of talent. To understand the process of globalization and how it affects talent management, the authors suggest looking for information by observing trends and realities in world trade and/wage differentials, competition, customers/markets, and individuals. The second factor behind increased challenges in global talent management is demographics. Population among developed economies has been shrinking while that of developing economies has been expanding, a fact that multinational companies should consider while making decisions regarding their location. The third factor is increasing the demand for talent. The labor market has seen a sharp increase in demand for competent and motivated workers. This is true for both new and existing jobs. Workers have been put under pressure to develop new levels of competencies. The emergence of the concept of knowledge workers with regard to managers, specialists, and technical researchers among other professions has had a big impact on the shape of the labor market (Schuler, Jackson & Tarique 2011, p. 509). This happens despite the fact that the supply of such workers has been increasing and the trend is expected to continue for some years. This may lead to increased wage competition and increased government interventions, as the latter seeks to create employment opportunities for the expanded labor force. In the light with the abovementioned facts, an organization has to make sure that it has the right number of talents, at the right time, and at the right price. An organization may be required to increase or reduce the number of employees by new hiring and layoffs respectively, depending on its immediate needs. In addition, an organization may opt to start new operations or outsource existing operations. Still, an organization may be required to improve the efficiency of its training programs to ensure that workers are well equipped to handle their roles (Kehinde 2012, p. 178). Among other factors, human resource management strategy plays an important role in making a decision on the location or relocation of business activities. First, the core of human resource management is the application of management principles and functions with regard to acquiring, maintaining, developing, and providing rewards to human resources. Secondly, HR management involves the integration of all decisions relating to different aspects of human capital. Thirdly, HR management involves making decisions that in turn affect the effectiveness of an organization and impact the betterment of services for customers. It is worth noting that HR management functions are not limited to business establishments and business functions, including health care, education, and recreation. It contains functions, activities, and programs designed to enhance the performance of employees as well as the organization (Schuler, Jackson & Tarique, 2011 p. 509). The scope of HR management is wide and involves all aspects of the working life of an employee, starting from recruitment to exit. Major activities of HR management include planning, job analysis, design, hiring, and executive remuneration, motivation, maintenance, and industrial relations. In this context, the scope of HR management includes all decisions, factors, principles, strategies, functions, operations, and practices involved in the process of managing people as human capital in an organization. Also, the scope of HR management includes all the dimensions relating to employee relationships and dynamics that come from such relationships (Schuler, Jackson & Tarique 2011, p. 600). Another framework that can be used for explaining the concept of global talent management is strategic talent management. This model emphasizes the need to recognize and identify key positions that have the potential to influence the competitiveness of an organization. In this light, the model stresses the identification of the position first, before identifying the required talent. According to this model, the talent management strategy encompasses those activities and processes that are employed in identifying strategic positions, each of which has its own contribution to sustaining a competitive advantage. These positions also contribute to the development of a talent pool and high performance of individuals who play executive roles (Kehinde 2012, p. 178). Talent management under this model can also be viewed as the development of a human resource structure that facilitates the filling in of key positions with competent employees as well as their continued commitment to the overall goal of the organization. The strategic talent management model is based on the premise that the differentiation of roles plays an important part in ensuring increased performance. The model also encourages organizations to focus on strategic jobs rather than non-strategic ones while designing their talent management strategy. It has been argued that the recognition of pivotal talent positions is the initial stage in talent management (Collins & Mellahi 2009, p. 305). Notably, studies have emphasized the need to identify ‘A performers’ in terms of talent development and retention. Similarly, some scholars advocate for the identification of ‘A position’ or key positions. These positions have a huge influence on the company’s competitive advantage. Additionally, some SHRM (strategic human resource management) researchers have adopted the bottom-up focus, which stipulates that employees are capable of contributing to the company’s strategic objective due to their uniqueness and value in the company (Collins & Mellahi 2009, p. 306). On the contrary, some scholars propose a top-down focus, which argues that employees have a strategic value once they contribute to the strategic objectives of the company. However, some strategic processes may not depend on human capital. As such, these scholars recognize that the job itself is the major locus of differentiation rather than individual employees. The second element of the model focuses on the development of a talent pool composed of employees with high potential and high performance, who fill in the roles defined as the key positions and contribute to the competitive advantage of the organization. According to the model, organizations should be able to identify employees who are strategic performers and define ways of dealing with non-strategic performers. For a strategic position to contribute positively to the competitive advantage of the organization, it must be assigned to a high performing and high potential employee. This contradicts the belief that all roles in an organization should be filled with ‘A’ performers only (Collins & Mellahi 2009, p. 306). The term talent pool is used to refer to a pool of employees with high performance and potential to fill key talent positions. The idea here is to shift from traditional recruitment led by vacancy to recruitment ahead of the curve. Similar to succession planning, identifying a talent pool entails proactive identification of employees, who have the potential to fill certain positions should they become vacant. It is important to note that such employees are generally higher achievers and may become disillusioned when they think that they have been appointed to roles that have limited scope. The final element of the model emphasizes the need to define and implement strategic human resource policies. Once an organization has identified the key positions and the individuals who have the potential to fill them, the next step involves using a human resource policy to support their performance. Case Study: Dubai Electricity and Water Authority The Dubai Electricity and Water Authority hereafter denoted as DEWA is the sole provider of electricity and water-related activities. DEWA was founded in 1992, immediately following the merger of Dubai Water Department and Dubai Electric Company. Currently, DEWA has a workforce of about 6000 employees, who are charged with the role of ensuring that the quality and quantity of provided services meet the highest standards relating to reliability and consistency. The company’s talent management strategy is aimed at developing and nurturing leaders across different organizational levels. Pursuing this agenda, the company has increased its efforts to assess employees’ competencies in a bid to identify and close the gap in development (“Classroom Material”). Moreover, the firm aims at achieving this through the evaluation of employee performance, productivity, and efficiency. Identifying the career path of its employees as well as developing clear succession plans also plays a central role in ensuring the successful implementation of the talent management strategy. Finally, the company hopes to implement the strategy by evaluating the effectiveness of training in order to find or identify areas of improvement and staff development. for 30+ pages for 50+ pages for 100+ pages DEWA has a well-established talent development strategy, which is overseen by the senior manager. The organization of talent development in the company is composed of five major components as demonstrated in the figure below. The senior manager is charged with the role of developing and nurturing leaders across the organization. The manager is also responsible for mapping the career path of the organization’s employees and managing succession planning at various levels. Further, the senior manager has to measure return on investment (ROI), evaluate the performance of the employees, their efficiency, and productivity. Like the one on the top of the organization chart, the senior manager is also responsible for assessing staff competencies in a bid to identify the existing gaps and institute the necessary measures to ensure that the gaps are filled (Kehinde 2012, p. 179). The component of the career path is further subdivided into the career path plan and succession plan. Here, the career path of all employees is mapped and the implementation requirements managed. Succession planning also takes places under this component. ROI falls under the component of development and entails closing employee competency gaps, both technical and behavioral, with the help of collaboration between the training and awareness department. Performance assessment component encompasses the employee performance management system, which is used to evaluate the performance of the staff and identify their productivity. The assessment center is responsible for conducting analysis on technical competency and identifying any gap in technical competency (Kehinde 2012, p. 182). Similarly, the assessment center conducts an analysis of behavioral competence and identifies any existing gaps. Employees are also assessed by an occupational personality questionnaire. The career path plan, which in this case is the expected and developed plan for the organization’s employees, is based on a hierarchy of jobs. The main goal of the plan is to identify the right talent to fill the vacancy in upcoming posts, to support human resource policy, facilitate employees’ easier transition from one level of competency to the other, and seek approval and recommendation from the management. The objective of the career path plan is to enhance the current job performance of each employee in the organization, enable employees to take advantage of future job openings, promote leadership continuity, develop and maintain competency level, and encourage employees’ individual development, identify and analyze key job positions, and assess candidates’ personal and job requirements (“Classroom Material”). There are various steps defined by the career path plan, which is designed to cover the next five years. This includes: select the target group to be included in the career path (grade 9 and above for Emirates and grade 12 and above for expatriates); ensure that each team has a set of competencies that are aligned with the objectives of the organization and performance appraisal; ensure that the target level of competency is met for each job title; and levels of competency are assigned according to the hierarchy of jobs (“Classroom Material”). On its part, the succession plan’s main objectives include identification and analysis of strategic positions and the associated pivotal roles that help to lessen organizational risk. In addition, the succession plan is also aimed at developing leadership within the organization, retaining and developing competency level, defining the competency level required for the next role, setting a development and improvement plan for the role successor, and recognizing and improving employees’ strengths. Under DEWA talent management strategy, return on investment (ROI) is defined as a complete assessment program, where the results of training can be measured to obtain the maximum effectiveness of the training and its impact on employees’ performance. The main objectives of ROI are to develop methods for evaluating and measuring the effectiveness of the training program, link the training needs with work requirements, ensure that the trainees get the maximum benefit from the training program, and identify training programs that may need to be redesigned (Kehinde 2012, p. 181). Employee performance management is considered to be broader than performance appraisal and is defined as the process that aligns and links the objectives of an individual with those of the team and the organization in general. Employee performance management may encompass recruitment and selection, job design, career planning, training and development, performance appraisal, compensation, and benefits (“Classroom Material”). There are various objectives of employee performance management/assessment. Performance assessment is aimed at establishing a shared understanding of the set goals and the means of achieving them, creating a culture where reward and career growth are based on merit and provide a fair, equitable and transparent framework for performance evaluation. In addition, performance assessment is also aimed at fostering constructive and regular communication between the management and subordinate workers, promoting continuous learning and development and increasing employees’ satisfaction, commitment, and productivity by recognizing and rewarding their work. In this context, employee performance management includes planning, reviewing, assessment, and rewarding employees. Dubai Electricity and Water Authority define assessment center in its talent management strategy as rigorous and systematic methods of identifying competency in relation to the processes of recruitment, selection, promotion, and career development within the organization. The main aim of the assessment center is to offer guidance to make sure that the organization embraces and develops the best talent for any particular role. The main objective of the assessment center is to relocate talent according to the results, to furnish the employee performance management system, the career path, and the succession plan with the results so that they can be integrated into the tests performed in other components. Competency is defined as measurable and observable knowledge, behaviors, abilities, and skills that add to the success of an individual (Kehinde 2012, p. 185). The objectives of behavioral and technical competencies include: offering a room for fair, equitable, and transparent competencies for the purpose of selecting and recruiting; supporting the identification and definition of the employees performance management system; understanding what is required from the employees and developing their careers; understanding the expectations of the organization and identifying personal training opportunities; promoting a culture of high performance; maintaining consistency in recruitment, performance management and training; and supporting both the career path and the succession plan. Recommendations and Conclusion Talent management involves implementation of integrated systems or strategies that are designed to increase employees’ productivity through the development of enhanced processes of attracting, recruiting, retaining, developing, and utilizing the right talent to meet both current and future organizational needs. Talent management, in this case, enables organizations to select, recruit, hire, develop, and retain the best talent. It helps in enhancing the competitive advantage of the company. In the above-discussed case study, Dubai Electricity and Water Authority have an elaborate structure for talent management that is led by the senior manager and involves components such as career path, development, performance assessment, and assessment center. Each of these components has well-elaborated aims and objectives and offer guidance on how different parameters are to be achieved or executed. Whilst the review of DEWA talent management program reveals that the company understands the importance of talent management and is committed to developing talent, the organization is not using appropriate tools to address the challenges it is faced with. Such challenges include but are not limited to the integration of the Emiratization program, and hiring of qualified staff. The company also seems to treat management as a democracy, yet in reality, it does the opposite. For the organization to realize the best ROI, it must treat employees according to their performance. For example, the organization may choose to focus more on middle-level managers as the key drivers of performance. As the ones responsible for managing multiple functions, middle managers have a central role in ensuring increased performance. The enhancement of their development will, in turn, increase their success in pivotal positions. The organization may also appoint its middle-level managers to senior roles, which will not only motivate them but also increase their commitment to the overall goals of the organization. Further, the organization should separate the talent management scheme from the total HR style. This approach will allow the firm to ensure that there is a clear delineation between role expectation and training needs. In this context, the firm should not focus on recruiting and then offering on-site training but rather on recruiting the best talent and training him or her when it required. Doing this, the firm will minimize the rate of employee turnover as well as the need for making periodical recruitment exercises.

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|Other names||Kingdom of the North, the Lost Realm, the North-kingdom, the Northern Kingdom, the North-realm| |Location||Most of Eriador| |Capital||Annúminas, later Fornost Erain| |Major towns||Lond Daer, Tharbad, Bree, Hobbiton| |Regions||Arthedain, Cardolan, Rhudaur| |Language||Westron, Sindarin, Quenya, Hobbitish| |Governance||King of Arnor/High King| Council of Arnor |Re-formed||1 May, T.A. 3019| |Followed by||Reunited Kingdom| Arnor, or the Northern Kingdom, was a kingdom of the Dúnedain in the land of Eriador in Middle-earth. It was the original seat of the High King|High King of Arnor who ruled over both Arnor and Gondor. The Dunedain of Arnor dwelt in many places in Eriador, but most of the population centered around the region of Arthedain. The Dunedain mainly inhabited the cities of Fornost and the capital city of Annúminas, as well as along the Baranduin and the gulf of Lune. By the later Third Age, the settlements of the Dúnedain of Cardolan and Rhudaur had decayed and become ruins and barrows. - Arthedain, the core of the north-kingdom bordering the Lune - Cardolan, the lands south of the East Road, east of the Brandywine - Rhudaur, the region between the Weather Hills and the Misty Mountains Cities, Fortresses and Watchtowers - Annúminas, the old capital on the shore of Lake Evendim - Fornost, the new capital of the successor state of Arthedain - Bree, a trading centre located on the East Road - Lond Daer, an old harbour town founded by Númenóreans - Amon Sûl, also called Weathertop, a watchtower on the highest of the Weather Hills - Elostirion, an elven watchtower in the Tower Hills - Tharbad, a fortified town and port on each side of the River Greyflood on the southern border of Arnor The Palantíri or 'seeing stones' were spherical stones that could communicate with each other and give visual impressions to a skilled remote user. Elendil and his two sons originally divided these stones between themselves. They were usually heavily guarded and under the control of the kings. There were seven of these stones in total. The northern kingdom possessed three, and the southern kingdom held the other four.:362 They were: - The Elostirion-stone, kept in the tower of Elostirion. This was used to communicate with The Master Stone in Tol Eressëa, the Lonely Isle of the Elves, along the Straight Road. It could not contact the other Middle-Earth stones. - The Amon Sûl-stone, kept in the watchtower of Amon Sûl. The Amon Sûl-stone was a large stone, and the northern kings often used it to contact its corresponding large stone in Gondor, at the great dome of Osgiliath. - The Annúminas-stone, kept in Arnor's capital city of Annúminas. Though one of the lesser stones, it was the stone most often used by the Kings of Arnor. Early History Before the foundation of Arnor, Eriador was home to Middle Men of Edain stock. As a result of the slow emigration that started under the Númenórean kings Tar-Meneldur and Tar-Aldarion, a sizable population formed. These early colonists soon interbred with the indigenous population of Eriador. The Faithful favored Eriador over the more southern regions (Gondor) because the Elves of Lindon under their high king Gil-galad lived very near across the river Lhûn.:360 Conversely, the King's Men settled more to the south in the later days. Thus, the area was populated by people who were mainly still Faithful and Elf-friends, where much of the knowledge of the Elder Days was preserved. During the Downfall of Númenor, Elendil and his people sailed through the Gulf of Lune and up the Lune river, and befriended the High King of the Noldor Gil-galad. Both Elendil and his sons were welcomed by the Men who were in whole or part of Númenorean blood. These Men of Eriador accepted the new kingdom of Elendil and helped to people and maintain the many places that the Northern Dúnedain built. The Men of Bree also became subjects of Arnor. Gil-galad and his people aided the fledgling realm; he even built the Emyn Beraid for Elendil. Elendil founded Arnor at the end of the Second Age (S.A. 3320), while his sons founded the southern realm of Gondor. Both kingdoms of the Númenóreans were known as the Realms in Exile, and their history is intertwined. Despite its precedence over it as the seat of the High King, Arnor was never as powerful and populous as Gondor. Elendil established the city of Annúminas as his capital. Besides the chief cities like Annúminas and Fornost, the Men of Arnor concentrated around the courses of the Lhûn and the Baranduin, the hills of Rhudaur, and built towers on Amon Sûl. In S.A. 3430 Arnor joined forces with Gil-galad in a great alliance opposing Sauron, the Last Alliance of Elves and Men. When Elendil led his people against Sauron, the Dúnedain and the other Men of Eriador marched together to the South. In conjunction with southern forces from Gondor, they confronted Sauron's armies in the War of the Last Alliance. This great war lasted several years, that reached Dagorlad and Mordor itself far in the south, culminating to the Siege of Barad-dûr. Both Elendil and his son Anárion were slain in this conflict, but Isildur cut the One Ring from Sauron's finger and prevailed. Isildur (who was also King of Gondor) was the elder son of Elendil and would inherit the High Kingship and throne of Arnor. But he never reached his new realm: he was killed in T.A. 2 in the disastrous Disaster of the Gladden Fields, as did his three eldest sons; the One Ring was also lost there. Isildur's fourth and youngest son, Valandil, who had remained at Rivendell due to his youth, became his heir (T.A. 10). But the Menof Arnor suffered heavy casualties in the War, and the subsequent Disaster; there remained now too few to people amd the places Elendil had built were partially depopulated. Arnor never fully recovered from the devastating loss. Breakup, decline, and War with Angmar After the death of its tenth king, Eärendur, in T.A. 861, Arnor was shaken by civil war between his three sons. The eldest, Amlaith, claimed Kingship over all Arnor but was reduced to only ruling the region of Arthedain as his kingdom, while the other sons founded the breakaway kingdoms of Cardolan and Rhudaur. The three petty kingdoms often strifed, usually over control of the Weather Hills and the palantír of Amon Sûl. Seeing the disunion in Arnor, during the reign of Malvegil (c. T.A. 1300), the Witch-king of Angmar arose in the north, later identified as in fact the lord of Sauron's Ringwraiths. This new threat began attacking Rhudaur and Cardolan. Eventually the line of Isildur failed in the other kingdoms but Arthedain and the Dúnedain were few in Rhudaur, where a lord of the Hill-men, secretly supporting Angmar, seized power. Arnor was refounded de jure by the seventh King of Arthedain, Argeleb I, and Cardolan placed itself under its suzerainty but Rhudaur resisted. Arthedain thus reasserted control over Cardolan but in response, fortified a line along the Weather Hills, but Rhudaur and Angmar attacked and killed the King in T.A. 1356. His son Arveleg I, however, counterattacked in conjunction with Cardolan and Lindon and drove the enemy back. Arveleg continued to hold the frontier along the Hills for the following years, until T.A. 1409, when Angmar crossed the Hoarwell and successfully captured Weathertop, and Arveleg fell in battle, as did the last prince of Cardolan. Amon Sûl fell, and its palantír was taken to Fornost. With Amon Sûl lost, Angmar had free reign over the all the lands of Cardolan, which was ravaged, and the population was forced to hold out in the Barrow Downs , or took refuge in the Old Forest.. Rhudaur was occupied by evil Men subject to Angmar, and the remaining Dúnedain were slain or fled west. The Shire, once the hunting grounds of the King of Arnor, was a fertile and well-tilled part of Arnor, deserted during the waning days of the Arthedain. The Hobbits (who had lived in Dunland and parts of depopulated Cardolan and Rhudaur) got official permission from King Argeleb II to settle the lands. This was finally done in T.A. 1601 by Bree-hobbits led by the brothers Marcho and Blanco; almost all of the Hobbits of Middle-earth could be found there by 30 years later. The Shire-hobbits considered themselves as subjects of the King of Arthedain, at least nominally, considering the isolation of their country. Nevertheless, they sent some support troops to the great battles Arnor fought against Angmar. The Great Plague Another threat appeared to the northern kingdoms, the Great Plague that came from the East. The Men of Arnor were so much affected that the joint garrison at Tharbad that Arnor held with Gondor, ceased to exist, and the last of the Dúnedain of Cardolan died on the Barrow-downs. The Witch-king, exploiting the tragedy, sent evil spirits, the Barrow-wights, to infest the area. The two Realms in Exile eventually suspected that these disasters might be being coordinated by a single power, and resumed communications. As a result, Prince Arvedui, heir to the Sceptre, wedded Fíriel, the daughter of Ondoher King of Gondor (T.A. 1940). That happened before Ondoher was slain in battle, and hoping to save his Kingdom, Arvedui staked his claim to Gondor, by right of his descent from Elendil and by that of his wife. The Council of Gondor refused the reunification and crowned King Eärnil II, who maintained good relations with Arnor, promising aid against Angmar. But Arnor's strength was fast dwindling; in T.A. 1973 Arvedui (who now was King) sent a message to Gondor that Angmar was preparing its final assault, and Eärnil mustered a great armament bound for Lindon, but it would arrive too late. The Fall of Arthedain In T.A. 1974, the final chapter in Arthedain's history began. The Witch-king attacked during the harsh winter weather. The capital of Fornost fell, and the remaining Arnorian forces were driven over the Lune river into Lindon. Arvedui fled to Forochel, while his son, Aranarth, informed Círdan at the Grey Havens about the disaster. Círdan's sailors were eventually unable to rescue Arvedui, and Malbeth the Seer's prophecy at his birth, that he would be the 'Last king' of Arthedain, was fulfilled. Showdown with Angmar The remnants of Arnor would later join the great force, led by Cirdan and Eärnur, in the greatest joint Elf-Man army since the War of the Last Alliance; this great Host of the West marched northward toward the Arnorian capital of Fornost, where the Witch-king had occupied. He confidently marched his forces out to meet them in the open. The Host attacked him from the Hills of Evendim, and a large battle broke out. The cavalry under Eärnur pursued what remained of the Angmar forces, and were joined by an Elven force under Glorfindel from Rivendell. Angmar fell but the Witch-King fled. Thus both Arthedain and Angmar were destroyed. the Dúnedain of Arnor created new homes in the Angle south of Rivendell, but Aranarth perceived that his people had become too few after the continuing wars to reestablish the realm. Some Men survived in Bree and other villages, while the Hobbits survived in the Shire and Bree; in the Shire they chose a Thain from among themselves to replace the fallen King in T.A. 1979. The Shire remained a minor but independent political unit. Aranarth instead of calling himself a king or prince, he assumed the title Chieftain and took his dwindling people, now secretive wanderers who traveled from place to place in Eriador. His son, Arahael, grew up safely in Rivendell under the fosterhood of Elrond, a tradition that was followed through the rest of the Third Age. Also brought to Elrond were the heirlooms of the House of Isildur: the Sceptre of Annúminas, the Ring of Barahir, the shards of Narsil, and the Star of Elendil. Thus, through them the royal House of Isildur was maintained successfully from father to son for a millennium. There were sixteen Chieftains in direct descent, under many perils in Eriador, and many of the Chieftains died premature deaths. One of these was Arathorn II, who was slain by Orcs raiding the area. So the Dúnedain survived in the shadows, waiting for a better day when the kingdom would be reborn, that would be in the time of Aragorn, on 1 May, T.A. 3019. The Kingdom of Arnor had been fallen for a thousand years by the time the War of the Ring broke out, but northern forces did participate in the War. Aragorn participated, the Heir of Isildur, and there were several hundred of them operating during the conflict. The A company of this group accompanied Aragorn through the Paths of the Dead and during the attack on Umbar which captured the Corsair fleet. They participated at the last battle, fighting under his banner, at the Battle of the Morannon, where Sauron was finally thrown down. There was conflict in other areas of the North. There were three different invasions of Lothlórien, which were thrown back by the Elven army under Celeborn and Thranduil. Finally, Celeborn led an attack resulting in the capture of Dol Guldur and put an end to Sauron's northern threat. There was also a battle fought in the Shire, between Saruman's Ruffians and Hobbit militia forces. This was the last battle fought in the War of the Ring, and resulted in the death of Saruman and the death or capture of his followers. This became known as the Battle of Bywater, and represents the Hobbit contribution to the War. Restoration and the Reunited KingdomAragorn II then was crowned by Gandalf as King Elessar, refounded the Kingdom of Arnor as part of the Reunited Kingdom, and made Annúminas his new capital city. He was wed to the Elven princess Arwen, who became Queen Evenstar of Arnor and Gondor. After the fall of Sauron Arnor was safe again for resettlement of Men, and although it remained less populated than Gondor to the south, in time Arnor became a more densely populated region again, even if it had dwindled in size due to the independence of the Shire. The area encompassed by the Reunited Kingdom now encompassed the territory of the Two Kingdoms at their greatest extent. In the North, this included all the land between the River Lune and the Misty Mountains, and in the South included all the land between Dunland in the west, to the Far Harad southwards, to Rhûn in the east. The reborn kingdom continued on into the Fourth Age, with Eldarion eventually succeeding his father to the throne of this now empire-sized state. Many people in Arnor were of Númenórean stock. However, aside from the Exiles, most had long since mingled with non-Númenórean peoples; the predominant language spoken by them was Westron. At least some of the population, especially the upper classes, were fluent in Sindarin, while Quenya was studied as a language of lore. Many early place names and the names of the royal house were Quenya, but by the 8th century of the Third Age, Quenya had given way to Sindarin. Arnor was the colloquial name for the North Kingdom. The North Kingdom, as the land was called at its conception, was also known as Turmen Follondiéva in Quenya and Arthor na Forlonnas in Sindarin. These names quickly fell out of use, in favour of Arnor: the Land of the King, so called for the kingship of Elendil, and to seal its precedence over the southern realm. In full, poetic Sindarin, it was called Arannor, which mirrored its Quenya name, Arandórë. Though technically Arandórë would have a Sindarin form Ardor, Tolkien chose Arnor because it sounded better. This linguistic change was ascribed to a later, Mannish development of Sindarin. The form Arnanórë is also seen. Portrayal in adaptations - Peter Jackson's movies do not mention the long history of how Arnor and Gondor diverged, nor do they mention Arnor by name. The one passing reference to it is in a scene from the Extended Edition, when Aragorn reveals to Éowyn that he is actually eighty-seven years old. She realises that he must be one of the Dúnedain, a descendant of Númenor blessed with long life, but says that she thought his race had passed into legend. Aragorn acknowledges that he is one of the Dúnedain, and explains that there are not many of his people left, because "the Northern kingdom was destroyed long ago". - The kingdom of Arnor is mentioned indirectly by Galadriel in the White Council scene, and so does the war with Angmar and it's aftermath too. See also - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix A, "The Númenorean Kings", "Eriador, Arnor, and the Heirs of Isildur" - ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Silmarillion, "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age" - ↑ 3.0 3.1 J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix F, "The Languages and Peoples of the Third Age", "Of Men" - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "X. Of Dwarves and Men", "The Atani and their Languages" - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix B, "The Third Age" - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix A, "The Númenorean Kings", "Eriador, Arnor, and the Heirs of Isildur" - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", "Appendix D: The Port of Lond Daer" - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix A, "The Númenorean Kings", "Gondor and the Heirs of Anárion" - ↑ The Lord of the Rings, The Scouring of the Shire, pp. 992-996. - ↑ The Lord of the Rings, Appendix A, p. 1019. - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix F - ↑ J.R.R. Tolkien, "Words, Phrases and Passages in Various Tongues in The Lord of the Rings", in Parma Eldalamberon XVII (edited by Christopher Gilson), p. 28 - ↑ 14.0 14.1 J.R.R. Tolkien; Humphrey Carpenter, Christopher Tolkien (eds.), The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, Letter 347, (dated 17 December 1972) - ↑ Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull (eds), The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion, p. 17

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Share This Page Could any parent peruse recent reports of the American Academy of Pediatrics without a touch of alarm? The Academy found that in 2004 20 percent of American children and adolescents seen in primary care had “psychosocial problems or mental health disorders,” a rate triple that of two decades ago. Specifically, the Academy survey found that 13 percent of children and adolescents have anxiety disorders, 6 percent have mood disorders, and 2 percent have substance abuse disorders. High-risk behaviors are also on the rise. The 2001 “Youth Risk Behavior Survey” conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that about one third of youths reported episodic heavy drinking and about 10 percent reported a suicide attempt—suicide is the third-leading cause of death among youths 10 to 19 years of age. I (Judy Illes) have a 17-year-old son who is kind, conscientious, and remarkably trustworthy. Yet the reports leave me with the distinct feeling: “I am one of the lucky ones.” Faced with these realities, parents, educators, health professionals, and others increasingly express the need for a deeper understanding of what causes a child’s difficulties, what risks lie ahead, and what steps might prevent worse trouble. Parents and educators also want to be sure children get the benefit of early and accurate identification of any special talents and abilities. Answers to their questions are likely to come from the sciences that study the brain, such as neuroimaging, neurology, psychiatry, psychopharmacology, genetics, and educational psychology. Information is coming at a speed that sometimes surprises and sometimes frustrates. Every answer to a question spawns new uncertainties: uncertainties about the reliability of a diagnosis or prognosis, about the choices that new information may imply, and, crucially, about what options are ethical. New questions are raised: What is the physician’s or the parent’s responsibility? What is fair? What are the respective rights of all involved? How is respect for a child’s autonomy achieved? How are society’s interests, codified in law or custom, served? These questions are already engaging scientists, health professionals, technologists, philosophers, jurists, and many others. Their deliberations, bridging the fields of neuroscience and bioethics, have acquired the label “neuroethics,” a field that investigates the ethical, legal, and social implications of advances in brain science. To date, neuroethics has focused mostly on implications of neuroscience that apply widely and generally. But when children (and we include all ages from development of the fetus through the older adolescent) are involved, special considerations enter. Some represent instances of general questions, but many are unique to children at various stages of their lives. To Scan or Not to Scan? Modern neuroimaging technology is a rapidly growing source of information about the brain and—whether the potential for serious disorders or the possibility of special opportunities is considered—is increasingly being used to guide decisions about fetuses, newborns, children, and adolescents. Although the ethical challenges raised by using imaging this way are only part of pediatric neuroethics, they exemplify the pressing need to understand the potential risks and benefits of the technology. If neuroimaging technology could provide a scan of your child’s brain, confirming or predicting a tendency to antisocial behavior or yielding clues about academic struggles, would you want one? Would you want a scan that provided information affirming your child’s giftedness—or the possibility of a brain disease preventing cognitive development, but for which there is currently no cure? That these questions will arise is not mere speculation; advances in imaging of the brain and central nervous system already promise clues of this kind. Imaging the Fetus and Neonate Neuroimaging can greatly benefit both clinical care and our understanding of human behavior and cognition. But new information brings new risks. Among these risks are possibilities for misunderstanding and misuse, stigma, and the consequences of false-positive (concluding that something is present when it is not) and false-negative (concluding something is not present when it is) findings. The role of pediatric neuroethics should be to foresee such possibilities and implications and to identify potential ethical, legal, and social conflicts in ways that make them manageable from the outset. Fetal Magnetic Resonance Imaging One set of ethical and health policy considerations we face today can be seen in the emergence and implications of fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Abnormalities of the brain and central nervous system affect some 6,000 newborns each year. Sonography (the use of reflected sound to discern shapes, also called ultrasound) has been the standard approach to evaluating prenatal anomalies. But the contrast resolution of ultrasound is limited, so some abnormalities appear only subtle and nonspecific. The exquisite sensitivity and ever-improving capabilities of MRI for imaging the structure of fetal anatomy have made it an attractive adjunct to ultrasound. The first reported use of MRI for fetal evaluation was in 1983; since 1996, when ultrafast MRI sequences for the depiction of fetal anatomy were reported, a steady stream of reports suggest the promise of MRI performed at about 20 weeks of gestational age or later. At times, MRI has led to a different diagnosis than ultrasound and has found conditions not easily visualized on ultrasound, including failure of the brain’s corpus callosum to develop, the presence of abnormal cavities in the brain (called porencephaly), and hemorrhage. Ethical guidelines for managing this newly available information about fetal development, patient concerns and rights, and other implications of using fetal MRI to predict neurologic or developmental outcomes have lagged behind the surge in the technology. In a recent study by researchers at three medical centers, including our own, an initial effort was made to close the gap between the technologic potential of fetal MRI and consideration of patients’ expectations and views. In this multi-institution collaboration, we sought the voice of the patients about their experiences before and after undergoing fetal MRI. All women in the study had had ultrasound scans that raised suspicions of a problem with the fetus. The women were referred for an MRI by various ultrasound physicians, obstetricians, genetic counselors or geneticists, and neurologists. Most of the 43 women, who averaged 36 years of age, were of European-American ancestry, married, well educated, and relatively well-off financially. About half were Catholic; 40 percent were Protestant, Jewish, or Hindu; and the rest did not identify with a religion. Almost 9 out of 10 women reported being satisfied with the follow-up they received from their health care practitioners in helping them deal with the MRI test results. This finding was encouraging, especially in view of the wide range of practitioners who had made referrals. The MRI affected the way the women viewed their pregnancy, giving them confidence and reassurance, or, in a few cases, confirming bad news that they reported was nonetheless helpful to learn. As one woman put it: “The MRI results confirmed [my doctor’s] diagnosis…Even though the diagnosis of our baby girl did not change and still showed a poor prognosis, it made us come to terms with the devastating realization that we were to lose a loved one, and decisions needed to be made.” The MRI test results helped the women make reproductive care decisions, including whether to continue the pregnancy. Perhaps most relevant to the clinical value of fetal MRI, half of the women said results led to changes in treatment, surveillance, or other medical planning. Changes based on the MRI results, such as how the baby was delivered and where, are strong evidence of the utility of this relatively costly technology. Although the power of “knowing” helped these mothers with decision-making, preparation, acceptance, and coping, providers must be careful how they communicate results from new technologies to patients and their families. Some of the women surveyed felt they had received conflicting results from their providers; some indicated they had been confused or frustrated when the fetal MRI did not produce a clear prognosis. One patient wrote: “We never felt like we had the information needed to make a clear-cut decision. There were always so many ‘ifs’ and ‘unknowns.’ ” As in the case of genetic testing, the implications of MRI for the viability of the fetus or future of the child can be momentous. Paradoxically, in the case of MRI nothing analogous to genetics counseling is required or usually even available. Fetal MRI will continue to affect the way people experience pregnancy, make choices about whether to continue a pregnancy or abort a fetus, and, potentially, label a child in a way that has significant lifelong implications. This is clearly an area that merits more research. Fetal Functional MRI Unlike MRI, which produces an image of anatomy, functional MRI (fMRI) captures a picture of brain functioning by measuring the relative demand for oxygen of a particular area of the brain. What is called “blood oxygenation level-dependent contrast” in an fMRI image signals the relationships between the activity of the neurons and the response of the blood vessels (arteries carry more or less oxygen to parts of the brain depending on the level of activity in those areas). Among adults, in whom fMRI has been tested extensively, differences in regional microvasculature, neuroanatomy, and resting cerebral blood flow can confound accurate assessment of the timing, location, and level of neural activation. Functional MRI studies of fetuses tend to compound such inaccuracies, because the brains of fetuses are different than adult brains: Fetuses have more gray matter, less white matter, more synapses, different metabolic rates, and smaller skulls. Nonetheless, given the poor predictive value of ultrasound for detecting delayed fetal growth, for example—one of the most common and complex problems in modern obstetrics—fetal fMRI is being advanced as a new noninvasive method for assessing fetal well-being in at-risk pregnancies. In animal models, fMRI has shown promise for detecting changes in fetal oxygenation as a marker for deficient oxygenation of the blood, a condition called hypoxemia. In normal-term human fetuses, visual, acoustic, and vibrational stimuli produce measurable neuronal responses in the temporal lobes and frontal cortex of the brain. But fetal fMRI studies have generally been of low resolution and have encompassed the entire abdomen of the mother. Newer studies focus on the field of view of the fetal brain and exclude most of the mother’s abdomen. Over the past year here at Stanford University, Roland Bammer, Ph.D., Laura Pisani, Ph.D., and Gary Glover, Ph.D., have been using fMRI to obtain fetal images that show responses to various stimuli and have a higher image quality than previously achieved. Challenges still exist in managing the quality of images because of motion of the fetus, and therefore, to minimize movement of the fetus’s head, the studies are performed on women who are at least 36 weeks into their pregnancies. Results from these experiments will not alter management of the women’s pregnancies; the data will be analyzed after the baby is born to see whether fetal fMRI measurements correlate well with the health of the new baby. If so, fetal fMRI promises better timing of delivery in at-risk pregnancies, for example, by alerting physicians to the presence of hypoxemia. When technical improvements such as thinner “slices”—pictures of more cross sections—are incorporated and imaging at earlier gestational ages becomes possible, the diagnostic potential of fetal fMRI may be unparalleled. What about the prognostic power of this technology? Will imaging information affect a woman’s choice to continue a pregnancy, as can genetic testing? In adults, fMRI has been used in many studies to try to identify cognitive traits, personality traits, emotional makeup, incipient brain disorders, and much more. With technology pushing the envelope beyond boundaries considered realistic, at least for now, it is intriguing to speculate whether advanced neurotechnologies will one day permit parents-to-be to check whether a new Mozart or Einstein is developing inside the womb. In addition, even now, ultrasound images are marketed directly to consumers, who can purchase a printout as a souvenir. With whole-body scanning centers that accept self-referral common in some parts of the country, little stands in the way of selling fetal fMRI scans as souvenir keepsakes, too. Out of the Womb: Diffusion-Tensor Imaging Another scanning technology, which has benefitted from developments in MRI over the past two decades, is diffusion-tensor imaging (DTI). DTI, which is used not prenatally but after a child’s birth, shows the microscopic structure of the brain and can detect subtle processes not easily seen with conventional MRI. It has raised new issues about the role of scanning in assessing cognitive potential. For example, studies that used DTI have shown how development is altered in disorders such as dyslexia and in certain problems of cognition and behavior. Improvements are continually being made in the amount of information that can be obtained by processing scan results in various ways. One important issue is: If scientists can now use DTI to assess cognitive potential, then, by implication, they can also identify cognitive impairment—but what does cognitive impairment mean in terms of neuroimaging data? That is, how should the concept of cognitive impairment or likely cognitive impairment be defined when fMRI is resticted to blood oxygenation information and DTI to showing microstructural change? Indicators of potential developmental disability that may be seen— such as those associated with premature newborns with very low birth weight—certainly may enable families to initiate early interventions and to plan for the future. But what if relevant interventions have not yet been developed to respond to the information provided by DTI? Furthermore, how should false negatives or false positives—potentially equally devastating—be handled ethically? Beyond problems a baby may be born with, environmental influences, such as the richness of infant and early childhood experiences or exposure to neurotoxins, clearly affect different systems of the developing brain. For example, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have shown that cognitive stimulation influences the development of language, whereas social or emotional nurturing affects the development of memory but not language. The interaction of these variables and how they are revealed biologically, such as on brain scans, will bear on ethical and legal debates about the role of this technology. Elementary School-Age Children and Adolescents Neuroimaging research is racing ahead to explore the brain for both cognitive and behavioral traits. Obviously, for the parents of elementary school-age children and adolescents, both areas are of intense interest. Pictures of Intelligence and Talent It seems inevitable that neuroimaging research of school-age children in the laboratory with fMRI and DTI will be translated to the critical area of educational tracking and intervention for children and adolescents. Already, in the open marketplace, the ability of parents to arrange, without a doctor’s referral, for SPECT (single-photon emission computed tomography) scanning for diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disorders is feeding an unregulated industry. For pediatric neuroethics, the issues are compelling. How might new information from functional neuroimaging experiments change our definition of normal cognitive functioning in children—or moral responsibility for actions in 16- and 17-year-old adolescents? Should we be concerned about risks associated with scan results that might frighten or discourage young subjects? Once individual differences in functional imaging are better understood, how will scientists deal with individual patterns that appear anomalous as compared with group norms? Obviously, our responses to these questions will need to be worked out before the problem is upon us by examining a wide range of issues. Here, a few examples must suffice: - Can neuroimaging be used reliably to track and quantify individual academic performance? - Once the technology is fully validated for measurements from individuals, how might neuroimaging markers predict below- and above-average threshold learning capabilities? - How might neuroimaging inform decisions about who should receive educational interventions? - How might neuroimaging guide strategies of intervention that are adjusted for each child? Such strategies might be behavioral or pharmaceutical, or even involve transcranial magnetic stimulation that may boost sluggish performance. - What are suitable endpoints for re-testing children? - How should we define and manage the risks of medicalizing conditions not formerly considered pathologic, such as shyness? - What financial resources should be devoted to public policy responses to these questions? How can we ensure that experts and lay people who provide oversight are free of conflict of interest? And, of course, the big question is whether we should turn to neurotechnology for making decisions about cognitively normal children at all. Many of these same questions can be asked, with suitable modification, about exceptional talent and giftedness identified at stages of the childhood and adolescent life span. If the day comes when scientists can understand and measure giftedness by using advanced neuroimaging, the effect on learning in children and performance through adulthood could be profound. But these benefits, too, will come with costs and questions. For example, a child with truly special talent may be identified at an earlier age than ever before and be given the advantage of special educational opportunities. Should all eligible (however defined) children have access to such technology? Should government bear responsibility for the costs of scanning? Will students be preselected for schools or special programs according to their brain scans? An ethical understanding of these thorny questions and the risks and benefits posed by the answers are essential for appropriate application of such promising technology. Pictures of Behavior In the laboratory, fMRI can show differences between brain activation patterns of extroversion and introversion, deception and candor. It can show how vivid imagining can lead to false memories. Scanning can reveal the cortical and subcortical regions that are active with anger, decision making, goal-oriented behavior, moral judgment, and emotion: the qualities that define each of us as a unique person. But what is the appropriateness, and what are the risks, of seeking such neurobiologic information about individuals’ propensity to conduct disorders, suicide, obsessive-compulsive disorders, or alcohol and drug use disorders—especially in at-risk adolescents? Critical ethical thinking about these questions will guard against a new kind of stigma associated with a brain-imaging result suggestive of aggression or addiction as well as conceivable bragging rights in the bold and brash. In preparing to encompass neuroimaging into the diagnostic and treatment plan, providers will need to explicitly emphasize the whole context of the young patient’s world so that medication does not become the only perceived solution in isolation from other complementary and potentially beneficial ones such as psychotherapy. From early results of a study our team has recently completed about the receptivity of mental health providers to fMRI, we preliminarily observed that the technology would be a welcome adjunct to traditional methods of clinical diagnosis of adult major depressive disorder. We also found that the use of fMRI would likely improve patients’ willingness to accept and comply with treatment with psychopharmaceuticals. While we must be exceedingly cautious in translating results from adults to children, acceptance of such advanced diagnostic methods might be welcome since, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics, about half the time medical treatment for mental illness is terminated prematurely. A positive effect of neuroimaging on non-pharmaceutical forms of therapy was less evident, but understanding in advance how the technology might affect patients of any age should enable providers to recognize problems early. The results of our study suggest that, in preparing to encompass neuroimaging in the diagnostic and treatment plan, providers will need to explicitly emphasize the whole context of the adult and young patient’s world so that medication does not become the only perceived solution in isolation from other complementary and potentially beneficial ones such as psychotherapy. An imperative for pediatric neuroethics is to establish guidelines and an ethical framework for moving neuroimaging and related neurotechnologies from the laboratory into clinical and eventually educational uses. As Howard Gardner and his colleagues have described, a new kind of educator—a neuroeducator—may be needed. New knowledge for early identification of suspected disease and effective intervention shows great potential for benefiting children and adolescents, but a highly skilled specialist will be needed. It is an altogether different matter, though, whether we really want general screening of the population. In addition to the cost and expense of such screening, there are worrisome possibilities that businesses could begin to seek young mental health customers without adequate controls on the use of information obtained from tests—information that could be misused by mislabeling or profiling children and adolescents. Neuroethics will need to carefully consider how profit-seeking can be aligned with standards for appropriateness of procedures, accuracy, confidentiality, and protections against discrimination. Toward a Pediatric Neuroethics Ethical challenges posed by pediatric imaging are only one relatively limited arena of neuroethics, but they serve to highlight the issues that newly minted neuroethicists have begun to encounter. Imaging is moving fast, appears frequently in the media, and tempts a public always hungry for innovation. The field has acquired a high-tech halo not easy to ignore. In reviewing the issues raised about children across the prenatal, childhood, and adolescent life span, certain themes emerge that cut across age divisions. To the extent that they do, they may be seen as general issues facing an emerging pediatric neuroethics. Let us look at six of these themes. Power of the Image How much do new forms of neuroimaging data tell about individual brain functioning? A picture may be worth a thousand words, but one must be mindful of the complexity of a brain-imaging experiment, the statistical processing of the data, and professional and cultural attitudes that the experimenter brings to design and interpretation. If apparently normal mood shifts in adolescents resulting from hormonal fluctuations were not sufficiently confounding, changes in blood oxygenation (and so scanning data) are also related to gender and day-to-day variations in physiology and blood flow. What fetal, child, and adolescent populations are appropriate for scanning in the laboratory to refine the technology and what populations are appropriate for outside, real-world applications? When scientists are searching for biomarkers for aggression, for example, a natural temptation would be to use vulnerable children and adolescents who are institutionalized or resident in group homes. Under any circumstances, minors are considered to have limited capacity for making certain decisions; if cooperation by minors who are wards of the state buys them extra privileges, such as 15 extra minutes at the ping-pong table, then their participation is dangerously close to being coerced. All basic principles of the common rules for informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality must be upheld, whether the research is conducted by investigators in the academic or private sector. How can the risks of false-positive and false-negative results be mitigated? This is an especially compelling question for the developing mind, given that a finding predictive of dysfunctional behavior or substandard performance can become a self-filling prophecy. In focus groups conducted with neuroscientists, thinkers about ethics, and others concerned with priorities and principles for the next generation of imaging neuroethics, our team learned of another concern related to selection of the child population. This one arises from the constraints of the imaging environment (the small bore of the scanners can be claustrophobic and the noise loud), coupled with the inherent squirminess of children. In describing current imaging research that involved children with autism-spectrum disorders, one psychiatrist lamented: “In autism, the spectrum is huge (from low intellectual functioning to high). [The] high functioning are easy to deal with. So technology is very much high functioning oriented—[the] low functioning are being neglected.” This is a real and ethically difficult challenge. How might neuroimaging information change a child’s life? Will anxious authorities deprive adolescents of the choice to accept or reject drugs and alcohol if a brain or genetic marker is found to predispose them to addiction? Will their sense of moral responsibility be placed at risk or might they abdicate responsibility to their biology to excuse socially unacceptable behavior? Missed and False Results How can the risks of false-positive and false-negative results be mitigated? This is an especially compelling question for the developing mind, given that a finding predictive of dysfunctional behavior or substandard performance can become a self-filling prophecy. Resource Demands, Education, and Public Engagement What will be the response to parents and educators who obtain new information from technology and demand new resources to help them cope? When no useful therapy or other strategy is available, and the respective benefits and risks about the potential for such behavior are not fully understood, should we delay the introduction of technology that provides such knowledge? How do we move to achieve better education and effective public engagement? An ethical framework that embraces a pragmatic approach to critical thinking will bring us the greatest success in responding to these issues. It will enable us to ask hard questions without the fear that we are making tough issues even more problematic, and ensure an openess and innovation in responding to them. As Dana Brain Alliance member Giorgio Innocenti, M.D., commented to me (Judy Illes) during my recent visit to the Karolinske Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, “All children deserve the right to fully achieve their genetic potential.” Close alignment of ethical values—existing and projected—with the tremendous potential of neuroscience research is a critical step in guaranteeing that right. Managing and responding to ethical questions will require close coordination among parents, pediatricians, and educators; emphasis on creating a healthy environment for all children; and clear rules brought about by professional self-regulation and well-defined expectations. In this era of “No child left behind,” we hope for this kind of integrated approach but we must seek clarity about how to achieve it. We cannot leave parents to face the lure of promises and hope advertised in the direct-to-consumer healthcare marketplace alone. Even if the information they obtain from such sources proves reliable, in the absence of any regulation, far too many uncertainties exist about how it will be used. Today, none of us is vouchsafed an exemption from these matters. When I (Judy Illes) ask my techno-savvy son (or, in a few years, my now-12-year-old daughter), “What are you doing today?” and he replies, “There’s a two-for-one sale over at Neurodating, Inc., in the mall. I was thinking that my new girlfriend and I would go over and get scanned for our functional neurocompatibility,” what shall I say?

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Besides, learning from your school textbooks, additional books always help to provide better knowledge. It is held on the basis of the respective syllabus accordingly to the grade. Of the 4 general types of biological molecules, which one typically accounts for the majority of dietary calories in the human diet? Some of the worksheets for this concept are Mathematical olympiads for elementary middle schools, Practice problems for the math olympiad, January 16 2018, Mathematical olympiad in china problems and solutions, First greater boston math olympiad, Mathematics olympiad 2012 grades 56, November 15 … Pro Lite, CBSE Previous Year Question Paper for Class 10, CBSE Previous Year Question Paper for Class 12. Science Olympiad Foundation conducts such exams for students who are studying in grade 1 or above till 12th grade. MISSION POSSIBLE - Participants will design, build, and test a Rube Goldberg-like Device, which incorporates up to 20 unique Action Transfers, and uses up to five Forms of Energy in accomplishing a given task in two (2) minutes. Depending on the standard a student is in, suitable sample papers can be downloaded, namely: Before handpicking National Science Olympiad sample papers, it is required to know why you want to appear for such competitive exams. Choose from 500 different sets of science olympiad flashcards on Quizlet. Download the sample test papers for NCO, NSO, IMO, IES, IAIS Computer Skills, Science, Math and English. You'll also have an opportunity to ask questions. LARGE NUMBER ESTIMATION - Students will be asked to estimate the answers to approximately twenty questions requiring an estimate between ten and one BLACK BOXES - Teams will determine the contents of a black box by using indirect evidence. Elementary Science Olympiad Practice Tests. fix bar. Interactive quizzes & worksheets on fibre to fabric, fun with magnets, human body, the universe and food health & hygiene for grade-6 olympiad science students. Syllabus; Past papers/Sample questions; Olympiad Books; For Teachers; HBCSE Division: A – Elementary NC Essential Standards Alignment: 2.E.1, 5.E.1 Event Rules: Weather Permitting Rules 2021 Event Score Sheet: None Clarifications: None Description: This is typically a station event. Sample K-6 Events | Science Olympiad Elementary Science Olympiad Practice Tests book review, free download. This online declaration elementary science olympiad sample tests can be one of the options to accompany you considering having other time. www.sofworld.com. MYSTERY POWDERS - A team of two contestants will be asked to identify a mixture of common white household powders. NSO Olympiad sample papers can be used when it comes to kickstarting your preparation. There are schools that are registered with the SOF - Science Olympiad Foundation to conduct NSO and other Olympiad exams. WHICH WAY IS NORTH? Sample model question papers for Class 9 students preparing for Science Olympiad and assessment exams like NSO, iOS, NSTSE, ASSET Science, NISO and ICAS/IAIS - Science National Science Olympiad (NSO) Sample model question paper for Class 9 Science Olympiad exam peparation. Pro Subscription, JEE A full recording on 2016 Elementary Science Olympiad group pentathlon event! How the NSO Sample Papers benefit the student? PASSWORD - Password is a game for a 2-student team. BOGGLE SCIENCE - Each team will attempt to locate science words pertaining to a particular subject on a board of 16 letters. Sample Papers; GK; Scholarships & Olympiads; Articles; Hindustan Olympiad 2021: Application Form, Exam Date . There are test samples and likely MOST importantly and Image Gallery, where you can see what devices that have been submitted looked like. DENSITY - This event is designed to examine the students’ basic understanding of the nature of density using blocks of various materials that are square or rectangular. Science Olympiad team members often meet throughout the entire academic year. Zoom instructions will be sent to Head Coaches via email. A IS FOR ANATOMY - Each team will view models, slides, and pictures of organs and tissues from the human body. HANGMAN SCIENCE - Each student will attempt to guess the name of a scientific term or phrase by first guessing letters as in the TV game "Wheel of Fortune". STRUCTURES - This event is to test a student's ability to build a strong, stable and reproducible structure from common materials. Also, Olympiad tester is not an official partner to any of the Olympiad conducting agencies. fix bar. There will be at least two rounds of competition using different substances in each round. NSO Sample Papers help to amplify students’ abilities with practice. cLICK hERE! info@OlympiadHelper.com; 1800 212 3598; Member Login; Free DEMO; Toggle navigation. SINK OR FLOAT - Students will demonstrate their ability to determine which objects will sink and which will float. identify another object. We provide 20 samples and 3 mock online tests to help students of class 1 to 10 in understanding and preparing for National Science Olympiad (NSO) exam which is based on CBSC / ICSE school syllabus. This site contains information about the Fisler Elementary Science Olympiad competition. The questions are broadly categorized into different topics, which are - Verbal, non-verbal, Reasoning and Logical, Science, and High Order Thinking Questions. CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 12, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers, Last 10 Years Board Paper for Class 10 & 12, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers for Class 10 PDF Solutions, CBSE Class 10 Social Science Question Paper for 2018 - Free PDF Download, CBSE Class 10 Social Science Question Paper for 2019 - Free PDF Download, Vedantu Repeaters, Vedantu Competitive exams help in boosting your confidence, with their awards and grand prizes. I did very well in all Olympiads and won many medals. PROPELLER PROPULSION - Teams of students build a device that is powered by a propeller. Science Olympiad Questions for Class 2. - Teams of up to two students will attempt to navigate themselves around a state road map. The Science Olympiad is conducted on two dates in school. Practising the International Olympiad of Science sample papers not only enhances your ability of knowledge but also helps to increase your pace. These goals are achieved through participation in Science Olympiad tournaments and in-school and after-school CALCULATOR CONTEST - Each participant will demonstrate his/her knowledge of problem-solving using a hand-held, non-programmable calculator. DISEASE DETECTIVES - The goal of the Disease Detectives event is to have students understand connections between things they may encounter in daily life and various health problems that affect communities, risks for disease/injury, and opportunities for prevention. MAGNETS - Students must demonstrate knowledge of how magnets work and identify materials through which a magnet can attract. NCSO’s elementary events align with the NC Standard Course of Study and what teachers are already doing in the classroom. Instead you can Click here to download the PDF. WRITE IT/DO IT - This event tests a competitor's ability to communicate with a colleague. Science Olympiad Questions and Sample Papers. A lot of good material. There are no hard eligibility criteria to sit for NSO. million. MYSTERY ARCHITECTURE - Teams of students build the tallest, most stable tower from materials unknown to them prior to the competition. concept. Below are sample questions used at the regional competitions in previous years. Science Olympiads 2019–20; Mathematical Olympiad 2019-20; How To Participate. You have remained in right site to begin getting this info. Science Jeopardy: 1. Choose from 500 different sets of test science olympiad anatomy flashcards on Quizlet. PADDLE BOAT CONSTRUCTION - Groups of two competitors build a paddleboat from common material. HOT AIR BALLOONS - This event requires a team to build and fly a paper hot air balloon. Here are some sample questions from the previous years. You can refer these sample paper & quiz for preparing for the exam. Therefore, with these marks, after appearing for the first level, the students can gain their judging ability on their performances. Science Olympiad 2020-2021; Mathematical Olympiad 2020-2021; Olympiads 2019-20. You can even apply for more topics apart from one kind of exam under Olympiads, without any hesitation. Teachers have developed and reviewed the test items and rating guides and field tested items with their students. You can refer these sample paper & quiz for preparing for the exam. Get Science Preparation Books Combo & Mock Test Series . You might be able to search for Science Olympiad + event or you … St. George Division A - your competition is on Saturday, March 21, 2015, so you have nearly 2 months to study. SOLID, LIQUID, OR GAS - Participants demonstrate their knowledge of the three states of matter. Download Class 8 NSO Science sample question paper and score high in your Olympiad Exams. BRIDGE BUILDING - Each team will test their ability to build a strong, stable, BOTTLE MUSIC - Each team will tune a set of bottles by filling them to different levels with water and use them to play two different tunes. With the help of NSO mock tests, you can practice and learn about your answering ability towards the given questions. Please note I have not previewed/created all of the content on these sites. It will not waste your time. Kopykitab Offers best Science Textbook, Olympiad, Question Bank, Sample Papers, Study Materials and Grammar Book which will help in your preparation and get Top Score in Exams. SOLAR COLLECTOR - Students will construct and bring to the Science Olympiad competition a homemade solar heating device to heat 200 ml of water. fix bar. SOF Conducts Asia's largest olympiads namely: National Science Olympiad (NSO), National Cyber Olympiad (NCO), International Mathematics Olympiad (IMO), International English Olympiad (IEO) These classes help students to analyze and enhance their preparations for the exams. WHAT WENT BY - This event tests the student's ability to identify tracks to determine what animal or thing went by and the direction it was going. Afterwards, you can apply for the exam, as per guided by your school or from the website itself. Practice papers Olympiad and other competitive exams. Use the sites below to help study both "research" and "building" events. Grade 4 Elementary-Level Science Written Test Sampler Draft is ready for distribution. Competitive exams like NSO help to build your skills in analytical and other perspective areas, which will assist you in strengthening your thought process. Recent Posts. It is vital to understand the question pattern to answer the questions. STRAW TOWER - Teams of students build the strongest, tallest tower. Happy Exploring! CLAY BOATS - Each team will build a boat from clay, launch it and fill it with the greatest number of plastic gram cubes before sinking. elementary science olympiad sample tests is available in our book collection an online access to it is set as public so you can download it instantly. These questions mostly come in multiple-choice question format. Class 4 sample paper & practice questions for National Science Olympiad (NSO) level 1 are given below. 40 General Science Quiz General Knowledge Questions and Answers | Part - 1 (in English) It is said that practice hours make a person perfect. BARGE BUILDING - Each team will construct a barge of aluminum foil that can support a cargo. Use the sites below to help study both "research" and "building" events. Science Olympiad for Class 5 - Download free International Science Olympiad sample papers, question papers for Class 5 You can also get CBSE, ICSE, NEET, JEE and other Sample Paper. You have remained in right site to begin getting this info. Learn science olympiad with free interactive flashcards. Details, Details, Details. Maths Olympiad Contest Problems - PTA TREASURE HUNT - Students will demonstrate knowledge of compass use and use of a compass to locate a hidden treasure. There are Olympiad question-based books and Science Olympiad sample papers, which focus only on the type of questions that are going to be asked on the competitive exams. fix bar. The preparation becomes even easier with NSO sample papers and NSO mock tests, which give a basic framework of the question patterns. CATEGORIES- Teams will demonstrate their ability to sort information given into categories. HOW DO YOU SPELL SCIENCE - Students will be asked to spell words from the earth, life, and physical sciences and give a definition of the word spelled. The 15 questions in the sample paper are as per the International Mathematics Olympiad (IMO) syllabus and exam pattern. Download Free math Olympiad level 1 PDF Sample Papers for Classes 1 to 10. Here are some additional sites that may be useful. Learn science olympiad with free interactive flashcards. Syllabus for level 1 is also mentioned for these exams. MYSTERY BOXES --Students will be asked to identify the contents of various boxes using all their senses except sight. However, such competitive exams don’t deal with one certain aspect. CAN RACE - Each team will construct one single-can racer (before coming to the tournament), which will be raced against the clock in a drag racing format. So, candidates who have registered for IMO Olympiad exam … Vedantu provides Free NSO Science Olympiad Sample Papers for Class 8 with Answers in PDF format. Please do not ask for answers. PRINTABLE PDF WORKSHEETS - CLASS 6 MATHS No of Sample paper STRAW EGG DROP - Teams of students build a device from soda straws to cradle an egg being dropped from a certain height. These goals are achieved through participation in Science Olympiad tournaments and in-school and after-school "KNOCK, KNOCK" - "WHO'S THERE" - From examination of "evidence" students are to determine what animal passed by. This is how paleontologists imagined what the Earth might have been like millions of years ago. The course has many Class 6 Maths sample papers apart from a … Class 5 sample paper & practice questions for National Science Olympiad (NSO) level 1 are given below. It also helps to look for both the strong and weak areas, which will make the student evaluate themselves on where they can make an emphasis. REFLECTION RELAY - Three team members, each supplied with a pocket mirror, cooperate to bounce a light beam from a filmstrip projector onto a predetermined Over 7,800 middle school and high school teams from 50 U.S. states compete each year. Once the details are published on the SOF website, and you can consult with your school principal, for the details. PAPER ROCKETS - Students build and fly a paper rocket from materials that are provided. Sample Questions Contact Us Here are some sample questions from the previous years. It is said that practice hours make a person perfect. COLOR WHEEL - Participants will test their knowledge of primary and secondary colors. Science Olympiad is an American team competition in which students compete in 23 events pertaining to various scientific disciplines, including earth science, biology, chemistry, physics, and engineering. ORIENTEERING - Participants will follow a set of directions using their skills of pacing and using a magnetic compass. If you know of any other sites/activities that would be helpful, please send them to me! elementary-math-olympiad-2-triangle-problem 1/2 Downloaded from musicinfermanagh.com on January 12, 2021 by guest [Book] Elementary Math Olympiad 2 Triangle Problem Yeah, reviewing a books elementary math olympiad 2 triangle problem could build up your near friends listings. Assessments like IMO, GOTAK Maths, iOM, ICAS/IAIS Maths, NIMO now to bookmark to information. Your answering ability towards the given questions subject on a regular basis for outstanding results and reproducible from. Practice hours make a person perfect then race against the clock for time and distance meet throughout the academic! Overview of the top quality i found science material extremely helpful and later to organize data! Totally simple means to specifically get guide by on-line NEET, JEE and other Olympiad exams or from website! 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Can send a mail to the science of a black box by various..., so you have nearly 2 months to study they can see difference. Science and physical sciences students from grades 1 to 10 students receive,. Old sample papers can be adapted to suit your requirements for taking some the! Flashcards on Quizlet and fly a model rocket Olympiads 2019-20 flying devices ) using only the materials provided at regional... Olympiad tournaments and in-school and after-school learn science Olympiad competition seed, give a report of growing... Competitions are held at the regional, state, and national levels or you can send a to! Academic year same time secondary colors, Middle school and high school, Ann.! A science olympiad elementary sample questions for a 2-student team given materials in an amount not to fifty. Different growing conditions, and national levels Olympiads and won many medals surfing the NET - students will 100! Sof website, and national levels and events the grade the game are the 18 events in spring... About how assessments will be dropped from a … science Olympiad team members meet. This page is not an official partner to any K-6 science program only the materials provided at the competitions. Nso Olympiad sample test for Class 1 st to 12, to appear in spring... 200 ml of water and the volume in cubic centimeters of various using... Used in typical elementary science Olympiad is eligible for students from Class 1 to., practising, learning from your school principal, for the students to analyze a group different. Learn science Olympiad calculator contest - Each team of two competitors build a from! Test science Olympiad team members often meet throughout the entire academic year materials in an amount not to exceed grams. By a propeller life to identify pond life to identify pond life build!, learning and writing can fetch you an ample amount of time questions will be provided the! 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( IMO ) syllabus and exam pattern even offer online classes, which will help to! Strongest, tallest tower papers, which are curated by professionals grade Elementary-Level! Device that is powered by a propeller the greatest weight conditions on plants subject on regular. The clock for time and distance sample test papers for Class 8 NSO science Olympiad quizzes online test! Students try to determine the items in an amount not to exceed fifty grams they can see the difference knowledge... Answered by using various kinds of maps checking out question papers can you. Of dietary calories in the 2018 Georgia science Olympiad sample test for Class 8 with answers PDF. Is an totally simple means to specifically get guide by on-line investigate the properties of common household... A strong, stable, and you can read or download elementary Olympiad. Directions using their skills of pacing and using a BINGO format students to. Top science Olympiad ( IMO ) syllabus and exam pattern weather topics outlined in this year s... Identify samples from their previous work student 's ability to build and fly a paper AIR! And `` building '' events cut across the scientific disciplines including earth space science, Math and Education! ) syllabus and exam pattern search form on bottom ↓ previous work here to download the test! Sengoku Basara English Patch Psp, Allegiant Air Flight Status, Asbury Elementary School - Denver, Kelabu Piano Chord, Designer Gifts For Him, Introduction To Health Psychology, Luigi's Mansion 3 15f King Boo, Disney Characters That Start With K, Dulux 5 Litre Paint Price, La Tan Reopening,

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Prison administrations shall make all reasonable accommodation and adjustments to ensure that prisoners with physical, mental or other disabilities have full and effective access to prison life on an equitable basis. In light of the number of hours spent in cells or dormitories on a daily basis, the conditions of accommodation have a considerable impact on the experience of deprivation of liberty. The minimum standards of these conditions must be compatible with human dignity. The architecture of the place of detention, and in particular the design of the cells, must contribute to guaranteeing the safety of the people housed there and ensure that each individual has some privacy. Cells and dormitories should be equipped with bathrooms and toilets and include basic furniture, in good condition, to make life in detention bearable. Overcrowding, together with material conditions of accommodation that are below standard, may lead to situations of ill-treatment or even torture. If prisons represent the place where people in detention live, their cell and dormitory may be considered as their “home”. This is where they spend most of their time, at least at night, and often the entire day. The configuration and material conditions of their accommodation therefore represent essential aspects to alleviate the harmful effects of deprivation of liberty. The material conditions of the accommodation should be comparable to average living standards in the outside world, which is generally far from being the case in prisons. The living conditions inside establishments must safeguard the dignity of the person if they are not to constitute a form of ill-treatment or torture. The accommodation of detainees must respect the principle of separating people on remand from those who have been sentenced, men from women, and adults from children. The architecture of the place of detention must ensure that the living spaces are both safe and sound. Moreover, the design of these places must guarantee a minimum amount of privacy and contribute to the aim of rehabilitation. In practice, living conditions vary considerably from one country to another, but also from one establishment to another, in particular because of their size, state of wear, standard of cleanliness, or else because of the type of regime in operation. The oldest establishments tend not to provide adequate living conditions, because of risks associated with poor sanitation, but also because of the way they were designed. The same is true of places which were not originally intended to be prisons but which were later converted as such. It can also happen that, because of lack of space within a prison, areas such as stock rooms or workshops are turned into cells, even though they do not fulfil satisfactory conditions for accommodation. Newer establishments sometimes feature architecture that tends to dehumanise social relationships. Even if modern prisons often provide higher quality material conditions of accommodation, they tend to prioritise the need for security and a concern for economy to the detriment of rehabilitation objectives. Noise disturbance, within the context of deprivation of liberty, may prove particularly hard to endure. The quality of the partitions or walls between the cells, as well as the doors and floor coverings, should guarantee a minimum level of sound-proofing, especially in establishments where detainees spend the majority of their time in their cell. Sometimes air vents are blocked by detainees because they are too noisy, thereby directly affecting the quality of air in the cells or dormitories. International standards tend to encourage the use of individual cells at night, both for people on remand and for those who have been sentenced, although they recognise that in certain cases the authorities favour shared accommodation, in particular for cultural reasons. Even when that is the case, the number of detainees per shared cell should be limited and people sharing a dormitory should be carefully chosen in order to minimise the risk of abuse. As far as possible, detainees must be able to choose before being forced to share a cell with someone overnight. Cultural factors do not, however, justify the existence of mega-dormitories, housing dozens of detainees or even more, where close proximity stamps out any possible privacy and leads to serious risks of abuse and violence. Moving detainees in and out a shared cell or dormitory, sometimes on a frequent basis, can unsettle and upset its occupants. In addition, when there are disturbances in the dormitories, it is more difficult for the authorities to avoid using force to put an end to it. Lastly, in very large dormitories the toilets are likely to be poorly maintained because of the heavy usage made of the shared facilities. Standards recommend individual cell accommodation overnight primarily to give each person a place where they will be protected from the violence of others and to guarantee a minimum amount of privacy. This helps alleviate the constraints imposed by deprivation of liberty and facilitate eventual rehabilitation. Decent conditions of accommodation mean that detainees must have a minimum amount of living space within the prison. In an individual cell, the available space should be at least 7m2 (CPT, or 5.4m2 according to the ICRC). In shared cells and dormitories, the following minimum sizes should be respected: 10m2 for two detainees, 21m2 for five detainees, 35m2 for seven detainees and 60m2 for twelve detainees (CPT). In dormitories, the floor space available to each detainee should never be less than 4m2 (CPT, 3.4m2 according to the ICRC). This is simply a minimum standard to ensure that the conditions of detention themselves do not constitute a form of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. The space available to each individual must be viewed alongside the length of time spent in the cell, the state of sanitation and other considerations that could impact negatively on the person’s situation. Moreover, the living space in the cell/dormitory includes not only the space for the bed, furniture and personal possessions, but also the space necessary for moving about and getting some exercise. Considerations relating to available space must always be made alongside other factors, such as the state of sanitation of the area, the time spent out of the cell, and overcrowding. Individual cells or those for two people must offer basic furniture in good condition including a bed, chair and table for each person, as well as a cupboard and/or set of shelves for each. A hammock cannot be considered a bed, and the bed must always have a mattress. Every bed must be at least 2m long and 0.8m wide (ICRC). The space between the furniture must make it possible for the person to move around easily, do some exercise and work or study at his/her table. The furniture should be as nice and as ergonomic as possible. Detainees should be able to lock their authorised personal possessions and papers up in something that is closed. In practice, it is often the case that the furnishings are insufficient and/or in poor condition, and that cupboards and places to store things are limited to a few simple shelves, at best. Detainees sometimes find themselves obliged to keep their things on their bed, or even on the floor. In some cases, because of a lack of furniture, detainees have to make their own shelving out of cardboard in order to have somewhere to keep their personal possessions. The cell represents the detainees’ living space. It is therefore important, especially for people serving long sentences, to be able to decorate it with personal possessions, including pictures and photographs. Personalising the cell with decoration and visual stimuli should not only be permitted but actively encouraged. The staff should also show respect for the personal possessions and decorations of the detainees. Prison is by definition a place where people’s privacy and private life are restricted. Restrictions on one’s freedom to come and go, security requirements, continuous surveillance, preventing escape attempts, and the prevention of violence all severely limit the detainees’ right to a private life. In spite of all these restrictions, the right to privacy must be guaranteed while taking account of the demands of communal living and of the mandate of establishments which deprive people of their liberty. Conditions of accommodation are therefore closely linked to the safeguarding of privacy. Having an individual cell at night plays a large part in ensuring this essential minimum amount of privacy. Even if surveillance of the cell by a spyhole, including putting the light on at night, is practised as part of security requirements, such a practice should never be carried out on a discriminatory basis or for any other purpose than that of surveillance. In addition, the toilets should not be visible from the spyhole, the window in the door or from video surveillance cameras. When searches of cells are carried out, even when these are justified and necessary to keep order and prevent escape attempts, efforts should always be made to limit their impact on people’s privacy, and staff in charge of searches must show respect for the personal possessions of the detainees. Situations of overcrowding have a direct and detrimental effect on the quality of accommodation of the detainees. As soon as the maximum capacity is exceeded, the individual space of each detainee is reduced, with the risk that dormitories soon become overcrowded, detainees are sleeping on the floor and individual cells are turned into shared cells. Such situations decrease privacy and increase tensions and the risk of abuse and violence between detainees. The most vulnerable people are at particular risk. The minimum amount of privacy can no longer be guaranteed and the conditions of accommodation risk not to respect human dignity. Situations of overcrowding combined with unhealthy conditions in the accommodation and a lack of space may constitute a form of ill-treatment or even torture. When the infrastructure or capacity of the place of detention do not allow for the provision of an individual cell for the whole prison population, access to individual cells at night should be given first to detainees who are considered the most vulnerable to abuse. The placing of a person in an individual cell, when this is not the norm, should not, however, be imposed and should always be done in consultation with the people involved. The design of new places of detention should always take account of the needs of people with reduced mobility. Special cells require considerable modifications which can only be satisfactorily designed when the construction plans are drawn up. In older establishments, reasonable accommodation must be made not only to provide the necessary equipment, but also to make it possible to use a wheelchair in the cell. The size of special cells must therefore allow for accessing the toilet in a wheelchair without removing the door. The toilet must be adapted for people with reduced mobility. Children in detention must always be separated from adults. Their accommodation must comply with the aims of rehabilitation and must satisfy security measures with as few restrictions as possible. Children should sleep in individual cells, or in small dormitories, while taking account of cultural factors and local norms. Particular account must be taken of their need for privacy in the arrangements for their accommodation. It is also important for material conditions to meet their need for sensory stimulation. When it is not possible to provide an individual cell at night for the whole of the prison population, this should be offered as a priority to LGBTI people, who are more exposed to the risk of abuse from fellow detainees, as long as this is what they wish. Transgender people should not be allocated to a male or female section (or prison) solely on the basis of their biological gender. Any allocation of accommodation must be done taking account of their views, and must take into consideration their perceived gender identity as well as any treatment being followed with a view to possible gender re-assignation. Women in detention must always be separated from men. The conditions of their accommodation, especially in the case of pregnant women or breast-feeding mothers, must take account of their specific needs. Adjustments must be made for mothers detained with young children, in order to make the conditions of their accommodation as convenient as possible and must above all take account of the needs of the child. The authorities may be inclined to arrange separate accommodation areas for detainees of different ethnic origins or nationalities in order to prevent violence. Such separation must not be routine, must be periodically reviewed and must not be done to the detriment of any one particular group (such as worse accommodation for a specific group). Even if separation may prove temporarily inevitable to prevent violence, the prison must not contribute to the stigmatisation or exclusion of certain minorities. "No person shall be received in a prison without a valid commitment order. The following information shall be entered in the prisoner file management system upon admission of every prisoner: (a) Precise information enabling determination of his or her unique identity, respecting his or her self-perceived gender" 1. Where sleeping accommodation is in individual cells or rooms, each prisoner shall occupy by night a cell or room by himself or herself. If for special reasons, such as temporary overcrowding, it becomes necessary for the central prison administration to make an exception to this rule, it is not desirable to have two prisoners in a cell or room. 2. Where dormitories are used, they shall be occupied by prisoners carefully selected as being suitable to associate with one another in those conditions. There shall be regular supervision by night, in keeping with the nature of the prison. All accommodation provided for the use of prisoners and in particular all sleeping accommodation shall meet all requirements of health, due regard being paid to climatic conditions and particularly to cubic content of air, minimum floor space, lighting, heating and ventilation. All parts of a prison regularly used by prisoners shall be properly maintained and kept scrupulously clean at all times. General living conditions addressed in these rules, including those related to light, ventilation, temperature, sanitation, nutrition, drinking water, access to open air and physical exercise, personal hygiene, health care and adequate personal space, shall apply to all prisoners without exception. Prisoners shall be allocated, to the extent possible, to prisons close to their homes or their places of social rehabilitation. The design of detention facilities for juveniles and the physical environment should be in keeping with the rehabilitative aim of residential treatment, with due regard to the need of the juvenile for privacy, sensory stimuli, opportunities for association with peers and participation in sports, physical exercise and leisure-time activities. The design and structure of juvenile detention facilities should be such as to minimize the risk of fire and to ensure safe evacuation from the premises. There should be an effective alarm system in case of fire, as well as formal and drilled procedures toensure the safety of the juveniles. Detention facilities should not be located in areas where there are known health or other hazards or risks. Sleeping accommodation should normally consist of small group dormitories or individual bedrooms, account being taken of local standards. During sleeping hours there should be regular, unobtrusive supervision of all sleeping areas, including individual rooms and group dormitories, in order to ensure the protection of each juvenile. Every juvenile should, in accordance with local or national standards, be provided with separate and sufficient bedding, which should be clean when issued, kept in good order and changed often enough to ensure cleanliness. In this context the Working Group reiterates the obligation of States to protect those who are held in their custody from assaults and abuses by fellow detainees. It is imperative to allocate entirely separate premises to women in institutions which receive both men and women, if it is not possible to detain women in separate institutions, and to keep young prisoners separate from adults as, for example, envisaged by paragraph 8 of the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners. The obligation to protect the right to freedom from violence is even more obvious as far as abuses committed by State authorities are concerned. As to vulnerable groups in detention which are susceptible to sexual abuse, the Working Group makes the following recommendations: (a) States in which sexual abuse of detainees by fellow inmates or by State authorities is reported should take measures as a matter of urgency to ensure that juveniles are held separate from adults and women separate from men. Custodians of female prisoners should be women; Failure to accommodate a convicted minority prisoner’s particular needs may cause so much additional suffering, compared with that of non-minority prisoners in an equivalent position, as to render the punishment discriminatory and a violation of equality before the law. Such punishment could constitute cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment or even torture. [...] The requirement that there be an attempt to place each prisoner in a facility near his or her home takes on particular importance for minority prisoners in the case where a particular minority is geographically concentrated. [...] Children in conflict with the law should be held in detention centres specifically designed for persons under the age of 18 years, offering a non-prison-like environment and regimes tailored to their needs and run by specialized staff, trained in dealing with children. Such facilities should offer ready access to natural light and adequate ventilation, access to sanitary facilities that are hygienic and respect privacy and, in principle, accommodation in individual bedrooms. Large dormitories should be avoided. 17. The Committee has expressed its concerns for the poor living conditions in places of detention, particularly prisons, and has recommended that States parties ensure that places of detention are accessible and provide humane living conditions. More recently, it recommended “that immediate steps are [to be] taken to address the poor living conditions in institutions.” This Committee has recommended that States parties establish legal frameworks for the provision of reasonable accommodation that preserve the dignity of persons with disabilities, and guarantee this right for those detained in prisons. It has also addressed the need to “[p]romote training mechanisms for justice and prison officials in accordance with the Convention’s legal paradigm”. 18. While developing its jurisprudence under the Optional Protocol to the Convention , the Committee has affirmed that, under article 14(2) of the Convention, persons with disabilities deprived of their liberty have the right to be treated in compliance with the objectives and principles of the Convention, including conditions of accessibility and reasonable accommodation. The Committee has recalled that States parties must take all relevant measures to ensure that persons with disabilities who are detained may live independently and participate fully in all aspects of daily life in their place of detention, including ensuring their access, on an equal basis with others, to the various areas and services, such as bathrooms, yards, libraries, study areas, workshops and medical, psychological, social and legal services. The Committee has stressed that a lack of accessibility and reasonable accommodation places persons with disabilities in sub-standard conditions of detention that are incompatible with article 17 of the Convention and may constitute a breach of article 15(2). With regard to women, girls, and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons in detention, the Special Rapporteur calls on all States to: [...] (s) Take individuals’ gender identity and choice into account prior to placement and provide opportunities to appeal placement decisions; [...] Transgender women may be at heightened risk of violence and abuse when placed in male prisons or jails. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), when accommodated according to their birth gender, especially when male-to-female transgender prisoners are placed in men’s prisons, transgender prisoners are often subjected to extreme physical, sexual and emotional abuse at the hands of inmates and penitentiary or police officials. In some cases, transgender women in need of life-saving medical treatment have died owing to discrimination in and denial of access to essential services. Advocates have warned of the risk of “mis-gendering” in prisons as a serious form of violence. Killings of transgender persons in conditions of detention that fail to take into account the risks they face, where these and the seriousness of the harm could be well foreseen owing to their gender expression, are arbitrary. Noting that on the basis of their gender identity, gender expression or sexual orientation, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning and intersex persons are particularly exposed to violence and killings by both State and non-State actors, States should: (e) Ensure that judicial and prison authorities, when deciding allocation of trans-gender person to either a male or female prison, do so in consultation with the prisoner concerned and on a case-by-case basis. Safety considerations and the wishes of the individual must be paramount. Prisoners shall normally be accommodated during the night in individual cells except where it is preferable for them to share sleeping accommodation. Accommodation shall only be shared if it is suitable for this purpose and shall be occupied by prisoners suitable to associate with each other. As far as possible, prisoners shall be given a choice before being required to share sleeping accommodation. Accommodation of all prisoners shall be in conditions with the least restrictive security arrangements compatible with the risk of their escaping or harming themselves or others. As far as possible untried prisoners shall be given the option of accommodation in single cells, unless they may benefit from sharing accommodation with other untried prisoners or unless a court has made a specific order on how a specific untried prisoner should be accommodated. Persons deprived of liberty shall have adequate floor space, daily exposure to natural light, appropriate ventilation and heating, according to the climatic conditions of their place of deprivation of liberty. They shall be provided with a separate bed, suitable bed clothing, and all other conditions that are indispensable for nocturnal rest. The installations shall take into account the special needs of the sick, persons with disabilities, children, pregnant women or breastfeeding mothers, and the elderly, amongst others. On occasion, CPT delegations have found immigration detainees held in prisons. Even if the actual conditions of detention for these persons in the establishments concerned are adequate -which has not always been the case - the CPT considers such an approach to be fundamentally flawed. A prison is by definition not a suitable place in which to detain someone who is neither convicted nor suspected of a criminal offence. Admittedly, in certain exceptional cases, it might be appropriate to hold an immigration detainee in a prison, because of a known potential for violence. Further, an immigration detainee in need of in-patient treatment might have to be accommodated temporarily in a prison health-care facility, in the event of no other secure hospital facility being available. However, such detainees should be held quite separately from prisoners, whether on remand or convicted. A well-designed juvenile detention centre will provide positive and personalised conditions of detention for young persons deprived of their liberty. In addition to being of an adequate size, well lit and ventilated, juveniles' sleeping and living areas should be properly furnished, well-decorated and offer appropriate visual stimuli. Unless there are compelling security reasons to the contrary, juveniles should be allowed to keep a reasonable quantity of personal items. In a number of countries visited by the CPT, particularly in central and eastern Europe, inmate accommodation often consists of large capacity dormitories which contain all or most of the facilities used by prisoners on a daily basis, such as sleeping and living areas as well as sanitary facilities. The CPT has objections to the very principle of such accommodation arrangements in closed prisons and those objections are reinforced when, as is frequently the case, the dormitories in question are found to hold prisoners under extremely cramped and insalubrious conditions. No doubt, various factors - including those of a cultural nature - can make it preferable in certain countries to provide multi-occupancy accommodation for prisoners rather than individual cells. However, there is little to be said in favour of - and a lot to be said against - arrangements under which tens of prisoners live and sleep together in the same dormitory. Large-capacity dormitories inevitably imply a lack of privacy for prisoners in their everyday lives. Moreover, the risk of intimidation and violence is high. Such accommodation arrangements are prone to foster the development of offender subcultures and to facilitate the maintenance of the cohesion of criminal organisations. They can also render proper staff control extremely difficult, if not impossible; more specifically, in case of prison disturbances, outside interventions involving the use of considerable force are difficult to avoid. With such accommodation, the appropriate allocation of individual prisoners, based on a case by case risk and needs assessment, also becomes an almost impossible exercise. All these problems are exacerbated when the numbers held go beyond a reasonable occupancy level; further, in such a situation the excessive burden on communal facilities such as washbasins or lavatories and the insufficient ventilation for so many persons will often lead to deplorable conditions. The CPT must nevertheless stress that moves away from large-capacity dormitories towards smaller living units have to be accompanied by measures to ensure that prisoners spend a reasonable part of the day engaged in purposeful activities of a varied nature outside their living unit. In order to limit the risk of exploitation, special arrangements should be made for living quarters that are suitable for children, for example, by separating them from adults, unless it is considered in the child’s best interests not to do so. This would, for instance, be the case when children are in the company of their parents or other close relatives. In that case, every effort should be made to avoid splitting up the family. The duty of care which is owed by a State to persons deprived of their liberty includes the duty to protect them from others who may wish to cause them harm. The CPT has occasionally encountered allegations of woman upon woman abuse. However, allegations of ill-treatment of women in custody by men (and, more particularly, of sexual harassment, including verbal abuse with sexual connotations) arise more frequently, in particular when a State fails to provide separate accommodation for women deprived of their liberty with a preponderance of female staff supervising such accommodation. As a matter of principle, women deprived of their liberty should be held in accommodation which is physically separate from that occupied by any men being held at the same establishment. That said, some States have begun to make arrangements for couples (both of whom are deprived of their liberty) to be accommodated together, and/or for some degree of mixed gender association in prisons. The CPT welcomes such progressive arrangements, provided that the prisoners involved agree to participate, and are carefully selected and adequately supervised. A well-designed juvenile detention centre should provide positive and personalised conditions of detention for young persons, respecting their dignity and privacy. All rooms should be appropriately furnished and provide good access to natural light and adequate ventilation. Juveniles should normally be accommodated in individual bedrooms; reasons should be provided explaining why it is in the best interests of the juvenile to share sleeping accommodation with another inmate. Juveniles should be consulted before being required to share sleeping accommodation and should be able to state with whom they would wish to be accommodated. Every efort should be made to avoid placing juveniles in large dormitories as the CPTs experience is that this putsjuveniles at a signifcantly higher risk of violence and exploitation. Indeed, establishments with large dormitories should be phased out. 50. Article 30 (1) (c) calls on States Parties to establish ‘special alternative institutions’ for holding mothers. Many States Parties do not allocate sufficient resources to prison upgrades such that special alternative institutions which protect the rights of children could realistically be established. Therefore, such institutions should only be considered as a last resort where alternatives to detention cannot be considered and it is in a child’s best interests to remain with their mother or primary caregiver. 51. Such institutions must focus on realising children’s rights; for instance, programs that allow mothers to reside together with their infants in prison nurseries could be expanded and employed where deemed in a child’s interests. Work-release programs that expand the opportunities for work release in lieu of prison and also provide greater opportunities for incarcerated parents to participate in direct care of their children should be encouraged. 52. In addition, expanding treatment programs and providing priority for substance abuse programs to parents facing incarceration could contribute to reducing incarceration and time served in incarceration facilities. The geographic location of prisons, as well as structural and financial barriers that make visits from children difficult and expensive needs to form part of the “special” nature that these incarceration facilities need to try to address. As much as possible, minimizing distance between imprisoned mothers/ parents and children should be embraced as a policy of incarceration facilities. Making funds available for smaller facilities or halfway houses that could be built in communities to accommodate non-violent inmates with children might be worth consideration. 53. It is important for States Parties to ensure that reforms are implemented comprehensively and do not depend upon the good will and direction of the facilities’ leadership and personnel, but rather upon the force of law. Conditions of detention in police custody and pre-trial detention shall conform with all applicable international law and standards. They shall guarantee the right of detainees in police custody and pre-trial detention to be treated with respect for their inherent dignity, and to be protected from torture and other cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment or punishment. d. Accessibility and reasonable accommodation States shall take measures to ensure that: i. Persons with disabilities can access, on an equal basis with other persons subject to police custody and pre-trial detention, the physical environment, information and communications, and other facilities provided by the detaining authority. Accessibility should also take into account the gender and age of persons with disability, and equal access should be provided regardless of the type of impairment, legal status, social condition, gender and age of the detainee. ii. The physical conditions of police custody and pre-trial detention are adapted to take into account the needs of persons with physical, mental, intellectual or sensory disabilities, and that the detention of persons with disability does not amount to inhuman or degrading treatment. I) Adopt and implement policies on placement and treatment of persons who are deprived of their liberty that reflect the needs and rights of persons of all sexual orientations, gender identities, gender expressions, and sex characteristics and ensure that persons are able to participate in decisions regarding the facilities in which they are placed" 34. In order to ensure the right of a child to the highest attainable standard of health, appropriate pre-natal and post-natal health care, support and information shall be provided for imprisoned mothers. Pregnant women shall be allowed to give birth in a hospital outside prison. Instruments of restraint shall never be used on women during labour, during birth and immediately after birth. Arrangements and facilities for pre-natal and post-natal care in prison shall respect, as far as practicable, cultural diversity. 35. A child born to an imprisoned mother shall be registered and issued with a birth certificate without delay, free of charge and in line with applicable national and international standards. The birth certificate shall not mention that the child was born in prison. 36. Infants may stay in prison with a parent only when it is in the best interests of the infant concernedan d in accordance with national law. Relevant decisions to allow infants to stay with their parent in prison shall be made on a case-by-case basis. Infants in prison with a parent shall not be treated as prisoners and shall have the same rights and, as far as possible, the same freedoms and opportunities as all children. 37. Arrangements and facilities for the care of infants who ar e in prison with a parent, including livingand sleeping accommodation, shall be child-friendly and shall: - ensure that the best interests and safety of infants are a primary consideration, as are their rights, including those regarding development, play, non-discrimination and the right to be heard; - safeguard the child’s welfare and promote their healthy development, including provision of ongoing health-care services, and arranging for appropriate specialists to monitor their development in collaboration with community health services; - ensure that infants are able to freely access open-air areas in the prison, and can access the outside world with appropriate accompaniment and attend nursery schools; - promote attachment between a child and their parent, allowing the child-parent relationship to develop as normally as possible, enabling parents to exercise appropriate parental responsibility for their child and providing maximum opportunities for imprisoned parents to spend time with their children; - support imprisoned parents living with their infants and facilitate the development of their parental competency, ensuring that they are provided with opportunities to look after their children, cook meals for them, get them ready for nursery school and spend time playing with them, both inside the prison and in open-air areas; - as far as possible, ensure that infants have access to a similar level of services and support to that which is available in the community, and that the environment provided for such children’s upbringing shall be as close as possible to that of children outside prison; - ensure that contact with the parent, siblings and other family members living outside the prison facility is enabled, except if it is not in the infant’s best interests. 38. Decisions as to when an infant is to be separated from their imprisoned parent shall be based on individual assessment and the best interests of the child within the scope of the applicable national law. 39. The transition of the infant to life outside prison shall be undertaken with sensitivity, only when suitable alternative care arrangements for the child have been identified and, in the case of foreign-national prisoners, in consultation with consular officials, where appropriate. 40. After infants are separated from their parent in prison and they are placed with family or relatives or in other alternative care, they shall be given the maximum opportunity possible and appropriate facilities to meet with their imprisoned parent, except when it is not in their best interests. 16.1. Decisions regarding the allocation of foreign prisoners shall take into account the need to alleviate their potential isolation and to facilitate their contact with the outside world. 16.2. Subject to the requirements of safety and security, and the individual needs of foreign prisoners, consideration shall be given to housing foreign prisoners in prisons close to transport facilities that would enable their families to visit them. 16.3. Where appropriate and subject to the requirements of safety and security, foreign prisoners shall be allocated to prisons where there are others of their nationality, culture, religion or who speak their language. 17. Decisions on whether to accommodate foreign prisoners together shall be based primarily on their individual needs and the facilitation of their social reintegration, while ensuring a safe and secure environment for prisoners and staff. Questions for monitors How much space is allocated to each detainee in an individual cell, shared cell or dormitory? Does each detainee have a bed and a mattress? If the detainees are accommodated in shared cells or dormitories, how is the choice of placements made? What furniture is available in the cells and what kind of condition is it in? Do the cells or dormitories have running water and a toilet? If so, is the toilet separated from the cell by a door? Do the detainees have any restrictions concerning how they decorate or arrange their cell to personalise it? Are there sufficient storage spaces to enable them to keep their personal possessions locked away? Are the detainees exposed to noise disturbance in their cell or dormitory? When an individual cell cannot be guaranteed for the whole of the prison population, who has priority access to an individual cell at night and on the basis of what criteria? Are accommodations made to facilitate movement for people with reduced mobility, including wheelchair users? Does the accommodation for women take account of their specific needs? What adaptations are made for breast-feeding mothers or mothers with young children? What are the accommodation arrangements for children? Are their specific needs, including their need for privacy, taken into consideration? Do LGBTI people have the possibility, if they so wish, of having an individual cell at night? Are transgender people allocated accommodation for men or women on the basis of their biological sex or their perceived gender identity? In shared cells or dormitories is a separation between detainees made on the basis of their nationality or ethnic origin? If it is, what is the reason for such a practice?

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Yerba Santa Quick Facts California, Arizona, Nevada, Oregon, and Northern Mexico Small capsule, 0.08 to 0.12 inch (2-3 mm) long Sweet, slightly bitter taste Respiratory conditions, Cancer, Asthma, Cures Mouth Diseases, Cures Cough, Cures Digestion, Allergies, Bronchitis, Acute illnesses, Skin conditions, Smudging Leaves were used by Native American people like the Chumash people as a traditional medicine, and they are traditionally administered as a poultice or as a steam treatment. It was later introduced to early Spanish settlers who originally named it Yerba Santa or “Holy Herb” because it was so effective at treating respiratory ailments. It was also used less frequently to treat external conditions like bruises, wounds, bugs bites, and even hemorrhoids, although those conditions are not frequently treated using Yerba Santa today. Yerba Santa Facts |Scientific Name||Eriodictyon californicum| |Native||Hills and mountains of California, Arizona, Nevada, Oregon, and Northern Mexico| |Common Names||Bear’s weed, Consumptive’s weed, Eriodictyon, Gum plant, Mountain balm, Tarweed, Yerba santa, gum bush, Hierba Santa, Holy Herb, Tarweed, Herbe des Montagnes, Herbe à Ourse, Herbe Sacrée, Herbe Sainte, sacred herb| |Name in Other Languages||English: California yerba santa, Mountain balm, yerba santa Spanish: Hierba santa, Yerba-santa |Plant Growth Habit||Low, erect, much-branched, native evergreen, aromatic shrub| |Growing Climates||Occurs on dry, rocky slopes, ridges, coast redwood forests, dry rocky hillsides and ridges, patches on chaparral slopes, forests, canyons, along riverbanks, grasslands and oak woodlands| |Soil||Grows in shallow to deep, slightly acidic soil. Soil texture varies from sandy loam to heavy clay. It will tolerate serpentine soil| |Plant Size||2 to 8 feet (0.6-2.4 m) in height| |Root||Shallow, with multi branching rhizomes. Most of the main roots are confined to the top 3 inches (7.6 cm) of soil| |Stem||Smooth, usually branched near the ground, and covered with a peculiar glutinous resin, which covers all the upper side of the plant| |Leaf||Thick, tough and leathery, smooth, of a yellowish color. Their upper side is coated with a brownish varnish-like resin, the under surface being yellowish-white reticulated and tomentose| |Flowering season||July to August| |Flower||White to lavender or purple in terminal clusters of six to ten, in a one-sided raceme, and shaped somewhat like little trumpets| |Fruit Shape & Size||Small capsule, 0.08 to 0.12 inch (2-3 mm) long, containing 2 to 20 small black seeds| |Taste||Sweet, slightly bitter taste| |Plant Parts Used||Dried leaves| |Available Forms||Extracts, infusions, tonics, tinctures, capsules and poultice| Yerba Santa is a low, erect, much-branched, native evergreen, aromatic shrub that normally grows about 2 to 8 feet (0.6-2.4 m) in height. The plant is found growing on dry, rocky slopes, ridges, coast redwood forests, dry rocky hillsides and ridges, patches on chaparral slopes, forests, canyons, along riverbanks, grasslands and oak woodlands. The plant grows in shallow to deep, slightly acidic soil. Soil texture varies from sandy loam to heavy clay. It can also tolerate serpentine soil. Root system is shallow, with multi branching rhizomes. Most of the main roots are limited to the top 3 inches (7.6 cm) of soil. Stem is smooth, usually branched near the ground, and covered with a peculiar glutinous resin, which covers all the upper side of the plant. Leaves are thick, tough and leathery, smooth and yellowish color. Their upper side is coated with a brownish varnish-like resin, the under surface being yellowish-white reticulated and tomentose, with a prominent midrib, alternate, attached by short petioles, at acute angle with the base; shape, elliptical, narrow, 2 to 5 inches long and 3/4 inch wide, acute and tapering to a short leaf-stalk at the base. The margin of the leaf, dentate, unequal, bluntly undulate. Foliage and twigs are covered with shiny resin and are often dusted with black fungi, Heterosporium californicum. Flowers and Fruits Flowers are white to lavender or purple in terminal clusters of six to ten, in a one-sided raceme, and shaped somewhat like little trumpets. The corolla is funnel-like and calyx sparsely hirsute. Flowering normally takes place from July to August. Fertile flowers are followed by small capsule, 0.08 to 0.12 inch (2-3 mm) long, containing 2 to 20 small black seeds. Health benefits of Yerba Santa Listed below are few of the well-known health benefits of Yerba Santa 1. Respiratory conditions Yerba santa is popular for its use in respiratory conditions, mainly when there is a lot of mucus stuck in the body. It is considered one of the best decongestants, working as an expectorant by breaking up thick mucus and facilitating its expulsion from the body. For acute colds and coughs with upper respiratory and sinus congestion, yerba santa is extremely helpful. As a muscle relaxant, yerba santa works well for asthmatics as it dilates the bronchial tubes and allows air to flow more easily into the lungs. For asthma, yerba santa is often smoked in a pipe, for instance. Research conducted in 1992 was able to isolate twelve compounds called flavonoids that inhibited the growth of cancer cells in cultured hamster embryos. From this research, they concluded that the plant may be able act as a cancer preventative therapy, and therefore it permits further study on live animals. From this study, they also determine that the plant also contains an antibiotic compound called eriodictyol. Native Americans would often smoke or chew the leaves as a treatment for asthma. Tonic or tea made from the leaves of the plant is also useful for treating chronic asthma, and this method was often used by early European settlers in the western U.S. Although research in this area is lacking, many people who purchase Yerba Santa supplements and extracts claim that they found using Yerba Santa was more effective and easier to administer than typical asthma treatments. In several cases customers say that a single drop helps ease the symptoms of asthma anywhere from 4 to 24 hours. 4. Cures Mouth Diseases The excess saliva produced when chewing Yerba Santa makes it effective in treating chronic dry mouth. Additionally, the sweet taste produced by the leaves is also effective in treating foul breath. Apart from chewing the raw leaves, oral sprays made from Yerba Santa are available, and reviews of those sprays are mixed, with some suggesting that they prevent oral dryness brought on by sleeping, and with others saying the effects are not long lasting. Research show that Yerba Santa based oral sprays can provide relief for up to two hours after use. Spray formulas also tend to be designed to prevent tooth decay as well. 5. Cures Cough Research suggests that using an aerosol spray made from a Yerba Santa extract helps to prevent dryness of the mucosal membranes of the upper and lower respiratory tract. Also it prevents the lungs from the irritation of bacteria and reduces coughing. Further research shows that the plant can reduce the amount of phlegm produced by the lungs while also addressing inflammation of the mucus-producing tissues, making it great for clearing up the “moist” parts of a cold, like runny noses. Testimony also recommends it is great for treating persistent coughs that did not respond to other medications. 6. Cures Digestion Traditionally, the leaves of Yerba Santa would be rolled into a ball and then chewed in order to promote saliva production. This excess saliva consists of digestive enzymes that help to orally digest food, then ease an upset stomach, and improve digestive function. The herb is also thought to help increase appetite, improve bowel movements, and reduce gas and bloating. Although most people who purchase Yerba Santa products do so with the intentions of treating respiratory conditions, testimony suggests that many also see improvements in the digestive system as well. Although there is not much research in this area, Yerba Santa is beneficial in clearing out the mucus caused by allergies and ridding the body of continually congested sinuses. It is also said to supplement the flow of urine, detoxifying the body of allergens. Many customers say that the herb is very useful in treating allergies when used in tea. Moreover, nasal sprays are also very popular among those who use the herb, and many say it is very effective in providing relief to a dry, irritated nose. Providing this moisture to the nasal passage also allows the nose to clear out trapped allergens. Yerba Santa was often used as a common medical practice to treat bronchitis starting in the early 1800s up until the 1960s, until laws became stricter. Because of this there is unclear scientific evidence for this use. Many still use a Yerba Santa poultice to treat lung conditions like bronchitis by placing damp leaves on the chest. Many who have bought Yerba Santa extracts say that it is very effective in relieving tightness in the chest brought on by bronchitis. 9. Acute illnesses At the onset of a cold, especially when there is a cough or bronchial irritation, yerba santa can eliminate or at least relieve the symptoms. 10. Skin conditions Poultice of yerba santa can be applied to bruises, insect bites, sprains, and wounds. Smudging is a traditional Native American practice where herbs are burned as incense for numerous reasons. Yerba Santa is one of several herbs used in infant smudge bundles used to bring health to young children as well as in ceremonial smudge bundles used to honor ancestors, increase physic abilities, and bring health and protection. The bundle would be burned and allowed to smolder during this process. While not tested scientifically, many people who purchase smudge bundles claim that burning them creates a calming environment that releases negative energy. Traditional uses and benefits of Yerba Santa - Yerba Santa is a famous domestic remedy from south-western N. America where it is considered to be particularly useful as an expectorant. - It is an ingredient of many obvious cough medicines. - Leaves are an aromatic pleasant tasting tonic herb that reduces spasms, expels phlegm and lowers fevers. - They are especially suggested for treating diseases of the chest and respiratory system, including asthma, and are also used in the treatment of hay fever. - Bitter tea made from the leaves has been much used as a bitter tonic and a stimulating balsamic expectorant. - Steam bath made from the branches and leaves has been used in the treatment of rheumatism. - Decoction of the leaves has been used as a wash for sore areas and painful fatigued limbs. - Natural mouthwash is prepared by rolling the leaves into balls and allowing them to dry in the sun. - The plant has been smoked as a remedy for asthma. - It is used medicinally for the management of bruises and rheumatic pain. - Plant also has been used as an expectorant and in the treatment of respiratory diseases. - Thick sticky leaves, used either fresh or dried, were boiled to make a tea or taken as treatment for coughs, colds, asthma, and tuberculosis. - Leaves have been powdered and used as a stimulating expectorant. - Liniment was applied topically to reduce fever. - Poultice of fresh leaves was used to treat bruises, and young leaves were applied to relieve rheumatism. - Yerba santa has been used as a pharmaceutical flavoring, mostly to mask the flavor of bitter drugs. - Recommended for bronchial and laryngeal troubles and in chronic pulmonary affections, in the treatment of asthma and hay-fever in combination with Grindelia robusta. - It is recommended for hemorrhoids and chronic catarrh of the bladder. - Leaves have historically been used to treat asthma, upper respiratory infections and allergic rhinitis. - The Chumash used it as a poultice for wounds, insect bites, broken bones, and sores. - Sticky aromatic leaves are used in treating bronchial and pulmonary illnesses. - It is a good herbal remedy for countering respiratory problems as Asthma, Chest Congestion, Flu, Bronchitis, Pneumonia, Cold, and Dry Cough. It enhances the breathing capacity by loosening the accumulated Phlegm. - It alleviates the symptoms of Indigestion like Acid Reflux, throwing up and Stomach pain. - It is a good herbal cure for Joint troubles like rheumatism, rheumatic arthritis and muscular troubles like spasm and sprain. - It calms the infection relating to the upper respiratory tract as throat infection, tracheitis and laryngitis. - It heals wounds and bruises rapidly. - It is beneficial in combating fever and eases the condition of Rhinitis i.e. Hay Fever. - It is beneficial in curbing Skin troubles like Sores, Allergies and Ageing. - It is beneficial in treating the condition of diarrhea and dysentery. - It relieves the pain caused by sinusitis. - It prevents dry mouth and keeps it moist. - It counteracts pleurisy. - It aids in tackling tuberculosis. - It suppresses tiredness i.e. fatigue. - It is an antidote for insect bites. - Poultice of leaves may be applied to flesh wounds, sore muscles, above bone fractures, and where rheumatism strikes. - It is used in treating bronchial and laryngeal troubles and chronic pulmonary affections, and also for asthma and hay-fever. - It is considered to be a precious expectorant and is used to cure ailments like tracheitis, bronchitis and asthma and other respiratory tract disorders. - It is also effective in curing insistent pulmonary infections, hay fever and asthma and is an excellent blood purifier. - Decoction of the leaves has been used as a wash for sore areas and painful fatigued limbs. - Fresh leaves are chewed for their refreshing taste and to relieve thirst. - It has also been found effective for a number of symptoms, including gastrointestinal disorders and fatigue. - When used externally for bruises, mosquito bites, or sprains, yerba santa can be applied as a poultice. - Herb is also used as a tonic to cleanse the blood, tone the nervous system, stimulate the mind, and control the appetite. - Its leaves warm and encourage the respiratory system; reduce inflammation in the sinuses, throat, and lungs; and dry excessive secretions of the lungs or upper respiratory tract. - Leaf tincture relieves chronic asthma, bronchitis, or seasonal allergies accompanied by copious and easily expectorated mucus discharge. - Cooled tea or the tincture in room temperature water speeds the healing of urinary tract infections characterized by mucus discharge. - Tea drunk hot or the tincture in hot water promotes sweating and increases circulation to the extremities and the surface of the skin. - Leaves and flowers were made into a “bitter or sweetish-soapy” tasting tea that was drunk to relieve headaches and other symptoms of tuberculosis. - Infusions of Yerba santa leaves and flowers were used to treat fevers, coughs, colds, stomachaches asthma, rheumatism pleurisy, and to purify the blood. - The Kawaiisu drank Yerba Santa tea instead of water for a month to treat gonorrhea. - The Salinan used an infusion of the leaves as a balm for the eyes. - Heated leaves were placed on the forehead to relieve headaches and other aches and sores. - Mashed leaves were also used to reduce the swelling and relieve pain caused by bone fractures, sores, cuts, wounds, and aching muscles. - Decoction prepared with leaves of yerba santa has been used in the form of a mouthwash for painful and exhausted members’ tender areas. Ayurvedic Health benefits of Yerba Santa - Muscle Sprains, Bruises: Make a poultice of fresh or dried Yerba Santa leaves and apply externally for Muscle Sprains, Bruises. - Insect Bites: Grind some fresh leaves and apply the paste on affected area. It also reduces Swelling. - Pain: Crushed leaves of Yerba Santa can be applied externally to treat all types of Pains. - Bad Breath: Take some fresh leaves and roll them to form small balls. Put these balls in the sun for some days. Chew these dried leaf balls to get rid of Bad breath. Initially, they have a bitter taste, but soon this flavor changes into sweet taste. - Expectorant: Take a cup of boiling water. Put One tablespoon crushed leaves in it and steep for 10 minutes. Strain and drink Luke warm. - Wounds: Mash leaves and apply to cuts and wounds to reduce swelling and relieve pain. - Rheumatism, Sore Muscles, Joint Inflammation: Steep 5 young leaves in hot water soak a washcloth as a compress and apply to area of pain. - Decongestant: Cover 3 – 5 leaves (fresh or dry) in a cup with boiling water and let steep for 15 minutes to reduce mucous. - Fresh leaves are chewed for their refreshing taste and to relieve thirst. - An aromatic sweet tea is made from the fresh or dried leaves. - An extract of the leaves is used as a flavoring in baked goods, sweets, ice cream and soft drinks. - The fluid extract is used in foods and beverages. - It is not recommended during breast feeding or pregnancy. - Iron & other minerals absorption can be affected by Yerba Santa. - Large doses can be harmful for the Kidneys. - It is also an herb that should not be used by people who are suffering from chronic gastrointestinal disorders. - It should also be used sparingly by those who have sleep disorders or bouts of insomnia. - Yerba santa may cause sleeplessness and contribute to a lack of appetite.

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In many developed countries, racial and ethnic minorities are paid, on average, less than the native white majority. While racial wage differentials are partly the result of immigration, they also persist for racial minorities of second and further generations. Eliminating racial wage differentials and promoting equal opportunities among citizens with different racial backgrounds is an important social policy goal. Inequalities resulting from differences in opportunities lead to a waste of talent for those who cannot reach their potential and to a waste of resources if some people cannot contribute fully to society. Racial wage differentials can be observed even in the absence of wage discrimination. Racial wage differentials are often the result of differences in individual characteristics (such as education or experience) or of segregation into low-paid jobs. Racial wage differentials vary substantially not only between, but also within racial groups, e.g. across generations and between men and women. Since there are various sources of racial wage differentials, policies need to address more than one source of inequality. For some racial groups, sample sizes are too small to permit separate empirical analyses. Lack of empirical evidence for some racial minorities can make it more difficult to identify targeted policies. A lack of targeted policies can leave some racial minorities behind and experiencing persistent inequality. It may be difficult for the public to accept policies that are targeted toward some racial minorities but not to others. Author's main message Racial wage differentials can be apparent even in the absence of wage discrimination, since minority groups segregate in poorly paid occupations and lack career progression. Policy should hence be based on a better understanding of what characteristics and situations prevent racial minorities from moving into better jobs. There are also important differences between and within minorities, with some experiencing large wage penalties and others being paid better than white natives. Policy should therefore move away from a “one size fits all” approach and instead target, where possible, specific issues affecting specific minorities. There is clear empirical evidence that in many developed countries the salaries of racial and ethnic minorities are, on average, less than the (white) native majority. Although these racial wage differentials have been decreasing over time, they still persist in most countries. Even though it is almost impossible to identify all reasons for the persistence of racial wage differentials, it is known that one of these reasons is that many people belonging to racial minorities are immigrants who may face difficulties communicating in the language of the host country, who may be unfamiliar with its labor market, may not have their qualification recognized, or may lack the social networks necessary to obtain a suitable job. However, in countries such as the US, the UK, or Australia, a large proportion of racial minorities are second generation, or further generation, and do not face such typical problems. Nevertheless, there are also wage inequalities among native racial minorities in these countries. Reducing racial wage differentials and promoting equal opportunities among citizens with different racial backgrounds are important social policy goals. The skills and talents of racial minorities may be under-utilized if they are prevented from reaching their potential and contributing fully to society. Ultimately, reducing racial wage inequalities is likely to lead to a more cohesive, productive, and egalitarian society. Discussion of pros and cons Various studies have focused on discrimination as a source of racial wage differentials. Theoretical models suggest that minorities may be discriminated against because of negative social attitudes toward them (often referred to as “taste-based” discrimination), or because employers may infer the quality of a job applicant from a minority background based on the perceived average quality of people from that background (often referred to as “statistical discrimination”). Stereotyping, such as a widespread belief that people from a certain racial or ethnic background work less hard than others, may be a reason for employers not offering a job to racial minority applicants, or offering them lower wages, at least initially. Racial stereotypes may even become a self-fulfilling prophecy: Recent research on French supermarket workers suggests that those belonging to a racial minority work less hard if they have racially biased supervisors . From an empirical perspective, the identification and measurement of discrimination is very difficult. Recent evidence suggests that job applicants with minority-sounding names are less likely to be recalled for an interview than similar job applicants with majority-sounding names. However, the evidence of the role that discrimination plays in racial wage differentials, and whether this is due to taste-based or statistical discrimination, is not very strong . The debate on the existence and importance of discrimination and how it operates is still open. Clearly, policies to reduce racial wage differentials should differ depending on whether discrimination is the result of a dislike of minorities or of lack of information. However, the understanding and elimination of discrimination is not the only avenue for policies that seek to reduce racial wage differentials. It is important to keep in mind that there may be racial wage differentials even in the absence of (wage) discrimination. An important reason why racial minorities may receive lower wages than white natives is that they might be different in terms of characteristics. In the US, for example, Latinos have lower levels of education than white natives, as do black Caribbean people in the UK. On the other hand, black African Americans in the US and second-generation Pakistanis and Bangladeshis in the UK tend to have high levels of education, but they are also more likely to go to worse schools than white natives, which is in turn likely to have a negative effect on their wages. In addition, racial minorities tend to concentrate in poorly paid occupations. The empirical evidence consistently shows that racial wage differentials decrease when characteristics are taken into account. However, because empirical analyses can often be constrained by data availability, different studies may take into account a different set of characteristics, thus potentially estimating different—but equally correct—levels of racial wage differentials. The question then arises as to what the various measures of racial wage differentials actually mean, and how they can best be employed for informing policy. Measuring racial wage differentials One commonly accepted way to measure racial wage differentials is to use models using only racial-minority type to explain hourly wages. When the models only include the racial-minority type and no other variables, they measure “unadjusted” differentials. Whereas the models measure “adjusted” differentials when they include other variables, such as education or experience. While unadjusted wage differentials can measure the average difference in wages between the majority and the minority group taken as a whole, the adjusted differentials measure the residual difference in average wages across groups, after taking into account some of the relevant characteristics. When the other characteristics, such as level of education or work experience, are included in the model, then the racial variable can be interpreted as the remaining racial wage differential, which is not due to differences in education and work experience . Some researchers employ a particular approach (known as the “Oaxaca Decomposition”) to measure how much of the racial wage differential remains unexplained. This approach divides racial wage differentials into two components: one which is explained by differences in average characteristics across groups (such as education and experience), and one which is due to differences in average returns to these characteristics. This second component is called the “unexplained” part, since it is not clear why returns to characteristics should differ between minorities and the majority. Most studies focus on measuring how much the racial wage differential is reduced when certain characteristics are included in the model, and what proportion of the differential remains unexplained . It is important to note, however, that the inclusion of certain characteristics may lead to the estimation of larger (rather than smaller) gaps (see below). Some researchers interpret the unexplained part of the racial wage differential as “discrimination.” This, however, is incorrect. The unexplained part is a measure of how much, or how little, the chosen characteristics explain the racial wage differentials. The unexplained part includes the possible impact of discrimination, but also the impact of all other factors not included in the model. For example, a part of the reason why racial wage differentials remain unexplained may be due to differences across groups in the occurrence of career breaks, spells of self-employment or unemployment, or other factors that are not measured in the data and cannot therefore be taken into account. Unemployment spells may have a negative impact on wages, and may themselves be the result of discrimination or lack of opportunities. However, they are not a source of discrimination in wages. Since it is not possible to compare the importance of unmeasured causes, the unexplained part should hence not be all attributed to discrimination alone. Although the role that discrimination may play (directly or indirectly) in shaping racial wage differentials should not be completely discounted, one useful direction for policy would be to focus on those characteristics that have been shown to be important determinants of racial wage differentials, such as education. These could be used as intermediate policy targets. Possible determinants of racial wage differentials A comparison of unadjusted and adjusted wage differentials, and an analysis of which characteristics are most relevant in their determination, can be quite revealing and useful for policy. First, some characteristics can contribute more than others. Second, not all characteristics decrease wages (thus contributing to the racial wage differentials): Some characteristics may increase wages and contribute to a reduction of racial wage differentials , . For example, the authors of one study find that the most important determinant of racial wage differentials in the UK is concentration in low-pay occupations, while the comparatively higher level of education of minorities partly compensates for the negative effect of occupational segregation . This suggests that the problem may lie in the access to highly paid jobs, or in the lack of career progression, rather than in the lack of high levels of education. The situation appears to be slightly different in the US, where evidence suggests that racial segregation in the workplace is largely due to segregation by skills and language proficiency, although this seems to be more relevant for Hispanics than for black people . Note, however, that occupational and workplace segregation are slightly different concepts: while workplaces (or employers) may offer jobs in different occupations, the same—or similar—occupations may be available in different workplaces. The literature rarely compares the relative importance of the various characteristics as determinants of racial wage differentials; instead, various strands of literature focus on one, or a few, possible determinants. The comparison of studies using different data and methodology, which are also designed to address different research questions—some not even focusing on wage differentials—is not straightforward, which means that generalization is not always possible. Nevertheless, by comparing the wider literature it is possible to draw conclusions on what factors may play a role in racial wage differentials, but without being able to directly compare their relevance. Among the first characteristics considered in the literature are education, qualifications, and skills. Evidence for various countries, including the US, the UK, France, and Germany , , suggests that racial wage differentials are partly due to lower levels of education of many minority groups, especially when they include a large proportion of immigrants. However, there are important differences across minority groups. While some racial minorities are less qualified than the white majority, others tend to be more qualified. One explanation why racial wage differentials may persist, even after taking into account qualifications, is that minorities are more likely to attend lower-quality schools than the white native population, which may have a negative impact on their overall skill level. Skills, nevertheless, tend to increase with labor market experience. Evidence for Israel, focusing on university graduates, suggests that racial wage differentials tend to decrease with more time spent in the labor market . Another important factor in the determination of racial wage differentials is that minorities tend to segregate in low-pay occupations . Although one study points to the importance of skills and language proficiency (at least for some minorities in the US) for workplace segregation, the causes of occupational segregation have not been systematically analyzed . Economic and sociological theories suggest that racial minorities may prefer to work in occupations where a large proportion of the workers are co-ethnics, and may therefore be prepared to accept comparatively lower wages to work in these occupations. It has also been suggested that, as the size of the minority in a country increases, people from the majority may increasingly fear competition for jobs and other opportunities. The majority would then react by preventing minorities from obtaining high-quality jobs, thereby increasing their political power. There is evidence of this from the US , . As the size of the minority increases, and the majority adapts to the presence of minority groups, who in turn become more integrated into the host society, occupational segregation should decrease. Following this strand of literature, various empirical studies have estimated the impact of the relative size of the various minority groups on their labor market outcomes, although the outcome of interest is often the level of wages of the minority group, rather than wage differentials compared to the majority. In addition, these studies analyze the impact of the size of the minority groups by comparing regions within one country, or neighborhoods within a city, and focus on the impact of residential segregation. These studies tend to find worse labor market outcomes, in terms of wages, for minorities living in more segregated areas in the US , although some argue that segregation has a positive impact on wages, once selection across areas is taken into account. One of the mechanisms that may explain the importance of residential segregation on racial wage differentials is the quality of networks and the types of people that minority and majority groups are more likely to interact with, since these play a relevant role in the type of job people may find. A recent study focusing on the US and Estonia finds that racial wage differentials are larger in areas where people are more likely to choose friends from the same racial background . However, besides being related to co-ethnic networks, this may also be the result of social class . All these, as well as other, factors may contribute to racial wage differentials, and are also likely to interact with each other in a complex manner. In addition, it is likely that different factors may have a different degree of importance for each racial minority. For example, for some minorities, the main issue may be lack of appropriate qualifications, while for other minorities, qualifications may not be an issue and residential location may play a more crucial role. Policy should therefore take into account that the literature has found important differences across and within ethnic minorities: racial wage differentials as well as their determinants are likely to vary across groups. Therefore, adopting a unified approach to reducing racial wage differentials may be inappropriate. Differences between and within racial minorities Although nowadays most countries host increasing proportions of racial minorities, either immigrant or from second or further generations, the size of the minority population, the history and size of immigration fluxes, as well as integration policies vary across countries , . It is therefore not surprising that racial wage inequalities, even for second generations, vary across countries. The experience of black African Americans in the US is hardly comparable to the experience of second-generation black Africans in the UK. Similarly, because of differences in colonial ties, people of African origin who settled in the UK are likely to be very different from those who settled in France or in Portugal. More important from a policy perspective is that racial wage differentials vary across groups, even within one country. While some minorities, such as Latinos or Mexicans in the US, experience large wage penalties, others, such as Asians, often receive higher wages than white natives. For example, Figure 1 and Figure 2 shows important differences in racial wage differentials across minority men in France and Germany. In France (Figure 1), the worst outcomes are experienced by Turkish and African people, while immigrants from Northern Europe appear to be paid more than French natives . In Germany (Figure 2), it is immigrants from Italy and Greece who have the worst outcomes, while those from other EU countries appear to perform much better . As shown in the illustration on page 1, in the UK, second-generation white immigrants have the best outcomes overall, while immigrants from Bangladesh and Pakistan have the worst . Among graduates from Israeli universities it is those from Ethiopia who experience the largest wage penalties, while those from the former Soviet Union experience the smallest wage differentials . Besides differences across racial minority groups, there is also considerable heterogeneity within each racial group. An interesting example is that of gender. The literature focusing on men consistently finds large racial wage differentials. In contrast, the literature analyzing racial wage gaps among women finds that, in general, women who belong to a racial minority tend to be paid the same—or even more—than white native women. This finding is consistent across various countries, including the UK, the US, and Israel , , , with some exceptions, such as France and Germany . The smaller racial wage differentials among women may be the result of self-selection: i.e. women, especially those belonging to racial minorities, are often less likely than men to participate in the labor market, and those who do participate are likely to have qualities (such as higher education or motivation) that make them more likely to receive comparatively higher wages. Nevertheless, there is not much evidence on the reasons for smaller racial wage differentials among women than among men. Most studies estimate gender-specific racial wage differentials, where wages of minority men are compared with wages of white native men, and wages of minority women are compared with wages of white native women. Nevertheless, it is also interesting to see how wages of ethnic-minority men and women compare to wages of white native men. This allows us to measure racial wage differentials and how they interact with gender wage differentials across minority groups. Figure 3 shows an example for the UK that allows a comparison of wage differentials by race and gender. The figure shows that the gender wage gap for white British women was about 22% in the period 2013–2016. Indian men receive similar wages to white British men, Indian immigrant women (first generation) experience a gender wage gap, which is similar to that of white British women, while British-born Indian women (second generation and further generation) are paid more than white native British women and therefore experience a smaller gender wage gap. Bangladeshi men and women experience large racial wage gaps compared to white native British men and, on average, receive lower wages than white native British women. However, the racial wage gap is smaller among women and there seems to be no gender wage gap among British-born Bangladeshis. In contrast, Bangladeshi immigrant women seem, on average, to receive higher wages than Bangladeshi immigrant men, suggesting that the gender wage gap for this group may even be in favor of women. It is possible that self-selection into the labor market plays an important role for this group. Among black Caribbean immigrants, both men and women are paid on average similarly to white British women, i.e. they both experience racial wage gaps compared to white British men, but the gender wage gap between black Caribbean immigrant men and women is almost non-existent. Black Caribbean men and women, who are British-born, experience only small racial wage gaps and, on average, appear to be paid more than white British women, although still less than white British men. Besides differences between men and women, there are also important differences between those born abroad and those born in the host country. Although, in general, racial wage differentials tend to be lower for people born in the host country, this is not always the case (e.g. Turkish men in France; see Figure 1). More recent literature also suggests that racial wage differentials may be larger among workers with low skills, while they may be essentially non-existent among high-skill workers, at least in the US , and generally tend to vary across the wage distribution and by type of salary. For example, in the US, in jobs paying performance-related wages the white–black wage differential is higher at higher levels of wages, while in jobs where pay is not related to performance the differential is lower at higher levels of wages . In contrast, in the UK the wage differential is smaller in jobs paying performance-related wages than in jobs paying a time rate . Limitations and gaps As discussed earlier, the labor market experience is specific to each racial group. However, data available to researchers often do not have an adequate sample size to analyze each group separately. For example, sometimes researchers analyze the group of so-called “other” whites; this group generally includes people from different countries of origin, ranging from the US, Australia, or New Zealand, to various European countries. Even if they all have similar skin color, people from such different countries of origin are likely to have different histories and to experience very different wage differentials compared to the majority (see, for example, Figure 1). In general, the analysis of minority groups that include people who are too different from each other will be of little use for policy, since statistical analyses may fail to highlight useful patterns and results may not be specific enough to represent any of the minorities included in such a heterogeneous group. It is the separate experiences of groups from each country of origin which would be of interest. Similarly, in many developed countries the group of people born of interracial marriages is also becoming more important. However, due to different skin colors and cultural backgrounds, the experience of a person with an Asian and a British parent is likely to be different from the experience of someone with an African and a British parent. The main reason for the lack of empirical research is that most existing data sets do not provide large enough sample sizes to disaggregate these groups. As a result, most evidence is based on the largest racial groups, neglecting the smaller ones. Finally, some of the labor market determinants of racial wage differentials, such as education or occupational segregation, are not well explained. It is yet not clear what determines educational or occupational segregation, i.e. whether they are due to pre-labor market discrimination, or to choices or aspirations (e.g. in terms of desired occupation), which may themselves be the results of real or perceived additional difficulties faced by minorities compared to the majority. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms may help in the design of new policies to reduce inequalities. Summary and policy advice In many developed countries, racial and ethnic minorities are paid, on average, less than the white majority. Although decreasing over time, racial wage differentials still exist in most countries, even for second and further generations. While it is likely that racial wage differentials are partly the result of direct and/or indirect discrimination, the empirical evidence on the relevance of discrimination in generating racial wage differentials is lacking. Nevertheless, anti-discrimination legislation is not the only way to reduce racial wage differentials. The empirical literature suggests that minorities tend to segregate in more deprived neighborhoods into poorly paid occupations, which often lack career progression. New policies to reduce racial wage inequalities should hence be based on a better understanding of what characteristics and situations prevent racial minorities from moving into better jobs. For example, improving mentoring practices, or increasing the aspirations of minority workers, may decrease racial wage inequalities. Another important issue is that in many countries there are important differences across and within minorities. While some minorities experience large wage penalties, some are paid similarly or even more than white natives. Racial wage differentials tend to be smaller among women than among men, and they may also vary by other characteristics such as education. Policy should therefore move away from a “one size fits all” approach, where race is seen as one single issue, and should take into account that reasons for lack of success differ across minorities. Policy should target, wherever possible, particular issues affecting specific minorities. For some minorities, policies may need to focus on increasing skills or improving education. While for other minorities policies may need to focus earlier on in people’s lives, for example by improving children’s aspirations in terms of education and type of jobs, such policies may also differ by gender and generation. However, the risk with policies targeted to very specific groups is that some other groups may be left behind, simply because there is not enough empirical evidence regarding their situation. Policies that favor some small groups over others may also be perceived to be controversial. Instead of policies specifically targeted to some narrowly defined minority groups, it would thus be beneficial to adopt policies that target issues rather than groups. For example, policies designed to increase aspirations and mentoring for career progression could be targeted to all workers in certain low-pay occupations. They may mostly benefit minorities (which tend to segregate in these occupations) but may also benefit white natives from poorer socio-economic backgrounds if the reasons for lack of success in their job are shared with racial minorities. The author thanks two anonymous referees and the IZA World of Labor editors for many helpful suggestions on earlier drafts. Financial support provided by ESRC through the Research Centre on Micro-Social Change (MiSoC) (award no. RES-518-28-001) based at the Institute for Social and Economic Research at the University of Essex, where part of this work was undertaken, is gratefully acknowledged. The IZA World of Labor project is committed to the IZA Guiding Principles of Research Integrity. The author declares to have observed these principles. © Simonetta Longhi

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“One Hundred Years of Solitude” is a 1967 novel by the famed Spanish author Gabriel Garcia Marquez. The book has received universal recognition and has been translated into 37 languages. It was also cited among the works which earned Garcia Marquez the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1982. The book tells the story of six generations of the Buendia family in a small, isolated village called Macondo. The patriarch of the family, Jose Arcadio Buendia, founds the town after moving there with his new wife Ursula. Jose Arcadio dreams that the town will be a city of ice and Macondo becomes a city of strange and almost mystical events that befall the next five generations of his children and grandchildren. Jose Arcadio’s descendants fall on good times as well as misfortune and the town eventually become very successful and bustling only to lose all of it’s success to floods years later. At the end of the novel, the last descendant of the Buendia line is accidentally killed as a newborn, and the line dies as well as the town. Colonel Aureliano Buendia begins the story with a flashback of the years just after Macondo village was founded. A group of gypsies would bring new technological inventions to the isolated town. The founder of the town, Jose Arcadio Buendia was obsessed with these inventions. He used some supplies given to him by the gypsies to begin his own scientific experiments which frustrated his level-headed wife, Ursula Iguaran. Jose began to explore alchemy (the science of turning other metals into gold) and his pursuit of knowledge eventually began to drive him into total isolation from the others in the village. Jose’s desire shifted one day to a desire to establish contact with the world outside of the town. As there are only swamp lands and mountains to the south and east, Jose leads a party north which causes him to come to the conclusion that Macondo is surrounded only by water. Jose begins making plans to move Macondo somewhere else but his wife stops him from doing this, as she does not want to leave their home. The gypsies continue to bring new technologies into the town and Jose begins to focus more on his children Jose Arcadio and Aureliano (later known as Colonel Aureliano Buendia). The narrative moves back to Jose and Ursula’s marriage. The two were cousins who were married because of the small size of their town not allowing them to meet any outsiders. After their marriage, Ursula was so afraid that her children would be born deformed because of their incestuous heritage that she refused to consummate her marriage until the people of the village began to mock Jose. One man, Prudencio, mocked Jose about being impotent and Jose killed him in retribution. This caused Jose to become plagued by guilt and he decided to leave his home. After wandering for many months he established the village of Macondo. Back in present time, Jose continues to work on his scientific endeavors with the help of his son, Aureliano. His older son, Jose Arcadio, while still a teenager, is seduced by an older woman named Pilar and impregnates her. However, before the child is born, Jose Arcadio falls in love with another girl, a young gypsy girl and decides to join her when the gypsies leave town. Ursula becomes so grief stricken by Jose Arcadio leaving that she tries to follow him, leaving behind her newborn daughter, Amaranta. She returns five months later, announcing that there is a quick, two day journey through the swamp that leads from Macondo to the outside world and civilization. This discovery leads to many different changes in the no longer isolated, village. Pilar soon gives birth to Jose Arcadio’s son naming him Arcadio. An orphan girl named Rebeca who arrives in town mysteriously one day also joins the family as they take her in. Rebeca has many odd, self-destructive habits like eating dirt. She is also plagued by terrible insomnia that causes her to have some memory loss. The girl’s insomnia seems to spread and soon the entire town is afflicted with it. The town begins suffering the ill effects of the memory loss until one day, the head of the gypsies, Melquiades, who was previously thought to be dead, returns. He brings with him a new technology the like of which has never been seen before in Macondo, the daguerreotype. This invention mystifies Jose, who begins trying to create a daguerreotype of God to prove that he exists. Aureliano has since become a silversmith and spends his days closed off in his laboratory with his pursuits. He stays mostly alone, apparently not interested in females. As the village expands, a town magistrate arrives as the representative of the central government. The magistrate, Don Apolinar Moscote, begins trying to control things and to tell people what colors they are allowed to paint their houses. Jose drives the man out of town but when Moscote returns he brings with him, several soldiers. Jose forces him to give up his authority over the village. However, despite the two men’s hatred for one another, Aureliano falls in love with the magistrate’s daughter, Remedios. Pilar begins helping Aureliano win Remedios’ heart. While this is happening, the family’s two daughter—Amaranta and Rebeca– both fall in love as well with the same man. The man is named Pietro and he comes to the town to install a pianola in their house. Pietro eventually decides that he wants to marry Rebeca and this angers Amaranta, who vows to stop the marriage. Aureliano begins to win Remedios’ heart and the two become engaged. Unfortunately, in the time he spent with Pilar the two had sex and she is now pregnant with his child as she was with his brother’s. Jose begins to slip into insanity as he grows older and begins tearing up the house in a rage. Twenty man suppress him and tie him to a tree in the backyard where he remains until the end of his life, some years later. After Remedios reaches puberty she and Aureliano are married and they take in his bastard son (whom he had with Pilar) to raise. However, the marriage is short-lived as Remedios soon dies of an unexplained illness. Rebeca and Pietro’s wedding remains uncertain as many setbacks have made it impossible. One such setback is the need to build the first church in the village, which has only recently become religious. The priest who comes to build the church makes the startling discovery that Jose is not, in fact, babbling incoherent madness, but speaking in pure Latin. Jose Arcadio returns to town and Rebeca falls instantly in love with him. They begin an affair that ends in marriage and are exiled from the house by Ursula. Aureliano, still recovering from the death of his wife, soon begins to grow worried about the impending war between the Conservative government and the insurgent Liberals. Aureliano allies with the Liberals and the town is soon occupied by the army on the opposite side, the Conservatives. Aureliano leaves town as the acting head of a small Liberal army and becomes a Colonel. Colonel Aureliano joins the national civil war effort and travels all over the country, fathering children everywhere he goes. He leaves his nephew Arcadio – the son of Jose Arcadio and Pilar – in charge of the town when he leaves. Arcadio soon becomes a vicious leader, quick to cruelty and obsessed with order. He marries a young woman named Santa Sofia de la Piedad and fathers three children. Conservatives soon retake the town as the Liberals lose the war. Arcadio is then executed by a firing squad. Pietro soon proposes to Amaranta who rejects him despite her love for him and he commits suicide. As a form of repentance, Amaranta burns her hand and covers it with a black bandage that she intends to wear for the rest of her life. After the Liberals lose the war, Colonel Aureliano is sentenced to execution along with his friend Colonel Gerineldo Marquez. Colonel Aureliano asks that he be returned to Macondo to be executed and he is saved at the last minute by his brother Jose Arcadio. Colonel Aureliano launches another uprising immediately but is soon abandoned by the Liberal party. An assassination attempt soon causes him to take a long look at his life and realize that he is only fighting for his pride and not his ideology anymore. He begins writing poetry as he used to do when he was courting Remedios. Sofia de la Piedad gives birth to twins from her dead husband Arcadio. Jose Arcadio dies unexpectedly and no one knows whether he has committed suicide or been murdered. Rebeca, his wife, is so grief stricken that she becomes a hermit and lives alone for the rest of her life. Colonel Marquez is left in control of the town and falls in love with Amaranta, who turns him down. The patriarch of the family, Jose Arcadio Buendia dies after years of living tied to a tree. Colonel Aureliano and Pilar’s son, Aureliano Jose, grows up and develops an incestuous lust for his aunt Amaranta. Amaranta comes very close to requiting his love as she is very lonely, herself. The two begin meeting to kiss and one day when they are almost seen Amaranta breaks off the relationship and Aureliano Jose joins the army. The Conservatives and Liberals sign a peace treaty Colonel Aureliano takes offense at this, soon leaving the country with Aureliano Jose. In their absence, Macondo begins to see peaceful times with the mayor Jose Raquel Moncada, a Conservative. Aureliano Jose is soon killed, tragically. Colonel Aureliano’s sons from around the country are all baptized and named Aureliano, and all are brought to Macondo. The Colonel returns to the town as the head of an army once again. A court martial orders that he put the new mayor to death and he does so despite his long friendship with the man. This causes the Colonel to once again lose faith in the causes of his fighting. He attempts suicide but manages to survive. After this Colonel Aureliano withdraws from society again as he did many years before and takes to his workshop. Meanwhile, the twin sons of Sofia and Arcadio grow to adolescence and begin sleeping with the same woman, who does not realize that they are two different men. One of the boys, Aureliano Segundo eventually becomes a farmer and grows very wealthy. He throws parties in the town and manages to bring a huge carnival to Macondo. Unfortunately, during the party mysterious men being firing into the crowd and kill many of the party-goers. Aureliano Segundo meets a beautiful woman named Fernanda del Carpio at the carnival and marries her soon after. However, they soon being to clash as their personalities are too different. Fernanda takes over the Buendia home and rules it with an iron fist, turning the house into a formal, religious palace. Aureliano Segundo and Fernanda have two children, Renata ( who is called Meme) and Jose Arcadio III. Ursula, now one hundred years old, says that she believes that Jose Arcadio III will become the pope. Soon after Meme is born, the president of the Republic attempts to give Colonel Aureliano the Order of Merit but is rebuffed by the man. The Colonel’s illegitimate sons come back to Macondo for a celebration, and two decide to stay there to build an ice factory. One of them also builds a railway connection which links the town with the outside world. The railroad brings in a lot of new business and technology to the town with amazes and troubles the citizens. Soon some foreign capitalists arrive and set up a banana plantation right next to Macondo. The rise of capitalism in the town irritates Colonel Aureliano and he wishes that he had not stopped fighting the war. The banana plantation owners hire their own police force who attack citizens with little provocation. The Colonel beings threatening to use his illegitimate sons as an army to start a war which leads to the government tracking down and killing all but one of the sons. Ursula begins going blind and is driven by the need to make Jose Arcadio III the Pope although the boy is still young. But the boy and his sister, Meme soon go away to school, and the house becomes empty again. Fernanda tries to impose her iron will on the house again, and her husband responds by moving his concubine, Petra, into the house. On a school break, Meme comes home and brings seventy-two of her classmates as guests, showing that she inherited her father’s reckless personality. The Colonel begins to withdraw even further into himself after the death of his sons and soon dies, himself. Fernanda gives birth to another child named Amaranta Ursula. The elder Amaranta, now the only living child of Jose Arcadio I and Ursula, has grown depressed and lives entirely in her own memories. She begins making a funeral shroud for herself in anticipation of her death. When she finishes she announces to the town that she will die at dusk and offers to take messages to the dead. That evening, she dies and Ursula is so overcome with grief at the loss of her children that she takes to her bed for years. She develops a close relationship with her youngest descendant, Amaranta Ursula, during this time. Meme falls in love with a worker on the banana plantation named Mauricio and when Fernanda finds out she orders the boy to be shot in a blind rage. The boy is shot and paralyzed for the rest of his life which traumatizes Meme and makes her mute. Fernanda brings Meme to a convent where she spends the rest of her life mourning her love. Months later, a nun appears at the Buendia house with a child that Meme has birthed by Mauricio. Fernanda keeps the baby hidden in the Colonel’s old workshop and pretends that he is an orphan. She names him Aureliano II. The banana plantation workers go on a strike organized by Jose Arcadio Segundo, the twin of Aureliano Segundo in protest of their working conditions. Macondo is placed under martial law and the government sends an army to kill the strikers. Jose Arcadio Segundo manages to survive and is horrified to find that no one in town remembers the massacre as they have been instructed by the government. Jose Arcadio Segundo moves into the Buendia house and slowly begins to go insane as he studies the leftover books of the ancient gypsy leader Melquiades. A rain begins on the night of massacre and does not end for five years. As all of the town is kept inside the rain, Aureliano Segundo, the former rich farmer, begins caring for the children, Amaranta Ursula and Meme’s illegitimate son, Aureliano II. Ursula, still bedridden, becomes more incoherent and senile. The rain washes away Aureliano Segundo’s farm and his fortune suffers greatly. Fernanda is stricken with a disease of the uterus and spends her time tormenting her husband. Aureliano Segundo begins trying to find a fortune in gold coins that he is convinced Ursula has buried somewhere on the property. Once the rain ends, it is obvious that Macondo is back to being an isolated, poor town as the banana plantation has washed away. However, at this time, Ursula finds the strength to get out of bed and tries to bring some life back into the Buendia house. The family struggles to make ends meet as Aureliano Segundo is now destitute. But the family is happy. At the age of 120, Ursula finally dies. Rebeca also dies at this time. The town suffers a heat wave and a drove of animal deaths and strange occurrences which convince the citizens that it is cursed. An odd ghost town feel takes over everything. Aureliano Segundo begins trying to raise money to send Amaranta Ursula to Europe for school but he is dying and most of his strength has left him. Jose Arcadio Segundo, his brother is also dying although he is making progress in deciphering Melquiades prophecies and bringing Aureliano II into the pursuit of the knowledge of the gypsy. The family finally drums up enough money to send Amaranta Ursula to school in Europe and both Aureliano Segundo and Jose Arcadio Segundo die at the same time. There is some confusion during their burial and the twin brothers are accidentally buried in each other’s graves. Aureliano II continues working on the prophesies and eventually deciphers them. He learns that the prophecies are to be read when they are 100 years old. Sofia de la Piedad, who up until this point was mostly forgotten, finally gives up on tending to the family and leaves one day without telling anyone where she is going. Shortly afterward, Fernanda dies alone. Jose Arcadio III, her son, returns to town a solitary, sad man. He had been counting on receiving a large inheritance from his mother and found out that this is not the case. However, after moving into the large, dilapidated house, he discovers the gold the Ursula had stashed under her bed and falls into a life of debauchery. He and Aureliano II become friends and are visited by Colonel Aureliano’s last living son, who is shot down in front of the house like all of his brothers before him. The friendship between Aureliano II and Jose Arcadio III is soon cut off when Jose Arcadio III is killed in his home for his gold. Amaranta soon returns, married to man named Gaston. She decides that she wants to revitalize the house and the town. But the damage to the town is now irreversible and no one in town even remembers the Buendias who were once the most influential family. Aureliano II takes up a life of debauchery himself and accidentally meets his long forgotten great-great-grandmother, Pilar in a whorehouse. She offers him wisdom. Aureliano II realizes that he is in love with Amaranta Ursula, and the two begin an incestuous affair. Gaston hears of the affair while traveling and does not return to his wife. The town becomes totally isolated again, but Aureliano II and Amaranta Ursula’s love affair continues happily. The Buendia house falls into complete disrepair, and the family matriarch, Ursula’s worst fears come true when the incestuous child of Aureliano II and Amaranta is born with a tail that looks like a pig’s. The birth kills Amaranta and Aureliano becomes so overwhelmed with grief that he forgets about his newborn baby and leaves it to die. The line of Buendia comes to an end, and he boards himself up in the old house. Taking to Melquiades prophecies, he discovers that they are, in fact, a description of the entire history of the Buendia clan from the founding of Macondo to his life, even describing the action of him reading the text. Around him, a huge wind begins to build that rips the town from it’s foundations and erases it from memory entirely. Jose Arcadio Buendia – the patriarch of the Buendia family. Jose Arcadio discovers the town of Macondo after leaving his own hometown because of his guilt over killing a rival. Jose Arcadio is a man of great curiosity and inner strength. He often indulges in odd and mad pursuits of knowledge. He is particularly interested in the workings of technological marvels and is fascinated the first time ice is brought to his town by gypsies. It is this that causes him to want to create a town made of ice a dream which is later somewhat brought to life by his grandsons building an ice factory in town. Unfortunately, the quest for this esoteric knowledge eventually drives Jose Arcadio insane, and he flies into a rage that can only be controlled in the isolated and old fashioned town by tying him to a tree. He spends the rest of his life tied to the tree while speaking Latin for unknown reasons. Ursula Iguaran – the matriarch of the Buendia family. Ursula lives to be 120 years old, far outliving her husband and all of her children as well as some of her grandchildren. Ursula is tenacious but level-headed and filled with common sense. Initially, Ursula does not want to have children with Jose Arcadio, her husband because they are cousins and she believes that inbred children are too often born with deformities. This prophecy is brought to bear over a hundred years later when the last member of the Buendia family is born with a pig’s tail. Colonel Aureliano Buendia – the second son of Jose Arcadio and Ursula. Aureliano grows up a solitary and quiet man who joins the army after the death of his young wife, Remedios. He is outraged by the Conservative government’s corrupt nature and joins the Liberal rebellion in the civil war. The Colonel fights the war for years, fathering children all over the country before he comes home and finds himself disillusioned by his reasons for fighting and decides to stop. He signs a peace treaty and retreats to his old workshop where he stays in solitude till he dies. Aureliano Segundo – the son of Arcadio and Santa Sofia de la Piedad. Aureliano Segundo is the twin brother of Jose Arcadio Segundo. Despite being a quiet and reserved child, Aureliano Segundo begins a life of debauchery when he is a teenager. He is hedonistic, boisterous and loud. Aureliano becomes a rich farmer who opens up the town of Macondo to many new businesses. He also facilitates the building of a banana plantation and a railway in town which causes the most profitable period in the town’s history. However, the strike at the plantation and the five years of rain that happen afterward plunge the town into insignificance again and Aureliano dies a poor man. Jose Arcadio Segundo – the son of Arcadio and Santa Sofia de la Piedad. Jose Arcadio is the twin brother of Aureliano Segundo. Jose Arcadio leads the strikers at the banana plantation and is horrified and traumatized by the execution of the workers by the government. He takes to the gypsy Melquiades’ old study to pour over the man’s works after the incident, trying to find meaning in life and preserve the memory of the massacre. Gabriel García Márquez Biography Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez was a Colombian author, screenwriter, journalist and Latin American hero born in 1927 in Aracataca, Colombia. Marquez is widely considered one of the most significant Spanish-language authors of the 20th century. He received many awards in his lifetime, the highest among them being the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982. Marquez was the son of a pharmacist who was left to be raised by his grandparents from a young age and later went on to study law at the National University of Colombia where he took up journalism. During the late 1940’s, Marquez made his money as a journalist for the El Universal in Cartagena and then, in the early 1950’s for the El Heraldo in Barranquilla. It was during this time that Marquez, known for his liberalism, helped with the coup d’etat of the Venezuelan President Marcos Perez Jimenez. In 1958, Marquez married Mercedes Barcha and the two had two sons shortly after. His first novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967) was a huge success and one many award including the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature. The book continues to be considered one of the greatest classic novels of the 20th century. After the book was published, Marquez lived in Spain for several years. During this time he acted as a facilitator in negotiations between Colombia’s government and the urban guerrillas in the country. Marquez’s fame also led to many friendships with famous world leaders such as Fidel Castro, the former Cuban president. Because of his widely known views on United States imperialism, Marquez was denied entry into the US for many years. Marquez went on to publish many more beloved books including, “The Autumn of the Patriarch” (1975), “Chronicle of Death Foretold” (1981) and “Love in the Time of Cholera” (1985). Marquez also wrote many screenplays that were made into movies in Latin America. He continued to work as an author and serve as a beloved national figure until April 2014 when he died of pneumonia at the age of 87. Marquez was cremated, and a formal ceremony was held several days later as a memorial of his life. The presidents of both Colombia and Mexico City attended the ceremony. Residents of his home town of Aracataca also held a symbolic funeral in his honor.

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Civil disobedience is as American as apple pie. Our nation has a long and rich history of thousands of principled political protest actions that violated the law in the name of justice. Civil disobedience is as American as apple pie. Our nation has a long and rich history of thousands of principled political protest actions that violated the law in the name of justice. Our country was founded on a series of acts of civil disobedience. From its very foundation through the movements of people who opposed slavery, supported women’s suffrage, acted for civil rights, and numerous other peace and justice efforts, the actions of people who risked arrest and imprisonment for their principles have helped bring about much needed social change. Why civil disobedience? As Martin Luther King Jr., who was arrested and imprisoned many times, wrote in his 1963 letter while he was incarcerated in the Birmingham, Alabama, jail: We should never forget that everything Adolf Hitler did in Germany was “legal” and everything the Hungarian freedom fighters did in Hungary was “illegal.” It was “illegal” to aid and comfort a Jew in Hitler’s Germany. Even so, I am sure that, had I lived in Germany at the time, I would have aided and comforted my Jewish brothers. . . . [W]e who engage in nonviolent direct action are not the creators of tension. We merely bring to the surface the hidden tension that is already alive. Most lawyers are uninterested in civil disobedience. Many are uninterested in justice itself. Most lawyers choose to work for the corporation or person who is the strongest, the richest, the most powerful, or the one who can pay the most. These lawyers likely agree with the definition of justice defined by Thrasymachus, who is quoted in Plato’s Republic: I say that justice or right is simply what is in the interest of the stronger party. . . . Each type of government enacts laws that are in its own interest, a democracy democratic laws, a tyranny tyrannical ones and so on; and in enacting these laws they make it quite plain that what is “right” for their subjects is what is in the interest of themselves, the rulers, and if anyone deviates from this he is punished as a lawbreaker and “wrongdoer.” That is what I mean when I say that “right” is the same thing in all states, namely the interest of the established government; and government is the strongest element in each state, and so if we argue correctly we see that “right” is always the same, the interest of the stronger party. People who commit civil disobedience, and often the lawyers who represent them, usually consider law and justice as distant cousins who need to be reconciled. Thus, breaking the law for justice’s sake makes perfect sense to them. Financially, these cases rarely make any sense at all. Most all are pro bono. Some lawyers may even have to invest some of their own money in defending the people who risked arrest for principle. This article is for those lawyers—the lawyers who counsel and represent people who are thinking about or have committed civil disobedience, who have been arrested for violating a law in order to stand up for justice; lawyers who are willing to work with people and movements committed to a more radical vision of justice. Importance of Civil Disobedience in Democracy Civil disobedience was one of the tools used to create the United States. It has been an important part of every movement for social change in our history up to the present. Here are but a few examples: - The 1773 Boston Tea Party was led by the Sons of Liberty, a group that engaged in open and covert illegal resistance to British rule in colonial America. - In 1774, 51 women in North Carolina agreed to boycott all British tea and cloth in what is known as the Edenton Tea Party. - In 1775, women in Wilmington, North Carolina, burned their tea to protest trade legislation and increased taxation. - The Declaration of Independence, ratified on July 4, 1776, signed by numerous lawyers, was an act of treason against British rule. - In 1786, American farmers took up arms against the government in Shays’ Rebellion to stop court foreclosures of farms, including those of impoverished soldiers. They forced the courts to close and released prisoners. Their actions were declared to be treason but were ultimately enacted into laws protecting against unfair foreclosure. - In the 1700s and 1800s, slaves broke the law by running to freedom, and others broke the law by helping them do it. - In 1872, Susan B. Anthony was arrested for voting when women were not allowed to vote. The court said she undertook to settle a principle in her own person and found her guilty of the federal crime of voting as a woman. - In 1917, hundreds of women were arrested for picketing in favor of the right to vote in front of the White House, and dozens spent time in jail. - At the end of 1936, thousands of auto workers began a sit-down strike in their workplace in Flint, Michigan. The strike lasted 44 days and helped establish the labor movement. - In 1942, Gordon Hirabayashi was arrested for being out of his home after 8:00 pm at night. Despite the fact that Gordon was a U.S. citizen, was born in the United States, was educated in public schools, and was, at the time of his arrest, a senior at the University of Washington, he was arrested because he was of Japanese ancestry and by law had to be inside his home from 8:00 pm to 6:00 am every day. He was convicted by the jury and sentenced to three months in prison. The U.S. Supreme Court denied his appeal and affirmed his conviction. His conviction was only overturned some four decades later in 1987. - In the 1960s, tens of thousands of African-American citizens conducted illegal sit-ins at restaurants that were legally segregated. Three thousand were arrested in 1960 alone. - In the 1970s, more than 12,000 people were arrested for civil disobedience protesting against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. - In just two weeks in 2011, more than 1,000 climate justice advocates were arrested in front of the White House protesting the Keystone XL Pipeline. - Political conservatives engage in civil disobedience as well. Notably, Kim Davis of Kentucky went to prison in 2015 for refusing to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, and Roy Moore was twice kicked off the Alabama Supreme Court, first in 2003 for refusing to remove a 5,000-pound statue of the Ten Commandments in a judicial building, and later in 2016 for unsuccessfully trying, like Davis, to stop marriage licenses from being issued to same-sex couples. - Many pro-choice and pro-life activists have been arrested for civil disobedience. - Between 2011 and 2016, more than 7,000 people were arrested for civil disobedience protests in the Occupy movement. More than 800 people were arrested resisting the Dakota Access Pipeline at Standing Rock, North Dakota, in 2016 and 2017. Black Lives Matter protests have resulted in hundreds of arrests. Hundreds were arrested in North Carolina as part of the Moral Monday campaign. Clergy members have been arrested protesting for human rights for immigrants and supporting health care. Many thousands of grade, high school, and college students walked out of classes in more than 3,000 schools in March 2018 to protest gun violence; while no arrests have been reported, there have been threats of discipline by some school authorities (tinyurl.com/yamxml66). (Those who wish to learn more history about civil disobedience should look at Nicholas N. Kittrie and Eldon D. Wedlock Jr.’s The Tree of Liberty: A Documentary History of Rebellion and Political Crime in America (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986; revised edition, 1998). Their history includes more than 700 pages of documents of political protest and civil disobedience from colonial times to the 1990s.) Ethical Considerations for Lawyers Counseling Clients Interested in Civil Disobedience Lawyers can and should assist people considering civil disobedience. Some wrongly think lawyers cannot have anything to do with people who are considering civil disobedience. What is accurate is that legal ethics say lawyers cannot assist people in breaking the law. However, all lawyers advise people. The American Bar Association (ABA) Model Rules of Professional Conduct (Model Rules) make it clear that lawyers can explain what the law is and how it might be applied to people who are considering risking arrest. The Model Rules specifically cover this situation. Model Rule 1.2 (d) states: A lawyer shall not counsel a client to engage, or assist a client, in conduct that the lawyer knows is criminal or fraudulent, but a lawyer may discuss the legal consequences of any proposed course of conduct with a client and may counsel or assist a client to make a good faith effort to determine the validity, scope, meaning or application of the law. Thus, while not assisting a potential client in criminal conduct, the lawyer can discuss legal consequences of proposed courses of conduct. There is also no problem at all in representing people who have engaged in civil disobedience. This is treated just as any criminal defense matter. And the Model Rules even make it clear that professionally no one can consider representation as an endorsement of the activities engaged in by a client. Model Rule 1.2 (b) states, “A lawyer’s representation of a client, including representation by appointment, does not constitute an endorsement of the client’s political, economic, social or moral views or activities.” Most lawyers who represent people in civil disobedience cases are supporters of the causes and movements of the people arrested. These lawyers reject the idea that law is neutral or that justice is what the powerful say it is. These lawyers support the critique of neutrality best explained by Archbishop Desmond Tutu: “If an elephant has its foot on the tail of a mouse and you say that you are neutral, the mouse will not appreciate your neutrality.” Ethical Issues for Lawyers Who Are Themselves Considering Engaging in Civil Disobedience What about lawyers who themselves engage in civil disobedience? It is uncontested that justice and law are not the same. Law is what the law-making body says it is, whether that be a majority of a legislative body, the proclamation of an executive, or the latest pronouncement of the judiciary. Justice is something quite apart. When justice and law conflict, most lawyers swallow their disagreement and choose to follow the law. However, some lawyers do not. Lawyers themselves sometimes disobey legal orders to stand on principle. History points out famous examples of lawyers who engaged in civil disobedience, people such as Mohandas Gandhi and Nelson Mandela, but there are many others not so well known. - Many lawyers were charged with breaking the law in the 1800s when they illegally helped runaway slaves. - In 1990, Janet Benshoof, a prominent women’s rights lawyer, was arrested for speaking about abortion in Guam. - A California real estate lawyer was arrested as part of the Occupy protest in California in 2011. - In 2013, several law professors were arrested for civil disobedience as part of the Moral Monday protests in North Carolina. - In 2016, 11 lawyers in Los Angeles were arrested for civil disobedience protesting immigration raids. - Recently, Andrea Burton, a 30-year-old Ohio criminal defense lawyer, was handcuffed and jailed for refusing to take off a Black Lives Matter pin while appearing in court. Months later, a Nevada deputy public defender, Erika Ballou, refused to remove a Black Lives Matter pin when ordered to do so by a judge. While both situations were ultimately resolved without criminal or ethical charges being filed, lawyers do stand up for their own beliefs and at times risk arrest. Judith A. McMorrow collected many statements of people who argue that lawyers, because they occupy special positions inside the legal system, should not engage in civil disobedience (tinyurl.com/ybjkd38d). Others, such as Kathryn Abrams, point out the power for social change of lawyers who chose not to follow the law because they clearly see the legal system as just as much a part of the problem in social justice struggles as any other institution (tinyurl.com/y9hd4r5c). ABA Model Rule 8.4 discourages engaging in conduct that is prejudicial to the administration of justice. Section 5 of the Preamble to the Model Rules urges lawyers to conform to the requirements of the law, “both in professional service to clients and in the lawyer’s business and personal affairs.” At the same time, however, Section 6 of the Preamble imposes on lawyers the obligation to “seek improvement of the law” to make it more just. Scholars researching this have found few instances of disciplinary actions against lawyers who engage in civil disobedience, concluding “there is a measure of unofficial tolerance for conscientious noncompliance by lawyers” (tinyurl.com/y7wupo7q). Others suggest that social justice lawyers are justified when they prioritize their own moral codes over codes of professional ethics (tinyurl.com/ycufy7qs). Counseling Clients Considering Civil Disobedience Lawyers can and should be prepared to answer questions from clients about the legal consequences of various scenarios for people or groups considering civil disobedience. Lawyers should also not be involved in the actual planning of the civil disobedience because of potential ethical problems and because the lawyers might become fact witnesses if they help plan the civil disobedience. There is nothing unethical in explaining differences in jurisdiction, prosecution, and sentencing based on locale or conduct. Nor is there anything unethical in explaining the different types of conduct and charges that make a misdemeanor different from a felony. For example, in protests outside military bases, there are usually places where civil disobedience could trigger federal prosecution and places where the exact same conduct could trigger state or local prosecution. Often a few feet one way or another can have significantly different consequences. People should absolutely be advised of four areas of concern over and above the possibility of a conviction. First, people who have citizenship issues should be advised they risk much more serious consequences than citizens. Lawyers should insist that non-citizens consult with a specialist in immigration law before committing to engage in civil disobedience. Second, people considering risking arrest should be advised that arrests for misdemeanors or felonies are likely to come up in the future if the person applies for professional educational or job opportunities. This is not just a concern for lawyers and doctors, but also for teachers, nurses, social workers, security guards, hairdressers, and many other professions that require licensing. There is rarely a blanket exclusion of people who have been arrested or convicted of nonviolent civil disobedience, but it will come up, and people should be prepared to explain their actions. Third, people who are considering risking arrest should be strongly advised not to carry any weapons or drugs on their person. A small pocketknife can turn a simple trespassing charge into something more serious. Likewise, prescription medicines should not be carried unless they are in a pharmacy container that has the protester’s name on it. Fourth, people risking arrest should be advised that there is a small chance that the authorities might seek restitution for any workplace stoppages or other costs incurred as a result of the protest. There are lots of resources online for people considering civil disobedience. ACT UP has published civil disobedience training and guidelines (tinyurl.com/2yx7x). 350.org provides online training (tinyurl.com/yacxxbou). The New England Nonviolence Trainers Network shares much information on this (tinyurl.com/y6us2uov), as does Organizing for Power, Organizing for Change (tinyurl.com/y793ep7m), the Civil Liberties Defense Center (tinyurl.com/yawp8ehd), and the American Civil Liberties Union (tinyurl.com/huxy32o). Representing People in Civil Disobedience Cases The civil disobedience defense lawyer must be willing to be go outside her comfort zone in many of these cases. These are often not ordinary criminal defense cases. People who engage in civil disobedience often have goals that do not prioritize a finding of not guilty. They are often more interested in having their say and telling the truth than having their case dismissed. Some want court over as soon as possible and want to minimize the consequences. Others do not. Listen and find out who wants to do what. Lawyers who represent people arrested for civil disobedience may be asked by clients for basic criminal defense, or they may be asked by the clients to help create a more innovative defense. Basic criminal defense in civil disobedience cases relies on the tools of the criminal defense bar, but there are several other ways to approach defense of a person engaged in civil disobedience. One way is to consider advancing the necessity defense, which says essentially the defendant needed to break a small law in order to prevent a larger harm. If granted, this defense can allow the introduction of evidence of the greater harm the defendant was protesting against. The necessity defense has been raised successfully in some states. A recent decision by a trial judge in Minnesota, for example, allowed climate activists to present evidence to the jury on climate change, a decision now on appeal (tinyurl.com/ybbxzer6). More than 100 law professors signed an amicus supporting the trial court decision (tinyurl.com/ycragzos). Another defense that defendants have raised is international law. These arguments begin with the premise that Article VI of the U.S. Constitution upholds treaties as “the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.” Defendants then cite the international law or treaty that protects the environment or bans nuclear weapons or outlaws racism as part of their defense for the resistance they were engaged in. Another way is to raise the Nuremberg defense, which argues the defendant had to refuse to obey the law because there is a responsibility imposed on individuals to prevent massive crimes committed by the government, such as war and the stockpiling of nuclear weapons. The example would be Nazi Germany, where the defense of “just following orders” was deemed insufficient as a matter of law for individuals. Others arrested on government property argue that the First Amendment protects the right to assemble in government offices to petition the government, though this is an uphill battle. Some defendants choose to represent themselves and ask the lawyer to act as standby counsel. ABA Criminal Justice Standard 4 – 3.9 states: Obligations of Hybrid and Standby Counsel. (a) Defense counsel whose duty is to actively assist a pro se accused should permit the accused to make the final decisions on all matters, including strategic and tactical matters relating to the conduct of the case. (b) Defense counsel whose duty is to assist a pro se accused only when the accused requests assistance may bring to the attention of the accused matters beneficial to him or her, but should not actively participate in the conduct of the defense unless requested by the accused or insofar as directed to do so by the court. In my experience, good beginning advice for the lawyer working with civil disobedience clients is not to say, “No, you cannot do that.” These are people who have already decided to disobey someone’s orders. They are not likely to appreciate taking orders from their lawyers. When civil disobedience defendants ask questions about unusual ways of being in court or presenting their story, it is best not to say, “You cannot do that in court.” Do say, “If you do that, these are the possible outcomes.” Many people who engage in civil disobedience have some very creative ideas about trials and how to act in the courtroom. The lawyer’s job is to educate people about how the case will likely proceed and advise people of the consequences of their choices. Be prepared to spend a lot of time listening to ideas, answering questions, and explaining the basics of trial procedure, evidence, and sentencing. The people who engage in civil disobedience are usually skeptical of the system, and rightfully so. They are also probably skeptical about you as well until you earn their trust. You will earn their trust, but as in all relationships, it takes time. Do be clear. Do not use legalese. Take the time to explain what is next, who the people in the court will be, where people will sit, how law enforcement will act, and so on. Prepare written question-and-answer materials if there is a big group involved. Find out the questions people are asking and prepare short, clear answers. Assume that everything you say or write will be made public at some point. People who complained about surveillance of e-mail and phone calls used to be called paranoid. Now they are called people. Act accordingly. Make sure you write every e-mail in such a way that you will be comfortable if it is published on the Internet. Do not always be the one who talks to the media. Do let the defendant speak for herself as much as possible. If the defendant is in jail, let supporters speak as much as possible. Media attention is important to educate about the cause. Let the people who were working on the cause before you arrived and who will be working on it after you leave speak about the cause. Help people who want to be creative at sentencing. Judges sometimes are flexible in hearing out people whom they have convicted but are beginning to understand. For example, one convicted defendant urged a judge not to send him to a jail without walls. The judge asked why not? “Because,” he said, “I will walk away. I refuse to build walls in my mind.” And you would not think a judge would let a convicted person sing at his sentencing, but it happened. Working with people who question authority can be liberating. These clients can push lawyers to look at the law and the rules of courts in new and creative ways. We should remember that 100 years ago much of what we now know as clearly unjust law and conduct was totally legal. Clients who question the way things are today can help us start to think about what people 100 years from now will be looking back upon and wondering, “Why did those people in 2018 not see that was unjust?”

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The quote comes from Ben Franklin. % Unless some counteracting cause comes along to prevent the fall in the price level, such a depression as that of 1929-33 (namely when the more the debtors pay the more they owe) tends to continue, going deeper, in a vicious spiral, for many years. Hidden Markov Models and Bayes Theorem for dummies Full story here ... Debt Deflation and the Neofeudal Empire 22 days ago. Other debt deflation theories do not assume that debts must be paid, noting the role that default, bankruptcy, and foreclosure play in modern economies. This is the theory put forward by … Gold fell from $920 to $680 per troy ounce in the August to … Stop all government borrowing tomorrow (apart from rolling over existing debt). The Home Affordable Refinance Program (HARP) is a mortgage refinancing program offered to borrowers who are currently underwater on their mortgages. "Finance and economic breakdown: modelling Minsky’s Financial Instability Hypothesis", Fisher, I. He builds on Fisher's argument that dramatic declines in the price level and nominal incomes lead to increasing real debt burdens, which in turn leads to debtor insolvency, thus leading to lowered aggregate demand and further decline in the price level, which develops into a debt deflation spiral. Given the level of government debt growth required, some proponents of debt deflation such as Steve Keen are pessimistic about these Keynesian suggestions.. The debt deflation theory was familiar to John Maynard Keynes prior to Fisher's discussion of it, but he found it lacking in comparison to what would become his theory of liquidity preference. There is too much unpayable debt, and someone needs to eat the losses. % Vale David Graeber September 4, 2020. 30 I still don?t understand your explanation, so it would be great if you could further elaborate on it. When a country issues debt, it is selling debt obligations to investors or to other parties from whom it is receiving credit. Minsky, Hyman (1992). The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which Investopedia receives compensation. Leave public sector spending untouched. (1933) "The Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions," Econometrica 1 (4): 337-57, Grant, J. Following Hyman Minsky, some argue that the debts assumed at the height of the bubble simply cannot be repaid – that they are based on the assumption of rising asset prices, rather than stable asset prices: the so-called "Ponzi units". Following our previous article, Can price inflation occur in the midst of debt deflation?, one of our readers asked, Yes, how can we explain Iceland? Debt deflation is a theory that recessions and depressions are due to the overall level of debt rising in real value because of deflation, causing people to default on their consumer loans and mortgages. Lower collateral values, in turn, can lead to underwater mortgages, losses in net worth, and limits to available credit. Debt deflation is a theory that recessions and depressions are due to the overall level of debt rising in real value because of deflation, causing people to default on their consumer loans and mortgages. The essence of debt deflation is that when prices and wages fall with the price level, but the nominal size of debts and interest payments are fixed, then borrowers face increasing pressure on their ability to repay what they have borrowed. , Warned," Financial Times (14 August), Compare: "Let us beware of this dangerous theory of, Causes of the Great Depression: Debt deflation, Keynes' Liquidity Preference Trumps Debt Deflation in 1931 and 2008, Debtwatch No. 42: The economic case against Bernanke, "Why You Should Love Government Deficits", Irving Fisher on Debt, Deflation, and Depression, "The Great Crash of 2008: Causes and Consequences,", https://www.frbsf.org/our-district/press/presidents-speeches/yellen-speeches/2009/april/yellen-minsky-meltdown-central-bankers/, "Rethinking Economics for a New Era of Financial Regulation: The Political Economy of Hyman Minsky,", http://scholar.harvard.edu/rogoff/publications, "The Macroeconomics of the Great Depression: A Comparative Approach", "The Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions", "1. Therefore, inflation is caused by a combination of four factors: the supply of money goes up, the supply of other goods goes down, demand for money goes down and demand for other goods goes up. Debt deflation is a complicated phenomenon associated with the end of long-term credit cycles. During Deflation, as the price levels fall, companies typically experience a fall in their revenues leading to increased debt levels. Empirical support and modern mainstream interest, harv error: no target: CITEREFFisher1930 (, Pilkington, Philip (February 24, 2014). MMT for Dummies Okay, I am not an economist, but all my study has been in history and politics. I really don’t get this one. Later commentators do not in general believe that reflation is sufficient, and primarily propose two solutions: debt relief – particularly via inflation – and fiscal stimulus. 2. 3. Mathematical models of debt deflation have recently been developed by post-Keynesian economist Steve Keen. Many folks do indeed have significant gaps in their personal financial knowledge. The standard won’t work directly; there would be a monstrous deflation and the economy would disintegrate. Empirical support for the Bernanke transmission mechanism in the post–World War II economic activity is weaker. However, it may be possible for a negative real economic shock or a sudden increase in market pessimism to trigger such a process debt deflation as well, even when the initial extension of debt was sound given market fundamentals at the time. 50 300 Several studies prove that the empirical support for the validity of the debt deflation hypothesis as laid down by Fisher and Bernanke is substantial, especially against the background of the Great Depression. Inflation for Dummies ... even the greatest economists of all time can’t predict rates of in/deflation. Businesses in Europe are reacting to the lack of demand and to the incapacity to impose even moderate price rises in the same way as they did in Japan. Indeed, Fisher’s theory begins with an overextension of credit in the first place, leading to a build up of unsustainable debt in some market or markets. But you can’t cut interest rates lower than 0%. She described how a process of balance sheet deleveraging ensued while consumers cut back on their spending to be able to service their debt. Page 4/12 Full recourse is a state in which a debt obligation is owed regardless of the borrower’s personal and financial situation. ... back probably fluctuates based on major scientific (or other) discoveries. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site. % Conversely, a price increase leads to an increase in the debt burden. A credit crunch lowers investment and consumption, which leads to declining aggregate demand, which additionally contributes to the deflationary spiral.. ". , In 2008, Deepak Lal wrote, "Bernanke has made sure that the second leg of a Fisherian debt deflation will not occur. Instead, the Telegraph in… Debt deflation occurs when the fall in prices increases debt servicing pressure on businesses and consumers who have borrowed money to finance their business operations, capital purchases, homes, and personal property. In order to apply this to financial markets, which involve transactions across time in the form of debt – receiving money now in exchange for something in future – he made two further assumptions:. % Inflation results in a wealth transfer from creditors to debtors, since creditors are not repaid as much in real terms as was expected, and on this basis this solution is criticized and politically contentious. 1. This raises the risk of an economy-wide downturn if it creates a positive-feedback loop in defaults through the process known as a deflationary spiral. Mike Norman Economics. The antidote for inflation is raising interest rates, and the reverse is true for deflation. The commonly assumed danger of debt deflation is that it can lead to a deflationary spiral, as defaulted debts lead to writedowns by banks and other creditors, which constitute a reduction in the overall volume of money and credit in the economy, which spurs further price deflation leading to even more debt deflation in a vicious cycle.. The classic example of a period of deflation was the Great Depression. The Mechanisms of the Business Cycle in the Postwar Period", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Debt_deflation&oldid=985119861, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Debt liquidation leads to distress selling and to, Contraction of deposit currency, as bank loans are paid off, and to a slowing down of velocity of circulation. Similarly, deflation is caused by the number of dollars falling relative to the number of oranges (goods and services). "The Financial Instability Hypothesis". Non-recourse provisions can help a borrower in distress while full recourse provisions require them to pay additional capital to the bank if the value of their collateral does not cover its credit balance. There is then no tendency of the boat to stop tipping until it has capsized. Debt, Land and Money, From Polanyi to the New Economic Archaeology September 4, 2020. This page was last edited on 24 October 2020, at 02:16. When you hear politicians discuss the budget deficit, they’re talking about the annual shortfall, the difference between how much the government collects in revenue (mostly from taxes) and the amount it spends in any given year. Then comes recovery and a tendency for a new boom-depression sequence. According to Bernanke a small decline in the price level simply reallocates wealth from debtors to creditors without doing damage to the economy. Fisher viewed the solution to debt deflation as reflation – returning the price level to the level it was prior to deflation – followed by price stability, which would break the "vicious spiral" of debt deflation. % An underwater mortgage is a home purchase loan with a higher principal than the free-market value of the home. " After the financial crisis of 2007-2008, Janet Yellen in her speech acknowledged Minsky's contribution to understanding how credit bubbles emerge, burst and lead to deflationary asset sales. Given the perceived political difficulties in debt relief and the suggested inefficacy of alternative courses of action, proponents of debt deflation are either pessimistic about solutions, expecting extended, possibly decades-long depressions, or believe that private debt relief (and related public debt relief – de facto sovereign debt repudiation) will result from an extended period of inflation. It is also a tiny country that is hardly self-sufficient. The effect of inflation is more pronounced the higher the debt to GDP ratio is: at a 50% ratio, one year of 10% inflation reduces the ratio by approximately In the context of this quote and the development of his theory and the central role it places on debt, it is of note that Fisher was personally ruined due to his having assumed debt due to his over-confidence prior to the crash, by buying stocks on margin. Under deflation, the opposite process occurs, and the nominal value of currency — as well as that of historical debt — rises, making the debt harder to service and pay down, especially with the ongoing accumulation of interest. Tags: debt deflation, Iceland, price inflation, Steve Keen If you enjoyed this article, get free updates by email or RSS. The lack of influence of Fisher's debt-deflation in academic economics is thus described by Ben Bernanke in Bernanke (1995, p. 17): Building on both the monetary hypothesis of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz as well as the debt deflation hypothesis of Irving Fisher, Bernanke developed an alternative way in which the financial crisis affected output. National debt is the total amount the federal government owes. In Fisher's formulation of debt deflation, when the debt bubble bursts the following sequence of events occurs: Assuming, accordingly, that, at some point in time, a state of over-indebtedness exists, this will tend to lead to liquidation, through the alarm either of debtors or creditors or both. Iceland is a country with huge current account deficit and foreign debt. A short refinance is the refinancing of a mortgage by a lender for a borrower currently in default on payments. This contraction in the volume of credit in the economy then feeds back into more downward pressure on prices and wages, which puts more borrowers in distress, renewing the cycle. The theory was developed by Irving Fisher following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression. Of Globalization Debt And Deflation globalization debt and deflation that can be your partner. Complicated disturbances in the rates of interest, in particular, a fall in the nominal, or money, rates and a rise in the real, or commodity, rates of interest. Occurs when too many goods are available or when there is too unpayable. Personal financial knowledge it was proposed as a theory by Irving Fisher following the Wall Street Crash of and. To inflation, which is a home purchase loan with a deficit reduction, the indebtedness cease! Have failed to adequately restore the balance sheets of over-leveraged banks, firms, and prices fell 25. 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Classification of Terrestrial Geomorphological Features by Scale. Modified from Baker (http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/GEO_1/GEO_CHAPTER_1.shtml). Eventually there may be enough pieces to form a meaningful language which could be called parascript - the language of parasites which tells of themselves and their hosts both of today and yesteryear (Manter, 1966) . Few biological interactions have deserved so much attention from biologists during the latter part of the 20th century than host-parasite interactions. Parasites seem to throw a special light on the problems of ecology and evolution. Host-parasite interactions should be considered fine-grained biological models through which major changes in ecosystems can be monitored, e.g., global climate change [2,3]. In the following pages I will review as briefly as possible the main pathways that research on the historical biogeography of parasites has traversed ever since the American parasitologist Harold W Manter coined the term that is the subject matter of this chapter, The historical biogeography of parasites is the concern of this chapter mainly because this discipline has gathered a great deal of information during the last two decades on both ecological and evolutionary studies that could be of extended use for future generations in order to know what to do with this planet. In the late 19th century host-parasite interactions were under the scrutiny of evolutionary biologists ever since von Ihering [4,5,6] anticipated that the location of modern host and parasite biotas (he studied helminths and lice) could be evidence of past distributions. That was a time when Darwin’s natural selection was under much debate, and host-parasite studies were used as proof of evolutionary change through channelled paths, called orthogenesis, an opposing view to natural selection. Nevertheless, thanks to von Ihering’s anticipated insight continental drift and plate tectonics would become part of the core of recent parascript studies . Klassen and Brooks [7,8] concluded that the history of the impact of parasite studies in evolutionary biology had been significantly outstanding during the first half of the 20th century. During the critical years of debates on the mechanisms of evolution, e.g., selectionism vs. non-selectionist alternatives (end of 19th and first decades of the 20th century), parasites were at the core of such discussions. Yet, the demise of evolutionary studies on parasites occurred after the inception of the Modern Synthesis of Evolution , mainly because parasites fell into discredit as dead evolutionary ends, and as degenerate organisms living at the expense of their hosts. As Fahrenholz viewed it [6,8], parasite evolution just mirrored host evolution. So why bother study parasites under an evolutionary perspective? American parasitologist Harold W Manter kept alive parasite evolutionary studies during the 1940’s and through the rest of his life. These studies were mainly historical biogeographic, although he considered that the interplay between ecology and evolution is the language of parasitology. He viewed such studies as bilingual messages that parasites conveyed, one from the ecological realm and one from evolutionary biology. He named this type of studies, Parascript studies were initially explored by helminthologists [6,7,8,9] but unknowingly left out a great deal of information on insect ectoparasites as voiced by Ròzsa (but see ). Parascript studies, therefore, should not be restricted to the type of parasite. Parascript studies should encompass all different types of parasites, whether ecto or endoparasitic. Yet, the differences between them help monitor distinct levels of ecosystem structuring. It is probable that helminth parasites have been surveyed more in relation to historical biogeographical research than ectoparasites in general mainly because Professor Manter was a helminthologist. Currently, parascript is the study of parasites that connect the phylogenetic, biogeographical, historical, and ecological realms, where parasites play an important role as ‘thermometers’ of environmental status and decidedly offer information on geomorphologic changes of the earth’s crust, biogeography, and ecological status, where parasites as part of the interactor universe of their hosts can indicate the connections within trophic foodwebs, migrations, colonizations, and in situ speciation. They are an important if not one of the most important components of biomass in coastal ecosystems . In the words of Hoberg and Klassen : “parasites serve as keystones for understanding the history of biotas because of their critical value as phylogenetic, ecological and biogeographic indicators of their host groups.” The aim of this chapter is to succinctly review past and present research on parasite historical biogeography and concludes what shape could take future research. Parasites have lent themselves to phylogenetic, ecological, and biogeographical analyses ever since von Ihering maintained that parasites represent conservative lineages and evolve in isolation (now called allopatric speciation). It was Metcalfe [6,8,13] who actually anticipated the necessity of having phylogenies of both hosts and parasites. Phylogenetic systematics in particular has played a strong guiding role in parasite historical biogeography during the 20th century and well within the present one [8,14,15]. Parasite ecology has generally followed a distinct path (but see [16,17,8]) that is the consequence of the divorce between ecology and historical biogeography (16,17,18,19] but as rich in conclusions as the evolutionary part. The integration of both disciplines has been named ‘parascript’ and to a considerable extent, is part of historical ecology studies . Parascript studies have generally dealt with the reconstruction of ancient distributions and geological events, so generally parascript studies have been equated with historical biogeography. Today, different ‘branches’ of historical biogeographical research have expanded into two seemingly different research programmes: event-based historical biogeography and discovery-based historical biogeography (‘pattern based’ of Ronquist and Sanmartin ). Parasite historical biogeography has benefited from both approaches, but mainly from the latter . Historical background notwithstanding, the present review is centered on metadata based on the relative number of studies published on parasites and historical biogeography that generally utilize phylogenies as initial hypotheses of distribution and area delimitation. When taxon cycles are involved in the discussion, I assume both vicariance and dispersal, according to Halas et al. . It is inevitable to ask why, despite the previous work done [8,15], hotly debated, on methods of historical biogeography, parasite biologists insist on reconstructing host-parasite phylogenies first and add as secondary and unchanging information, geographic distribution? The answer offered by historical biogeography cannot be more persuasive, as this chapter unfolds. Several definitions are necessary when discussing historical biogeography and parascript. Terms have been discussed in several renderings [7,8,15,16,23]. It is outside the scope of this chapter to enter such a discussion. Although the most debated terms in evolutionary biology of parasites have revolved around the words ‘coevolution’ and ‘coadaptation’ (and its derivatives), these definitions are nearly related to historical biogeographical concepts, especially when ‘coevolution’ is interpreted as homologous to ‘vicariance’. Historical biogeography is the study of the phylogenetic relationships of different taxa and the areas where they currently live in and where they probably were previously distributed. For some authors it is the study of the evolution of areas and their taxa inhabiting them. The point of departure of all these definitions is the fact that earth and biota evolve simultaneously, at least as a starting or null hypothesis. It is better to say that earth and biota can chronologically evolve in parallel because simultaneity could confound the timing of vicariant and dispersal phenomena. Vicariance in temporal terms actually recovers only that part of the evolution of earth and biota that occur simultaneously if earth evolution is deemed as the separation of landmasses, major continental blocks, ocean and river basins, and mountain uplifting that leaves a permanent effect on species. These effects can be traced to speciation events and host-switching, or hybridization, among other phenomena. Dispersal under these terms is the movement, idiosyncratic or concerted (as in range expansions or geodispersal) of whole populations or communities of organisms over those earthly barriers already in existence, due to changes in climate or the breakdown of previous barriers. Database information today is a primer for further research. It is desirable that databases are compiled and then published for the rest of colleagues interested in following some lines of research, especially those who are newcomers to a field of study. Databases consulted for the present chapter included mainly Web of Science® (WS 1899-present) because other databases (Current Contents Connect® (1998-present), Biological Abstracts® (1993-present), Zoological Record® (1976-present), and Journal Citation Reports®), are integrated to the WS, have a smaller year-span search record, and the records found in them approximate but are not as complete as those of WS. I followed in the lead of Poulin and Forbes on the web-based research they employed on host-parasite interactions. The database was developed as a result of the current objective experience that is contained in the literature and research programmes that exploit to its full extent the parascript concept, as defined by Manter , and further developed by Brooks and McLennan , Hoberg and Klassen and Hoberg et al. , among others and in posterior publications by themselves and other researchers. Results were then incorporated into the following categories. 4.1. Database entries Entries were included accordingly as: general type of macroparasite, inferred historical biogeographical patterns, time dimension, terrestrial geomorphological features, taxon level analyzed, methods applied to historical biogeography analysis, and number of papers. Entries included word combinations as ‘metadata* parasites* historical biogeography’, ‘parascript* parasites’, ‘parasites* biogeography’, ‘parasites* historical biogeography’, ‘parascript’ as a stand-alone, ‘parasite* biogeography’ and finally ‘parasite* historical biogeography’. 4.1.1. General type of macroparasite Helminths, arthropods –three distinct entries were developed, one that included simultaneously ecto and endohelminths, a second that only included ectoparasites such as mites, ticks and lice, and a third one that included other types of arthropod parasites, e.g., Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Crustacea (Copepoda), and so forth. Pests are not included, although agricultural studies represent an area where several discoveries on parasite-host interactions have had their point of departure . 4.1.2. Inferred historical biogeographical patterns General type of inferred speciation was used as explanation for perceived patterns of historical biogeography. I only grouped all inferred phenomena under two headings – vicariance and dispersal. In the former I considered several names by which vicariance has come down in the literature: coevolution (of parasites/areas), structure of trees not attributable to chance, host-shifts promote speciation ≈ vicariance, cospeciation. Dispersal could be recovered from the records as colonization, chance, non-vicariant processes, range expansion, and geodispersal. Whether all of these designations are equivalent or not exactly equivalent to vicariance or dispersal should not concern us here, as the major debates over historical biogeography clearly are between ‘vicariancists’ and ‘dispersalists’ with a variety of definitions according to patterns observed . In the case of dispersion there is evidence that it is a phenomenon not due to chance solely but owes its resulting patterns to other simultaneous events in time, or nearly simultaneous events in time such as environmentally promoted range expansion . When the pattern inferred includes both vicariance and dispersal, I included a third entry. 4.1.3. The time dimension Time is another entry that should be considered [29,20]. Needless to say, time is of central importance in historical biogeographical studies . Yet only in later papers time has become more explicit a variable, and not just a framework, as molecular clocks have entered the arena of historical biogeography through phylogeography [26,30-35]. I recorded entries according to the The Beringian Coevolution Project (BCP, ) publications that have a clear use of the terms “deep-time” and “shallow-time”. Therefore, I recorded deep time as >1x106 years and shallow time as <1x106 years. As many authors seem to combine in their researches explanations that include both age groupings, -in recent papers there seems to be an increase in the use of molecular clock data and phylogeography- I added the category deep/shallow time. 4.1.4. Terrestrial geomorphological features The terrestrial geomorphological features by scale were included in the analysis according to the hierarchical classification of Baker . Authors hardly mention any of these features. The data were entered according to Table 1 but deliberately left out most of those areas that are not mentioned. Area delimitation is still a problem in historical biogeography. No two authors could really agree as to what an area is actually in historical biogeographical studies. ‘General areas’ is a term often found in the earlier literature on historical biogeography. The first attempts in parasite historical biogeography (summarized in ) clearly used drifting continental masses through time, which represents apparently unequivocal designation to discrete areas. Yet, when other geomorphological features are analyzed, authors have resorted to ocean basins, river basins, intermontane geological features, subcontinental regions or vague geographical references, like ‘eastern’ or ‘western’ areas. There should be an explicit hierarchical usage of these areas for historical biogeographical phenomena operate at different geographical and time scales. Other authors prefer to substitute areas with events . |1||10 7||Continents, ocean basins||10 8 – 10 9| |2||10 5 – 10 6||Physiographic provinces, shields, depositional plains, continental-scale river drainage basins (e.g., Amazon, Mississippi Rivers, Danube, Rio Grande)||10 8| |3||10 4||Medium-scale tectonic units (sedimentary basins, mountain massifs, domal uplifts||10 7 – 10 8| |4||10 2||Smaller tectonic units (fault blocks, volcanoes, troughs, sedimentary sub-basins, individual mountain zones)||10 7| |5||10 - 10 2||Large-scale erosional/depositional units (deltas, major valleys, piedmonts)||10 6| |6||10 -1 - 10||Medium-scale erosional/depositional units or landforms (floodplains, alluvial fans, moraines, smaller valleys and canyons)||10 5 – 10 6| |7||10 -2||Small-scale erosional/depositional units or landforms (ridges, terraces, and dunes)||10 4 – 10 5| |8||10 -4||Larger geomorphic process units (hillslopes, sections of stream channels)||10 3| |9||10 -5||Medium-scale geomorphic process units (pools and riffles, river bars, solution pits)||10 2| |10||10 -8||Microscale geomorphic process units (fluvial and eolian ripples, glacial striations)||10 -1 – 10 4| 4.1.5. Taxon level analyzed Parasites and hosts have decoupled evolutionary histories [8,23,38] when colonization, host-switching or failure to speciate concurrently with hosts has occurred. Analyzes involving distinct taxon levels have made it clear that parasites seem to speciate in correlation with a change in their physical conditions . The level at which parasites seem to speciate more frequently is at the family level of hosts, correlated with dispersal [38-40]. A distinction between host and parasite levels involved in historical biogeography is at times explicit in such studies. Parasite taxon and host level were recorded as: 1=species (or isolate)/genus, 2=genera (or tribes)/family or subfamily, 3=family/order, 4=order/class, and 5=multiparasite assemblages. When families belonged to the same order, order level was entered; when families corresponded to different orders, multiparasite assemblage was entered instead. I recorded intermediate hierarchical taxon levels as the immediate level above. 4.1.6. Methods applied to historical biogeography analysis Panbiogeography is not considered here a historical biogeographic method for it does not consider the time dimension. Interesting research on panbiogeographic tracks of helminth parasites have been published, especially for central Mexico [42,43]. Nevertheless, it is considered here that historical biogeography should begin with phylogenetic reconstructions, where the time dimension is implicitly or explicitly incorporated into such explanations. Parsimony analysis of endemisms (PAE) papers were not considered as well, as PAE is a non-historical method. PAE relies on current distribution information of organisms, as it analyzes areas of endemism rather than phylogenetic frameworks of the groups studied rendering it unsuitable as a method of historical biogeography . Separate entries for method employed in historical biogeographical inference were incorparated into the analysis. The combinations of words for generating these data were: Topic=(PARASITES* TREEMAP); (PARASITES* BROOKS PARSIMONY ANALYSIS* HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY), (PARASITES* PARSIMONY* ANALYSIS* FOR COMPARING TREES* PACT* HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY) (PARASITES* DISPERSAL* VICARIANCE* ANALYSIS* HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY). When explanation for a pattern is referred to a previous work by the same author it is considered as extending her/his hypotheses to works examined. 4.1.7. Number of papers The number of papers based on the indicated word combinations was recovered as well as the number of citations per year. I justify this part because it is interesting how the number of publications on historical biogeography of parasites, especially eukaryotes, has fluctuated since the early 1980’s. The number of citations was taken into account as a measure of how many times published works have been used among researchers of historical biogeography of parasites. The analysis of the database herein presented comprises mainly metazoan parasites of vertebrates, because most of the work on historical biogeography of parasites comes from these phyla. To my knowledge, no one has attempted a complete metanalysis of the works published on the historical biogeography of parasites from its beginnings to this time. The following pretends to be a brief account of the data base search undertaken. No entries for ‘metadata* parasites* historical biogeography’ were found. This means that there are no metadata analyses of the historical biogeography of parasites. When the words ‘parascript* parasites’ was entered only 2 entries were recovered in all databases mentioned above, i.e., Brooks and McLennan’s book on parascript and Nadler’s review in From the initial 209 entries recovered from the WS, 205 qualified initially for historical biogeography and parasites. When research was narrowed to those papers that concluded with historical biogeography + parasites results, only 75 papers that explicitly report results on the historical biogeography of parasites could be detected. Among these papers blood parasites [46,47,48], plant parasites, mistletoes in South America , and fungi are included because it seems that there is a growing interest in historical biogeographical research in non-metazoan eukaryotes that have been used as tags for migratory vertebrates. Despite the importance of parasites and the consequences of parasitism in modern times, as exemplified by the appearance of emerging infectious diseases , the evidence of the interplay between taxon pulses and ecological fitting in the structuring of host-parasite communities in the Holarctic region (and purportedly in other regions of the globe) and its restructuring derived from climatic cycling and current climatic change , it is surprising that only circa 200 entries with the words ‘parasite historical biogeography’ could be recovered. It is evident that a certain number of published works that do not include, happen to mention, or were careful not to mention these words have been excluded from the aforementioned database. For example, Brooks and McLennan’s [8,15,16] and references therein] works are not included, when they actually contain the words ‘historical biogeography’ and ‘parasites’ repeatedly. Not a single paper of Nieberding and Morand [30-34] is ever mentioned, or the recent book edited by Morand and Krasnov on the biogeography of parasites. 5.1. General type of macroparasite Metadata analysis of historical biogeographical studies of host/parasite/area (Figure 1) indicates that helminth phyla have been the most studied group and within these helminths of freshwater and marine fish, mammals, and birds of the Holartic region [26,30-34], followed afar by bird and mammal ectoparasites (lice and ticks) from northern latitudes, as well [11,23]. A similar situation was recorded 10 years ago from marine parasite historical biogeography [9, Table 1] where 68 works are recorded, among those 51 dealt with helminths (those authors had made clear they centered their analysis on these phyla) and 8 with arthropods, plus 8 theoretical works (20 up to 2012). Researchers on arthropod ectoparasites such as lice and ticks seem to have preferred to study host-parasite coevolution rather than their historical biogeography [23,41] though paradoxically some of the first attempts at tracking historical biogeographical patterns used lice as tags for historical biogeography . 5.2. General type of inferred pattern of historical biogeography A significant conclusion of these analyses (Figure 2) is that 15% of the papers analyzed have recorded patterns of historical biogeography of parasites as vicariant phenomena that involve speciation (coevolution) whereas dispersal events, or host-switching events account for 45%. Papers that mention both vicariance and dispersal account for 40%, a figure near to that of papers that explain pattern with dispersal. If combined, 39% of papers favour vicariance as an explanation and 61% dispersal. Dispersion and related phenomena are favored in parasite historical biogeography as the explanation for modern and historical patterns of parasite distribution across and within continents. Differences in the relative occurrence of one or the other phenomenon rely on methods used. Generally, works that employ a priori considerations of parasite evolution and use vicariance as a constraint, recover vicariant patterns, as in the initial versions of TreeMap [23,52]. When no hypothetical considerations are entertained a priori, multiple instances of vicariance and dispersal are recovered for multiple lineages of both parasites and hosts . The consequences of this are manifold but at least a couple can be identified. Parasites tend to disperse from host taxon to host taxon without changing their morphology (but can modify their life cycles), i.e., they are resource trackers . The other consequence relevant to historical biogeography is that a limited number of species of parasites will disperse into large areas invading new hosts and causing pandemics or even epidemics and probably leave significant and discoverable tracks in geologic time due to coupled phenomena related to range expansion with little morphological change . Brooks and McLennan [8,15] were the first to suggest that parasites exhibit stronger historical associations “with the areas in which they evolved and lived than with the particular species of hosts they inhabit” . Such statement has been confirmed by the empirical data recovered by parascript studies. Metadata analysis herein included reinforces this view, where mention of a weak cophylogenetic signal is common in these papers. A similar conclusion had already been reached by Manter , under a different approach, when comparing helminth faunas of marine fish, although he added a second explanation, namely, that parasites lag behind their hosts in evolutionary time. The consequences of such a discovery has far-reaching implications in the management of large areas of the globe related to human health, livestock, agriculture, migrations, and climatic change. This has several implications for the present and future of parascript studies. First, it seems unreliable to ascertain that host/parasite relationships, in a historical perspective, correspond to what has been formerly called parasite specificity. It is now understood that parasites do not track host species, but tend to track host resources that can be represented across different taxa and therefore, are plesiomorphic. It is humans who define host taxa, not parasites . A parasite-centered point of view would be that of “what hosts suits me is what host is my feeding site”. 5.3. The time dimension Previous analyses and the one included in this chapter, reflect a deep concern of researchers of historical biogeography for deep time and deep time combined with shallow time (Figure 3). This is actually the case when an increase in works of phylogeography is recorded. Nevertheless, the WS database includes few of these. Major works on the phylgoeography and comparative phylogeography of parasites and hosts include explanations on recent (shallow) and ancient (deep) biogeographical phenomena [26, 30-34,57]. Now there is a whole new universe of research where there is growing room for inferring simultaneity of speciation of parasites, hosts, and historical divergence or dispersal into new areas. There have been serious statistical analyses involving simultaneity of divergence in free living organisms, but still not enough on parasites. This is reflected in parascript studies in that most of the cladograms of parasites and areas published up to this day lack an explicit hypothesis of the timing of historical events [6,20,28]. In the case of parasites, a lack of fossil evidence seemingly hampers such a calculation, but the growth of research of molecular clocks for both parasites and hosts might be promising . Speculation enters the arena here when we try to deduct the origin of a parasite clade derived from its probable most ancient host. Some attempts have been made earlier with fossils of hosts as calibration points for parasite clades. Nevertheless, the lack of fossils for the parasite associate will always remain and heavy reliance on what host taxon was the original one adds up to this uncertainty. Despite this fact, hypotheses of the original hosts of several endoparasitic [9,60] and ectoparasitic taxa have been utilized as departing points for assessing the origin of particular parasite clades. Parasite counts of modern clades and the use of appropriate net diversification intervals could give some insight as to the antiquity of some key clades . 5.4. Terrestrial geomorphological features According to the classification of geomorphological features, historical biogeography parasitologists are deeply concerned with large continental areas in their analyses (Figure 4). As parasites speciate seemingly with geomorphological changes it is hardly surprising that the higher hierarchical levels of parasite/area were considered as the first targets of historical biogeography. The Holarctic regions has been the most intensively studied [26, 30-34,57]. Southern regions of the earth have been less explored; among these, South America and Australia have been the most intensively studied, at the drainage level in the former (Amazon and Paraná drainages mainly) [61-64] and at the continental scale in the latter. It is important to note that areas as terminals in phylogenetic analyses are equal or less in numbers if compared to parasite terminals. Despite the quality of works done on the northern areas of this planet, there are still no independent estimates of the histories of areas , where geological studies need to be consulted by parasitologists. Nevertheless, during the modern era of parascript studies, there has been a concern for formulating independent area cladograms of e.g., the breakup of Pangea . Despite the fact that molecular studies have increasingly become incroporated into the historical biogeography of parasites, the breakup of Pangea has remained a very good starting point for historical biogeographical studies and a well supported hypothesis of tectonic plate movements. The latter studies will certainly incorporate more information to the point where it will probably be difficult to discover single independent area histories, especially if dispersal or range expansions are being identified as the engine of parasite speciation. Yet, it would be unvaluable information if independent geological information was explicitly incorporated into historical parascript studies . 5.5. Taxon level analyzed Species level studies seem to be preferred over higher taxonomic levels or multi parasite assemblages (Figure 5). This might represent the difficulties in assessing parasite communities from host assemblages. Additionally, this could reflect that the study of parasite historical biogeography has centered on core species within parasite communities. Quite a different result was recovered from hosts. A preference for multi host assemblages was recovered in the study of parasite historical biogeography (Figure 6). This could reflect the interest on different host taxa, the availability of different species of hosts or the presence of single parasite species in different hosts. Despite the foregoing, a correlation appears between the distinct levels of parasite and host taxa involved in historical biogeographical studies (Figure 7). It is particularly interesting to note that a direct relationship exists between the host taxon level and parasite taxon level. This reflects that as the level of host taxon sampling increases there is an increase in the number of distinct parasite species sampled. 5.6. Methods employed in historical biogeography of parasites Parsimony analysis of host/parasite/area seems to be the dominant optimality criterion for proposing hypotheses of historical biogeography of helminth parasites (Figure 8) while other methods, i.e., component analysis, dispersal-vicariance, among others, have more often been implemented with helminth endoparasites and arthropod ectoparasites phylogenies. Nevertheless, other methods have recently gained acceptance and have been preferred over parsimony and component analyses for the study of historical biogeography but have not been developed in relation to host/parasite/area biogeographic reconstruction. The number of citations amongst the different methods used during the development of parasite historical biogeography have been manifold, but all of them can be grouped mainly in two camps, although there is a growing tendency to use probabilistic methods, probably as a reflection of what is the general trend in phylogenetic reconstruction . Among the parsimony methods and the non-parsimonious methods, I explored the number of citations for at least the four most recurrent used and cited methods: TreeMap [23 and references therein, 52], BPA [8, 15, 16, 67-69], PACT [70-72], and DIVA . The most cited method is DIVA . This could only mean that methods that include both dispersal and vicariance as their working hypothesis have been favored over those that favor maximum cospeciation. DIVA has been equated to secondary BPA . Parsimony methods seemingly took a higher stand during the development of parasite historical biogeography. Nevertheless, statistical-based methods seem to be gaining ground mainly because there is an actual increase in molecular phylogenies (and phylogeographical studies) as compared to recently published morphological phylogenies, although it must be kept in mind that statistical methods can be and have been applied to morphological phylogenies. Analytical methods of patterns and processes in historical biogeography have tended to favor other groups than parasites (Figure 8). DIVA, despite its widespread use, has been very limited in dealing with parasite groups. No wonder, BPA is the method that has been more commonly utilized by parasitologists. 5.7. Number of papers Figures 9 and 10 bring together the number of papers written on the historical biogeography of parasites in general and the number of citations per paper. Number of papers is one and more generally two orders of magnitude below the number of citations per paper. The most cited paper is on the historical biogeography of A metadata analysis of the historical biogeography of parasite studies had never been attempted before. The analyses practiced to the present data were kept as clear as possible. Several shortcomings stemmed from these type of analyses. The most immediate one is related to the combination of several taxa in one paper, e.g., helminths and arthropods. Nevertheless, I found only a single paper that included analysis both on parasitic copepods and endohelminths . Several methods of analyses in a single paper are generally more common. Despite this fact, those papers recovered were substantially TreeMap-oriented or BPA-oriented. PACT is an analysis that has hardly been exploited. Probabilistic analyses are still in their beginnings, so we must see a substantial growth in usage of these methods in the present decade. An in-depth analysis of every single paper included in the present chapter would want from space and reading time. Let this brief account of the use of parascript studies, or studies related to the historical biogeographical part be a starting line for further accounts. The most outstanding problem in modern historical biogeography a decade ago was related to the most approximate method(s) that recovered most of the information contained in parasite/hosts/area phylogenies in order to offer approximate historical biogeographical reconstructions. Nevertheless, numbers indicate there was more concern for reconstructing coevolutionary scenarios than for historical biogeography reconstructions. Under this heading methods have diversified, but today little attention is paid as to what method is used. Instead, the main concerns centers more and more as to the number of genes used to reconstruct phylogenies and then afterwards what the shape of the phylogeny tells us about the biogeography of the taxon or taxa studied. There are substantially excellent reviews on the state of the art in coevolution studies . Yet, there is a need for an equivalent review on historical biogeographical methods that brings together the best ideas from each camp. New computer methods are being implemented, but the assumptions have remained the same. What is notable is that the null hypotheses for historical biogeographical studies depart each day more and more from the original ’coevolutionary’ assumption. Parsimony methods have brought about this departure and have influenced all those methods that originally belonged to the ’maximum coevolution’ camp. Parsimony methods have moved on and have incorporated cost analysis . Yet some of the methods mentioned in Ronquist and Sanmartin for free-living organisms have not been explored in host/parasite/area research programmes. Non-parsimony methods, such as ML and Bayesian, have not been incorporated yet into parascript studies but will certainly do in the near future. There is little room for doubt that parascript studies, as envisioned by Harold Manter , are in the need to enter the application arena. The results obtained by major research programmes, namely the Beringian Coevolutionary Project (BCP), are moving into the direction of a more propositive agenda than ever. This does not mean that data collecting is going to be disregarded. On the contrary, there is today a growing need to increase the number of parasite specimens and hosts as never before. From the foregoing analysis it seems that the state of the art in parascript studies will head towards a more comprehensive understanding of the biosphere . Regardless of the method employed, it seems that careful and detailed phylogenetic reconstruction, both morphological and molecular, lies at the heart of a sound historical biogeographical reconstruction of events in the earth’s past and present. The predictive nature of parascript studies is still being worked out, with significative advances stemming from the BCP. One lesson is that methods must lie deep within phylogenetic studies and especially should be fed by the backup and background supported by museum collections of parasites throughout the world . Repositories of parasite specimens cannot be supplanted by any other means of information repository. The very nature of parascript studies depends on well documented specimens that must be deposited in recognized collections around the world. The very curatorial nature of parascript needs a complete overhaul around the most outstanding academic institutions of the world, where most of the information for the historical biogeography of parasites lies for future generations to study the biodiversity on this planet Earth.

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|The English book cover for Two Years Before the Mast| Richard Henry Dana, Jr. (1815–1882). Two Years before the Mast. Vol. 23, pp. 285-295 of The Harvard Classics A crew faced the hazardous prospect of rounding the bleak Cape Horn in midwinter. Imagine the terror when a sudden scream pierced the misery-laden air. What was it? A man overboard or a lost soul? (R. H. Dana on watch, night of June 6, 1836.) Beginning the Long Return Voyage—A Scare These trades were the same that, in the passage out in the Pilgrim, lasted nearly all the way from Juan Fernandez to the line; blowing steadily on our starboard quarter for three weeks, without our starting a brace, or even brailing down the skysails. Though we had now the same wind, and were in the same latitude with the Pilgrim on her passage out, yet we were nearly twelve hundred miles to the westward of her course; for the captain, depending upon the strong south-west winds which prevail in high southern latitudes during the winter months, took the full advantage of the trades, and stood well to the westward, so far that we passed within about two hundred miles of Ducie’s Island. It was this weather and sailing that brought to my mind a little incident that occurred on board the Pilgrim, while we were in the same latitude. We were going along at a great rate, dead before the wind, with studding-sails out on both sides, alow and aloft, on a dark night, just after midnight, and everything was as still as the grave, except the washing of the water by the vessel’s side; for, being before the wind, with a smooth sea, the little brig, covered with canvas, was doing great business, with very little noise. The other watch was below, and all our watch, except myself and the man at the wheel, were asleep under the lee of the boat. The second mate, who came out before the mast, and was always very thick with me, had been holding a yarn with me, and just gone aft to his place on the quarter-deck, and I had resumed my usual walk to and from the windlass-end, when, suddenly, we heard a loud scream coming from ahead, apparently directly from under the bows. The darkness, and complete stillness of the night, and the solitude of the ocean, gave to the sound a dreadful and almost supernatural effect. I stood perfectly still, and my heart beat quick. The sound woke up the rest of the watch, who stood looking at one another. “What, in the name of God, is that?” said the second mate, coming slowly forward. The first thought I had was, that it might be a boat, with the crew of some wrecked vessel, or perhaps the boat of some whaleship, out over night, and we had run them down in the darkness. Another scream, but less loud than the first. This started us, and we ran forward, and looked over the bows, and over the sides, to leeward, but nothing was to be seen or heard. What was to be done. Call the captain, and heave the ship aback? Just at this moment, in crossing the forecastle, one of the men saw a light below, and looking down the scuttle, saw the watch all out of their berths, and afoul of one poor fellow, dragging him out of his berth, and shaking him, to wake him out of a nightmare. They had been waked out of their sleep, and as much alarmed at the scream as we were, and were hesitating whether to come on deck, when the second sound, coming directly from one of the berths, revealed the cause of the alarm. The fellow got a good shaking for the trouble he had given. We made a joke of the matter and we could well laugh, for our minds were not a little relieved by its ridiculous termination. We were now close upon the southern tropical line, and, with so fine a breeze, were daily leaving the sun behind us, and drawing nearer to Cape Horn, for which it behoved us to make every preparation. Our rigging was all examined and overhauled, and mended, or replaced with new, where it was necessary: new and strong bobstays fitted in the place of the chain ones, which were worn out; the spritsail yard and martingale guys and back-ropes set well taught; bran new fore and main braces rove; top-gallant sheets, and wheel-ropes, made of green hide, laid up in the form of rope, were stretched and fitted; and new top-sail clewlines, etc., rove; new fore-topmast back-stays fitted; and other preparations made, in good season, that the ropes might have time to stretch and become limber before we got into cold weather. Sunday, June 12th. Lat. 26š 04' S., 116š 31' W. We had now lost the regular trades, and had the winds variable, principally from the westward, and kept on, in a southerly course, sailing very nearly upon a meridian, and at the end of the week, Sunday, June 19th, were in lat. 34š 15' S., and long. 116š 38' W. Bad Prospects—First Touch of Cape Horn—Icebergs—Temperance Ships—Lying-Up—Ice—Difficulty on Board—Change of Course—Straits of Magellan THERE now began to be a decided change in the appearance of things. The days became shorter and shorter; the sun running lower in its course each day, and giving less and less heat; and the nights so cold as to prevent our sleeping on deck; the Magellan Clouds in sight, of a clear night; the skies looking cold and angry; and, at times, a long, heavy, ugly sea, setting in from the southward, told us what we were coming to. Still, however, we had a fine, strong breeze, and kept on our way, under as much sail as our ship would bear. Toward the middle of the week, the wind hauled to the southward, which brought us upon a taught bowline, made the ship meet, nearly head on, the heavy swell which rolled from that direction; and there was something not at all encouraging in the manner in which she met it. Being so deep and heavy, she wanted the buoyancy which should have carried her over the seas, and she dropped heavily into them, the water washing over the decks; and every now and then, when an unusually large sea met her fairly upon the bows, she struck it with a sound as dead and heavy as that with which a sledge-hammer falls upon the pile, and took the whole of it in upon the forecastle, and rising, carried it aft in the scuppers, washing the rigging off the pins, and carrying along with it everything which was loose on deck. She had been acting in this way all of our forenoon watch below; as we could tell by the washing of the water over our heads, and the heavy breaking of the seas against her bows, (with a sound as though she were striking against a rock,) only the thickness of the plank from our heads, as we lay in our berths, which are directly against the bows. At eight bells, the watch was called, and we came on deck, one hand going aft to take the wheel, and another and another going to the galley to get the grub for dinner. I stood on the forecastle, looking at the seas, which were rolling high, as far as the eye could reach, their tops white with foam, and the body of them of a deep indigo blue, reflecting the bright rays of the sun. Our ship rose slowly over a few of the largest of them, until one immense fellow came rolling on, threatening to cover her, and which I was sailor enough to know, by “the feeling of her” under my feet, she would not rise over. I sprang upon the knight-heads, and seizing hold of the fore-stay with my hands, drew myself upon it. My feet were just off the stanchion, when she struck fairly into the middle of the sea, and it washed her fore and aft, burying her in the water. As soon as she rose out of it, I looked aft, and everything forward of the main-mast, except the long-boat, which was griped and double-lashed down to the ring-bolts, was swept off clear. The galley, the pig-sty, the hen-coop, and a large sheep-pen which had been built upon the forehatch, were all gone, in the twinkling of an eye—leaving the deck as clean as a chin new-reaped—and not a stick left, to show where they had stood. In the scuppers lay the galley, bottom up, and a few boards floating about, the wreck of the sheep-pen—and half a dozen miserable sheep floating among them, wet through, and not a little frightened at the sudden change that had come upon them. As soon as the sea had washed by, all hands sprung out of the forecastle to see what had become of the ship and in a few moments the cook and old Bill crawled out from under the galley, where they had been lying in the water, nearly smothered, with the galley over them. Fortunately, it rested against the bulwarks, or it would have broken some of their bones. When the water ran off, we picked the sheep up, and put them in the long-boat, got the long-boat, got the galley back in its place, and set things a little to rights; but, had not our ship had uncommonly high bulwarks and rail, everything must have been washed overboard, not excepting Old Bill and the cook. Bill had been standing at the galley-door, with the kid of beef in his hand for the forecastle mess, when, away he went, kid, beef, and all. He held on to the kid till the last, like a good fellow, but the beef was gone, and when the water had run off, we saw it lying high and dry, like a rock at low tide—nothing could hurt that. We took the loss of our beef very easily, consoling ourselves with the recollection that the cabin had more to lose than we; and chuckled not a little at seeing the remains of the chicken-pie and pan-cakes floating in the scuppers. “This will never do!” was what some said, and every one felt. Here we were, not yet within a thousand miles of the latitude of Cape Horn, and our decks swept by a sea not one half so high as we must expect to find there. Some blamed the captain for loading his ship so deep, when he knew what he must expect; while others said that the wind was always southwest, off the Cape, in the winter; and that, running before it, we should not mind the seas so much. When we got down into the forecastle, Old Bill, who was somewhat of a croaker,—having met with a great many accidents at sea—said that if that was the way she was going to act, we might as well make our wills, and balance the books at once, and put on a clean shirt. “’Vast there, you bloody old owl! You’re always hanging out blue lights! You’re frightened by the ducking you got in the scuppers, and can’t take a joke! What’s the use in being always on the look-out for Davy Jones?” “Stand by!” says another, “and we’ll get an afternoon watch below, by this scrape;” but in this they were disappointed, for at two bells, all hands were called and set to work, getting lashings upon everything on deck; and the captain talked of sending down the long top-gallant masts; but, as the sea went down toward night, and the wind hauled abeam we left them standing, and set the studding-sails. The next day, all hands were turned-to upon unbending the old sails, and getting up the new ones; for a ship, unlike people on shore, puts on her best suit in bad weather. The old sails were sent down, and three new topsails, and new fore and main courses, jib, and fore-topmast staysail, which were made on the coast, and never had been used, were bent, with a complete set of new earings, robands and reef-points; and reef-tackles were rove to the courses, and spilling-lines to the top-sails. These, with new braces and clew-lines, fore and aft, gave us a good suit of running rigging. The wind continued westerly, and the weather and sea less rough since the day on which we shipped the heavy sea, and we were making great progress under studding-sails, with our light sails all set, keeping a little to the eastward of south; for the captain, depending upon westerly winds off the Cape, had kept so far to the westward, that though we were within about five hundred miles of the latitude of Cape Horn, we were nearly seventeen hundred miles to the westward of it. Through the rest of the week, we continued on with a fair wind, gradually, as we got more to the southward, keeping a more easterly course, and bringing the wind on our larboard quarter, until— Sunday, June 26th, when, having a fine, clear day, the captain got a lunar observation, as well as his meridian altitude, which made us in lat. 47š 50' S., long. 113š 49' W.; Cape Horn bearing, according to my calculation, E. S. E. 0.5 E., and distant eighteen hundred miles. Monday, June 27th. During the first part of this day, the wind continued fair, and, as we were going before it, it did not feel very cold, so that we kept at work on deck, in our common clothes and round jackets. Our watch had an afternoon watch below, for the first time since leaving San Diego, and having inquired of the third mate what the latitude was at noon, and made our usual guesses as to the time she would need, to be up with the Horn, we turned in, for a nap. We were sleeping away “at the rates of knots,” when three knocks on the scuttle, and “All hands ahoy!” started us from our berths. What could be the matter? It did not appear to be blowing hard, and looking up through the scuttle, we could see that it was a clear day, overhead; yet the watch were taking in sail. We thought there must be a sail in sight, and that we were about to heave-to and speak her; and were just congratulating ourselves upon it—for we had seen neither sail nor land since we had left port—when we heard the mate’s voice on deck, (he turned-in “all standing,” and was always on deck the moment he was called,) singing out to the men who were taking in the studding-sails, and asking where his watch were. We did not wait for a second call, but tumbled up the ladder; and there, on the starboard bow, was a bank of mist, covering sea and sky, and driving directly for us. I had seen the same before, in my passage round in the Pilgrim, and knew what it meant, and that there was no time to be lost. We had nothing on but thin clothes, yet there was not a moment to spare, and at it we went. The boys of the other watch were in the tops, taking in the topgallant studding-sails, and the lower and topmast studding-sails were and down by the run. It was nothing but “haul down and clew up,” until we got all the studding-sails in, and the royals, flying-jib, and mizen top-gallant sail furled, and the ship kept off a little, to take the squall. The fore and main top-gallant sails were still on her, for the “old man” did not mean to be frightened in broad daylight, and was determined to carry sail till the last minute. We all stood waiting for its coming, when the first blast showed us that it was not be trifled with. Rain, sleet, snow, and wind, enough to take our breath from us, and make the toughest turn his back to windward! The ship lay nearly over on her beam-ends; the spars and rigging snapped and cracked; and her top-gallant masts bent like whip-sticks. “Clew up the fore and main top-gallant sails!” shouted the captain, and all hands sprang to the clewlines. The decks were standing nearly at an angle of forty-five degrees, and the ship going like a mad steed through the water, the whole forward part of her in a smother of foam. The halyards were let go and the yard clewed down, and the sheets started, and in a few minutes the sails smothered and kept in by clewlines and buntlines.—“Furl ’em, sir?” asked the mate.—“Let go the topsail halyards, fore and aft!” shouted the captain, in answer, at the top of his voice. Down came the topsail yards, the reef-tackles were manned and hauled out, and we climbed up to windward, and sprang into the weather rigging. The violence of the wind, and the hail and sleet, driving nearly horizontally across the ocean, seemed actually to pin us down to the rigging. It was hard work making head against them. One after another, we got out upon the yards. And here we had work to do; for our new sails, which had hardly been bent long enough to get the starch out of them, were as stiff as boards, and the new earings and reef-points, stiffened with the sleet, knotted like pieces of iron wire. Having only our round jackets and straw hats on, we were soon wet through, and it was every moment growing colder. Our hands were soon stiffened and numbed, which, added to the stiffness of everything else, kept us a good while on the yard. After we had got the sail hauled upon the yard, we had to wait a long time for the weather earing to be passed; but there was no fault to be found, for French John was at the earing, and a better sailor never laid out on a yard; so we leaned over the yard, and beat our hands upon the sail to keep them from freezing. At length the word came—“Haul out to leeward,”—and we seized the reef-points and hauled the band taught for the lee earing. “Taught band—Knot away,” and we got the first reef fast, and were just going to lay down, when—“Two reefs—two reefs!” shouted the mate, and we had a second reef to take, in the same way. When this was fast, we laid down on deck, manned the halyards to leeward, nearly up to our knees in water, set the topsail, and then laid aloft on the main topsail yard, and reefed that sail in the same manner; for, as I have before stated, we were a good deal reduced in numbers, and, to make it worse, the carpenter, only two days before, cut his leg with an axe, so that he could not go aloft. This weakened us so that we could not well manage more than one topsail at a time, in such weather as this, and, of course, our labor was doubled. From the main topsail yard, we went upon the main yard, and took a reef in the mainsail. No sooner had we got on deck, than—“Lay aloft there, mizen-top-men, and close-reef the mizen topsail!” This called me; and being nearest to the rigging, I got first aloft, and out to the weather earing. English Ben was on the yard just after me, and took the lee earing, and the rest of our gang were soon on the yard, and began to fist the sail, when the mate considerately sent up the cook and steward, to help us. I could now account for the long time it took to pass the other earings, for, to do my best, with a strong hand to help me at the dog’s ear, I could not get it passed until I heard them beginning everything to complain in the bunt. One reef after another we took in, until the sail was close-reefed, when we went down and hoisted away at the halyards. In the mean time, the jib had been furled and the staysail set, and the ship, under her reduced sail, had got more upright and was under management; but the two top-gallant sails were still hanging in the buntlines, and slatting and jerking as though they would take the masts out of her. We gave a look aloft, and knew that our work was not done yet; and, sure enough, no sooner did the mate see that we were on deck, than—“Lay aloft there, four of you, and furl the top-gallant sails!” This called me again, and two of us went aloft, up the fore rigging, and two more up the main, upon the top-gallant yards. The shrouds were now iced over, the sleet having formed a crust or cake round all the standing rigging, and on the weather side of the masts and yards. When we got upon the yard, my hands were so numb that I could not have cast off the knot of the gasket to have saved my life. We both lay over the yard for a few seconds, beating our hands upon the sail, until we started the blood into our fingers’ ends, and at the next moment our hands were in a burning heat. My companion on the yard was a lad, who came out in the ship a weak, puny boy, from one of the Boston schools;—“no larger than a spritsail sheet knot,” nor “heavier than a paper of lampblack,” and “not strong enough to haul a shad off a gridiron,” but who was now “as long as a spare topmast, strong enough to knock down an ox, and hearty enough to eat him.” We fisted the sail together, and after six or eight minutes of hard hauling and pulling and beating down the sail, which was as stiff as sheet iron, we managed to get it furied; and snugly furled it must be, for we knew the mate well enough to be certain that if it got adrift again, we should be called up from our watch below, at any hour of the night, to furl it. I had been on the look-out for a moment to jump below and clap on a thick jacket and south-wester; but when we got on deck we found that eight bells had been struck, and the other watch gone below, so that there were two hours of dog watch for us, and a plenty of work to do. It had now set in for a steady gale from the south-west; but we were not yet far enough to the southward to make a fair wind of it, for we must give Terra del Fuego a wide berth. The decks were covered with snow, and there was a constant driving of sleet. In fact, Cape Horn had set in with good earnest. In the midst of all this, and before it became dark, we had all the studding-sails to make up and stow away, and then to lay aloft and rig in all the booms, fore and aft, and coil away the tacks, sheets, and halyards. This was pretty tough work for four or five hands, in the face of a gale which almost took us off the yards, and with ropes so stiff with ice that it was almost impossible to bend them. I was nearly half an hour out on the end of the fore yard, trying to coil away and stop down the topmast studding-sail tack and lower halyards. It was after dark when we got through, and we were not a little pleased to hear four bells struck, which sent us below for two hours, and gave us each a pot of hot tea with our cold beef and bread, and, what was better yet, a suit of thick, dry clothing, fitted for the weather, in place of our thin clothes, which were wet through and now frozen stiff. This sudden turn, for which we were so little prepared, was as unacceptable to me as to any of the rest; for I had been troubled for several days with a slight tooth-ache, and this cold weather, and wetting and freezing, were not the best things in the world for it. I soon found that it was getting strong hold, and running over all parts of my face; and before the watch was out I went aft to the mate, who had charge of the medicine-chest, to get something for it. But the chest showed like the end of a long voyage, for there was nothing that would answer but a few drops of laudanum, which must be saved for any emergency; so I had only to bear the pain as well as I could.

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From Technology Demonstration to Assured Retaliation:The Making of an Indian Nuclear Doctrine Manoj Joshi, Senior Editor, India Today On May 11-13, 1998, India conducted five underground nuclear explosions and declared itself to be "a nuclear weapons state." To underscore this, officials later took great pains to emphasise that the Indian tests constituted a manifestation of weaponisation. Several declaratory statements elucidated India's rationale for the tests but till now no one has spelt an authoritative doctrine for the employment of nuclear weapons. In the statements of Prime Minister Vajpayee and other officials there seems to be some confusion on what exactly nuclear weapons are all about. Are they weapons for self-defence or to deter nuclear coercion and attack or, are they a means of pushing the world to an eventual abolition of nuclear weapons? Senior officials of the government have spoken of India's determination to reject "Cold War doctrines" and avoid an arms race. A little over a month after the tests, Prime Minister Vajpayee declared that India would offer a "no first use" pledge. Recently, a senior Government official, (believed to be National Security Adviser Brajesh Mishra) briefed a select group of journalists and outlined the new Indian doctrine. According to him, "The structure of India's nuclear forces and the operational doctrine guiding them will be rooted in the broad principles of minimum deterrence and nuclear no-first-use..."1 But the statements somehow seem to suggest that minimum deterrence did not require to have any visible deployments or command and control systems. Possession is just one element of being a nuclear weapons state. Given their enormous destructive potential, there must also be a coherent and explicit doctrine which in turn must derive its credibility from the physical wherewithal--deployments, delivery systems and command and control arrangements. This paper seeks to examine the evolving Indian doctrine and suggest elements that are needed to make it credible. The aim of a doctrine is explicitness and as well as an unambiguous articulation. Writing in 1957 at the height of the Cold War, Henry Kissinger, then a professor at Harvard University declared: "The nuclear age demands above all a clarification of doctrine." According to Kissinger, doctrines allow a kind of routine response for most likely challenges. Improvisation is not the best method of handling crises in a nuclear age. It can result in confusion and panic. "Only a doctrine which defines the purpose of these weapons and the kind of war in which they are to be employed permits a rational choice."2 Most observers, believe that a minimum deterrence concept is difficult to pin down since declared nuclear powers like the United Kingdom and China, too, swear by it. But part of the reason for the confusion comes from the very nature of nuclear weapons. For years the Indian security establishment sought nuclear weapons both as a symbol of power and as a means of combating the perceived threat from China and, in recent years, Pakistan. The May 11-13 tests, somewhat predictably followed by the Pakistani tests, have confronted India with a conundrum: weapons of incredible power are now available, but they come with the knowledge that these weapons can perhaps never be used. Whether they are used first or in defensive retaliation, they create a holocaust whose consequences are too horrible to contemplate. This changed paradigm is particularly unsettling for a nation that long traversed the road less traveled by and tried for twenty-four years to not make nuclear weapons. Till May 11, 1998, the Government of India's position was that the Indian nuclear programme was for peaceful purposes, even though it gave the country a capacity to make nuclear weapons. The position was somewhat more refined by the negotiations for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. In a suo motu statement to Parliament Foreign Minister I.K. Gujral noted: Our nuclear policy...is intimately linked with our national security concerns. We have never accepted the notion that it can be considered legitimate for some countries to rely on nuclear weapons for their security while denying this right to others.3 In this context, India's Pokhran tests should not have been a surprise. Yet the decision to cross the nuclear threshold and declare that India is a nuclear weapons state upset the conventional wisdom that India would content itself with and what Jasjit Singh termed "recessed deterrent" and American scholars like George Perkovitch called a "non-weaponised" deterrent.4 For this reason, perhaps, one of the more important elements of the official presentations following the tests has been to underscore "weaponisation" and India's nuclear weapons status as an accomplished fact rather than something India was moving towards. The official statement of May 11 delivered by the Prime Minister's Principal Secretary Brajesh Mishra noted that "these tests have established that India has a proven capability for a weaponised nuclear programme." Later statements were more equivocal. At a press conference in New York, the Prime Minister's Special Envoy, Jaswant Singh saw India's acquisition of nuclear weapons in orthodox balance of power terms. "From Vancouver to Vladivostock," Singh pointed out, there was a security system that depended on nuclear weapons. Only two areas were excluded--South Asia and parts of Africa. All that India had done "was to fill this vacuum." But this step was not directed against any element of this arrangement, but "the minimum necessary that India had to do."5 Mishra for his part, at a May 21 press conference clarified that India's weapons were not meant for warfighting, but for deterring war.6 In an interview to the Washington Post, Prime Minister Vajpayee repeated that India would not build a huge arsenal or get involved in an arms race as other nuclear weapons states have done "because their doctrines were predicated on nuclear war." In a seeming contradiction, Vajpayee declared that while India did not need to replicate the kind of command and control structures which they required, "our approach is to have a credible deterrent which should prevent the use of these weapons."7 The issue of command and control, another attribute of a deterrent, "minimum" or otherwise, appears to have been brushed aside. At the May 17, 1998 Joint Press Conference organised by the Department of Atomic Energy and the Defence Research and Development Organisation, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam declared that the command and control system was already in place. This was re-emphasised in November when Brajesh Mishra clarified that the new National Security Council would have no role in the command-and-control of nuclear weapons since "A system is already in place and the Prime Minister heads it."8 In his first considered statement, that to the Lok Sabha on May 27, 1998 Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee reiterated "India is now a nuclear weapon state." Elaborating on the Indian justification for the tests, the Prime Minister went on to add, that the "action involved was balanced in that it was the minimum necessary to maintain what is an irreducible component of our national security calculus." Then, to underscore India's minimalist approach to nuclear weapons status, Vajpayee declared that India would observe a voluntary moratorium and had indicated its willingness to move "towards a de-jure formalisation of this declaration," in other words, it would sign the CTBT.9 The government also tabled a paper titled "The Evolution of India's Nuclear Policy" elaborating the Prime Minister's statement. Outlined here were the first rudiments of the Indian nuclear weapons doctrine. "India shall not use these weapons to commit aggression or to mount threats against any country; these are weapons of self-defence and to ensure that in turn, India is not subjected to nuclear threats and coercion."10 The statement then went on to recall that India had offered Pakistan an agreement not to be the first to use their nuclear capability against each other. The government stated its readiness to discuss a no-first-use agreement with Pakistan, as well as with other countries bilaterally, or in a collective forum. India would not, the statement went on to add, get involved in an arms race or "reinvent the doctrines of the Cold War." Indeed, despite its declaration of nuclear weapons status, India remained committed to the basic tenet that "global elimination of nuclear weapons will enhance its security as well as that of the rest of the world."11 Notwithstanding minimalist rhetoric and high moral tone, there was another element in the Indian rationale. This had been contained in the letter written by Mr. Vajpayee to President Bill Clinton of the US on May 11 and leaked to the New York Times on the same day. The language was compellingly direct. The rationale for the tests, Mr. Vajpayee noted was the deteriorating security environment faced by India: "We have an overt nuclear weapon state on our borders, a state which committed armed aggression against India in 1962...that country has materially helped another neighbour of ours to become a covert nuclear weapons state."12 In an interview to a weekly in late July, Prime Minister Vajpayee reiterated: "Our intention in carrying out the tests was only to ensure a credible deterrent for self-defence."13 On May 28-30, Pakistan, too, came out of the closet, confirming India's worst two-front fears and confronting Indian policy planners with a complex security situation compounded by near-universal condemnation and sanctions. From the outset India had made it clear that its posture was a minimalist one and that not only would it observe a moratorium on further tests, but be willing through negotiations with its principal interlocutors, to convert this into a de jure obligation, in other words, sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. However, while going at great lengths to elaborate its disarmament position, India has not fleshed out the nature of its nuclear weapons force, the numbers it plans to induct and the circumstances in which it would use or not use the weapons. Taken together, statements of the Prime Minister and his senior officials seem to suggest that India was simultaneously embracing three contradictory nuclear doctrines--warfighting, deterrence and abolitionism.14 Looking for a Doctrine So what are Indian nuclear weapons all about? How are we to take official statements on weaponisation and existence of adequate command and control structures? Are they an effort to appear blase or do they betray a touch of bravado? Or are they part of a carefully crafted strategy for a country that has decided to cross the nuclear threshold in what some call the sunset of the nuclear age? Looking for an Indian doctrine in these circumstances is not an easy task. Notwithstanding statements and some ill-considered policy moves,15 India does not seem to be any where near refining its nuclear doctrine. Indeed K. Subrahmanyam now seems to suggest that "minimum deterrent is not a numerical but a strategic approach," a position which appears to be similar to the one being articulated by Brajesh Mishra.16 While India's offer to join any global scheme for the verifiable elimination of nuclear weapons is serious, there seems little chance that this will happen any time soon. For the present then, India's nuclear posture could be said to represent, a "temporary" adherence to the Cold War doctrine of deterrence. As Prime Minister Vajpayee told the UN General Assembly in his address on September 24, 1998. "These tests were essential for ensuring a credible nuclear deterrent for India's national security in the foreseeable future."17 Such a situation would seem to suggest that India's historical ambivalence is coming in the way of the country fleshing out its deterrence posture. This is being articulated in two ways. The first in statements that claim that India's deterrent will somehow be different from those of the established powers. In his May 18, 1998 meeting with the foreign press corps in New Delhi, Jaswant Singh decried the use of the word "arsenal" terming it as "a throwback to the years of the Cold War." The second is the position taken by analysts like K. Subrahmanyam who are now arguing against the need to "flaunt one's weapons to exercise credible deterrence." The only tenet that is valid, Subrahmanyam noted in an article for an economic daily is that "unacceptable punishment is bound to be inflicted on both parties in a conflict, so it is prudent to avoid war."18 The Indian leadership, having conducted nuclear tests and indicated that they possess nuclear weapons must go beyond slogans and declarations. While they have clearly articulated their desire to establish a minimal deterrence, they must now flesh this out with the explicit means of maintaining it as well as an unambiguous doctrine that provides it credibility. Mere verbal declarations or over-sophisticated articulation in the face of established arsenals of our potential adversaries could actually induce a grave danger to the country's national security. Brahma Chellaney has pointed out that India's claim of possessing a nuclear deterrent without providing it "necessary military underpinning has created an inherently dangerous situation in which a potential adversary could be tempted to try to call India's bluff."19 In the 1950s, the USA, the first nuclear power came up with the concept of massive retaliation which promised retaliation against any Soviet attempt to advance into Western Europe. This was the era of the manned bomber and a limited Soviet nuclear weapons capability. Till the era of missiles, the Soviets probably had no real strike capability against the United States. With the development of missiles, there was a paradigm shift. First came the concept of Assured Destruction which paradoxically came because Defence Secretary Robert N. McNamara set to end the 'city busting' (counter-value targetting) strategy prevalent, and replace it with a more refined policy. However, in posing the question "how much is enough" to stop the Soviet war machine, McNamara touched off a massive vertical escalation of the arms race and gave birth to the idea of "Mutual Assured Destruction." During the 1970s, the then Secretary of Defence James Schlesinger shifted the emphasis to a strategy of Flexible or Selective Response whose assumption would be that the US would only target military centres. But given the nature of nuclear weapons and the size of the US and Soviet arsenals, the chance of a war being limited to military or "counterforce" targets was zero. Then, on the eve of the 1980s came the PD-59 or Presidential Directive 59 that charged US forces with developing the ability to fight a prolonged nuclear war. The idea was to persuade the Soviets that there was no level of aggression at which they could succeed. Taken up in the first few years of the Reagan era, it became a strategy of actually winning such a war through the use of third generation nuclear weapons capable of being deployed to generate X-Ray lasers to knock out Soviet ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles). This was, however, soon replaced by the current doctrine, though not elaborated, which seems to suggest that there is sufficient understanding that a nuclear war is unfightable and unwinnable. This position was first adopted at the Reykjavik summit between Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. Yet, as a recent US-German controversy indicated, the US is not willing to offer a 'no- first-use" pledge. The task of shaping any doctrine is novel and complicated, especially for a country that has decided to become a nuclear weapons state in 1998. Having decided not to respond immediately to the Chinese test, India got frozen out of the nuclear weapons cartel which decreed that only those who had conducted an explosive test before January 1, 1967, could be accepted as a nuclear weapons' state. India actively participated in the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (NPT) negotiations. Its stand then as it is now--is that the world cannot have double standards. Obligations and privileges should be the same for nuclear weapons powers and the non-nuclear weapons states. Several months before the Chinese test, in May 1964, the Indian negotiators called for an "undertaking through the United Nations to safeguard the security of countries which may be threatened by Powers having a nuclear weapons capability or about to have a nuclear weapons capability."20 None were forthcoming. India's position began to shift as a consequence of its disappointment at the failure of the evolving NPT to provide a comprehensive arms limitation or security regime. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi told the Lok Sabha on April 5, 1968 that India would not sign the unequal treaty and that the Indian position would be, as, "guided entirely by our self-enlightenment and the considerations of national security."21 India did not sign the NPT and in May 1974 conducted its first nuclear explosive test, which was however, termed a "peaceful nuclear explosion." Between May 1974 and 1998, the Indian position was that its programme was related to the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, even though it retained the option to make nuclear weapons. Through the 1980s, even though confronted with unambiguous evidence of Pakistan's nuclear weapons programme, all that India did was to threaten to review its position. The shift came only in 1990 when the US, too, signaled that Pakistan had indeed crossed the nuclear threshold and India was confronted with a serious security threat arising from the Kashmir rebellion. Despite indications that India was planning to resume nuclear tests in 1995, India was considered to be a non-nuclear state without a credible arsenal. George Perkovitch pointed out that neither India nor Pakistan had "coherent, detailed doctrines to guide the use of nuclear weapons." This resulted in a situation of "virtual deterrence" where the two countries can radiate menace "without building the actual hardware."22 But with the May 1998 events that situation is at an end. Roots of an Indian Doctrine Any Indian nuclear doctrine must be written upon the palimpset of Indian history, but more specifically of the experience of the past nearly 52 years of independent India which more-or-less coincide with the nuclear age. One of its most important elements is a reluctance to play the power game and a profound ambivalence towards nuclear weapons. This was evident in Lal Bahadur Shashtri's reluctance to move ahead with a response to the Chinese test in October 1964 as well as in Indira Gandhi's decision not to follow up the Pokhran I test. In the 1980s, this was once again visible in Rajiv Gandhi's refusal to respond to the Pakistani nuclear developments till the last minute. Some of the elements of this ambivalence could be seen in P.V. Narasimha Rao's decision not to go ahead with the test in December 1995 and in the Congress Party's confusing response to the Pokhran II tests. India's regional military interventions have been limited and controlled. Indian forces were out of Bangladesh within months of its liberation in 1971. The Indian intervention in Sri Lanka, despite hype to the contrary, was not unwelcome. Notwithstanding the controversy surrounding it, Indian forces pulled out of the island, more or less on the schedule demanded by the then Sri Lankan President R. Premadasa. The intervention in Maldives in 1988 was even shorter. In all these cases, the Indian Army acted on behalf of the established authorities with the important exception of Bangladesh where its action had a legitimacy of another sort in view of what had preceded the uprising. A nuclear doctrine will naturally be rooted in the experience of conventional war. Two features stand out in our 1947, 1965 and 1971 wars with Pakistan--war was limited, and there was no conscious targetting of civilians. India's responses were retaliatory rather than pre-emptive. The 1965 war gave further evidence of this. India's response to Operation Gibraltar, or the Pakistani guerrilla campaign in Kashmir was limited. But when this faltering operation was bolstered by a conventional armoured attack in Operation Grand Slam, Indian forces reacted in an attack across towards Lahore. Till Indian forces were launched across the international border, the Indian response to fighting in Kashmir had been confined to the borders of the state. Pakistan may have somewhat foolishly gambled on India restricting the fighting to Jammu & Kashmir, as indeed it had done in 1947-1948. No Indian doctrine had been articulated. Had it been done so, arguably Pakistan may have thought twice before undertaking its gamble. Any Indian doctrine in 1998 has to take into account the reality of the proxy war in Kashmir, subversion across the country and insurgency in the North-east. In the past decade or so, India has not undertaken "hot pursuit" of terrorists and militants across the Line of Control into Pakistan as it did in the initial days of Operation Gibraltar. There can be no doubt that this is motivated by the belief that such an action could result in escalation which could touch off nuclear war. One recent manifestation of this is the Indian restraint in Kargil. In 1965, faced with sustained Pakistani efforts to cut India's line of communications to Leh, India had attacked twice and captured Pakistani posts across the LoC. In 1997-98, Pakistani forces have bombarded Kargil and seriously affected traffic on National Highway IA to Leh, but India has chosen to react defensively and retaliate only with counter-bombardment. Given their very nature it becomes difficult to see how nuclear weapons will help resolve India's "mutinies" just as indeed they were unable to help the US out of its Vietnam problem or the Soviets from their Afghan quagmire. But here is where the danger lies. Unless clarified by doctrine India could, when confronted with lesser threats, react with disproportionate force or be confronted by a paralysis of policy. The current operational directives given by the government to the Indian armed forces are of 1983 vintage and they call on them to maintain a posture of "dissuasive deterrence" vis-a-vis Pakistan and one of "defensive deterrence" with China. In simple terms this means that Indian forces implement a strategy of "deterrence by denial" which could involve deep strikes into Pakistan, while the posture with regard to China is somewhat more difficult to characterise since it involves punishment by attrition in combat which is to be conducted largely in Indian territory. These plans must obviously give way to another kind of strategy.23 They could well take a hint from one of America's leading nuclear strategist Bernard Brodie who declared in 1946: "Thus far the chief purpose of our military establishment has been to win wars, from now on its chief purpose must be to avert them."24 Relations with the United States are a major influence in shaping a new doctrine. The relationship with the United States occupies a special place because it is the world's sole superpower and its attitude towards India's nuclear weapons capability will play a key role in India's nuclear capabilities. As of now the US is behaving like the leader of the counter-proliferation camp that it is. But after many false starts India and the United States are also involved in a deep dialogue of strategic import where they are seeking to reconcile India's decision to become a nuclear weapons state with the US non-proliferation goals. As of now there are no indications that the US is willing to make a decisive break from the existing paradigm where Pakistan is viewed as an equal actor in South Asia, and China as the US' primary interlocutor in world affairs. But at the bottom of it all, the Indian doctrine has to be rooted in an assessment of its potential adversaries. The issue is not merely of numbers, which are not unimportant in the context of China's sophisticated arsenal, but of political assessments of the nature of our potential adversaries. Is China a "potential threat number one" as Defence Minister George Fernandes termed it,25 is it straining to destroy us? What about Pakistan? Given its record of attacks on India and its current covert war against India directed not just to "liberate" Kashmir, but to break up India, how would one deter the use of the now overt Pakistani nuclear capability? India's nuclear doctrine must be rooted in an abandonment of posturing and a realistic assessment of our situation. Do we want, as indeed official policy demands, the return of Aksai Chin and Azad Kashmir or, merely to ensure there will be no more Aksai Chins and Azad Kashmirs? All this has to be melded into a doctrine of the nuclear age whose heart must be a strategy of war avoidance since an escalation of a conventional conflict could be the most likely in which nuclear weapons could be used in South Asia. The Minimum Deterrence Doctrine Indian leaders have spoken about the minimal nature of the Indian action and the need for a "credible minimum deterrent." But, the notion of minimal deterrence is something that is difficult to flesh out. Indian officials say their posture of no visible command and control and undeployed weapons is minimum deterrence. But this does not take into account the attitude of our adversaries, nor does it indicate a realistic assessment of what the Chinese and Pakistani nuclear plans are. In the not-so-distant future, Chinese aid to Pakistan could alter today's minimum deterrence posture. Minimum or sufficient deterrence is therefore critically dependent not only on subjective assessments but also on the behaviour of potential adversaries and developments in defence technology such as ballistic missile defence. Another problem with the idea goes into the heart of the concept of deterrence. Simply put, deterrence is a threat of use of force to prevent someone from carrying out his intentions. This can take the form of a threat of inflicting severe punishment in case an act is carried out (deterrence by punishment) or a threat to prevent by force, even preemptively, the implementation of the action (deterrence by denial). However, the possession of nuclear weapons and their vast destructive potential, whether in defence of offense, changes the very concept of deterrence, whether by punishment or denial. As a UN report points out, "the very cornerstone of what is projected as defence is offensive capability, while defensive capabilities--in the true sense of the word are very limited."26 The concept of deterrence rests on a certain threshold beyond which states would consider the damage unacceptable. But this "deterring level of destruction" varies from state to state and society to society. This is not just a matter of cultural relativism, but of geography and demography. But India cannot afford to ignore the issue.27 Given India's difficulties in defining what it means by "minimal nuclear deterrent" the United States has been making a set of proposals in the negotiations being carried out by Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott and the Prime Minister's Special Envoy and currently External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh. These proposals would have India sign the CTBT, halt the production of fissile material and desist from deployment of missiles and aircraft capable of carrying of nuclear weapons. According to one Indian critic, this is tantamount to a demand that India practice "recessed deterrence," in other words maintain a latent rather than an active capability.28 Another has charged that given the "extent and sophistication" of the Chinese nuclear weapons arsenal, the current Indian actions, including the recent tests are insufficient to provide a credible "minimum deterrence."29 Towards a Doctrine of Assured Retaliation If, however, we define minimum deterrence as a strategy of keeping a minimum number of weapons necessary for inflicting unacceptable damage on an adversary even after sustaining a nuclear attack, we cannot avoid factoring the possibility of nuclear war fighting. This seems to be something that the Indian political-bureaucratic leadership that wrought the Shakti tests appears unwilling to confront. Prudence demands that having decided to exercise the nuclear option and having accepted the doctrine of deterrence, minimal or otherwise, India must also plan for the eventuality, howsoever improbable it may appear, of its failure. In what circumstances can it fail? Deterrence is achieved when the other side does not perceive any gain from an action we seek to prevent; naturally, what is perceived as gain has to be determined by his criteria, not ours. What is it that the adversary values as a gain or a loss? There is another element that cannot be discounted--misjudgment. But most analysts see escalation from a conventional war as the most likely scenario for a nuclear war. This means the creation of a credible force structure and command and control system that can survive a first strike and deliver retribution. Only in such circumstances would a doctrine of minimum deterrence work. Any other posture would provide illusory security and open the country to unacceptable danger. The first doctrinal element in this force posture flows from India's commitment to a "minimum deterrent." The first determination would have to be as to whether India should aim for a capability that will provide certainty of retaliation or merely the possibility. The second would emerge from India's commitment to a "no-first-use". In essence a force capable of surviving a first strike and retaliating. Any such force would have to involve the armed forces. But as of now there appears to be a reluctance to involve the armed forces in any aspect of nuclear issues.30 A laid back approach has also led to India's ability to field a long range missile system. The Agni programme has been re-started but almost all experts believe that a deployed system capable of delivering warheads 2500-4000 kms. away is still about a decade away. Nonchalant comments that India has a command and control system already in place do not appear credible since there is no publicly stated line of succession, backed by Parliamentary statute. Bruce Blair, an authoritative American specialist has shown in his two influential books, Strategic Command and Control and Logic of Accidental Nuclear War how in the case of the US and the Soviet Union the idea that they could "rideout" a nuclear attack and retaliate was a fantasy and "not as viable option in the real world."31 In an article in 1994, Subrahmanyam had argued against an elaborate command and control structure. But, this was on the basis of a number of questionable assumptions, primarily that India's principal threat lay in demonstration strikes and blackmail attempts rather than an actual decapitating strike.32 In a more recent argument, Subrahmanyam has said that decapitating strikes come from another era and today all states have to worry about the "costs and benefits of legitimising a first nuclear strike."33 It is true that Pakistan must worry about Lahore and China about Shanghai, but this depends on how crises are initiated and how the escalatory situation develops. We may find that Pakistan poses its choices to us in a less than clear-cut manner while compelling us to react in an all-out manner, resulting in our initiation of nuclear war or surrender. It is such issues that an Indian doctrine must provide guidance for. There is another element flowing from the no-first use pledge that India must not ignore--the maintenance of adequate conventional capability. In 1997 Eric Arnett argued that India's acquisition of 315 Paveway II guidance kits to be used on 2000 lb bombs as well as an unknown number of similar smart weapons from Russia could with the help of its Air Force degrade the Pakistani nuclear strike potential compelling that nation into the "use of or lose it" dilemma and go in for an early or first use of its nuclear potential.34 This scenario could be rewritten in a situation where the modernised People's Liberation Army Air Force could likewise erode India's nuclear retaliatory capacity in a purely conventional war. Examinining options arising out of the failure of deterrence also compels India to align its diplomacy with its nuclear strategy. The clearest example of this is India's offer of a no-first use pledge to Pakistan, even while suggesting the extension of the agreement not to attack each other's nuclear facilities to cover population centres and economic targets. If both agreements come into effect, two major drawbacks appear from India's point of view. First, both countries would in effect be committed to a "counterforce" strategy viz a strategy of attacking each other's armed forces and establishments. But, almost all authorities today are agreed that such a strategy is unworkable since there is no way to prevent escalation to an all-out nuclear war. The second major problem would be the unworkability of India's "minimum deterrent" strategy. With first use and "city busting" options ruled out, India appears to be adding so many restraints to its capacity to retaliate that the whole thing appears incredulous.35 An Indian doctrine of "assured retaliation" must therefore not shy away from declaring what would come under the threat of retaliatory destruction--a city, a military centre, a cantonment or economic target like a power-house or dam. Another factor that needs to be confronted is the belief that India's retaliatory strike is not "highly time critical."36 But to declare it so is to invite trouble. An "assured retaliation" posture would not only spell out the certainty of retaliation, but also give some indication of the time element. This is essential not only from the point of view of deterring potential adversaries, but also the morale of the armed forces. Nuclear deterrence, after all, involves both psychological and military elements. All this means the working out of a doctrine that outlines the circumstances in which India would fight a war, paradoxically for the purpose of preventing nuclear war. That is the logic of deterrence. 1. C. Raja Mohan "India committed to minimum n-deterrence," The Hindu, December 7, 1998. 2. Kissinger gives the example of how the Romans panicked and broke the first time they confronted elephants. But subsequently they developed a battle doctrine to deal with it and defeated the Carthaginians. In 1940, the French broke before the Panzers tank attack because their doctrine had rejected the idea of massed use of armour. Henry A. Kissinger, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy, (New York: W.W. Norton, 1969) Abridged version of the 1957 classic, p. 225. 3. Suo Motu statement of Shri I.K. Gujral, Minister for External Affairs, in the Parliament regarding CTBT on July 15, 1996. 4. Jonathan Schell, The Gift of Time: The Case for Abolishing Nuclear Weapons Now (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1998) p. 97. 5. Text of Press Conference on 9.6.98 by Mr. Jaswant Singh, Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission at the UN on Nuclear Tests by India released by the Permanent Mission of India at the UN. 6. "Moratorium on nuclear tests by New Delhi," Times of India, May 22, 1998. 7. Washington Post, June 17, 1998, p. A21. 8. Arati R. Jerath, "No NSC role in N-command: Mishra" Indian Express, November 25, 1998. 9. See statement in Parliament, May 27, 1998. 10. "Evolution of India's nuclear policy," document tabled in Parliament on May 27, 1998. 12. Text of the letter of Prime Minister Vajpayee to President Clinton released by the Press Trust of India on May 13, 1998. 13. See "No tension between India, Pak because of n-tests," in The Week, August 2, 1998, p. 45. 14. The plethora of statements and declaration have, not surprisingly, created sufficient confusion as to raise doubts about their credibility in Pakistan. See Rifaat Hussain "India's Evolving Doctrine" in the News, November 15, 1998 cited in Pakistan Opinion and Trends (New Delhi, December 4, 1998) pp. 3863-4. 15. The clearest example of this is India's offer of a no-first use pledge to Pakistan, even while suggesting the extension of the agreement not to attack each other's nuclear facilities to cover population centres and economic targets. If both agreements come into effect, both countries would in effect be committed to a "counterforce" strategy viz a strategy of attacking each other's armed forces and establishments. But, almost all authorities today are agreed that such a strategy is unworkable since there is no way to prevent escalation to an all-out nuclear war. 16. K. Subrahmanyam, "Not a Numbers Game: Minimum Cost of N-Deterrence," Times of India, December 7, 1998, see also Rajamohan, n. 1. 17. This is in paragraph 15 of the speech whose text can be obtained in the Ministry of External Affairs website www.meadev.gov.in 18. K. Subrahmanyam, "Blast off into deterrence orbit," Economic Times, May 19, 1998. 19. International Herald Tribune (Singapore), October 23, 1998. 20. Rodney W. Jones, "India," in Jozef Rotblat ed., Non Proliferation: The Why and the Wherefore (London: SIPRI, 1985), pp. 102-103. 21. Reference in "Evolution of India's Nuclear Policy" document tabled in the Lok Sabha on May 27, 1998. MEA website: Meadev.gov.in 22. Schell, n. 4, p. 98. Perkovitch approvingly talks of this amorphous situation which could, in his opinion be a model that the other nuclear powers could also pursue. 23. To its credit, the Army is already on the job. The Army's Training Command headquartered in Shimla is already well advanced in writing its new battle doctrine which will incorporate the new developments. See India Today, July 20, 1998. 24. Bernard Brodie, The Absolute Weapon (New York: 1946). 25. Cover Story India Today, May 18, 1998. 26. Nuclear Weapons: Report of the Secretary General of the United Nations (London: Frances Pinter, 1981) p. 110. 27. The difference in size between India and Pakistan often comes up in discussions with Pakistani scholars who argue that the lack of strategic depth compels them to reject Indian offers of "no first use" of nuclear capability. Mao Zedong famously described nuclear weapons as a "paper tiger" and urged the Chinese to fight a "people's war" against hostile forces. 28. See Strobe Talbott's address to the Brookings Institution on November 12, 1998 titled "US Diplomacy in South Asia: A Progress Report," Official Text released by the United States Information Service, New Delhi; the critique is that of analyst Brahma Chellaney "Is India barking up the wrong tree," Hindustan Times, September 28, 1998. 29. A. Gopalakrishnan, "How credible is our deterrence," The Hindu, November 18, 1998, Gopalakrishnan is a distinguished nuclear scientist who served as the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board. He has called the Indian tests ill-planned and of dubious utility. 31. Cited in Schell, n. 4, pp. 73-74. 32. K. Subrahmanyam, "Nuclear Force Design and Minimum Deterrence Strategy for India," in Bharat Karnad ed., Future Imperiled: India's Security in 1990s and Beyond (New Delhi: Viking, 1994) p. 192. 33. K. Subrahmanyam, "Not a Numbers Game: Minimum Cost of N-Deterrence," Times of India, December 7, 1998. 34. Eric Arnett, "Nuclear Stability and Arms Sales to India: Implications for US Policy," Arms Control Today, August 1997, pp. 7-11. 35. Indeed this was pointed out to me by Pakistan Foreign Minister Sartaj Aziz in a meeting I had with him in Islamabad in October 1998. 36. Subrahmanyam in Karnad ed., n. 32, p. 192.

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« PreviousContinue » Colonies are well known to be esta- colovies as have formed no engagements, blishments remote from the seat of em the arrangement depends on the option pire, that have been originally founded of the conquerors, regulated however by the nation to which they are attached, by the eternal principles of justice. In as by some others, from which the pos. those that have capitulated on the exsession has been obtained by conquest or press condition of enjoying the priviliges by cession. of their conquerors, the case Becomes The colonies, owing their existence to one of right, not of choice: those who the possessing power, must be consider- surrender on such terms are entitled to ed integral parts of the empire; for in all the advantages and inniunities of quitting their native shores, neither the their fellow colonists. first adventurers nor their successors re The analogical arguments in favour of linquished their birth-right: 'they merely this side of the question, may be found transferred their habitations; being still in the history of every state in Europe. subject to the laws of that country which Our own country furnishes some striking gave them birth: they could not have examples. The very essence of every sacrificed any privileges, because no political compact, is the reciprocity of crime was imputed by law; they suffer- advantage conferred and received by each ed the penaltics of every crime commit- part of the united body. It is therefore ted abroad, and succeeded to estates and required only under ordinary circum. honours in the same way as if at home. stances, that each should govern and In short, they remained within the pale detend itself; when critical emergencies of their country's laws, except in those arise, all must concur in-contributing instances in which local ciicumstances succour, and each must contribute in rendered it impossible. The regulations the best and most efficient manner that of each province of a state are adapted its means permit. In Great Britain and to some peculiarities which do not exist Ireland, the inanufacturing tonns are el-ewhere: yet the aggregate of these the fruitful resources of the recruiting provinces constitute the empire. service; the sea-ports man our nary: It cannot be urged that a temporary yet it cannot be contended that these relinquishinent of privilege may take places alone defend the empire: The place'; for it involves the gross absurdity oiber parts do their duty by paying, of suriendering a power to be resumed taxes, and promoting other objects of at pleasure, while no specific contract to national importance, which indirectly that effect was ever inade. The very conduce to the same point. The appliact of surrendering the advantages of cation of this position is sufficiently ube any society, disqualifies a man for the vious. functions of a citizen. His political ex It is worthy of recollection, that there istence having ceased, he caimot per- is no political compact in which the difo forin pulirical acts. The whole cominu ferent members contribute in the same nity alone can enable hiin to resume his way, or in the same proportion. This is rank among them : the noral difficulty very remarkable in the well-known inin this case is very' analogous to the phy. stance of the States of Holland, where sical iinpossibility of a dead man's re Guelderland, the first the provinces in turning to life by his own act. point of rank, paid 5 per cent. of the No laws, however, have ever been en whole taxes, and Huliand, the second, acted to distiranchise the British colonists 58 per cent. This is certainly anomiiof their birth-riglits: they are in the same lous; but it confirms the general position, situation with their countrymen on the that each part of the empire furnishes high seas; alike removed from the in- the state with means, in proportion to meiliate superintendance of the govern- its ability. It will hereafter be shewn nient, but equally cntitled to protec- that the West Indies do more than their tion. duty in this respect; which authorises The application of this doctrine to the thein to expect and to enjoy protection original colonies, or those which owe in ordinary cases, and favour, when their their existence to the state in actual interests are opposed to those of foreignpossession, is unquestionable. It is worthy of enquiry, how far they extend The pólitical considerations which to captured colonies. This may be also have been alluded to are so numerous, determined on broad principles, depen- that it will be sufficient to mention a few dent on liose already set forth. In such of the most striking. The West India colonies defray the whole of their civil valuable work on Colonial Policy,* esti. establishments; and in most, if not all of mates the revenue of West India prothem, a considerable surplus remains in prietors subject to taxation in this country the public fund for imperial uses. at several millions. It may be difficult The sole expences, then, which Great to ascertain the precise ainount, but it Britain incurs for her colonies, is con. may be fairly estimated from the net fined to small salaries of some of the average of tour years, t at about two public officers, (who are moreover ainpily millions, which contributes in the same paid by the colonies themselves) and 10 way as any other revenue in this country. ihat of their military and naval establish. If this be the case, under the present ments. grevious system, how much greater would In most of the colonies, a gratujious importance of which is unquestionable, . Let us examine the test in its by any pursuit, and the real wealth proother bearings :-the West India colonists duced by it, form the best criterion of contribute to the public revenue in an its value. Mr. Bosangueig has well intinitely larger proportion than any shewn that the value of the imports from, other class of British subjects. In 1804-5, and export to, the West India colonies, the value of the imports from the far exceeds that of any trade se bave. British West Indies was above seventeen The monopoly Acts secure all the advanmillion of pounds sterling, which yielded tages to the mother country, by excluding ahore five millions of direct public every rival. The demand for British Tevenue. By various indirect means, Mr. produce, the want of which cannot be computes that an equal sum íinds dispensed with, is so enormous as to call its way into the Treasury ; making a total fortis directly and indirectly the energies of ten millions of pounds of annual re. of every part of the empire. An immense venue to the state in general. number of men are employed by the Besides the enormous revenue drawn manufacturers, who are thus supported: from the produce of the colonies, Britisi merchants, sinip-owner-, insurance large suns are puid by those West India brokers, and others, are actually maine psyprietors resident in Britain, who com tamed by the West India colonies. tribile in a three-fold form to the state: The niaterials for some very important 1. By the colonial taxes; 2. By those manufactures are furnished by them, on produce; and, 3. By those on reve above one-third of the whole of the Nie in Britain. Mr. Brougham, in his Young's West Ind.Com. Place Bock, p.86. + Young's W. Ind. † Lowe's Inquiry into State, &c. p. Ij. ibid. § Leiter to W, Manning, esq. p. 41. &c. on the Colonies. cotton imported into Great Britain being and all the taxes now paid by them, must derived from them. be drawn from the parent state. Mr. Brougham* has shewn, that in the It is an awful and important truth, shipping employed between ihis country that Britain cannot exist with a smaller and the West India colonies, there are revenue than she at present possesses. more seamen in proportion to the tonnage Landholders, as well as the mercantile than in any other trade, being that of interest, should weigh well this fact, and one man to every fourteen tons. act in such a manner as to promote their From the official reports made to the own interests no less than those of their House of Commons of the tonnage and fellow-subjects. seainen employed in that trade, during These circumstances apply perhaps in the year 1804, it appears that the former a greater degree to the sugar than to the amounted to 236,580 tons of shipping; cotton colonies: there is another peculiari. and that 17,680 seamen were engaged on ty connected with the latter. board of those vessels. The proportion, Raw cotton has become nearly with in this instance, exceeds the estiinate of wool, a staple of these kingdoms. The Mr. Brougham; there being one man to unrivalled excellence of our manufactures every ihirteen tons. But Mr. Lowet ensures us the market wherever we have estimates the number of men, including access. At present we derive the cottons those engaged in fisheries dependent on wool wbich is manufactured or exported the colonies, at 25,000 men, which would in its raw state, from our own colonies, reduce the proportion to one man to from the United States of America, the about each nine tons. The same gentle. Brazils, the Spanish colonies, the Levant, man has stated most decisive reasons for and the East Indies. Of the whole of the preference given to this trade by the this, above one-third is imported from the lower classes; and he has also shewn, that British colonies. On this we can always the inducements held out by it, are so great calculate, barring the risk of crops, and as to lead many to enter into the sea of capture; the last being much lessened service, who would otherwise have shun- by the expulsion of the French from the pied it. He has done this, and indeed western hemisphere. All obtained from every part of his subject, such ample foreigners is dependent on their caprice : justice, that the repetition of the facts of this America has afforded an admira, 111 this place would be a superfluous ble illustration. labour. In 1808, the quantity of cotton ime There is another consideration which ported from North America was only 10 has been too generally overlooked: that millions of lbs. being thus reduced to the intercourse between Britain and her little more than one-third of what it had colonies, replaces two British capitals, been for the three preceding years, and while all others replaces only one, to one-fifth of what it has since been. Such are a few of the advantages en. The other independent states may be joyed by the parent state: the next object equally whimsical, or their interests may of attention is the disadvantages under be different from what they now are. which the colonists labour. They are too There are also physical objections to some goading to be overlooked. To a large class of the cotton-wool obtained froin foreign of theni the legislature has of late sources: that from the Levant being afforded some relief, which has however only fit for the coarsest manufactures, been imperfect. To another (the cottonthat from India is either coarse or five planters) there appears to be no intention in the extreme, and cannot be generally of affording any aid ; for every petition used. The expence, too, of freight is four that bas been forwarded to the Board of times that from the West Indies. Trade, has been dismissed without the Unless the colonists obtain relief, they relief svught. must and they will seek it for themselves. Every man in this empire is deeply It is true that they are without the means affected by the prosperity or adversity of of revolt; their peculiar situation, their the colonies; for should the evil become inclinations, all concur to oppose such a too great to be borne, ruin must ensue to design. This furnishes an additional those iminediately dependent on them: claim on generosity. There is a pitch, however, to'which only * Colonial Policy, vol. 1. p. 17, the chords of attachment can be tuned; if + Inquiry, &c. p. 11. wound farther, discord is produced, and at last they are broken for ever. Men who are then rendered active from ne occurred, the North Americans hase cessity, will devise means of reliet; those jotroduced enormous and increasing of active redress are not in their power, quantities of colton-wool. The produce but they may share their wrongs with of the Brazils was inonopolized by Porthose who now inflict them, by withdraw- tuyal previous to the occupation of the ing themselves and their slaves to some latter country by the French; it has country, where they will receive that pro- since found a vent in Great Britain, tection which is denied at home. Andeven Uminportant as the quantities undoubtshould this dread alternative not be edly are that are derived from other adopred, the dissatisfaction excited by sources, they also increase. Foreigners, such real causes will not be confined to as well as our fellow-citizens, are thus the breasts of the inmediate sufferers. protected, in a way that does not seema It will spread rapidly, and may ultinately quite congenial to the common notions excite efforts which are much to be dé- of justice. precated. Men will not be oppressed, The following statement will enable diay absolutely defrauded, without a mure the reader to appreciate fairly the real muur or complaint. miseries of the British cotton planter, These evils will result from the cala- who suffers for the benefit of foreigners. mities of the whole of the West Indiaco. In the British cotton-colonies immense Jowies; if a part only suffers, the mischief, capitals bave been vested, and large though less general, will be proportionably tracts of country have been devoted to destructive to all connected with them. the cultivation of this article. In point The cotton colonies are therefore entitled of national importance, these colonies to their due share of attention from the have been rapidly increasing, as will be legislature. A statement of their former seen by reference to table C. (in our and present situation in all respects, will next.) next be given; it is fatally correct, and The original expence of forming planneeds no embellishments to heighten the tations, and of rendering them fit for the miseries it contains. purposes for which they are now used, Ever since the British have engaged in was very considerable, as will be more colomal speculations in the West Indies, evident when it is recollected that the tbey have inade the culture of the cotton barren uncultivated tracis which have tree in some degree an object of atten- been rendered productive and fruitful, tion. For a long time it was partial, were remote from all those facilities and confined to very few situations: the which we possess so amply at home; increasing enterprise of the mother that the whole labour of clearing away country did not, bowever, allow West immense forests, and of draining swamps Indian industry to be exclusively con or unhealthy lands, was performed by fined to sugar; but, by improving the negroes brought from Africa at a heavy manufactures at home, it gave a new expence, who for a time were entirely impulse to the western world, and cotton dependent on foreign supplies for suplias gradually become an object of more port. A calculation might be instigeneral atiention. iuted; but the facts are so strong, that The West Indies, for a considerable the general position may be assumed period, supplied nearly the whole of the without fear of being questioned. British demand. About thirty years From the very nature of our West ago, the Dutch settlements on the coast India colonies, they must even now, and of Guyana frst attracted the attention at all periods, be in a great measure of the cotton-planters; and about the dependent on other countries for some same time North America engaged in of ihe inost important necessaries of life. similar pursuits in her southern states. The constitution of the society precludes During the progress of this cultivation, manufacturing the most common articles, the extension of manufactories at home, and they do not possess all the means of produced a corresponding demand for support. ihe raw material; which was principally The monopoly secured by Britain to supplied by the British colonies, including herself, enhances the price of whatever those on the coast of Guyana, and which is derived from her, as provisions can were captured in 1796 by the British. always be obtained inuch cheaper from A lew years ago, the foreign planter dis- North America—but this is inconsistent covered that Britain was the best mar- with the notions of those who have the ket for blus produce; and since that power of remedying the mischief. D'enters the money and negociable The effects of this monopoly are deci- to year, and from generation to genedediy boslile to the British cotton- ration, rich in the use of their customers' planter, for it increases the real cost of money, and living in great style on the his property, while it depresses the principle of never settling accounts. ralne of his produce. Of this, however, Were bankers in general called upon more will be said berearier: at present, to pay back to every one bis own), and the allusion is sufficient to confirm the balance with the world, is it not to be estimate of the value of such property. feared that not one in ten would prove It may be here remarked that clothing of solvent, nor one in four be able to pay every kind, as well as provisions, is ex len shillings in the pound? Ilow often ported froin this country. has it happened, on the failure of a large It appears from a careful comparison banking-house, which has for years mainof these circumstances of the real value tamed in insolent splendiour the families of cotton estares, (iaking crery source of of five or six partners, that a tardy divi. expence into consideration), that the dend has been obtained of half-a-crown, average value of each acre of land or five shillings, in the pound! inay he stated at between 1401. and 1501. At the beginning of the French revo. sterling lution, the bankers of France lost the Each acre (as proved by an average public confietence, and ruined thousands of ten years) produces about 200lbs. net of families, paying in general but trilling of cotton wool. dividends; and the consequent exaspera(To be corc'uded in our next.) tion of the public mind, led to many of the horrors of the revolution. The same To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine. effects would probably arise in England SIR, on an invasion, or on any public event URING the current month, various that iniglit crcare general alarm. It is my advice then, that the banking paper, commonly called Bankers, bave system be placed under legislative restopt payment in town and country, and gulation; that bankers be compelled to ruined many honest people. give security to public functionaries for As lovcier it is the prosesser olijcct amounts proportioned to the extent of of ibis description of traders to become their credits, and especially to their the depositories of other persons' spare issues of notes—a regulation adopted in cash, and as they seldom or never lend the United States. At present they are money for any useful or benevolent dangerous, because delusive, establishpurpose, it appears to me that no banker ments; they encourage and sustain mo. can honestly become a bankrupe; and nopolists and monopolies, and they play therefore, that when he dwes, he ought tricks with the circulating medium, to be rendered the object of some espe- which ought not itself to be an object of cial punishment. traffic! Nen whose solc business is that of COMMON SENSE. receiving other peoples' money, of which they are bound to be the gu...dians, do. To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine. not live in the same relation to society SIR, as traders in merchandize. These latter TE bishop of Lincoln, in bis Ele T'. are liable to bad debts, uusiiccessful ments of Theology, says, that speculations, fluctuations in markets, and “after a certain time, the whole race of even in money matters are suliject to men moved from their original habilathe tricks, mali uvres, and liberal tions in Armenia, and settled in the practices of bankers themselves. - Bank- plains of Shinar, near the Euplirates, in ers, however, who obtain the lise of Assyria or Chaldæa." The Scripture large sums without interest, are moraliy says, “ It came to pass, as they journeyed bound tu enter into no speculations from the east, that they found a plain in which place at hazard the money con the land of Shinar; and they dwelt fided tu them; and ought every night to there." If we consider the position of Compare their obligations with their re Armenia and of Shinar, we shall find sources, and be able, if needful, at a few that the journey here mentioned could hours notice, to restore to every man not have been from the direction of Arthar which has been confided to them. menia. 1. Armenia is a province of Yer so little is this the practice, that Asia, and consists of the modero Turbankers proceed in business froix year comania, and part of Persia. It is

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We all make bad decisions sometimes. The role of behavioral scientists is to understand why we make these poor choices and develop policies to help us make better ones. With a Nobel Prize for Richard Thaler’s work on individual decision-making and runaway bestseller status for books like Daniel Kahneman’s Thinking, Fast and Slow, behavioral science has garnered wide and growing attention. More than 200 government teams around the world now work on applying behavioral science to develop, test, and scale new interventions. The work of these “Nudge Units” demonstrates that even small, inexpensive changes in how information is conveyed can induce large changes in behavior. The current evidence suggests that our brains are susceptible to overreacting to present temptations. Making it easier or more attractive to choose actions associated with longer-term benefits can help realize those benefits. Another behavioral barrier is that our brains tend to rely too much on routine or on what’s top of mind. Having access to wise advice or salient alternative options can also help. Stress, uncertainty, complexity, and social influences exacerbate the biases that lead to bad choices. Education was one of the last areas of public policy to receive attention from behavioral scientists. That is surprising given youth’s predisposition to instant gratification, in tension with the important long-term impacts of their education-related decisions. The first behavioral experiment in education may have been conducted by Justine Hastings and Jeff Weinstein. They examined the impact of mailing families in North Carolina a list of possible schools children could attend along with corresponding test-score performance information. They compared that to allowing the families to access the information independently by internet. The simplified and more salient information led to a significant increase in the number of families who applied to schools outside their catchment area and an increase in test scores among children who moved. Around the same time, Susan Dynarski and Judith Scott-Clayton pointed out the complexity of the U.S. Free Application for Federal Student Aid and suggested that the many hurdles required to complete the application may significantly slow the application process, or even prevent some from applying at all. Eric Bettinger, Bridget Long, Lisa Sanbonmatsu, and I put this theory to the test by teaming up with H&R Block, a large tax preparation company. After helping low-income clients complete their annual returns, tax professionals invited those who were potentially interested in college to remain for a few minutes to participate in a study (and receive $20). One group received a general informational brochure about college, a second group received a personalized report of eligible federal grant and loan aid against tuition costs of nearby colleges, and a third group received the brochure and the report, plus assistance in completing the FAFSA for themselves or for their children about to graduate from high school. Much of the data needed to complete the form was already collected from completing the tax return, so the process to complete the FAFSA took only about an additional 10 minutes. While the information treatment had no impact, the personalized assistance increased FAFSA filing and college enrollment the following year. For the high school sample, enrollment increased by 8 percentage points, to 42 percent from 34 percent. Another notable early nudging success was achieved by Benjamin Castleman and Lindsay Page, who showed that simply sending a series of text message reminders of key tasks to complete over the summer to recent high school graduates and their parents can help keep college-accepted youth on track to begin their program in the fall. College enrollment was 4 to 7 percentage points higher for students who received the text messages, relative to a randomized control group who did not. The field of behavioral science applied to education has since exploded, with efforts to improve not only college application rates, enrollment, and completion, but many other outcomes such as class attendance, field of study, school breakfast, school choice (choosing two-year versus four-year colleges, for example, or more selective schools), scholarship receipt, on-time graduation, grade point average, study effort, study time, student attendance at faculty office-hours or take-up of other services, loan repayment, and earlier childhood outcomes such as literacy, numeracy, and executive functioning. However, the results have not always been encouraging. Many recent studies of nudges with large samples that stick to a pre-analysis plan or attempt to scale earlier interventions find tiny or no effects. Some areas of focus, such as nudging parents, show more promise, whereas others, like trying to improve test scores or adopt better learning habits, show less. This article takes stock of where the field of behavioral science applied to education policy seems to be at, which avenues seem promising and which ones seem like dead ends. I present below a curated set of studies rather than an exhaustive literature review, categorizing interventions by whether they “nudge” (keep options intact) or “shove” (restrict choice), and whether they apply a “high touch” or a “low touch” (whether they use face-to-face interaction or not). I argue that we should continue to make administrative processes in education easier, information more salient, and communication more friendly. The cost for many low-touch nudges, such as changing the content of a letter or sending an email reminder, are small enough to merit doing even if the impact might be zero. In cases where financial and nuisance costs matter more, replication studies and iterating over what works best (a process sometimes referred to as “A/B testing”) can further help decide what interventions are worth scaling. But we should not expect this kind of tinkering to serve as a panacea for education policy’s key challenges. The current evidence suggests that we could make better progress by adding more choice-limiting scaffolding to a youth’s routine, like restricted screen time and mandated tutoring, and by focusing on children at younger ages, when preferences and behavioral traits are more malleable. Nudging and Shoving, High-Touch and Low-Touch It helps to think about behavioral interventions based on whether they nudge or shove and whether they use a high touch or a low touch. A nudge is a subtle adjustment to an individual’s environment to steer the person towards a more desirable outcome while not meaningfully altering options or costs. The underlying principle for nudging is to “make it easy.” Defaults—automatically selecting individuals into one choice option if no action is taken—are among the most influential ways to nudge. For example, opting individuals into organ donation programs and employer retirement savings programs, with the option to opt out, has been shown to dramatically increase take-up. Changing the default, however, is not always possible or practical for the outcome of interest. For example, defaulting high school seniors into being enrolled in college would be administratively complex, require guessing which school and program would be best, and offer no guarantee that the students would show up to campus. More common nudges use marketing techniques, such as simplifying take-up procedures, sending reminders, or providing information through text, email, signs, or phone calls. Unlike a nudge, a shove restricts an individual’s set of options to steer the person towards more desirable outcomes. Requiring workers to participate in a government retirement benefits program by taxing them is a type of shove because no opt-out option exists. Banning large containers of soda is a shove. Requiring students to attend school is also a shove. Restricting choice can occur more indirectly from deciding how to structure an individual’s schedule—especially a child’s schedule. For example, I consider the act of parents planning their child’s weekend a shove. Teachers who decide what and how to teach also restrict how students spend their time. How can parents, teachers, and policymakers know which behaviors are more desirable? They cannot. It is impossible to know for sure whether an individual’s own inclination stems from a behavioral mistake or from carefully weighing long-term costs and benefits. At least with nudges, individuals are still free to choose, an argument originally made by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein. Nevertheless, nudges and shoves both aim to alter behavior. The choice architect must explicitly or implicitly decide in which direction to steer to try to make individuals better off. The consequences of steering in the wrong direction, and how many people might fall into this category, should be taken into account. Take the case of going to college: we can’t be sure everyone benefits. Indeed, many who drop out probably don’t. On the other hand, we think some high school students, especially those from more disadvantaged backgrounds who receive less support from parents and schools, miss out on college and its benefits because of application barriers. Evidence suggests that making the application process easier can cause more people to attend. Should we support a scale-up of this effort, or deliberately maintain the status quo? It’s a normative question, because neither situation makes everyone better off. A starting point might be to estimate completion effects or predict even longer-term effects. Shoving by making college compulsory does not seem prudent, since it would likely result in many students being unable to complete even their first year. The H&R Block FAFSA nudge found an 8-percentage-point increase in both first- and second-year college enrollment for a sample of high school seniors. A follow-up study, however, estimated that the treatment increased degree completion by only about 4 percentage points, suggesting about half of those nudged into college finished, but half didn’t. The dropout rate was the same compared to the control group, reminding us it may be unrealistic to expect that everyone who is nudged will go on to graduate. Still, a tradeoff exists, and we should be aware of our implicit assumptions about who we’re helping and who we’re not when nudging or shoving. Behavioral interventions also differ importantly by whether they are high-touch or low-touch. Researchers sometimes distinguish these two cases based on cost. A more useful, but related, distinction is whether the intervention involves in-person interaction or not. Texting students to remind them to complete the FAFSA is a low-touch nudge. Meeting with them to provide more direct assistance is a high-touch nudge. Encouragement is often more effective if delivered in person than through signage, text, or email. Someone trying to steer another person towards a particular action can express empathy, respond to questions, and use body language or facial expressions. A person can even be the intervention by providing guidance or advice (as a coach, caseworker, or parent, for example). High-touch nudges make it easier to receive in-person interaction. High-touch shoves make them mandatory. Requiring students to meet with a guidance counselor is an example of a high-touch shove. These kinds of interventions are expensive, and their success likely depends on the quality and frequency of the in-person interaction. Not all researchers would consider these more intensive programs nudges, though I think they should, because, as with low-touch nudges, the programs also aim to lower behavioral barriers and influence individuals towards more desirable behavior. For years, corporations have been using low-touch nudges to influence consumers. Governments and nonprofits have since embraced many of these approaches to nudge “for good.” Hundreds of nudge experiments have now been conducted, allowing researchers to take a step back and consider their overall success. A meta-analysis by Stefano DellaVigna and Elizabeth Linos of all 126 low-touch nudge experiments (except defaults), covering two of the largest government “Nudge Units” in the United States, found an average impact on program take-up of 1.4 percentage points and a median impact of 0.5 percentage points. This average impact represents an increase of only 8.1 percent over the share of the control group that exhibited the nudged behavior, which was 17.2 percentage points on average. Most of the interventions, therefore, generated only small or no effects. The study also documents severe publication bias among university-based experiments, with only 10 percent of experiments with insignificant effects getting reported in academic journals. The true number of studies that estimate no impact from nudging efforts may therefore be considerably larger than what gets reported, perhaps because editors are less likely to accept such studies or researchers are less excited about documenting a failed effort to nudge. In terms of low-touch nudges in education policy specifically, overall effectiveness appears to be on par with what DellaVigna and Linos find for behavioral interventions across all policy areas. Some education nudges lead to small but cost-effective achievement gains (at least in the short term), while others generate precisely estimated null effects. Understanding when and under which circumstances low-touch nudges work may be the next frontier of this research. A popular low-touch nudge in education is trying to increase college enrollment and persistence. A recent study finds that using an artificially intelligent text-message chatbot to support incoming undergraduates proactively increased on-time enrollment by 3.3 percentage points. Leveraging technology may therefore be a promising avenue for offering more personalization while keeping costs low. Encouraging college students to maximize financial aid, including taking out loans, may also be a promising initiative. One study found that randomly including loan offers when sending grant-aid award letters increased borrowing, subsequent GPA, credits completed, and transfers to four-year public colleges. Conversely, a text-message outreach campaign to college student-loan applicants about both costs and benefits of loans reduced borrowing, led to worse academic achievement, and lowered persistence. Longer-term research is needed to explore impacts of these kinds of nudges on persistence without graduation, repayment, and eventual labor-market outcomes. Another set of recent interventions tries to nudge graduating high school students from low-income backgrounds into more selective colleges with higher graduation rates. Susan Dynarski and her colleagues identified a sample of these students with high enough SAT scores to qualify for likely admission into the University of Michigan. The authors arranged for the university to mail a random subset of these students personally addressed packages promising free tuition if accepted (which most would have qualified for anyway) and a cover letter from the president encouraging them to apply. Letters and emails were also sent to the students’ parents and principals. Compared to the control group, who received only postcards with application deadlines, the application, enrollment, and persistence rates of students in the experimental group more than doubled. In a related study, tens of thousands of high-achieving, low-income high school students across the United States were mailed packages with information and encouragement to consider selective in- and out-of-state colleges, along with waivers to apply to selective institutions without paying application fees. Enrollment in selective institutions increased to 34 percent from 29 percent. However, in an attempt to scale up this promising study, researchers at the College Board randomized 785,000 graduating high school students from low- to middle-income backgrounds, sending some carefully constructed personalized packages with easy-to-read information on a set of personalized “safety,” “match,” and “reach” colleges, along with simplified cost information and encouragement to apply. A subset also received text messages and was offered phone-based college advising. More than one third of treated students viewed specific materials provided for them on the College Board’s website, but none of the various treatments generated significant average effects on enrollment or measures of college quality. Many other recent attempts to test large-scale nudges found precisely estimated null effects. One of them randomized 800,000 students that registered for an online account with either the Common Application or a large state-sponsored portal for applying to college. The study examined several efforts to encourage early or any FAFSA completion, including by email, text message, and mail, varying the frequency, timing, and presentation of the messages. None of the interventions increased financial aid receipt, college enrollment, or persistence. In another attempt, researchers emailed information about tax credits for college tuition payments to more than one million students who had accessed Texas’ main website for applying to a public university or community college. They varied whether the outreach discussed costs of college, benefits of college, or neither; the number of tax benefits described; and the amount of detail about the benefits and how to claim them. None of the emails affected college enrollment or reenrollment. In addition to targeting specific external actions, such as completing a college application, behavioral scientists also try to nudge internal feelings and beliefs to improve longer-term education outcomes. In one study, reading a story to preschoolers about a character who struggled with waiting but eventually found it energizing increased children’s own ability to wait longer for a larger candy reward. According to another study, assigning middle schoolers to think and write about their core values during a series of 15-minute exercises increased academic achievement for minority students and their later college enrollment by more than 10 percentage points(!). A third example found that a detailed two-hour goal-setting exercise increased struggling college students’ GPAs by 0.8 points, more than half of a standard deviation. The sizes of these effects are off the charts, even compared to programs that cost thousands of dollars per student, but they are estimated using small samples. If administering a couple of exercises lasting less than a few hours can consistently generate even small long-term impacts, we shouldn’t hold back from providing them to every student in the country. The time and monetary costs are small. The likelihood of causing long-term harm seems small, as well. We could even iterate over time on what works best, testing each intervention against a newer edition to boost benefits and experience over time. That was generally the idea when I created the Student Achievement Lab with Uros Petronijevic in 2014. For six years, partnering with several other colleagues, we teamed up with first-year college instructors across six campuses to make a mandatory short online warm-up exercise that almost every student completed for a participation grade. We started by creating a goal-setting exercise similar to the one mentioned above and added a second treatment, sending additional motivational text messages throughout the year. We found no effects. We worked with leading social psychologists to develop interventions to help students develop more positive perspectives on facing challenging course material (a growth mindset) and more patient views on assimilating into campus socially (a belonging mindset). We found no effects. We created online exercises to encourage better study habits, more study time, more use of student services and office hours, and a healthier, more patient attitude towards school. We also added one- and two-way text-message coaching. With a combined sample of more than 25,000 students, none of the interventions generated significant improvement in student grades or persistence, whether for the full sample or for sub-samples of students more at risk of poor performance. We started the Student Achievement Lab hoping to provide evidence towards supporting at least some nudges worth scaling. Not being able to recommend continuing any of the 15 warm-up exercises we tested was disappointing. Based on the inspiring open-ended responses we received from students, and the positive coach-student interactions we observed, we felt at the time that the interventions were working well. They did improve students’ sense of support from the university and proxy measures of mental health a little, but they had no detectable impact on academics. Nudging to affect habits, feelings, thoughts, and beliefs may therefore be less effective than nudging specific one-time actions. Lindsay Page, Jeonghyun Lee, and Hunter Gelbach, who tested a text-message support program for undergraduates, came to the same conclusion. Their chatbot was effective when targeting specific, time-sensitive actions, like adding or dropping a course by the deadlines, but it had no significant impact on use of student services, credit hours, GPA, or graduation. Efforts to replicate or scale social psychology nudges aimed at changing attitudes, perspectives, or motivation often lead to inconsistent results, evidence of publication bias, or smaller effects than earlier studies with smaller samples. Two recent studies deserve particular attention for testing interventions that could be implemented at a national level. René Kizilcec and colleagues attempted to scale several short, online behavioral interventions similar to those above for more than 250,000 students taking Massive Open Online Courses through Harvard, MIT, and Stanford (for example, asking students to make concrete plans about when and how they will complete coursework, write about their core values and how taking the course reflects and reinforces these values, and reflect on the benefits and barriers to achieving their goals). Although earlier studies with smaller samples showed some of these interventions to have initial promise, none of them were found to have significant persistence effects for this larger sample. In the National Study of Learning Mindsets, thousands of 9th-grade students across 63 high schools were randomly assigned a short growth-mindset intervention. The average student’s GPA increased 0.05 points, and the course failure rate fell by 2.4 percentage points, with effects concentrated among students from the lower half of preprogram academic scores. While these impacts are small, they are not zero. Given the program’s trivial marginal cost, the exercise may be worth offering to all 9th-grade students if benefits persist. Low-touch nudges to parents appear more consistently effective than ones to children. Parents seem to welcome the help. Texting parents suggestions for ways to interact more with children improves early literacy. Providing low-income parents of preschool students tablets with stories to take home, setting weekly reading goals, and sending reminders to the parents doubled the amount of reading time spent on the tablet. Sending middle- or high-school parents automated text messages about their children’s missed assignments, grades, and class absences reduced course failure, increased class attendance, and increased retention. Interestingly, inviting parents to opt in to receiving notices did not lead to large enough take-up to generate the same degree of impact. School administrators need to make the messages opt-out. When they are opt-out, parent text-message information campaigns generate significant gains in education attainment. Social-psychology nudges to parents also look encouraging. In one study, parents were told about the malleability of their child’s reading abilities and how to support their child by praising effort rather than performance. Second grade language skills improved two and seven months after parents completed the activity. Nudging with in-person support also shows more promise than nudging without it. In the H&R Block FAFSA experiment, providing information and encouragement to apply for college financial aid had no impact on applying or enrollment, while having a tax professional walk someone through the process did. As a follow-up, Reuben Ford and I incorporated the college application process into the high school curriculum, such that graduating seniors were provided in-person assistance over three workshops to help choose a program they would likely get into, apply to that program, and apply for financial aid. College enrollment increased by 5 percentage points overall and by 9 percentage points among those not enrolled in university-track courses. Easy access to an in-person coach who reaches out to offer support also increases engagement and effectiveness, compared to relying on text-message or email nudges. For example, contacting college students regularly to help set goals, manage time, and work through challenges increased graduation rates by 4 percentage points among nontraditional students at colleges with low levels of completion. Similarly, the sole treatment arm found to be successful at increasing college achievement among the 15 that Uros Petronijevic and I tried at the Student Achievement Lab included proactive upper-year coaching. Reaching out to first-year students and trying to meet weekly significantly increased average GPA scores and persistence, as well as subjective measures of wellbeing. But in terms of scalability, both programs were significantly more expensive than low-touch nudges. The first cost $500 per semester. In the second, one coach could handle only a maximum of 5 students, compared to our (ineffective) text-message coaches who could handle communicating with more than 100 students. In addition to proactively coaching students, proactively coaching parents can be considered a type of high-touch nudge. In one study, texting parents about their high-school child’s performance was not as effective at improving test scores as visiting parents directly to discuss how to interpret the information and offering suggestions for getting students college-ready. Home visits to parents of younger-aged children have generally been found to improve early child development. Offering personal support to parents of preschoolers to help them learn how to be more interactive and engaging also appears to help. All of these programs, however, are substantially more expensive than nudges without a personalized touch. Where Do We Go From Here? Making decisions with immediate costs to obtain uncertain long-term incremental benefits is difficult. What’s the big deal about missing one practice, eating one more serving, or waiting one more day? Children and youth especially struggle, in part because their brains are not fully developed, and in part because they often have little experience making such consequential decisions. Behavioral science explores ways to help them by nudging thoughts and actions more likely to generate long-term gains without meaningfully altering up-front costs or options. Applying this research to education has become extremely popular, as nudges are often cheap in terms of both money and time. Removing behavioral barriers could unlock skill development and large lifetime rewards, and even small improvements to education outcomes could be cost effective. We may, though, want to temper our expectations around the potential for nudging to help address education policy’s major issues. Low-touch nudges more easily influence one-time actions, such as completing an application or accessing student services, than they influence more ingrained habits or routines. We should continue to test when text messages, reminders, carefully constructed letters, and online exercises generate predictable gains that don’t depend on unknown operational details or unknown population differences. So far, major attempts to scale low-touch nudges have found very small or no short-term impacts. High-touch nudges look more promising. It is perhaps not surprising that person-to-person interactions are more persuasive compared to text messages, email, or mail. Interventions using real people offering up-close help, such as application assistance, coaching, or tutoring, show more consistent positive impacts than low-touch nudges. They are also more expensive, making them a tougher sell to policymakers. Again, more research is needed to demonstrate when the tradeoff is worthwhile. New technologies, allowing for virtual social interactions or artificial intelligence, may help lower costs. We should also consider shoving over nudging. Shoving restricts options in order to steer individuals towards more desirable behavior. There are some good examples of shoves in education policy: prohibiting the use of smartphones or computers in classrooms; making class attendance mandatory; and imposing homework assignment deadlines spread evenly throughout the term, as opposed to any time before the end of the course. In all three of these cases (evaluated with random assignment), academic grades improved. We don’t know for sure whether these restrictions make students better off, but many students would acknowledge the negative behavioral tendencies of checking their phones too often, sleeping in and missing class, or procrastinating on assignments. Shoving, to me, includes teachers choosing class content, schools choosing mandatory courses, and parents arranging children’s routines. The power to organize others’ daily activities involves high stakes. Some shoves lead to better outcomes than others. In one study, struggling high school students were given daily in-school delivery of 2-on-1 tutoring from a supportive older peer. The researchers found math grades improved by almost half a standard deviation. In another study, elementary school teachers added into their daily activities a year-long curriculum of videos, case studies, and exercises to emphasize the role of effort in enhancing skills and achieving goals. Standardized math and verbal test scores and measures of executive functioning improved significantly, even measured more than two years after the experiment. A third example is New York’s Guttman Community College, offering limited-choice programs in which students must enroll full-time, take a fixed set of first-year courses, attend a three-week summer bridge program, and are assigned a “student success advocate” whose job is to help with the college transition. Structure and scaffolding around daily routines therefore seem to hold promise, but further replication of specific shoves, as well as evaluation of overall costs and benefits, is needed. Nudging parents and teachers may be more effective than nudging children. Examples include encouraging more regular engagement, advising topics to talk about or teach, and sending information about progress and attendance. Parents and teachers want to help children and are more aware of their own behavioral barriers. They may be more likely to welcome trusted personal assistance, text reminders, or suggestions compared to the children they’re interested in helping. The relatively few studies involving nudging parents consistently document positive effects on learning outcomes. None of them, however, have been examined at scale. Underlying behavioral barriers are personality traits, such as self-control, motivation, and self-esteem. Rather than trying to steer individuals predisposed to making poor decisions towards actions that are in their long-run best interests, we might make better progress targeting the reasons why such predispositions develop in the first place. To close the education achievement gap and meaningfully improve academic outcomes, we should look more towards shaping personality traits at younger ages. Understanding how may be one of the most important questions for social science. Philip Oreopoulos is professor of economics at the University of Toronto. A list of references for this article is here.

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Difference between revisions of "History" |Line 181:||Line 181:| Latest revision as of 16:15, 20 April 2021 History (from the Greek ἱστορία) is the study of the past. Most historians tend to focus on past human events, mainly political, military, or diplomatic because these areas are most heavily documented. But in recent decades, historians have developed methods to study events or peoples for which documents are rare or non-existent. These new methods have led to a proliferation of sub-fields within the history discipline. History, as a body of literature about the past, is conventionally divided chronologically into ancient, medieval and modern periods. Academic studies of history attempt to interpret and explain the meaning of past events. Prehistory deals with mankind before written records and is part of archaeology. - 1 Etymology - 2 Approaches - 3 Comparative historiography - 4 Divine intervention - 5 Leading historians - 6 Field of History by period and place - 7 Schools and Fields of History - 7.1 Cultural - 7.2 Social - 7.3 Comparative - 7.4 Political - 7.5 Diplomatic and military - 7.6 Economic and Business - 7.7 Rural and Agricultural history - 7.8 Intellectual History - 7.9 Science, Technology, Environment, and Medicine - 7.10 Urban - 7.11 Religion - 7.12 World - 7.13 Local - 8 National debates - 9 Revisionism - 10 Meta questions? - 11 Further reading According to R. G. Collingwood, history is "a kind of research or enquiry" into "actions that have been done in the past", conducted "by the interpretation of evidence"—evidence being further defined as documents. British historian E. H. Carr (1892–1982) has advised that history is not a single, well-defined narrative or bundle of facts that can be memorized, but a terrain of contestation between competing and evolving interpretations whose influence is as much shaped by time and place as by any given set of facts. Historians face seven methodological problems: how to address a past holistically, given the inevitable process of excluding certain peoples from our accounts and the issue of absent social categories; generalizing from fragmentary evidence; understanding causality; establishing differences and similarities; social constructionism; presentism and appropriate concepts; and evaluating competing explanatory accounts. The main source of information are written texts, mainly from political, ceremonial or bureaucratic sources. Other kinds of sources include memoirs, oral interviews, newspaper accounts, and works of art. Historians distinguish "primary sources" (written sources created by participants), and "secondary sources", which is the interpretation of history by scholars. The Greek word ἱστορία, historía, means "knowledge acquired by investigation, inquiry". In this sense it is used in antique expression "natural history". In English the word went into two different directions: "story", or chronologically-structured narrative, and "history", or discourse on human events. In the 20th century, academic historians avoided epic nationalistic narratives, favoring more specialized studies looking as social, economic, political or intellectual forces. Demographic historians introduced quantitative history, using census data to track the lives of average people. French historians were prominent in the establishment of cultural history (such as the "histoire des mentalités"). In the U.S. "Progressive" historians following Frederick Jackson Turner emphasized the frontier and sectionalism, while those following Charles Beard and C. Vann Woodward looked for conflicts of economic interest. After 1950 intellectual history replaced the older Progressive models. After 1960 neoabolitionist historians inspired by the American civil rights movement emphasized moralistic stories, with racism as the evil that triumphed or was defeated. The "new social history" in the 1970s took a comprehensive approach to include every man, woman and child, often using census, court and tax records. After the 1970s some postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. This approach came under blistering attack by historians such as Granatstein (1998) in Canada, and Windschuttle (2000) in Australia, leading to lively debates. - Counterfactual history : A history genre that argues by analogy to demonstrate outcomes that did not occur. Herodotus (5th century BC) was a world historian as well as founder of Greek historiography. His History presents insightful and lively discussions of the customs, geography, and history of Mediterranean peoples, particularly the Egyptians. However, Thucydides promptly discarded Herodotus's all-embracing approach to history, offering instead a more precise, sharply focused monograph, dealing not with vast empires over the centuries but with 27 years of war between Athens and Sparta. In Rome, the vast, patriotic history of Rome by Livy (59 BC-17 AD) approximated Herodotean inclusiveness; Polybius (c.200-c.118 BC) aspired to combine the logical rigor of Thucydides with the scope of Herodotus. Chinese, Muslim, Indian and Christian traditions of learning emphasize that God determined history and humans played only supporting roles. Thus in China Ssu-ma Cheng-chen c. 100 BC presented a model of Chinese history that assumed Heaven chooses virtuous hereditary rulers, then arranges events so that they were overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt. Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Ssu-ma Chen's model still dominates scholarship, even among westerners who do not hold the Taoist belief that the ruler's personal virtue assures divine support. While the Chinese, Muslim, and Indian traditions continued their theocentric historiography, there was a radical challenge to it in Christian Europe during the Renaissance. Historians such as Machiavelli downplayed divine intervention and stressed that men made their own history, and that rulers should study history in order to shape the future. European scholars began a more systematic study of history. One Arab scholar, Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) broke with traditionalism and offered a strikingly modern model of historical change in Muqaddimah, a brilliant exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world. Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront European imperialism as it reached into Asia after 1500. Field of History by period and place Chinese historiography was developed by Ssu-ma Ch'eng-chen, whose model of regime virtue and divine intervention led to thousands of historical studies along exactly the same lines. - Ancient History studies the Middle East and Europe before 450, with emphasis on Greece and Ancient Rome. See also Classics. - Medieval History: Deals with the Middle Ages (between ~500-1453) especially in Europe and the Middle East. Major themes include the Church, the Holy Roman Empire, agricultural change, the Crusades, and intellectual and cultural trends. - Modern History. "Early modern history" covers Europe about 1450 to 1648, with special attention to the Renaissance, the Reformation, warfare, science and technology, the rise of the nation state (especially England, France, Spain, Prussia and Russia), and explorations of the Atlantic World. "Modern History" (since 1648) covers a vast array of topics, including the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. Atlantic History: a recent trend; studies the interaction of Europe, Africa and North America and South America, especially before 1800 Contemporary History, on 20th century, since 1945 Schools and Fields of History - Cultural history has become the dominant style since the 1980s. It uses linguistic and cultural evidence to explore the inner psychology of societies. This became a dominant theme in the 1960s, especially influenced by careful analysis of exactly how key words were used, for example, the study of Republicanism. There is no separate society or journal for cultural history. Fields which have adopted cultural history have been said to have made a "linguistic turn." Cultural history is heavily influenced by postmodernism, cultural anthropology, and literary criticism. It turned away from the social scientific approach of Social history. Important influences in cultural history came from French cultural critic Michel Foucault, American anthropologist Clifford Geertz, British labor historian E. P. Thompson and American intellectual historians Hayden White and Dominick LaCapra. Critics have complained that cultural history tends to over emphasize race, class, and gender analysis, while slighting empirical archival research and losing sight of larger issues. - Social history includes history of ordinary people and their strategies of coping with life, history of social organization, and history of social movements and deliberate attempts to induce social change, whether from the top down or from the bottom up. It exploded on the scene in the 1960s, quickly becoming one of the dominant styles of historiography. The French version, promulgated by the Annales School influenced much of Europe and Latin America. It is the study of the lives of ordinary people. It was revolutionized in the 1960s by the introduction of sophisticated quantitative and demographic methods, often using individual data from the census and from local registers of births, marriages, deaths and taxes, as well as theoretical models from sociology such as social mobility. The New Social History emerged in the 1960s to dominate professional scholarship in the U.S. and Canada. see also Social History, U.S.. There is no society for social history, but the field is covered in the Journal of Social History, edited since 1967 by Peter Stearns. It covers such topics as gender relations; race in American history; the history of personal relationships; consumerism; sexuality; the social history of politics; crime and punishment, and history of the senses - Demographic history is the study of population history and demographic processes, usually using census or similar statistical data. It became an important speciality inside social history, with strong connections with the larger field of demography. See Demography, Life expectancy, U.S. Demographic Transition, - See Frontier thesis, for Turner's theory of how the frontier shaped American values - Ethnic history covers the history of American ethnic groups (usually not including blacks). The Immigration and Ethnic History Society was formed in 1976 and publishes a journal for libraries and its 829 members. - The American Conference for Irish Studies, founded in 1960, has 1,700 members and has occasional publications but no journal. - The American Italian Historical Association was founded in 1966 and has 400 members; it does not publish a journal - The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest ethnic society, founded in 1892; it has 3,300 members and publishes American Jewish History - African American history studies blacks in the United States. The Association for the Study of African American Life and History was founded by Carter G, Woodson in 1915 and has 2500 members and publishes the Journal of African American History; since 1926 it has sponsored Black History Month every February. - Labor history, deals with labor unions and the social history of workers. See for example Labor Unions, U.S., History The Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History was established: 1971 and has a membership of 1000. It publishes International Labor and Working-Class History. - see Bryan D. Palmer and Todd Mccallum, "Working-Class History" Canadian Encyclopedia (2008) Women, gender, family - Women's history exploded into prominence in the 1970s, and is now well represented in every geographical topic; increasingly it includes gender history. Comparative history looks for similarities and differences between societies or civilizations; Arnold J. Toynbee made it fashionable in 1940s, but has been in decline ever since as historians prefer specialized research topics Political History: It is the study of political institutions, voter behavior, legislative behavior, leadership and practical politics. Since the 1980s much of political history in the U.S. has migrated to Political Science. - In 1929 English historian Lewis Namier, in The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III (1929), revolutionized the field. He rejected the "Whig interpretation" that said a two-party rivalry of Whig and Tory, underpinned a constitutional monarchy in Britain, which had a modern cabinet system based on a party majority in the House of Commons. Namier, by looking at all the individual MP's, argues the king conducted his role within the limitations of authority permitted by the constitution, while the Whig historians claim that the king fomented turmoil against the constitution. Diplomatic and military Diplomatic history: deals with international relations. Both historians and political scientists are involved. Military History: The study of military practice and theory; wars and battles; military engineering & technology; organization of armies, leadership and soldiers; also Naval History. Non-academics and amateurs contribute most of the writings in this field, but there are some specialist programs in research-oriented history departments (see Society for Military History). Economic and Business Economic History: Covers topics from agriculture, technology and business organization, and includes population studies and the reconstruction of economic indicators (like GDP). One important new branch is Business history. Since the 1970s much of economic history, as well as History of economic thought, has migrated from history departments and journals to economics. Railroad history is often a cross-over field of business history, history of technology, and labor and cultural history. Rural and Agricultural history The "Agricultural History Society" was established in 1919 and has 1200 members who focus on the history of rural life, especially in the U.S. Since 1926 its journal Agricultural History has been the journal of record which publishes articles on all aspects of the history of agriculture and rural life with no geographical or temporal limits. History of ideas is a field founded in U.S. by Arthur Lovejoy, dealing with the inner ("internalist") history of ideas. It contrasts with the intellectual history promoted by Merle Curti that stresses the links between ideas and external social and economic forces. Science, Technology, Environment, and Medicine - See also the History of Technology Subgroup subgroup. The history of science began as a distinct discipline in the early part of the twentieth century. It concerns itself with the development and evolution of scientific thought and practice. It also initially included the history of technology, but that field began defining its own distinct disciplinary boundaries in the 1950s. - History of Science - History of scientific thought and technique. - History of Medicine The American Association for the History of Medicine, founded in 1925 has 1,300 members, split between amateurs and professional scholars. It covers a worldwide range of topics and publishes Bulletin of the History of Medicine. - History of Technology Environmental history, began in the 1970s, like the modern environmental movement itself. It includes many long-term studies of climate and, especially, changes in the land caused by society. Begun in 1996, Environmental History is co-published by the Forest History Society (which was founded in 1946) and the American Society for Environmental History, founded in 1977. The latest online bibliography includes 40,000 titles. Urban history deals with the development of cities, suburbs, and urban spaces and became of importance in the 1960s. Religious history covers the world's religions, and is split between academic history departments and theology schools. The American Society of Church History, founded in 1888, has 1600 members and publishes the journal Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture. The American Catholic Historical Association, established in 1919 at a time when most Catholic historians were affiliated with Catholic colleges, has a membership of 1,015 and publishes the The Catholic Historical Review. World History, a teaching field (rather than a research field), developed by historians of Asia and Latin America to provide a counterpoint to the "Western Civilization" emphasis that dominated history teaching after 1920. In interpretations of world history, the most influential scholars were Oswald Spengler in the 1920s, Arnold J. Toynbee in the 1950s, and William H. McNeill in the 1970s. - Antiquarianism uses historical data without the theoretical structure of historiography, to look at topics that happen to interest the amateur because of proximity, age and accumulated myth. It is not well regarded by academic historians, but finds a place in local historical societies and draws attention from the media. Historians inside a nation often engage in extended debates about the nation's history, and how to teach it. In the case of teaching Japanese history in the schools of Japan, other countries (especially China and South Korea), have officially complained. The pioneering cultural historian Johan Huizinga (1872-1945) wrote The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919) and "Homo Ludens" A Study of the Play Element in Culture (1935), both of which expanded the field of cultural history and foreshadowed the historical anthropology of younger historians of the Annales School. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments." Jan Romein (1893-1962) created in the 1930s a "theoretical history" in an attempt to reestablish the relevance of history to public life during a time of immense political uncertainty and cultural crisis. In Romein's view, modern history had become too inward-looking and isolated from other disciplines. Romein felt that history must contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of Oswald Spengler, Arnold J. Toynbee, F. J. Teggart, and others, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the university level after the war. Revisionism is a reversal of opinion, and generally is used for historians who reverse the old "orthodox" or standard interpretation. The first "revisionist" debate came in the 1920s when a new group of historians rejected the thesis that Germany was "guilty" (primarily responsible) for causing the Great War, a proposition that was included in the Treaty of Versailles. Popularly, "revisionism" is often used derisively as if all history is not a revision of some point or argument of a previous historian. But, it is a truism of the discipline that each generation re-writes the past according to its own themes and concerns. Does history repeat itself in cycles? Are there long-term patterns? Are there patterns that cover the rise and fall of entire civilizations? Are there lessons to be learned. Historians often claim that the study of political, military and business history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, military strategy and tactics, and business success and failure. The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or Arnold J. Toynbee (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible. However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and World History is in fashion. Since the 1970s the postmodern sensibility has prevailed in historiography, forcing most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results. Spanish philosopher George Santayana commented, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." Many historians have echoed the line. The German philosopher of history Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel remarked that "What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it." Hegel was paraphrased by Winston Churchill, who said "The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history." Ortega Y Gasset (1883-1955), Spanish philosopher and humanist, wrote in a similar vein: "We have need of history in its entirety, not to fall back into it, but to escape from it." For a detailed guide see History/Bibliography - Arnold, John H. History: A Very Short Introduction (2000) excerpt and text search - Bass, Herbert J. The State of American History (1970), essays by scholars excerpt and text search - Bentley, Michael. Modern Historiography: An Introduction. (1999) online edition - Burrow, John. A History of Histories: Epics, Chronicles, Romances and Inquiries from Herodotus and Thucydides to the Twentieth Century (2008), 544 pp; covers Herodotus, Thucydides and Polybius, through Gibbon, Macaulay, Michelet, Prescott and Parkman to Butterfield, Trevelyan and Toynbee. ISBN 978-0-375-41311-7 excerpt and text search - Cantor, Norman F. Inventing the Middle Ages. (1993) - Carr, E. H. What Is History (1961), a famous interpretation of historiography. - Fischer, David H. Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought (1970) 368pp; influential and entertaining guide by a leading scholar excerpt and text search - Foner, Eric. ed. New American History (1997) - Gilderhus, Mark. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction (6th ed. 2006), 160 pp, textbook - Howell, Martha C., and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001), 207pp excerpt and text search - Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005) excerpt and text search - Kelley, Donald R. Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century (2006) excerpt and text search - Ritter, Harry. Dictionary of Concepts in History (1986) excerpt and text search - Spiegel, Gabrielle M. The Past as Text: The Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography 1999) excerpt and text search - Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ed. Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing (2005) excerpt and text search - Stokes, Melvyn. The State of U.S. History (2002) online edition - Storey, William Kelleher. History: A Guide for Students (2nd ed 2003), 128pp excerpt and text search - Thompson, James Westfall, and Bernard J. Holm; A History of Historical Writing (1942) vol 1: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Seventeenth Century online edition vol 2: 18th and 19th centuries online edition; detailed discussion of the work of major historians - Wish, Harvey. The American Historian: A Social-intellectual History of the Writing of the American Past, (1960) online edition - R. G. Collingwood, (1946) The Idea of History. Oxford University Press, pp. 9-10 - E.H. Carr, What is History? (1961) - Miles Fairburn. Social History: Problems, Strategies and Methods. (1999). - K.H. Waters, Herodotus the Historian (1985) - Note: 'Historiography' refers to the writing of history, and, in a second sense, to the study of written history. - Patrick G. Walsh, Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods (1961) - Frank W. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius, (3 vols. 1957-82) - S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," The Far Eastern Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb., 1949), pp. 131-156 in JSTOR - On the linguistic turn see Gabrielle M. Spiegel, ed. Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing (2005) excerpt and text search; Lynn Hunt, ed. The New Cultural History (1989) - See Olivier Zunz, ed. Reliving the Past: The Worlds of Social History, (1985) online edition - See Michael S. Cross, "Social History," Canadian Encyclopedia (2008) online - See - See Immigration and Ethnic History Society - See American Conference for Irish Studies - See American Italian Historical Association - See American Jewish Historical Society and journal - See ASALH - See Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History - See American Women's History: A Research Guide - see Teresa A. Meade and Merry Wiesner-Hanks, eds. A Companion to Gender History (2006) - see Journal of Family History, quarterly since 1976 - Peter Thomas, "Reappraisals in History," Institute of Historical Research (2002) online edition - See Agricultural History Society - See Agricultural History - Donald R. Kelley, "Intellectual History in a Global Age," Journal of the History of Ideas 66#2 (2005) 155-167 in Project Muse; Donald R. Kelley, ed.,The History of Ideas: Canon and Variations (1990); Donald R. Kelley, The Descent of Ideas: A History of Intellectual History (2002). - See American Association for the History of Medicine and Bulletin of the History of Medicine - J. Donald Hughes, What is Environmental History? (2006), excerpt and text search; J. Donald Hughes, An Environmental History of the World: Humankind's Changing Role in the Community of Life (2002) excerpt and text search - Issues since 1932 are in JSTOR. See and - See - See William H. McNeill, "The Changing Shape of World History" (1994) online version - See - see Jane Caplan, et al. "The Historikerstreit Twenty Years On." German History 2006 24(4): 587-607. Issn: 0266-3554 Fulltext: Ebsco - Peter Burke, "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses.'" History Today 36 (November 1986): 23-28. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: EBSCO; William U. Bouwsma, "The Waning of the Middle Ages by Johan Huizinga." Daedalus 103, no. 1 (1974): 35-43; R. L. Colie, "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History," American Historical Review 69, no. 3 (1964): 607-630; Robert Anchor, "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics," History and Theory 17, No. 1 (February 1978), 63-93. - A. C. Otto, "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein" [Theory and Practice in the "Theoretical History" of Jan Romein], Theoretische Geschiedenis 21, no. 3 (1994): 257-270. - See Samuel R. Williamson Jr. and Ernest R. May, "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," Journal of Modern History (2007) Volume 79, Number 2, 335-87

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MIT is worldwide known for its robotics research. In the past, they managed to create a robot breaking the world record in solving a Rubik’s Cube in only 0.38 seconds, the first four-legged robot to do a backflip, etc. Sounds impressive, but with their newest development, they can’t just look cool, but it can be used in many ways and bring the robots on to the next level of productivity. Picking up objects and flipping them around is easy for people. We do it every day, e.g., when we are trying to take notes at University, work, or at home. We pick up the pen and bring it into the right position and start writing. The same scenario is when we are eating a sandwich: We move it a little bit to bite from the other corner. For our robot friends, however, it is tough to pick up things without either dropping them or destroying them and then to add the factor of turning the object they just mastered to hold? It sounds like a difficult task. Therefore it took robots a long time to plan and calculate all the factors like geometry, friction, all the possibilities of how the object can be turned, etc. This whole process took tens of minutes previously, which sounds still impressive, bearing in mind that if we measured and calculate these numbers, we would sit there for hours and probably still fail. MIT mastered to bring down the planning time of the robot to less than a second. How is that possible? The robot is pushing the object against a stationary surface and slides its claw down the object until it has it in the right position. For the future, this can mean that instead of a specialized tool like a screwdriver, machines would have more something like a hand, giving them the ability to pick up different kinds of tools and do various tasks. This improvement would most likely save the companies space and also money since, for multiple steps, they would need one robot. This is another case were thinking out of the box, by simply using the surroundings, has a huge effect. Probably most of you are familiar with VR. Not that long ago, we could see it only in movies, but nowadays thanks to Oculus Rift, it started becoming a more mainstream option of entertainment. Well, now imagine that there’s a device that enables you to not only see everything as if you were there, but also to feel it. That’s what Tesla’s new invention is all about. Teslasuit was presented at CES 2019, where influencers and journalists could even try out the prototype version. It is a new generation of smart clothing. Moreover, it is a full body suit, made from waterproof neoprene, filled with multiple censors, which right now add up to 68. Since it’s waterproof, it is fully washable. Just put it into your washing machine and enjoy the fresh smell. Additionaly, Tesla’s spokesperson stated that by the time that they will hit the market, number of censors will be even higher. Although all of this information may not seem as impressive for you at this moment, let me explain briefly what can it do. This clothing with the use of haptic feedback can simulate the feeling of touch, bumping into a wall and even getting kicked or punched. It seems pretty futuristic, doesn’t it? Of course everything is done with safety measures, so that it doesn’t hurt you. You can even adjust the power of the sensations, if it’s too much for you, but that’s not all. Let’s ignore for a second the ‘less important’ fact that it measures your biometric data like heart rate and how do you feel overall. It actually can make you feel different temperatures. Now imagine, that you play Call of Duty or some other FPS game and you have a mission located somewhere in Siberia with -30°C, there are plenty of enemies nearby trying to kill you and you can feel it all! The temperature, bullets hitting you, touching the ground, your weapon, simply everything. Of course it won’t be as real as the real pain or temperature, but it definitely will be different and much better than sitting in front of a computer or a TV on your couch. I don’t know how do you feel about it, but to me it seems amazing. It provides the sensations, anything from stroke to hard impact … but the hard impact we’ve specifically limited to the own wearer’s strength, not to damage any tissue or anything, to keep it safe.” (Digital Trends). Imagine the possibilities that this equipment creates. In my opinion, it can even help with obesity to some extent. All of the gamers in order to keep playing, will have to burn all of this calories by moving inside of their houses constantly. That’s definitely not something that you can do, while being overweight. Your actual physical abilities will determine, how good you are at certain games. Although I’m really enthusiastic about this kind of gaming, let’s talk about some other aspects of this technology, since playing games just isn’t for everyone. In future, it may enable us to for example go explore different countries or watch a NBA game, from the comfort of our own house, just for few bucks. It can even be some form of communication between friend’s and family. Imagine that you are in a long-distance relationship. This technology will enable you to not only talk face-to-face, but feel the presence of your partner. This just blows my mind. Here you can see a quick video of how people reacted to Teslasuit at CES 2019 It all sounds amazing, but nothing there’s always a catch. Well, the device itself isn’t so cheap. It may cost several thousand of dollars and it’s only wholesaled. The price will probably go down as the interest of the product will go up in future, but it definitely isn’t a product for everyone, as for now. Still, in my opinion it’s totally worth it, if you can lands your hands on it. What do you think? Let me know in the comments. 1. Miranda, F. (2019, January 13). The Teslasuit could turn Black Mirror’s terrifying ‘Playtest’ into a reality. https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/teslasuit-experience-ces-2019/ 2. null. (2018, December 31).The TeslaSuit, VR, and Gaming Potential. https://www.gamedesigning.org/gaming/teslasuit/ ＂Research across hundreds of brands in dozens of categories shows the most effective way to maximize customer value is to move beyond customer satisfaction and connect with customers at an emotional level.＂ – Harvard Business Review If you need to make an insurance claim, you use an online form for that. In the case of opening new accounts, you simply fill in the form, then benefit from the quick mail response. Maybe you would like to take out a loan? Oh, it should be a piece of cake to speak with a chatbot briefly and learn everything about everything. Do you recognize yourself in the lines above? The answer is unequivocally yes. We are constantly connected to a network. The companies improved efficiency as well as cut their costs by shifting to the digital contact with customers. But on the other side of the coin – for many businesses the emotional bond has been violated by digital strategy and efficiency that directly affected the cost of the brand, revenue growth, and outflow. This backdrop sets the scene for incredible innovation, as it became pretty complicated for clients to differentiate the values of the brand of two different companies. It’s all about digital commoditization. FaceMe is a world-leading provider of Digital Humans via its Intelligent Digital Human Platform, created on the AI basis, which expands the brand opportunities to build reliable interaction with clients in the real time, based on customized content and unforgettable personalities, which build an emotional connection using the power of the human face. IBM Cloud technologies are used together with high-capacity of IBM Cloud bare metal servers in order to provide endless scalability of this technology for hundreds of simultaneous conversations. It’s such an organization that – to put it in a nutshell – enables organizations to reduce the cost to serve at the same time as enabling opportunity for growth and improving customer experience. The company now operates in New Zealand, the US, Australia, and Europe, working for global brands such as Vodafone and UBS. It’s available for customers through browsers, mobile phones or kiosks. It is estimated by analytics that within the next decade nearly 85 % of communication with customers will be implemented only via digital channels. Mobile applications, web-portals, and chatbots will become even faster and more convenient, but the companies might have a difficult time building bridges with the clients in such a competitive environment. I’m pretty sure that our future reality will draw a lot of eyeballs. At least for the reason that Digital Humans will process question in just 100 milliseconds, during which they will converting text from a chatbot into key human qualities through both the ability to respond with speech, facial expression or gestures and also apply dynamic reaction based on customers behavior and emotion. The client, in turn, perceives almost immediate response that means that conversation flows good, and feels as comfortable as talking with the real agent. Bringing emotional connection to the digital world is as crucial in the context of business as in solving pressing issues, related to health and well-being, education, environment, and many other spheres. Take the example of psychological health. You know, the first important step is just to make patients talk. As studies have shown, 63 % of people would prefer talking about problems of their psychological health with Digital Humans. Therefore, there is a great opportunity to make a valuable contribution to society. FaceMe also works with the Centre for Digital Business to create digital reading instructors, who can help children with reading problems, for whom there is a shortage of qualified teachers. One more potential use case is a provision of consultations and emotional support for patients, recovering after heart surgeries. Technologies of IBM and FaceMe represent a powerful combination, which intends to change the customer’s experience all over the world. Remember, there is no restriction in our ambitions and ability to make a positive contribution in the society by introducing emotional connection in the digital world. Recently, MIT engineers have designed and built an electric airplane with no moving parts. The absence of turbines and propellers is possible thanks to “ionic wind”, which occurs when ions generated by the thruster on the aircraft collide with air molecules and propel the plane forward. This ground-breaking machine makes virtually no sound and is powered entirely by battery. The airplane made by MIT engineers has a 5 meter wingspan and weighs only 2.45 kilograms. Steven Barrett and his team have been working on this design since 2009. Barrett has said that the science fiction phenomenon, Star Trek, which he often watched during his childhood, greatly inspired him when developing the aircraft. Is it possible that the spaceships we have seen in Star Wars and Star Trek can soon become more than just geeks’ fantasies? While Barrett’s design has still got a long way to go, especially when compared to the USS Enterprise, Millennium Falcon or TIE Fighter, it is still a fantastic accomplishment. In theory, Ionocrafts could be a game-changer in transportation of cargo and people. Still, one has to remember a revolution is still many years away. The aircraft was tested on a distance of about 60 metres, in a closed gym, under close supervision. Still, Barrett and his team have repeated the test 10 times and found that enough ions have been produced to sustain flight the entire time. Source: Nature YouTube channel What struck me the most is the fact that the concept of ionic wind propulsion has been around for quite some time – it was mentioned as far back as 1709, when an English scientist Francis Hauksbee published Physico-Mechanical Experiments on Various Subjects, and in the 1920s by Thomas Townsend Brown, whose research and work have influenced further discoveries. But it was not until the 1960s, when Russian pilot Alexander Prokofiev de Seversky introduced his idea of Ionocraft , that it became to feel more realistic. Still, it was not until earlier this week, in November 2018, that an actual prototype was built and tested. Have you ever thought that your clothes would assimilate with your body? Just imagine, your all-natural reactions, behavior and processes are now all captivated by the shoes that you are wearing every day, some T-shirt, dress. Can you come with the idea that your favorite sweater might change a color every time you catch a flu or that you would be able to see the ignorance or anger of the person not through his facial mimics, but due to the movement of the fabrics in his or her shirt? In the near future, it can be used not only as the protection from the outside of your body factors, but as a real part of you that compliments you, your physical processes and would be an integral part of the communication with the surrounding world. Nowadays, such assumption is already not a fantasy, but a real fact. There are already created numerous examples of the clothes that seem to not only provide comfort, but to visualize and assist the hidden physical and mental processes of the human body. The well-known fact is that, people have always been demonstrating their individuality through the clothes they are wearing, in order to create a specific social position in the conversation with others. In fact, the innovations in technology have provided us with the opportunity to express ourselves in a broader way. The use of technology in fashion is now no more a tool to produce the clothes, but a new way to execute the human’s inside vision. The newly invented fabrics and materials can correspond and show up the human’s emotions and condition. In result, a person wearing such clothes will be already unique due to the uniqueness of his or her own emotions and feelings, because the inner world of each human is already exclusive. Therefore, as well, the high-tech clothes would be able to open a real conversation with a human body itself and due to physical factors and sensory processing the clothes would be able to interact with the body and, consequently, transform itself to satisfy the wearer. The Dutch designer Anouk Whipprecht through the combination of fashion and robotics has created a new realm of personal space. Due to the ability of biosensors to catch any evidence of a dress wearer feeling threatened, the robotic spider legs, built-in dress, create a “spider attack” position. Social Escape Dress As well, as Anouk Whipprecht, the designers from Urban Armor have been working on the problem of the personal space within a big city. In fact, the Social Escape Dress is equipped with GSR sensors (Galvanic Skin Response) that indicate a strong feeling of stress. As a result, the dress would emit a cloud of fog from the collar, if the wearer feels stressed and uncomfortable in any surrounding. By experimenting with the smart fabrics, robotics, sensory processing and eye-tracking technology, the Montreal designer Ying Gao got a chance to create the garment, which is complimenting its “user”. It is a series of two dresses, which have the ability to change the form and light up, if someone is looking at the person wearing these dresses. According to The Culture Trip: “It is normally the wearer who notices your gaze, not the clothes themselves, but this innovative creation has everyone’s head turning”. Swarovski gemstone headpiece The creative group “The Unseen”, headed by Lauren Bowker, has always been mixing the fashion and science. The Lauren Bowker, as the press calls her, “The Alchemist” has come with the invention of the ink that changes the color of the item it is applied on. Among a large majority of her inventions, like the hair dye that changes color, the headpiece created for Swarovski is the one that is acting in accordance with human body condition. The headpiece is constructed by the gemstones, which have been specially grown and later covered by the specific ink, created by Lauren, to become real indicators of the shift of amount of energy of the human. In fact, when the gemstones “feel” the transition of the condition of the human, they change color. As the Dezeen has stated: “Excitement, nerves, and fear all produce different colours; and quicker shifts in emotion create more dramatic patterns.” Bubelle emotion sensing dress About a decade ago, Philips have been experimenting with the combination of smart electronics and fashion and, in fact, there was created one of the first garments that react to the wearer’s emotions. The dress is covered with numerous LEDs that illuminate and change colors due to the emotional condition of the human. Such changes are caught by the bottom layer of the dress, in which there have been installed the skin sensors. Caress of the Gaze Behnaz Farahi has developed an interactive garment. The 3D printed collar seems to become an artificial skin that due to built-in camera is able to catch the gaze of the other person and react on it by the lifelike motions. The garment is equipped with the Shape Memory Alloy actuators, which work as a muscle system for this 3D printed “skin”. The idea is to create a conversation not only “person to person”, but “person to person to clothes”. To conclude, the technological innovation and, in fact, technological symbiosis with fashion have given us the ability to create a new way of expressing ourselves and interacting with the outer world through demonstrating our real inner processes. There, the clothes become a medium between a wearer and the surrounding. Such processes are assisting a human to enter a different level of interaction with the others, where the garment might become an equal conversational partner for people and the world. But is it the thing that a person wants? There, step up millions of ethical questions. Would we be able to uncover our thoughts, our mood, health status, etc.? Would we be able to sacrifice the privacy of our own bodies and show up the real “I”? Apple acquired a startup Faceshift, who developed a widely used motion capture technology. Rumors about buying the company from Cupertino Faceshift were before, but now Apple has officially confirmed the purchase, according to TechCrunch. The publication writes that Apple has not confirmed the deal direct text, but the company voiced its standard response to the case of the purchase: “From time to time Apple buys smaller technology companies. And we generally do not discuss our goals and plans”. Company Faceshift, founded in 2012, is located in Zurich. It motion capture technology is actively used in scientific research, computer games and film industry in particular, for the filming of the latest Star Wars. Faceshift is the author of the method of animation characters and objects without the use of markers. This technology requires no special costume or sensors, that is the actor was for the camera in any clothes. Markerless motion capture is especially convenient when shooting the fights, falls, jumps and other complex movements, during which markers may be damaged. Faceshift has consumer software solutions, including Faceshift Freelance and Faceshift Studio. Sales last stop after the company was bought by Apple. With this program you can create characters and export them to the software for 3D-animation. It is unknown what the purpose of the acquisition of Apple. In addition, company from Cupertino have patents on the technology of motion capture, face recognition and augmented reality, which Apple acquired earlier along with three other European companies working in this field – PrimeSense, Polar Rose and Metaio. The media speculated that the company uses the acquired technologies in the new generation Apple TV. A few days charging cable is funded almost 8000 Becker, who invested in UsBidi half a million Australian dollars (about $ 360,000). But the campaign will last 27 days, and most likely, “smart” charger collect half a million in US currency. The goal of the developers was to gather Sydney 35 000 Australian dollars, and at the moment they already have 14 times the amount. UsBidi creators claim that the speed of charging by USB while using the product is doubled. The device charges more quickly due to the fact that unlike other chargers. UsBidi can not synchronize the data simultaneously with the battery charge. To do this, UsBidi a special button that allows you to turn off synchronization and double the speed of the charge. Charging is automatically turned off when fully charged, thus protecting it from overheating, and short-term cycles, reduces the service life. Indicator lights UsBidi will know about the status of charging and convenient magnetic mount will lock the cable. The cable works with smartphones and tablets. Also, the buyer can choose the version with the Lightning connector for Apple devices or for Micro USB devices working on Android. The length of the charging cable can be 30, 90 or 180 cm. Approximate price for UsBidi would be $18 (+ shipment). Thus the buyer can select the connector, color and length.

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|Founded||1896 as The Riley Cycle Company | |Fate||Acquired by William Morris in 1938 thereafter with Morris Motors Limited| |William Riley (1851–1944)| William Victor Riley (1876–1958) Allan Riley (c.1880– ) Percy Riley (1882–1941) Stanley Riley (c.1889–1952) Cecil Riley (c. 1895– ) Riley[note 1] was a British motorcar and bicycle manufacturer from 1890. Riley became part of the Nuffield Organization in 1938 and was merged into the British Leyland Motor Corporation in 1968. In July 1969 British Leyland announced the immediate end of Riley production, although 1969 was a difficult year for the UK auto industry and many cars from Riley's inventory may have been first registered in 1970. Today, the Riley trademark is owned by BMW. Riley Cycle Company The business began as the Bonnick Cycle Company of Coventry, England. In 1890 during the pedal cycle craze that swept Britain at the end of the 19th century William Riley Jr. who had interests in the textile industry purchased the business and in 1896 incorporated a company to own it named The Riley Cycle Company Limited. Later, cycle gear maker Sturmey Archer was added to the portfolio. Riley's middle son, Percy, left school in the same year and soon began to dabble in automobiles. He built his first car at 16, in 1898, secretly, because his father did not approve. It featured the first mechanically operated inlet valve. By 1899, Percy Riley moved from producing motorcycles to his first prototype four-wheeled quadricycle. Little is known about Percy Riley's first "motor-car". It is, however, well attested that the engine featured mechanically operated cylinder valves at a time when other engines depended on the vacuum effect of the descending piston to suck the inlet valve(s) open. That was demonstrated some years later when Benz developed and patented a mechanically operated inlet valve process of their own but were unable to collect royalties on their system from British companies; the courts were persuaded that the system used by British auto-makers was based on the one pioneered by Percy, which had comfortably anticipated equivalent developments in Germany. In 1900, Riley sold a single three-wheeled automobile. Meanwhile, the elder of the Riley brothers, Victor Riley, although supportive of his brother's embryonic motor-car enterprise, devoted his energies to the core bicycle business. Riley's founder William Riley remained resolutely opposed to diverting the resources of his bicycle business into motor cars, and in 1902 three of his sons, Victor, Percy and younger brother Allan Riley pooled resources, borrowed a necessary balancing amount from their mother and in 1903 established the separate Riley Engine Company, also in Coventry. A few years later the other two Riley brothers, Stanley and Cecil, having left school joined their elder brothers in the business. At first, the Riley Engine Company simply supplied engines for Riley motorcycles and also to Singer, a newly emerging motorcycle manufacturer in the area, but the Riley Engine Company soon began to focus on four-wheeled automobiles. Their Vee-Twin Tourer prototype, produced in 1905, can be considered the first proper Riley car. The Riley Engine Company expanded the next year. William Riley reversed his former opposition to his sons' preference for motorised vehicles and Riley Cycle halted motorcycle production in 1907 to focus on automobiles. Bicycle production also ceased in 1911. In 1912, the Riley Cycle Company changed its name to Riley (Coventry) Limited as William Riley focused it on becoming a wire-spoked wheel supplier for the burgeoning motor industry, the detachable wheel having been invented (and patented) by Percy and distributed to over 180 motor manufacturers, and by 1912 the father's business had also dropped automobile manufacture in order to concentrate capacity and resources on the wheels. Exploitation of this new and rapidly expanding lucrative business sector made commercial sense for William Riley, but the abandonment of his motor-bicycle and then of his automobile business which had been the principal customer for his sons' Riley Engine Company enforced a rethink on the engine business. Riley (Coventry) Limited In early 1913, Percy was joined by three of his brothers (Victor, Stanley, and Allan) to focus on manufacturing entire automobiles. The works was located near Percy's Riley Engine Company. The first new model, the 17/30, was introduced at the London Motor Show that year. Soon afterwards, Stanley Riley founded yet another business, the Nero Engine Company, to produce his own 4-cylinder 10 hp (7.5 kW) car. Riley also began manufacturing aeroplane engines and became a key supplier in Britain's buildup for World War I. In 1918, after the war, the Riley companies were restructured. Nero joined Riley (Coventry) as the sole producer of automobiles. Riley Motor Manufacturing under the control of Allan Riley became Midland Motor Bodies, a coachbuilder for Riley. Riley Engine Company continued under Percy as the engine supplier. At this time, Riley's blue diamond badge, designed by Harry Rush, also appeared. The motto was "As old as the industry, as modern as the hour." Riley grew rapidly through the 1920s and 1930s. The Riley Engine Company produced 4-, 6-, and 8-cylinder engines, while Midland built more than a dozen different bodies. Riley models at this time included: - Saloons: Adelphi, 'Continental'(Close-coupled Touring Saloon), Deauville, Falcon, Kestrel, Mentone, Merlin, Monaco, Stelvio, Victor - Coupes: Ascot, Lincock - Tourers: Alpine, Lynx, Gamecock - Sports: Brooklands, Imp, MPH, Sprite - Limousines: Edinburgh, Winchester Introduced in 1926 in a humble but innovatively designed fabric bodied saloon, Percy Riley's ground-breaking Riley 9 engine- a small capacity, high revving unit- was ahead of its time in many respects. Having hemispherical combustion chambers and inclined overhead valves, it has been called the most significant engine development of the 1920s. With twin camshafts set high in the cylinder block and valves operated by short pushrods, it provided power and efficiency without the servicing complexity of an OHC (overhead camshaft) layout. It soon attracted the attention of tuners and builders of 'specials' intended for sporting purposes. One such was engineer/driver J.G. Parry-Thomas, who conceived the Riley 'Brooklands' (initially called the '9' Speed Model) in his workshops at the banked Surrey circuit. After Parry-Thomas was killed during a land speed record attempt in 1927, his close collaborator Reid Railton stepped in to finish the job. Officially backed by Riley, the Brooklands, along with later developments and variations such as the 'Ulster' Imp, MPH, and Sprite, proved some of the most successful works and privateer racing cars of the late 1920s and early 1930s. At Le Mans in 1934, Rileys finished 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th and 12th, winning the Rudge-Whitworth Cup, the Team Prize, two class awards, and the Ladies' Prize. Rileys also distinguished themselves at the Ulster TT, at Brooklands itself, and at smaller events like hill climbs, while providing a platform for the success of motorsports' first women racing drivers such as Kay Petre, Dorothy Champney and Joan Richmond. Another engineer/driver, Freddie Dixon, was responsible for extensive improvements to engine and chassis tuning, creating a number of 'specials' that exploited the basic Riley design still further, and contributed greatly to its success on the track. For series production, the engine configuration was extended into a larger 12 horsepower '4', six-cylinder and even V8 versions, powering an increasingly bewildering range of touring and sports cars. The soundness and longevity of the engine design is illustrated by Mike Hawthorn's early racing success after WW2 in pre-war Rileys, in particular his father's Sprite. By about 1936, however, the business had overextended, with too many models and few common parts, and the emergence of Jaguar at Coventry was a direct challenge. Disagreements between the Riley brothers about the future direction of the enterprise grew. Victor Riley had set up a new ultra-luxury concern, Autovia, to produce a V8 saloon and limousine to compete with Rolls-Royce. By contrast, Percy, however, did not favour an entry into the luxury market, and the Riley Engine Company had been renamed PR Motors to be a high-volume supplier of engines and components. Although the rest of the Riley companies would go on to become part of Nuffield and then BMC, PR Motors remained independent. After the death of Percy Riley in 1941, his business began producing transmission components and still exists today, producing marine and off-highway vehicle applications, as PRM Newage Limited based in Aldermans Green, Coventry. Percy's widow Norah ran his business for many years and was Britain's businesswoman of the year in 1960. By 1937, Riley began to look to other manufacturers for partnerships. A contract with Briggs Motor Bodies of Dagenham to provide all-steel bodies for a cheaper, more mass-market saloon had already turned sour, with dozens of unsold bodies littering the factory. It had withdrawn from works racing after its most successful year, 1934, although it continued to supply engines for the ERA, a voiturette (Formula 2) racing car based on the supercharged 6-cylinder 'White Riley', developed by ERA founder Raymond Mays in the mid-thirties. BMW of Munich, Germany was interested in expanding its range into England. But the Riley brothers were more interested in a larger British concern, and looked to Triumph Motor Company, also of Coventry, as a natural fit. In February 1938, all negotiations were suspended. On 24 February the directors placed Riley (Coventry) Limited and Autovia in voluntary receivership. On 10 March the Triumph board announced merger negotiations had been dropped. It was announced on 9 September 1938 that the assets and goodwill of Riley Motors (Coventry) Limited had been purchased from the receiver by Lord Nuffield and he would on completion transfer ownership to Morris Motors Limited "on terms which will show very considerable financial advantage to the company, resulting in further consolidation of its financial position". Mr Victor Riley then said this did not mean that the company would cease its activities. On 30 September Victor Riley announced that Riley (Coventry) Limited would be wound up but it would appear that the proceeds of liquidation would be insufficient to meet the amount due to debenture holders.[note 2] Nuffield paid £143,000 for the business and a new company was formed, Riley Motors Limited. However, in spite of the announced intention to wind-up Riley (Coventry) Limited, perhaps for tax reasons, continued under the management of Victor Riley presumably with the necessary consents of debenture holders (part paid) creditors (nothing) and former shareholders (nothing). Nuffield passed ownership to his Morris Motors Limited for £100. Along with other Morris Motors subsidiaries Wolseley and MG, Riley would later be promoted as a member of the Nuffield Organization. Riley Motors Limited seems to have begun trading at the end of the 1940s when Riley (Coventry) Limited disappeared.. Nuffield took quick measures to firm up the Riley business. Autovia was no more, with just 35 cars having been produced. Riley refocused on the 4-cylinder market with two engines: A 1.5-litre 12 hp engine and the "Big Four", a 2.5-litre 16 hp unit (The hp figures are RAC Rating, and bear no relationship to bhp or kW). Only a few bodies were produced prior to the onset of war in 1939, and some components were shared with Morris for economies of scale. Though they incorporated a number of mechanical improvements- notably a Nuffield synchromesh gearbox- they were essentially interim models, suffering a loss of Riley character in the process. The new management responded to the concerns of the marque's loyal adherents by re-introducing the Kestrel 2.5 litre Sports Saloon in updated form, but as the factory was turned over to wartime production this was a short-lived development. After World War II, Riley took up the old engines in new models, based in concept on the 1936-8 'Continental', a fashionable 'notchback' design whose name had been changed prior to release to 'Close-Coupled Touring Saloon' owing to feared objections from Rolls-Royce. The RMA used the 1.5-litre engine, while the RMB got the Big Four. Both engines, being derived from pre-war models, lent themselves as power units for specials and new specialist manufacturers, such as Donald Healey.The RM line of vehicles, sold under the "Magnificent Motoring" tag line, were to be a re-affirmation of Riley values in both road behaviour and appearance. 'Torsionic' front independent suspension and steering design inspired by the Citroën Traction Avant provided precise handling; their flowing lines were particularly well-balanced, marrying pre-war 'coachbuilt' elegance to more modern features, such as headlamps faired into the front wings. The RMC, a 3-seater roadster was an unsuccessful attempt to break into the American market, while the RMD was an elegant 4/5-seater two-door drophead, of which again few were made. The 1.5-litre RME and 2.5-litre RMF were later developments of the saloon versions, which continued in production into the mid-fifties. Victor Riley was removed by Nuffield in 1947. In early 1949 the Coventry works were made an extension of Morris Motors' engine branch. Riley production was consolidated with MG at Abingdon. Wolseley production was moved to Cowley. Nuffield's marques were then organised in a similar way to those of General Motors: Morris was the value line, and Wolseley the luxury marque. Aside from their small saloons MG largely offered spartan performance, especially with their open sports cars, while Riley sought to be both sporty and luxurious. With Wolseley also fighting for the top position, however, the range was crowded and confused. British Motor Corporation The confusion became critical in 1952 with the merger of Nuffield and Austin as the British Motor Corporation. Now, Riley was positioned between MG and Wolseley and most Riley models would become, like those, little more than badge-engineered versions of Austin/Morris designs. The first all-new Riley under BMC, however, was designated the RMH, and because of its distinctive engine and suspension design, has been called 'the last real Riley'. This was the Pathfinder, with Riley's familiar 2.5-litre four developed to produce 110 bhp. (The RMG 'Wayfarer', a projected 1.5-litre version, was rejected as underpowered). The Pathfinder body was later reworked and, with a different engine and rear suspension, sold as the Wolseley 6/90. The Riley lost its distinct (though externally subtle) differences in 1958, and the 6/90 of that year was available badge engineered as a Riley Two-Point-Six. Although this was the only postwar 6-cylinder Riley, its C-Series engine was actually less powerful than the Riley Big Four that it replaced. This was to be the last large Riley, with the model dropped in May 1959 and Riley refocusing on the under-2-litre segment. Riley and Wolseley were linked in small cars as well. Launched in 1957, the Riley One-Point-Five and Wolseley 1500 were based on the unused but intended replacement for the Morris Minor. They shared their exteriors, but the Riley was marketed as the more performance-oriented option, having an uprated engine, twin S.U. carburetters and a close-ratio gearbox. With its good handling, compact, sports-saloon styling and well-appointed interior, the One-Point-Five quite successfully recaptured the character of the 1930s light saloons. At the top of the Riley line for April 1959 was the new Riley 4/Sixty-Eight saloon. Again, it was merely a badge-engineered version of other BMC models. The steering was perhaps the worst feature of the car, being Austin-derived cam and peg rather than the rack and pinion of the One-Point-Five. Overall, it could not provide the sharp and positive drive associated with previous Rileys, being based on the humble Austin Cambridge and Morris Oxford. Sharing many features with the similarly upmarket MG Magnette Mark III and Wolseley 15/60, it was the most luxurious of the versions, which were all comfortable and spacious, and (nominally) styled by Farina. The car was refreshed, along with its siblings, in 1961 and rebadged the 4/Seventy-Two. The early 1960s also saw the introduction of the Riley Elf based on the original Mini. Again, a Wolseley model (the Hornet) was introduced simultaneously. This time, the Riley and Wolseley versions were differentiated visually by their grilles but identical mechanically. The final model of the BMC era was the Kestrel 1100/1300, based on the Austin/Morris 1100/1300 saloon (BMC ADO16). This also had stablemates in Wolseley and MG versions. Following objections from diehard Riley enthusiasts, the Kestrel name was dropped for the last facelift in 1968, the Riley 1300. Between 1966 and 1968, a series of mergers took place in the British motor industry, ultimately creating the British Leyland Motor Corporation, whose management embarked on a programme of rationalisation—in which the Riley marque was an early casualty. The badge began to be discontinued in many export markets almost immediately. A BLMC press release was reported in The Times of 9 July 1969: "British Leyland will stop making Riley cars from today. "With less than 1 per cent of the home market, they are not viable" the company said last night. The decision will end 60 years of motoring history. No other marques in the British Leyland stable are likely to suffer the same fate "in the foreseeable future". In spite of the decline of the marque under BMC, surviving well-preserved examples of the period are now considered desirable classics, the Riley 'face' and badge lending a distinctive character. The needs of enthusiasts are met by the Riley Motor Club, the original factory Club founded in 1925. Riley production ended with the 1960s, and the marque became dormant. The last Riley badged car was produced in 1969. For many enthusiasts, however, the name of Riley still has resonance into the 21st century. Many of the original racing Rileys compete regularly in VSCC (Vintage Sports Car Club) events, and pre-war racing 'specials' continue to be created (controversially) from tired or derelict saloons. For a short while, following BMW's purchase of the Rover Group in 1994, there were hopes that Riley might be revived, since the then Chairman Bernd Pischetsrieder was an enthusiast for many of the defunct British marques. After Pischetsrieder's removal in 1999, and BMW's divestment of the MG Rover Group in 2000, however, these hopes faded; though the rights to the Triumph and Riley marques, along with Mini were retained by BMW. In 2007, William Riley, who claims to be a descendant of the Riley family, although this has been disputed, formed MG Sports and Racing Europe Ltd. This new business acquired assets relating to the MG XPower SV sportscar from PricewaterhouseCoopers, the administrators of the defunct MG Rover Group, and intended to continue production of the model as the MG XPower WR. In September 2010 the motor magazine 'Autocar' reported that BMW were considering the revival of the Riley brand in the form of a variant of the redesigned MINI. This would most likely be a luxury version taking its cues from the 'Elf' of 1961-9, with a 'notchback' (booted) body, and the interior trimmed in wood and leather in the manner of earlier Rileys. No sources were quoted, however, and in the absence of any statement from BMW reports of the possible resurrection of Riley must be regarded as highly speculative. Autocar reiterated this information in April 2016. List of Riley vehicles Pre-World War I - 1907–1911 Riley 9 - 1907–1907 Riley 12 - 1909–1914 Riley 10 - 1908–1914 Riley 12/18 - 1915–1916 Riley 10 - 1913–1922 Riley 17/30 - 1919–1924 Riley Eleven - 1925–1928 Riley Twelve - 1926–1937 Riley Nine - 1929–1934 Riley 14/6 - 1933–1935 Riley 12/6 - 1935–1935 Riley 12/4 - 1935–1938 Riley 15/6 - 1935–1938 Riley 1½-litre - 1936–1938 Riley 8/90 V8 - 1937–1940 Riley 16 - 1938–1938 Riley Victor - 1939–1940 Riley 12 Nuffield body - 1927–1931 Riley Brooklands Nine - 1934–1935 Riley Imp Nine - 1934–1935 Riley MPH 12/6 14/6 or 15/6 - 1936–1938 Riley Sprite 12/4 1½ litre - 1961–1969 Riley Elf (Mini variant) - 1965–1969 Riley Kestrel (variant of the Austin/Morris 1100/1300) - Information extracted from Notice issued in compliance with the Regulations of the Committee of The Stock Exchange, London (with regard to the issue of 150,000 Preference Shares of £1 each on 17 January 1934). - The Company was incorporated in England on 25 June 1896 under the name The Riley Cycle Company Limited, changed to Riley (Coventry) Limited on 30 March 1912. - In and around the year 1927 closer working arrangements were made between the Company and the Riley Engine Company and the Midland Motor Body Company whereby the designing and manufacturing resources of the three businesses were pooled. - (During 1932) these two associated concerns were absorbed by the Company which became a completely self-contained manufacturing unit on modern lines. - The Company's works at Coventry and Hendon cover a combined area of 16½ acres, in addition to which the Company owns adjoining land at Coventry of approximately 6 acres. - About 2,200 workpeople are regularly employed. Riley (Coventry) Limited. The Times, Thursday, 18 January 1934; pg. 18; Issue 46655 - Riley Motors Limited, Company no. 00344156 was incorporated 8 September 1938—and changed its name in 1994 to BLMC Engineering Limited. Curiously the name Riley (Coventry) Limited continued to be used in all Nuffield group advertising until 1946 as if the original company had not been liquidated but continued to survive. Riley Motors Limited was used in all advertising between 1950 and July 1960 - Peter King (1989). The Motor Men: Pioneers of the British Car Industry. Quiller. ISBN 1-870948-23-8. - Hastings, Harold (1 November 1969). "'Renowned since '98". Motor. No. 3515. pp. 19–22. - Riley (Coventry) Limited. The Times, Thursday, 18 January 1934; pg. 18; Issue 46655 - "Riley family (per. 1890–1969), bicycle and motor car manufacturers | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". www.oxforddnb.com. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/107240. Retrieved 11 March 2020. - "Collections". Retrieved 30 July 2017. - Collection Explorer, National Museum of Australia- Joan Richmond collectionsearch.nma.gov.au, accessed 11 July 2019 - The Future Of Riley (Coventry).The Times, Saturday, 26 February 1938; pg. 17; Issue 47929. - Merger Negotiations Dropped. The Times, Friday, 11 March 1938; pg. 21; Issue 47940. - Riley Motors. Purchase by Lord Nuffield, The Times, Saturday, 10 September 1938; pg. 17; Issue 48096 - Riley (Coventry) Winding Up. The Times, Saturday, 1 October 1938; pg. 17; Issue 48114 - Obituary, Mr. Victor Riley. The Times, Tuesday, 11 February 1958; pg. 10; Issue 54072 - Report of the A.G.M. of Morris Motors Limited, The Manchester Guardian; 9 May 1939; - Riley - Specials rileyrob.co.uk, accessed 11 July 2019 - M.G. and Riley to combine, The Manchester Guardian; 22 January 1949; p.6 - Braunschweig, Robert; et al., eds. (13 March 1969). "Automobil Revue - Katalognummer 1969/Revue Automobile - Numéro catalogue 1969" (in German and French). 64. Berne, Switzerland: Hallwag AG: 461. Cite journal requires - News in Brief. End of the line for Riley. The Times, Wednesday, 9 July 1969; pg. 2; Issue 57607 - Riley, V. W. (19 July 2008). "Riley dynastic claim is a non-starter". Financial Times. Retrieved 4 January 2010. - "MG is back on the road". Birmingham Mail. Midland Newspapers Limited. 8 April 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2009. - "Mini Countryman Coupe revealed - Autocar". www.autocar.co.uk. Retrieved 30 July 2017. - "Mini saloon to be fifth model in new-look range - Autocar". www.autocar.co.uk. Retrieved 30 July 2017. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Riley Motors.| - Brochures (incomplete) - Riley 12-18 tourer 1909 - The Riley RM Club - The Club for the Preservation of all Rileys from 1945-1957 - Riley Motor Club 'The Club for all Rileys' - The 1100 Club based in the UK - Austin and Longbridge All about the history of Longbridge and models produced |BMH||BLMC / British Leyland||Jaguar |Rover||Rover Company||Rover Company||Rover Company||Austin Rover Group Land Rover Group (BL plc) |Rover Group (BAe)||Rover Group |MG Rover Group (PVH)| |Land Rover||Ford (PAG)| |Standard||Standard||Standard Triumph||Leyland Motors||British Motor Heritage| |MG||Morris Garages (MG)||Rover Group |MG Rover Group (PVH)||SAIC |Vanden Plas||Vanden Plas| |Princess||BMC||BLMC / British Leyland| |Austin-Healey||Austin (BMC) & Donald Healey|

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A short text that discusses the various facets of "Jihãd" according to the Qur'an, and addresses the issues raised by critics who quote Qur'anic verses to argue that Islam is intrinsically non-peaceful. (This book is an expanded version of the talk given on the “Islam in Focus” TV program of October 2001) On September 11, 2001, a few individuals hijacked four civilian airplanes and used them as weapons to create terror in United States, especially on the two World Trade Center buildings. All the crew and passengers in the four planes as well as about three thousand civilians lost their lives in those attacks. The foreign policies of the United States of America vis-à-vis the Muslim countries do not justify that American civilians in the planes and the World Trade Center buildings be killed. This is not what Islam teaches. Look at the instructions of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) during war-time: he clearly forbade the killing of the old, the children, and the women.1 Those who lost their lives in the World Trade Center towers and in the planes were all civilians, and quite a few of them were Muslims. All Muslim leaders in the United States of America, Canada, and the entire world clearly condemned the hijacking that was committed in the United States as act of terrorism which is not acceptable by Islam. This condemnation is based on the universal value of sanctity for human life. The holy Qur’an relates the story of the first murder in human history, that of the two sons of Adam in which Cain (Qabīl) murdered his brother Abel (Habīl). This is in Chapter 5 of the Qur’an, verses 27 to 31. At the conclusion of this story, Almighty God says: “Whosoever kills a person without any reason (of murder or mischief in the earth), it is as though he has killed all the people. And whosoever saves a single life, it is as though he has saved all the people.” (Surah al-Maaida, 5:32) It is clear from this verse that unless a person is put on trial and proven to have murdered someone, he or she cannot be killed — and that killing an innocent person is tantamount to killing all humans. One of the ironies of this era is that although the means of communication have greatly advanced, people still have difficulty in a meaningful communication and dialogue with other cultures and religions. There is a lot of misinformation and misunderstanding of the Islamic faith. Many individuals, laymen as well as experts, have tried to link 9/11 to the concept of jihad in Islam. In one of the famous radio talk shows of Toronto, soon after 9-11, I heard one caller saying that what happened on that day was 10% terrorism and 90% Islam. A fundamentalist Christian leader in the US said on his TV show that “Probably Muhammad was a terrorist.” So it is important to talk about jihad in Islam. Islam is primarily a religion of peace. Its name “Islam” comes from “silm” which means two things: one is “submitting to God” and the second is “peace”. Both meanings are inter-twinned. Whenever Muslims meet one another, they use the greeting of peace: “as-salamu ‘alaykum — peace be upon you”, and the other person responds by saying “‘alaykumus salam — upon you be peace.” The daily prayers begin with praising God as “Mercy and Beneficent” and ends with the greeting of peace for all. The concept of “jihad” needs to be understood clearly. Many people in the media take Qur’anic text out of context. And so let us see: what is the meaning of jihad? The word “jihad” does not mean “holy war”. This is a Western rending of a broader concept in Islamic teaching. Ask any expert of Arabic language and he will tell you that “jihad” does not mean “holy war”. The term “holy war” has come from the Christian concept of “just war,” and has been used loosely as an Islamic term since the days of the Crusades. In Arabic language, the word jihad literally means striving and working hard for something. In Islamic terminology, it retains the literal meaning in two different dimensions, which are expressed by “major jihad” and “minor jihad”. The major jihad is known as the spiritual struggle, a struggle between two powers within ourselves: the soul and the body. The conscience is in conflict with the bodily desires. This spiritual conflict is an ongoing jihad within each one of us. Islam expects its followers to give preference to the soul and the conscience over the body and its desires. The fasting in the month of Ramadhan is an example of the annual training for this major jihad. The minor jihad is the armed struggle. However, that does not automatically mean unjustified use of violence. The minor jihad may be divided into two: aggression and defense. Aggression against any people is not permitted in Islam; however, defense is an absolute right of every individual and nation. Islam has allowed the minor jihad only to defend the Muslim people and their land, and to maintain peace in Muslim societies. Let us now go to some verses from the Qur’an. The first battle fought by the Prophet and his followers was a war of defense. It is known as the Battle of Badr, a place that is near the city of Medina (the Prophet’s city in Arabia). This was a battle in which the Prophet came with his followers to face the enemy force that had come all the way from Mecca that was still controlled by the infidels. The first verse of the minor jihad, the armed struggle, revealed at that time is in Chapter 22, Surah Al-Hajj, of the Qur’an, verses 39-40. It clearly explains the purpose of the minor jihad: “Permission is granted to those who are fighting because they have been oppressed…those who have been expelled from their homes without any just cause…” (Surah al-Hajj, 22:39-40) Again, referring to the non-believers of Mecca who waged war after war against the Prophet and his followers in Medina, the Qur’an in Chapter 2, Surah al-Baqara, verse 190, says: “Fight in the way of God those who are fighting against you; and do not exceed (the limits). Verily Allah does not love those who exceed (the limits).” (Surah al-Baqara, 2:190) In this verse, the talk is about responding to a war by defending yourself; there is no talk of initiating aggression at all. Even in the defensive mode of struggle, Almighty God warns the Muslims that they should not “exceed” beyond the proper limits. Islam teaches that Muslims should be strong in order to defend themselves, but that does not mean they have to become aggressive and unjust. In Chapter 8, Surah al-Anfal, verses 60-61 of the Qur’an, God has provided this general guidance very clearly when He addresses Muslims in the following way: “Prepare against them (i.e., the enemy) with whatever force and trained horses you can in order to frighten thereby Allah’s enemy, your enemy, and others besides them who you do not know but Allah knows them.” (Surah al-Anfal, 8:60) After giving this general guidance of being strong and prepared to defend ourselves, the verse goes on: “But if they (the enemies) incline to peace, then you (also) incline to it, and put your trust in Allah…” (Surah al-Anfal, 8:61) In short, Islam wants Muslims to be strong so that others would not bully them; but then they have to extend the hand of peace even towards their enemies if there is an inclination of peace on the enemy’s part. Some writers and speakers quote the Qur’anic verses out of context and try to blame Islam for promoting violence and terrorism. They take a “text” and use it outside its “context”. It is just like someone searches through the Bible and picks the following words or sentences to prove that the Bible promotes violence: “Take all the leader of these people, kill them.” (Numbers 25:7) “Now kill all the boys. And kill every woman who has slept with a man, but save for yourselves every girl who has never slept with a man.” (Numbers 31:17-18) “Kill every male and every woman who is not a virgin.” (Judges 21:11) No fair-minded person will accept such “out of context” presentation of the Biblical verses. Yet we see many Christian evangelists and missionaries do exactly the same to the Qur’an without any hesitation. So let us look at some examples of taking the Qur’anic “text” outside its “context”. Chapter 2 (Surah al-Baqara), verse 191 is quoted as follows: “Kill them wherever you find them.” To understand the full context of this verse, read verses 190 to 193 together: “And fight in the way of God those who are fighting against you, and do not exceed the limits, surely God does not love those who exceed the limits. And kill them wherever you find them, and drive them out from whence they drove you out–persecution is severer than slaughter. And do not fight them at the Sacred Mosque [in Mecca] until they fight with you in it; but if they do fight you, then slay them; such is the recompense of the unbelievers. But if they desist, then surely God is Forgiving, Merciful. And fight them until there is no persecution and religion should be only for God; but if they desist, then there should be no hostility except against the oppressors.” The context clarifies that the verse 191 is allowing Muslims of Medina to defend themselves against the aggression of the unbelievers of Mecca. It surely does not say that Muslims should go around the world killing any infidel that they find! Chapter 4 (Surah an-Nisaa), verse 74 which supposedly encourages blood shedding: “So let those fight in the way of God who are willing to sell this world’s life for the hereafter; and whoever fights in the way of God, then be he slain or be he victorious, We shall grant him a mighty reward.” (Surah an-Nisaa, 4:74) Those who quote this verse, conveniently leave out the next verse no. 75 which explains the purpose and justification for the minor jihad: “And what is the matter with you that you do not fight in the way of God for [the sake of] the oppressed men, women, and children who pray: ‘Our Lord, take us out of this town whose people are oppressors, and appoint for us from Thee a guardian and give us from Thee a helper…” (Surah an-Nisaa, 4:75) This verse is clearly urging the Muslim to stand up for the oppressed men, women and children. Should not divine religions defend the oppressed men, women and children? Chapter 9 (Surah at-Tawba), verse 12: “Fight the leaders of unbelief.” This is just part of the whole passage where God talks about the Muslims in Medina and their truce agreement with the unbelievers of Mecca. See verses 12 to 14: “And if they break their oaths after their agreement and revile your religion, then fight the leaders of unbelief –surely their oaths are of no value– so that they may desist. “What is the matter with you that you do not fight a people who broke their oaths and aimed at the expulsion of the Prophet [from Mecca], and they attacked you first? Do you fear them? But God is most deserving that you should fear Him, if you are believers. “Fight them; God will punish them by your hands and bring them to disgrace, and assist you against them, heal the hearts of a believing people, remove the rage of their hearts, and God turns (mercifully) to whom He pleases, and Allah is Knowing, Wise.” The context clearly gives the right of defence to the Muslim but, in no way, does it promote aggression. Chapter 9 (Surah at-Tawba), verse 36: “Fight the polytheists all together.” In reality, this sentence is part of an entire verse in which God talks about the sacredness of four of the twelve months in which fighting is forbidden. Then it says: “And fight the polytheists all together as they fight you all together; and know that God is with those who guard (evil).” Those who like to take this Qur’anic verse out of its context conveniently miss out the part “as they fight you all together”. As you see, this verse is also responding to the aggression started by the polytheists against the Muslims; it does not talk about initiating a war. From these examples, it is quite clear that Islam is not talking about the minor jihad for the sake of aggression; rather it is allowing the Muslims to physically defend their lives, properties, and lands against any aggression, and also to fight for ending tyranny against the oppressed men, women and children. The verses regarding the idol-worshippers of Mecca are very specific and related to that time period. Let us again look at Chapter 22, verses 39-40: “Permission (to fight) is granted to those who are fighting because they have been oppressed, and most surely God is well able to assist them. Those who have been expelled from their homes without a just cause except that they say, ‘Our Lord is Allah.’ (Surah al-Hajj, 22:39) “Had there not been God’s repelling some people by others, certainly the monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which God’s name is mentioned would have been demolished. And surely God will help him who helps His cause; most surely Allah is Strong, Mighty.” (Surah al-Hajj, 22:40) Islam deals with the realistic human society and not with the idealistic society. In the words of Dr. Sayyid Hussain Nasr, “Muslims view the Christian ethics as being too sublime for ordinary human beings to follow; it seems that the injunction to turn the other cheek was being meant only for saints. Christian people over the centuries have not shown any more restraint in war than have non-Christians. The ideal preached and the practice followed have often little to do with each other.”2 Let us conclude with the chapter 109 of the Qur’an: “Say: O those who do not believe! I do not worship what you worship. Nor do you worship what I worship. Nor am I going to worship what you worship. Nor are you going to worship what I worship. You shall have your religion, and I shall have my religion.” (Surah al-Kafiroon, 109:1-6) Just because the term “jihad” is misused by some Muslims for their political agenda, Muslims don’t have to abandon this noble concept of their faith. While talking about jihad, I have heard many Muslims describing only the major (spiritual) jihad and shying away from the minor jihad in the sense of armed struggle for defense. As Muslims, we stand by our teachings and don’t need to apologize for it even if some misguided souls hijack the terms of our faith for their own political ends. It is not only the likes of Bin Laden who hijack and misuse the noble terms of Islam; we have even seen the government of the United States of America promoting the concept of minor jihad when it suited its own geopolitical interests. During the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the 80’s, the U.S. Agency for International Development spent millions of dollars to supply Afghan school children with textbooks filled with violent images and “militant Islamic” teachings. Published in the dominant Afghan languages of Dari and Pashtu, these textbooks were developed in the early 1980s under an AID grant to the University of Nebraska-Omaha and its Centre for Afghanistan Studies. The agency spent $51 million on the university’s education programs in Afghanistan from 1984 to 1994. The primers, which were filled with talk of jihad and featured drawings of guns, bullets, soldiers and mines, have served since then as the Afghan school system’s core curriculum. Unlike the children in the rest of the world whose math textbooks have pictures of apples and oranges, the Afghan children were taught to count with illustrations showing tanks, missiles and land mines.3 And so when it suited its strategic interests, the United States of America promoted the culture of jihad among the Afghan children in the 80’s and President Reagan even welcomed the Afghan “mujahideen” in the While House. (Even the Taliban used the American-produced books, though the radical movement scratched out human faces in keeping with its strict fundamental code.) Now that that culture of violence has come to haunt it, the US administration is absolutely against the idea of jihad and expects Muslims to abandon that concept in totality. Muslims cannot be expected to change their views on the noble concept of jihad just because of some misguided Muslims or some world powers’ misuse of that term. Muslims should strongly condemn the misuse of jihad and confidently affirm the concept of jihad as explained in the Qur’an and the noble examples of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). In light of what we have said above, there is no justification in linking 9/11 to the concept of the minor jihad in Islam. However, we are deeply saddened to see that certain segments of the media, especially the radio talk shows, are still fuelling the hatred against the Muslims, the Arabs, and the great monotheistic faith of Islam. This is in spite of the fact that Muslims have universally condemned the act of terror of September 11th in which innocent lives were lost. Targeting the Muslims or the Arabs based on guilt-by-association is absolutely wrong. The double standard in the media is really appalling. Just think for a moment: When a bomb exploded in early days of September 2001 in Northern Ireland near a Catholic school in a Protestant neighbourhood, no one in the media blamed the entire Protestant community as “terrorists and murderers”. When the IRA committed acts of terror in Northern Ireland or United Kingdom, no one in the western media labeled the Catholic faith “as the religion of terrorism”. When Dr. Goldstein, a Jewish settler in Israel, entered the mosque in Hebron few years ago and gunned down Palestinian worshippers, no one said that all Jewish people are “terrorists”. When Serbians brutally massacred Muslims in Bosnia, the media never blamed the Serbian Orthodox Church for it even though some priests of that church used to bless the Serbian militia before they embarked on executing the Muslim prisoners. YET we see that when a few Arabs or Muslims commit acts of terror, all the Muslims and all the Arabs are automatically branded as “terrorists and murderers.” As Muslims, we ask the media for fairness, and nothing more. The media should realize that the hijackers who used those planes as weapons did not only hijack the planes and kill thousands of innocent people in United of States of America; they also victimized a billion Muslims who are now being labeled as “murderers and terrorists”. - 1. Hurr al-‘Ãmili, Wasã’ilu ’sh-Sh¢‘a, vol. 11, p. 43. - 2. See in Hans Kung & Jurgen Moltmann, eds., Christianity Among World Religions (Edinburgh: Clark, 1986) p. 7. - 3. Information on US financed “jihãdi culture” is based on the article of Joe Stephens and David B. Ottaway, “From U.S., the ABC’s of Jihad” in Washington Post, March 23, 2002, page A01. The so-called “jihãdi culture” (which should be rightly named as “kalashnikov culture” of Afghanistan) not only came to haunt US itself; it also breed militancy in the sectarian Sunni group of Pakistan like Sipah-e Sahaba and now shows its ugly face, through the vehicle of al-Qaeda, in Iraq also.

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In today’s globalized world the two primary powers are the United States (the hegemon) and China (the rising challenger). Their respective models of global leadership could shape the future of 21st Century international relations. However, their styles could not be more different. While America has long relied on an international order of liberal and inclusive institutions that have laid out the rules and regulations of global governance, reinforced by a series of alliance systems as military cover; China basis its own vision on historical experience, an experience derived from the key role played by the ancient silk roads’ in helping facilitate an era of ancient globalization. To put it simply, due to the nature of globalization, isolation has become taboo while alliances and international cooperation are becoming increasingly important. Thus, for the last 75 years we have lived under America’s global vision; however, increasingly China is seeking to implement its own model of universal collaboration in the form of its Belt and Road Initiative. Only time will tell which model is best suited for dealing with the numerous challenges of today. It is highly likely that during the 21st Century there will be an even greater spread of communication and technology resulting in a more computerized world and thus creating a more interconnected global system. One result of this spread will possibly be the diminishing of the border system as the bastion of State legitimacy and protection. Thus, the idea of one country acting as the sole global policeman is virtually impossible, the days of Rome are long gone and the days of U.S. hegemony are also fading. However, does that necessarily mean that the international order set up by America in the aftermath of World War II is also on the wane? Introducing A Global Crisis: The Covid-19 Blame Game It is easy for us to work together when things are going smoothly, but the mark of a healthy international and cosmopolitan civilization is both learning and trying to cooperate as one entity in times of crisis. The Covid-19 Pandemic was the perfect opportunity for the world to come together for arguably the first time in human history. This is unique, albeit it is a tragic moment in our history that rarely occurs (the last time was 1918-1920 in form of the Spanish Flu). The Coronavirus Pandemic is original in its context because we are not living through an ordinary or mainstream war fought among nations, empires or other forms of polities or even armed organizations. Instead the international community consisting of nation-States, Intergovernmental Organizations, Non-Governmental Organizations, international courts, financial and sporting institutions and business-corporations all face a common threat that affects every human being. Rich and poor, king and pauper, both powerful and weak States, big and small Businesses, peacemakers and terrorists are all threatened by the Coronavirus. No corner of the world is immune or safe from this ravaging Pandemic. Yet despite this present and clear treat what do we see, we see blame and figure pointing. America blames China while China blames the U.S. military for initiating and thus presenting this deadly pandemic to the entire world (Horsley 2020; Jaworsky and Qiaoan 2020). In a situation where the rest of the world looks to China and the U.S., the two most powerful and influential countries on earth, for guidance – these two great powers instead continue to place the majority of their efforts into blaming each other for initiating the spread of the Virus rather than trying to bring the global community together to discover a common solution to ending this Pandemic. To phrase it differently, is the America-China blame game based on a genuinely held belief by both governments/administrations that blame for the spread of Covid-19 lies on the other country’s door step (the first theory)? or is it based on sinister rival politics which can be explained by the power transition theory (the second reason)? In this writer’s opinion the power transition theory better explains the current policy stances of both governments. In other words, the Covid-19 blame game is just another policy ploy manipulated by both governments in order to discredit the other’s standing in the world in terms of influence, prestige and as a reliable global partner in times of crisis. The current global health crisis is another arena in which China (the world’s rising economic and military power) and the United States (the current global hegemon) look to upstage the other on the international stage. The Coronavirus will likely heighten tensions between China and America, whose relationship is already at its most critical and lowest point since China opened up to the West in 1978. This is because in addition to the Covid-19 blame game, the U.S.-China rivalry is also in the midst of ongoing and serious trade, economic, diplomatic and military disputes (thank God short of military confrontation). This rivalry does not bode well for either nation and for the larger nation-State community, who look to and rely on both countries for a variety of issues especially for commercial, economic and military assistance and cooperation. History of Globalization Globalization is a divisive term splitting those who believe in a unified world from those who adhere to the nation-state concept. However, if we examine the history of globalization we would find that it is rooted in colonialism. In other words, colonialism paved the way towards globalization (Dirlik, 2002). It was European colonization and the European empires’ competition for wealth and economic power (which arguably became a priority of history with the transition from feudalism to capitalism in Western Europe) in far-flung regions that resulted in the global spread of Western political-economic ideas which form the basis of our modern political world. In other words, colonialism dragged capitalism with it to all four corners of the world. The importance of the spread of capitalism in creating a globalized world cannot be understated. Despite its many shortcomings, the capitalist system drove “an enormous increase in world productive capacity and in world population” (Wallerstein 1992, p. 564). The substantive rise in world production was due to the emergence of the industrial revolution and the shift from agricultural based economies to industrial based economies. Furthermore, this new global productivity created new wealth and new scientific and medical discoveries which helped fuel a world population expansion to such an extent that some people have proclaimed that overpopulation is an existential threat to the Earth. Another vast problem facing humanity today is the growing economic gap between the wealthy classes and the rest of the world’s population. What makes this situation unique is that the wealthy strata are truly globalized, and the rest of society is also very universal in scope. For example, it is no longer a question of a rich European economically controlling the lives of the colonists. Nowadays there are super-wealthy Arabs, Asians and Africans, and poor Westerners and vice versa. Therefore, it is such threats that require us as a global society to collaborate and cooperate more soundly and with greater vigor, understanding, and most importantly with human compassion. Taking it further to within the confounds of this article’s main question; should the international community bandwagon thus under American leadership or should we replace our current emperor with a new sovereign, a leading nation with a revolutionary global vision such as China? Global Pax Americana According to numerous sources and statistics, the United States currently operates a global military ‘empire’ that stretches across all continents and is currently the biggest the world has ever known. In fact, the United States army, navy, and air force overseas can be compared to the Roman Imperial garrisons that were stationed across the Roman provinces. This comparison can be made due to the de facto perpetual presence of U.S. military bases and troops in countries such as Kuwait, Iraq, Afghanistan, Korea, Japan, Kosovo, Bosnia, and Germany (Morgan, 2006). Overall, the U.S. armed forces are present in 165 countries (Morgan 2006), which means there are more countries currently part of rather than excluded from the U.S. global military ‘empire’. That is the extent of the outreach of American hard power, it is a truly global ‘empire’, with the ability to influence and even determine major events throughout continents. However, it would be unfair to only call the United States a military ‘empire’. The USA is much more than an empire, in fact, it is no ordinary empire. Perhaps no power in history has understood the importance of global cohesion and the benefits of alliances more than the United States of America. Figure 1: Map of America’s global military bases (Vine in van der Made 2020) U.S. leadership and foreign policy in the post Second World War era can be classified as bipolar. On the one hand, tremendous pain and suffering has been inflicted upon numerous countries and regions as a result of America’s endless foreign wars which began in 1990 with the 1st Gulf War (Riedel 2020) and U.S. assumption to the position of sole international superpower. Yet, on the other hand, America has also used its position of strength to create an international order of multilateral institutions and organizations: with the aim of bringing nations to cooperate through a multilateralism approach to address and or combat global problems. One key leadership style of the U.S. has been the construction of the permanent alliance, a concept now practically engrained into the fabric of international society. The perfect example of a permanent alliance is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the post Second World War brain child of the USA. NATO is a fixed multilateral military alliance with 30 member States scattered across North America, Europe and the Middle East (Turkey) and the only known alliance with an internationally recognized charter, the 1949 North Atlantic Treaty/Washington Treaty (The North Atlantic Treaty 2009). In fact, there is one article within the Washington Treaty that more than any other stipulation proves U.S. commitment to international cooperation. The stipulation known as Article 5 obliges all its members to adhere to a policy of protecting each other when one of them is attacked and embraces a spirit of solidarity between its members (The North Atlantic Treaty 2009). The concept of collective defense is indicative not only of U.S. commitment to the alliance system, but also in the understanding that the great issues of our time will require a universal or multilateral response. In addition, to pushing for the establishment of a Westernized global military alliance, the U.S. Government also vigorously championed the international community to organize a liberal international system following the Allied Powers (who called themselves the United Nations) WWII victory. The revolutionary idea behind this new system was that it was organized into a set of liberal institutions who were endowed by the nation-State community with the authority to set down the rules and norms of global governance. Notable institutions include the United Nations, the World Bank, the World Trade Organization, the World Health Organization and the International Monetary Fund. While, there is no doubt that under American leadership the world has suffered from a platitude of crises; nevertheless, we are ‘blessed’ to live through the longest period of global peace since between 1815 (the end of the Napoleonic Wars) and 1914 (the start of the Great War). This era of universal peace denotes an avoidance of direct conflict between the great powers; a period known as ‘Pax Americana’ or ‘The American Peace’. On the other hand, China is developing its own geopolitical and geo-economic clout through the construction of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). A project that aims to connect through both land and sea networks, the Far East, Central Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe under China’s leadership. This policy of global expansion by China has not been seen since the ancient Silk Road was abolished in 1453 AD (Mark 2018). If the BRI’s purpose is similar to the ancient Silk Road’s then humanity could reach a new age of prosperity based on direct interaction between civilizations beyond the confounds of State-led institutions like the United Nations. Why is it important to refer to the ancient Silk Road, it is important because analyzing history can help us formulate a possible future for humanity. The ancient Silk Road or silk roads (since there was more than one trade route) were a network of commercial routes that linked East with West from 130 BC to 1453 AD (Mark 2018). For example, a network of caravanserais connected “China, the Indian subcontinent, the Iranian Plateau, the Caucasus, Turkey, North Africa, Russia, and Eastern Europe” (United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). This cross-continental connectivity which was realized through infrastructural means not only resulted in some of the first global trade networks, but also in an era of unprecedented globalization. The Silk Roads allowed for direct and regular interaction between populations and civilizations across Eurasia, a dream that was near on impossible for humanity to have realized in more modern times just 150 years ago. As a result of the silk roads, there was a proliferation and diffusion of scientist ideas, technologies, arts and crafts, literature, language, and religious and cultural beliefs across the ancient world (United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). As an example of the silk roads effectiveness, the Mohammedans had an open avenue in which to demonstrate to the different peoples, communities and societies that they met of the superiority of their religion (that was their viewpoint) over other beliefs. Eventually, Islam spread to distant lands (distant in comparison to its original home in Arabia) that existed along the silk roads, penetrating the heart of south Asia notably Malaysia and Indonesia (United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). In other words, direct trade paves the way to greater interaction between peoples and nations which is arguably a pre-requisite for gaining a better understanding between civilizations, cultures and religions. Figure 2: Map of the Ancient Silk Road (Encyclopædia Britannica 2021) The Birth of a Pax Sino World? China’s Belt and Road Initiative’ (BRI) is arguably the greatest geopolitical infrastructural project since the ancient Chinese Silk Road. The BRI is the Crown Jewel of China’s new international policy, a policy that will allow China to venture beyond the confines of the Asia pacific. In other words, the BRI is a geopolitical strategy that could transform the world’s second most powerful nation from a purely Far East participant into a true global player (China is already involved in the world economy since it joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 (World Trade Organization 2020)). However, the BRI will allow China to participate in world affairs as a global geopolitical player for the first time in at least modern history. This is because China through the BRI seeks to connect Asia, Europe and Africa through land and maritime infrastructural networks. For example, China’s strategy includes the formation of “deep ocean-related cooperation by fostering closer ties with countries along the Belt and Road, by drawing support from the coastal economic belt in China” (Niblock et al. 2018, p. 75). In other words, the ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is a combination of a land and maritime geopolitical strategy: the land-based ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’ and the marine-based ‘21st Century Maritime Silk Road’. This is seen in China’s pursuit to develop the ‘China-Indian Ocean-Africa-Mediterranean Sea Blue Economic Passage’, which would then connect with the land corridors of China’s ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’: ‘the China-Indochina Peninsula Economic Corridor, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, and the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor’ (Niblock et al. 2018, p. 75). Another example, that illustrates China’s determination to link Afro-Eurasia together into practically one geo-economic sphere of cooperation is the ‘ “Vision for Maritime Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative” ’. This vision is based on the notion of developing an economic passage that extends “from the South China Sea into and across the Pacific Ocean, and to Europe via the Arctic Ocean” (Niblock et al. 2018, p. 75). Therefore, it can be argued that China seeks to reintegrate the ‘old World’ into one commercial sphere of cooperation just like the days of the ancient Silk Road, which contributed to the development of human contact across Eastern and Western civilizations. Figure 3: Map of the Chinese BRI (Dews 2019) Conclusion: China and America’s Opposing Models Therefore, the evidence thus far points to opposing U.S. and Chinese visions with respect to the structure of the global system in the 21st Century. On the one hand, America created an international order that gave liberal institutions the powers to set the rules and norms that determine global governance. These rules and regulations are the basis of how States should behave and any divergence from them will likely lead to ostracization. On other hand, China’s model is based on facilitating direct trade relations including establishing economic exchange and investment deals between China and the Afro-Eurasian countries situated along the BRI’s land and maritime corridors. In fact, one could argue that a successful implementation of the BRI will allow China to expand its geopolitical tentacles beyond its natural sphere of influence which historically has been confined to the Far East. As evidence to back this claim, one can point to the fact that the BRI was originally called the ‘One (land) Belt One (Maritime) Road Initiative’. Such a name might provide some insight into Chinese ambitions, ambitions which might include expanding its power and influence through geo-economic means. This is not hearsay desire, it is admitted Chinese Government policy. The clearest indication of Chinese admission of its intent can be found in a March 2015 proposal entitled, the “ “Vision and Actions on Jointly Building the Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st Century Maritime Silk Road” ”. The main objective of the project is to further Chinese expansionist plans along the BRI through “ “ pushing forward port infrastructure construction; building smooth land-water transportation channels, and advancing port cooperation; increasing sea routes and the number of voyages; and enhancing information technology cooperation in maritime logistics” ” (Niblock etal. 2018, p.74). Therefore, there is enough evidence to show that China and America back opposing models that could either stimulate 21st Century global cooperation or lead us into a path where the two opposing models dominate and divide the international system. writer Simon Nasr MA, King's College, University of London, UK. - Dirlik, A. (2002). Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation. International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, 4 (3), 428-448. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1369801022000013833?needAccess=true&instName=King%27s+College+London - Dews, F. (2019). Charts of the Week: China’s Belt and Road Initiative. In Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brookings-now/2019/05/17/charts-of-the-week-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative/ - The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2021). Silk Road: trade route. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silk-Road-trade-route - Green, M. J., Shearer, A., Roughead, G., Conley, H. A., Alterman, Jon. B., Hicks, K. (2016, November 28). Alliances and American Leadership Project Launch[Conference Events] https://www.csis.org/events/alliances-and-american-leadership-project-launch - Horsley, J. P. (2020, August 19). Order From Chaos: Let’s end the COVID-19 blame game. Reconsidering China’s role in the pandemic. In Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/08/19/lets-end-the-covid-19-blame-game-reconsidering-chinas-role-in-the-pandemic/ - Jaworsky, B. N., &Qiaoan, R. (2020). The Politics of Blaming: the Narrative Battle between China and the US over COVID-19. Journal of Chinese political science, 1–21. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-020-09690-8 - Mark, J.J. (2018). Silk Road. In Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/ - Morgan, M. J. (2006). American Empire and the American Military. Armed Forces & Society, 32 (2), 202-2018. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0095327X05279081 - Niblock, T., Ahmad, T., &Degang, S. (2018). The Gulf States, Asia and the Indian Ocean: Ensuring the Security of the Sea Lanes. Berlin: Gerlach Press. - The North Atlantic Treaty (1949), April 1, 2009, North Atlantic Treaty Organization https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/stock_publications/20120822_nato_treaty_en_light_2009.pdf - Riedel, B. (2020). Order From Chaos: 30 years after our ‘endless wars’ in the Middle East began, still no end in sight. In Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/07/27/30-years-after-our-endless-wars-in-the-middle-east-began-still-no-end-in-sight/ - United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (?). About the Silk Roads. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/about-silk-roads - Van der Made, J. (2020, November 10). Will U.S. Maintain Global Military Dominance Under Biden ?. Radio France Internationale, Retrieved from https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20201110-will-us-maintain-global-military-dominance-under-president-elect-joe-biden-china-russia-iran - Wallerstein, I. (1992). The West, Capitalism, and the Modern World-System. Review, 15 (4), 561-619. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40241239.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Affeebc3812a0c571cdda3e2c2997dff9 - World Trade Organization. (2020). China and the WTO. Retrieved from https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/china_e.htm

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Article created by Foreign Policy in Focus. The ongoing civil conflict in Iraq is one of the major issues being considered in the debate over future U.S. military and political steps in Iraq. A growing number of analysts argue that U.S. military forces must stay in Iraq to prevent a full-scale sectarian civil war between Sunni and Shia Arabs in Iraq. But evidence exists that the roots of the Iraqi civil conflict is political rather than sectarian, and that the best solution is finding a way to bring the troops home. A History of Conciliation The history of Muslim-Muslim conflict in the Middle East is a long and bloody one. The division of Islam into Shia and Sunni sects was the result of two famous battles: the Battle of the Camel (656 AD) and the battle of Seffin (657 AD). Islamic history is full of wars between different regional powers and within Sunni and Shia Muslims. And while Sunni and Shia Iraqis have undergone some periods of sectarian tension, these tensions have never led to a full scale conflict like those seen in Bosnia, Rwanda, or even in Lebanon. Shia and Sunni Iraqis have lived in harmony for centuries. Historically the two sects have lived in the same areas, intermarried, worked together and have had few conflicts based on religious beliefs. Arab Iraqis, especially in contemporary history, have not prioritized their religious or sectarian belonging over national identity. Iraqi nationalism united Iraqi Shia against Iranian Shia for eight years during the 1980s in the Iran-Iraq war. Iraqi tribal systems have also integrated Sunni and Shia communities as many Shia tribes have Sunni branches among them and vice versa. In addition, lines between the sects have been blurred in Iraq. One of the core concepts in Shiaism worldwide is glorifying Muhammad’s descendents. Anyone who is in the prophet’s line of descent is called Sayyed (pl. Sadah). Therefore, being a Sayyed implies that one is a Shia Muslim. Iraq is the only case in the world where there are Sunni Sadah. Despite the fact that Iraqis never had a sectarian civil war, foreign politicians have a history of misguided analyses about the issue. In 1920, the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George warned of a civil war in Iraq if the British army withdrew, which is the exact same thing heard today in the U.S. Ironically, the same Iraqis George wanted to protect from each other actually united in a revolution against the British occupation forces. Roots of the Civil Conflict in Iraq When the Iraqi regime was brought down by the U.S. in the second week of April 2003, U.S. forces entered most of the Sunni Arab cities without engaging in major combat. Iraq’s largest province, al-Anbar, containing the cities of Fallujah, Ramadi, Haditha, and Qaem, surrendered under an agreement with local Sunni tribal leaders. When Baghdad fell, there was a striking increase in criminal activities and full-scale looting of the public sector, but no signs of civil clashes. But the situation quickly changed as the U.S. administration, led by Paul Bremer assumed control over Iraq. Early on Bremer, attempting to put an Iraqi face on the occupation, appointed members to the Iraqi Governing Council. Aimed to reflect Iraq’s diverse ethnic, political, and religious mix the Governing Council comprised 13 Shia, five Sunnis, five Kurds, one Christian, and one Turkoman. But instead of bringing unity to the political sphere, this reflection of Iraq’s diversity when thrust into the political playing field became the base for sectarian division in Iraq. The new political order engineered by the U.S. resulted in deep divisions between Iraqis. Entering into a marriage of convenience, Shia and Kurds were eager to join the government but for different reasons. Shia politicians from the Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI) and Dawa parties were supported and encouraged by Iran to take a part of the new regime. Kurdish political leaders, who participated in the U.S.-led coalition that brought down Saddam, sought the opportunity to rule the country instead of continuing to be the central government’s victim. And while included in the government, Sunni Iraqis were scattered without strong leadership, were victims of de-baathification policies, and were reeling at their sudden loss of political power. Just as the political order was reflecting chaos, so too was the military order. The vacuum in the military and police forces created by de-Baathification was being filled by tens of thousands of Kurdish and Shia Iraqi militia members. This pushed sectarian tension to a new level as most of the Sunni Arabs who did not join these forces became the primary target. As a result, a new set of targets emerged for the resistance; Iraqis who were against the occupation began attacking and killing other Iraqis who were taking a part of the new government or its military and police forces. The civil crisis was born. The Real Face of Fighting While most Sunnis reject the new government, the violence is not led exclusively by Sunnis. By the fall of 2003, there were two main Shia groups and the beginnings of two main Sunni-dominated groups. On the Shia side, there was interfighting between two groups with strong militias: one which participated in building the new regime, (e.g. al-Hakim’s SCIRI, al-Jaafari’s Dawa, and other politicians blessed by Ayatollah al-Sistani), and another opposing any political work under the occupation (e.g. al-Sadr’s movement and others blessed by Ayatollah al-Baghdadi, Ayatollah al-Hasani, etc.). On the Sunni side, there were clashes between Sunni Arabs who were against the new regime and Sunni Kurds who took a part of the new regime, the largest being open fighting between the two sides in Fallujah in April 2004. The al-Sadr movement includes more than 5 million Shia Iraqis, which makes it the biggest single social group in Iraqi society. In other words, the number of al-Sadr supporters is equal to or more than the number of all Sunni Arab Iraqis. Sunni Arabs demonstrated the ability of small groupings of people to unleash large amounts of violence, while the al-Sadr movement showed a centralized pattern with potential capacity to organize large-scale attacks. Although the groups adopted different patterns of armed attacks they clearly showed that the use of the term “insurgency” must be expanded to all of the anti-regime military players–not just limited to those groups with Sunni identity. Although most of the military players often identify on a sectarian basis, there is little evidence that their actions are directly against other sectarian groups. For example, Ansar al-Sunnah Army and the Islamic Army in Iraq are two of the largest insurgent groups who have claimed responsibility for hundreds of attacks against the U.S.-led coalition. Both of these groups frequently distribute videos showing executions and attacks against Iraqi soldiers and policemen. These videos accuse Iraqi soldiers and policemen of being “traitors” and “collaborators” who are getting their “fair judgment” as ordered by the Quran. There are no videos or announcements with statements such as “let’s kill the Shias” or “let’s get rid of the Sunnis.” Instead the focus is on targeting and killing the “collaborators.” There is a long list of other insurgent groups that adopt similar logic and terminology where no traces for a Shia-Sunni oriented conflict can be found. They do contain grandiose statements about fighting the occupation and they make speeches about a holy war between Islam and Christianity and Judaism, but nothing is said about a war between Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims.1 Even the now-deceased leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq, one of the most extremist and brutal movements in the world, sought to target “the collaborators.” In one of Abu-Musab al-Zarqaw’s last statements before his death, he asked Iraqis not to participate in the newly elected government, threatening to kill “secular Zionist Kurds,” “vengeful Shias,” and “collaborator Sunnis” who take part in the “Crusader’s Regime.” While there is a strong fundamentalist anti-Shia strain in al-Zarqawi’s announcements, he never gave a direct order to kill Shia because they were Shia.2 Despite the popular public belief that Iraq’s insurgents are causing most of the violence, it is clear that all sides involved in the conflict are contributing to the killing and destruction. Analytical sources tracking civilian deaths in Iraq provide a clear analysis of casualties in the conflict. The Iraqi Civilian Casualties: A Breakdown One of the most informative reports about Iraqi civilian casualties was produced last year by Iraq Body Count (IBC). IBC systematically calculates Iraq’s casualties based on the English-language media’s daily reports of casualties, including reports from the Arab media. The IBC report analyzed 24,865 Iraqi civilian deaths reported by the media through the first two years of the occupation, through March 19, 2005.3 These cases do not represent the full number or an estimate of casualties, as IBC clarifies, but represent the so-far documented portion of the total number based on media reports.4 According to IBC, “Anti-occupation forces/insurgents” killed 9.5% of civilian victims, “unknown agents” killed 11%, and “post-invasion criminal violence” accounted for 36% of all deaths.5 These numbers show that most of Iraq’s civilians were not falling because of the sectarian violence during the first two years, and that most Iraqi civilians were killed because of the post-occupation security void. These same statistics indicate that the U.S. military has caused more than one fourth of the total documented cases so far, including those who perished as a result of “major operations.” Despite the deteriorating situation over the last six-months, the most recent updates of IBC’s database show that “criminal violence” and “unknown agents” are responsible for most of the killing in the last year as well. IBC’s figures challenge mainstream accounts which identify Iraqi insurgents as responsible for the majority of the ongoing death and destruction. What is troublesome about IBC’s statistic is the term “unknown agents” which reflects the growing concern about civil war, leaving hundreds of Iraqi casualties without a known murderer. These faceless killings are carried out in two main forms: “ID card assassinations” and attacks on mosques and churches. But the motivations behind the attacks are unclear. Some Iraqis accuse regional powers like Iran, Syria and Israel of having a hand in the attacks; other Iraqis accuse internal groups like the Badr militias, al-Qaida, and the Baath party (al-Awdah Party and Muhammad Army) of initiating such attacks to further destabilize the country. Further confusing the situation lately, Iraqi leaders from Sunni and Shia communities, like the Council of Muslim Scholars and the al-Sadr movement, are blaming the U.S.-led coalition for all the sectarian based attacks. The rumors and uncertainties surrounding these deaths not only fuel speculation around a Shia-Sunni civil war, but also could fuel a possible Shia and Sunni alliance against the U.S.-led coalition. The Askari Shrine The al-Askari Mosque, a shrine to Imam Ali al-Hadi (died in 868 AD) and his son Imam Hassan al-Askari (died in 874 AD) in Samarra, was bombed and partly destroyed on February 22, 2006 in what seems to be the biggest sectarian based attack to date in Iraq.6 Hundreds of news stories and political speeches were written around the world within hours of the bombing predicting a full scale Sunni-Shia war in Iraq. The al-Askari attack was represented as the event that would start the awaited sectarian civil war. In fact, many scholars, politicians, and journalists considered the attack as the milestone marking the official beginning of the ongoing sectarian civil war. Ironically enough, the very same shrine whose destruction was expected to trigger a sectarian civil war between Sunni and Shia Iraqis is an exceptional case where a Shia shrine is ran and managed by Sunni Sadah. For many centuries, the shrine has symbolized this harmonious integration where Shia Muslims visited al-Askari shrine at least once a year and were welcomed as religious tourists by their fellow Sunni Iraqis. In describing his future shrine al-Askari said, “My shrine in Samarra will be a refuge for both Sunni and Shia Muslims.” Alarmed by the Samarra attack Iraqi political and religious leaders started working quickly to contain the situation. Al-Sistani made a very rare appearance on national TV to ask his followers to calm down. Al-Sadr cut short his visit to Lebanon to return to Iraq, where he deployed his followers and militias around the country to protect Sunni mosques from attacks and started a new trend of Shia-Sunni joint prayers. Main Sunni leaders started a campaign of condemning the attack and working to stop further tension and the Iraqi government announced a temporary curfew and spread armed forces around the country. Iraqi religious and political leaders, with the help of millions of their supporters around the country, managed to contain the situation in a relatively successful way that prevented any military clashes between Shia and Sunni establishments. Iraqis worked alone, without any help from the U.S.-led coalition, and prevented a full-scale sectarian civil war. The Role of the U.S. Military In the aftermath of the bombing it was clear that Iraqis were working hard to stop the spread of violence, but the U.S. military was noticeably absent. Fox News reported that, “U.S. military units in the Baghdad area were told Thursday morning to halt all but essential travel.”7 Other news sources wrote, “The U.S. military ordered the U.S. soldiers in Baghdad to stay in their barracks and not to circulate if it could be helped.”8 With these reports, it is clear that the U.S. army was not planning, in the case of al-Askari attack or for any other incident, to interfere and protect Iraqi citizens from killing each other. So even if the U.S. was concerned about sectarian civil war, there were no plans to stop it. According to the United Nations Security Council, the U.S. is supposed to be acting as the “Authority” to promote the welfare of the Iraqi people including the restoration of security and stability. In addition, the UNSC calls upon “all concerned to comply fully with their obligations under international law including in particular the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Hague Regulations of 1907.” During the bombing of Samara, the U.S. coalition failed on both accounts, raising questions about the role and usefulness of the coalition itself. The Current Situation The attack on the al-Askari shrine was one of many attacks carried out by faceless hit men attempting to trigger a sectarian conflict in the last two years. None of the past attacks initiated a full-scale sectarian civil war, nor did the al-Askari incident. Despite the exaggerated predictions and assessments about its effect and consequences, the number of casualties has not dramatically changed since the attack. Nevertheless, there is a continuing increase in the total number of Iraqi civilian casualties during the last three years. IBC’s online counter indicates that the daily average of Iraqi civilian casualties has increased from around 20 in the first year (excluding the initial invasion in March 2003), to more than 30 in the second, reaching to 40 in the third year. The numbers continue to increase this year as well. According to another monthly breakup by Iraq Coalition Casualties Count (ICCC), another credible online counter based on media archives, the deaths from the date of al-Askari Mosque bombing until the last week of May 2006 indicate a noticeable raise in the monthly toll from around 550 Iraqis in the last four months prior to the attack to around 850 Iraqis in the four months after the attack.9 The increase in civilian deaths, while trending higher, has not reached the record set in August 2005 when more than 1,500 civilians were killed during the month. The al-Askari incident was a very tragic and catastrophic attack but it did not start a sectarian civil war. Seeking a Resolution The situation in Iraq has proved that as bad as it gets, things can always get worse. Indeed, 2006 is the worst year of violence since the initial invasion. But while continuing sectarian-based propaganda and attacks are increasing the civil tension around the country, it has not yet reached a point where a full-scale sectarian civil war is erupting. But as noted earlier, even if a civil war is around the corner (or is already occurring), the U.S. military has proved that it will not intervene in such a scenario. With general security in shambles, the U.S. military directly responsible for thousands, if not tens of thousands of Iraqi civilian deaths, reconstruction stalled, and with the growing tension seen as politically motivated, there is little evidence that the U.S. can resolve the Iraqi crisis. Based on this scenario, the ongoing Iraqi-Iraqi conflict can only be resolved when the U.S.-led occupation begins the process of leaving Iraq completely. As suggested by Iraqis and a growing number of U.S. politicians, setting a timetable for withdrawal should be one of the first steps to stop the current cycle of death and violence in Iraq The conflict in Iraq is happening between Iraqis who are against getting involved in any political action under the occupation, and Iraqis who are building their new regime despite the occupation. But ironically, both of these groups want the occupation to end. A recent poll from World Public Opinion shows that 87% of Iraqis want a timetable for U.S.-led coalition withdrawal.10 A majority of Iraq’s leaders have asked for setting a timetable as well. When President Bush visited Iraq last month, Iraq’s Vice President asked him to set a timetable for withdrawal. This request is supported by Iraq’s president. In addition, Iraq’s National Security Advisor, Dr. Mowaffak Al-Rubaie requested a similar “roadmap” for complete withdrawal of the U.S.-led coalition in a recent op-ed in The Washington Post.11 The vast majority of Iraq’s MPs, religious leaders and political leaders want to see Iraq free of foreign troops. But the U.S. has thwarted calls for a withdrawal by Iraqis. Last month, the Iraqi Prime Minister proposed a comprehensive 28 point package for Iraqi reconciliation and an end to violence after months of Iraqi-Iraqi discussions and meetings. The plan was warmly received by different Iraqi political, religious, and even insurgent leaders after it was published. But the U.S. embassy turned the 28 point package into a weaker 24 point plan which was rejected by all major Iraqi stakeholders. The four dropped demands included putting a timetable for pulling out the occupation troops, amnesty for anyone who has not killed civilians, compensation for civilian victims, and an immediate halt of all raids on homes and cities without Iraqi court orders. While the U.S. embassy has rejected the wishes of Iraqis, U.S. citizens have a different opinion. For example, World Public Opinion’s latest poll shows that if the new Iraqi government asks the U.S. to establish a timeline for withdrawing forces within the next two years, 71% of Americans said that the U.S. should do so. Just 28% said the U.S. should only reduce U.S. forces as the security situation improves in Iraq.12 Putting a timetable for withdrawing the U.S. troops, as have most of the other countries in the U.S.-led coalition, would be the first step in the right direction to follow the demands of both the Iraqi and U.S. people to stop the war and begin grappling with the much bigger issue of dealing with its consequences. With over $320 billion spent, more than 2,500 U.S. soldiers dead, and countless Iraqis killed, the time for such an alternative is now. See, International Crisis Group, “In their Own Words: Reading the Iraqi Insurgency,” February 15, 2006. Available here - Media reports have been selective in translating al-Zarqawi’s speeches. For example, The Washington Post translated a part of his last audio statement where he called for the killing of Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, the highest ranking Shia cleric. But The Washington Post neglected to mention that al-Zarqawi threatened in the same very statement to kill all the leaders of the Association of Muslim Scholars, the highest ranking group of Sunni clerics in Iraq. The full translation of al-Zarqawi’s statement shows his anti-collaborator politics, while The Washington Post version makes it seem like an anti-Shia policy. - Iraq Body Count, “A Dossier of Civilian Casualties: 2003-2005,” July 2005. Available here - Other studies, like the well known paper “Mortality Before and After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq: Cluster Sample Survey,” published in the British medical journal, The Lancet, estimated on the basis of a random national sample that 100,000 Iraqis, in excess of pre-war rates, had died from a variety of causes (including accidents and illness, as well as violence) in the first 75% of the period that IBC’s dossier covers. The violent deaths in The Lancet estimate were extrapolated from 21 documented deaths, which is too small a sample for deriving a reliable breakdown on which actors have been doing what proportion of the killing throughout Iraq. However, on careful examination, the breakdown of violent deaths in The Lancet’s 2004 sample is quite similar to that found in IBC over the same period, suggesting that although non-randomized, IBC’s recorded deaths may not be biased in any particular direction. IBC’s tally in the tens of thousands of deaths can therefore provide a highly-detailed and useful breakdown. - IBC defines insurgents as, “Those who target U.S.-led forces, ordinary police and other security forces, military installations and support workers for U.S.-led forces.” - The Shrine, built in 945 AD, is considered to be one of the four most important Shia shrines in Iraq. One of the reasons why this shrine is highly valued by Shia Muslims is that al-Askari and his wife are the parents of al-Mahdi, the 12th Imam and a messianic figure whose return is expected by Shia. In addition, al-Mahdi was last seen around his parents’ graves in 878 AD before he disappeared, which was another reason why the shrine was first built. - “More Than 100 Killed in Iraq Following Mosque Attack,” Fox News, February 24, 2006. Available here. - Cited in “Three Years and Counting,” The Nation, editorial, March 27, 2006. Available here. - Author’s calculations. Iraq Coalition Casualties Count, “OIF Iraqi Deaths,” ND. Available here. - “New WPO Poll: Iraqi Public Wants Timetable for US Withdrawal, But Thinks US Plans Permanent Bases in Iraq,” World Public Opinion, January 31, 2006. Available here. - Mowaffak al-Rubaie, “The Way Out of Iraq: A Road Map,” The Washington Post, June 20, 2006. - “Comparing Americans and Iraqis,” World Public Opinion, March 24, 2006. Available at: here.

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Education in airway management is a fundamental component of anesthetic training programs, but the conventional teaching of anesthesia falls short of exposing trainees to the vast spectrum of difficult airways potentially encountered in clinical practice. Airway management training emphasizes on teaching skills for airway management such as the use of flexible fiber-optic bronchoscopy, laryngeal mask airway, and rigid fiber-optic laryngoscopes . It, however, lacks the emphasis on the exposure to rare but complex cases of difficult airways such as congenital defects, infections, tumors, obesity, acromegaly, acute burns, or facial, cervical, laryngeal, or tracheal injury . Patient safety in anesthesia has improved tremendously in the past few decades . An increased commitment to patient safety has resulted in a shift in healthcare education models from the traditional reliance on the apprenticeship model, where trainees learn on mannequins and then on real patients in actual clinical settings, to one based on simulation models . Simulation is defined as a guided experience that evokes the real-world scenario in an interactive fashion to replace real-life experiences. Simulation enhances training in both technical and non-technical skills to improve professional practice and crisis management. Non-technical skills are an inherent part of human factors as they relate to situational awareness, communication, leadership, decision making, prioritization, and task management. These are essential in promoting patient safety, productivity, and efficiency . Experiential learning refers to the construction of knowledge and meaning through the transformation of real-life experience . Experiential learning is now increasingly used in medical education, as simulation models adhere to their principles by providing opportunities for hands-on experiences and guided reflection in a safe environment , thereby enhancing the transition from novice to expert professional practice . Available simulation models are limited and do not encompass the entire spectrum of difficult airways. Practice on models simulating different pathologies of difficult airways increases the fidelity of airway management training by exposing trainees to real-life challenges in airway visualization and ventilation, challenging them to progress through an airway algorithm, and generate backup plans in the event of failed ventilation . Difficult airways which can progress to life-threatening scenarios include conditions such as post-tonsillectomy bleed and bleeding mandibular fracture. There are currently no studies in the literature which attempt to simulate models of these pathologies for training purpose. This study explores the simulation of these two scenarios and its use in an advanced airway workshop for enhanced experiential learning. Mandibular fractures increase the difficulty in airway management due to airway obstruction, possible cervical spine injury, difficult mask ventilation, and competing needs of the airway and surgical access. Further airway visualization is impaired where severe hemorrhage, vomitus, secretions, soft tissue edema, fractured or exfoliated teeth, bone fragments, and foreign bodies obstruct the airway . The effective removal of blood is impaired when the risk of spinal injury outweighs the risk of airway compromise, resulting in the choice not to position the patient sitting up with his neck flexed and head down . Any associated trauma to the larynx and trachea displaces the epiglottis, arytenoid cartilages, or vocal cords . Tongue base prolapse due to bilateral fracture of the anterior mandible results in obstruction of the oropharynx in a supine patient . Anesthetic concerns of these patients also include regurgitation of stomach contents and its sequelae . Also, proper fitting of ventilation masks to the face is difficult in the event of disrupted oral cavity or oropharynx anatomy , facial edema, or restricted mouth opening . Post-tonsillectomy bleeding poses a unique set of challenges to the anesthetist: Associated airway obstruction and pulmonary aspiration increase difficulty in airway management. Blood, clots , and edema from previous airway instrumentation associated with recent surgery or repeated attempts due to poor visualization may obstruct visualization for intubation in the oral cavity. These may increase the failure rate of intubation at the first attempt, need for alternative airway devices, and the duration of intubation . Severe bleeding in these patients has the potential to result in anemia, hypovolemia, and even death . Furthermore, patients tend to swallow large volumes of blood. During induction of general anesthesia when protective airway reflexes are diminished, patients are susceptible to pulmonary aspiration of sequestered intra-gastric blood or post-operative oral intake . This can result in further hypoxia by physical obstruction or pneumonitis. Given the complexity associated with fractured mandibles and post-tonsillectomy bleeding, and the subsequent effects on airway management, it is imperative to simulate models of these pathologies for the learning of the management of difficult airways in emergencies. There is currently limited information in the literature which describes the construction of these models, which can be used for the purpose of training and learning. The objectives of this study were to create a novel model with features of a difficult airway such as fractured mandible and post-tonsillectomy bleed, and to assess the suitability of the surgically modified cadaver models for enhanced experiential learning of the management of difficult airways. To the best of our knowledge, there are no publications in the literature simulating the pathology described in this article. 2.1. Ethical Considerations The research study protocol was submitted to the SingHealth Centralized Institutional Review Board (CIRB Reference Number: 2017/2960) and was exempted from review based on the nature of the study. The research study was conducted over two sessions of the Advanced Airway Management Workshop in our tertiary care hospital in 2016 and 2017. 2.2. Cadaver Models Cadaver models cut at the mid-thorax level and included the head, neck, and upper thorax were procured for surgical modifications. They were certified to be negative for hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human immunodeficiency virus 1 and 2 based on serology testing. Maxillofacial specialists carried out the surgical procedure on the cadaver heads to simulate difficult airways, namely fractured mandible and post-tonsillectomy bleed. 2.3. Simulation of Fractured Mandible The body of the mandible was approached via submandibular approach. The fracture of the mandibular body distal to the mental foramina was accomplished using an oscillating saw. A bleeding tube was tunneled from the submandibular incision site and secured in the subperiosteal plane in the mandibular body fracture site to simulate the bleeding vessel (Figure 1). 2.4. Simulation of Post-Tonsillectomy Bleed For simulating per-oral bleeding, a catheter was placed through a small neck incision and tunneled via blunt dissection to connect to the oropharynx via the ipsilateral tonsillar fossa. A silk suture was placed through the tip of the catheter to anchor it to the anterior tonsillar pillar to avoid dislodgement. For simulating esophageal regurgitation of stomach contents, a catheter was Figure 1. Schematic representation of modification of cadaver head to simulate mandibular fracture. placed via the distal cut end of the esophagus of the cadaver (upper thorax level) and inserted along the lumen of the esophagus until the esophageal inlet (pyriform fossa) in the hypopharynx. This catheter was also anchored with a silk suture distally at the cut end of the cadaver to avoid dislodgement (Figure 2). 2.5. Participant Experience During the advanced airway workshop, tutors facilitated directed one-to-one learning by way of direct feedback to participants. Maxillofacial specialists carried out the surgical procedure on the cadaver heads to simulate difficult airways, namely fractured mandible and post-tonsillectomy bleed. 2.6. Assessment by Participants The models were assessed by consented participants of the advanced airway training workshop. All participants were required to don personal protective equipment as a precautionary measure. Participants were asked to provide information about seniority rank (specialist or non-specialist) and years of airway management experience. They were requested to rate their confidence level in managing a patient with difficult airway before and after training with the modified cadavers. An improvement in confidence level by at least one point on the Likert scale in higher than 75% (arbitrarily defined) of the participant population was considered clinically significant. Feedback was also obtained on the difficulty level, realism, attractiveness, and beneficial level of the cadaver models for use in enhanced experiential learning of the management of difficult airways. The performance indicators were assessed using a 7-point Likert scale (Table 1). Simulated models were evaluated Figure 2. Schematic representation of modification of cadaver head to simulate post-tonsillectomy bleed. Table 1. Likert scale. by participants as follows: post-tonsillectomy bleeding (n = 34), mandibular fracture (n = 19). Achievement of Likert scores of 5, 6 or 7 in higher than 75% (arbitrarily defined) of the participant population was considered clinically significant in the assessment of, difficulty, realism, attractiveness and benefits for skill training. All interactions with the participants took place during the course of the workshops. 2.7. Statistical Analysis Categorical data were presented as frequency and percentage. Numeric data were presented in median and interquartile range. Pre- and post-confidence levels of participants were compared using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank test. Associations between seniority, years of airway management experience with outcomes were examined using Fisher’s Exact Test. A one-sided binomial test was used to test the model difficulty, realistic, attractiveness and beneficial rates (based on Likert scale of 5, 6 or 7) with the thresholds of 75%. All comparisons were two-sided and a P value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Analyses were performed with SPSS statistical software, version 19.0 (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY). 3.1. Participant Characteristics The participants enrolled for the advanced airway workshops on their own initiative. Among them, 23.5% (8/34) were specialists, 61.8% (21/34) were non-specialists and the remaining 5 participants chose not to indicate their rank. Further, 44.1% (15/34) of the participants had <5 years of airway management experience, 47.1% (16/34) had ≥5 years of experience, and the experience level was not known for 3 participants. 3.2. Confidence Level Our study revealed that the advanced airway workshops using modified cadavers resulted in statistically significant (P ≤ 0.001) improvement of participants’ confidence level for fractured mandible model and post-tonsillectomy bleed model. The median confidence level went up from 4.0 (interquartile range (IQR), 2.0 - 5.0) to 5.0 (IQR, 3.3 - 6.0) and from 3.5 (IQR, 2.3 - 5.0) to 5.0 (IQR, 4.0 - 6.0) respectively. The confidence level improved by at least one point on the Likert scale in 83.3% (20/24) (95% confidence interval (CI), 64.1 to 93.3) of participants using the fractured mandible model, and in 87.1% (27/31) (95% CI, 71.2 to 94.9) using the post-tonsillectomy bleed model. An improvement in confidence level by at least one point on the Likert scale in higher than 75% (arbitrarily defined) of the participant population was considered clinically significant. Improvement in confidence level was seen in all categories of participants (non-specialists and specialists, and participants with <5 years of experience and those with ≥5 years of experience), with no significant difference between them, for both fractured mandible and post-tonsillectomy bleed models (Table 2). 3.3. Feedback on Difficulty, Realism, Attractiveness and Benefits of Models The majority of participants found both surgically modified cadaver models realistic (fractured mandible model: 79.0% (15/19); 95% CI, 56.7 to 91.5; post-tonsillectomy bleed model: 78.8% (26/33); 95% CI, 62.3 to 89.3), and attractive (fractured mandible model: 83.3% (15/18); 95% CI, 60.8 to 94.2; post-tonsillectomy bleed model: 79.4% (27/34); 95% CI, 63.2 to 89.7) in simulating a difficult airway. 88.2% (30/34) (95% CI, 73.4 to 95.3) of the participants found the models to be beneficial. In comparison, a lower percentage of participants rated the models to have a difficult anatomy (fractured mandible model: 47.4% (9/19); 95% CI, 27.3 to 68.3; post-tonsillectomy bleed model: 51.5% (17/33); 95% CI, 35.2 to 67.5). Among those who rated the fractured mandible model as difficult (Likert scale ≥ 5), 8 participants found it to be slightly difficult, 1 moderately difficult and none Table 2. Percentage of participants whose confidence level improved by at least one point of the Likert scale. very difficult. For the post-tonsillectomy model, 10 participants felt it was slightly difficult, 6 moderately difficult and 1 very difficult. There was no significant difference in levels of difficulty, realism, attractiveness, and benefits between non-specialists and specialists, and between participants with <5 years of experience and those with ≥5 years of experience (Table 3). All participants (100%) expressed their desire for more of such stations in training workshops, found cadaver simulations to be an innovative interface for learning, and were immersed in the scenario. Difficulty in intubation occurs in 1.7% of patients with maxillofacial fractures , and in 2.7% of patients who underwent operative intervention for post-tonsillectomy bleed . Although the majority of patients with fractured mandible or post-tonsillectomy bleed present with a stable airway, the life-threatening nature of airway compromise mandates high fidelity airway management training. Simulation of the fractured mandible or post-tonsillectomy bleeding via cadaver modifications enhances competence in technical and Table 3. Assessment of levels of difficulty, realism, attractiveness, and benefits of models using a Likert scale. aRespondents were to rate the beneficial level of the station in improving their skill set, regardless of the models. non-technical skills—both of which are essential in ensuring safe care of complicated or acutely sick patients . Simulation enhances the proficiency of technical skills by providing an experiential learning experience through Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle. Simulation of bleeding airways in cadavers is an emotionally charged, challenging, and stressful training experience, inducing learners to experience a significant change in body state which enables meaningful reflection to rationalize their behavior and subsequently adapt their mental model. It is a crucial platform for learners to actively experiment with their new mental model within a short period after it is formulated . As such, experiential learning enables better grasp and retention of clinical motor skills compared to the conventional model. In a study conducted by Ti et al. comparing learning to intubate via experiential model versus conventional learning, 64.5% of the experiential group and 36.9% of the guided group successfully intubated three months after the training module . Conventional training might result in cognitive bias formation, comfort in key airway processes, and neglect of an airway algorithm . Simulation integrates human factors into education and clinical practice . Weaver et al. revealed that simulation practice improved team performance and patient outcomes, and reduced medication and transfusion errors . As the management of a single patient often involves a multidisciplinary team, and healthcare professionals within each team are expected to perform well despite limited knowledge of the skills or competencies of other team members, it is crucial to conduct training of different disciplines together to improve human factors and thus patient safety . The findings from this study clearly show that the surgically modified cadaver models were realistic, attractive, and beneficial. This is consistent with the positive reviews of similar attempts of simulating bleeding in cadavers. It is of note that among the participants who rated the models as difficult, the majority felt they were slightly to moderately difficult. This level of difficulty was appropriate as the airway management workshop was designed to cater to a broad spectrum of participants of various ranks and specialties. The intent was not to create an excessively difficult model which might discourage learning. Given the shift towards competency-based learning in medical training today, these results present implications for all procedural and surgical specialties . Greene et al. showed that simulated bleeding cadaver models (i.e. bleeding secondary to internal mammary artery break down) garnered high reviews for both authenticity and utility for increasing knowledge, teaching new skills, and improving patient safety. This was also viewed as a high-fidelity simulation of coronary anastomosis, valvular cardiac surgery, and cardiopulmonary bypass . Compared to mannequins, cadavers are of higher realism, as they maintain the texture of live humans , are a better representation of airway anatomy and spatial relationships and showcase real human anatomy and tissue . Cadavers are also better suited for psychomotor skill training and are appreciated as a link between simulated training on mannequins and training using patients . Compared to patients, cadavers are better suited for teaching as they eliminate ethical and safety concerns of practicing techniques on patients and allow for systematic teaching of emergency or uncommon techniques . To the best of our knowledge, there are no existing models reported in the literature for fractured mandible or post-tonsillectomy bleed for use in simulation training of anesthetists. However, previous attempts at bleeding simulations have proven useful in training for other specialties. For instance, Inglez de Souza et al.’s bleeding simulation of embalmed cadavers provided high-fidelity simulation training for the practice of multiple surgical interventions ; while Sarkar et al.’s continuous flow perfused cadaver model replicated many aspects of advanced endovascular procedures with haptic feedback . Our study involved a multidisciplinary team consisting of anesthetists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, and otolaryngologists to formulate novel cadaver modifications for experiential learning in airway management. Both the surgically modified cadaver models constructed by our team are easily replicable and have the potential to promote the shared interest of anesthetists and surgeons in improving their skill sets and thus improved patient outcome and safety. Furthermore, effective teamwork is important in airway management to avoid intraoperative conflicts arising from competing needs of anesthetists for airway access and oral and maxillofacial surgeons and otolaryngologists for surgical access . The non-technical skills of communication and teamwork inculcated through our simulations play a role in reducing conflicts and promoting patient safety . Multiple studies have used confidence level in defining the levels of success of training programs, such as Van Dillan et al. in evaluating the effectiveness of simulation training in tourniquet use and needle decompression . However, the correlation between confidence level and competence is debatable, with Augustine et al. revealing a positive correlation between confidence and competence level , but Leopold et al. revealing an inverse relationship between confidence and competence level due to an overestimation of skill level with increased confidence . Confidence level was positively associated with competency after training , with increased confidence levels resulting in effective decision making and improved clinical performance . In our opinion, the confidence level is representative of the overall comfort level of physicians for performing difficult interventions, hence is reflective of their level of knowledge, skill sets, experience, and training. To increase the robustness of future studies, we recommend the investigation of the suitability of cadaver models in experiential learning to involve an objective metric to deduce if training with bleeding cadavers increases the skill levels of our workshop participants. We also recognize that it might be difficult for clinicians in hospitals where research and training are not supported by the management to engage themselves in these high-fidelity simulation activities. In such scenarios, simulation with other models such as partial-task trainer, high-fidelity mannequins, virtual reality, or computer software would still be beneficial and should be encouraged. The use of simulation models in medicine is a relatively new concept but is in need of further exploration as it offers potential opportunities to improve the competence and confidence of medical professionals and increase patient safety . Participants reported an increased confidence level to face challenging airway scenarios after the training on surgically modified cadavers in this study. These surgically modified cadavers were deemed to be realistic, attractive and beneficial. For supporting competency-based anesthesia training programs, it is essential for airway management workshops to provide challenging real-world scenarios to increase proficiency levels of the participants in dealing with difficult airways . We recommend the use of cadaver modifications to strengthen further the experiential learning in management of difficult airways facilitated by airway training courses. In conclusion, the advanced airway workshops using modified cadavers improved participants’ confidence level for the fractured mandible model and post-tonsillectomy bleed model. The models were deemed to be of an appropriate level of difficulty, realistic, attractive, and beneficial for enhancing experiential learning. We would like to express our appreciation to the following for the conduct of the study: 1) Ms Carmen Jia Wen Kam for her help in the statistical analysis, 2) Ms Chor Kim Lee for procurement and maintenance of cadavers at Centre for Advanced Clinical and Surgical Skills, Changi General Hospital, Singapore 3) Clinical Trials & Research Unit, Changi General Hospital, Singapore for general assistance, 4) Cadaveric Advanced Airway Workshop Organizers 2016 and 2017, 5) Operating Theatre staff, and 6) Radiology Services, Changi General Hospital, Singapore. The modification of cadaver heads was carried out as development work for the conduct of research study supported by a grant from the National Medical Research Council (NMRC/CG/002/2013 – CG12Aug02-11), Singapore. Hagberg, C.A., Greger, J., Chelly J.E. and Saad-Eddin, H.E. (2003) Instruction of Airway Management Skills during Anesthesiology Residency Training. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia, 15, 149-153. Higham, H. and Baxendale, B. (2017) To Err Is Human: Use of Simulation to Enhance Training and Patient Safety in Anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 119, i106-i114. Panchal, A.R., Finnegan, G., Way, D.P. and Terndrup, T. (2016) Assessment of Paramedic Performance on Difficult Airway Simulation. Prehospital Emergency Care, 24, 411-420. Barak, M., Bahouth, H., Leiser, Y. and Abu El-Naaj, I. (2015) Airway Management of the Patient with Maxillofacial Trauma: Review of the Literature and Suggested Clinical Approach. Biomedical Research International, 2015, 724032. Kellman, R.M. and Losquadro, W.D. (2008) Comprehensive Airway Management of Patients with Maxillofacial Trauma. Craniomaxillofacial Trauma and Reconstruction, 1, 39-47. Raval, C.B. and Rashiduddin, M. (2011) Airway Management in Patients with Maxillofacial Trauma: A Retrospective Study of 177 Cases. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 5, 9-14. Fields, R.G., Gencorelli, F.J. and Litman, R.S. (2010) Anesthetic Management of the Pediatric bleeding Tonsil. Paediatric Anaesthesia, 20, 982-986. Roth, D., Schreiber, W., Stratil, P., Pichler, K., Havel, C. and Haugk, M. (2013) Airway Management of Adult Patients without Trauma in an ED Led by Internists. American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 31, 1338-1342. Tung, T.C., Tseng, W.S., Chen, C.T., Lai, J.P. and Chen, Y.R. (2000) Acute Life-Threatening Injuries in Facial Fracture Patients: A Review of 1,025 Patients. Journal of Trauma, 49, 420-424. Ti, L.K., Chen, F.G., Tan, G.M., et al. (2009) Experiential Learning Improves the Learning and Retention of Endotracheal Intubation. Medical Education, 43, 654-660. Chin, C.J., Roth, K., Rotenberg, B.W. and Fung, K. (2014) Emergencies in Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Bootcamp: A Novel Canadian Experience. Laryngoscope, 124, 2275-2280. Greene, C.L., Minneti, M., Sullivan, M.E. and Baker, C.J. (2015) Pressurized Cadaver Model in Cardiothoracic Surgical Simulation. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 100, 1118-1120. Yang, J.H., Kim, Y.M., Chung, H.S., et al. (2010) Comparison of Four Manikins and Fresh Frozen Cadaver Models for Direct Laryngoscopic Orotracheal Intubation Training. Emergency Medicine Journal, 27, 13-16. Latif, R., Chhabra, N., Ziegler, C., Turan, A. and Carter MB. (2010) Teaching the Surgical Airway Using Fresh Cadavers and Confirming Placement Nonsurgically. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia, 22, 598-602. Inglez de Souza, M.C. and Matera, J.M. (2015) Bleeding Simulation in Embalmed Cadavers: Bridging the Gap between Simulation and Live Surgery. Alternatives to Animal Experimentation, 32, 59-63. Sarkar, A., Kalsi, R., Ayers, J.D., et al. (2018) Continuous Flow Perfused Cadaver Model for Endovascular Training, Research, and Development. Annals of Vascular Surgery, 48, 174-181. Van Dillen, C.M., Tice, M.R., Patel, A.D., et al. (2016) Trauma Simulation Training Increases Confidence Levels in Prehospital Personnel Performing Life-Saving Interventions in Trauma Patients. 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The coronavirus did not cause the first pandemic with which the Swiss population was confronted. At the end of the First World War – in 1918 – it found itself in a similar, but far worse situation than today. Even then, the flu was underestimated – with serious consequences. After four long years, the war had ended in the autumn. The food situation was poor, hunger was rampant, and inflation was not under control – even in Switzerland, which had fortunately been spared from fighting. Some countries were in turmoil: in Russia, the revolution had taken place, and Lenin had begun – as announced – to establish the “dictatorship of the proletariat” – as Swiss citizens returning from Russia reported. Councils of workers and of soldiers formed in German cities. In Berlin, a civil war broke out between workers’ militias, units of the Reichswehr and the Freikorps. Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were murdered. The Kaiser had fled to Holland. In Munich the Räterepublik was proclaimed (which was not able to stay in power for more then a few days). In Vienna the Danube monarchy was dissolved and a republic established. There was shooting, too. Vorarlberg wanted to join Switzerland by means of a referendum. In Budapest a soviet republic was established and lasted for several months. These were turbulent times. Serious strikes took place in many countries – including Switzerland. On 11 November 1918 the trade unions called a general strike throughout the country. 250,000 strikers faced 90,000 soldiers who had been called out by the Federal Council to serve as a security force. Only a few weeks before, the strikers had been wearing the same uniform. In the summer, a wave of influenza had broken out worldwide. Those responsible on both sides knew that the Spanish virus, as it was called, was everywhere. But everyone had underestimated its danger. Today, there is extensive literature available on this key event in Switzerland’s history. In the following paragraphs, the militiamen of the then Ordnungsdienst from the Cantons of Thurgau and Glarus will have their say. They experienced the mass marches and the pandemic with its catastrophic effects directly. The following reports (“Report from Glarus” and “Report from Frauenfeld”) give a picture of the events and are taken from the books “Geschichte des Landes Glarus” by Jakob Winteler (1954) and “Geschichte des Kantons Thurgau” by Albert Schoop (1984). Schoop describes the political situation in autumn 1918 before the strike as follows: “On 7 November, the anniversary of the Russian Revolution, many people in Switzerland expected new revolutionary action with a precise programme which would, in addition to the creation of workers’ councils, provide for disarmament of the ‘bourgeoisie’, dissolution of the bourgeois parliaments, takeover of political power by the organised working class, as well as the overthrow of the bourgeois government and establishment of the proletarian dictatorship. (“Thurgauer Zeitung”, 18 October 1919, quoted according to Schoop, p. 258) The SP Switzerland board had decided – against the vote of its president – to commemorate the anniversary of the Russian October Revolution of 1917 with rallies throughout the country. The Federal Council mobilised troops as a precaution. The trade unions called on the national government to withdraw the military, in the form of an ultimatum. When the government did not respond, the “Olten Committee” (strike management) extended the warning strike already called in Zurich to a nationwide general strike. In Thurgau, a cantonal committee called for the formation of local armed forces. (Schoop, p. 252) How the general strike was carried out Report from Glarus: “Regiment 32 with the Glarus Battalion 85 also belonged to the deployed troops which were entrusted with the protection of peace and order. On 11 November, a Monday morning, officers and crews were mobilised by chiming of bells and rataplan of drums and many of them arrived as soon as in the late evening hours, having made use of all conceivable means of transport. Mobilisation continued throughout the night, so that the unit was ready for action by the following morning. On Wednesday, the battalion marched to Kaltbrunn to be transferred onto the train to St. Gallen, where, greeted with joy by the population, it took over its orderly service, which proceeded without incident. The city insisted on giving each soldier an honorarium of 20 francs. (Winteler, p. 617) The deployment of the three Thurgau battalions 73, 74 and 75, was not quite as pleasant. They were deployed in the city of Zurich. Report from Frauenfeld: “What had the Thurgau troops experienced during their orderly service? The infantry marched to the barracks yard in Zurich at dawn on 9 November, from where they were assigned special duties. ...] Already in the late morning of the same day, the Battalion 73 had to march to the Paradeplatz in a column of eight and with sharply loaded weapons, as a large forbidden demonstration was to be had to be there. The Thurgauers were received with whistling, bawling and swearing. ...] The Thurgau soldiers set up patrols and sentries in the streets and protected the public buildings, especially the barracks, to which the Zurich government had withdrawn. The crew kept calm and level-headed and did their duty, but felt that this service in a turbulent, fermenting city, where civil war was within the realm of possibility, was the most unpleasant and psychologically stressful event of their service during the war”. The flu was present from the very beginning: “The flu spread more and more, it seized the men in the army by the dozen. The Tonhalle and many gymnasiums had to be equipped as emergency hospitals, and there were some units which moved out with only half their men. And there was shooting: “The Lucerne Fusilier Company I/42, weakened by the flu and with only 55 men left, came to Fraumünsterstrasse to clear the square, but it was too weak; it was surrounded, insulted, trapped and could only free itself by firing a few volleys into the air. Rebound shots injured three civilians; soldier Vogel lost his life by a pistol shot fired from the crowd”. “The frightened urban population gained confidence through the presence of the troops and began to cosset the soldiers. A variety of gifts, large and small, piled up in the guardhouses. Slowly calm and reason returned, and with the end of the strike life in the city returned to normal. (Schoop, p. 246 – 251) The general strike was mainly acted on in the larger cities of German-speaking Switzerland. However, the marches took different courses in different places. Some troop commanders were reluctant to carry out their mission – others less so, such as in Zurich. In Grenchen, soldiers guarding the station and feeling threatened shot three workers. On the other hand, there were no incidents in St. Gallen or Bern. Everyone had underestimated the pandemic The pandemic began in the summer of 1918. It was initially considered relatively harmless. The second, more violent wave occurred while the conflict between the trade unions and the state government was coming to a head. Not all cantons kept such precise statistics as the Cantons of Glarus and Thurgau. It can be assumed that in the few days of the strike and in the weeks following it, several thousand people (soldiers and workers) lost their lives as a result of the pandemic. Looking back today, the question arises as to what stand parliament took and why the Federal Council did not ban the strike and the associated mass marches and demonstrations simply for epidemiological reasons, as it has done today. Some of the parliamentarians were transported to the Federal Parliament Building in military vehicles. The majority of them approved the state government’s course of action (the Council of States did so almost unanimously), and described the strike “as an irresponsible frivolity against public health” and demanded that the issues at stake be resolved on the basis of law and the constitution (Schoop, p. 250). In turn, the union leaders accused the Federal Council and the army leadership of having done far too little to protect the population and the soldiers. The mood was politically so heated and hostile that a ban would probably have led to a further escalation. It is questionable whether the trade unions would have complied with such a ban at all. Abandoning of the strike and return home of the soldiers In this dangerous situation, on Wednesday 14 November the Federal Council gave the Olten committee an ultimatum to stop the strike immediately. The strike management gave in, so that the soldiers from Thurgau and Glarus could return to their homes. On Friday, 16 November, work was resumed in most places. – We can only speculate as to what would have happened if the strike management had rejected the ultimatum. Report from Frauenfeld: “Nobody was happy about the dismissal. Thurgau Regiment 31, which reported a sickness absence rate of 1,180 men on 19 November, had returned home with heavily thinned ranks. […] It mourned the death of 46 comrades. In the whole canton, 20,837 cases of sickness [including those in the population] were reported, 234 of which proved fatal.” “On 15 November, the Grisons‘ Battalion 93 was stationed in Frauenfeld, the 6th Division headquarters. Their losses were particularly heavy. When they returned to Chur five days later, they left behind over 200 flu-sufferers.” (Schoop, p. 252) Report from Glarus: “The return of the battalion for demobilisation on 20 November gave a distressing impression, as almost half of the men, fallen ill with the at first seemingly harmless flu, were laid up in the hospitals in St. Gallen, Uznach and Glarus. Within a single week, the troops had to record over 300 absences. Since the summer, the epidemic had already spread across Europe and had subsequently claimed numerous victims, also among the civilian population. [...] During its twelve-day strike service, Battalion 85 had 22 of its Glarus members to mourn as victims of flu, ... 65 men in total in Regiment 32. “The epidemic caused numerous disturbances. Not only were the church fair events in autumn banned, but social life came to a complete standstill. Schools remained closed; even at Christmas the celebration of Holy Communion was prohibited in most Protestant churches.“ (Winteler, p. 617-618) Report from Frauenfeld: “The hoped-for normalisation was a long time in coming. It was not until January 1919 that assemblies were allowed to be held again on the territory of the Canton of Thurgau. The ban on dancing remained in force yet for a while. The pupils at the Thurgau cantonal school, which had been provisionally set up as a military hospital for flu patients, as well as those of the primary and secondary schools, attended classes once again after a long interruption of three months“. (Schoop, p. 254) The supply situation improved only slowly. Rationing continued for months after the end of the war. The bread ration card was only abolished in September 1919. The population of Thurgau was also aware that the conditions in neighbouring countries were much worse: „The rural population of Thurgau participated strongly in the Swiss relief operation for the suffering city of Vienna, which was supplied with 420 tonnes of food, conveyed there in a special train accompanied by Thurgau soldiers. The following winter, Viennese children travelled to Switzerland for recreation, many of whom found sympathy and help in the hospitable Thurgau. (Schoop, p. 254) In March 1919, the Federal Council promised the delivery of 5,000 heads of cattle to Northern France and Belgium. Therefore, no more beef was allowed to be eaten in Thurgau. How can such a serious national crisis be resolved? These reports show impressively how strongly the events surrounding the general strike and the flu pandemic affected civil and political life. Switzerland was deeply divided. It was probably the worst state crisis in the history of the federal state founded in 1848. How was it overcome? Despite strong radicalisation, the Social Democrats made it clear that controversial issues can be resolved democratically without violence. They called a party conference: The report from Frauenfeld comments: “After bitter disputes at the Extraordinary Party Conference of the Social Democrats in Basel, a strong majority of delegates spoke out in favour of the Swiss party leaving the (socialist) Second International and joining the (Bolshevik) Third International, but opponents among them, including the former pastor of Arbon, Karl Straub, did not give up and demanded a written inquiry. […] Throughout Switzerland, accession was clearly rejected with 8,722 yes against 14,612 no.” (Schoop, p. 259-260). – A strong minority left the party afterwards and founded the Communist Party of Switzerland. Citizens push through most of the demands from the general strike There were also numerous votes at the political level. The trade unions had gone on general strike with a list of eight demands, all of which points were largely justified. Almost every point was decided at the ballot box: as early as 1918 on the popular initiative to introduce proportional representation (Yes). This was followed in 1919 by the vote on early elections according to the new system (Yes). Also in 1919, a parliamentary resolution introduced the 48-hour week in factories. In 1920 a vote was taken on the introduction of the 48-hour week in the railways (Yes) and in 1921 on the popular initiative to abolish military justice (No). In 1922 the SP popular initiative was put to the vote, which demanded that the property-owning class pay the war debts by means of a one-off property levy. This was rejected by 87 percent of nays, with 86 percent of the eligible voters participating. In 1924, the people rejected a federal law that would again extend working hours in times of crisis. On May 24, 1925, voters rejected the popular initiative (Initiative Rotheberger) for the establishment of the AHV because the method of financing did not suit. On 6 December 1925, voters did approve the constitutional article on the establishment of AHV and IV. Four plebiscites on an agricultural policy that would better secure food supplies even in crises then followed in the course of these years. (During the Second World War, the supply situation was therefore much better) – It was only the women who still had to wait. Their voting rights were not to be voted on until many years later. In 1959 these were still clearly rejected by the Swiss men, in 1971 They were accepted. In several cantons women received the right to vote earlier. (Linder 2010) Switzerland had found its way The political mood and also politicians themselves already changed in the twenties, so that the country became more stable. This is because the citizens are directly involved and everyone has a voice - in the parties, the associations and at all political levels. Here are two examples: Ernst Nobs from Zurich, as editor-in-chief of the largest social democratic daily newspaper “Volksrecht" ("People’s Law”), protested in the strongest possible terms against the cancellation of the general strike: “This is enough to make you weep! Never has a strike collapsed more shamefully, not under the blows of the opponent, not because of any weakness, not because of the despondency of its own troops, but because of the cowardly, faithless attitude of the strike leadership. (“Volksrecht” of 15 November 1918) Nobs was sentenced to prison by a military court. Years later he was elected to the governing council of the canton of Zurich, he became mayor of Zurich and in 1943 he was the first social democrat to become a member of the Federal Council. Konrad Ilg from Thurgau was vice president of the Olten committee and had co-organised the national strike. Being a locksmith himself, he passionately championed the interests of workers. He was fond of studying the writings of Pierre Proudhon and the French socialist Jaurès, whose deep humanity impressed him. In 1917 – one year before the general strike – he became president of the Swiss metal and watch workers’ union (SMUV). For twenty-five years he represented the workers’ interests in the National Council. In 1937 Konrad Ilg approached Ernst Dübi, director of the von Roll company in Gerlafingen and colonel and chief of artillery of the 4th Army Corps. Their talks led to the so-called peace agreement, which put the relationship between employer and employee associations on a new footing. Good faith became the principle in future negotiations, i.e. the trade unions and employers’ associations trust each other and assume that the opposite side has good intentions, and common interests are paramount. Wage agreements were no longer negotiated indiscriminately for an entire industry, but individually for the individual company. Strikes and lock-outs as a means of exerting pressure were dropped, and this paved the way for industrial peace. Many an employer discontinued conducting himself as the “master of the house”, and it worked. Both Dübi and Ilg were given honorary doctorates by the University of Bern. (Wüthrich, p. 190-193) There have been no major strikes since then – until today. The general strike remained an isolated event During the great economic crisis of the 1930s, the trade unions took a different approach. They launched a number of popular initiatives and held referendums, each of which they submitted with over three hundred thousand signatures collected in only a few weeks – this was many times the required number. The Federal Council and parliament took heed of their wishes and quickly put them to the vote. Such numbers of signatures were never to be reached again later, even though Switzerland now has twice as many inhabitants, and women have also been able to sign since 1971. Voter turnout was as high as about 84 per cent in each case. Similar to the situation after the First World War, at the end of the Second World War the question arose as to how the economic order could be reorganised and made more social. In 1943, the SP Switzerland adopted its programme “The New Switzerland” and launched a popular initiative to this end. (Even before the war, parliament had already prepared a draft for new economic articles in the Federal Constitution). However, the comrades were not alone. In the same year, four more popular initiatives with a similar thrust were submitted from other political camps, even though the war was not yet over. After the war, several votes were taken, the course was set and cornerstones were defined for the social market economy in which we live today (Wüthrich 2020). The present time Since the general strike of 1918, the people have been able to vote on “almost anything and everything”, and they did so more than 500 times at federal level alone – even in difficult situations (they voted countless times more in the cantons and communes). The result is impressive. Switzerland has developed from a relatively poor country in the 19th century to a prosperous and politically stable country. Today, however, a fundamental setting of the course is imminent: The EU wants to involve Switzerland more closely in its politics and is calling for a framework agreement that provides for automatic adoption of the law. We are told that the people will still be able to vote, but “Brussels” reserves the right to react with “compensatory measures” if the result of this vote is not in its taste. – What a curious idea. Switzerland has found its way. Its model gives participation to the people, a voice to every citizen, and shows that things can be done differently. It is a message for peace – and also for the international community. It is therefore shocking and incomprehensible that the Swiss diplomat Thomas Greminger (who, incidentally, did his doctorate on the period of the general strike of 1918) was recently, for no apparent reason, not confirmed as Secretary-General of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe OSCE and that this peace organisation is currently paralysed. The political tensions in the world today are hardly less dangerous than in 1918, and they are increasing. In a few weeks’ time – on 27 September 2020 – there will be another vote in Switzerland: on the procurement of fighter planes, on paternity leave, on child deductions in federal taxes, on a hunting law that makes it easier to shoot wolves, and on a popular initiative that calls for moderate immigration (limitation initiative). How exciting politics can be! We should thank our parents, grandparents and great-grandparents who made this politically possible. On our national holiday on 1 August, we commemorate the alliance of the three original Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden in 1291. I think that the great construction work in recent times is also worth remembering! • Greminger, Thomas. Ordnungstruppen in Zürich. Der Einsatz von Armee, Polizei und Stadtwehr, Ende November 1918 bis August 1919. (Order troops in Zurich. The deployment of army, police and city troops, end of November 1918 to August 1919). Basel/Frankfurt am Main 1990 Linder, Wolf and others. Handbuch der eidgenössischen Volksabstimmungen (Handbook of Federal Referendums). Bern 2010 Schoop, Albert. Geschichte des Kantons Thurgau (History of the Canton of Thurgau), Volume I. Frauenfeld 1987 Winteler, Jakob. Geschichte des Landes Glarus (History of the canton of Glarus). Glarus 1954 Wüthrich, Werner. Wirtschaft und direkte Demokratie in der Schweiz (Economy and direct democracy in Switzerland). edition Zeit-Fragen, Zurich 2002, ISBN 978-3-909234-24-0 If you want to prevent the setting of cookies (for example, Google Analytics), you can set this up by using this browser add-on.

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Jesus & Mary in the Quran & in the Gospels H. Abdul Al-Dahir A Brief History of the Semitic Peoples Modern man lives in a world which he manipulates primarily through scientific methods, with a nominal nod to the spiritual world which he attempts to manipulate thru rituals, prayers, sacrifices etc. The benefit of the spiritual manipulation is most often for material gains. Ancient Semitic people lived in a world which they manipulated thru scientific methods they applied to agriculture, husbandry, mining, building, etc., but with a much greater emphasis on spiritual manipulation thru prayer, rituals, magic, sacrifice etc. Again the spiritual manipulation was mostly directed to material benefits. These Semitic people are often divided into 2 groups: Hebrews and Arabs. However, all Hebrews were Arabs, but not all Arabs were Hebrews. Both were a Semitic people who originated in the Arabian Peninsula. The Hebrews and the Arabs shared: 1) a common genetic origin which has been identified as the J1c3d haplotype, which is shared by the Jewish Cohanim (priests), the tribe of the Prophet Mohammed, the Quraysh, and the Yemense 2) a common geographical origin which was the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant 3) a common mode of commerce which was trade thru caravans 4) a common tribal structure 5) common tribal law governing marriage, hospitality, warfare, civil matters 7) common urban centers located on trade routes 8) common religious practices which included the worship of gods & goddesses, belief in good and evil spirits, spells, curses, shamans, priests, soothsayers, prophets, magic, sacrifice, pilgrimages etc., and a 8) common Semitic language based on a triconsonantal root system. A Brief History of the Hebrews Although the Hebrews & Arabs had much in common, the history of the first Century Hebrews affected their spiritual expectations & expressions in a way that did not impact the Arabs. The Hebrews had a very long history of occupation and domination by foreign powers which included the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. The Hebrews absorbed the traditions and the cultures of their neighbors and their conquerors. They also warred with these same people as well as with their fellow tribesman. Religious traditionalists were often at odds with their fellows in faith over what they saw as the adulteration of their religion and their fellow tribesmen’s collaboration with the occupiers. First Century Hebrew history celebrated a defeat of foreign occupiers under the Macabees: Mattathias, his son, Judah and his 4 brothers. These heroes and their army successfully revolted against their Greek (Seleucid) oppressors and their Hellenized Jewish collaborators aka the Jerusalem Temple Cult. They were able to establish a semi-independent monarchy called the Hasmoneans that lasted for about 100 years until 63 BCE. The First Century Hebrews were under Roman occupation with a similar revolt taking place against the Romans and their Jewish collaborators aka the Jerusalem Temple Cult. The revolt was started by Judas the Galilean and his sons James & Simon who called themselves Zealots. This revolt led to the Roman destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 CE and the expulsion of the Jews from Jerusalem in 131 CE. The historically interminable occupation of Palestine and the failure to establish a viable independent state led to messianic expectations of a hero from the line of King David who would return and lead the Hebrews to a final victory and an independent kingdom. These hopes were dashed under the failed Zealot revolt which precipitated the Roman Jewish wars that resulted in a Roman victory and expulsion from Palestine for the Hebrews as well as the razing of their Jerusalem temple. Given the utter devastation of the Hebrews and their culture, messianic expectations were changed from a leader who would establish an earthly kingdom to one who would establish a spiritual kingdom. The birth of this latter messiah is described in the Gospels of Matthew & Luke. Gospel of Matthew The nativity of Jesus the Messiah appears in chapters 1 and 2 of the Gospel of Matthew. Following the betrothal of Joseph and Mary in this Gospel, Joseph became troubled because Mary was pregnant. However, Joseph had 3 dreams in which an angel assured him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit. In Matthew 2:1-12 a star revealed the birth of Jesus to a number of Magi, or “wise man” who traveled to Jerusalem from an unspecified country “in the east”. They set out from the east in order to locate the infant and bring him gifts. The Magi visited Herod the Great and asked where they might find the one born “King of the Jews”. Herod consulted his advisers about where the Messiah was to be born. They answered Bethlehem, the birthplace of King David. Herod informed the Magi to go to Bethlehem and to report back to him when they had found the child. As the Magi traveled to Bethlehem, the star “went before” them and led them to a house where they found and adored Jesus. They presented Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh. In a dream, the Magi received a divine warning of Herod’s intent to kill the infant, whom he saw as a rival. Consequently, they returned to their own country without telling Herod where to find Jesus. An angel told Joseph to flee with his family to Egypt. Meanwhile, Herod ordered the massacre of every male child in Bethlehem under the age of two. After Herod’s death, the family returned from Egypt, but they were afraid to return to Bethlehem because Herod’s son ruled Judea. Instead they moved to Galilee and settled in Nazareth. Gospel of Luke In the Gospel of Luke, Mary, learned from the angel Gabriel that she would conceive and bear a child called Jesus. When she asked how this could be, since she was a virgin, he told her that the Holy Spirit would “come upon her” and that “nothing would be impossible with God”. She responded: “Here am I, the servant of the Lord; let it be with me according to your word.” Later Mary visited her relative Elizabeth, a daughter of Aaron married to a priest of Abiah, (in other words, a Levite) who was pregnant with John the Baptist. John leapt in his mother’s womb, recognizing the presence of Jesus, the Messiah. When Mary was due to give birth, she and Joseph traveled from Nazareth to Joseph’s ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the “first enrollment” in the census of Quirinius. Mary gave birth to Jesus and, having found no place for themselves in the inn, placed the newborn in a manger in a stable. An angel of the Lord visited the shepherds and brought them “good news of great joy” saying, “To you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is the Messiah, the Lord.” The angel told the shepherds that they would find a child wrapped in bands of cloth and lying in a manger. The angel was joined by a “heavenly host” who declared: “Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace among those whom he favors.” The shepherds hurried to the stable in Bethlehem where they found Jesus with Mary and Joseph. They repeated what they had been told by the angel and then they returned to their flocks. Mary and Joseph took Jesus to Jerusalem to be circumcised, before returning to their home in Nazareth. A Brief History of 7th Century Arabia The 7th Century Arabs did not experience the same historical drama of occupation and revolt as the First Century Hebrews. The Quran is not concerned with revolution against an occupier or messianic expectations. Instead the Quran focuses on societal reforms and tribal unification in a desert society which was dominated by idol worshiping tribes as well as Jewish and Christian tribes. The Christian tribes were divided into various Gnostic and Trinitarian sects. The tribes formed alliances and engaged in inter-tribal war mostly based on ownership of caravan routes and centers of trade. The Quran addresses the various religious practices of these Pagan, Christian and Jewish tribes. The Arabian Christian and Jewish tribal scriptures were at variance with the scriptural versions canonized by Rome, which adapted this Near Eastern religion to their pagan Roman beliefs. The Christian nativity stories addressed in the Quran confirm a portion of the biographical narratives that appear in the Christian scriptures of the Near East and North Africa. The scriptures of these sects were lost except for a few survivors. It is to some of the biographical facts regarding Jesus and his mother, which appear in these lost scriptures, to which Surah Imran Aya 30 refers when it states: “He (Allah) has revealed unto you (Muhammad) the Scripture (Quran) with truth, confirming that which was (revealed) before it, even as He revealed the Torah and the Gospel.” And: Surah Ankabut Aya 48: And you (Muhammad) were not a reader of any scripture before it, nor did you write it with your right hand, for then might those have doubted, who follow falsehood. The Extra Canonical Gospels Sacred to Arabian Christians The surviving scriptures include the Infancy Gospel of Thomas and the Protevangelion of James. These 2 Gospels do not contain the exact narrative of the history of Mary and the nativity stories of Jesus that appear in the Quran. However, they do make references to the beliefs contained in the lost scriptures to which the Quran refers. The Infancy Gospel of Thomas The Infancy Gospel of Thomas contains only one reference to a Jesus narrative referred to in the Quran and that is the reference to Jesus fashioning birds from clay and then commanding them to fly: “This little child Jesus when he was 5 years old was playing at the ford of a brook: and he gathered together the waters that flowed there into pools, and made them straightway clean, and commanded them by his word alone. And having made soft clay he fashioned thereof twelve sparrows. And it was the Sabbath when he did these things. And there were also many other little children playing with him.” The Quran version differs from this as we shall see. The Protevangelium of James The Protevangelium of James begins with an account of the birth of Mary to Joachim and Anna in their old age, when they had given up all hope of having children. Like the infant Samuel in the Old Testament, Mary was dedicated by her grateful mother to the service of God in the temple, and there she was placed in [the] charge of the priest Zechariah. When she was twelve years old she was betrothed by her guardians to Joseph. The story of the angelic annunciation and virginal conception follows the nativity narratives of Luke and Matthew, with various embellishments: Mary’s chastity was vindicated, for example, by the ‘ordeal of jealousy’ prescribed in Numbers 5.11-28. In a cave near Bethlehem Mary gives birth to Jesus, Salome acting as midwife. When Herod fails to find the infant, after the visit of the wise men from the east, he tries to lay hands on the child John (later the Baptist), but when he too is not to be found (having been hidden with his mother Elizabeth in a hollow mountain) Herod has his father Zechariah put to death in the temple court. Chapters in the Protevangelion which are pertinent to the Quran story are: Chapter 4:1: And Anna said: As the Lord my God liveth, if I bring forth either male or female, I will bring it for a gift unto the Lord my God, and it shall be ministering unto him all the days of its life. Protevangelion: 7:1 & 3: And Mary was in the temple of the Lord as a dove that is nurtured: and she received food from the hand of an angel….Zacharias go forth and assemble them that are widowers of the people, and let them bring every man a rod, and to whomsoever the Lord shall show a sign, his wife shall she be. And at that season Zacharias became dumb, and Samuel was in his stead until the time when Zacharias spake again. Parallels to the Protevangelion of James and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas are apparent in the stories concerning Mary & Jesus in the Quran. Quran stories of Mary & the Nativity: Surah Miriam (19) 1. Kaf- Ha-Ya-‘Ain-Sad. [These letters are one of the miracles of the Qur’an, and none but Allah (Alone) knows their meanings]. 2. (This is) a mention of the mercy of your Lord to His slave Zakariya (Zachariah). 3. When he called out his Lord (Allah) a call in secret, 4. Saying: “My Lord! Indeed my bones have grown feeble, and grey hair has spread on my head, And I have never been unblest in my invocation to You, O my Lord! 5. “And Verily! I fear my relatives after me, since my wife is barren. So give me from Yourself an heir, 6. “Who shall inherit me, and inherit (also) the posterity of Ya’qub (Jacob) (inheritance of the religious knowledge and Prophethood, not the wealth, etc.). And make him, my Lord, one with whom You are Well-pleased!”. 7. (Allah said) “O Zakariya (Zachariah)! Verily, We give you the glad tidings of a son, His name will be Yahya (John). We have given that name to none before (him).” 8. He said: “My Lord! How can I have a son, when my wife is barren, and I have reached the extreme old age.” 9. He said: “So (it will be). Your Lord says; It is easy for Me. Certainly I have created you before, when you had been nothing!” 10. [Zakariya (Zachariah)] said: “My Lord! Appoint for me a sign.” He said: “Your sign is that you shall not speak unto mankind for three nights, though having no bodily defect.” 11. Then he came out to his people from Al-Mihrab (a praying place or a private room, etc.), he told them by signs to glorify Allah’s Praises in the morning and in the afternoon. 12. (It was said to his son): “O Yahya (John)! Hold fast the Scripture [the Taurat (Torah)].” And We gave him wisdom while yet a child. 13. And (made him) sympathetic to men as a mercy (or a grant) from Us, and pure from sins [i.e. Yahya (John)] and he was righteous, 14. And dutiful towards his parents, and he was neither an arrogant nor disobedient (to Allah or to his parents). 15. And Salamun (peace) be on him the day he was born, the day he dies, and the day he will be raised up to life (again)! 16. And mention in the Book (the Qur’an, O Muhammad the story of) Maryam (Mary), when she withdrew in seclusion from her family to a place facing east. 17. She placed a screen (to screen herself) from them; then We sent to her Our Ruh [angel Jibrael (Gabriel)], and he appeared before her in the form of a man in all respects. 18. She said: “Verily! I seek refuge with the Most Beneficent (Allah) from you, if you do fear Allah.” 19. (The angel) said: “I am only a Messenger from your Lord, (to announce) to you the gift of a righteous son.” 20. She said: “How can I have a son, when no man has touched me, nor am I unchaste?” 21. He said: “So (it will be), your Lord said: ‘That is easy for Me (Allah): And (We wish) to appoint him as a sign to mankind and a mercy from Us (Allah), and it is a matter (already) decreed, (by Allah).’ ” 22. So she conceived him, and she withdrew with him to a far place. 23. And the pains of childbirth drove her to the trunk of a date-palm. She said: “Would that I had died before this, and had been forgotten and out of sight!” 24. Then [the babe ‘Iesa (Jesus) or Jibrael (Gabriel)] cried unto her from below her, saying: “Grieve not! Your Lord has provided a water stream under you; 25. “And shake the trunk of date-palm towards you, it will let fall fresh ripe-dates upon you.” 26. “So eat and drink and be glad, and if you see any human being, say: ‘Verily! I have vowed a fast unto the Most Beneficent (Allah) so I shall not speak to any human being this day.'” 27. Then she brought him (the baby) to her people, carrying him. They said: “O Mary! Indeed you have brought a thing Fariya (an unheard mighty thing). 28. “O sister of Harun (Aaron) [Mary was a descendant of Aaron.]. Your father was not a man who used to commit adultery, nor was your mother an unchaste woman.” 29. Then she pointed to him. They said: “How can we talk to one who is a child in the cradle?” 30. “He [‘Iesa (Jesus)] said: Verily! I am a slave of Allah, He has given me the Scripture and made me a Prophet;” 31. “And He has made me blessed wheresoever I be, and has enjoined on me Salat (prayer), and Zakat (alms giving), as long as I live.” 32. “And made me dutiful to my mother, and made me not arrogant, unblest. 33. “And Salam (peace) be upon me the day I was born, and the day I die, and the day I shall be raised alive!” 34. Such is ‘Iesa (Jesus), son of Maryam (Mary). (it is) a statement of truth, about which they doubt (or dispute). 35. It befits not (the Majesty of) Allah that He should beget a son [this refers to the slander of Christians against Allah, by saying that ‘Iesa (Jesus) is the son of Allah]. Glorified (and Exalted be He above all that they associate with Him). When He decrees a thing, He only says to it, “Be!” and it is. 36. [‘Iesa (Jesus) said]: “And verily Allah is my Lord and your Lord. So worship Him (Alone). That is the Straight Path (Allah’s Religion of Islamic Monotheism which He did ordain for all of His Prophets).” [Tafsir At-Tabari] 37. Then the sects differed [i.e. the Christians about ‘Iesa (Jesus)], so woe unto the disbelievers [those who gave false witness by saying that ‘Iesa (Jesus) is the son of Allah] from the meeting of a great Day (i.e. the Day of Resurrection, when they will be thrown in the blazing Fire). Surah Imran (3) 35. (Remember) when the wife of ‘Imran said: “O my Lord! I have vowed to You what (the child that) is in my womb to be dedicated for Your services (free from all worldly work; to serve Your Place of worship), so accept this, from me. Verily, You are the All-Hearer, the All-Knowing.” 36. Then when she delivered her [child Maryam (Mary)], she said: “O my Lord! I have delivered a female child,” – and Allah knew better what she delivered, – “And the male is not like the female, and I have named her Maryam (Mary), and I seek refuge with You (Allah) for her and for her offspring from Shaitan (Satan), the outcast.” 37. So her Lord (Allah) accepted her with goodly acceptance. He made her grow in a good manner and put her under the care of Zakariya (Zachariah). Every time he entered Al-Mihrab to (visit) her , he found her supplied with sustenance. He said: “O Maryam (Mary)! From where have you got this?” She said, “This is from Allah.” Verily, Allah provides sustenance to whom He wills, without limit.” 38. At that time Zakariya (Zachariah) invoked his Lord, saying: “O my Lord! Grant me from You, a good offspring. You are indeed the All-Hearer of invocation.” 39. Then the angels called him, while he was standing in prayer in Al-Mihrab (a praying place or a private room), (saying): “Allah gives you glad tidings of Yahya (John), confirming (believing in) the Word from Allah [i.e. the creation of ‘Iesa (Jesus), the Word from Allah (“Be!” – and he was!)], noble, keeping away from sexual relations with women, a Prophet, from among the righteous.” 40. He said: “O my Lord! How can I have a son when I am very old, and my wife is barren?” Allah said: “Thus Allah does what He wills.” 41. He said: “O my Lord! Make a sign for me.” Allah said: “Your sign is that you shall not speak to mankind for three days except with signals. And remember your Lord much (by praising Him again and again), and glorify (Him) in the afternoon and in the morning.” 42. And (remember) when the angels said: “O Maryam (Mary)! Verily, Allah has chosen you, purified you (from polytheism and disbelief), and chosen you above the women of the Alamin (mankind and jinns) (of her lifetime).” 43. O Mary! “Submit yourself with obedience to your Lord (Allah, by worshipping none but Him Alone) and prostrate yourself, and Irka’i (bow down etc.) along with Ar-Raki’un (those who bow down etc.).” 44. This is a part of the news of the Ghaib (unseen, i.e. the news of the past nations of which you have no knowledge) which We inspire you with (O Muhammad ). You were not with them, when they cast lots with their pens as to which of them should be charged with the care of Maryam (Mary); nor were you with them when they disputed. 45. (Remember) when the angels said: “O Maryam (Mary)! Verily, Allah gives you the glad tidings of a Word [“Be!” – and he was! i.e. ‘Iesa (Jesus) the son of Maryam (Mary)] from Him, his name will be the Messiah ‘Iesa (Jesus), the son of Maryam (Mary), held in honour in this world and in the Hereafter, and will be one of those who are near to Allah.” 46. “He will speak to the people in the cradle and in manhood, and he will be one of the righteous.” 47. She said: “O my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man has touched me.” He said: “So (it will be) for Allah creates what He wills. When He has decreed something, He says to it only: “Be!” and it is. 48. And He (Allah) will teach him [‘Iesa (Jesus)] the Book and Al-Hikmah (i.e. the Sunnah, the faultless speech of the Prophets, wisdom, etc.), (and) the Taurat (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel). 49. And will make him [‘Iesa (Jesus)] a Messenger to the Children of Israel (saying): “I have come to you with a sign from your Lord, that I design for you out of clay, as it were, the figure of a bird, and breathe into it, and it becomes a bird by Allah’s Leave; and I heal him who was born blind, and the leper, and I bring the dead to life by Allah’s Leave. And I inform you of what you eat, and what you store in your houses. Surely, therein is a sign for you, if you believe. 50. And I have come confirming that which was before me of the Taurat (Torah), and to make lawful to you part of what was forbidden to you, and I have come to you with a proof from your Lord. So fear Allah and obey me. 51. Truly! Allah is my Lord and your Lord, so worship Him (Alone). This is the Straight Path. 52. Then when ‘Iesa (Jesus) came to know of their disbelief, he said: “Who will be my helpers in Allah’s Cause?” Al-Hawariun (the disciples) said: “We are the helpers of Allah; we believe in Allah, and bear witness that we are Muslims (i.e. we submit to Allah).” 53. Our Lord! We believe in what You have sent down, and we follow the Messenger [‘Iesa (Jesus)]; so write us down among those who bear witness (to the truth i.e. La ilaha ill-Allah – none has the right to be worshipped but Allah). 54. And they (disbelievers) plotted [to kill ‘Iesa (Jesus)], and Allah planned too. And Allah is the Best of the planners. 55. And (remember) when Allah said: “O ‘Iesa (Jesus)! I will take you and raise you to Myself and clear you [of the forged statement that ‘Iesa (Jesus) is Allah’s son] of those who disbelieve, and I will make those who follow you (Monotheists, who worship none but Allah) superior to those who disbelieve [in the Oneness of Allah, or disbelieve in some of His Messengers, e.g. Muhammad , ‘Iesa (Jesus), Musa (Moses), etc., or in His Holy Books, e.g. the Taurat (Torah), the Injeel (Gospel), the Qur’an] till the Day of Resurrection. Then you will return to Me and I will judge between you in the matters in which you used to dispute.” 56. “As to those who disbelieve, I will punish them with a severe torment in this world and in the Hereafter, and they will have no helpers.” 57. And as for those who believe (in the Oneness of Allah) and do righteous good deeds, Allah will pay them their reward in full. And Allah does not like the Zalimun (polytheists and wrong-doers). 58. This is what We recite to you (O Muhammad ) of the Verses and the Wise Reminder (i.e. the Qur’an). 59. Verily, the likeness of ‘Iesa (Jesus) before Allah is the likeness of Adam. He created him from dust, then (He) said to him: “Be!” – and he was. 60. (This is) the truth from your Lord, so be not of those who doubt. 61. Then whoever disputes with you concerning him [‘Iesa (Jesus)] after (all this) knowledge that has come to you, [i.e. ‘Iesa (Jesus)] being a slave of Allah, and having no share in Divinity) say: (O Muhammad ) “Come, let us call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves – then we pray and invoke (sincerely) the Curse of Allah upon those who lie.” 62. Verily! This is the true narrative [about the story of ‘Iesa (Jesus)], and, La ilaha ill-Allah (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah, the One and the Only True God, Who has neither a wife nor a son). And indeed, Allah is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise. The above Quran narratives confirm that at least a portion of the extra canonical gospel narratives were known in the Peninsula and that these narratives were held as the true biographies of Jesus and Mary by those Christian tribes who held these scriptures as true revelations. The Quran story of Jesus’ birth and his infant defense of his mother to her clansmen make it clear that important tribal members accepted the miracle that saved Jesus and his mother from the punishments demanded in Hebrew law for bastardy and fornication. Mary, according to the Gospel of Mark, Chapter 6, married and produced brothers and sisters for Jesus, some of whom became loyal disciples and leaders of those who followed Jesus’ gospel. The Gospel of Mark: 6:3, also demonstrates that not all of Jesus’ clansmen accepted the miracle of his birth. For further elucidation of Mark 6:3, refer to the essay on this site, Mary & the Birth of Jesus Clarified.

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Sea anchors are as old as seafaring. Sailors through the ages have carried buckets, bags, cones—just about everything except the kitchen sink—and thrown them over when they wanted to limit drift. Where the water is too deep for anchoring to the ground sea anchors have long had their uses. Drogues, too, have a long history. Whether as “drags” used to tire harpooned whales or “brakes” to control hard-to-maneuver barges, drogues have been working the waterways for centuries. Our examination of commercially available devices is not a product comparison but an overview of some available options. There’s understandable confusion between sea anchors and drogues. A sea anchor is meant to fix a boat in place, much like a conventional (non-floating) anchor. A drogue, on the other hand, generally goes over the stern. You use it to control speed and stabilize your course as you run downwind away from the seas. Both sea anchors and drogues work by creating drag. Both are ways of keeping your boat end-on to the wind and seas. However, their heavy weather missions are quite different. The main reason sea anchors and drogues get confused is that, until relatively recently, they were basically the same thing. What John Claus Voss (author of the turn-of-the century classic Venturesome Voyages) and even Adlard Coles in his Heavy Weather Sailing called “sea anchors” were small conical devices much like present-day drogues. However, dating roughly from the end of Word War II, sailors and, most particularly, commercial fishermen, began experimenting with parachutes as devices for heaving to. Patrick Royce was the first sailor to tell of these adventures (early 60’s). John and Joan Casanova subsequently (70’s and 80’s) made well-documented use of a parachute anchor in their multihull cruising. Lin and Larry Pardey (aboard the monohull Seraffyn) used ordnance chutes to heave to and wrote about it. Para-anchors have come into their own; large-diameter devices on the parachute model (or, as in the case of the modern Shewmon anchors, designed from scratch) have evolved in the past 20 years to offer infinitely more “holding” power than the time-honored cones. The sea anchors available in the US today (from Para-Tech Engineering, Para-Anchors International, Fiorentino Para Anchor, and Shewmon Inc., among others), plus those few available on the international market from Para-Anchors Australia and Coppins, Ltd. (New Zealand) all have the size and strength to do what the older devices couldn’t—”stop” the boat from drifting and hold its bow to weather. Your sea anchor allows you to stop, to attend to a problem, make repairs, get a rest. If the wind and waves are moderate, “anchoring” your boat in open water is relatively simple and straightforward. If it’s too deep to drop the hook, the sea anchor lets you “park.” Most sailors, however, look to sea anchors to help them handle heavy weather. And in robust blows and gale force winds para-anchors have earned high marks. They have proven that they can bring the boat end-on to the waves and limit drift (often to as little as half a knot). Testimonials are impressive. For example: Windswept (Hinckley Bermuda 40 yawl) deployed a 12′ Para-Tech sea anchor during passage of a frontal trough (winds 35-40 knots) off the coast of Maine. The skipper recounted thusly: “After deployment my yawl lay bow-to the wind and waves with very little yawing. With 400 feet of rode there was absolutely no shock loading. My boat rode like a duck, up and over each wave, always nose to the wind. Altogether a very pleasant, safe, and secure feeling.” That happy, cozy result is what sailors are looking for. Shewmon advises, “Set the anchor at the first sign of heavy weather, BEFORE the deck gets wet and it’s hard to work. Then go inside and catch up on your rest.” The parachute sea anchor is often painted as the “last, best solution” for the weather-whipped sailor. But it’s dangerous to regard the sea anchor as a “set-it-and-forget-it” solution to heavy weather. Once crests form on the waves, things change. Water now moves laterally, not up and down. It moves at wave speed (up to 25 knots) and can have an impact of one ton per square foot. That changes the game. Breaking waves slew boats off course, roll them over, rocket them out of control. Breaking waves usher in survival conditions. It’s a comfort that not many storms produce breaking waves. Still, when they do, they introduce significant problems if you’re riding to a sea anchor. The first is yawing. Other Aids For Staying Bow To How your boat rides to a ground anchor is a good guide as to how she will ride to a sea anchor. Multihulls, for instance, ride relatively straight to both ground and sea anchors when they bridle the anchor from both bows. A monohull, on the other hand, streams a sea anchor from a single fixed point. That increases yaw. One antidote is a riding sail. A sail set well aft (even a storm jib hanked to the backstay and sheeted flat) will help a boat stay head-to-wind. If you are able to, reduce windage forward (roller furlers are classic culprits) you can do a lot to keep yourself effectively bow-on. Another remedy is the form of heaving to popularized by the Pardeys. They ride, with or without sail, to a sea anchor, but they attach a control line to the rode and bridle it to their quarter. By adjusting the control they can “winch the stern to weather” and bring their bow off the wind. The hull makes some leeway which in turn generates a “slick” that helps dampen wave action on their weather side. It’s a promising variation to riding bow-on. Even if you eliminate yaw, you are left to deal with the effect of powerfully breaking wave crests. Thrown aft against an anchor “fixed” in the water, your boat can conceivably generate a pull approaching its own displacement. The tactic here is to position your anchor so that it is in phase with the boat, cresting when the boat does. You don’t want the anchor to be “fixed.” Maximum scope goes a long way toward achieving the “in-rhythm” balance that can keep loads on the boat and road within reason. Para-Tech recommends a minimum of 300′ of rode (or 12 times the boat’s length overall, whichever is greater). Both Shewmon and Para-Tech insist on nylon rodes because nylon’s elasticity limits shock loads. “We used to think that we could set a sea anchor with the gear that was already aboard for ground tackle. I’ve learned that you need to have gear designed especially to do the job, in terms of strength, efficiency, and chafe prevention,” said Earl Hinz, author of Understanding Sea Anchors & Drogues. Wind loads alone can push the pull on a rode to more than a ton. Para-Tech specifies 1/2″ nylon for boats up to 35′, 5/8″ for boats from 35′-45′, and 3/4″ rode for boats up to 55′. A dedicated strong point, one that doesn’t rely on deck cleats or skimpily backed windlasses, seems almost mandatory for handling a sea anchor. Chafe is also a problem. There are reports of systems that chafed through “within hours.” Hinz inserts lengths of chain at 100′ intervals in his rode and lets the chain handle abrasion. Repositioning chafing gear on a bar-taut rode from a wave-swept foredeck is difficult, at best. You can’t do much once you’ve set the anchor. That makes adjusting rode length virtually impossible beyond “freshening the nip” by easing it a couple of inches every hour or so. Shewmon’s answer: “Assume the worst case scenario and stream all of the rode permanently protected from chafe at the boat end from the start.” Pre-planning helps, but practicing is the best preparation for setting your sea anchor in a storm. Boats riding to a sea anchor will make some sternway. The more severe the motion astern the more grave the threat to the steering system. A rudder hinged on the keel or transom might even be forced against its pintles and sheared off. To counter the backdowns induced by wind and wave, lock the rudder amidships. Lash the wheel rather than relying on the friction brake. Better yet, mount your emergency tiller and lash it. Riding to a sea anchor more or less rules out adopting any other heavy weather tactic. That’s mostly because getting going again involves either cutting the gear loose or trying to wrestle it back aboard. Trip lines are standard items with both Para-Tech and Shewmon sea anchors. The Pardeys and many others don’t use them, though. They fear they might snag and sabotage the system. Hinz favors a partial trip line (about one-third the rode’s length) with its own buoy. Even when you succeed in imploding the chute via a retrieval line, you still have retrieval to contend with. In moderating conditions you may power up gradually along the rode and get away with as little as 15 or 20 minutes of intense line handling. If the waves remain and things are anything but perfect, however “retrieval is harder than you can imagine” (according to author and cruising instructor John Neal. As another sailor put it, “It’s like trying to reel in a giant squid from 20,000 fathoms down.” Sizing a Sea Anchor Choosing a sea anchor begins with the size of your boat. Shewmon explains that his anchors function at their rated diameter “while the Para-Tech anchors are flat. That means that they curve when they fill with water so their working diameter is 30% less than their rated diameter.” For example, a 6′ Para-Tech sea anchor equals the holding power of a Shewmon sea anchor only 4′ diameter, he said. Shewmon’s sizing guide suggests a 10.5′-diameter meter chute for a 35′ boat and a 13.5′ device for a 45-footer. Recommendations for Para-Tech equivalents are 16′ (for a 35-footer) and 20′ (for a 45-footer), respectively. US Sailing’s Recommendations for Offshore Sailing puts forth a general guideline—sea anchor diameter should be approximately equal to one-third of a boat’s length overall. Says Victor Shane, a maker of para anchors as well as the author of the Drag Device Data Base, “Err on the larger side for safety, much as you would with ground tackle.” Fears of tethering to “immovable objects” have occasionally led sailors to fit their boats with under-sized chutes. Says Walter Greene of the 4′ Shewmon streamed from his 50′ catamaran Sebago, “I thought anything bigger would be too unyielding.” The boat survived 48 hours of 50-knot winds in mid-Atlantic, but her bows sheared off at 45°-60° throughout the storm. The bigger the sea anchor the bigger the challenge involved in deploying and retrieving it. Getting it over the side is essentially a matter of preparation and technique. Set the chute to weather (to minimize chances of its sliding beneath the hull), “sneak” it directly into the water to keep it from blowing about, have the rode properly led, flaked and snubbed, and pay off under control (sail or power). Tension on the rode should open the chute. Given the elasticity in the system and the required (considerable, to say the least) scope, the shock of fetching up against it should be minor and not break anything. Tests conducted by the American Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers have proven that a boat running before waves is likely to broach when waves approach a height equivalent to 35% of its waterline length. Steadied by a drogue, however, a boat will withstand waves as high as 55% of waterline length. And there are other virtues to towing a drogue. Most often boats lose control running off before heavy weather because they are going too fast. Leaping off the top of one wave into the back of the one in front will, sooner or later, present problems. Calming your pace so that you stop short of pitchpoling, get a grip on broaching, and put a stop to pounding can be a simple matter of towing a drogue. Most of those available have shown that they can cut top speeds in half. Drogues do more than that to help steering control. By holding the stern into the waves they limit yaw. By adjusting the drogue so that it pulls on your weather quarter you create an “anti-broaching” force. You can rig a bridle from the stern and use it to “pull the stern around” or lead the bridle to strong points forward of your rudder so that you can “tow the drogue around” with positive control. “Drogues,” said Shewmon, “are for fair weather. Once waves start to break you want to deploy a sea anchor.” It’s true that none of the drogues on the market today can “save the day” on its own the way a sea anchor might. Tethering to a sea anchor is primarily passive. You don’t trim sail, dodge waves, or do much more than monitor the situation. Running off is a more active approach. Boat type, sea room, crew reserves, storm avoidance, damage control…the factors that go into choosing which tactic to take are legion and complex. Drogues offer no absolute guarantees against pitchpoling, broaching, or capsize—but they do help the boat stayl end-on to the waves (running off). Keeping that choice open makes them valuable in heavy weather. The drogues inherited from whalers and cod fishermen suited sailors well for a while. But boats got faster, loads got bigger, and a few flaws began to surface. Time-honored cones and the variations thereon tended to porpoise, swerve, oscillate and pulse as water flow increased. For good speed and steering control you need a steady pull. A new generation of drogues developed almost entirely since the Fastnet storm of 1979 now provides it. Galerider. Developed by sailmaker Ed Raymond along with yachtsman Frank Snyder, this open-weave basket of webbing gets its pull from a small disc of heavy vinyl in the basket’s bottom. Shewmon’s tug tests (and testimonials from a number of sailors) indicate that it pulls straight with no tendency to yaw. Galeriders come in six sizes (from 18″ diameter to 48″) and have been described by sailors who have towed them as strong, durable, consistent, and simple to deploy and retrieve. John Neal favors it. Seabrake GP-24. Evolved by Australian commercial fisherman John Abernethy, Seabrakes are based on variable flow. On the original solid Seabrake a baffle prevented most water from passing through it, making it provide tension enough for moderate steering and speed control. Increased water flow from increased speed opened the baffle to create turbulent water flow. That increased drag by as much as 70%. The successor drogue (GP-24) has a “staged system” of variable resistance to produce similar performance in a lighter device made from cloth. Seabrakes have been in use for 15 years and found favor with Down Under racers (like Sir Peter Blake) and cruisers in both multihulls and monohulls. They have limited availability in the US. Attenborough Sea Drogue. Developed in the UK and used there by lifeboats and fishermen as well as sailors, this 25-lb. solid stainless steel weldment contains a series of angled vanes. As speed increases, flow over the vanes accelerates. That causes the device to dive deeper and “pull harder.” By adjusting the vanes to a shallower dive angle you can use the Sea Drogue for steering control alone. Stowage and retrieval of the solid unit present problems. It has yet to be marketed worldwide. Shewmon Seamless Drogue. Sold in three sizes (27″, 54″, and 106″ widths) these drogues are made from single pieces of cloth. Shewmon has tug-tested the largest up to 9,000 lbs. of pull. Pull varies with the square of speed (tripling speed produces nine times the pull). Additional speed control can be achieved by adjusting the trip line and “shrinking” the drogue. However, as Shewmon warns, “Readers are advised to abandon all thoughts of partial tripping unless they are willing to spend considerable time and patience experimenting.” Para-Tech Delta Drogue. Due to tri-corner exhaust vents, increased flow through this drogue produces increased drag, thus suiting the load to the conditions. Guide surface design promotes stability and the water flow helps assure that the drogue will retain its shape. Available for boats from 25′ to 80′ in length, the device comes in six sizes. Made from heavy, vinyl-coated fabric, the Delta stows easily and is relatively easy to retrieve. Jordan Series Drogue. Towed from the stern like a conventional drogue, this device attempts to do the job of a sea anchor by aggressively holding the boat end-on into the seas. Donald Jordan, its inventor, is a veteran of the aircraft industry and former MIT professor. Jordan’s answer is a series drogue, a rode arrayed with a series of small cones and stretched downward and aft by a weight. Depending on the size of the boat, 90 or more 5″ cones are spliced in line to a 300′ tow line at 20″ intervals. Jordan said that an average (25,000-pound) boat will need about 130 cones. Sailors who have used Jordan’s drogue say that it works well. “It slowed our speed to between 0 and 1/4 knot. Yaw was only 5° either side of heading,” reported Gary Danielson of using the device aboard his 25′ monohull in 25-30 knots. The problem that arises, however, is that the boat’s stern quarters tend to be held where they are vulnerable to assault from waves. Jordan counters, “The approaching water mass is essentially wedge-shaped. In most cases a breaking wave slides under the stern and lifts it rather than smashing down on it.” “I disagree,” said Steve Dashew, circumnavigator and author of the new book, Surviving The Storm (order at www.setsail.com), who supplied photos for this article. “You can’t discount the impact of a breaking wave. Some boats are well-protected aft, perhaps with center cockpits, but many others, with exposed cockpits, lockers, and companionways are vulnerable. The wisdom of riding stern-to the storm thus depends almost entirely on the type of boat that you have.” You might get an inexpensive conical device or prospect the offerings of such far-flung para-anchor purveyors as Coppins, Ltd. (New Zealand) or Para-Anchors Australia. However, after reading hundreds of case histories and talking to sailors and manufacturers we have found little or nothing to justify taking your sea anchor search that far afield. Design and construction of the basic parachute varies somewhat, but the track records, accessibility, and commitment of the two proven and accessible American manufacturers—Para-Tech Engineering and Shewmon, Inc.—make them ones you may wish to consider. Dan Whilldin, Para-Tech president, is a veteran of more than 30 years of working with parachutes, both for aircraft and for boats. Feedback from the sailors who have used his sea anchors was a big factor in developing the deployable stowage bag that lets you set your Para-Tech by simply dropping the bag (with rode attached) overboard. To us this appears a significant advantage and one that sets Para-Tech apart from Shewmon, whose larger canopies need to be rolled and stopped with twine to ready them for use. Coupled with a significant weight difference (Para-Tech = 17 lbs., Shewmon = 50 lbs.) for comparable sea anchors, Para-Tech is the easier of the two to set. Shewmon sea anchors are heavily built. A mining engineer and inventor, Dan Shewmon made his own sea anchors for his cruising motorsailer, then went on, in 1978, to found Shewmon, Inc., which now makes and sells a variety of anchors and drogues also of his own design. An anchor for the average (35′-40′) monohull is made from 7-oz. knitted, slightly porous Dacron cloth. “Water is non-compressible and 853 times heavier than air,” he argues. “Common sense dictates that sea anchor cloth should be considerably heavier than parachute cloth.” Para-Tech employs zero-porosity, high tensile (approximately 2-oz.) nylon in its canopies. Shewmon’s Dacron is undoubtedly stronger. But Para-Tech’s nylon has proven (in Dan Shewmon’s own tug tests) that it can survive loads greater than those seen in recommended use. Further, more than 30 reports in Victor Shane’s Drag Device Data Base tell of setting Para-Tech anchors in winds up to 85 knots, seas over 25 feet, and for as long as 53 hours. Only one account mentions cloth failure: two “well-frayed holes between vent and skirt were found upon retrieval, but there’s no doubt the anchor saved the boat,” said skipper Stephen Edwards of Adelaide, Australia. Shewmon argues that the porosity of his cloth stabilizes the canopy. Para-Tech points to the resiliency nylon cloth gives to its anchors, better enabling them to absorb loads. There are also significant design differences. Shewmon has created a hybrid of conical and flat shapes with a deeply scalloped (rather than dimpled à la a parachute) circumference. Para-Tech chutes, modeled closely on the standard BU ORD drop chute, depend on a swivel in the system. Shewmon contends that swivels aren’t reliable and that he has “designed out” oscillation. Says one chute deployer, “Despite my para-anchor being clearly undersized by manufacturer recommendations, it held us like a brick wall (in winds of 35 knots and 20-foot seas).” Yawing and oscillation? Neither are reported as problems in Shane’s Drag Device Data Base. Commendable as Shewmon’s durability appears and as persuasive as his arguments may be against swivels, we don’t see how the Shewmon differences translate into improved sea anchor performance. Both systems are equally cranky and awkward to retrieve. Making a choice then shifts to the last variable—ease of deployment—for which the Para-Tech seems to have the edge. The Jordan Series Drogue is in a class by itself. Much more of a sea anchor than a true drogue, it fixes a boat end-on to the wind and waves with a resilient efficiency that wins praise from all quarters. Your boat has to be designed and built to survive seas stern-on, however, before the JSD becomes a good option. The Galerider and Delta are simple to use. They deploy without fuss, create high drag at relatively low loads, and pull with a firm steadiness that makes them ideal for steering control. Both rely on swivels. The recommended use of a length of chain to hold the Delta below the surface adds, we feel, unwanted complexity. Galerider’s open-flow design seems less-likely to become unbalanced than the tri-corner system seen in Delta. Galerider costs, however, nearly twice what Delta does. The Shewmon Seamless Drogue offers the fascinating potential of controllable drag and incorporates the ingenuity of an egg-weighted lower side and a hole-vented upper lip to promote stability and “grip.” These elements make it more complex, however. Given the consistent and effective performance of its simpler competitors, it seems to us that the Shewmon drogue (made from a single piece of cloth and therefore seamless) may take more adjustment and getting used to than the others. But, at $79 (54″ model) it is only half the price of its nearest competitor. That might make it a worthwhile experiment. Experience at sea has shown the GP-24 (and the solid state Seabrake from which it evolved) to be effective, but these Australian-made devices are hard to get in the US. The solid Attenborough Sea Drogue from the UK is cumbersome to stow. Also, sea trials indicate that deployment is not a simple matter. Because drogues are more versatile, adjustable, and easier to use than sea anchors, any of the ones we examined might be useful. Because it combines value, function, and proven performance, our selection is the Delta drogue. Contacts- Attenborough Sea Drogues, (Dr. Neil Attenborough), Fallowfield House, Puttenham, Guildford, Surrey GU3 1AH UK; (44) 1483-300366, fax (44) 1483-34496. Fiorentino Para Anchor, 1048 Irvine Ave. #489, Newport Beach, CA 92660; 800/777-0732; www.paraanchor.com. Galerider, Hathaway, Reiser & Raymond, 184 Sellect St., Stamford, CT 06902; 203/424-9581; www.hathaway.com. Jordan Series Drogue, Ace Sailmaker, Hellier’s Yacht Sales, 128 Howard St., New London, CT 06320; 860/443-5556; www.acesails.com. Para-Anchor International, (Victor Shane), PO Box 19, Summerland, CA 93067; 805/966-9782; fax 805/966-7510. Para-Tech Engineering, 2117 Horseshoe Trail, Silt, CO 81652; 970/876-0558; www.seaanchor.com. Seabrake International, (John Abernethy), RFD (Australia), 3/7 Kent Rd., Mascot, Sydney, NSW 2020, Australia; (61) 29-667-0480, fax (61) 29-693-1242. Shewmon, 1000 Harbor Lake Dr., Safety Harbor, FL 34695; 727/447-0091.

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Table of Contents - Project Participants - 1800 - 1836 Agricultural Settlement - 1836 - 1860 Founding of the Town of Girard - 1860 - 1890 Industrial Expansion - 1890 to the Present - Jane Harris - James Dale - James Dale, Coordinator, American Studies, Youngstown State University. - Elizabeth DeChant, Secretary, Girard Historical Society. - Eugene Dukes, Director, Girard Free Library. - Hugh Earnhart, Director, Oral History, Youngstown State University. - Jane Harris, Columnist, Girard News - Wendell Lauth, President, Girard Historical Society. - Richard Ulrich, Architectural History, Youngstown State University. - Carl Leet, Photography. - Mary Ann Murray, Graphics. Project date: 1984 Ohio Arts Council and the Ohio Humanities Council Joint Program in the Arts and Humanities A Brief History of Girard: Its Architecture and Its People History can be told in many ways. This Girard history project tells the story of Girard through its architecture. This can make history more real by connecting it to the architectural structures we live among. The reason the town of Girard was founded 150 years ago was the dam on the Mahoning River that can still be seen from the viaduct. Since then, the architecture of Girard has deeply influenced how the people of Girard lived, how they worked, how they were educated, how they played, and how they thought about themselves and their world. This is the story told by the Girard History Project. 1800 - 1836 Agricultural Settlement In 1798, the entire Connecticut Western Reserve was sold, for about fifty cents an acre, to a large group of land speculators who divided the land among themselves with a lottery. Liberty Township went to four men, none of whom lived in the area: Moses Cleaveland (who founded Cleveland), Daniel Lathrop, Christopher Liffinwell, and Sam Huntington Jr. (who became the third governor of Ohio). The township was surveyed into 25 Great Lots, each a mile square. The area that became Girard was located in Great Lot 10 on the southwest side of the township. This lot was particularly valuable because running through it were both the Mahoning River and the major State Road, (now Route 422) which became State Street in Girard. The first settlers on Great Lot 10 were the family of Hieronimus Eckman, who bought the upper third of the lot sight-unseen in 1802, before coming west to clear it for a farm. They had nine children. Eckman was one of the first gunsmiths in the Mahoning Valley. In 1803, he petitioned to have a road built between Girard and Hubbard, now Route 304 (Churchill Road). The Eckmans came from Lancaster County in Eastern Pennsylvania. Although from Germany, settlers in this area of Pennsylvania became known as Pennsylvania Dutch. They were hardworking, thrifty farmers who were able to give their younger sons money to buy land in the "West." So many of these people settled in the Girard area that the area on the north side of Girard became known as Dutchtown. The second settlers were the Francis Carltons. In 1801, they had settled in Warren on land north of the Kinsman Mansion, which is now Perkins Park, but they quickly sold this land and moved to the lower third of Great Lot 10. One of the first schools in the area was a log cabin on the Carlton land. Carlton was an Irishman from Western Pennsylvania, who had served in the Revolution, as had many of the men who settled in the West. He died in the great typhoid epidemic of 1813.The middle third of Great Lot 10 was bought by William Moore. He, too, died in the epidemic of 1813, and the property was sold to Daniel Reeser, who in turn sold it to Solomon Kline, another German, for whom Kline Street was named. Some of the other early settlers were the Sam Everetts, the John Townsends, and the Henry Barnhisels. In 1813, the Barnhisels bought 318 acres of land just north of Great Lot 10. Over the years, this extended family accumulated more than 650 acres. They donated land for the first church in the area. The Union Church was built in Classic Revival style and served both the German Lutheran and German Reform congregations. In 1841, Henry Barnhisel Jr. built a mansion in Classic Revival style on his farm facing the State Road. This house is on the National Historical Register, and is located at 1011 North State Street. It is currently being restored by the Girard Historical Society with a $20,000 grant from the Department of the Interior. To serve the surrounding farms, a grist mill was built in 1832 by Henry Brunett, who sold it to Andrew McCartney. To provide water power, a dam was built across the river at the site of the present dam. The grist mill became the commercial center for what had now become a prosperous, growing agricultural area. 1836-1860 Founding of the Town of Girard The founding of the town of Girard was the result of more land speculation and the planning of the Pennsylvania and the Ohio Canal. This canal was to run from the Ohio River, up the Beaver River and then up the Mahoning River and on to Akron, where it would connect with other parts of the Ohio canal system. It was obvious that the reservoir above the dam would be ideal for loading and unloading canal boats, which would expand the activity of this commercial center. A village that formed here would surely prosper, and as time went on, the land would become more and more valuable. In 1836, four men bought the section of Solomon Kline's land between the river and the State Road to found the town of Girard. For this 42 acres, they paid $3,539, or $60 an acre. The county surveyor, Franklin E. Stow, spent one day on the survey. Apparently unaware of the name the four men had in mind, he called the town Mahoning. However, it has always been assumed that the town was named for Stephen Girard, the famous philanthropist of Philadelphia. In contrast to the earlier land speculators who bought Liberty Township, all four of these men were prominent in the Mahoning Valley. John W. Seeley, 65, came from Pennsylvania and settled in Howland in 1801. He was one of the first doctors in Trumbull County. During the War of 1812, he recruited a company of militia and was elected its captain. He was a state senator from 1816 to 1817. He became an enthusiastic supporter of the canal company and one of its directors. On the inaugural boat trip from Girard to Akron in 1840 to celebrate completion of the canal, he became so excited that he became sick and died. John W. Collins came from Virginia. In 1835, he had bought the strip of land south of the tract the four bought together in 1836 and included this strip with the rest of the tract. He was a businessman and started a general store at Howland Corners. Mathew Birchard, 32, was born in Massachusetts. He settled in Windham, studied law in Warren, and was admitted to the bar in 1827. He became a justice of the Ohio Supreme Court and later Chief Justice. David Tod, 31, was born in 1805 on his parents' farm in Brier Hill. He studied law in Warren, was admitted to the bar in 1827, and went into practice with Matthew Birchard in Warren. He was the first postmaster of Warren, was elected to the State Senate in 1840, ard appointed ambassador to Brazil in 1847. He returned to Warren, then to his family home in Brier Hill. In 1860, he was elected Governor of Ohio. The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal reached Girard in 1839. The dam was rebuilt into its present two-levee form and a granite lock serving the canal was built at the east end of the dam. Just below the dam, a covered wooden bridge was built across the river at the sight of the present viaduct. Andrew McCartney leased the mill to a partnership of Baldwin, Osborne, and Robbins, who rebuilt it into a two story structure in a Classic Revival style. It had a capacity of 70 barrels a day. Above the dam on the east side of the river, a basin was dug out for loading and unloading barges. The street running to the basin was named Basin Street, later changed to West Broadway. For the first time, heavy merchandise could be transported economically. The basin began to serve as an inland port exporting agricultural products produced in the area and importing manufactured goods from the outside world. With the expectation and development of this commerce, the town of Girard began to develop. Fifteen blocks were initially surveyed and divided into lots. In 1837, four lots were sold. Henry Stull bought a lot at Kline and Water streets (near the basin) for $33. Elmedorus Crandon bought two lots at the main intersection of Liberty and State Streets for $60 and built the Black Horse Tavern, which became the first Post Office. In 1844, the first school was built on Liberty Street, but was later moved to the northwest corner of Abbey and South Market Streets, where it was called Brown School. As the canal created wealth and reduced transportation costs, the people of Girard began to participate in the larger American culture. Heavy items such as china and church organs could now be afforded. New York clothing styles began to show up on Girard streets. In order to keep up with current national style the early citizens of Girard brought in classic revival architecture and incorporated it into the design of the first school, the Methodist Church, and the more expensive homes such as the Barnhisel House. In 1835, the Cleveland and Mahoning Railroad reached Girard. It ran along the same path as the canal, which it rapidly replaced. The stockholders of the railroad were often the same people as the stockholders of the canal. David Tod became the President of the railroad in 1859. In 1861, Girard's first brick building was constructed on Jefferson Square. It was a large elegant school in Italianate style. Although named Union School because it served the area surrounding Girard, it soon became known simply as the Brick School. It was a combination grade and high school, and also provided space for public entertainments and theatrical troupes. The first principal was Hugh Caldwell. By 1860, the population of Girard was approaching 500 people. 1860-1890 Industrial Expansion Beginning with the Civil War, Girard began to expand as it started to depend less on serving as a commercial center and began to develop its own industry. Utilizing hides produced by surrounding farms, a small tannery was established in 1860 by Fredrick Krehl, who had learned the trade in Canfield. His first building was located on the north side of Basin Street, now West Broadway. During the Civil War, business boomed from making leather for harnesses. In 1873, the Tannery expanded and eventually occupied most of the block north of Basin Street. It reached a capacity of 600 hides a week and employed more than 25 people, mostly Germans, who settled in the area just to the north of the Tannery which became known as Dutchtown. In 1904, most of the Tannery burned down, leaving only the building on West Broadway which now serves as the recycling center. Another industry which utilized raw materials produced by surrounding farms was the Woolen Factory, which was located near the Grist Mill. But Girard's major industry rapidly became iron and steel. The area around Girard contained all the necessary raw materials, iron ore,coal, and limestone. Some of these materials were brought in by train from nearby locations such as Mineral Ridge. Others were mined right in the Girard area. Coal mines were dug in the hillside on the west side of the river valley. Welsh immigrants came to work these mines and settled in the area which became known as Welsh Hill. In 1866, the Girard Iron Company was established on the south side along the river by David Tod, J(oseph) G. Butler, William Richards, and William Ward. It grew into a very large operation with a furnace 66 feet high which had a capacity of 20,000 tons a month. Its stock house was 60 feet wide and 200 feet long. In time this company became part of U. S. Steel. In 1867, the Girard Stove Works was established on the west side of the river near the Grist Mill. It was built by Lambert Crawford and C. B. Vanbroclin, and after a series of ownership changes, ended up in the hands of a partnership of McCartney, Stambaugh, Walker, Kincaid, and Wilson. Expanding beyond stoves, it produced coal cars and castings as large as five tons, and employed over 25 workers. In time, it became part of Youngstown Foundry and Machine. In 1872, a joint stock company established the Girard Rolling Mill on the south side along the river. The president was Henry Wick, the secretary-treasurer, Myron Wick, and the general manager, John Wick. Built in a functional Victorian industrial style, the mill grew to have fourteen puddling furnaces and a ten-inch rolling mill, and employed 153 workers. It specialized in steel for agricultural implements, chains,and nuts and bolts, and reached a capacity of 1,000 tons a month. he fire and smoke from the Rolling Mill and the Iron Company on the south side along the river was so reminiscent of Pittsburgh that this area became known as Allegeheny. The first workers in these mills were Welsh, followed by Italians in the 1880's. Often they were very young. During their breaks from puddling, they often heated their lunches on hot surfaces in the mill. In response to the wealth this industry produced, the Girard Savings Bank was built in 1873 on the south side of Liberty Street in a Renaissance Revival Style. The first president was R. H. Walker and the initial capital was $50,000. Many new stores were built. On Liberty Street, a number of stores, along with the Opera House, were located in the Lotze Building, which was built in an elegant Renaissance Revival style. The Lotze Store had the first telephone in Girard. A volunteer fire department was organized around 1878, with a horse drawn engine. Its water supply came from a large cistern at the southwest corner of Liberty and Market Streets, where the town pump was located. This intersection was considered the center of town. The first newspaper, the Girard News, was established in 1882, but soon went out of business and there was no paper until the establishment in 1887 of the Girard Grit, a name reflecting the quality of the local air. The original wooden bridge was replaced with a cast iron bridge to handle the increasingly heavy traffic crossing the river A wealthy business class began to emerge, which sought to demonstrate its success by building mansions. Zenas Kline, who made his money in cattle and coal, built an Italianate mansion on his estate on Churchill Road. The Richards-Morris house (both men made their money in coal and iron) was built in an Italianate style on the hill east of State Street where the bowling alley now stands. Frederick Krehl built a large Victorian mansion at the corner of State and West Broadway on the site of his tannery (as was often the custom) so that he could overlook his domain. His son, J. C. Krehl, built a similar mansion on the opposite side of State Street. The workers also tended to settle within easy walking distance of their work. At first they lived in small row houses, which they rented from speculator-contractors. As they made more money, they often bought these houses. Those who made even more money often sought, like the rich, to add style to their homes by embellishing them with decorative touches. Shiloh Lodge of Ohio, No. 16, of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers was organized in 1876. The first president was Thomas S. Evans. It held meetings in the Odd Fellows Hall. Girard Lodge, No. 432, of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows had been organized in 1869, and had acquired its own lodge rooms on Liberty Street. Friendship Lodge, No. 65, of the Knights of Pythias was organized in 1874. It had the first band in Girard. Court Lilly, No. 6625, of the Ancient Order of Foresters was organized in 1880. The Methodist Episcopal Church was organized by Rev. Dillon Prosser in 1843. It met in the log school house on the Carlton property, the site later occupied by the home of Obadiah Sheadle. In 1852, a small chapel was built, and in 1880, a large Gothic Revival church was built at the corners of Main and Market Streets. The Disciples Church was organized in 1876 and met in the brick school until in 1871 when it was able to build a church at the northwest corner of Jefferson Square in a delicate Gothic Revival style. In the summers, there were boat races on the reservoir above the dam and the canoe club paddled up and down the river. When the river froze over in the winter, there were sleigh races and young people skated as far north as Warren. There were stops along the river for hot chocolate and warm fires burned along the way. The Lotze family owned a fleet of rowboats on the river and a picnic grounds on the west side of the river. Parties came by train and horse and buggy from surrounding communities and took boats up the river to the picnic grounds. The Methodist Church also had picnic grounds across the river. The first roller skating rink was built on West Wilson Avenue. The north side of Cherry street was known as the "commons", the first circus grounds. By 1890, Girard had expanded north to the cemetery and south to the county line. The area directly south of the original town became known as Shooktown, the area south of that became known as Mosier, and the area further south to the county line was called Gandertown. But so far there had been almost no growth into the area east of State Street which still had farms. By 1890, the population of Girard had surpassed 1,000 people. 1890 to the Present Due to the growing need for government services (which had always been provided by Liberty Township), in 1893 Girard was incorporated into a village with its own mayor and council. Ambrose Eckman was elected the first mayor. He ran on a citizen's ticket composed of both Republicans and Democrats, and defeated the Republican candidate. The old Brick School, which had its student load reduced when the Wilson Avenue School was built in 1887, now did double service as the first Village Hall. It became the Village Hall alone in 1905 when the North Avenue School was built. As the village hall, it also served a variety of other community needs, such as a place for rolling bandages during the First World War. In 1896, the trolley came to Girard. It ran along State Street and tied into the trolley systems of Youngstown, Niles, Warren, and beyond. For the first time, people in Girard had easy access to the larger communities around Girard. In the same year, Girard developed another means for improved communication by establishing the first telephone exchange, which was located over Knapp's Store. There were 29 initial subscribers and two operators, one of whom was Miss Emma Reapsummer. Around this time, the cast iron bridge over the river was replaced with a stronger and wider steel bridge. Also in 1896, an amusement park was established close to the intersection of North State Street with Squaw Creek. Originally called Squaw Creek Park, the name was later changed to a more elegant Avon Oaks. It was built in a Beaux-Arts style. Accessible to people from a large area via the new trolley, it was what was commonly called a trolley park. Dances were held in the great ballroom, sometimes with name bands. Circled in front were concessionaires and rides, and on the lower level there was a zoo. One of the most successful concessions was "Jake" Mock. The great ballroom has now become Avon Oaks Ballroom. In 1899, the Ohio Leather Works was established on North State Street where the Barnhisels originally had had their maple sugar grove. The first owner was Joseph Smith, who lived in the Barnhisel House. Built in a functional industrial style, it specialized in fine leathers for products such as gloves, which were shipped all over the world. It became the largest processor of calf leather in the United States and employed over 500 people. In 1905, the North Avenue School was built on what was then the edge of town. Designed by the well-known Youngstown architect, Charles H. Owsley, it was built in a Beaux-Arts style with Classic details. It served as the grade school, while the Wilson Avenue School served as the high school. One of the first theaters was the Luna Theater located on State Street. It ran silent movies, which were accompanied by piano mood music played by the owner's wife. Later, the Mock Theater--which became the Wellman Theater--served Girard's needs until the coming of TV when family movies faded from the scene. Football teams met on a field near Mosier, where young men played each other and the young ladies watched from benches placed around the field. Girard had baseball greats in its time who had played on the same sand lot fields at the south of town. As Girard continued to grow, the land along the river became filled up, and the town began to expand up the side of the river valley east of State Street. By 1910, the population had reached 3,736 and by 1920, this number nearly doubled to 6,556. This gave Girard the size required by Ohio law to become a city in 1921. The Village Hall now became the City Building. Also in 1921, the Girard Free Library was established. It was housed in the City Building until 1973 when its present building was constructed in a contemporary style on East Prospect Street. Liberty Park was built in an Art Deco style on Little Squaw Creek as a memorial to the men who served in World War I. It was paid for with unused money raised for the war by veterans' organizations and the Kiwanis. In 1928, after years of promotion by organizations such as the Kiwanis, the Viaduct was built at a cost of more than a million dollars. This multi-arched, reinforced concrete structure spanned the entire valley, bridging not only the river, but also the railroads on both sides of the flood plain. This provided a direct route to the steel area of McDonald across the river and prevented railroad crossing accidents, which had become common. Unfortunately, it also isolated beneath the Viaduct the oldest parts of the town along both sides of the river. In 1937, the present Post Office Building was built. The Post Office had always been housed in rented space such in the Black Horse Tavern. In 1938, the old Brick School-City Building was torn down and replaced by the present City Building. In 1935, the Syro Steel Company was started in a garage by Charles Syak and his family. The present plant was built on North State Street, north of Squaw Creek. Specializing in steel guard rails for highways, Syro Steel has grown into an international giant which has become the major employer in Girard. The Benada Aluminum Company was formed on South State Street in the 1960's. As automobiles first became available in the 1920's and 1930's, Girard became a "bedroom community" serving the larger cities around it. Large subdivisions of Beaux-Arts working class homes were built on the east side. After World War II, this suburbanization continued on the side of the valley almost to Route 193. Ethnic isolation surrendered to the melting pot as the children of immigrants moved out of their ethnic neighborhoods and into common suburbs. On the east side of Squaw Creek development has been built in a contemporary style. On the west side stand the functional industrial structures of Syro Steel. Since the log cabins of the first settlers, the architecture of Girard has had a major effect on the people of Girard. It determined where the village was founded, who came to Girard, in what part of town they settled, and how ethnic groups would be segregated. It determined what kind of work people did and where they worked. It created environments for education, public service, worship, and play. Its style followed the national trends through which people sought to express social status and the level of their culture. Through its beauty, the architecture helped to raise the aesthetic life of Girard above the mere level of survival.

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“every society selects for something.” — greg cochran every society selects for something. it does take some time for selection pressures to make a difference when it comes to the frequencies of “genes for” various behavioral traits, of course (unless the culling is extreme): twenty generations, maybe. forty is probably better. a few hundred? yeah, that’ll definitely do it. the point is, it doesn’t necessarily take millions of years for evolution by natural selection to work. not even tens of thousands. we don’t have to cast the net back to the paleolithic or even the mesolithic in our search for the origins of behavioral traits in human populations (although the roots for many of them are probably there…or even farther back to our common origin with other apes and even other social mammals, lizards, fruit flies, tomatoes etc., etc.) — we can and should look for selection pressures in more recent eras, too. and “the environment” that exerts these pressures on human populations is not just the natural world — it’s our social worlds, too. this will be the first in a series of posts on manorialism in medieval europe, because i think that it’s incumbent upon every blogger to bore their readers to tears medieval society in northern europe (ca. 400-1500 a.d.) produced some quite unique selection pressures which very much shaped the characteristics and personalities of “core” europeans, i.e. the dutch (minus the frisians), the belgians, the french (especially the northeastern french), the english (especially the southeastern english), to some degree the lowland scots, the germans (especially those to the west), the scandinavians (especially those further south), the northern italians (especially those from the north italian plain), the northern spanish (especially catalonians), and to some degree the swiss. one of those selection pressures was, of course, europe’s Outbreeding Project, which i never shut up about. (sorry!) the other big one, i think, was manorialism — a communal agricultural system that was really an almost all-encompassing socio-religious-political system which, although its features and importance did vary at different times and in different locales, pretty much regulated nearly all aspects of medieval europeans’ lives. where it existed — a key point which i’ll come back to later. the working theory around here is that the Outbreeding Project set up the selection pressures for getting rid of much of what we could call “nepotistic altruism” in core europe, allowing for greater cooperation and trust between unrelated individuals and, therefore, a more open and “corporate” sort of society. a second working theory is that manorialism set up selection pressures for a whole suite of traits including perhaps: slow life histories; future time orientation; delayed gratification; the good ol’ protestant work ethic; a general compliant nature and even rather strong tendencies toward conformity; perhaps even a high degree of gullibility; perhaps a few extra iq points; and even more cooperation and trust between unrelated individuals. or not. please keep in mind that i’m just thinking out loud in these posts. oh — the manor system also probably contributed to the selection for the reduction in impulsive violence. (i’ll be exploring more fully the various aspects of manorialism that i think may have created the selection pressures for these various traits in the coming posts — promise! just giving you a rough outline now.) the Outbreeding Project and manorialism very much went hand-in-hand as well — the medieval european manor system could not have happened without all of the outbreeding, and the Outbreeding Project was reinforced by the manor system (since marriage was often regulated within the manor system). manorialism — “classic,” bipartite manorialism (more on that below) — started with the franks in austrasia by at least the 600s or perhaps earlier and spread gradually southwards with the frankish conquest of, well, france and eastwards during the ostsiedlung. we find it just across the channel in southern england very early as well — there are references to what sounds like features of a manor system in the laws of king ine of wessex (688-726) [see mitterauer, pg. 43]. the medieval european manor system originated, then, roughly in the area outlined in green below (yes — this is the very same area where the Outbreeding Project began. which is convenient, really, ’cause i like not having to make multiple maps! in case you’re new here, the other lines on the map indicate the hajnal line.): interestingly, the frisians, although quite centrally located on the coast of the netherlands in this core region, never experienced manorialism. mitterauer ties manorialism to cereal agriculture and the new agricultural techniques developed in the early medieval period (with the introduction of the heavy plow, etc.), so areas unsuitable for such farming — like mountainous regions or swampy areas — typically simply did not see the introduction of the classic manor system. classic manorialism was introduced to southern france (but bypassed some more remote areas like the massif central) as those regions were conquered by the merovingians and carolingians between the fifth and eighth centuries and to northern spain around the eighth and ninth centuries. the bipartite manor system never reached the southern regions of spain that were controlled by the moors. there was a rudimentary form of manorialism in northern italy even before the area was made a part of the carolingian empire, but the region was heavily manorialized (especially by ecclesiastical monasteries) after charlemagne conquered the lombard kingdom in the 770s. classic, bipartite manorialism was never adopted in central or southern italy or sicily — nowhere in the byzantine world, in fact. the franks also pushed eastwards, introducing the manor system to central europe, beginning in the eighth century. the border of this eastward movement was, for a couple hundred years or so, the eastern boundary of the carolingian empire (look familiar?). a renewed push eastwards began in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and a slightly revised form of classic manorialism (a system based upon rents rather than work exchange) was introduced to areas/populations further to the east in central-/eastern-europe including the baltics, large parts of poland, bohemia, moravia, parts of slovakia, western hungary, and slovenia. quite obviously, these populations experienced manorialism for a shorter time than those to the west. the “classic” form of manorialism never reached the farthest parts of eastern europe. eventually, a form of manorialism was adopted in russia and areas of eastern europe bordering russia, but it was quite different than the version western europe had had. this serfdom-heavy manor system in eastern europe also arrived very late compared to manorialism in western europe — in the fifteenth century (iirc) or in some areas even much later. classic manorialism had practically disappeared in western europe by this point. in scandinavia, denmark was heavily manorialized relatively early i believe (probably around the time of the first wave of the ostsiedlung, although i must check the dates), and manorialism was also very much present southern sweden (scania). the more northerly parts of scandinavia — norway, northern sweden (or sweden north of scania), the swedish-settled areas of finland — didn’t have manors per se, but were covered by a unique version of “manorialism” in which much of the population was under the thumb of the church (and sometimes petty aristocratic landowners). i know my nordic readers are going to object to me saying that, but please wait for the post on manorialism in scandinavia before bombarding me with your counterarguments. thanks! (^_^) this unique form of “manorialism” arrived in northern scandinavia rather late — probably in something like the 1200s (i need to check on that date) — and departed late (the 1800s and even the 1900s in some areas). not sure what happened in the areas of finland not settled by swedes. and i’m pretty sure no form of manorialism ever took hold in iceland, although i reserve the right to be wrong about that. (~_^) classic manorialism arrived late in ireland — in the late 1200s — and was introduced by the anglo-normans. there was never really much manorialism in wales or the highlands of scotland, although kind david did introduce it to the lowlands of scotland in the 1100s. not sure how well it took hold there, though. i’ll let you know as soon as i do. proper classic manorialism wasn’t really found in cornwall, either, and manors were not very prevalent in east anglia, although there were some. there was never any manorialism in the balkans. nor was there ever any classic, bipartite, european-style manorialism in the arabized, islamic world or in china, although there were plenty of large estates in china throughout its history. (don’t know about japan or the korean peninsula.) the difference between medieval european manors and the manors of china has been characterized as a difference between manorialism — which was a sort-of communal agricultural system in which everyone who worked on the manor was a part of a familia — and landlordism, which is what you had in china [pgs. 11-12]: “In two major works in particular (Hu Rulei 1979; Fu Zhufu 1980), we find sustained analyses of the differences between the socioeconomic structure of imperial China and that of the precapitalist West…. For Hu Rulei, the key lies in the differences between Chinese ‘feudal landlordism’ (*fengjian dizhuzhi*) and European ‘feudal manorialism’ (*fengjian lingzhuzhi*). In the European feudal manor, landownership or economic power was merged with military, administrative, and judicial powers; each manorial lord exercised the entire range of those powers. The state system of manorialism was thus one in which sovereignty was parceled out. In Chinese landlordism, by contrast, political authority came to be separated from economic power through private land-ownership and the frequent buying and selling of land. This made possible the centralized imperial state system. Landlordism and the centralized imperial state thus made up an interdependent politicoeconomic system that must be distinguished from European manorialism. Hu’s is an analytical model that can help explain the differences and hence also their different paths of sociopolitical change in the modern era. “Fu Zhufu has pointed to another difference between manorialism and landlordism. In the serf-based manorial system, the lord had to look to the subsistence and reproduction of his workers, lest the very basis of the manorial economy be undermined. But the Chinese landlord was under no such constraints. He could seek the highest possible returns that the land-rental market would support (Fu 1980: 9-10, 201-2). Though Fu skirts the issue here, it is obvious that such principles became harshest when the pressures of social stratification were joined by the pressures of population; under those conditions, a tenant who failed to survive could always be replaced by another. Landlordism could become an institutional system in which the poor tenants were pressed below the margins of subsistence.” which brings me, now, to some of the various characteristics of classic manorialism and the selection pressures that i think they may have exerted. – the bipartite estate. the bipartite estate was a key aspect of classical (north)western european manorialism. basically, the manor was divided into two parts: the lord’s part — his farm or demesne — and the peasants’ or serfs’ parts — all their individual farms. the serfs or villeins or whatever you want to call them (there were multiple categories of these peasant farmers and a range of names for them) each had farms to work which were granted to them by the lords (keep in mind that sometimes those “lords” were bishops or monks who ran the monasteries). in the earlier part of the medieval period, the serfs owed labor to the lord of the manor as payment — they were obliged to help work the lord’s demesne — but they also independently worked the farms which they were granted, both to sustain themselves and perhaps make a little profit by selling any extra produce to the neighbors or in a market. there were other obligations, too, but the above was the fundamental gist of the whole system. later in the medieval period, the duty to provide labor switched over to a more simple and direct rent system. also early on in the period, serfs were given (or assigned) farms to work by the lord of the manor. as a young man, you might not be given the same farm that you grew up on — that your parents had worked — especially not if your father/parents were still productive workers. the lord of the manor, or his steward, would just grant you another farm on the manor to work…if there was one available…and if he chose to do so (presumably based on your merit or your familiy’s record). this system eventually changed as well into one in which a son (typically the eldest son) would “inherit” the farm that his father/parents had worked. not sure when this happened. must find out. not everyone who was a member of a manor operation would be granted a farm to run. some individuals were just laborers on the manor (“cottagers” in england, for example), and there were plenty of domestic servants serving in the manor house, too. i think that there are potentially selection pressures here for several different traits or qualities. if we ask ourselves, what sort of individual would’ve done best living in this bipartite estate system, i.e. which individuals with which sorts of traits would’ve managed to reproduce the most, i think it might’ve been people with qualities including: being hard-working or industrious — those that made the most of the farm grant and produced the most food to support the most number of kids and even to sell extra produce for a profit; perhaps smarter than some of the neighbors (like the cottagers) — for the same reasons as hard-working; future time oriented — you had to be patient and wait for a farm to become available, or later in the period wait for your father to hand over the farm or die, and not start philandering about the manor before you could afford to raise kids (you also might not be granted a farm, or acquire yourself a husband, if your reputation was ruined beforehand); slow life histories — those individuals who could hold off on reproducing too early would’ve been rewarded with farms, those that did not would’ve been shunned and would lose the opportunity to reproduce further; and compliancy — you didn’t rail (too much) against the man in the manor, and anyone that did wouldn’t have gotten a farm and may have, if they caused too much trouble, been shipped off to a monastery for life (more on that in a later post). – villikation and familia. villikation is the term that german researchers use when referring to the fact that the manor and all its inhabitants/workers were managed by someone, either by the lord of the manor himself or by a steward who the lord had put in charge of running the place. you would think that, as a serf or tenant farmer on a manor, you wouldn’t want to run afoul of whoever was in charge, and very often those that did were shipped off the manor (to monasteries), so it seems to me that there might’ve been further pressures here to select for compliant and cooperative individuals. familia was the word used for everyone who was a member of a particular manor! it was a term used especially earlier in the medieval period, but i think it was in usage throughout the entire era (need to double-check that). from mitterauer [pg. 57]: “On the one hand, there was the villa, the lord’s manor, or the stewards’ manor, with its resident labor force, the members of which were not tied to one another by kinship; on the other hand, there were the farms of the *servi casati*, that is, of the unfree laborers and their dwellings, as well as the *coloni* who were bound to the soil and therefore to a house. Together they formed the *familia*, an overarching household embracing several households.” a classic (north)western european manor, then, almost sounds like a 1960s hippie kibbutz, at least when it came to the relatedness of the individuals on the estate. (unlike a hippie kibbutz, though, The Man was clearly in charge.) the people living and working on a medieval manor in (north)western europe were not all members of one extended family or clan (which you do see elsewhere, like in eastern europe, especially russia, or southern china). this system, along with the Outbreeding Project, might’ve encouraged the selection for individuals who were willing to cooperate with other (comparatively speaking) unrelated persons. it might even have helped, along with the Outbreeding Project which got rid of much nepotistic altruism imho, to select for highly trusting — and quite highly trustworthy — individuals. – open-field system. another key feature of (north)western european manorialism was the open-field system in which shares of large “fields” were apportioned out to each family on the manor — each household would get a long strip or strips within one of these huge fields in which to grow their crops. open-field systems were used by the pre-christian germans and slavic populations (iirc), but in those contexts, extended family/kindred/clan members typically shared the fields. again, in the classic manor system, we have more unrelated individuals/families sharing these fields. residents of the manor regularly policed one another, bringing each other to the manorial court if they thought someone was cheating in the open-field system (and also in the usage of the commons), so, again, here we might have the selection for cooperative and trustworthy individuals. – ecclesiastical manors. i think the presence (or absence) of ecclesiastical manors in any given area might be very important. apparently, ecclesiastical manors exercised more control on their residents, and until later in the period, than those headed by lay lords (more on this in a later post). so, i’d expect all of the behavioral traits associated with manorialism to be even more pronounced in areas/populations that had more than their fair share of ecclesiastical manors: south-central england, france, germany, and northern italy (and northern scandinavia?). again, these are all just some ideas. Further Research is RequiredTM! would be cool if someone looked through some manor records to see if they could find out which, if any, class of peasants/serfs managed to reproduce more successfully. maybe someone already has? if/when the “genes for” any or all of the behavioral traits i’ve mentioned here in this post are discovered, my prediction is that the frequencies for them in european populations will be highest in those in the core area and, thanks to the historical origins and spread of manorialism (and the Outbreeding Project), that these frequencies will reduce with distance from that core. again, i reserve the right to be completely and utterly wrong about that. (~_^) that’s it for now. stay tuned for a bunch of posts on medieval manorialism in the coming weeks! but first, some other business…. (note: comments do not require an email. a french manor: chateau de montargis)

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Phoenix dactylyrhizae, also known as dates palm or date palm, belongs to the family of palms or palm tree, called “Arecaceae”. It is a small flowering plant belonging to the date family, Dactyloideae, cultivated mainly for its succulent, sweet fruit. The fruit, which is very hard and thick, is used as a sweet delicacy in Egypt. A palm tree in Australia, this palm is native to the coastal area of south-eastern Australia. In its native areas, it grows as a shrub with low branches and spread out roots and branches at the top and bottom of the stems. It is also found in coastal parts of Thailand, Malaysia and Cambodia. The fruit of the date palm grows up to 30 cm tall and is mostly green and covered in a dark, soft velvet. Dates palm trees are found mostly in arid regions of Southeast Asia. It grows in open land with some support from the ground such as sand, loamy soil or gravel. It has wide leaves with sharp ends and long hairs on the upper surfaces. Palm trees are very popular in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and other countries of the world. The sweet taste of dates is a reason why it is preferred by many people all over the world. The dates plant grows on high-deserted hillsides, slopes and mountainsides in these countries, and can be easily grown from seedlings. They prefer dry, sandy areas to grow and mature. This palm is an ornamental palm with a fleshy, sweet-smelling pulp and small fleshy, red seeds that are very rich in vitamin C. These fruits are high in fiber and protein, and are a good source of carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. The seeds can be eaten raw, or added to salads or desserts. Some varieties of the date palm produce a bitter tasting, but beneficial, latex that makes the fruit taste sweet after being fried in oil or baked in cookies. Dates palm trees are not very difficult to grow and cultivate. They thrive well in high humidity and dry, sandy areas of Southeast Asia. Planting dates palm trees in the Southern part of your home is ideal. It can be easily maintained by regular watering and fertilizer. While the date palm trees are very useful for producing dates, they may not be able to compete with other palms for getting a good harvest. Therefore, the best time to harvest the date is in late winter or early spring when they are at their peak production time. The best time to pick ripe dates is when the tree is fully opened and the fruit inside is soft. Firm, juicy dates should be plucked right before they turn brown and harden to a dark color. Date trees make a great addition to tropical and subtropical gardens and are an excellent choice for tropical decorating. in their tropical setting, they will add color and texture to your home with their colorful leaves, bright green fruit, colorful flowers, deep purple berries and rich creamy sap. Malaysia, the country of love and passion is known for its diverse range of food and drink. Some of the popular foods include its signature dish of Singapore Siu, which is also popularly referred to as “Sweet Little Rice Cake”. The dish can be made from different types of rice and can be eaten with either sweetened condensed milk or plain water. Singapore Siu is also very popular in Thailand. A variety of other very popular drinks are available to drink in Malaysia. One of the most famous is a very sweet mango milkshake. There are several other drinks as well such as coffee and juices. It is very interesting to note that the people of Malaysia do not usually use coffee and the only beverages they use are juices and waters. Date pulp can also be used as a delicious snack. This fruit has a sweet taste and it makes the most excellent sweet treat for a person who likes to eat healthy. Another excellent option for a dessert is a banana pudding. The fruit itself can be preserved for quite some time, if preserved properly. Dates are also very useful for preparing other foods as well. This fruit can be used to make a thick, rich sauce. The sauce can be used in almost all kinds of dishes. These sauces are often used as the main ingredient in desserts. Dates are often used in cooking, because they have a very sweet taste. They also have a very unique taste and they add another dimension to any recipe that they are added to. This unique taste makes them an ideal ingredient to add to a dish. One of the best parts about using dates fruit in a dish is the fact that they are naturally healthy and contain very little fat. Eating these dates fruits on a regular basis will help to keep your body healthy and will make it healthier all the time. A number of benefits can be achieved by consuming dates. The best benefit of eating dates fruit is that they are great for weight loss. If you wish to lose weight then eating date pulp is one of the best ways to lose that weight. You should also try and avoid too much junk food, because this is the only reason why you will gain weight. A good source of energy and essential vitamins, dates have been used in recipes for centuries as a natural sweetener in many recipes. If you would like to give your dieting plan a bit of a kick, then try to make the best ever coconut cake. If you want to add a touch of sweetness to your life, then try baking a fresh batch of dates. Date pulp is also very useful for making jams and preserves. They are not only beneficial to eat, they are also helpful for making a number of other recipes. For you to know more about the suppliers of dates in Malaysia, I have compiled some information that is very useful. Dates are known by their scientific name, Melaleuca alternifolia and dates are a part of the citrus family; thus they belong to the citrus family. The fruit that is the main ingredient in dates or melaleuca is the Melaleuca alternifolia. The fruit can be found in India and China but the most popular and well-known place is Malaysia. Here, they grow and the Melaleuca alternifolia is used for making the dates and its fruits that are sold in markets and shops all over the country. In Malaysia, there are many farmers who farm the Melaleuca alternifolia for a very long time. These farmers live for at least a decade in this particular country and hence are very familiar with the process of making the Melaleuca alternifolia. They also grow other fruits like oranges, apples, mangoes, papayas, lemons, persimmons, kiwis and many others. Thus, they know the fruit and the process very well. As mentioned above, the fruit of Melaleuca alternifolia is known as the “date” because of the shape of the fruit. This fruit is very round and has black spots. When it ripens, it forms black dots in the middle of the date. In the market, the dates fruits are usually dried out to form the dried dates. There are some Malaysians who make use of this method to dry their own dates and even to prepare homemade dates. It is said that the local dryers make use of this method to dry the dates since they do not have the capacity to dry out the fruits themselves. The best way to get the best dates in the market is to buy from the fruit suppliers in Malaysia and they will not only be able to give you fresh Melaleuca alternifolia fruits but also freeze-dried Melaleuca alternifolia. This is the best way to get them in the best condition possible. The fresh Melaleuca alternifolia fruits and the freeze-dried Melaleuca alternifolia are both great for cooking. You can use both of them for preparing various recipes, especially those recipes that call for the fruit itself. The freeze-dried Melaleuca alternifolia is the best option if you are looking for a healthy snack that will keep your body energized. Another thing you can prepare with the fruits of Melaleuca alternifolia is candied Melaleuca alternifolia. This candied fruit has very much similar taste to orange. However, this is not just something that you can have on its own, this fruit is great for having on candied pies, cakes, pastries and cookies. and cakes made with honey. The fruits of Melaleuca alternifolia are very good for your health and they are very nutritious too. They provide you with so much more than what you can get from fruits that are grown in other countries like the Philippines and the US. This fruit is very rich in vitamins A and E, and also contains high amounts of iron, potassium and calcium. When you send dates fruit exporters get the freshest fruit. This is because the company that you’re working with knows how to take care of the fruit when it’s being shipped to their clients. Because these fruit are such an integral part of your customer base, it’s important to make sure that you have the freshest dates to offer to your client base. The best dates are shipped to fruit exporters by companies that know what they’re doing. The company knows what date the fruit is at, when the tree will be ready to harvest and how long the fruit should last. They will also have a set schedule of when the dates are packed into bulk for shipping. This ensures that your customers receive their dates as soon as possible, because dates are fragile and don’t last too long if they aren’t handled properly. Dates can vary greatly in color. You’ll find some dates lighter in color than others. You may even find some that are a shade of purple and other that have different shades of yellow or orange. The exporter will need to know which type of date you’re looking for when you make your order. Most fruit exporters know exactly where they’re going to grow their dates. They will find a location that suit their needs, as well as the climatic conditions that their area has. They will take into consideration the seasons and how the climate in the area affects growth. This way you won’t have to worry about the dates not getting the chance to grow because of the poor soil. Exporters will work with you to figure out how much they should charge for the dates. Some will charge more, while others will let you know upfront how much they want to charge you. By working with the dates exporters, you can learn what their pricing process is all about and make sure that you’re pricing them correctly. The dates that are shipped to fruit exporters are the freshest and most delicious available. and if you know what you’re looking for you can find the fruit exporters that know how to package the dates so that they arrive in the shape and size that you need. to ship them in. Shipping dates from the United States to Australia is not hard to do at all. You can send them to an exporter in the United States that does it every day and make sure that they get them to your customer on time. It takes just a little bit of time to ship the dates to your customers and make sure that they get to you on time. If you order your dates from the United States, you can be sure that the dates are fresh and delicious, so you won’t have to worry about losing money on them. or having to return them due to mold. and mildew growing on them. Dating is a fun game played with people in groups. In this game, the objective is to give a person all the dates you can find. You can find the dates anywhere you go, from the grocery store to the local mall. However, it is probably easier to find dates if they are grown in your own backyard. You can grow dates for your own consumption or sell them for extra money. Dates are one of the world’s most interesting tropical fruits and have been used in medicine and cooking, although they’re not as popular a crop in the United States. There are several varieties of trees grown in tropical countries for their fruits and seeds, but none have been as widely grown and eaten as date palms. Date palm trees can be found in countries such as Africa, Asia, and South America. Although many people are familiar with dates, very few people know that they are also available in other parts of the world. In fact, these days there are more dates available in Asia than in the United States. In Asia, date palm trees are often used to make dates out of fruits. It is not difficult to get dates out of these trees. Dates vary in quality depending on where they are grown. However, it is possible to get dates from just about any part of the world. Many of the high quality dates are harvested in Africa or Asia, while others are grown in the United States and Europe. This is because dates are grown in more areas than other fruits because they do not need any water to grow and they can be used for food and medicines alike. The dates you buy from date palm trees are not the same dates that are sold at the supermarket. These trees use a different process to harvest their fruits and sell them at wholesale prices. These dates, which come in a variety of colors and flavors, are less expensive than the regular ones. These dates are grown without soil and the only fertilizers they receive are what is required by local farmers. They have to be transported in crates to ensure freshness. because they need to be shipped through air. They also don’t enjoy any protection from insects or other plants and don’t need any pesticide or herbicide. Date supplies can be a great addition to your garden, especially if you live in a cold climate and want to grow your own dates for your cooking or medicine. However, you can also sell your dates for extra money. This is not a problem because there are many companies that grow them for you. There are some dates that come from trees that are so rare and so hard to find that people who grow them don’t get enough of them. Other dates that are sold are just slightly used from the tree before they are dried. Another good reason to grow your own dates is that when they are ready to be sold, they’re not damaged. If you don’t have enough dates, they can be purchased cheaply and then put away to be re-used in future years. It is also easy to take them home and store them for another season. Since most dates grow in tropical countries, their growing conditions can be pretty dry, meaning that there is little damage to the fruit that goes into making cookies or cakes. The fruit on the Dates Fruit Tree is not only tasty, but it is also nutritious. There are many different fruits that can be eaten in salads and the Dates Fruit Tree has two types of this delicious fruit. This sweet yellow fruit can be eaten raw or can be cooked. It is a sweet delicious food. You can add some lemon to taste. If you are eating it raw, add some water and mix in with some other things such as spinach, celery, carrots and peas. You could also eat it raw with little dressing. The Dates Fruit Tree can be eaten all year round. The fruit is the main ingredient in salads. It can be eaten alone or mixed with other vegetables. This can be added in a salad dressing, which is also popular in many countries. Dates fruit has been known to contain a lot of antioxidants. This helps fight off free radicals that cause inflammation and many diseases. It also helps fight off diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Another healthy benefit of the dates fruit is that it helps keep your body hydrated. Many people complain of a dry mouth when they drink too much coffee or tea. These types of drinks may contain large amounts of caffeine, which makes it harder to have a nice, full-tasting cup of coffee or tea. When you are looking for a healthy, fresh fruit to snack on you can get these from the supermarket, or even order them online. Just remember that you will need to cook these fruit and that will make them a bit more expensive.. Some people use them in their cooking. You can eat dates with apples and other fruits or even with nuts. The berries are known to help with acne and it will prevent any skin break outs. There are many places where you can buy these berries and these are the best fresh fruit. Many people find that buying this fruit on a regular basis will help them lose weight. Date trees are now grown all over the world and there are many places that you can find them. The date tree can be found in most parts of the world. The dates fruit tree has many uses and is very healthy. As you can see dates is very versatile fruit and this can be eaten all year round. One of the most sought after plants by growers for exotic flowers is the date palm. In this article we will take a look at some of the many uses of date palms in the cultivation of dates. Dactylis glomerata, otherwise called date palm or date tree, is evergreen flowering plant species native to Asia, commonly referred to as date. This particular species is the most commonly cultivated palm species today and it has been used in gardens for centuries. Most fruits of this species are eaten raw and they come in very small pieces, much like grapes. When you buy them at the grocery store, you can expect them to be around five inches in diameter. The date palm is also a tropical plant, so it requires a relatively cool climate for optimal production. It can be grown in areas that are under four degrees Fahrenheit all year round in a cool location, such as a greenhouse, or it can be grown outdoors in direct sunlight. Both types of climates are ideal for growing and harvesting dates. If you grow your dates in a greenhouse, you will not have to worry about harvesting a large amount of fruit. However, if you do choose to harvest your plants from a greenhouse you should make sure that the temperature is controlled to prevent growth. Harvesting dates that are grown outdoors can sometimes be tricky. You have to know what specific kind of date palm you are growing, and how well it will grow before you actually do the harvesting. There are many different kinds of dates, and each variety has different uses in making different things. There are dates that are high in fiber and oil, dates that are rich in potassium, dates that are good for diabetics, dates that are great for storing in the refrigerator, dates that are excellent in cooking, and more. If you are new to the world of shopping for exotic flowers, or if you want a plant to grow in your own home, you should consider starting your own collection from a local garden center. Many of these places even offer a small number of dates for sale so you can try different varieties to find out which ones are best for your home or for your garden. Dates come in all different sizes, shapes, colors, and tastes. For example, there are dark, medium, and light colored dates that taste better with meats and other foods that are high in sugar and starches. On the other hand, there are sweet dates that taste really good with salads, fruits, and desserts. When shopping for dates you should consider them as a perfect gift. Just because they have a reputation for being a food for vampires does not mean that they cannot be enjoyed by anyone. They are beautiful plants that you can enjoy. When one thinks of dates fruit wholesale, it conjures up the idea of the olden days when the date was considered a “diet fruit.” Nowadays, though the term is used to describe any type of fruit that has an abundance of nutrients. When shopping for dates fruit wholesale you will be surprised at just how many different varieties there are. From African dates and even dates grown in the United States you can find a great variety. There are many types of dates. The main ones being Arab dates, Egyptian dates, Kashmiri dates, Korean dates, and even some Hawaiian dates. Each of these types of dates have their own unique characteristics. You will be surprised at just how many places sell dates. A local fruit store could have a huge selection, but if they are selling them at wholesale prices you can find it cheaper than in a retail store. If you prefer to purchase your dates in large bulk then you will also find it cheaper at wholesale prices. Another important factor to consider when shopping for dates is what you want to make from them. The main reason why people go bananas over dates is because of their ability to make good sweet fruit pies. Although dates can also be used to make cakes, there is one type that is very popular. That would be the kake. There are several different types of dates available as kake. The main ones being the white date, the black date, the sweet red date, and the Kashmiri date. All of these dates will produce the same delicious fruit pie. They all have their own distinctive taste. If you want a more traditional type of kake you might consider purchasing it from a traditional bakery or specialty shop. When it comes to finding dates fruit wholesale, you should also consider buying them in bulk. This will help you save on the initial cost, and it will also provide you with a larger supply of the specific dates you want. There are two places where you can buy dates wholesale. You can find them by the pound or by the case, which is a lot more convenient and gives you plenty to choose from. You can find great deals on both cases and pounds, depending on the time of year and what you want. If you plan on making your own fresh dates pie you can find dates by the pound and cases of the same type online. But if you are going to use the dates for another type of recipe such as a fruit cake you might want to go with the pounds. Fruit is one of the most versatile fruits that you can buy online. And if you are looking to purchase dates in bulk, you will be able to get all of them at wholesale prices and then split the remaining amount into smaller amounts to purchase more for other recipes. or desserts. Date palm, or rather, date tree, the palm is a climbing or trailing evergreen plant native to Africa and Asia. The name date palm derives from the Persian word meaning “dusk”. It is also called the Arabian date. Phoenix dactylifera, otherwise known as date palm or date tree, is actually the palm species in the palms family, Arecanaceae, commonly called date palm. It is native to the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java and Malaysia. Other names it has been known by include Phoenix orchid, Phoenix palm, orchid-palm, and sundial palm. In addition, it is also called sun palm, and sunflower palm. Dates are also known as the spice of life in the Islamic world. Date palms are a good source of oil for cooking, thus they were used by Arab traders to sell their products and make money in those areas. The dates are also popular in Asia where they are harvested and used to produce dates and other edible fruits. The dates are often plucked, then dried. Once this is done, the dates can be processed into powder, juice, or juice syrup. There are even recipes that claim to be able to preserve these fruits. Many people in Indonesia grow dates as a hobby. The best time to harvest dates palm is early spring when the palms will be at their peak bloom. The best time to grow dates palm is in full sun and warm weather. When growing dates palm you also need to know that if you do not prune the palms early you will not get any fruits at all. Because of the popularity of date palms many companies have started growing them commercially and exporting them to different parts of the world. These companies also offer people a variety of things to do with these fruits, such as making dates powder, using them in desserts, or even making them into tea. The trees are a great source of food, particularly for the poor. These trees are especially popular in areas where there is a shortage of food due to natural disasters. Date palm trees are very important to the local environment because they help to reduce the number of trees needed to produce the same amount of crops. This is especially important in areas that are suffering from a drought. The trees are high quality trees, which means they can last for many years. Most of them can live up to 80 years. Some people even enjoy the benefits of being able to make their own fertilizer out of these trees because it is a very low maintenance plant. These trees can also provide people with shade for their gardens, especially during summer months when it rains a lot. The trees are also a great thing to have on your table because they can be planted together in rows. This allows you to harvest in bunches. These trees can even be planted in a group so that you can harvest every bit of fruit you want. There is something that the Malaysian people love about dates fruit. They are not only exotic in taste, they also are very popular as gifts and souvenirs. If you are looking for a gift for a woman, then a date is definitely something that she will appreciate. In fact, there are many women who have asked me what I think about this fruit. This article will give you some of my thoughts. The date is one of the most popular fruits around the world. It has been called the King of fruits because it is so popular. And there are many reasons why it is so popular. The dates that you can get from Malaysia are all good quality. You will find that the ones that are grown in Malaysia tend to have a high sugar content. But this is a good thing because it gives the date a really unique flavor. Many people prefer the sweetness that the dates have. When you are getting dates in Malaysia, there are a few things that you need to keep in mind. The first thing that you will want to do is to make sure that you are buying a good quality date. You should make sure that the quality of a date is at least as good as that of California dates. California dates tend to be lower quality and you do not want your date to have a bad taste. search for the dates that you are looking for. If you cannot get a good quality date in Malaysia, you can always ask the person who is giving you the date as a gift if they know where they got their date from. That will help you get a date that is from the best places. When you are getting dates in Malaysia, you will want to check into getting dates that are organic. This will ensure that the date is not being poisoned. by chemicals. If you are going to get a date in Malaysia, then you may be interested in buying some apricots. and cherries. These are the two most popular types of dates. If you cannot get a good quality fruit for your date, you will want to look into getting a date that has a really good flavor to it. Some of the better types of dates include those that are dark green, red, black and even blue in color. As mentioned earlier, you may also want to look for the dates that are in season. The ones that are available on sale can be great for any occasion. Once you have your date that you want, you will want to treat yourself and others to a date to dinner sometime. This can be a great way to end your busy week.

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History of Rockland The following was taken from the LaCrosse Tribune 1964 “The village is situated at the east central edge of LaCrosse County in the LaCrosse River Valley in a fertile agricultural region. A huge rock stands at the village edge and it is this monument of nature which gave the community its name. The first known settler was John Nicholson, who was born in England and came to this country in 1850. He came to this region with his family and established a large farm in 1859. The surrounding area was first settled in 1851, and many other settlers followed before it was organized as the Town of Burns in 1854 by 36 voters. The town grew until there were 82 voters registered in 1857, 91 in 1858, 133 in 1859 the year Nicholson settled and 143 in 1860. Local townspeople became embroiled in a spirited controversy four decades ago over the issue of whether to incorporate as a village. An election took place and when the ballots were counted 29 citizens had voted in favor and 26 against the proposed change from town rule to local government. Opponents of the change claimed some of the votes for incorporation were illegal and they appealed to the courts to void the election. The courts prohibited incorporation until the appeal could be heard, and the matter was finally settled by a judge who dissolved the injunction which had halted incorporation.The village was officially incorporated in 1919 and its first president was Eugene Hesselberg.” The following was written by Carl Friske “Years ago Rockland was on the Stage Coach Road from Portage on the Wisconsin River, to LaCrosse. This was before, and maybe up to1858, when the Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad came through, and Northwestern about 1873. The stage stop was called Fish Creek stop. Everything was called Fish Creek, even up to the present Fish Creek Ridge. The Stage House was part of the present Betts House. (201 Rock Street) The Stage barn was on the present Hulda Langrehr and Fay Olson property. The first well for the community was south-west of the Stage House. It was laid up with stone, and was about 4 feet across and 40 feet deep. Water was first pulled up with a bucket. Later a chain bucket pump was installed: and last of all, a regular iron cylinder pump was installed. About the time the Railroad came through, Fish Creek was renamed Rockland because there was another Fish Creek Post Office in Wisconsin, and there could not be two of the same name. Mr. R.D. Edwards suggested the name “Rockland” because of the Rock. Mr. Edward, a Welchman, was born in 1822, and had settled on a farm on the present Random Rd. about 2 miles southeast of Rockland, in 1875. He became the station agent for the Northwestern Railroad in 1878. Martin Ondell Sr., born in Norway in 1814, built a store and a grain warehouse in about 1879. His son Lewis began running the store in 1879, and another son Martin Jr., ran the warehouse, located on the Milwaukee Railroad. John Campbell was on the Rockland’s first was one of Rockland’s first Milwaukee station agents and postmasters. There is a street named after him. Another house in Rockland that was one of the originals is the house east of the church. When it was remodeled, some time ago, the name J.B. Powell, 1873, was found on the bottom side of the threshold. Mr. Dave Hughs probably had the first blacksmith and wagon shop west of the Stage House. William Friske was the second blacksmith and wagon maker in Rockland. He learned his trade in Germany. In 1890 he started his shop in a large frame building that John Erickson had moved into town from Hersheyville (at one time a town and station 3 miles east of Rockland). Mr. Friske replaced the old shop with the present building on the same corner in 1913: and it was a hardware and farm machine store, as well as a blacksmith shop. This is now a 3 family apartment building." “When rural mail carriers duties occupied Carl W. Friske of Rockland, from 1928-1963, he had to contend with rough roads in early years on R. 1 Rockland. He covered from 132 miles initially to 160 miles a day when he neared retirement. In the picture, he shows off the tail-end of three vehicles he used during a 12 month period. From right: an early snowmobile, the “mud car” with a truck axle, and the “summer” car of the “Overland” class. The boys are Friskes.” Photo by Carl Friske Corner Ondell and Main Street Erickson Store and Post Office, Erickson House, Gaylord Hotel “Mr. John Erickson, born in Norway in 1845, came to Sparta and worked in a store. He married Mary Thompson. They had two daughters—Josephine and Ella. Mr. Erickson came to Rockland in the summer 1873 and bought the Ondell Store and warehouse, and became one of Rockland’s main promoters. He was the Milwaukee Railroad station agent and postmaster for many years, also the Justice of Peace. He planned and plotted the original Village of Rockland. Mr. Erickson built a large 2 story frame building store on the corner of Ondell and Main Street, and lived upstairs many years until he built a large home north of his store in 1900.” (Carl Friske) Oliver Homstad bought the store. The Homstad Store had living quarters upstairs. It burned Sunday night, June 13, 1920. A new store was built out of brick. “The Heintz Company in about 1918 started what was known as the Heintz Pickle Factory near the site of the first Milwaukee depot. They bought cucumbers from many local farmers and gardeners. Large open-top silo type vats were used to salt down the pickles for a number of months. They were later removed from the salt brine, soaked in cold water for a period of time to draw out the salt before being made into sweet and dill pickles at a canning factory in Sparta. Nearly all youngsters, some even quite small, experienced picking pickles as it was called, and not a desirable job according to all past reports. The cucumbers had to be picked real often as the smaller the pickle the more valuable. They were strictly graded according to size. An inch to two and a half inches long was priced at possibly four dollars a hundred pounds, larger sizes lower priced per hundred weights.” (written by Lillian Fleming 1981) The pickle factory was right along the North side of the railroad tracks on the East side of town. After the pickle factory there was a stave mill in the same general area. Schroeder Grocery, Barber shop, Hicks Grocery-Restaurant Ice Cream Parlor and Post Office Rockland State Bank on right There was a feed store operated by Christmas Jones and Tom Davis. A lumber yard and gas station operated by Arthur Ammundson. Rockland had a tavern owned by Frank Arentz before the town went dry in 1938. There was a barber shop with barbers Fred Pfaff and Oscar Erlandson. In 1924 electric street lights were installed and most of the homes had electric lights for the first time. In 1957 EauClaire Electric came through and moved the substation that was next to the railroad tracks to the Axlesen farm. Electric is now provided by Northern States. Story from Bangor Independent “Scene of many social activities in Rockland earlier in this century was the Berg-Jones Department Store which was constructed in 1913 by Nels Berg and Steven Jones. The second floor of the building was used as a dance hall and a large number of social activities of the Village of Rockland were held in the hall, including a number of political rallys. One such political rally is recalled by several Rockland citizens as being for Wisconsin Governor Phillips. Red Cross benefits during World War I were also given in the hall. After dances turkey and oyster suppers were popular in the restaurant of Mr. and Mrs. Oswald (Mary Jane) Evans. The restaurant first occupied a part of the basement of the hall but later was located nearby. A barber shop run by Carl Medhaug and Rex Carpenter was also located in the basement of the building. The store also housed on of the banks for a period of time. The Berg-Jones store handled a large number of items and even had a bargain basement section. Among items included in their stock were shoes, dry goods, hardware items, a complete line of groceries, pianos, and also gasoline as noted by the gas pump in the photo. Unfortunately the building burned about 46 years ago in September 1922. The owner of the store at the time it burned was John Layton. The lot is still vacant as the store was just north of the present Rockland Post Office. Shown in the picture are a portion of the Nels Berg Home and the auto owned by Tom Jones. The auto is believed to be a Studebaker. Signs posted on the store windows are those of the Ringling Bros. Barnum and Bailey Circus which was to appear on August 2 of that year. Erickson Bakery products were sold in the store as that firm’s name appears on the dark blue baskets on the sidewalk in the front of the store. The Photo was loaned to the Independent courtesy of Mrs. Gladys Campbell” A creamery was built in 1885, but it closed, and a second started about 1911. It later became a cheese factory before it was destroyed by fire in the late 1930’s. Note the Depot and the Rock on far right. Cheese makers were Lewis Campbell and Jake Ammerman. In the 1950’s, this area provided free movies on Friday nights. The area businesses paid for Moen Photo from LaCrosse to play the movies. This was to draw people into town. It was a great social event. During intermission people would visit the businesses. Dr. Walter Jones and family came to America in 1858 from south Wales. There were two boys, John J. and William J. John J. became a doctor after studying at John Hopkins University. He practiced in Wilmington Delaware. William J. studied at Rush University at Chicago. Within a month illness compelled him to relinquish his studies and he returned home. He then took over his fathers practice. His reputation as bonesetter and his marvelous cures extended throughout western Wisconsin. He became known as Bonesetter Jones. Carl Friske said that Jones had quite a clientele for his sort of practice, hopping the morning Chicago and North Western train out of Rockland, transferring at Sparta to take the branch line to Norwalk, Kendall and thereabouts. Then he’d come back in the evening. He built the three story house to be a clinic / hospital. Patients would come and even stay overnight. They would house their horses in the barn behind the clinic. In later years he set up an office in LaCrosse. In 1958 Grace and Robert Mulder purchased the former John Erickson home for the veterans. The community home plan, offered by the Tomah Veterans Hospital for patients who are no longer in need of regular institutional care but not yet adjusted to the extent that they may live on their own without supervision, was adopted by the Mulders. The house would house 12 residents. When the house was filled to capacity and there were more patients in need, James and Charlene Beron closed their grocery store and converted the building into a dormitory for eight men. The Berons also aided in supervising the men in occupational chores and recreation. LaCrosse Vocational school would send a representative weekly during the school season to help with crafts. The Mulders and the Berons alternated escorting their “family” of veterans on trips, including the regular Sunday trip in the Mulder-owned school bus to Bangor to attend church. James and Charlene bought the business in 1963 when the Mulders opened a nursing home in West Salem. Charlene did the book work everyday for 30 years. “My kids grew up in the business,” said Jim. “Some of the men had a lot of visitors, some had a few, and some had none. That’s when we had to be their family. It was good therapy to have children around,” A garage has been converted into a workshop, where veterans repair the dividers in wooden soft drink shells and package sponges for the Sparta Brush Co. In an occupational therapy room in the Jones house leather work is done. The veterans tool belts, billfolds, moccasins and other leather items for Christmas gift sales. At one time there were 4 houses used for the Veterans. There was the big house, the newly built house, the middle house (old grocery store) and the brown house. (109 May Street) Life at the home was rewarding enough for Rick to return from the Navy and act as the facility’s maintenance man. Tim who is also a veteran must have been equally impressed because he and his other brother, Terry, bought the home from their father in 1991. Tim bought out Terry’s interest in 1999 and the facility was licensed for 32 beds. In 2005 the home was sold to Jess and Jessica Betts and became Betts’ Place of Peace. The Rockland Methodist Church was built in 1896. Anton Hesselberg was the carpenter that built the church and Charles Wooley helped quarry the stone for the foundation. The land site was received from the John and Mary Erickson family. First ministers mentioned were Rev. Alfred Verran and Rev. Jesse D. Searles. This picture was taken in 1908. The house to the right was Grace Irvine’s house. In 1963 the wood furnace was converted to oil. A bathroom addition was constructed in October 1969. Remodeling was completed in 1971 for the church’s 75th Anniversary. The ceiling in the church proper was lowered, new lights, interior painting, new carpeting, refurbishing pews and installation of new doors and steps. In 1858 The Milwaukee and St.Paul railroad came through Rockland. The Chicago Northwestern came through in 1873 with a depot being built in 1878.The Chicago & Northwestern Depot was fifty by sixteen feet, one story and was surrounded by a plank platform which extended in either direction along the track for a distance of one hundred and twenty-five feet. Mr. R.E. Edwards was the station agent and the agent for the American Express Company. Aeriel View 1964 The school was closed in 1967 when all schools consolidated. Students were then bused to Bangor. The school was purchased from the Bangor School District in 1969. The building had 2 large rooms and two small rooms. One of the large rooms was the village office and the other was used for community meetings and elections. The 2 small rooms were a kitchen and a library. The library was a branch of the LaCrosse County Library. The Village then added picnic tables, playground equipment, and fireplaces for the park grounds. In later years the library was converted into 2 bathrooms and it is now handicap accessible. The grounds have a softball field, basketball court and volleyball court. Two postcards from the 1930’s. The Rock in Rockland Rock Park, and the Ice cave in Hylandale. The post office has been in many building through its history. It started at the stage coach station then to the railroad depot. From there it moved to many different stores. The present day Post Office was built in 2000. 1964- In the following picture you can see the Hart Tie and Lumber Co. shown in the foreground parallel with the Milwaukee Road tracks. The saw mill produced ties, lumber and wood chips operated by Henry Loomis. The firm started in about 1960. Earl Arentz operated a saw mill along the railroad tracks.The only grocery and meat store is Swanson Grocery, operated by Harold Swanson. Edward Slafer ran the only service station. The new facilities include a deep well as a water supply, an iron-removal plant, a 50,000 gallon elevated storage reservoir, and a system of mains, valves, and hydrants to serve all developed properties in the village. The cost of the water utility facilities is estimated to be $138,043 distributed as follows: The sewage facilities include a contact stabilization active sludge plant for complete treatment to provide an effluent of a quality suitable for discharge through the LaCrosse River to the Mississippi River. The entire collecting, treatment, and disposal system will be gravity flow. Collecting sewers will serve all developed properties in the village. The effluent from the disposal plant is 90% pure. The total cost of the new Rockland facilities is $262,000 with the village assuming $24,000 sale of bonds, $125,000 and the balance of a Federal Grant of $112,600 and loans from Farmers Home Administration. This information take from the July 11, 1968 LaCrosse Tribune newspaper. In 1968 Rockland has 85 homes and a population of 257. Interstate 90 opened Nov. 4, 1969, a 38 mile section from Tomah to LaCrosse. There was a petition in favor of an I-90 access in 1968. Also a resolution was sent by the LaCrosse County Board to the Wisconsin Highway Department in favor of an interchange for the Village of Rockland in Sept of 1968. Historic correspondence approved a proposed interchange for Rockland back in 1972, however funding through traditional Federal-aid Interstate funds were removed as an option. The village continues to look for opportunities to promote an interchange to the village. So close and but no access. Hummingbird addition was annexed in 1976. Rockland and Bangor joined fire departments in Sept.1993. Farmers State Bank was built in 2000 and closed in 2010. Rockland Stop & Go Edward Slafer owned and operated a gas station across the street from the present day station. Edward built the new station and then sold it to John Monford. It was then sold to Robert Hansen, Al Rentz, and Michael Bjorkman. Today it is owned and operated by Tim and Debra Higley. (2010) River Trail Addition platted and developed in 1994. Gaylord Park was donated by Cecil Gaylord family. The park shelter was built in spring of 2001. A ball field, dugouts, basketball court, soccer fields, batting cage, playground equipment and parking lot has all been added. The weekend before July 4 the town celebrates Rockland Progress Days. This includes ball games, food, music and fireworks. Proceeds go to the Park Association for improvements. Meadow Park estates platted in 1979 and developed in 2007 LaCrosse River Trail Opened July 13, 1989. The bike trail is 21.5 mile trail acquired by the DNR after being abandoned by the Chicago Northwestern Railroad. The LaCrosse River trail is connected with the 32 mile Elroy-Sparta Trail and with the 22.5 mile Great River Trail from Onalaska to Trempealeau. Pictures and articles were gathered from the following resources. Articles written by Carl Friske and Lillian Fleming. Pictures from the Murphy Library, University of Wisconsin- LaCrosse Pictures and articles from the Bangor Independent, Coulee News, LaCrosse Tribune and Monroe County. Compiled in 2010 by Linda Young

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Fatima Khazi is having a hard time at her new school. Classmates wrinkle their noses at the food she brings for lunch. They make of the way she pronounces words, and her grades are below average. But when she’s camping with her family, Fatima can relax. She enjoys eating familiar food like shami kabab. She’s also excited to try bacon for breakfast “like the other American families” (23). Spending time in nature with her family transforms Fatima. She learns how to assemble a tent, build a fire, and face her fear of spiders. Camping helps Fatima feel confident, and she takes her new energy back to school. Throughout the story, readers will encounter words associated with Indian culture. The storyline and illustrations help readers infer the meaning of these words. Readers will love the digital illustrations by Stevie Lewis. Author Ambreen Tariq wrote this book to inspire all readers to connect with the outdoors. Her #BrownPeopleCamping social media campaign inspires all families to spend time outside. Listen to Camping is an Adventure for All Americans in ‘Fatima’s Great Outdoors’ from NPR. This riveting interview explains why the @BrownPeopleCamping campaign is important for America. AASL Standards Framework for Learners: Inquire/Think I.B.3: Learners engage with new knowledge by following a process that includes generating products that illustrate learning. Begin this lesson activity by showing learners the cover of Fatima’s Great Outdoors. Ask learners what they expect to learn from the story. Discuss the following questions as you read the story: Ask learners to compare how Fatima felt about school before and after she went camping. Invite learners to explain how the camping trip empowered Fatima. Learners can illustrate Fatima as a superhero using her superpowers in nature or at school. Thank you, Kim Kaelin, for bringing this book and the NPR interview to my attention! I’m grateful for your contribution to our Facebook Group. When Milo gets anxious, he imagines stories about the people around him. He studies their faces and conjures up images of what their lives must be like. Milo captures his imagination by drawing his visions in his sketchpad. But could he be making correct judgements about the people he sees? Milo begins to change his thinking when he realizes one of his stories is wrong. He wonders about the quick judgments he’s made and considers different possibilities. Milo questions what people might think of him. Can they see that he is a poet and his aunt takes good care of him? Do they know that his mother loves him very much and is incarcerated? Milo Imagines the World is a beautiful story that opens up a conversation about bias and empathy. Illustrator Christian Robinson based Milo’s story on his own life. When Robinson felt overwhelmed as a child, drawing gave him a sense of control. His imagination opened up a world of possibilities while living in a small space without his mom. Author Matt de la Peña does an incredible job unfolding Milo’s story. Readers first see Milo waiting for a subway train. The words describing the approaching train help readers see, feel, and hear the train as it comes to a stop. Text clues help the reader learn more about Milo as he travels. We get a full understanding of Milo by the end of the story where we read how he feels while hugging his family. AASL Standards Framework for Learners: Explore/Think V.A.2: Learners develop and satisfy personal curiosity by reflecting and questioning assumptions and possible misconceptions. When looking at the cover of Milo Imagines the World, what do you suppose the story is about? I thought we would learn about a boy who aspires to be an engineer. I made this assumption because of the cityscape drawings and the pencil behind Milo’s ear. Reading Milo’s story made me realize how wrong I was with my first impression. I fell into the same trap that Milo did in the story. I made a quick judgement about Milo just by looking at the cover of the book. Matt de la Peña wrote this book to help people like me learn to question first impressions. He wants readers to consider different possibilities with the people we see. This lesson activity will help readers to question their first assumptions of Milo after reading Milo Imagines the World. Begin the lesson by showing learners the cover of the book. Ask learners to share what the illustrator wants us to know about Milo. Record responses on chart paper. Tell readers that while you read, their job is to notice new information about Milo. Learners can infer how he feels and discover his living situation. Record new information on the chart paper. At the end of the story, learners will know more about Milo. Invite learners to reflect on how their thinking changed about Milo from the beginning of the story to the end. Discuss how Milo questioned his assumptions and considered different possibilities. Ask why it’s important to practice this reflection process when meeting new people. Subscribe to our blog to get access to our free lesson activity worksheets. A worksheet is available for Milo Meets the World. What does it take to make a satisfying meal for hungry neighbors? Passionate volunteers who are ready to work with whatever they have. In Our Little Kitchen, by Jillian Tamaki, readers watch volunteers pick garden vegetables, rifle through refrigerated items, and warm up day-old bread. They peel, chop and cook in a hurried rush. The clock ticks away the minutes before they welcome their neighbors with food. Tamaki does an incredible job tackling a serious topic with playful text and drawings. Spot illustrations with interesting text features help readers get a feel for the sights, sounds and emotions that fill the community kitchen. The story is full of love, light and compassion. The author’s note explains how Tamaki volunteered for many years in a community kitchen. She gives background information about the work and presents reasons why her neighbors were hungry. Our Little Kitchen captures a small moment in Tamaki’s big effort to raise awareness about hunger in local communities. AASL Standards Framework for Learners Collaborate/Create III.B.1 Learners participate in personal, social, and intellectual networks by using a variety of communication tools and resources. How are your neighbors doing? Contact your local food bank, community kitchen or social services to see if there is a need for donations. Consider inviting representatives from the organizations for a class visit. They can explain their roles in helping the community and point to areas where they need support. Learners can work together to create a plan to get food to those in need. Do you want to learn about a grocery store that is making an impact on their community? Learn about the Daily Table in Massachusetts. The only items you’ll find in the store are nutritious groceries and prepared meals at low prices. Find out how they do this by reading their website. It’s good stuff! Would you like to learn how to create a lesson plan based on the AASL Standards Framework for learners? Please join me for a 4-week course starting February 1, 2021! During our time together, you will learn how to: 1) find a compelling picture book 2) name an AASL Standard and classroom standards to work with 3) write an objective and a lesson 4) create a rubric to assess learning By the end of this course, you will have a lesson plan that you can use with your learning community. Every week, you will watch a video, participate in a Zoom meeting, and complete an assignment. The Zoom meetings will take place on Thursday evenings at 7:00 PM Central Standard Time. Here, we can share resources, ideas, and offer support as we build our lesson plans. The class size is limited to 30 participants, so please sign up today! Think of a time when you really wanted something. Did anything get in the way of you reaching your goal? In Snail Crossing, by Corey R. Tabor, Snail spies a cabbage patch on the other side of a countryside road. Snail loves cabbage, and is determined to crawl across the street to the garden. The journey will be difficult, but nothing will stop Snail from reaching the goal. Readers will enjoy making predictions with Snail Crossing. Fun surprises mixed in with expected scenarios make this a fun read aloud. The audience will never guess the ending of this entertaining story. Delightful illustrations describe a challenging journey from different viewpoints. Scenes from the sky and the street give readers an idea of how big the challenge is for Snail. Wavy lines that trail behind Snail add more information about a difficult trek. AASL Standards Framework for Learners: Explore/Grow V.D.1 Learners develop through experience and reflection by iteratively responding to challenges. Snail was determined to get to the cabbage patch. Nothing would stand in Snail’s way. Cars, crows and even the rain could not stop Snail. After reading about Snail’s determination, invite learners to think about something they really want. This could be something they hope to achieve, learn or create. Ask learners to consider obstacles that might get in the way of reaching their goal. How can they work around obstacles they may face? Direct learners to create a plan to respond to possible challenges. This lesson activity supports the Explore Shared Foundation. Click here for more lessons that compel learners to explore. If You Come to Earth, by Sophie Blackall, is an incredible treasure. The wondrous illustrations and storyline will fill your heart and mind with awe. Evocative artwork fills every page, inviting readers to notice our amazing world. You’ll appreciate the incredible amount of work that went into every detail in this brilliant book. In the story, Quinn writes a letter to a martian. He tells the extra-terrestrial all there is to know about Earth. Quinn captures the beauty, joys and splendors of our world. He describes the people and animals that inhabit the planet. Fans of Hello Lighthouse will smile when they recognize Blackall’s technique for containing illustrations in circular shapes. The images inside each circle add information to the story. Some circles show what characters are thinking, while others illustrate feelings. AASL Standards Framework for Learners Inquire/Create l.B.3 Learners engage with new knowledge by following a process that includes generating products that illustrate learning. If You Come to Earth invites us to recognize how amazing our world is. This concept might be hard to realize today when the world is in turmoil. Encourage learners to think about something or someone that gives them peace and makes them smile. Share ideas with the group. Encourage learners to illustrate and write about their ideas. Invite them to add things they wonder about. They can save their work for a time when they need respite from troublesome world events. Click here for more lesson activities that support the Inquire Shared Foundation. This lesson activity supports the AASL Standard Framework for Learners. If you were an ostrich, how would you disguise yourself? It can’t be easy. But the narrator of Undercover Ostrich believes that these large birds are experts at camouflage. The illustrations, however, tell a different story. When the narrator challenges readers to find the ostrich, it’s not hard to do. The world’s largest bird stands out on every page. Readers will laugh when they see the ostrich “hiding” on a telephone wire and on the subway train. They’ll enjoy the befuddled looks the ostrich gives while “undercover.” More giggles will ensue when the narrator makes an appearance at the end of the story. Author/illustrator Joe Kulka delivers a humorous story by juxtaposing the narrator’s words with the illustrations. This interesting method of storytelling will engage readers to appreciate the outrageous scenarios of an ostrich hiding in plain sight. The cartoon illustrations add to the fun. AASL Standards Framework for Learners Inquire/Create I.B.3 Learners engage with new knowledge by following a process that includes generating products that illustrate learning. The ostrich in this story clearly needs help hiding. Invite learners to consider why the ostrich stood out in each setting. Then, watch “Can You Find the Camouflaged Animals” by Earth Rangers to see what it takes to hide in plain sight. Next, show learners pictures of ostriches in nature. Ask what they notice about the features and colors of the ostriches. Encourage learners to consider what kind of natural scenery an ostrich would need in order to hide. Explain that they will illustrate a picture of an ostrich that blends in with the background. If you are wondering how to draw an ostrich, this video from the Art for Kids Hub YouTube channel will show you how. If you enjoyed this lesson activity that inspires inquiry, check out our other blog posts that spark curiosity. How do we build a sense of community in our classrooms? Start by reading Our Favorite Day of the Year by A. E. Ali and Rahele Jomepour Bell. This important story features a diverse classroom where cultural traditions are celebrated. The story begins with a teacher explaining why she loves the first day of school. It’s on this day that she gets to meet new people. She explains that they will all become close friends. They’ll learn about each other by celebrating everyone’s favorite day. This is exciting news to four boys who are the main focus of the story. Through the boys presentations, we see how they celebrate Eid Al-Fitr, Rosh Hashanah, Las Posadas and Pi Day with their families. The boys are delighted to learn about the different celebrations. They get to know more about each other and become friends. The illustrations in this book are heartwarming. Readers can feel the excitement from the children as they learn about each other’s families and traditions. The textured illustrations add interest to the story. My favorite picture shows a mother wearing a colorful hijab, a patterned dress and striped leggings. The natural flow in the material make the clothes seem three-dimensional. The endpapers are a real treat. A quilt made of twenty-eight squares represent different cultures and holidays. Readers will be curious about the meaning behind some of the illustrated squares. They’ll also make connections with familiar symbols. AASL Standards Framework for Learners Include/Create II.B.3 Learners adjust their awareness of the global learning community by representing diverse perspectives during learning activities. Ask learners if they ever heard the saying, “Don’t judge a book by its cover.” In Our Favorite Day of the Year, Musa judged the boys at his table just by looking at them. He doubted that they could be friends because they “didn’t look like his friends.” Ask learners how the show-and-tell presentations changed Musa’s thinking. Invite them to consider how things would be different if they didn’t share their favorite days of the year. Explain that today they will imagine how people might judge them the first time they meet. They’ll also consider what they want people to know about them. Learners will need a paper bag, scissors, paper and colored pencils, crayons or markers for this lesson. On the outside of the bag, learners will draw a picture of themselves. They’ll also write how people might see them the first time they meet. The inside of the bag is for what they wish people knew about them. They will write things people would miss if they judged them solely on their looks. They can write about their hopes, dreams and accomplishments on scraps of paper and put them in the bag. Here are some sentence starters to consider: After the writing exercise, learners will share their bags with classmates. They will ask each other questions and have discussions to learn more about one another. This lesson idea was inspired by Liz Kleinrock, an anti-bias, antiracist educator/writer. She uses the paper bag lesson to inspire meaningful discussions on identity. Learn more about her work on these websites: Teach and Transform and Empowering Educators. Click here to see Kleinrock’s TED Talk. Try pairing this lesson activity with the book Milo Imagines the World. Imagine telling a story using only illustrations. How would you engage readers to look closely at the images to gather meaning? Author-illustrator Pete Oswald is a master at visual storytelling. In his book Hike, Oswald uses vignettes, sequenced panels and double-page spreads to guide readers in a visual journey. The magic of reading Hike starts on the book’s cover. The title, in block letters, reads from the bottom up. A father and son climb the letters with hiking gear. Each letter in the title illustrates the pair hiking in the mountains. The artwork conveys a sense of adventure that readers will enjoy. The most fascinating feature of Hike is the revelation on the copyright page. Here, we learn that the story is not really about a hike. Instead, it’s about family tradition. We begin to notice something is up when a family album appears on the pages at the end of the story. We first see the album in the boys hand. Then it appears on the kitchen counter. Finally, the opened album is on the boy’s lap. The copyright page reveals what’s inside the album; generations of family members planting a tree in the mountains. Close readers will remember seeing the album at the beginning of the book on the boy’s bedside table. AASL Standards Framework for Learners: Explore/Think V.A.3 Learners develop and satisfy personal curiosity by engaging in inquiry-based processes for personal growth. Ask learners to write about a family tradition for three minutes. Challenge learners to keep their pencils writing. They don’t have to write complete sentences. Lists and key words will work. If learners can’t think of something to write, they can just write something like “what else can I write about my family tradition”. After the writing exercise, invite learners to choose a word that represents their family tradition. Explain that they will create block letters out of that word and illustrate the inside of each letter. The illustrations will tell a story about their tradition. They will use the cover of the book Hike as a model for their illustration. Want to learn how to create big, bold letters? Watch this demonstration of how to create block letters by Dave McDonald. A segment about drawing bubble letters is also included. Learners may also want to explore illustrative maps after looking at the title page. Invite them to think about what the map is telling them. Welcome them to learn more about maps by reading Camilla, Cartographer by Julie Dillemuth and Laura Wood. Are you looking for a book that shows readers how to ask compelling questions? If so, take a look at Just Because by Mac Barnett and Isabelle Arsenault. The story begins with a familiar bedtime scene. A little girl, tucked in her bed, asks her dad why the ocean is blue. Readers will infer that she’s asking such a big question because she doesn’t want to fall asleep. They may predict that the father will give a scientific answer. Readers will delight in the fantastic explanation that fills a double-page spread. This story has an interesting text structure that will engage readers. It starts with a question that appears in a big circle of color. The questions have no quotation marks, but readers will understand the girl is talking. The answers on the next page float in white circles. It is understood that the father answers the questions, even though it is never stated. Readers will also love the playful illustrations. The careful observer will notice a common color thread. The color of each circle with a question is featured on the next page. Readers will also realize that the father’s stories are inspired by toys in the bedroom. AASL Standards Framework for Learners: l.B.2 Learners engage with new knowledge by following a process that includes generating products that illustrate learning. Ask learners what they thought about the father’s answers. If he were visiting their school library, what resources could he use to find answers to the questions? Invite learners to pretend the father needs their help to answer his daughter’s questions. Learners will pick one question from the book to research. They will make a plan to find the answer to the question. Invite learners to create a zine, or a little notebook, to record their findings. They can follow the example in the book and write a question on one page and the answer on the next page. Click here to watch a video on how to make a zine without scissors or staples. I created this video for young learners. They will need to pause the video along the way as they follow the directions.

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List of states and territories of the United States The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states, a federal district (Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United States), five major territories, and various minor islands. The 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., are in North America between Canada and Mexico, while Alaska is in the far northwestern part of North America and Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. Territories of the United States are scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution, grounded in republican principles, and government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two senators, while representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the president of the United States, equal to the total of representatives and senators in Congress from that state. Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to the current total of 50, and each new state is admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. As provided by Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, Congress exercises "exclusive jurisdiction" over the federal district, which is not part of any state. Prior to passage of the 1973 District of Columbia Home Rule Act, which devolved certain Congressional powers to an elected mayor and council, the district did not have an elected local government. Even so, Congress retains the right to review and overturn laws created by the council and intervene in local affairs. As it is not a state, the district does not have representation in the Senate. However, since 1971, its residents have been represented in the House of Representatives by a non-voting delegate. Additionally, since 1961, following ratification of the 23rd Amendment, the district has been entitled to select three electors to vote in the Electoral College. In addition to the 50 states and federal district, the United States has sovereignty over 14 territories. Five of them (American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them do not. With the exception of Navassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in the Caribbean, all territories are located in the Pacific Ocean. One territory, Palmyra Atoll, is considered to be incorporated, meaning the full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories are unincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to be unorganized, meaning they have not had an Organic Act enacted by Congress; the four other territories are organized, meaning they have had an Organic Act that has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy and a non-voting delegate in Congress, in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents cannot vote in federal elections. The table below lists the 50 states, with their current capital, largest city,[A] the date they ratified the U.S. Constitution or were admitted to the Union, population and area data, and number of representative(s) in the U.S. House of Representatives.[B] |Flag, name and |Total area||Land area||Water area||Number| |Alabama||AL||Montgomery||Birmingham||Dec 14, 1819||5,024,279||52,420||135,767||50,645||131,171||1,775||4,597||7| |Alaska||AK||Juneau||Anchorage||Jan 3, 1959||733,391||665,384||1,723,337||570,641||1,477,953||94,743||245,384||1| |Arizona||AZ||Phoenix||Feb 14, 1912||7,151,502||113,990||295,234||113,594||294,207||396||1,026||9| |Arkansas||AR||Little Rock||Jun 15, 1836||3,011,524||53,179||137,732||52,035||134,771||1,143||2,961||4| |California||CA||Sacramento||Los Angeles||Sep 9, 1850||39,538,223||163,695||423,967||155,779||403,466||7,916||20,501||53| |Colorado||CO||Denver||Aug 1, 1876||5,773,714||104,094||269,601||103,642||268,431||452||1,170||7| |Connecticut||CT||Hartford||Bridgeport||Jan 9, 1788||3,605,944||5,543||14,357||4,842||12,542||701||1,816||5| |Delaware||DE||Dover||Wilmington||Dec 7, 1787||989,948||2,489||6,446||1,949||5,047||540||1,399||1| |Florida||FL||Tallahassee||Jacksonville||Mar 3, 1845||21,538,187||65,758||170,312||53,625||138,887||12,133||31,424||27| |Georgia||GA||Atlanta||Jan 2, 1788||10,711,908||59,425||153,910||57,513||148,959||1,912||4,951||14| |Hawaii||HI||Honolulu||Aug 21, 1959||1,455,271||10,932||28,313||6,423||16,635||4,509||11,678||2| |Idaho||ID||Boise||Jul 3, 1890||1,839,106||83,569||216,443||82,643||214,045||926||2,398||2| |Illinois||IL||Springfield||Chicago||Dec 3, 1818||12,812,508||57,914||149,995||55,519||143,793||2,395||6,202||18| |Indiana||IN||Indianapolis||Dec 11, 1816||6,785,528||36,420||94,326||35,826||92,789||593||1,537||9| |Iowa||IA||Des Moines||Dec 28, 1846||3,190,369||56,273||145,746||55,857||144,669||416||1,077||4| |Kansas||KS||Topeka||Wichita||Jan 29, 1861||2,937,880||82,278||213,100||81,759||211,754||520||1,346||4| |Kentucky[D]||KY||Frankfort||Louisville||Jun 1, 1792||4,505,836||40,408||104,656||39,486||102,269||921||2,387||6| |Louisiana||LA||Baton Rouge||New Orleans||Apr 30, 1812||4,657,757||52,378||135,659||43,204||111,898||9,174||23,761||6| |Maine||ME||Augusta||Portland||Mar 15, 1820||1,362,359||35,380||91,633||30,843||79,883||4,537||11,750||2| |Maryland||MD||Annapolis||Baltimore||Apr 28, 1788||6,177,224||12,406||32,131||9,707||25,142||2,699||6,990||8| |Massachusetts[D]||MA||Boston||Feb 6, 1788||7,029,917||10,554||27,336||7,800||20,202||2,754||7,134||9| |Michigan||MI||Lansing||Detroit||Jan 26, 1837||10,077,331||96,714||250,487||56,539||146,435||40,175||104,052||14| |Minnesota||MN||St. Paul||Minneapolis||May 11, 1858||5,706,494||86,936||225,163||79,627||206,232||7,309||18,930||8| |Mississippi||MS||Jackson||Dec 10, 1817||2,961,279||48,432||125,438||46,923||121,531||1,508||3,907||4| |Missouri||MO||Jefferson City||Kansas City||Aug 10, 1821||6,154,913||69,707||180,540||68,742||178,040||965||2,501||8| |Montana||MT||Helena||Billings||Nov 8, 1889||1,084,225||147,040||380,831||145,546||376,962||1,494||3,869||1| |Nebraska||NE||Lincoln||Omaha||Mar 1, 1867||1,961,504||77,348||200,330||76,824||198,974||524||1,356||3| |Nevada||NV||Carson City||Las Vegas||Oct 31, 1864||3,104,614||110,572||286,380||109,781||284,332||791||2,048||4| |New Hampshire||NH||Concord||Manchester||Jun 21, 1788||1,377,529||9,349||24,214||8,953||23,187||397||1,027||2| |New Jersey||NJ||Trenton||Newark||Dec 18, 1787||9,288,994||8,723||22,591||7,354||19,047||1,368||3,544||12| |New Mexico||NM||Santa Fe||Albuquerque||Jan 6, 1912||2,117,522||121,590||314,917||121,298||314,161||292||757||3| |New York||NY||Albany||New York City||Jul 26, 1788||20,201,249||54,555||141,297||47,126||122,057||7,429||19,240||27| |North Carolina||NC||Raleigh||Charlotte||Nov 21, 1789||10,439,388||53,819||139,391||48,618||125,920||5,201||13,471||13| |North Dakota||ND||Bismarck||Fargo||Nov 2, 1889||779,094||70,698||183,108||69,001||178,711||1,698||4,397||1| |Ohio||OH||Columbus||Mar 1, 1803||11,799,448||44,826||116,098||40,861||105,829||3,965||10,269||16| |Oklahoma||OK||Oklahoma City||Nov 16, 1907||3,959,353||69,899||181,037||68,595||177,660||1,304||3,377||5| |Oregon||OR||Salem||Portland||Feb 14, 1859||4,237,256||98,379||254,799||95,988||248,608||2,391||6,191||5| |Pennsylvania[D]||PA||Harrisburg||Philadelphia||Dec 12, 1787||13,002,700||46,054||119,280||44,743||115,883||1,312||3,397||18| |Rhode Island||RI||Providence||May 29, 1790||1,097,379||1,545||4,001||1,034||2,678||511||1,324||2| |South Carolina||SC||Columbia||Charleston||May 23, 1788||5,118,425||32,020||82,933||30,061||77,857||1,960||5,076||7| |South Dakota||SD||Pierre||Sioux Falls||Nov 2, 1889||886,667||77,116||199,729||75,811||196,350||1,305||3,379||1| |Tennessee||TN||Nashville||Jun 1, 1796||6,910,840||42,144||109,153||41,235||106,798||909||2,355||9| |Texas||TX||Austin||Houston||Dec 29, 1845||29,145,505||268,596||695,662||261,232||676,587||7,365||19,075||36| |Utah||UT||Salt Lake City||Jan 4, 1896||3,271,616||84,897||219,882||82,170||212,818||2,727||7,064||4| |Vermont||VT||Montpelier||Burlington||Mar 4, 1791||643,077||9,616||24,906||9,217||23,871||400||1,035||1| |Virginia[D]||VA||Richmond||Virginia Beach||Jun 25, 1788||8,631,393||42,775||110,787||39,490||102,279||3,285||8,508||11| |Washington||WA||Olympia||Seattle||Nov 11, 1889||7,705,281||71,298||184,661||66,456||172,119||4,842||12,542||10| |West Virginia||WV||Charleston||Jun 20, 1863||1,793,716||24,230||62,756||24,038||62,259||192||497||3| |Wisconsin||WI||Madison||Milwaukee||May 29, 1848||5,893,718||65,496||169,635||54,158||140,268||11,339||29,367||8| |Wyoming||WY||Cheyenne||Jul 10, 1890||576,851||97,813||253,335||97,093||251,470||720||1,864||1| |Total area||Land area||Water area||Number| |District of Columbia||DC||Jul 16, 1790||689,545||68||176||61||158||7||18||1[E]| |Total area||Land area||Water area||Number| |American Samoa||AS||Pago Pago||1900||57,400||581||1,505||76||198||505||1,307||1[E]| |Northern Mariana Islands||MP||Saipan||1986|| |Puerto Rico||PR||San Juan||1899|| |U.S. Virgin Islands||VI||Charlotte Amalie||1917|| |Name||Acquired||Territorial status||Land area[J]| |Territorial status||Area||Administered by||Also claimed by| |Bajo Nuevo Bank (Petrel Island)||1869|| - The largest city is the city in a state with the largest population in the city proper (as opposed to metropolitan area). - Each state is entitled to at least one representative. Current federal law sets the number of voting members of the House of Representatives at 435, which are apportioned among states every ten years according to their relative population. Each state is also entitled to two senators. - The original 13 states became sovereign in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation. These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. Subsequent states are listed in the order of their admission to the Union, and the date given is the official establishment date set by Act of Congress. For further details, see List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - Uses the term commonwealth rather than state in its full official name - Represented by a non-voting delegate in the House of Representatives. - 2015 population estimate for: American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Virgin Islands; 2019 population estimate for Puerto Rico. - Although not organized through a federal organic act or other explicit Congressional directive on governance, the people of American Samoa adopted a constitution in 1967, and then in 1977, elected territorial officials for the first time. - Organized as a commonwealth. - Represented by a non-voting resident commissioner in the House of Representatives. - Excluding lagoon - Although there are no indigenous inhabitants, around 40 United States Fish and Wildlife Service staff and service contractors live on the island at any given time. - U.S. sovereignty is disputed by Haiti. - Although there are no indigenous inhabitants, between four and 20 Nature Conservancy, employees, United States Fish and Wildlife Service staff, and researchers live on the island at any given time. - Although there are no indigenous inhabitants, as of 2009, around 150 U.S. 150 U.S. military personnel and civilian contractors were living on the island, staffing the Wake Island Airfield and communications facilities. - U.S. sovereignty is disputed by the Republic of Marshall Islands. - This is the approximate figure for the land area of the bank, and does not include the surrounding territorial waters. - This figure includes the total land area of the Serranilla Bank and the water area of its lagoon, but not the surrounding territorial waters. - Onuf, Peter S. (1983). The Origins of the Federal Republic: Jurisdictional Controversies in the United States, 1775–1787. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1167-2. - "Common Core Document of the United States of America: Submitted With the Fourth Periodic Report of the United States of America to the United Nations Committee on Human Rights concerning the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". U.S. Department of State, via The Office of Website Management, Bureau of Public Affairs. Retrieved July 9, 2017. - "U.S. Insular Areas: application of the U.S. Constitution" (PDF). Government Accountability Office. November 1997. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 3, 2013. Retrieved July 10, 2013. - "Frequently Asked Questions About the Minnesota Legislature". Minnesota State Legislature. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved July 11, 2013. - Burnett, Kristin D. "Congressional Apportionment (2010 Census Briefs C2010BR-08)" (PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 19, 2011. - Elhauge, Einer R. "Essays on Article II: Presidential Electors". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved December 29, 2015. - "Doctrine of the Equality of States". Justia Law. Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved June 16, 2017. - "DC Home Rule". Council of the District of Columbia. Archived from the original on November 17, 2011. - Tarr, David R.; Benenson, Bob, eds. (2012). Elections A to Z (4th ed.). Sage Publications. p. 165. ISBN 9780872897694. Archived from the original on May 27, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2015. - "The Permanent Apportionment Act of 1929: June 11, 1929". Washington, D.C.: Office of the Historian, United States House of Representatives. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. 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Caribbean Maritime Disputes". GeoCurrents. Archived from the original on April 22, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2017. - "US Minor Outlying Islands – Bajo Nuevo Bank". Geocaching. June 6, 2017. Archived from the original on July 11, 2015. Retrieved July 10, 2015. - "Cayo Serranilla" (in Spanish). Eco Fiwi. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2017. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to States of the United States.|

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Paul Adams, J.D.Urgent Alert: Throughout May of 2013, Southern California, home of 22 million people, received by far the most powerful daily aerosol attacks this writer has ever seen since learning of the Geoengineering issue in 2007. The sky remains whited-out and mountains ten miles away are barely visible due to toxic chemtrail fallout. Humanity, as motivated individuals of conscience, must unite and take immediate action to save lives and nature. Everyone must be informed quickly to stop this soft-kill murder operation, which is clearly escalating. Geoengineering, often referred to as Chemtrails, exists as a global nuisance for the primary purposes of causing severe bodily injury and premature death with malice aforethought. Geoengineering involves large aircraft constantly spraying tiny particles of aluminum and barium, amongst many other harmful toxins, into the air/atmosphere. All people and animals then inhale these toxins while breathing, without informed consent. The toxins also poison the soil and fresh water sources. It is well known and documented that long-term exposure to air pollution consisting of particulate matter significantly increases the risk of dying from lung cancer and heart disease. Over many years, the danger of breathing soot-filled air is comparable to the health risks associated with long-term exposure to second-hand smoke. In 2010 alone, 1,200,000 Chinese were killed by particulate air pollution. The principle dangers of inhaling particulate matter applies to smoke and second-hand smoke causing lung cancer; coal miner’s lung (anthracosis), a lung disease due to inhalation of coal dust; and baker’s lung, inhaling flour and other allergens causes severe asthma. These dangers can be avoided, while Geoengineering particulate fallout cannot. On a massive scale Geoengineering will likely result in democide if not stopped completely. According to Professor R.J. Rummel of the University of Hawaii, Democide is the murder of any person or people by a government, including genocide, politicide, and mass murder. Democide does not include soldiers killed in battle. During the 20th Century (1900s) alone, Rummel calculates that government power was used to murder approximately 262,000,000 people. It appears that history is repeating itself with improved technology. Secondary purposes of Geoengineering include controlling the climate/weather for warfare and profits, and destroying the natural world while furthering the transhumanist/synthetic biology agenda. Do Geoengineering and Chemtrails Exist? For the purposes of this article, “Geoengineering” and “Chemtrails” are defined as a military-industrial complex program, in partnership with private contractors and possibly major airlines, whereby planes spray particulate matter (particles/substances) into the atmosphere that otherwise would not be there. Simply searching for images and videos of Chemtrails online will quickly provide overwhelming visual evidence demonstrating that they exist all over the world. Thousands of images containing strange aerial spraying formations can be seen in a matter of seconds. Numerous documentaries like What in the World are They Spraying and Why in the World are They Spraying have been watched by millions of people. There is abundant documentation that Chemtrails exist. The Air Force’s 1990 Chemtrails chemistry manual is available online for download. Evergreen Aviation admits that it has chemtrail contracts with the Air Force. Exclusive lists of chemtrail patents are available. Congressman, Dennis Kucinich tried to stop Chemtrails with his Space Preservation Act of 2001. In 2010 Scientists and Aerospace Engineers presented conclusive evidence? for Covert Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering, (aka “Chemtrails”) in a 336-page report called “Case Orange“. The term “Chemtrails” is in the text of 2001 legislation, (HR-2977) where “Chemtrails” are defined as an “exotic weapon”. The Case Orange report was commissioned by The Belfort Group, who held a “Chemtrail Symposium,” where the conclusions were presented by Aerospace Engineer, Dr. Coen Vermeeren. Many military whistleblowers like Kristen Meghan and Ben Livingston have courageously stepped forward to expose Geoengineering. Now, even government entities, such as the State of Texas, openly acknowledge that they are engaged in Geoengineering for weather modification. Private pilots have taken up-close videos that prove beyond all doubt that the population is being sprayed from planes above without informed consent. There is also video evidence of Chemtrails being turned on, then turned off, then turned back on again. Scientists and weathermen discuss Chemtrails, and many believe it is the most important topic in the world today. Scientist and researcher Clifford Carnicom and many others have sacrificed much to inform the public about the dangers of Chemtrails/Geoengineering. Governments spend billions of dollars per year on Chemtrail spraying without telling the citizens.Geoengineering programs are having the effect of blocking out sunlight. The emergence of the Chemtrails phenomenon coincided with an average 22% drop in sunlight reaching the earth’s surface. Even the New York Times recently published a story stating that the Globe Grows Darker as Sunshine Diminishes 10% to 37%. Geoengineering is not mentioned in the Times article and no place for readers to comment was provided.To be blunt, governments are Geoengineering and realize Chemtrail dangers yet refuse to protect the public health, safety, and welfare. What is being Sprayed? Hundreds of laboratory tests reveal that the primary components of Geoengineering are aluminum and barium. Other components include Synthetic polymers, Ethylene dibromide, Morgellons disease, viruses, fungi, and bacteria. The toxic metal particulates are rapidly absorbed from the respiratory system and / or the gastrointestinal tract and are deposited in the lungs, muscles, and bone. According to Medscape, aluminum accumulation in tissues and organs results in their dysfunction and toxicity. If a significant load exceeds the body’s excretory capacity, the excess is deposited in various tissues, including bone, brain, liver, heart, spleen, and muscle. This accumulation causes morbidity and mortality. No living systems use aluminum as part of a biochemical process. It has a tendency to accumulate in the brain and bones. The Material Safety Data Sheet for aluminum states that the most notable symptoms of aluminum poisoning are diminishing intellectual function, forgetfulness, inability to concentrate and, in extreme cases, full-blown dementia, and Alzheimer’s. Its toxicity also causes bone softening and bone mass loss, kidney and other soft tissue damage and, in large enough doses, can cause cardiac arrest. Additionally, aluminum is strongly linked to Autism. Barium is toxic to humans and animals and causes a dramatic drop in potassium levels in the body. For this reason (and others), barium is known to considerably increase the frequency of heart attacks in persons 65 years and older. Sulphur is another toxin associated with Geoengineering. Laboratory tests with test animals indicate that Sulphur can cause serious vascular damage in veins of the brains, the heart and the kidneys. These tests also indicate that certain forms of sulfur can cause fetal damage and congenital defects. Mothers can even carry sulfur poisoning over to their children through their milk. Sulphur can also damage the internal enzyme systems of animals. The Purpose of Geoengineering is Injury and Death There are still large numbers of people who remain in denial about the openly stated agenda for global population reduction, as well as the consequences of this program that are unfolding. Abundant evidence proves that a criminal global elite has been obsessed with eugenics and its modern-day incarnation, population control, for well over 100 years and that goal of global population reduction remains a priority.Chemtrails and Geoengineering are clearly part of the death agenda and represent the equivalent of spraying ants to death with a can of slow-acting poison. However, in this case, the poison is mega-tons of particulate aluminum, barium, and other toxins consistently sprayed from above, the can is a jet plane, and the target is humans. Scientific studies prove that breathing particulate matter associated with Chemtrails over time will harm and kill us.A 16-year study by New York and Brigham Young Universities proved that “long-term exposure to air pollution that contains high concentrations of tiny particles of soot and dust significantly increases the risk of dying from lung cancer and heart disease.” The researchers calculated that the number of deaths from lung cancer increases by 8% for every 10 micrograms of fine particulate matter per cubic meter, according to the study. Likewise, a study that analyzed 52 years of historical surface measurements of haze data in the Chinese city of Guangzhou demonstrated that the dramatic increase in the occurrence of air pollution events between 1954 and 2006 was followed by a large increase in the incidence of lung cancer. Many other reputable studies have also proven the link between particulate matter in the air, cancer, and death. Investigative journalist and author of Chemtrails Confirmed, William Thomas, found that Chemtrails inflict eye infections, nosebleeds, skin sores, muscle pain, chronic exhaustion, weakened immunity, acute asthma and allergies, short-term memory loss and heart attacks on people in more than a dozen countries. Thomas writes: During 2010, 1,200,000 Chinese were killed by air pollution. “Air pollution is a fact of life in cities such as Beijing, where many people wear breathing masks when travelling outdoors to guard against “PM2.5 particles [particulate matter]” – tiny pollutants that can go deep into the lungs and cause cancer, bronchitis and asthma.” Based upon the above studies, one must conclude that breathing Chemtrail fallout will harm and kill humans. Russell Blaylock, M.D., states that tons of nanosized aluminum compounds are being sprayed daily over our skies. These nanosized particles induce intense inflammation in a number of tissues, particularly the brain and spinal cord. Nanoparticles of aluminum penetrate the brain by a number of routes, leading to Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Lou Gehrig’s diseases. Blaylock writes: Autism Spectrum Disorder Empirical data also confirms that Autism symptoms are related to aluminum exposure. A study from MIT concluded that “children with the autism diagnosis are especially vulnerable to toxic metals such as aluminum.” Another study from the University of British Columbia found that “children from countries with the highest ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) prevalence appear to have the highest exposure to aluminum from vaccines. The increase in exposure to aluminum adjuvants significantly correlates with the increase in ASD prevalence in the United States observed over the last two decades. A significant correlation exists between the amounts of aluminum administered to preschool children and the current prevalence of ASD in seven Western countries, particularly at 3-4 months of age.” The rate of autism among American children has nearly doubled over the past decade, according to a report released by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), jumping from about one in 150 children back in 2000 to about one in 88 children in 2008. Currently, 1 in every 50 American kids has been diagnosed with autism yet the CDC pleads ignorance as to the obvious causes. The elite know very well what happens when children daily inhale particulate aluminum sprayed by planes while walking outside, playing at the park, or sitting in their air conditioned homes or classrooms. Geoengineering Harm with Malice Aforethought The actions of those involved with Geoengineering also demonstrate an intent to do harm. Geoengineer advocate Ken Calderia, an atmospheric scientist who works at the Carnegie Institution for Science’s Department of Global Ecology, proposes spraying chemicals in our skies to “blunt the worst effects of global warming.” But when confronted at a Geoengineering debate in Berkeley, he was forced to admit there has been no global warming for at least 17 years (“it has leveled off”) and that when he worked at a nuclear weapons lab, he discussed poisoning the sky, “putting pathogens in a cloud” to “rain down on your enemy and do chemical and germ warfare.” Obama’s top science and technology advisor John P. Holdren co-authored a book, Ecoscience, in which he advocated the formation of a “planetary regime” that would use a “global police force” to enforce totalitarian measures of population control, including forced abortions, mass sterilization programs conducted via the food and water supply, as well as mandatory bodily implants that would prevent couples from having children. Holdren also proposed Geoengineering at a 2007 Goldman Sachs Conference. Perhaps Holdren sees Geoengineering as the best method to cull humans into a “sustainable” population. Ted Gunderson, former chief of the Los Angeles division of the FBI, demanded that Geoengineering be stopped and referred to it as “death dumps… genocide, poison, and murder. This element within our society that is doing this must be stopped. This is a crime against humanity.” Gunderson also notes that the Geoengineering pilots are poisoning themselves and their families. According to one Chemtrail pilot, stopping Geoengineering may be our last chance to save humanity from psychopathic genocidal maniacs. Who are the Geoengineers? David Keith is a professor at Harvard University and advocate of Geoengineering. He says that his team studied the toxic and harmful effects of Geoengineering on the population but did not publish their findings. Keith’s infamous quote on the dangers of Geoengineering is: “ And by the way, it’s not really a moral hazard, it’s more like free-riding on our grandkids. Steve Rayner is a Professor of Science and Civilization at the University of Oxford. He is one of the Co-directors of the Oxford Geoengineering Program. Steve was previously a member of the Royal Society Working Group on Geoengineering. The Royal Society is an organization made up of renowned eco-fascists and depopulation fanatics. It released a report calling for the “stabilization” of global population and reductions in consumption in developed countries. In the report, renowned population alarmist and Ecoscience co-author, professor Paul Ehrlich, called for a “move to population shrinkage as humanely and as rapidly as possible” David Victor is a professor at Stanford University and the University of California, Sand Diego. He also directed the science and technology program at the Council on Foreign Relations in New York, where he directed the Council’s task force on energy and was senior adviser to the task force on climate change. The Council on Foreign Relations is in essence the not-so-secret acting government of the United States, and in the view of many researchers, a powerful global crime syndicate that controls the mainstream media. Bill Gates funded a Harvard University project, in which sun-reflecting particles were sprayed from a balloon at an altitude of 80,000 feet above Fort Sumner, New Mexico. In 2012, Gates threw his financial muscle behind manipulating the earth’s climate via Geoengineering Bill Gates is a radical eugenicist. In addition to sponsoring vaccine research to reduce the population, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation supports Planned Parenthood. Bill Gates’ father even served on the board of Planned Parenthood. In 2000, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provided the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) $8,800,000. In its annual report, Planned Parenthood boasted that its affiliates around the nation performed 333,964 life terminating abortions during 2010-11, up from 332,278 pre-born deaths in 2009, the previous yearly record. The latest number represents an abortion performed every 94 seconds. Bill Gates and his globalist friends clearly have plans to reduce the world’s population. It must also be noted that The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation purchased 500,000 shares in Monsanto in 2010, valued at more than $23 million. This is significant because Monsanto, known as one of the world’s most unethical companies, released an aluminum-resistant seed which is genetically modified to tolerate aluminum in high levels in the soil. The primary ingredients of Chemtrails are aluminum and barium, what a coincidence! As well as Gates, other wealthy individuals including Sir Richard Branson, tar sands magnate Murray Edwards and the co-founder of Skype, Niklas Zennström, have funded a series of reports into future use of the Geoengineering technology. Branson, who has frequently called for Geoengineering to combat climate change, helped fund the Royal Society’s inquiry into solar radiation management last year through his Carbon War Room charity. Why would anyone trust these Malthusian Geoengineers adding toxins and heavy metals to the air we breathe? History of Government’s Testing on Population A 1977 Senate hearing on Health and Scientific Research confirmed “that 239 populated areas had been contaminated with biological agents between 1949 and 1969, including San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Key West, Panama City, Minneapolis, and St. Louis.” The U.S. government has been repeatedly caught engaging in illegal bio-weapons tests over American skies that have maimed and killed not just animals, but humans. The history of US government biological testing includes deliberately infecting Americans with syphilis, malaria and other bacteriological agents. Indeed, the EPA’s own policy states that government and industry scientists can treat children as human guinea pigs in chemical experiments, which allows pesticides to be tested on mentally handicapped children and orphans. From 1944 to 1974, both the Defense Department and the Atomic Energy Commission conducted hundreds of secret experiments in San Francisco and around the country that exposed unsuspecting patients to dangerous doses of radiation, including injections of plutonium. In 2010, the US government had to issue an apology after it was revealed that 700 people in Guatemala were intentionally infected with sexually transmitted diseases in the 40s. Kathleen Sebelius and Hilary Clinton issued this joint statement: In England, The Ministry of Defense turned large parts of the country into a giant laboratory to conduct a series of secret germ warfare tests on the public. A government report provides a comprehensive official history of Britain’s biological weapons trials between 1940 and 1979. Many of these tests involved releasing potentially dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms over vast swaths of the population without the public being told. Let skeptics also learn of the darker side of America’s history before dismissing the dangers of geoengeneering. The Nazi’s eugenic policies were modeled after those of California. Elements of the [Nazi eugenics} philosophy were enshrined as national policy by forced sterilization and segregation laws, as well as marriage restrictions, enacted in twenty-seven states. In 1909, California became the third state to adopt such laws. Ultimately, eugenics practitioners coercively sterilized some 60,000 Americans, barred the marriage of thousands, forcibly segregated thousands in “colonies,” and persecuted untold numbers in ways we are just learning. Before World War II, nearly half of coercive sterilizations were done in California, and even after the war, the state accounted for a third of all such surgeries. Public Nuisance/Informed Consent Geoengineering is clearly a public nuisance. The South Coast Air Quality Management District and most other jurisdictions define nuisance as follows: As demonstrated by the studies summarized earlier, spraying aluminum, barium, and other toxins onto the public without any disclosure causes injury, detriment, nuisance, and annoyance to the public, and endanger the comfort, repose, health and safety of the public. Geoengineering for Death of the Natural World and Transhumanism According to the so-called elite, as they drive technological progress towards the singularity – man merging with machine (transhumanism) – the majority of humans will cease to have a purpose or even be able to function in a brave new world run by a scientific dictatorship, which is why the ruling classes have formally reached the decision to begin a ruthless program of extermination. As Sun Microsystems’ Bill Joy explained in an April 2000 Wired Magazine piece entitled “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us,” the elite sees the mass of humanity as expendable. In the coming decades, all the functions performed by what can loosely be termed the lower classes will be carried out by robots. Joy writes: In addition to humans, the natural world dies around us due to chemtrail fallout because soil and fresh water sources are also being contaminated with aluminum and barium. Chemtrails are prevalent at Mount Shasta, California, where aluminum in pond water tested 24,000 times normal and snowdrift at 8,000 feet tested 122,200 times normal. Soil around a house (exposed to the air) in Northern California contained 3,000 times more aluminum than soil tested from under the house (not exposed to the air. Companies like Monsanto are engaged in planetary engineering, which includes bioremediation measures to bring us patented genetically engineered trees and crops, such as GMO corn, soy, and sugar beets that are in 90% of processed foods and strongly linked to numerous diseases including cancer. As discussed earlier, Monsanto has already developed an aluminum resistance gene for profit. To understand how Geoengineering is related to synthetic biology and transhumanism, please watch From Chemtrails to Pseudo-Life. The Dark Agenda of Synthetic Biology. Geoengineering for Weather Modification and Weaponization Another deadly purpose of Geoengineering is weather modification for weaponization. In his book, Between Two Ages, Zbigniew Brzezinski wrote: Ben Livingston, a former Navy Physicist known as the Father of Weaponized Weather, stated that he seeded clouds and dramatically increased rainfall in his theater of war, creating impassably muddy roads, which slowed down the Vietnamese and Korean troops during those wars. Livingston briefed President Lyndon B. Johnson on the effectiveness of weather control during the 1960s and says that technology to control weather was fully operational at the time. In 1996, the Air Force published Weather as a Force Multiplier: Owning the Weather by 2025, which is yet another official document indicating that Geoengineering is a military weapon of war. In his book, Weather Warfare, Jerry Smith notes that “in the same amount of time we went from the Wright Brothers to Neil Armstrong, hundreds of environmental and weather modifying technologies have been patented in the US alone and hundreds more are being developed in civilian, academic, military and quasi-military laboratories around the world at this moment.” U.S. Naval Research Laboratory research physicists and engineers from the Plasma Physics Division, working at the High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP – related to Geoengineering) transmitter facility, Gakona, Alaska, successfully produced a sustained high density plasma cloud in Earth’s upper atmosphere. Clearly Geoengineering is tied to weather manipulation, which can be used for purpose of covert wars on unsuspecting populations like our own. Combatting Global Warming as a Justification for Geoengineering The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and numerous other national and international panels of scientists have extensively studied ways to mitigate alleged global warming through schemes called “geo-engineering.” Edward Teller, father of the hydrogen bomb and Associate Director of LLNL, proposed injecting aluminum and barium dust particles high into the atmosphere to increase the amount of solar energy being reflected out into space as a way to offset the heating by greenhouse gases. Many scientific boards and committees have looked into this proposal and found it technologically feasible, but recognized that the legal and environmental hurdles would be too high to overcome to implement such a project–if done openly, so some proposed doing it covertly without informed public consent. Likewise, the Carnegie Institution for Science proposed to spray aerosol particles into the upper atmosphere to block out the sun and “tackle global warming,” noting the process would turn sunny blue skies into a hazy white (Chemtrails). In reality, the concept of man-made global warming was admittedly created by the Club of Rome, founded in 1968 by global elite kingpin David Rockefeller. Prominent members of the Club of Rome include Al Gore and Maurice Strong, both of whom are intimately involved with privately-owned carbon trading groups like the Chicago Climate Exchange, whose multi-million dollar profits are solely reliant on protecting the credibility of the man-made global warming thesis from skeptics who have challenged its legitimacy in light of scientific evidence and the Climategate scandal. On page 75 of their 1990 publication entitled “The First Global Revolution,” the Club of Rome outlined how they would manufacture ecological scares in order to manipulate the public into accepting the imposition of a dictatorial world government run by them. In searching for a common enemy against whom we can unite, we came up with the idea that pollution, the threat of global warming, water shortages, famine and the like would fit the bill … All these dangers are caused by human intervention … The real enemy, then, is humanity itself,” states the report, which can be read in full at the end of this article. The passage appears under a subheadline entitled, “The common enemy of humanity is Man.” At the Global Warming Petition Project, 31,487 American scientists, including 9,029 with PhDs, signed a petition stating: Additionally, more than 1,000 dissenting scientists from around the globe have now challenged man-made global warming claims made by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and former Vice President Al Gore. The ClimateGate scandal revealed how top scientists conspired to falsify data in the face of declining global temperatures in order to prop up the premise that man-made factors are driving climate change. The hacked documents and emails illustrated how prominent climatologists, affiliated with the UN’s International Panel on Climate Change, embarked on a coordinated campaign to ostracize climate skeptics and use their influence to keep dissenting reports from appearing in peer-reviewed journals, as well as using cronyism to avoid compliance with Freedom of Information Act requests. Many recent studies also demonstrate that man-made global warming is nothing to fear compared to the toxic health effects of Geoengineering. A study of tree-rings concluded that the climate was warmer in Roman and Medieval times than it is now, and the world has been cooling for 2,000 years. Another report found that the world stopped getting warmer almost 16 years ago. The figures reveal that from the beginning of 1997 until August 2012, there was no discernible rise in aggregate global temperatures. This means that the ‘plateau’ or ‘pause’ in global warming has now lasted for about the same time as the previous period when temperatures rose, 1980 to 1996. Before that, temperatures had been stable or declining for about 40 years. The evidence demonstrates that the argument for using Geoengineering to combat global warming is an obvious bad-faith fraud, with The Mail running the headline: “The Great Green Con no. 1: The hard proof that finally shows global warming forecasts that are costing you billions were WRONG all along.” NASA has also reversed its position that supported the now debunked man-made global warming theory. History provides a similar hoax justification for poisoning the population. In Britain from 1940 – 1979, the government told citizens that they were conducting tests to study the weather and pollution when in fact they were conducting germ warfare testing on millions of unwitting citizens. Lastly, Geoengineering is clearly not the answer to nonexistent man-made global warming as there is evidence that Geoengineering traps heat rather than cooling the earth. If the purpose of Geoengineering is not to inflict death and bodily injury, what is the justification and why the secrecy and cover-up? The only national governments to admit to Chemtrails are Germany and Sweden. Why does the U.S. government deny the obvious if its intentions are benevolent? Why deny what is seen by millions of Americans each day? Why deny what has been photographed, filmed, and documented millions of times? Citizens, like those of Mount Shasta, have had no luck getting answers from politicians and government officials regarding Geoengineering. This writer personally emailed five (5) members of the South Coast Air Quality Management District’s Governing Board, simply asking them for information and their thoughts on Geoengineering. This writer did not receive one response, or even a confirmation that my email was received. Could local air quality board members be aware that the true purpose of Geoengineering is death by toxic fallout? Why won’t they protect their own families? Protecting Your Physical Health Unlike refusing to working in coal mines, bakeries, and not smoking, one cannot avoid Chemtrails. However, there are simple actions that you can take to preserve your health. When Geoengineering is happening (in Southern California it seems like it may never stop), you should avoid spending long periods of time outside and keep your home’s windows closed. Using room fans and heaters rather than central heating units can also help keep the chemtrail toxins out of your home. The same applies at work, but you may also need to block AC vents above you. Drink enough water to stay fully hydrated so that the toxins are removed through sweat and urine. Do not drink water excessively or your body will lose needed minerals. By far the best way to protect your health from Geoengineering is by taking action to impose a people’s injunction on the criminal activity, before holding trials for crimes against humanity. Protecting Your Mental Health Despite the fact that we have been programed to accept Geoengineering through subliminal and overt propaganda, watching humanity, society, and nature destroyed by Geoengineering while the government denies that it exists can be very challenging on one’s mind. It is not easy watching Chemtrail planes when you know they are spraying you and your family with poison on behalf of elites desiring population reduction. While one may suffer temporary severe disappointment when learning of the issue, there is no reason to become cowardly, depressed, or to rely on pharmaceuticals to cheer you up while death abides around us. THE GOOD NEWS IS THAT YOUR LIFE HAS MEANING. The meaning of your life is to love your friends, family, and nature enough to take action towards exposing and stopping Chemtrails. Geoengineering is clearly one of the worst crimes in history, where people and nature are slowly murdered in plain view. It is up to you to stop it! You are the hero that the world and humanity needs right now! So choose who you serve. Do you serve God or Satan? If you are an atheist, do you serve the values of truth, love, and justice; or do you serve murder, death, and inequity? Because Geoengineering is already ongoing and the effects are known; staying neutral and not taking action is to serve death and in essence become an accomplice. To stop Geoengineering, we should learn from the man that exposed and stopped much segregation in the South, Martin Luther King, Jr. King was a master of bringing people of conscience together in order to end injustice. Today, humanity must form a united front and join together to stop death by Chemtrails. Educating others is the foundation of change. This means distributing flyers, speaking to your city council members, confronting air quality district board members, filing complaints, and filing public information and freedom of information requests. Lawsuits must be filed against the Air Force, EPA, Department of Health and Human Services, air quality management districts, and any private contractor or local government that is known to be Geoengineering. We must continuously email local, state, and national politicians, and stage public demonstrations to increase awareness. The new Skyderalert phone application may be helpful with this process. Once ten percent (10%) or more of the public is educated on Geoengineering, organized local and national campaigns will be needed to create tension in order to bring the issue to the public’s attention. From there, resolution will be possible – stopping all Geoengineering. There are many examples of this process. One is Monsanto’s genetically modified crops being banned from much of Europe because millions of people marched to create tension and awareness. Sheila Hemphill defeated smart meters in Brady, Texas. Adam Bonner, a farmer, defeated government CCTV cameras in Australia. Tony Rooke defeated a TV license fee and exposed corruption at the BBC. Michael Allison, the 41-year old Illinois mechanic who faced life in jail for video recording police officers, has had all charges against him dropped after a state judge ruled that his First Amendment rights had been violated, following a trend of similar rulings across the country that underscore the fact that it is not illegal to film police. Now it is our turn to defeat Geoengineering and stop Chemtrails. The evidence demonstrates that the primary purpose of the public nuisance of Geoengineering is to cause bodily injury and premature death with malice aforethought. The Geoengineers are well aware of the consequences of spraying tiny particles aluminum, barium, and other dangerous toxins into the atmosphere. Our mission is to stop them and it will be accomplished if we take continuous action to inform others. Paul Adams is a follower of Jesus Christ and Martin Luther King, Jr. And have no fellowship with the unfruitful works of darkness but rather expose them. Ephesians 5:11 Source: Activist Post

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A brief history of ketchup July 23, 2018 6.22am EDT. 1890. s. 1893. The Heinz slogan, "57 varieties," has become iconic since its origin in 1892, but a lot happened before it appeared on every Heinz ketchup bottle. But there’s more to this sauce than hamburgers, hot dogs and Heinz. Christopher Doering And it did succeed in shaking up the market. Heinz, division and brand of the Kraft Heinz Company, a major American manufacturer of processed foods that was formed by the 2015 merger of H.J. “Most people don’t want their lasagna to taste like toothpaste. And at least for Americans, it's impossible to imagine ketchup as anything other than bright red and tomato-y. Reuters/Mike Blake. “How do you transform disaster into a huge opportunity?”. This explains why Campbell Soup and J.M. Heinz, selling more than 650 million bottles of the condiment each year. In 2000, Heinz introduced EZ Squirt with a kid-friendly nozzle in “Blastin Green,” “Funky Purple” and even a mystery color. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! But sales later softened as kids grew bored with the product and parents, tired of seeing half-consumed bottles sitting in their fridge at home, were reluctant to buy another one. "The companies cannot hide these failures," West told Food Dive in an email. Heinz Company was founded by American entrepreneur Henry John Heinz, son of German immigrants. Get food news like this in your inbox daily. But shoppers have come to expect ketchup made predominately out of tomatoes to come in one color — red — with one company, H.J. Tomatoes are sold in seemingly every color: green, purple, yellow, orange and the famous red, with consumers not afraid to experiment and try new varieties at the store or their local farmers market. All Rights Reserved. They also pioneered the use of glass bottles, so customers could see what they were buying. The staple of thousands of British dinner tables is as famous for its bright red appearance as it is for taking an age to pour from the bottle. The company still makes its … Demand for HEINZ Ketchup is so high it requires larger operations to supply it. Fremont, Ohio soon becomes home to the largest ketchup kitchen in the U.S. 1940. s. 1940. In 1876, the company started selling its first tomato ketchup products, and in 1882, company founder Henry J. Heinz started to patent the company’s glass ketchup bottles. The candy was a hit. PepsiCo found itself with yet another marketing disaster on its hands when its Frito-Lay division introduced a biodegradeable bag made from plants instead of plastics for its Sun Chips line. There are a host of reasons why new products don't last: the public didn't want it, the item didn't resonate with the brand, the company was too early or late in the product cycle, or it just didn’t taste good. There are a host of reasons why new products don't last: the public didn't want it, the item didn't resonate with the brand, the company was too early or late in the product cycle, or it just didn’t taste good. So, ditching the usual ketchup for a new wacky-colored one won’t be a problem. Target Market Reason 1 Reason 2 Moms are not going to keep buying a product that her kids stop asking for if she’s not going to use it herself. Food giant Heinz is launching a green coloured version of one of its most famous products - tomato ketchup. Another likely reason for the abrupt change: Tropicana sales plunged by 20% after the packaging overhaul, costing the company millions of dollars, according to AdAge. Smucker, two companies that in the past have been rumored to be in Kraft Heinz’s sights, fell 7% and 5%, respectively, in Friday trading. Desperate to end the slide, the Atlanta-based beverage maker replaced its iconic, closely guarded 99-year-old formula with New Coke — which the company claimed had a smoother, sweeter taste — in April of that year. Both these processes led to a highly concentrated end product: a salty, spicy flavor bomb that could last for a long time without going bad. Overall, more than 25 million bottles of colored ketchup were sold, pushing Heinz’s market share for ketchup to an all-time high of 60%. The commemorative “Prince of Wales” ketchup, meanwhile, was made from elderberries and anchovies. Failure is much more sensitive than I originally thought. Analysts who follow the food industry say successful companies often benefit from knowing when to reward failure. “That was a total unintended perfect creation coup. Heinz ketchup — owned by U.S. food company Kraft Heinz — still held 77.5 per cent of the market share in 2018. Samuel West, director of the Museum of Failure, said none of the companies contacted by the museum wanted to be associated with the endeavor. This monster is 2.4 meters (8 ft) tall, 1.2 meters (4 ft) wide and 24 centimeters (9.5 in) thick. Did you know? 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It may surprise you to know that Heinz was not the first bottle of ketchup sold; that credit goes to a farmer named Jonas Yerkes, who was selling bottles of ketchup nationally by 1837. Today, Heinz is the best-selling brand of ketchup in the United States, with more than 650 million bottles sold each year. But shoppers have come to expect ketchup made predominately out of tomatoes to come in one color — red. Though tomato plants were brought to England from South America in the 1500s, their fruits weren’t eaten for centuries since some people considered them poisonous. heinz ez squirt colored ketchup Ketchup is found in 97 percent of U.S. homes and probably 100 percent of barbecues. Heinz 57 Sauce. There are obvious reasons as to why purple ketchup, celery soda, and 6 other crazy foods flopped terribly. In early 2009, PepsiCo rolled out a new carton design for its popular Tropicana orange juice as part of a broader effort to improve the marketing for some of its biggest brands. Subscribe to Food Dive: Topics covered: manufacturing, packaging, new products, R&D, and much more. The ketchup and cheese company’s stock has plunged nearly 35% this year. Each new color the company rolled out resulted in incremental sales volume, according to a story by Fast Company, with the new products especially popular with children. They should have been pulled from the market just seconds before they hit the shelfs. More than 30 years after the product's debut, Coca-Cola has downplayed the launch not as a disaster but as one of the best things that ever happened to beverage maker. The Heinz Keystone Dispenser is a color-coded plastic dispensers, shaped to resemble the keystone part of the "Heinz 57" symbol, that accepts bags of condiments that include the original, low-sodium and Simply Heinz varieties of ketchup, along with several varieties of … HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. The current CEO of H. J. Heinz Company is Bernardo Vieira Hees, and he was assigned to this position on June 10, 2013. In 2000, Heinz rolled out a super vibrant colored ketchup in purple, green, pink, orange, teal, and blue variations. CHICAGO, IL - MARCH 25: In this photo illustration, Kraft and Heinz products are shown on March 25, 2015 in Chicago, Illinois. Unlike some other product failures, this one initially appeared to be a success for the Pittsburgh-based ketchup icon. Tomatoes are sold in seemingly every color: green, purple, yellow, orange and the famous red, with consumers not afraid to experiment and try new varieties at the store or their local farmers market. Henry John Heinz once said, “As I did not become a priest, I have to … The number is in fact made up from Heinz’s and his wife’s favorite numbers…5 and 7. TEAM 2- SIDAN Team Members- Ankita and Tabriz Product: Heinz Multi colored Ketchup 2. But not in the way it was intended," a Coca-Cola spokesperson told CBS News in 2015. He wrote that the choicest ketchup came from “love apples,” as tomatoes were then called. With the rise of commercial ketchup… Twitter. In the late 1870s, when Henry J. Heinz was first tinkering with Heinz ketchup, the words most notably associated with an under-regulated, poorly-crafted ketchup market were "filthy, decomposed and putrid. Chocolate is brown, mustard is yellow, and ketchup is red—or so goes conventional wisdom. But throughout the annals of product development, there are thousands of examples of food products that weren't the next big thing and were unceremoniously pulled from the market — most without even so much as a public mention. After sales continued to fall, EZ Squirt was pulled from the shelves by January 2006. Senator John Heinz and the wife of former U.S. Secretary of State, longtime U.S. Ken Albala, University of the Pacific. "When the Museum of Failure was written about in the international press, a legal representative from Colgate called and sternly informed us that nobody at the company recognized the lasagna," according to the museum. Consumers were complaining it made the product look generic and made it hard for them to differentiate the kind of juice that was inside the package. Its headquarters are in Pittsburgh. EZ Squirt colored ketchup . It wasn't until 1812 that a tomato-based ketchup was invented. Once inside the trough, the ketchup was sucked up by a hose and then poured into a packet made by Clear Lam Packaging. Heinz began producing preservative-free ketchup, and soon dominated the market. But not everyone remembers the company behind the toothpaste introduced a line of frozen meals in the 1980s in the hopes that people would eat the company’s Colgate Beef Lasagna before with brushing their teeth with Colgate toothpaste. Early life. The fish sauce, called “ge-thcup” or “koe-cheup” by speakers of the Southern Min dialect, was easy to store on long ocean voyages. In the ultra-competitive food industry, companies are under immense pressure to develop the next big thing — products that wow consumers while bringing in millions or even billions of dollars in revenue to the manufacturer’s bottom line. Discover announcements from companies in your industry. So why in the world would Heinz decide to release green, purple, blue, and — the scariest of them all – mystery colored ketchup?! ", Follow Dec. 11, 2020. Better companies still fail but they fail small and quickly and learn from it.". Heinz® Every variety of HEINZ Ketchup contains only the juiciest, ripest tomatoes, grown to produce the thick, rich ketchup that has been America’s favorite for 150 years 37. Big corporations are not immune to product mistakes. Overall, more than 25 million bottles of colored ketchup were sold, pushing Heinz’s market share for ketchup to an all-time high of 60%. “Some sort of failure is inevitable," Berger said. If Henry Heinz had had his way, however, we would all be talking about his first business venture, Heinz horseradish sauce. People these days are more adventurous and would try almost anything for the sake of experience. Henry Heinz rebounded from early failure to create an international juggernaut, teaching modern marketers: Successful entrepreneurs thrive on failure. Quite simply, the rule of law never took root. The strictly guarded recipe has remained almost unchanged for the past 100 years. Heinz ketchup is the cornerstone of the Heinz company’s product line, but it wasn’t the first product that came from Heinz. One oyster ketchup recipe from the 1700s called for 100 oysters, three pints of white wine and lemon peels spiked with mace and cloves. This puts me squarely in the minority in America—ketchup is found in 97 percent of American households. A Heinz Ketchup bottle sits between a box of Kraft macaroni and cheese and a bottle of Kraft Original Barbecue Sauce on a grocery store shelf in New York March 25, 2015. It was also seen as unappealing because to make the ketchup a different color, they had to change the genetic makeup of the original ketchup. Virtual holiday party ideas + new holiday templates; Dec. 11, 2020 "I thought the most innovative companies would take the opportunity to show off how progressive and transparent they are and collaborate by donating items to the exhibit. Today, Heinz is the best-selling brand of ketchup in the United States, with more than 650 million bottles sold each year. Shouldn’t Mahomes get something from Heinz anyway, after throwing for six touchdowns at Heinz Field in Week 2? Unsurprisingly, the frozen entree concoction failed miserably with the public. Kraft Heinz faces a new lawsuit questioning why controlling shareholder 3G Capital transferred $1.23 billion of stock six months before the processed foods company stunned investors with a … There’s no-doubt that this kid-friendly ketchup is fun and exciting. The company ditched its recognizable orange with a straw sticking out of it on the package in favor of a design with a large glass of juice and the words “100% Orange.”. In 1905, the company had sold five million bottles of ketchup. The free newsletter covering the top industry headlines, But throughout the annals of product development, there are thousands of examples of food products that weren't the next big thing and were unceremoniously pulled from the market. Thirteen years later in 1983, the innovation of Heinz rose to the surface when the company released their innovative packaging design of the first squeezable Heinz Ketchup bottle. Why did the product change from catsup to ketchup? Each new color the company rolled out resulted in incremental sales volume, according to a story by Fast Company, with the new products especially popular with children. Heinz is why ketchup seemed to become distinctly American. I don’t know who thought that making ketchup green was a good idea, but apparently someone did, because Heinz EZ Squirt hit shelves nationwide in 2000. Wrong. HEINZ starts manufacturing the now legendary HEINZ Ketchup and introduces it to the world as "Catsup." However, the vibrant color hues of EZ Squirt’s were “achieved by stripping the red color from traditional Heinz ketchup and adding food coloring” (5), smimming against the cultural tide: the parents who purchase ketchup were becoming increasingly concerned about naturalness and family health. Heinz Company, division and brand of the Kraft Heinz Company, a major manufacturer of processed foods and beverages that was formed by the 2015 merger of H.J. Overall, more than 25 million bottles of colored ketchup were sold, pushing Heinz’s market share for ketchup to an all-time high of 60%. Heinz already make … "The question is how large those failures are and how much you learn from them. Why did they fail? 1 and Red No. They took samples home and promptly corrupted the original recipe. Children would mix the colors and when they were mixed that made a very disgusting brown color which their parents didn't like. Twice a week we compile our most fascinating features and deliver them straight to you. But, it wasn’t until 1890 that the iconic packaging design of the glass bottle that we see today began to take shape. Some of these products you may know, others were so … But food preservation is a constantly evolving technique -- one that, quite frankly, … They sold well, especially to parents with children, but purists, as it turned out, preferred the traditional red. But that's a 6.2 per cent drop from 2015. The ketchup launched in green and red-colored varieties, which were later joined by purple, pink, orange, teal, and blue. The No Added Sugar & Salt Tomato Ketchup is made with 80 per cent less sugar than the original flavour and 97 per cent less salt. Disgruntled consumers posted videos making fun of and lodging complaints about the new bag. most without even so much as a public mention. Heinz is famous for its '57 varieties,' but by the time the company started using the number they already had more than 60 products. One of my shameful secrets as a lover of dips and sauces is that I do not like ketchup. Minute Made, Florida’s Natural and other orange juice brands all recorded double-digit unit sales growth during the same period. Instead, the precursor to our ketchup was a fermented fish sauce from southern China. Kraft Foods Group Inc. said it will merge with H.J. Here are six of the most memorable ... or should we say unmemorable? The reason for the decision was clear: Only 13% of soda drinkers liked New Coke. Sun Chips later discontinued the packaging, but with its image pegged to environmental sustainability, the snack maker went to work developing quieter sustainable packaging that debuted in 2011. This explains why Campbell Soup and J.M. PepsiCo learned that the hard way, too. Cookbooks featured recipes for ketchups made of oysters, mussels, mushrooms, walnuts, lemons, celery and even fruits like plums and peaches. Heinz said that focus groups of parents and children liked the new squirt bottles and that children suggested colored ketchup as a way to generate … In 1985, PepsiCo's share of the U.S. cola market was nearly 30% and the beverage maker was threatening to top its bitter rival Coca-Cola. Heinz Ketchup! Ketchup is still the most famous Heinz product. The pandemic has upended how consumers plan to celebrate, prompting CPG companies to reduce product sizes, tout offerings for novice cooks and shift more resources online. 3 thrown in to shade the condiment. “The established company has a mandate to innovate. Mushroom ketchup was apparently Jane Austen's favorite. It even spawned a Facebook group called “Sorry but I can't hear you over this Sun Chips bag." ABOUT HEINZ • Found in 1869 • American food processing company with world headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania • Heinz is synonymous with ketchup • Other Heinz products include sauces, salad dressings, frozen foods, pasta meals and infant food • The company's top 15 … Blog. But there’s more to this sauce than hamburgers, hot dogs and Heinz. 11, 2020 and lodging complaints about the new bag. kid-friendly Squirt. Had aphrodisiac powers. ) began producing preservative-free ketchup, and ketchup is found in 97 percent of American.! Packaged goods launched in the minority in America—ketchup is found in 97 of! S and his wife ’ s stock has plunged nearly 35 % this year deals like its rivals have become... 1876, the frozen entree concoction failed miserably with the rise of commercial Heinz. They fail small and quickly and learn from them not to introduce a kid-friendly... Took ketchup where it 's never gone before: green to display content... Launching a green coloured version of one of its most famous products - tomato ketchup, is... Dive: Topics covered: manufacturing, packaging, new products, R & D, and.! Began documenting the use of glass bottles, pouring the ketchup was first introduced in March 2010 after years! Say successful companies often benefit from knowing when to reward failure fun and! This year Ann Arbor, Mich., is credited with developing the recipe America! Selling more than 25 million bottles of colored ketchups finally went off the market the very sweet... Of thousands of products that have met their demise during the last few decades other in. 'S signature taste and recipe, with more than 650 million bottles ketchup! Many companies have no choice but to acknowledge the mistake publicly posts in the minority in America—ketchup is found 97. James Mease, a Philadelphia scientist, is credited with developing the recipe goes conventional wisdom know. Demise during the same period Chips bag. selling more than 25 million bottles sold each year $. Top 10 blogs in 2020 for remote teaching and learning ; Dec. 11,.... Out, preferred the traditional red lives on as part of a focused. Poured into a syrup-like consistency or left to sit with salt for extended periods of time on costs... `` Thirty years ago, we introduced new Coke Dive in an email they 'll turn around had... For Americans, it 's impossible to imagine ketchup as anything other than bright red and tomato-y became standard! It was completely tomato-free Heinz should bring it back was founded by American Henry... And deliver them straight to you established company has left a bad taste in investors ’.. Get the must-read news & insights in your inbox daily would quickly decompose, executives review. Some of them food and beverage items, that never took off for 2021 of about 80,... Business schools as an example of how not to introduce a new wacky-colored one won ’ t a... The past 100 years the recipe classic look and soon dominated the.. View other posts in the world ago, we introduced new Coke subscribe to Dive! From “ love apples, ” a Tropicana spokeswoman told the Wall Street Journal in.. Cheese company ’ s stock has plunged nearly 35 % this year from! The last few decades the reason for the Pittsburgh-based ketchup icon joined by purple, pink orange! On failure scientist, is credited with developing the recipe quickly and learn them... 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To introduce a new product Works in Ann Arbor, Mich., is credited with developing recipe. Into a packet made by Clear Lam packaging of products that have their! Before they hit the market '' a Coca-Cola spokesperson told CBS news 2015! This puts me squarely in the early 2000s, the ketchup launched in green and red-colored varieties, were... Covid-19 is Testing and Strengthening food industry Supply Chains to view other posts in the minority in America—ketchup found. S more to this sauce than hamburgers, hot dogs and Heinz company ’ s favorite why. Small and quickly and learn from it. `` to this sauce than hamburgers, dogs! Museum so the founder had to create a trend the museum so the founder had to create a replica the. Of its most famous products - tomato ketchup was a fermented fish sauce from southern China … Heinz with... Ketchup but I ca n't hear you over this Sun Chips bag. there ’ s favorite Ketchup… why the... Of these products you may know, others were so … Heinz began with ketchup purple. Found in 97 percent of barbecues refrigerator on the planet ketchup kitchen in the so! Thirty years ago, we would all be talking about his first business venture Heinz! Accuracy and fairness most memorable... or should we say unmemorable predominately out of tomatoes to in! Henry John Heinz, son of German immigrants in 2006 revolution governments acted above or with little regard …. Have all but gone extinct but sales soon began to tumble preferred the traditional red product Works Ann! Succeed in shaking up the market repository of consumer packaged goods launched in the food industry say successful often!, more than 650 million bottles of the condiment each year the usual ketchup for a new on... 1905, the precursor to our ketchup was first introduced in 1876, frozen. Of German immigrants makes, arguably, the lasagna lives on as part an... To imperial China—and at one point it was n't a complete failure for the Pittsburgh-based ketchup icon ketchup, soda... Paid $ 1 apiece for bottles, so customers could see what they were that! A complete failure for the past 100 years “ some sort of failure inevitable! Unsuccessful introduction of frozen lasagna at changing a favorite consumer brand like Coke fails, companies! Legendary Heinz ketchup and introduces it to the marketplace, failure is much more than.

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Magnification occurs in x-ray imaging because the x-rays are divergent or spread out from the x-ray source. Therefore, the object will appear larger on the detector than the true object size. Magnification in radiography is defined as (Image Size/Object Size) and is equal to the (SID/SOD) which is the source to image distance divided by the source to object distance. What is the magnification in Radiography? We will start with an analogy that almost everyone will be familiar with from their childhood or parenthood. If you have a flashlight pointed at the wall you can make a shadow puppet with your hand such as a bird or a bunny. Remember that as you move closer to the flashlight, the projection of the bunny is going to be larger on the wall. Then as your fingers move further away from the flashlight, the projection of the bunny is going to end up smaller. This process is called magnification as objects closer to the source are going to be larger (if the image position is kept fixed). Since visible light and x-rays travel in straight lines the magnification phenomena is the same. The light comes out of a light bulb or flashlight in all directions is called a divergent. In the same way the x-rays coming out of the x-ray tube are divergent as well (i.e. going in all directions within the collimated region). Instead of a shadow puppet we are concerned with imaging something that is residing inside of the patient. We can think about an object that is in a plane within the patient parallel to the imaging receptor (e.g. the detector). In reality we are concerned with making images of the heart, lungs or bones but lets start by thinking about a simple object with is just a straight line as this is simplest to think about. The definition of the magnification is the relationship between the object plane and the image plane. The magnification is defines as the (Image Size)/(Object Size). Since the x-rays are spreading out (i.e. diverging) the magnification will always be a number that is greater than 1 (i.e. the image size will always be larger than the object size). How is magnification in Radiography dependent on the object position? Since we often have control of the magnification in radiography exams it is important to understand the distances that control the magnification. In the figure below we define the Source to Object Distance (SOD) and the Source to Image Distance (SID) (note sometimes you may see others call this the Source to Detector Distance (SDD), this is referring to the same distance). In the figure below you can see that we can make one triangle that has the object size and the SOD, and another triangle with the image size and the SID. As shown these triangles are similar triangles. The SID is proportional to this image size, in the same way that this SOD is proportional to this object size. Therefore, the ratio of the sides are equal, i.e Image Size/Object Size = SID/SOD. You can see that this is our definition of magnification, so the magnification=SID/SOD. We can also solve this relationship for other variables. Most typically we would want to solve for the image size or the object size. For instance, if you are taking a chest radiograph and the true object is 10mm long what will be its length in the image plane if the SOD is 170 cm and the SID is 180 cm? The image size=(SID/SOD)*Object Size, which will be (180/170)*10 = 10.6mm. From this is example you can see that typically chest radiography will have a relatively small magnification and the size of the object in the image plane will only be slightly larger than the true size. Another example would be an interventional angiography scenario where the SOD is 50cm and the SOD is 100cm, with the same object length of 10mm. For this case the image size=(SID/SOD)*Object Size, which will be (100/50)*10 = 20mm. From this is example you can see that typically chest radiography will have a relatively small magnification and the size of the object in the image plane will be significantly larger than the true object size. At a high level these clinical radiography scenarios have a low magnification as it is typically desirable to have the detector fairly close to the patient: - Chest Radiography - Abdominal Radiography On the other hand these clinical scenarios typically have a high magnification: - Interventional Radiography - Angiography / Cardiac Cath labs - Magnification Mammography Obviously, it is also possible to solve for the object size as well if you know the image size. You will just be multiplying by the inverse of the magnification so that you can find the true object length if measure it on the image plane. As we mentioned above these assume that the object is lying in a plane parallel to the detector. Thus far we have been assuming that the object in the center of the x-ray field (i.e. it is on the iso ray)now is something that’s sitting right at the ISO ray. If instead of the object being right on the iso ray it is moved a little bit higher, would that change the magnification or will the magnification stay the same? Then the answer is that as long as the orientation of this object stays the same and the distance, namely the source to object distance (SOD) stays the same, the magnification will stay the same as well. As seen in the figure above the size of two images will be the same even if the object is moved off of the iso ray. The size of the object projected onto the image plane will not be changed if the object is moved but still is in the same plane. So if something is moved up or down it is not as important as if it is moved toward/away from the source, or if it is rotated. We will next discuss the effect of rotation on the x-ray radiograph (i.e. the x-ray projection). Is the object position the only important factor in projection imaging? Finally, we wanted to point out that in addition to the position within the scan field of view that there are other parameters which strongly affect the appearance on an x-ray radiograph. Namely, if the object is rotated there will be significantly different projections. There are several factors which make reading radiographs difficult including overlapping anatomy and difficulty distinguishing low contrast structures. Additionally, the dependence of the radiograph on the rotation of the objects makes image interpretation more challenging. As you can see from the figure if two objects are rotated, they could project either the same or very differently depending on the direction of the rotation. If a tomographic modality like CT is used instead of x-ray radiography these rotation artifacts can be eliminated because there are many measurements from different orientations. There are many use cases of x-ray radiography so it is important to keep these geometric effects in mind as you are setting up for each x-ray exposure. To conclude we have discussed geometric effects in x-ray radiography including magnification and rotation effects. These effects are similar to the example that we mentioned at the onset of making shadow puppets on the wall with your fingers. So, feel free to ‘study’ at home by making your own shadows on the wall and change the position and orientation of your fingers to see how it affects the projection on the wall. Rad Take-Home Points - The magnification is defined as the ratio of the (image size) / (object size). - The magnification can be calculated as (SID)/(SOD) - The projections are also strongly dependent on the rotation of the objects, unlike CT. Focal Spot Blurring X-Ray Radiography Geometrical Unsharpness (Blurring) In Radiography an important consideration is the image sharpness. Here we will discuss the blurring in an x-ray radiograph that is due to the focal spot. This is sometimes referred to as geometrical unsharpness. We have a separate post which discusses the resolution limits due to a digital detector, and the quantification or measurement of image resolution (https://www.howradiologyworks.com/digital-sampling-concepts/). So here we will focus on the effect of the x-ray focal spot. Why are there multiple focal spots on radiography systems? It would be nice if we could use one focal spot for all anatomies but unfortunately, we need to select the best focal spot to use for each x-ray exposure. The reason is that there are always trade-offs in physical systems and while we’d like to have the focal spot be as small as possible for sharp (crisp) imaging there is also the need to get enough x-rays through the patient to get a proper exposure at the detector. But if the focal spot is very small, it’s possible that we won’t have enough x-rays to make it through the patient, and thus we won’t get a good image. So, for each anatomy and clinical indication (i.e. what are we trying to see in the image) there will be an optimal focal spot. That is why it is important to be aware of the trade-off that you are making when you select the focal spot for a given exposure. In both cases (small or large spot), we are using what is called the ‘Line Focus Principle’, which we discuss in more detail later. But briefly here: the electrons are emitted from the cathode and incident on the anode over a given region and then the outcoming x-rays have a narrower width based on the angle of the anode (target). The patient is going to see a smaller cross-section here and that helps because we want to spread out the heat on the target so that we don’t melt the target. Rad Take Home Point We would like the effective spot to be small, but if we can’t get enough x-ray flux to get through the patient, then we’re going to need to use a larger spot. A perfect world (i.e. an ideal point x-ray source) First imagine an ideal point source, even though we can’t really make one in reality. In this case our x-rays are coming from one point. Then imagine there is an object in the body that we would like to image as shown here. Since our x-rays travel in straight lines if the edge of the object is well defined the edge in the image will also be well defined as all the x-rays are coming from the same location. If we have a nice perfect point for our focal spot, it’s going to look nice and sharp on our detector because there will be a crisp line delineating both sides of this structure as shown in the figure. Rad Take-Home Point An ideal focal spot would be a single point and would lead to crisp edges in the x-ray images. The real world (i.e. an actual source) In reality there is a finite size of each focal spot. Because our focal spot has a finite size the x-rays are actually coming out over a 2D region and not just a single point. In our illustrations we will just draw one dimension (from top to bottom) but into the screen there is also another dimension to the focal spot (which has the same effect on blurring the image in that direction). To visualize the extremes of the focal spot blurring we can think about x-rays originating from both ends (the top and the bottom). This shows you that if we want to image an edge, that the edge isn’t going to be perfectly crisp because the image will have a gradual transition rather than the sharp transition that occurred in the case of the ideal focal spot. This effect occurs on the top and the bottom as shown in this figure (and likewise occurs on the left and the right as well in the image although not pictured here). Since the x-rays passing through the patient are coming from the whole region of the focal spot this blurring effect depends upon the size of the focal spot. The larger the focal spot size is, the more blurring that will occur on the detector. In this figure you can see that instead of it just being a very sharp crisp edge, it’s going to be a gradient edge where there is a gradual transition at the edge rather than being nice and sharp edge. That blurring region is typically called the penumbra of the x-ray beam, and the region that is fully blocked behind the object is termed the umbra. Rad Take-Home Point In an actual system there is blurring due to the focal spot (i.e. the penumbra). Image Unsharpness from Focal Spot Quantified Next let’s quantify this blurring as we have mentioned that it is dependent upon the size of the focal spot, but also clearly depends on the system geometry (i.e. how close the object and image are to the x-ray source. We will define the unsharpness in the image due to the penumbra as ‘U’, and since it is dependent on the system geometry we will also define some important distances. As we mentioned above the focal spot has a finite size in both dimensions, but we show just one here in the figure for simplicity. We define the effective focal spot size as ‘f’ in this figure. Then SID is the source to the image distance and SOD is the source to the object distance (i.e. the portion of the patient being imaged). The object to image distance OID is then the SID minus the source to object distance. If we draw lines from the edge of the focal spot we can make similar triangles. From these triangles we can see that f/SID = U/OID. If we solve for U we get U=f*OID/SID. Thus the unsharpness in the image directly relates to f (focal spot size) and then we multiply by the ratio of the object to image distance divided by the source to image distance. So, that gives us our geometric blurring or the level of the unsharpness due to the focal spot. You can do simple calculations if for instance, imagine the focal spot had a size of 3 millimeters. Imagine that the object that were interested in, was halfway in between our x-ray tube and our imaging plane where our detector sits. So, if our object is halfway in between, then these two are going to be the same and if the focal spot that we said was three millimeters, then the unsharpeness of the detector is three millimeters. You can do different calculations depending on if you change the magnification to see how that affects the penumbra. As the object is moved closer to the source (leaving the source to image plane fixed) the penumbra becomes larger. Luckily, the rest of the image becomes larger as well. The most important thing that controls the unsharpeness there, in addition to the magnification term is the size of the focal spot itself. That’s why we discussed above that there is a desire to have a small focal spot. But we know that in physical systems we want to have the acquisition done relatively quickly, so the patient doesn’t have a chance to move and we need to get enough x-rays going through the patient so that we can make a good image. That is the tradeoff between spatial resolution (small spot) and available x-rays (large spot), and this is why x-ray systems typically have multiple focal spot sizes. Line Focus Principle in X-ray Imaging What is the line focus principle and why is it used on x-ray tubes? In this section we will be describing the line focus principle for x-ray tubes, which enables more heat deposition and a small effective focal spot to be used in imaging. The small focal spot provides high resolution and depositing heat over a larger area enables higher mA settings. If you need a review or are not familiar with how x-rays are generated in a medical x-ray tube, we have a separate post where we describe the physical mechanisms responsible for x-ray generation and the mechanism for x-ray generation (i.e. electrons accelerated and run into a heavy metal). The electrons are boiled off from a cathode and pulled from the cathode to the anode by the tube potential (i.e. the kVp). As discussed above there are typically multiple physical focal spots on an x-ray or CT system where the size of the electron beam is determined largely by the size of the filament (where the electrons are boiling off). In most radiography and CT x-ray tubes the anode will be rotating so that the electrons will be incident on different areas of the anode (so as not to melt the anode). That is another useful trick like the line focus principle to enable more electrons to be incident on the anode without the target material melting. The purpose of the line focus principle is to enable a higher exposure (i.e. more x-rays) while still having a small focal. In the figure below you can see that the size of the actual focal spot is controlled by the size of the electron beam coming from the cathode and the target angle. In the figure below you can see that the width of the electrons beam can be larger than the width of the x-ray beam. Remember that the electrons are coming from a two-dimensional surface and in this figure, we just show a cut through the tube where the electrons are coming from a line. The other dimension we can think of as into the screen. In that dimension the line focus principle does not have an impact and the size of the electron beam is the same as the size of the x-ray beam. So if this figure is showing the length of the focal spot, then the other dimension into the screen is the width of the focal spot. The major point here is that the length of the actual focal spot and the effective size of the spot as it travels through the patient and is incident on the detector are different, and thus a larger actual length can be used to spread the heat of the electron beam over a bigger surface. What is the relationship between the actual and effective focal spots size? If we consider this geometry you see that the actual focal spot and the effective focal spot are both sides of a right triangle. The figure below shows the same triangle, and now the tube target angle has been added to the triangle. If we remember from middle/high school geometry that the definition of sin is the opposite side over the hypotenuse. So the sin of the target angle is equal to the effective spot divided by the actual spot. If we want to solve for the effective spot we see that it is the actual spot multiplied by the sin of the target angle. In practice the tube angles are typically between 6 and 20 degrees for an x-ray tube. So, the sine of theta is between 0.1 and 0.34. This means that the maximum difference between the effective focal spot length and the actual focal spot length would be a factor of 0.1 (i.e. the actual focal spot is 10 times larger than the effective focal spot). Then for the tubes with the largest angles the difference is roughly 1/3 (i.e. the actual focal spot is 3 times the effective focal spot size). What is the tube loading gain and how is it related to the target angle? Another term that is used in referring to this same effect is the loading gain. The loading gain quantifies how much more energy that can be deposited in the tube due to the line focus principle. In the figure below you can see that we start with the same exact equation. The only difference is that now we solve for the Actual Spot Size divided by the Effective Spot size as this quantifies the factor in heat spreading or tube loading which is enabled by the line focus principle. If we solve for the loading gain we find that it is equal to 1 over the sin of the target angle. This is just another way of looking at the same effect and from the range of target angles that we calculated above we remember that sin of the target angle varied from 0.1 to 0.34. Therefore, then 1 over sine of the target angle will vary from 3 to 10. Thus, the line focus principle actually enables additional tube loading (ie. more heat via higher mA or kVp) by a factor of 3 to 10 depending on the target angle. That ability to deposit heat means we can get more flux without melting the tube. One downside or one negative effect of having very shallow angles is something called the heel effect or the anode heal effect. It gets worse at smaller angles because the smaller the target angle the longer the path of target material that needs to be traversed on the anode side. This is discussed in more detail in a separate post we have on the heel effect (ADD LINK when post done). As we mentioned above there are multiple focal spots on the most systems enabling you to select the best focal spot for a given clinical task. Each of the focal spots on the system will take advantage of the line focus principle in the same way as the target angle is the same for multiple focal spots. In your clinical exposures when you are imaging an extremity (e.g. a hand or foot) it will be desirable to use a small focal spot as this can achieve the highest resolution possible and does not typically require a very high exposure. On the other hand, if you need the x-rays to get through a more attenuating anatomy such as a large abdomen you will need to use the larger focal spot. So, depending on the clinical task you will use the fact that there are different cathodes on the system in order to generate the best images for your patients. Rad Take Home Points: - The line focus principle enables higher tube loading (i.e. higher mA/kVp) while maintaining a small focal spot size. - The loading factor for x-ray tubes describes how much more heat can be deposited due to the line focus principle and ranges from 3-10 for x-ray tubes.

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Greek propaganda claiming that "The name Macedonia is Greek" This sign on Danforth Ave. in Toronto did not exist before 1988 Greek Denial of Macedonian Name | Greek Denial of Macedonian Minority | Greek Myth of Ethnic Purity In its October 30 1997 edition, the ultra-nationalistic Greek newspaper, Stohos, published an article about my website. It claims that "Skopjiani" like myself are "spreading propaganda against Greece". The only response I have is - Thanks for the free advertising! Greek Denial of Macedonian Name The most important thing to remember about the "Macedonian conflict" is that the Greek position has changed dramatically over the past decade. Official Greek government policy was that Macedonia did not exist. When Greece took over Aegean Macedonia in 1913, they killed, tortured and ethnically cleansed hundreds of thousands of Macedonians. They changed the names of people, villages, and landmarks from Macedonian to Greek in their attempts to eradicate the Macedonian name. In the 1980's when it became evident that Yugoslavia was going to disintegrate and a part of Macedonia would become independent, Greece was afraid that they would lose Aegean Macedonia to a reunified Macedonian state. Therefore, propaganda that "Macedonia is 4000 years of Greek history" began. The very country that tried to destroy the Macedonian name now claims that Macedonia is Greek. - After the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 and the partition of Macedonia: "Greece acquired the largest Macedonian territory, Aegean Macedonia. Even though this territorial acquisition did not necessarily satisfy its maximal pretensions in Macedonia, officially Athens claimed, as did Belgrade, that Macedonian and the Macedonian problem had ceased to exist. For the ruling elite in Greece, Aegean Macedonia became simply northern Greece and its Slavic-speaking Macedonians were proclaimed Greeks or, at best, 'slavophone' Greeks." Once the new rulers had consolidated their control over the respective parts of Macedonia, they initiated policies which aimed to destroy all signs of Macedonian nationalism, patriotism or particularism. This was to be accomplished through forced deportations and so-called voluntary exchanges of populations, colonization, social and economic discrimination, and forced denationalization and assimilation through the total control of the education systems and of cultural and intellectual life as a whole. These policies were pursued systematically and with great determination by Greece. 1 - "...Macedonia was split apart in 1912 when the Bulgarians, the Greeks and the Serbs united to push the Turks out of the Balkans. Succeeding in that, they split Macedonia between them. Aegean Macedonia was taken by Greece by conquest, never by any act of self-determination. Both Serbia and Greece tried to obliterate the name of Macedonia, and the use of the Macedonian language in the conquered territories. The northern portion was called South Serbia, the southern portion was called Northern Greece. For many years the Greeks avoided the use of the name Macedonia to describe its northern province."2 - "Only in the last three years have the Greeks decided to reclaim the name they abandoned and actually tried to suppress for so many years."3 - "Funnily enough, northern Greece was for so many years called just that, 'Northern Greece', and it had its own minister...the name Macedonia was considered somehow suspect."4 This is a non-issue. Before the Greek propaganda changed, you could not say the "M" word to a Greek. They vehemently denied the existence of such a land, people, or language. Now they claim that the land is Greek, but there are still no ethnic Macedonian people or language, that it is simply "Slavic" or "Bulgarian". In Greece, the government tried to eliminate any trace of Macedonia. Since the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, however, a concerted programme was implemented in order to prove the "Greekness of Macedonia". Institutions such as the "University of Macedonia" opened in Solun (Greek name-Thessaloniki), the "Museum of Macedonia" and a news agency called the "Macedonian Press Agency". Here is a quote from Traianos Hadjidimitriou, Greek journalist and former member of the Greek parliament. - "In August 1988 Greece renamed "Northern Greece" as "Macedonia". Only since this renaming have Greek claims to Macedonian heritage gained widespread publicity." 5 - "...Greece did not refer to any part of its current territory as Macedonia until 1988, when Papandreou's government officially adopted the name Macedonia to replace that of Northern Greece. This point added weight to the notion that the dispute with Macedonia was a manufactured one." 6 - "Today, Macedonia is an accomplished fact. For 50 years, we Greeks avoided raising the issue, mostly under pressure from the United States. Today, ladies and gentlemen, we are paying for our own indifference and our lack of foresight."7 As Mr. Hadjidimitriou stated, Greeks avoided "raising the issue" of Macedonia. If it was such an integral part of Greek history, as they now claim, why didn't they always claim it to be Greek? Educated Greeks will admit to this, although they give excuses, because there is no way around the fact that they used to deny the very existence of Macedonia. Back to top Greek Denial of Macedonian Minority When the Republic of Macedonia was seeking international recognition of its independence in 1991, the Greek Council of Ministers defined its terms of recognition of this new state. "It should not use the name 'Macedonia' which has a purely geographic and not an ethnic meaning. It should recognize that it has no territorial claims on our country. It should recognize that, in Greece, there is no 'Macedonian' minority". 8 The Greek government denies the existence of a Macedonian ethnicity,even worse it denies the existence of a Macedonian minority within its borders and refuses to grant these people their basic human rights. The United Nations and other international organizations recognizes each nation's right to self-determination. The Macedonians throughout the Balkans, regardless of what borders they find themselves in, have their own language, history, culture, and traditions. Greece and Bulgaria are the only two countries to continue to deny them this right. "...they have carefully fostered this delusion, as if to give the impression both to their own people and to the world that there that there was no Slav minority in Greece at all; whereas, if a foreigner who did not know Greece were to visit the Florina (Lerin) region and from his idea of the country as a whole, he would conclude that it was the Greeks who were the minority. It is predominantly a Slav region not a Greek one. The language of the home, and usually also of the fields, the village street, and the market, is Macedonian, a Slav language." 9 One of the worst examples of Greek discrimation against its Macedonian minority occurred in September, 1995. The Rainbow Party (the Macedonian minority party in Greece) hung up a sign in their office in Lerin displaying the words "Lerinski Komitet," (Lerin Committee) in their native Macedonian language as well as in Greek. Their office was subsequently burnt down by a mob of Greeks, including local officials, yet the Rainbow Party was charged under Article 192 of the Greek penal code for "inciting citizens to commit acts of violence upon each other"! The following is a quote from the Greek Helsinki Monitor after these events took place: - "Greek is regarded as almost a foreign language and the Greeks are distrusted as something alien, even if not, in the full sense of the word, as foreigners. This obvious fact, almost too obvious to be stated, that the region is Slav by nature and not Greek cannot be overemphasized." 10 - "...we note Greek claims that Northern Greece, or Aegean Macedonia, is 'more than 98.5% ethnically pure.' The purity is held to be Greek. However, the statement is not accepted by reputable opinion outside of Greece. For instance, the 1987 edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica indicated that there were still 180,000 Macedonian speakers in this area, indicating a much greater percentage than 1.5%. If Macedonian activists from these areas are correct, there may be as many as 1,000,000 people from Macedonian-speaking backgrounds in Aegean Macedonia." 11 - "For most of the past eighty years, the Greek government has consistently denied the existence of both a Macedonian nation and a Macedonian minority in northern Greece and has adopted a policy of forced assimilation toward the Slavic-speaking inhabitants of Aegean Macedonia." 12 - "The United Nations, the United States State Department, Amnesty International, and various chapters of Helsinki Watch throughout the world disagree with the Greeks, in particular, about the presence of Macedonians (and other minorities) in Greece and have pressured them in recent times to change their behaviour toward their Macedonian-speaking minority." - "Greece is the only Southeast European country that does not recognize the presence of any national minorities in its territory. Turks are recognized as a mere “religious, Muslim” minority (which nevertheless is educated in Turkish), while Macedonians are not considered even a linguistic minority. The words “Turkish” and “Macedonian” have repeatedly led to the prosecution of their users, with courts handing down prison sentences or banning minority associations."14 - "Whereas, concerning the Muslims, the controversy relates to the character and the identity of the minority, when dealing with the Macedonians, there is a near unanimity in denying the very existence of any such minority, and supporting the persecution if not the prosecution of such claims." 15 - "The Macedonian minority continued to face various forms of harassment and discrimination in 1996. These included restrictions on freddom of cultural expression, violations of the freedom of association, harassment of its political party, Rainbow, denial of entry to Greece by ethnic Macedonians and former Greek citizens living abraod, and citizenship issues." 16 - "Greek Helsinki Monitor and Minority Rights Group-Greece urged that the Greek state finally recognize the Macedonian minority in Greece; allow its members to form associations; and grant the Macedonian refugees the right to return to Greece and to visit it. They also gave their support to the EU's encouragement to establish 'inter-cultural' schools where languages of minority groups would be instructed." 17 - "Since the civil war, the official denial of a Macedonian minority in Greece has remained constant regardless of the government in power, whether democratic or the military dictatorship of 1967-74."18 - "The Macedonian minority remained unrecognized by the Greek government and consequently faced various forms of harassment and discrimination. Ethnic Macedonian associations and particularly the Rainbow political party, continued to face difficulties. Established in September 1995, Rainbow was attacked by local Greek extremists, including the mayor of Florina, and hindered from operating freely."19 - "The official Greek position with regard to the ethnic composition of Greece is that there are no ethnic or national minorities in Greece at all."20 - "The co-operating organizations Greek Helsinki Monitor and Minority Rights Group - Greece condemn the violence against, the prosecutions of, and the setting on fire of the offices of the ‘Rainbow’ minority party, a party which expresses the Greek citizens belonging to the ‘Macedonian national minority’ (as it is recognized internationally but, unfortunately, not yet in Greece). Given the fact that the local authorities have played a leading role in these events, the conclusion is easily drawn that Greece, on the one hand, does not respect its international obligations on issues of freedom of expression and minority rights and, on the other hand, proves that the Macedonian ethnic minority is significant in magnitude (and not ‘a handful of agents’ as most politicians and journalists usually claim) and, for this reason, it wants to suppress its political expression today as it had banned its cultural expression in the past (prohibition to establish a Shelter for Macedonian Culture, a case which is pending in the European Court for Human Rights [on 10 July 1998, Greece was convicted by that Court, for violation of the right to freedom of association]." For more information on the Rainbow Party trial, including its verdict, please click here. For yet another example of the existence of the ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece and Bulgaria, please have a look at the CIA Ethnic Map of the Balkans. The spokesperson of the Greek Helsinki Monitor, Panayote Elias Dimitras, is actually an ethnic Greek, and is working hard for the achievement of human rights for the ethnic Macedonians. He faces numerous threats by fellow Greeks for his stance on the ethnic Macedonian minority. Unlike other Greeks who vehemently deny any human rights abuses, Mr. Dimitras is dedicated in his attempts to achieve equality for all in Greece. Some information can be viewed at the website of the Greek Helsinki Monitor. The following quotes are from various Greek newspapers in reaction to the U.S. State Department's 1995 human rights report on Greece: 21 Back to top - "The despicable report of the State Department on the oppressed minorities in Greece..." - Eleftheros Typos, 8/3/96 p.4 - "...human rights which are allegedly oppressed in Greece" - Ta Nea, 19/3/96 p.6 - "Anti-Greek hysteria against our country via the report on human rights" - Apogevmatini, 10/3/96 p.10 - "The State Department sees minorities-ghosts" - Apogevmatini, 7/3/96 p.7 - "They maintain the matter of a 'Macedonian' minority in Greece" - Ethnos, 7/3/96 p.10 - "A concurrence of lies" - Apogevmatini, 10/3/96 p.10 - "Greece, say the agents of Washington, denies the existence of Slav-Macedonians in the country...they saw Turks...they saw Arvanites and Vlachs" - Eleftheros Typos, 8/3/96 p.4 - According to PASOK MP St.Papathemelis, the report is "offensive, inadmissable and all too clear fictitious, as far as Greece is concerned...The gentlemen who prepared the report must understand that there are neither a Turkish nor 'a Macedonian' minority and decide to honor the international conventions the USA have signed" - Apogevmatini, 8/3/96 p.6 Greek Myth of Ethnic Purity - "The editor of The Sunday Telegraph argues that Greece has been ruthless in erasing traces of ethnic diversity, and suggests that the desperation of its actions, including the Greek claim to a monopoly of the classical past (in which all peoples of European origins have a share) can be explained by the fact that the Greeks today are a mixture of Slavs, Turks, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Vlachs, Jews and Gypsies." 22 The official Greek government position is that there are no ethnic minorities in Greece, only the religious "Muslim minority" in Thrace. (recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923) Greece, however, refuses to allow this minority to call itself by its ethnic and national name, Turkish. Similarly, Greece denies the existence of the Macedonian, Albanian, Vlach, Pomak, and Arvanite communities (among many others) and refuses to grant them human rights. - "More specifically, towards minorities, Greece's official attitude can be simply summarized in one sentence:" "In Greece there is only one minority recognized by international treaty, it is a religious minority, the Muslims of Thrace, it is blossoming and enjoying its full rights, and makes up some 1.5% of the total population." 23 The Greek government claims that in the entire country, there is only one minority, and that is a religious one. The human rights record of Greece towards all of its minorities, including the Turkish one, is horrendous, despite official Greek government claims. The following is a quote from "The World Almanac '94", under the heading, "Greece". How can one country be so homogenous? No other country in the world claims to have no ethnic minorities within its borders. It reflects the racist and intolerant attitude of the Greek government and the Greek population as a whole. - "Ethnic groups: Greeks 98.5%; Languages: Greek; Religions: Greek Orthodox 97% (official)." 24 The following is a European Union-sponsored survey published in "Eurobarometer" in June 1993 in which 1,200 Greeks participated. It further illustrates the racist attitudes of Greek society. - "Modern Greek identity is based on an unshakable conviction that the Greek State is ethnically homogenous. This belief...has entailed repeated and official denial of the existence of minorities which are not of 'pure' Hellenic origin. The obsession with Greek racial identity involves the distortion of the history of the thousands of years when there was no such thing as a Greek nation state." 25 - "The following national, ethnolinguistic, religious, social and immigrant minority communities in Greece are monitored: Macedonians, Turks, Roma, Pomaks, Vlachs, Arvanites, Catholics, Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, New Relgious Movements and Immigrants. The composition of the minority population is Roma 3.3%, Arvanites 2%, Macedonians 2%, Vlachs 2%, Turks 0.5% and Pomaks 0.3%. (Mostly illegal) immigrants make up some 5-6%. The religious minorities make up 1%. The members of minority groups - ethnic and relgious - and the immigrants have all been subjected to various forms of discrimination." 26 - "What is the word for this obsessive Greek pseudo-relationship with their country's past (they even have a magazine, Ellenismos, devoted to the subject)? It is not quite pretentiousness. There is too much passion for that. No, the Greeks, the ancient ones, had a word for the modern Greek condition: paranoia. We must accept that Mr. Andreas Papandreou (Greek prime minister at the time) and the current EC presidency are the sole legitimate heirs of Pericles, Demosthenes and Aristide the Just. The world must nod dumbly at the proposition that in the veins of the modern Greek...there courses the blood of Achilles. And their paranoid nationalism is heightened by the tenuousness of that claim." 27 - "In retrospect it is clear to me that my 12 years of Greek schooling, mainly in the 1970's, conspired to instill in me precisely one attitude: an almost unshakable belief in the purity and unity of the Greek people, language and culture...Belief in the continuity of Greece against all odds was enabled also by the method of withholding information and sealing off interpretive paths. We had, as children, neither the capacity nor the inclination to explore disunities and 'impurities'" 28 - "If Metropolitan Greece (Hellada) had lost the glory of the ancient Hellenic culture and become a land which, from the economic and social standpoint, had declined, with only the marble tablets left to remind us of an ancient culture, then how can we talk of a medieval Greek state and claim that the Byzantine state was the Greek nation?... The name Hellene became a synonym for an evil person, an anti-Christian, and was despised, which is why the name Graeco was accepted, though it also was considered as being something humble... It was only after 1054, when the Schism between Catholic and Orthodox took place in the Church, that the term Graecos acquired a religious meaning and was used to signify something which was not Roman... ("His mother was a Christian, his father was a Hellene" - Cypriot proverb)... Up to the 14th century the terms Hellene and Hellenic were not to be encountered in the state language. These names came into use later on... And since they lived in the same land as the ancient Hellenes, and Hellenic history was full of Hellenic feats, to their eyes the ancient Hellenes seemed to have been a magnificent people possessed of great capabilities, including a great trading ability ... even the Macedonian campaign of Alexander the Great and his great victories were considered as achievements of the Hellenes." 29 - "Viewed in the light of the general situation in Europe, Greece's present foreign policy has shown that the country's modern ideological armour is still very much the product of a nationalist upbringing, the roots of which go back to somewhere around the beginning of the nineteenth century. But the nation will never find its way in the European Union carrying this sort of ideological baggage. One of the cornerstones of this ideology is the unrealistic theory that the modem Greeks, expressing as they do the enduring nature of the Greek language, are the biological descendants of the ancient Greeks. It was concocted in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to serve as an ideological arsenal in the efforts to create a modern Greek nation in view of the impending collapse of the feudal, theocratic Ottoman Empire." 30 - "A large segment of modern Greek society, which has never really embarked upon the process of ideological modernisation, oscillates desperately between modernism and Greek Orthodox fundamentalism, displaying an inherent inability to make any sort of ideological distinction between the terms 'race', nationality', and 'cultural or ethnic identity'. Apart from the fact that even well-respected journalists are engaged in daily attempts to convince the younger generation that we are directly descended from 'our ancient forebears', views that go against the theory of 'one race, one religion, one nation' are regarded as nationally reprehensible. It is on this theory that most Greeks base their belief that there are no minorities in our country, apart from the 'Greek Moslems' of Western Thrace. Greek citizens who have publicly proclaimed that they do not feel like Greeks but like ethnic Macedonians or ethnic Turks have been pursued and convicted by Greek justice, which just goes to show that modem Greek society not only fails to show the necessary respect for what is different, but cannot even tolerate it. And, being in the grip of a virulent Hellenocentric egomania, this same society, while denying Greek citizens the right to any ethnic identity other than Greek, constantly exhorts Greeks living in other countries to preserve their Greek ethnic identity. Personally, I couldn't care less what race the citizens of modern Greece belong to; the only purpose of this book is to show, and substantiate with written documentation, how rotten and historically untenable obsessive nationalism is, in the hope of infusing as many young people as possible with respect for the right to self-determination of every Greek citizen and every ethnic group that calls itself a minority, as long as the country's laws and territorial integrity are "...only 21% of Greeks considered tolerance as one of the qualities parents should try to encourage in their children (vs. 42-62% in the other countries and even 29% in former East Germany). Greeks also had the highest percentage of intolerance towards people with different nationality, race or religion (an average 28% vs. 6%-27% for the other peoples). More specifically:" "(Survey by Opinion (1,200 interviews, 20/1-20/2/93), for the Lambrakis Research Foundation: prepared by a team of academics under C. Tsoukalas and El. Nikolakopoulos and financed by the European Union; the survey was 'buried' by its sponsors and revealed in the Greek press by GHM on International Human Rights day, 10/12/95)." 32 - 90% of Greeks believe that "foreigners in our country take our jobs away" and 84% believe that "many of the foreigners who live in our country constitute a public hazard" - 89% of Greeks have an aversion to Turks - 76% of Greeks have an aversion to Albanians - 62% of Greeks have an aversion to Western Thrace Turks and - 52% want them "all to go back to Turkey" - 57% of Greeks have an aversion to Jews - 55% of Greeks have an aversion to Gypsies and 48% believe that "even if their living conditions improve, the Gypsies will go on being dirty" - 38% of Greeks have an aversion to Slavs Another example of Greek propaganda Two things to remember: 1. It is ironic that Greeks now "love Macedonia" when they tried to eradicate its very existence. 2. If Macedonia has always been Greek, why did the Greek government deny its existence until the 1980's? For more information, please go to: - Panorama - Vol.2 No.1, Macedonian Cultural Society "ISKRA", Adelaide, 1996; p.19 (quotation by Dr. Andrew Rossos) - Ibid; p.101 (quotation by Dr. John Shea) - Ibid; p.101 - Canberra Times, Thursday March 12 1992, p.9; Peter Hill - Macedonia and Greece - The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation, John Shea, McFarland and Company Inc., North Carolina, 1997; p.104 - Ibid; p.282 - Reed, Fred A., Salonica Terminus, Burnaby, Talonbooks, 1996; p.186 - Greek Monitor of Human and Minority Rights, Minority Rights Group and Greek Helsinki Monitor, Volume 1, No. 3, 1995; p.23 - Report on the Free Macedonia Movement in Area Florina - 1944, by British Captain P.H. Evans, Force 133, stationed in Aegean Macedonia during WWII; (quoted from The Macedonians of Aegean Macedonia: A British Officer's Report, 1944, Andrew Rossos, The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 69 Number 2, April 1991; p.293 - Macedonia and Greece - The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation, John Shea, McFarland and Company Inc., North Carolina, 1997; p.105 - Ibid; p.108 - Ibid; p.120 - OSCE Review Conference - Human Dimension Issues, Report by the International Helsinki Federation, Vienna, 1999 - Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group-Greece, Kifisia, 1999; p.3 - Annual Report 1997- International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, IHF, Vienna, 1997; p.126 - Ibid; p.128 - The Balkans - Minorities and States in Conflict, Hugh Poulton, Minority Rights Group, Minority Rights Publications, London, 1991; p.179 - Annual Report 1998- International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, IHF, Vienna, 1998; - The Macedonian Conflict, Loring M. Danforth, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1995; p.34 - Hate Speech in the Balkans, International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, Athens, 1998; p.55-56 - Macedonia and Greece - The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation, John Shea, McFarland and Company Inc., North Carolina, 1997; p.91 - Greek Monitor of Human and Minority Rights, Minority Rights Group and Greek Helsinki Monitor, Volume 1, No. 3, 1995; p.49 - The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1994, Funk and Wagnalls Corporation, New Jersey, 1994; p.767 - Simon McIlwaine, The Strange Case of the Invisible Minorities - Institutional Racism in the Greek State, International Society for Human Rights, British Section, Dec. 1993 - Balkan Neighbours, Access Association, Sofia, 1997; p.41 - The Sunday Telegraph, London, March 27, 1994 - Dr. Alexander Zaharopoulos, "Greece - A Land of Heroes and Distortions", Sydney Morning Herald, March 23, 1994; p.15 - A History of Later Greece - Turkish Rule [Istoria tis Neoteras Eladas - Turkokratia, I, 20 - os Eonas], Ioannis Kordatos, Athens, 1957 - The Close Racial Kinship Between the Greeks, Bulgarians, and Turks, Dr. George Nakratzas, Preface to the Third Edition, 1999 - Greek Monitor of Human and Minority Rights, Minority Rights Group and Greek Helsinki Monitor, Volume 1, No. 3, 1995; p.55 Back to top © Copyright Macedonia for the Macedonians Created and maintained by Bill Nicholov

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Thomas R. Thompson The history of the doctrine justification by faith alone is difficult to trace before the Reformation in the 1500's. A clear line of development of this doctrine from the Apostles to Martin Luther simply does not exit. This does not mean however that this doctrine is a modern invention. The doctrine of justification by faith alone has its foundation in the purpose of God entering the human race in the person of Jesus. The doctrine of justification by faith alone may have received notable attention as stated by Martin Luther, but his statement concerning this doctrine is simply an answer to one of the oldest questions that face mankind. That question being, by what means can a person's sins be forgiven? Whereas the doctrine of justification by faith alone was essentially not a concern of the church before the Reformation, the church was concerned about the means by which one is forgiven of his sins. The history of justification by faith alone is really the history of the church attempting to find the answer to this question, how can a man be forgiven of sins, and by what means is it accomplished? The early church viewed baptism as a means by which sins were forgiven. This made perfect sense to them for Peter himself said to repent, and be baptized for the remission of sins. This immature thinking that some human work was effectual for the remission of sins, would lead to further errors. For example, if baptism was indeed effectual for the remission of sins, how are sins to be remitted after baptism? The early church should have considered this problem, and concluded that baptism was not effectual for the remission of sin. They should have determined that no human work could accomplish this, and looked more deeply into what Christ accomplished on the cross. However, they did not do that, and instead started the foundation of a system whereby man can atone for his own sins. This foundation would be built upon for 1500 years. Each successive generation after the Apostles would add new works for man to do to atone for his sins. Each successive generation would corrupt God's plan for the remission of sins more than the previous generation. Towards the end of this corrupting process, a system would be in place that relegated the atonement of Christ to something symbolic, and irrelevant. Instead of the atonement viewed as the only sufficient means for the remission of sins, a complete system is erected whereby sinful man atones for his own sins. This system would become a stench in the nostrils of Martin Luther, and to expose its corruption was something he was willing to lay down his life to do. Therefore, to trace the doctrine of justification by faith alone, the development of the system whereby man atones for his own sins must be considered first. Then it will be seen how the doctrine of justification by faith alone would rise in response to such a corrupt system. This corrupt system starts growing while the Apostles are still alive. Consider Paul's response to the initial corruption of the atoning work of Christ. Paul defends the basis for the forgiveness of sin (c. 55) Paul started a church in Galatia, where the teaching of justification by faith alone was clearly proclaimed and accepted. He taught one's only basis for the forgiveness of sins is faith in the merits of Christ's sacrificial death. After a time Paul received word this church had departed from its initial foundation. He was amazed at the early believers departure from the truth, and sent them a letter in an attempt to guide them back to the truth they initially received. This Paul states in the opening of his letter to the Galatians. - I marvel that ye are so soon removed from him that called you into the grace of Christ unto another gospel... (Gal 1:6) This young church was being agitated by Judizers. These Judizers were actively trying to bring the Gentile Christians back under the law and into the fold of Judaism, and it appears they were successful. The Judizers were teaching that faith in Christ was needed for the forgiveness of sins, but it was not enough. They were teaching that circumcision was also needed. Paul proves the error of this false doctrine by showing God has never changed His method for forgiving sins. He uses the example of Abraham, whose faith was credited to him as righteousness. Paul references Genesis 15:6 when he writes the following. - Even as Abraham believed God, and it was accounted to him for righteousness. (Gal 3:6) Paul was emphasizing that a person's only basis for salvation is in the merits of Christ. If one wants to add circumcision, almsgiving, baptism or anything else, Paul says Christ will then be of no profit to that person, and "he is a debtor to do the whole law," (Gal 5:3) One may consider this a minor error to add things concerning righteousness to the gospel, but history shows this not to be the case. The problem is, once something is added room for something else can always be found. Paul knew of this danger and warns the Galatians by saying, "a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump." (Gal 5:9) That is, accepting doctrinal error concerning how one is justified will cause one's whole doctrinal system to collapse. The doctrine of justification by faith alone gets so corrupted in the next few hundred years, it is essentially unrecognizable by 250 A.D. The shift started after the apostles. While some of the Apostolic Fathers give evidence they understood the doctrine of justification by faith alone, they certainly did not understand the need to fight for its purity. Christ plus a moral life (c. 95) Clement was a teacher of the scriptures who immediately followed the Apostles. It his writings, one finds clear evidences of his understanding that the only basis for sins being forgiving is the atonement of Christ. Consider this statement from a letter Clement sent to the church at Corinth. - So all of them received honor and greatness, not through themselves or their own deeds or the right things they did, but through his will. And we, therefore, who by his will have been called in Jesus Christ, are not justified of ourselves or by our wisdom or insight of religious devotion or the holy deeds we have done from the heart, but by that faith by which almighty God has justified all men from the very beginning. To him be glory forever and ever. Amen. (Clement, Clement's First Letter, 32.3-4) In some respects, Clement's statement on how one is justified is clearer than the Apostle Paul's. Not only does Clement affirm Christians are justified by faith in the work of Christ alone, but he also affirms that unless God calls a person he will never be awakened to place his faith in Christ. However, when confronting the morality problem in the Church at Corinth, Clement did not see this as a valuable weapon. Rather than providing an exhortation from the scriptures, emphasizing that Christians are dead to sin, and those living in immorality are not part of the body of Christ, Clement appeals to the social aspect of the gospel. This is a subtle shift. Clement leaves room in his teaching to suggest that a person becomes justified before God by living a righteous life. Whereas, the emphasis should have been that those who are justified by faith live righteous lives. Consider the below example of Clement's association of salvation with a moral life. Some in Corinth had removed church leaders from their offices, of which Clement is now rebuking. - Your contention and rivalry, brothers, thus touches matters that bear on our salvation. You have studied the Holy Scriptures, which contains the truth and is inspired by the Holy Spirit... You will not find that upright people have ever been disowned by holy men. The righteous, to be sure, have been persecuted, but by wicked men. They have been imprisoned, but by the godless. (Clement, Clement's First Letter, 45.1-3) Clement here links the grounds of one's salvation to performing good deeds. This is a link that must never be made. The grounds of being forgiven are the merits of Christ alone, not the fallible works an individual produces. Clement should have exhorted the Corinthians to examine if they were truly in the faith, rather then trying to adjust their moral behavior. The Corinthians were producing evil fruit that was not consistent with a branch grafted into Christ. Rather than call attention to the tree they were grafted into, he was calling attention to the fruit that was being produced. Clement did not intentionally desire to lead his listeners away from Christ as the only means of being justified, but if the teaching is not clear, it can point one in the direction of heresy. This is what happened during the period of the Apostolic Fathers. Their warning against heresies were not clear and sharp, and many were overtaken by false doctrines. Clement understood the Apostles teachings on this subject, he just did not understand the crucial nature of the doctrine, and how sinful men by nature desire to pervert it. Nor could Clement foresee into the future how far this doctrine would drift from the original Apostolic formulation of it. In general though, the tone of Clement's letter is a mixture of forgiveness based on the merits of Christ, and the merits of man. This is an unholy mixture one must be diligent to avoid. The relationship between these was not clearly understood in the church at this time, and perhaps not by Clement either. The work of Christ as the only grounds for being forgiven of sins is being leavened with works based forgiveness by the teachers succeeding the Apostles. Rather than this error being recognized and cut out, it would leaven the whole doctrine in time. Then nothing could be done except start over. After this subtle leavening of forgiveness based on the works of Christ with the merits of man, more leaven would be added to it in the form of baptism. Christ plus baptism (c. 100) Among the writings of the early church leaders, many occurrences to the teaching of forgiveness of sins through faith in Christ plus baptism can be found. It was accepted without analysis and handed down in succession to each following generation. An example of this teaching can be found in "The Shepherd of Hermas." In this writing, Hermas describes a vision he had of a great stone tower being built upon water. He is told by the shepherd the tower is the church, and Hermas then asks why the tower is built on water. The shepherd answers. - Hear then why the tower is built on water: because your life has been and will be saved through water. (Hermas, The Shepherd of Hermas, 11.5) The symbolism of the church being built on water baptism emphasizes the weight the early church placed on baptism. This to the modern evangelical is so far from Biblical teachings, one can easily find verses to refute it. But most in the early church did not have easy access to the scriptures. It would not be until 387 A.D. that the first list is produced that corresponds exactly with today's New Testament canon. Further, the Shepherd of Hermas was considered a canonical book by some churches. It was read during early worship services along with the canonical books. This water baptism doctrine for the forgiveness of sins is not some spurious doctrine drifting among a few of the early churches, but rather is the dominate understanding of how sins are forgiven. By the year 250 A.D. it is being taught with fervor. - Although there can be no other than the one baptism, they [heretics] fancy they baptize. Forsaking the fountain of life, they promise the grace of living and saving water. Men are not washed there, they are dirtied; their sins are piled up, not purged. (Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, 11) Those holding this "Christ plus baptism" view recognized the deficiencies of this teachings. But rather than correct a bad teaching, more bad teachings are added in an attempt to cover the problems with the initial bad teaching. The initial recognized deficiency being, what is the state of those professing faith in Christ, but never baptized. Are their sins not forgiven until they are dipped in water? Cyprian, the water baptism champion "addresses" this question. He contends there exists two ways a person can still attain forgiveness, even though the person was not water baptized. - 1. If one is martyred. Cyprian says, "they are baptized with the most glorious and most precious baptism of blood, of which the Lord himself said, I have another baptism to be baptized with." (Cyprian, Letter 69, The Baptismal Controversy, 22) 2. If the church neglected its duty to baptize. Cyprian says, "the Lord in his mercy is able to grant them indulgence and not separate from the privileges of his Church.." (Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, 23) The early church is now far from the Apostles teachings that man is saved on the grounds of Christ's merits through faith, and moving further away with each new generation. At this point in time, a few generations have passed since the Apostles, and the Apostles original teachings on forgiveness bases on the works of Christ are all but lost. But before this doctrine surfaces again, it would be buried even deeper in works based salvational systems. The early church after having shored up, or so it thought, the problems with its baptism doctrine, a new problems arises. Up to now the majority belief was that one is justified by God through baptism, but the early church was soon forced to consider how to deal with sins committed after baptism. Christ plus the faith of a confessor (c. 250) Cyprian's solution at removing the weaknesses with the "baptism forgives sin" doctrine, was really no solution at all. He did handle a few additional problems with his enhancements, but the issue of what to do with sins committed after baptism is still not resolved. This becomes a significant problem for the early church. The early church was persecuted by wicked and ruthless emperors. One emperor even passed a law making it illegal to be a Christian. If a person was suspected of being a Christian, he could be taken to court. If he at the court proceeding denied being a Christian, he would be released without any further actions. But, if he confessed to being a Christian, he would be tortured and most of the time it was unto death. Many Christians under such persecution were able to make noble confessions and admit they were Christians, even after being beaten without mercy for hours, and sometimes days. Yet some under the pressure lapsed, and denied being a Christian to spare their life. Those that were able to pass through the persecution were honored, and given special privileges within the church. After the time of persecution was over, some of these lapsed Christians wanted to be forgiven and reinstated into the church. Those who were persecuted and did not lapse were taking it upon themselves because of their extra merits they were believed to have, to restore those who had lapsed. This Cyprian says is not valid. By divine law he says, only the bishops have such authority. Cyprian does propose a solutions to the problem. - Finally, it is possible for the lapsed, by undergoing martyrdom afterwards, to receive the promises of the kingdom. (Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, 19) To suggest the only way for a lapsed Christian to be restored is with his own blood, is to say Christ's atonement was not sufficient for certain sins. This same error was made by those who passed through persecution, and granted forgiveness to others based on their heroic faith. Rather than correct a bad baptismal doctrine, many more bad teachings in addition to the ones illustrated above will be created to prop it up. At this point it should have been observed that fixing their baptism doctrine one problem at a time was not working. They should have considered the bigger question, by what means are sins forgiven, rather then trying to determine how individual sins would be forgiven. The sadness in all this is that people are looking away from the merits of Christ in the atonement, and replacing His merits with their own. This trend will continue until the Reformation. Christ plus Apostolic Succession (c. 251) Just when one might think the church is at a low and ready to rise out of the false theories of forgiveness it has been teaching, another false doctrine is introduced. Cyprian introduces a forgiveness of sins by church membership. With this false doctrine men are the gate keepers determining who is forgiven and who is not. He says, there is no salvation (forgiveness) outside the church. Cyprian's motives were pure. He was simply trying to protect the church from heretics, but in doing so damaged the church by the errors he introduced. Cyprian was correct in his stating that there is no salvation outside the church, but he had the wrong definition of the church and this gave birth to even more errors. If he simply viewed the church as all those professing faith in Christ making up the spiritual body of Christ, he would have avoided much error. But instead, he viewed the church as the physical body of people whose local Bishop can be traced back to an Apostle, and whose doctrinal beliefs are the same as the Bishop of Rome. This error should have been rejected when it first appeared, but instead it was nurtured and grew into a huge monster. If a believer in Christ does not accept this principle of apostolic succession tracing back to the catholic church at Rome, he was by reason of this doctrine considered outside of Christ and thus a pagan. Salvation was impossible for such a person. - He who does not keep this unity does not keep the law of God, nor the faith of the Father and the Son- nor life and salvation. (Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, 6) The true doctrine of forgiveness based on the merits of Christ alone is now nowhere to be found, and would not be found until the church drifts still further away. Augustine- Christ plus baptism and the Lord's Supper (c. 400) Augustine was not immune from the works based salvation teachings of his day. He was infected by them as well. Augustine may have placed more emphasis on one's sins being forgiven based solely on the merits of Christ, but he still does not look to that event alone as the basis for one's justification. Consider the following which he wrote during his conflicts with Pelagius, which occurred near the end of his life, and thus his most mature thoughts. - To the man who believes in Him that justifieth the ungodly his faith is imputed for righteousness. (Augustine, On the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins, and on the Baptism of Infants, Book 1, Ch. 18) One could point to this statement and conclude that Augustine believed the only basis for one's sins being forgiven is faith in the atoning work of Christ. However, when Augustine's statement is taken in its proper context, one finds something quite different. While Augustine does place a major emphasis on the atonement of Christ, faith in that work alone says Augustine is not sufficient to save. To the atoning work of Christ, the works of baptism and partaking of the Lord's Supper must be added. This Augustine states just a few chapters after this grand statement on justification by faith. - The Christians of Carthage have an excellent name for the sacraments, when they say that baptism is nothing else than "salvation," and the sacrament of the body of Christ nothing else than "life..." For wherein does their opinion, who designate baptism by the term salvation, differ from what is written: "He saved us by the washing of regeneration?" or from Peter's statement: "The like figure where-unto even baptism doth also now save us?"... If, therefore, as so many and such divine witnesses agree, neither salvation nor eternal life can be hoped for by any man without baptism and the Lord's body and blood... (Augustine, On the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins, and on the Baptism of Infants, Book 1, Ch. 34) Still further in this writing one finds Augustine's teachings on sins after baptism, the same as those who preceded him. That is, the merits of man are necessary to atone for sins committed after baptism. Consider the following quote from a chapter later in this same book with the heading "Works of Mercy- Means of Wiping Out Sins". - The Lord, ... was pleased to provide and endow with efficacious virtue certain healthful remedies against the guilt and bonds even of sins committed after baptism, for instance, the works of mercy, as when he says: "Forgive, and ye shall be forgiven; give, and it shall be given unto you." (Augustine, On the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins, and on the Baptism of Infants, Book 2, Ch. 3) What Augustine has done with his teachings is make baptism and other works of man ingredients into being forgiven of sins, instead of faith in the atoning work of Christ. This teaching would be formally accepted at a church council in 529 A.D. It teaches that the justification of man is based on a work of man, namely baptism. This makes baptism part of the justification process. Consider what was concluded by the council concerning this teaching. - Canon 13. Concerning the restoration of free will. The freedom of will that was destroyed in the first man can be restored only by the grace of baptism, for what is lost can be returned only by the one who was able to give it. Hence the Truth itself declares: "So if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed" (John 8:36). (Council of Orange, [529 A.D.]) Although Augustine was mired in the works based salvation system of his day still, he stood against the majority view that man with his free will is able to desire the things of God. Augustine said that man's free will is capable of many things, but it was ruined by sin and now incapable of leading to man's justification unless it is first liberated by grace. That is, man's mind is not only incapable to leading him to justification, it will not even desire justification unless God changes it. This thought would be a key element of Martin Luther's thinking on the doctrine of justification by faith alone. Thus Augustine does not turn the theological thinking of his peers to the merits of the atonement of Christ, but rather supports the continual drift towards salvation based on the merits of man. The drift continues, and with the next generation it will include assent to creeds for one's justification. Christ plus Propositions (c. 500) The works based salvational system so clearly presented by Cyprian is still having a major influence hundreds of years later. This can be illustrated by an early church writing called the Athanasian Creed (not believed to be written by Athanasius). It states in clear terms that some believed correct doctrine resulted in one's salvation. From the council of Nicea (325 A.D.), to the council of Chalcedon (451 A.D.), orthodox statements concerning the Trinity had been established. Heretics were still challenging these statements, and as a result, some came up with a new document stating that those who did not affirm the decisions of these early councils were not considered true Christians. The church is trying to protect what it considers precious, but deals with the issue wrongly. These innocent intentions keep leading the church further and further away from the truth. Consider this short portion of the Athanasian Creed. - Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is is necessary that he hold the Catholic Faith. Which Faith except everyone do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. And the Catholic Faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity, neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Substance... Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation that he also believe rightly the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. It took the church about 400 years to define its doctrine of the Trinity. Within that 400 years, the church really only placed boundaries around this Biblical doctrine. It did not explain the mystery of the Trinity, it only placed bounds around what was considered orthodox. Therefore, the church wrestled with this doctrine for over 400 years, yet in near the year 500 A.D. the church now teaches one must affirm it to be save. The goal of protecting the faith from heretics was noble, but their approach has no scriptural support. This continues the slide further into doctrinal error. The church for the most part was stagnate for the next 500 years, a period of time known as the middle ages. No major theological contributions would arise during this time. At the end of this period however, an important contribution to the justification by faith alone doctrine would be made. Anselm shows that salvation based on any merits of man is a contradiction. Man cannot pay the debt owed for his sins (c. 1050) Until Anselm of Canterbury it was rare for anyone to speak as if he understood that man has nothing to offer God in exchange for the forgiveness of sins. The dominant thought was being baptized, or performing some act of charity was sufficient to cancel sins committed. Anselm is his writing "Why God became Man," explains why this is not possible. Anselm shows man has no capability to make satisfaction to God for even the smallest of his sins. Anselm starts by explaining what it means to sin, and how to make satisfaction for it. He notes all the thoughts and labors of a man ought to be subject to the will of God. This is the debt that all men owe to God, and it is sin to not give Him that. No one who pays this debt sins, and anyone who does not pay it sins. Should one sin against God, it is not enough to simply return what was taken. To make satisfaction one must return more than was taken. It is not enough for someone who has injured another to restore his original condition without giving some compensation for the pain and injury suffered. (Anselm, Why God became Man, Book 1, Ch. XI) When man sinned in the garden, and surrendered his will to the devil, he took from God whatever God planned for humanity. Therefore, according to strict justice in order to make satisfaction with God, man would need to conquer the devil to regain what was lost. Since man was conquered by the devil and stole what belonged to God, and God lost it, so by the fact of man conquering the devil, the devil loses and God regains it. In addition, man would also need to justify as many men as God had planned for the Heavenly City that was lost due to the fall. However, sinful man is incapable of this, because a sinner cannot justify another sinner. Therefore man has no capacity to merit any justice from God for the things he does. Anything man may consider offering to God is only giving to God what is already owed. (Anselm, Why God became Man, Book 1, Ch. XXIII) It would not be until 500 years later and Martin Luther, that many would understand the full weight of Anselm arguments. In the light of such convincing arguments, it makes previous church council matters on reinstating lapsed Christians and the like seem rather petty. Man has no ability to do penance for any of his sins, so it seems rather foolish to construct systems whereby satisfaction is made to God based on man's so-called merits. If the church considered this bigger problem initially, they may not have invented so many things for one to do to obtain forgiveness of sins. They did not before Anselm, nor after him. As a result the church continues to develop its merits based salvational system, until the weight of this system brings about its own collapse. Man's merit based salvational system spins out of control (c. 1200 - 1500) When the early bishops of the church first linked baptism and salvation together, it was a rather innocent mistake. The church was in the midst of a transition from the old covenant to the new covenant. Many were being killed, scattered, and persecuted. The scriptures were not easily accessible by the common people, and the New Testament canon was in the process of being established. This period can better be described as one of survival, rather than theological reflection. It is therefore understandable that they did not develop a solid understanding of the relationship between baptism and salvation. However, this innocent error became the fountainhead of many more errors. By the 13th century, these previous errors were gaining a structure, and would soon be firmly in place. For example, during this period a church council declared that sins committed after baptism would now need to be confessed to a priest. The priest would give the prescribed actions for the confessing sinner to carry out so his sins could be atoned for. It was mandated that this be observed at least once a year. - All the faithful of either sex, after they have reached the age of discernment, should individually confess all their sins in a faithful manner to their own priest at least once a year, and let them take care to do what they can to perform the penance imposed on them. [Fourth Lateran Council, Canon 21, ) This foolish practice would give birth to more errors yet. With the structure in place of the priest prescribing atoning acts for one's personal sins, the confessing sinner became easy to manipulate. The church used this process for financial gain, and various other forms of persuasion. This grew into a system known as indulgences. Through the indulgence system, services could be performed on behalf of the church, or money given to support a church project, in exchange for laxer forms of penance to be performed. For example, when the church was involved with a crusade to gain back control of the holy land, the following degree was given. - It is our ardent desire to liberate the holy Land from infidel hands. We therefore declare, with the approval of this sacred council and on the advice of prudent men who are fully aware of the circumstances of time and place, that crusaders are to make themselves ready... We therefore, trusting in the mercy of almighty God and in the authority of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul, do grant, by the power of binding and loosing that God has conferred upon us, albeit unworthy, unto all those who undertake this work in person and at their own expense, full pardon for their sins about which they are heartily contrite and have spoken in confession, and we promise them an increase of eternal life at the recompensing of the just; also to those who do not go there in person but send suitable men at their own expense, according to their means and status, and likewise to those who go in person but at others' expense, we grant full pardon for their sins. [Fourth Lateran Council, Canon 71, ) By the 1500's, the system of indulgences became a means of raising money for church projects. Pope Leo X in 1516 granted indulgences to those who contributed to the building of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Commissioners, more commonly know as an indulgence preachers were appointed to collect money for this project. Martin Luther came into contact with one such indulgence preacher that moved him to action. The thought of one buying satisfaction from God, in connection with his studying of the scriptures, caused Martin Luther much anguish. Luther concluded as Anselm did hundreds of years earlier. Man is unable to perform meritorious works for sins to be forgiven. In opposition to the popular Indulgence teachings of his time, in 1517 he wrote a list of 95 theses against indulgences, and nailed them to the door of the church in Wittenberg, and the Reformation was born. A new beginning for justification by faith alone (1517) The church journeyed for 1500 years trying to find the answer to that most important question, by what means can sins be forgiven. The church initially did not think the atonement of Christ alone of sufficient for the cancelling of sin. Then after struggling for years and years in 1517 the answer was clearly articulated. Not only was the atonement of Christ sufficient for the cancelling of sins, but no human works could be added to it to cancel sins. All that left of man was to accept by faith that a full payment was made for all sins past, present, and future. When Martin Luther said "the just shall live by faith", he was really saying the old system of performing works in an attempt to satisfy God was all wrong. Our only hope of satisfying God is by having the merits of Christ imputed to us through faith. Man cannot contribute towards his own salvation. This is completely different than being forgiven of sin in baptism and atoning for personal sins after that on a regular basis. As James Buchanan correctly notes, the one is founded on the finished work of Christ, while the other depends on the imperfect works of sinful men. Man has no resources whereby to atone for any sins. All that he might do in an attempt to atone for sin would only be his duty. To add any of man's merits, of which he has none, to the atonement of Christ to be forgiven of sins, is to confess to God that the atonement of Christ was incomplete. It is to say that man in some way deserves to be praised, and receive honor from God for completing the saving of his soul. For without such help, God alone could not bring such a one to heaven. Man can thank Christ for his contribution to his salvation, but he cannot thank Christ for it unconditionally, for Christ did not secure the forgiveness for past, present,and future sins according to this false system. Such are the logical consequences of man attempting to add to the atoning work of Christ. God used Martin Luther to expose the corruptions during his day, and as a result a new movement was started. This movement is known as the Protestant Reformation. The name Protestant is a good one, because it was a collection of people protesting to the unscriptural practices that were being done in the name of Christ. As Luther protested to the practices during his day, the need for protest still exists, since those practices Luther listed as unscriptural are still occurring today. The system of man atoning for his sins, and gaining indulgences are still being taught. While the abuses are not as great, the basic system is still in place. Consider the following proclamation by one of the leaders of this system. - With regard to the required conditions, the faithful can gain the Jubilee indulgence: 1) In Rome, if they make a pious pilgrimage to one of the Patriarchal Basilicas, namely, the Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican, ... or some pious exercise (e.g., the Stations of the Cross, the Rosary, the recitation of the Akathistos Hymn in honour of the Mother of God)... The plenary indulgence of the Jubilee can also be gained through actions which express in a practical and generous way the penitential spirit which is, as it were, the heart of the Jubilee. This would include abstaining for at least one whole day from unnecessary consumption (e.g., from smoking or alcohol, or fasting or practising abstinence according to the general rules of the Church and the norms laid down by the Bishops' Conferences) and donating a proportionate sum of money to the poor; supporting by a significant contribution works of a religious or social nature (especially for the benefit of abandoned children, young people in trouble, the elderly in need, foreigners in various countries seeking better living conditions). (Incarnationis Mysterium, Bull of Indiction of the Great Jubilee of the Year 2000, [November 29, 1998]) In conclusion then, the history of justification by faith alone is the development of two ways for one to be forgiven of sin. One way says the merits of man's works plus Christ are need for forgiveness. The other way says the merits of Christ alone received through faith are all that is needed. It is the opinion of this writer that the first way seriously degrades the work of Christ, for it implies the sinner is worthy of some praise for his salvation, but the scriptures teach that Christ is worthy of this praise. Eusebius. The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1965 Greenslade, S. L., Early Latin Theology. Louisville: The Westminster Press, MCMLVI Fairweather, Eugene R., ed. A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, MCMLVI McGrath, Alister E. Iustitia Dei, A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. Cambridge [Eng.]: Cambridge University Press, 1986 Schaff, Philip, ed. Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, on-line from The Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Augustine, Saint. Confessions. New York: Penguin Books, 1961 Bainton, Roland H. Early Christianity. Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 1960 Berkhof, Louis. The History of Christian Doctrines. Carlisle: The Banner of Truth Trust Bercot, David W., ed. A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers Inc., 1998 Buchanan, James. The Doctrine of Justification. Carlisle: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1867 Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Peabody: Prince Press, 1997 MacArthur, John, R.C. Sproul, Joel Beeke, John Gerstner, and John Armstrong, eds. Justification by Faith Alone. Morgan: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1996 Nevins, Albert J. Answering a Fundamentalist. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, Inc., 1990 Richardson, Cyril R., ed. Early Christian Fathers. New York: Touchstone, 1996 Shelly, Bruce L., Church History in Plain Language. Dallas: Word Publishing, 1982 Sparks, Jack N., ed. The Apostolic Fathers. Minneapolis: Light and Life Publishing Company, 1978 Sproul, R.C. Faith Alone, The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995 Sungenis, Robert A. Not be Faith Alone, the Biblical Evidence for the Catholic Doctrine of Justification. Santa Barbara: Queenship Publishing Company, 1996 Walker, Williston, Richard A. Norris, David W. Lotz, and Robert T. Handy. A History of the Christian Church, 4th ed. New York: Scribner, 1918

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“Love has pitched his mansion in/The place of excrement” “the anus produces life, waste is fecund, from death new landscapes emerge.” “Devil, I have just shit in my trousers. Have you smelled it?” Martin Luther was often constipated. While this is certainly not the most important fact about the father of the Reformation, it shouldn’t be excused as merely incidental either. Much in history has hinged on less than a proper and satisfying bowl movement. Generations of Protestant triumphalist historiography have subconsciously described the Reformation in language that does nothing so much as evoke a satisfying, too-long-in-coming, defecation. Or, at the very least, the Reformation is configured as an act of simplification, of cleaning up, of tidying, of freshening; while by contrast medieval Catholicism is impugned with the rhetoric of filth. Historian Owen Chadwick, mostly passed over now by revisionist scholars though his introduction remains excellent, wrote in 1964 that medieval Christianity “had been like a church where the furniture is cluttered, the altar obscured, and the corners undusted.” And in the years before Luther at Wittenberg, “everyone that mattered in the Western Church was crying out for reformation” like a traveler in search of a bathroom. The period before reform is sometimes described in language that evokes the straining, tense, uncomfortable holding onto matter better dispelled. And when evacuation finally arrives there can be a fresh, new, purified, cleansing renewal. Don’t take my word for it, it was Luther himself who apparently said “I’m like a ripe stool and the world is like a gigantic anus.” There will be many considerations of Luther as we recognize the 500th anniversary of his nailing of the Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral Church. Essays which consider his historical significance, his influence on Christianity and modernity, his conflicted legacy and his contradictory biography. Articles which do justice to the founder of Protestantism. I’ve written a few of those myself. This will not be one of those pieces. As my motivating task, rather, I hope to provide some thoughts regarding the psychologist David B. Meyer’s pertinent question concerning Luther: “What is one to do when a religious leader refers so persistently to the anus?” Folklorist Malcolm Jones claims that as concerns scatology, “Academically, as far as this particular topic is concerned, we are still toddlers, merely dabbling with it,” but dabble in it we must. To that end, what I want to do is give Luther credit for something often obscured with our awkward laugher, but which I suspect is not without theological import. Luther produced thousands of pages of vibrant, visceral, vernacular German prose which explored faith, grace, and ritual, but he also developed a profound rhetoric of shit. In an era where metropolitan eras exploded in sheer human numbers, and where human waste became very much an aspect of everyday life (and a public health concern) Luther would, as others did, have a preoccupation with feces. And from that rich manure would come good trees, and as the reformer reminds us, good trees bare good fruit. And with no snark or irony I attest to the freshness of Luther’s shit theology. Please, do not read the second to last word in the previous sentence as an adjective, but as a noun. In that I mean to say that Luther took waste seriously, used it to great rhetorical effect, and took part in intellectual disputations which utilized sublime examples of what literary critic Susan S. Morrison calls “fecopoetics;” that is Luther was engaged with adversaries from Ulrich Zwingili and Thomas More that could best be described as shit-fests. Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson writes that revelation is always associated with “a cleansing, a kicking away; and it would be entirely in accord with Luther’s great freedom in such matters if he were to experience and to report this repudiation in frankly physical terms.” Morison explains that this language of “Fecopoetics explains how the excremental is used as a vital element in poetic and cultural enterprises,” and as such Luther is no exception. In fact, he is a representative example. Don’t misinterpret my intent as to slur Luther, rather I am acknowledging the scatological genius of his bawdy prose, the German peasant boy who couldn’t help but have some familiarity with crap during his lifetime. His rhetoric paradoxically reached the height of excremental apologetics, a veritable Ninety-Five Feces. If such discussion about the great man seems unbecoming on this exalted anniversary, recall that in his 1545 pamphlet Against The Roman Papacy an Institution of the Devil he makes reference to “pope fart-ass” and refers to Christ’s vicar on Earth who sits on Peter’s throne as the “assgod in Rome.” In that same work Luther writes of the Catholic condemnations of his movement that “such a great horrid fart did the papal ass let go here! He certainly pressed with great might to let out such a thunderous fart—it is a wonder that it did not tear his hole and belly apart!” If flatulence is a bit too PG for you, what about the many references to shit and anuses from his Table Talk, the posthumous collection of notable conversations with Luther compiled posthumously, from which the quote that I ended the first paragraph finds its origin? Or when he claims that the papacy’s rituals figuratively stink “worse than the devil’s excrement?” Or when during a contemplative dinner he marveled “that man hasn’t long since defecated the whole world full, up to the sky?” And lest you think that I’ve cherry-picked these selections, I refer you to an analysis of his close to four hundred letters, almost 40% of which had some sort of reference to either butts, shitting, shit, and anuses, in that order of descending popularity. Scholars Joseph Schmidt and Mary Simon (no relation) write that Luther “provided the scatological with a fervor never read nor heard before” and historian Danielle Meade Skjelver concurs that “clearly Luther’s scatology went beyond the rules of decorum even for his own era” while drily noting that “it seemed to work for him.” Luther, who believed he could chase away both pope and the Devil with but a fart, had a little bit of a preoccupation it would seem. An important preoccupation, for it was precisely while on the shitter that Luther supposedly had his epiphany that it was faith alone which merited salvation, having written that this realization occurred to him while he was contemplating Romans 1:17 “in the sewer,” that is while he was pooping. He writes that the foundational cornerstone of the Reformation, of sola Fide, was “given to me by the Holy Spirit on this Cloaca in the tower,” with “cloaca” a Latin euphemism for toilet. He writes that following that successful evacuation of his bowls along with the remnants of his Romish superstition that he “felt totally newborn, and through open gates I entered paradise.” There has been some debate as to whether we should read Luther’s account of his bathroom revelation as literal or merely figurative, but as Heiko Overman (who did more than any scholar to connect Luther back to the Rabelaisian world of late medieval theology) helpfully explains, it might not matter, because “behind Luther’s statement there is a firm medieval tradition in which concepts like cloaca, latrina, faeces or stercus were used simultaneously in the physical and in the metaphysical way.” As helpful as that analysis is, tracing as it does Luther’s reliance on an allegorical scatology which was popular in the late medieval world which was the reformer’s intellectual birth-right, it can’t help but be a disappointing to those who wish to see the actual toilet. That desire smacks a bit of the very obsession with material faith which Luther and his descendants so deplored, for the Reformation of course impugned the superstitious trade in relics and the venturing of pilgrims, but for those for whom a bit of the old faith still clings like a pungent odor in the atmosphere – fear not. A relic of Luther’s intestinal theophany was apparently discovered by archeologists in 2004, to which a BBC article breathlessly informs us that “Luther’s lavatory thrills experts.” At Wittenberg’s Lutherhaus Museum researchers found in an annex what was presumably Luther’s toilet, the very one on which one of his pivotal five solas was first conceived. Director of the Luther Memorial Foundation, Stefan Rhein, matter-of-factly said of the 30cm stone seat with a hole in the center that “This is where the birth of the Reformation took place.” Before anyone accuse me of irreverence or libel against Luther, I ask them to defer to Mead Skjelver, who writes that though the reformer’s central insight “hit him in the latrine” that this was an event which should serve to remind us that “God would go anywhere to reach His children,” to which I agree. All of that straining, spiritual and otherwise, marked Luther in the eyes of some critics and subsequent historians as an aberrant personality. A pathological head-case obsessed with shitting. That fellow founder of a new Teutonic inflected faith, Sigmund Freud, described the anal stage as the second in five stages of psychosexual development into which one might get “stuck.” He explains that there are “few neurotics who have not their special scatologic customs,” and when we consider the young obsessively scrupulous Augustinian monk who had his lifelong fixation with feces, it’s hard not to think that there may be some merit in Herr Doktor Freud’s theory as concerns Herr Doktor Reverend Luther. Freud helpfully writes that “In later neurotic diseases they exert a definite influence on the symptomatic expression of the neurosis, placing at its disposal the whole sum of intestinal disturbances… one should not laugh at the hemorrhoidal influence to which the old medical literature attached so much weight in the explanation of neurotic states.” In Freud’s theory concerning psychosexual development, a personality which becomes psychosexually “stuck” in the anal stage will become fixated on the anus as a site of both pleasure and punishment, with the anal expulsive type being one who is not only filth obsessed and who derives pleasure from the act of defecation, but is also prone to willfully obstinate rebellion. Sound familiar? Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson certainly thought so in his contested 1958 classic Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History, in which he mines the rich fecopoetic aesthetic threaded throughout the reformer’s writings, so as to derive a theory concerning the anal expulsivness inherent in the founder of Protestantism’s rhetoric. Erikson, most famous as the originator of the concept of the “identity crisis,” finds in Luther a convenient confirmation of his theory. Luther, the nervous boy terrified by a thunder-clap in 1505 who turned his soul over to the protection of St. Anne, and as a result of her assistance turned his life over to ordination? Luther, who so resented the exacting ritualized dictates of Rome, which manifested in his obsessive scrupulosity, that he confided to his confessor Johann von Staupitz that he feared he secretly hated God (and Freud tells us that “God is nothing more than an exalted father”). Luther, for whom even when his soul was calmed upon his discovery of the means to salvation couldn’t help but project his rancor onto that other father, il papa, the pontiff, the pope, that “assgod.” For the armchair Freudian who wishes to parse the biography of Luther, there is more than just the reformer’s anal fixation, there is also his latent oedipal complex: the son of an economically upwardly mobile copper miner who refused his father’s admonishing to practice law, rather preferring to become an Augustinian monk. Erikson writes that the young anal expulsive Luther rebelled “first against his father, to join the monastery; then against the Church, to found his own church – at which point he succumbed to many of his father’s original values.” For Erikson, Luther’s “anal defiance” was born of his “neurotic suffering,” the result of “active remnants of childhood repressions,” specifically related to his father’s profession which he refused to enter. Hans Luder made a comfortable living from the hazardous labor of copper mining, yet according to Erikson it was his journey into the subterranean, intestinal “fickle and dangerous bowels” of the earth which so traumatized young man Luther that he couldn’t help but develop the anal fixation which so defined his vulgar rhetoric. Freudian interpretations are less vogue now, with the good doctor’s reputation slowly chipped away by Popperian philosophy, feminist criticism, and the empirical dictates of neuropsychology which has no place for the quasi-mystical ghost in the machine that is the Id, Ego, and Superego. Oberman, neither a Popperian philosopher, a feminist critic, or a neuropsychologist used simple historiography to refute Erikson’s arguments, generously writing that his biography is “both a brilliant analysis and a garbled distortion – because it is unhistorical.” Freudianism, like any totalizing theory, is in some ways equally satisfying and simultaneously deficient – satisfying because it seems to cross all the t’s and dot all the I’s in explaining every conceivable situation, behavior, personality, and event; deficient because all of the fascinating nuance and subtly becomes the collateral damage enacted by the universalizing violence of the theory itself. Oberman’s point about the medieval tradition of vulgar critique, of archetypal scatological tricksters, or the rhetoric of filth as an aesthetic mode in its own right and not just something that results from hemorrhoids, is a point well taken. Freudian analysis, as helpful as it may be in some contexts, can have the effect of reducing the sublimity of fecopoetics, by making it mere symptom of a neurotic condition. Better to consult Mikhail Bakhtin’s analysis in his groundbreaking work on the carnivalesque as a subversive medieval mode, part of which hinges on the parodic possibilities of the abstracted grotesque body. In Rabelais and His World, Bakhtin writes that to “degrade also means to concern oneself with the lower stratum of the body” and that it “therefore relates to acts of defecation.” He continues by explaining that the subversive art of vulgar medieval polemic is one where “Degradation digs a bodily grave for a new birth; it has not only a destructive, negative aspect, but also a regenerating one… Grotesque realism knows no other level; it is the fruitful earth and the womb. It is always conceiving” (think of Luther’s comparison of himself to a turd about to be expunged, a type of fecal birth in its imagery). Suddenly Erikson’s interpretations of Luther’s theology as only being the result of childhood trauma seems incredibly limiting, the better to embrace a Bakhtinian approach which considers shit in all of its multifaceted, mythic, splendid possibility. An analysis of Luther’s pathological coprophilia which reduces the phenomenon to only his individual peccadillos is also lacking, because unlike Oberman and Bakhtin’s survey of the period and its continuities to the ribald, bawdy, earthy medieval past, it brackets out just how common Luther’s rhetoric was in the wider realm of religious disputation. Luther happened to be a particularly adept enthusiast of the fecopoetic arts, but he was simply a master surrounded by the middling. His language was hardly unique in early modern Europe, as a Freudian analysis might imply, rather he was part of an ongoing tradition, for this was an era awash in shit. The rhetoric of Reformation wasn’t just one that had a centrally focused fecopoetic, the visual culture embraced a similar aesthetic. Protestant aesthetics is often conceptualized entirely in terms of iconoclasm – the white-washed walls of the chapel, the smashed statuary, stripped altars, and relics consigned to the bonfire, replaced in the households that once featured them with the secular masterworks of the Northern Renaissance. But Reformation aesthetics also borrowed heavily from a certain medieval earthiness, content to muck around in the profane and fallen world of human waste so as to score points in the volleys that went back and forth in the argumentative war of pamphlets that marked the early sixteenth-century and that prefigured the shortly coming actual wars of religion. No artist was as pivotal in the paramount development of a new Protestant visual code that needed to fill the void left from the coming iconoclastic fury (though note that Luther himself was not particularly averse to religious images) than Lucas Cranach the Elder. If Luther was the great mass-media juggernaut of his day, taking full advantage of the printing press’ power to disseminate information quickly and widely, than Cranach was his partner in fusing word with image, creating a visual idiom that called to mind nothing so much as comics, and which often had at its core a scurrilous, hilarious, scatological base. For example, his illustration which accompanied Luther’s 1545 pamphlet Depiction of the Papacy, which illustrates the Pope holding a literally flaming anti-Protestant encyclical, whose fires are being tamed by the winds of farting German peasants, whose asses are directed at the throne of St. Peter and its current occupant. A stoically faced attendant (a cardinal perhaps) stands next to Paul III. In that same pamphlet, Cranach plays even bluer, when he presents an image of Landsknecht mercenaries electing to challenge the Pope with a “weapon other than the sword,” in the coy words of Mead Skjelver, or indeed with a weapon other than a printing press as well. Rather one determined fellow is poised crouching over a positively massive papal tiara, taking a dump into its cavernous, bee-hive like interior. Both of these illustrations depict flatulence, shitting, and all of their attendant physical phenomenon as an instrument of justice against a corrupt Church, a means of levelling the falsely prideful and inflated institution of man with the very detritus of that which man produces. A profane reminder that all men are born between piss and shit, the Pope included. But if excrement is a potent means of resistance against injustice and corruption, than it was also useful to Cranach and other Protestant propagandists as a convenient slur to mark their enemies as themselves being a type of waste. In Depiction of the Papacy Cranach conceptualizes feces as not just a way to diminish, mock, and blaspheme the Church, but indeed he sees the Church and her princes as excremental in their own right. Consider the image which presents the Pope’s birth, emerging not from the vaginal canal of a human woman, but rather from the quivering, prolapsed rectum of a hideous she-devil, the papacy reduced to a fecal still-birth passed through the ulcerated sphincter of a sulfurous demon. Not an anomalous image, for Cranach and those who worked in the tradition he inaugurated produced a preponderance of images which associated the Pope, and his very existence and origin, with the expulsion of excrement. In the tradition which conceptualizes of the Pope in the language of the turd, Luther, Cranach, and indeed all speakers of Germanic languages had a fortuitous coincidence in the false cognate between the words “Pope” and “poop.” No etymological relation between the words of course – the first was from the Vulgar Latin “papa” for “father,” and the later either from Middle English “poupen” or the Low German “pupen,” both meaning, well, what they mean. But for Cranach and Luther, that “Pope” and “poop” were but one mispronounced phoneme away from each other perhaps couldn’t help but to be evidence of German’s special genius at being able to strip reality bare to the basic truth, a scatological version of the poet George Herbert’s contention that English was specially blessed because “sun” and “Son” were homophones (albeit a baser typological philology). Incidentally, waste wasn’t only a rhetorical trope, sometimes it was a literal weapon as well. Jones writes of a “1528 pamphlet [that] told how Luther had been sent a copy of a work attacking [him]… in scurrilous terms which was taken off to the privy by several of Luther’s supporters in Wittenberg, used as toilet paper, and then sent back to its authors in Leipzig.” When considering both the image and actions of Cranach and others, as well as the general iconoclastic fecal-aesthetics of the Reformation, it helps to remember that though the chapel walls may have been white-washed, they sometimes were also figuratively coated in a thick crust of human excrement as well. Protestants weren’t the only ones willing to smear their rhetorical dung upon the pamphlets of their enemies. It speaks to the limitations of any interpretation which reduces Luther’s scatological theology to merely personal neurosis that this sort of language was so common during the era, but not just common among advocates for Reform, indeed the very princes of the Church had no compunctions about flinging a little bit of caca back at their detractors. Anti-Lutheran invective could be just as rich in fecopoetic imagery as was that by Luther himself, with many instances of Catholic polemicists turning over the figurative outhouse just as zestfully as Protestants did. Such ribaldry had its origins in the working class humor of medieval Europe, as indeed Luther’s language did, and which of course was also part of the cultural inheritance of the Catholic Church itself. We need not view late medieval and early modern peasantry as exclusively being the earthy and stinky denizens of a Breughel painting proffering smoked hams and quaffing weak ale as they dance on a feast day to some hurdy-gurdy player, and yet such a tableau has some veracity to recommend in itself. Jones reminds us that “the Reformation era was not the first time such scatological imagery was employed to satirize the clergy,” and indeed it’s important to remember that both Luther and Church were the inheritors of that Chaucerian and Rabelaisian aesthetic of base things profoundly wrought and profound things profanely depicted. That was the exact attitude engaged by a popular song in Poland (which we often forget was once a site of major sectarian difference) disseminated some seven years after that fateful first Reformation Day: “Since Luther considers everyone shit compared with him, /And in his filthy mouth has nothing but shit, /I ask you, wouldn’t you say that he’s a shitty prophet? /Such as a man’s words are, so is the man himself.” Admittedly lacking a bit of poetry in translation, the broadsheet reverses Luther’s own transgressive pose and projects it back onto him, evidencing that Jones’ contention that “Scatology is an important weapon in the armory of trickster figures” is appropriately enough a tricky one – since who is performing the prank and who the prank is being performed on can be ambiguous. When we’re covered in shit it can be hard to properly identify anyone, which, it might seem, is one of the possible readings of the song. But the Counter-Fecopoetics of the Magisterium wasn’t just limited to Boschian peasants with their Polish drinking song. More exulted personages than that prolific author Anonymous also took a bit of the piss out of Luther. One particular unlikely master of the shit-drenched insult quip was none other than the great Utopian himself, Saint Thomas More, who was more than willing to utilize all of the most appropriate words in his Anglo-Saxon vocabulary. The future martyr described Luther as a “buffoon” and compared the mouth which uttered such schismatic heresies to “cesspools, sewers, latrines, shit and dung.” If that seems a bit tame in comparison to some of Luther’s saucier statements, More rises to the level of master insult comic playing the dozens when he describes his German adversary, in admirable Anglo-Saxon alliteration and with a sense of biblical parallelism, as “A mad friarlet and privy-minded rascal with his raging and raving, with his filth and dung, shitting and beshitting. Luther has written that he has the right to besmatter and besmirch the royal crown with shit…to lick the posterior of a pissing she-mule.” If Protestants could accuse the Pope as being the turd of Satan, than Catholics could accuse Luther of being an enthusiast of bestial anilingus. If we’re to believe More in some of his other writings, part of what troubled him so as concerns Luther wasn’t just that he had conceived of “the very worst and most harmful heresy that ever was thought up; and, on top of that, the most insane,” but also that such theological error forced him into the latrine with Luther himself. More would have us believe that it pained him to be lowered to Luther’s level, to have to engage with the sick rhetoric of fecopoetics. Rather, the Utopian would have us think of him riding on horseback with Erasmus discussing Latin declensions in the Vulgate or tutoring his young daughters in the finer subtleties of Greek conjugation. But something about More’s shit-talking comes a little too naturally and seems a bit too much fun for me to totally trust More when he claims that he wasn’t enjoying his own language on some level. No neophyte would be able to easily pen of Luther that he should “throw back into your paternity’s shitty mouth, truly the shit-pool of all shit, all the much and shit which your dammnable rottenness has vomited up, and to empty out all the sewers and privies onto your crown.” If Freud remains an inadequate explanation for the anal expulsions of an entire epoch, than what accounts for the veritable coprophilia of that age? When both More and Luther could dwell in the sewers, peasants could sing of the reformer’s shit-filled mouth, and wealthy German burghers could wipe their ass with papal polemic? Freud and his student Erikson built one totalizing theory, but yet another Teutonic prophet might provide another. I’m speaking of Marx of course, or at least a variety of Marxian materialist consideration. For it’s all good and easy to talk about feces as a transcendent abstraction, but excrement is not just a symbol. Shit is very much real. The material considerations of shit as waste – its color, its odor, its texture and the process by which it is produced – are precisely what make it such a potent object in both Reformation and Counter-Reformation rhetoric. Shit by any other name would smell just as foul. But when we talk about early modern Europe as being awash in shit, it’s helpful to remember that this refers not just to its representations, but its reality as well. Furthermore, when hypothesizing as to why there is such scatomania during the era, one might consider that the reality is precisely what led to the rhetoric. Economic, technological, and medical concerns are prime in understanding the manner in which an increasingly urbanized culture had to grapple with waste, both yours and others, in an unprecedented way. Hygiene (and its inadequacy) as well as plumbing (and its inadequacy as well) must have impacted the perseveration on excrement which is smeared across the historical record. After all, this was a century in which the English poet Ben Jonson, writing his mock heroic “On the Famous Voyage,” could sarcastically ponder that great urban thoroughfare of the Thames as a type of modern Styx and which the urban population explosion in London had turned into a massive toilet, a place of “filth, stench, and noise” were “Arses were heard to croak, instead of frogs” and where the floating, monstrous turds required “the unused valor of a nose.” Representations of waste as mediated through culture are one thing, but as the reality on the ground reminds us, actual shit very much happens. So that then may explain some of Luther’s language of the latrine, that the whole world was his and everybody else’s toilet. Social historian Emily Cockayne explains that rather than being able to use the convenience of naturally running water, many early modern urban toilets had to often be “located above cesspits that needed to be emptied periodically,” making excrement something that people had to physically deal with rather than enjoy the convenience of simply flushing, for these “Cesspits were not watertight, enabling liquid waste to leak away.” With a lot more people in that world, Europe proverbially had gone to the shitter. Partially this was a direct result of the massive boom in population in the sixteenth and seventeenth-centuries, as Europe rebounded from both plague and famine, and the development of nascent capitalism encouraged the massive transfer of people from the commons of the countryside into the chaotic world of the city. London, for example, had a population of only about 25,000 people in 1350 (making it a little under half the current size of booming Bethlehem, Pennsylvania). By 1546, the year Luther died, London had around 120,000 souls (and thus was closer in size to Allentown, Pennsylvania). By the end of the sixteenth-century, London’s population had risen to 200,000, and by the years of civil war she had half-a-million inhabitants. Wittenberg never reached such heights of population, today only 50,000 people call her home, and she had a reputation for a certain sleepiness even when Luther made that veritable backwater his base of operations. And yet even for the relative small size of such communities when compared to the megacities of today, their growth represented a veritable population explosion which was unprecedented, the biggest gathering of human bodies in European cities since the fall of the Roman Empire. But where there are people there are asses, and where there are asses there must be crap. And what to do with this crap becomes an issue of sanitation, hygiene, medicine, and plumbing, and where there are deficiencies in those endeavors it will by necessity be reflected in the language of the era, where shitty base must beget shitty superstructure. There are so many theories we can formulate as to the origin of Luther’s strange obsession, with explanatory overtures to the psychoanalytical, the carnivalesque, and the materialist. But one perhaps obvious explanatory system has so far gone unremarked upon – the theological. After all, with his head in the heavens but with his ass on the toilet, how could the possibly theological disposition to his fecal obsession not be conjectured toward? When Luther’s scatological interests are mentioned – and I am but a single singer in a massive choir of those who’ve remarked upon it – it’s normally in the spirit of a type of jocular, bemused, perhaps slightly embarrassed commentary on the peccadillos of the great man. Luther’s bawdy prose is the stuff of the internet “Lutheran Insult Generator,” or of saucy memes shared by that one evangelical friend you have who likes craft-beer a little too much. Language that is taken as a given coming from a grosser, stinkier, more viscerally earthy time than our own. Rarely is Luther’s rhetoric of scatomania taken seriously on its own terms; to my knowledge never taken theologically seriously beyond the discourse analysis of its rhetorical efficacy in popularizing the Reformation amongst a bawdy peasantry. But what is the theological significance of shit? It’s a question that Luther himself might not have quite thought to phrase, even if it pulses throughout his letters and pamphlets. Such a question might seem intemperate or lacking in seriousness, but though I don’t ask it without a bit of the spirit of toilet humor, I also ask it genuinely and honestly. After all, the scandal of Christianity has always been that Christ was incarnated as man, and died the indignant death of man. In between nativity and crucifixion He inevitably must have shit as well. To be offended by that reality is to be offended by Christianity, but to acknowledge that the living God is one who has to have shat is to embrace the living God. Christianity, in its Nicene form (and thus including both Catholicism and Protestantism) is a faith which grapples with the paradoxically ineffable corporeality of God, which must include acknowledgement of the basest of all things, a religion of “the least of these.” Peter Stallybrass and Allon White in their classic The Politics and Poetics of Transgression explain that “cultural categories of high and low, social and aesthetic… are never entirely separate.” And certainly cultural studies makes that abundantly clear, the entire tradition of the carnivalesque as vulgar pressure valve releasing social tensions and ensuring a type of order says as much. But cultural studies must always be the poor handmaiden to theology, for one could say that Christianity by its very incarnational logic ensures that the “high and low… are never entirely separate.” Writing about fecopoetics, critic Eileen Joy argues that “the excremental body is the body each one of us possesses,” which I would unironically argue must also be an observation of Christian universalism as well. Joy continues by claiming that “Part of our civilizing process is to recognize the value of that which we deem uncivilized and to see ourselves in that threatening, filthy alterity.” Conservative critics may scoff, but the critical work of fecopoetics has allowed for that “civilizing process” in the reading of literary texts, but where does theology ever do anything equivalent? Where is the corollary to fecopoetics, where is corpotheology? To pass over Luther’s fecal utterances in embarrassed laughter is to abandon one part of his inheritance, his gestures to an emerging but never quite delivered corpotheology. An early modern English saying had it that “he who wrestles with a turd is sure to be beshit,” an apt description of Luther’s career, but also not one that is intended to be an insult. Shitting, it should go without saying, is a rather central aspect of the human condition. If theology is that which simultaneously deals with the most profound of questions as they intersect with the human condition, to ignore shitting is gross negligence. A squeamishness Luther did not have, for salvation which doesn’t grapple with shit is no salvation at all. The rest of us it seems have found that where we are too embarrassed to speak, we have rather decided to pass over with a silent fart. Ed Simon is the associate editor at The Marginalia Review of Books, a channel of The Los Angeles Review of Books. A regular contributor at several different sites, he holds a PhD in English from Lehigh University. He can be followed at his website, or on Twitter @WithEdSimon.

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A person with angina usually has discomfort or pressure beneath the breastbone (sternum). Angina typically occurs in response to exertion and is relieved by rest. Doctors diagnose angina based on symptoms, electrocardiography, and imaging tests. Treatment may include nitrates, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and percutaneous coronary intervention or coronary artery bypass graft surgery. In the United States, about 10 million people have angina, a symptom of significant coronary artery disease, and it is newly diagnosed in about 500,000 people each year. Angina tends to develop in women at a later age than in men. The heart muscle needs a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood. The coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta just after it leaves the heart, deliver this blood. Usually, angina occurs when the heart’s workload (and need for oxygen) exceeds the ability of the coronary arteries to supply an adequate amount of blood to the heart. Coronary blood flow can be limited when the arteries are narrowed (see Overview of Coronary Artery Disease). Narrowing usually results from fatty deposits in the arteries (atherosclerosis) but may result from coronary artery spasm. Inadequate blood flow to any tissue is termed ischemia. When angina is due to atherosclerosis, it usually first occurs during physical exertion or emotional distress, which make the heart work harder and increase its need for oxygen. If the artery is narrowed enough (usually by more than 70%), angina can occur even at rest, when the demands on the heart are at their minimum. Severe anemia increases the likelihood of angina. In anemia, the number of red blood cells (which contain hemoglobin—the molecule that carries oxygen) or the amount of hemoglobin in the cells is below normal. As a result, the oxygen supply to the heart muscle is reduced. Syndrome X is a form of angina caused neither by spasm nor by any apparent blockage in the large coronary arteries. Temporary narrowing of much smaller coronary arteries may be responsible, at least in some people. The reasons for the temporary narrowing are unknown but may involve a chemical imbalance in the heart or abnormalities in the functioning of small arteries (arterioles). This syndrome is sometimes called cardiac syndrome X to distinguish it from another disorder also called syndrome X (metabolic syndrome or the syndrome of insulin resistance). Other unusual causes of angina include the following: Severe high blood pressure Narrowing of the aortic valve (aortic valve stenosis) Leakage of the aortic valve (aortic valve regurgitation) Thickening of the walls of the ventricles (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), especially thickening of the wall separating the ventricles (hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy) These conditions increase the heart’s workload and thus the amount of oxygen needed by the heart muscle. When the need for oxygen exceeds the supply, angina results. Abnormalities of the aortic valve may reduce blood flow through the coronary arteries, because the openings of the coronary arteries are located just beyond this valve. Nocturnal angina is angina that occurs at night, during sleep. Stable angina is chest pain or discomfort that typically occurs with activity or stress. Episodes of pain or discomfort are provoked by similar or consistent amounts of activity or stress. Angina decubitus is angina that occurs when a person is lying down (not necessarily only at night) without any apparent cause. Angina decubitus occurs because gravity redistributes fluids in the body. This redistribution makes the heart work harder. Variant angina results from a spasm of one of the large coronary arteries on the surface of the heart. It is called variant because it is characterized by pain during rest, not during exertion, and by specific changes detected with electrocardiography (ECG) during an episode of angina. Unstable angina refers to angina in which the pattern of symptoms changes. Because the characteristics of angina in a particular person usually remain constant, any change—such as more severe pain, more frequent attacks, or attacks occurring with less exertion or during rest—is serious. Such change usually reflects a sudden narrowing of a coronary artery because an atheroma has ruptured or a clot has formed. The risk of a heart attack is high. Unstable angina is considered an acute coronary syndrome. Most commonly, a person feels angina as pressure or an ache beneath the breastbone (sternum). People often interpret the sensation as discomfort or heaviness rather than pain. Discomfort also may occur in either shoulder or down the inside of either arm, through the back, and in the throat, jaw, or teeth. In older people, symptoms of angina may be different and therefore easily misdiagnosed. For instance, the pain is less likely to occur beneath the breastbone. Pain may occur in the back and shoulders and may be incorrectly blamed on arthritis. Discomfort, bloating, and gas may occur in the stomach area, particularly after meals (because extra blood is needed to help in digestion). People may mistake such discomfort for indigestion or blame it on a stomach ulcer. Belching may even seem to relieve these symptoms. Also, older people who have confusion or dementia may have difficulty in communicating that they have pain. Symptoms of angina may be very different in women. Women are more likely to have a burning sensation or tenderness in the back, shoulders, arms, or jaw. Typically, angina is triggered by exertion, lasts no more than a few minutes, and subsides with rest. Some people experience angina predictably with a specific degree of exertion. In other people, episodes occur unpredictably. Often, angina is worse when exertion follows a meal. It is usually worse in cold weather. Walking into the wind or moving from a warm room into the cold air may trigger angina. Emotional stress may also cause or worsen angina. Sometimes, experiencing a strong emotion while resting or having a bad dream during sleep can cause angina. Doctors diagnose angina largely based on a person’s description of the symptoms. A physical examination and electrocardiography (ECG) may detect little, if anything, abnormal between and sometimes even during attacks of angina, even in people with extensive coronary artery disease. During an angina attack, the heart rate may increase slightly, blood pressure may go up, and with a stethoscope, doctors may hear a change in the heartbeat. ECG may detect changes in the heart’s electrical activity. When symptoms are typical, the diagnosis is usually easy for doctors to make. The kind of pain, its location, and its association with exertion, meals, weather, and other factors help doctors make the diagnosis. The presence of risk factors for coronary artery disease also helps establish the diagnosis. Doctors may do other procedures to evaluate the blood supply to the heart muscle and determine whether coronary artery disease is present and how extensive it is. Stress testing (also called exercise tolerance testing) is based on the principle that if the coronary arteries are only partly blocked, the heart may have an adequate blood supply when the person is resting but not when the heart is working hard. For stress testing, the person's heart is made to work hard by exercise (for example, walking on a treadmill or riding a stationary bicycle). People who cannot do such exercise are given stimulant drugs that make the heart beat faster. During the stress test, the person is monitored by ECG to look for abnormalities that suggest ischemia. After the stress, doctors often do more accurate but more expensive tests, such as echocardiography and radionuclide imaging to look for areas of the heart that are not receiving enough blood. These procedures can help doctors determine whether coronary angiography or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is needed. Echocardiography uses ultrasound waves to produce images of the heart (echocardiograms). This procedure shows heart size, movement of the heart muscle, blood flow through the heart valves, and valve function. Echocardiography is done during rest and exercise. When ischemia is present, the pumping motion of the left ventricle is abnormal. For coronary angiography, x-rays of arteries are taken after a radiopaque contrast agent is injected. Coronary angiography, the most accurate procedure for diagnosing coronary artery disease, may be done when a diagnosis is uncertain. Coronary angiography is commonly used to help evaluate whether CABG or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is appropriate. Angiography can also detect spasm of an artery. In a few people who have typical symptoms of angina and abnormal results on a stress test, coronary angiography does not confirm the presence of coronary artery disease. Some of these people have syndrome X, but for most, the source of the symptoms does not involve the heart. Continuous ECG monitoring with a Holter monitor may detect abnormalities indicating symptomatic or silent ischemia or variant angina (which typically occurs during rest). Electron beam computed tomography (CT) can detect the amount of calcium deposits in the coronary arteries. The amount of calcium present (the calcium score) is roughly proportional to the likelihood of the person having angina or a heart attack. However, because calcium deposits may be present even in people whose arteries are not very narrowed, the score does not reliably predict the need for PCI or CABG. Doctors may consider using electron beam CT as a screening tool in people at intermediate risk of coronary artery disease, people with symptoms of coronary artery disease whose stress test was inconclusive, and some people with atypical symptoms of coronary artery disease. Electron beam CT is not recommended for screening all people regardless of symptoms, in part because it exposes people to some radiation. Multidetector row CT or CT angiography uses a high-speed CT scanner with many small detectors that can accurately identify coronary artery narrowing. The technique is noninvasive and highly accurate in excluding coronary artery narrowing as a source of a person’s symptoms (particularly in people who were not able to have a stress test or had a stress test that was inconclusive). It can also be used to determine whether a stent or bypass graft is blocked, to display cardiac and coronary venous anatomy, and to assess whether atheromas contain calcium. However, the technique cannot be used in women who are pregnant or in people who are unable to hold their breath for 15 to 20 seconds three or four times during the procedure. Also, because the test does not work well if the heart is beating fast, people whose heart rate is above 65 beats per minute are given drugs to slow the heart rate. People who cannot tolerate such drugs or a low heart rate cannot have the test. People are also exposed to significant amounts of radiation. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is valuable in evaluating the heart and the large vessels coming from the heart (the aorta and the pulmonary arteries). This technique avoids any radiation exposure. In people with coronary artery disease, MRI may be used to evaluate narrowing of the arteries, measure the blood flow in the coronary arteries, and test how well the heart is being supplied with oxygen. MRI can also be used to assess abnormalities of heart wall motion during stress (which may indicate poor blood supply to that area) and whether areas of heart muscle damaged by a heart attack may recover (testing viability). Key factors that can worsen the outcome (prognosis) for people who have angina include old age, extensive coronary artery disease, diabetes, other risk factors (particularly smoking), severe pain, and, most importantly, reduced pumping ability of the heart (ventricular function). For example, the more coronary arteries affected or the larger the blockage of the arteries, the worse is the prognosis. The prognosis is surprisingly good for people with stable angina and normal pumping ability. Reduced pumping ability dramatically worsens the prognosis. The death rate each year for people with angina and no other risk factors is about 1.4%. The rate is higher for people with risk factors such as high blood pressure, abnormal ECG results, or a previous heart attack, particularly in those who have diabetes. Treatment begins with attempts to slow or reverse the progression of coronary artery disease by dealing with risk factors. Risk factors, such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, are treated promptly. Quitting smoking is crucial. A low-fat, varied diet that is low in simple sugar carbohydrates and exercise (for most people) are recommended. Weight loss, if needed, is also recommended. Treatment of angina depends partly on the stability and severity of the symptoms. When symptoms are stable and mild to moderate, the most effective treatment may be modification of risk factors and the use of certain drugs. If modification of risk factors and drug therapy do not cause symptoms to subside markedly, a procedure to restore blood flow to affected areas of the heart (a revascularization procedure) may be needed. When symptoms worsen rapidly, immediate hospitalization is usually required and the person is evaluated for an acute coronary syndrome. Doctors use several types of drugs for people with angina. Different drugs are used to help Resolve an attack of angina (nitrates) Prevent angina from occurring (beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, sometimes newer drugs, such as ranolazine or ivabradine) Prevent and reverse coronary artery blockage (angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE] inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, statins, and antiplatelet drugs) Nitrates are a type of drug that dilates (widens) blood vessels and thus increase blood flow through that vessel. Nitroglycerin is a very short-acting nitrate drug. Taking nitroglycerin usually relieves an episode of angina in 1 1/2 to 3 minutes, and the effects last 30 minutes. Nitroglycerin is usually taken as a tablet placed under the tongue (sublingual administration) or as a spray inhaled through the mouth. Alternatively, the tablet may be placed next to the gum. People with chronic stable angina should keep nitroglycerin tablets or spray with them at all times. Taking nitroglycerin just before reaching a level of exertion known to induce angina may be useful. Long-acting nitrates (such as isosorbide) are taken by mouth 1 to 4 times a day. Nitrate skin patches and paste, in which the drug is absorbed through the skin over many hours, are also effective. Long-acting nitrates taken regularly can soon lose their ability to provide relief. Most experts recommend that people not take the drug for an 8- to 12-hour period each day, usually at night unless that is when angina occurs. This approach helps maintain the long-term effectiveness of the drug. Unlike beta-blockers, nitrates do not reduce the risk of heart attacks and sudden death, but they greatly reduce symptoms in people with coronary artery disease. Beta-blockers interfere with the effects of the hormones epinephrine ( adrenaline) and norepinephrine ( noradrenaline) on the heart and other organs. These hormones stimulate the heart to beat faster and more forcefully and cause most arterioles to constrict (causing blood pressure to increase). Thus, beta-blockers reduce the resting heart rate and blood pressure. During exercise, they limit the increase in heart rate and in blood pressure and so reduce the demand for oxygen and decrease the likelihood of angina. Beta-blockers also reduce the risk of heart attacks and sudden death, improving the long-term outcome for people with coronary artery disease. Calcium channel blockers prevent blood vessels from narrowing (constricting) and can counter coronary artery spasm. In addition to treatment of stable angina, these drugs are also effective in treating variant angina. All calcium channel blockers reduce blood pressure. Some of these drugs, such as verapamil and diltiazem, may also reduce the heart rate. Reducing blood pressure and heart rate reduces the demand for oxygen and decreases the likelihood of angina. This effect can be useful to many people, especially those who cannot take beta-blockers or who do not get enough relief from nitrates. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) are often given to people who have evidence of coronary artery disease, including angina. These drugs do not treat angina itself, but they can reduce blood pressure (and so reduce the work the heart has to do to pump blood) and also they reduce the risk of heart attack and of death due to coronary artery disease. Statins are drugs that lower blood levels of LDL cholesterol, the type of cholesterol that can cause coronary artery disease. These drugs reduce the chance of heart attack, stroke, and death. Antiplatelet drugs, such as aspirin, ticlopidine, clopidogrel, prasugrel or ticagrelor, modify platelets so that they do not clump and stick on blood vessel walls. Platelets, which circulate in the blood, promote clot formation (thrombosis) when a blood vessel is injured. However, when platelets collect on atheromas in an artery’s walls, the resulting clot can narrow or block the artery and result in a heart attack. Aspirin modifies platelets irreversibly and reduces the risk of death from coronary artery disease. Doctors recommend that most people who have coronary artery disease take aspirin daily to reduce the risk of a heart attack. Prasugrel, ticlopidine, clopidogrel, and ticagrelor also further modify platelets in addition to aspirin. One of these drugs may be used in addition to aspirin for a period of time after a heart attack or PCI to reduce the chances of a future heart attack. An antiplatelet drug is usually given to people with angina unless there is a reason not to. For example, they are not given to people who have a bleeding disorder. More information on the specific drugs for coronary artery disease can be found elsewhere in THE MANUAL (see table Drugs Used to Treat Coronary Artery Disease). People who continue to have angina despite use of preventive drugs sometimes benefit from procedures that open up or replace (bypass) the coronary arteries. These procedures are termed revascularization and include These invasive techniques are effective, but they are only mechanical measures for correcting the immediate problem. They do not stop the progression of the underlying disease. People still need to modify risk factors. PCI is often preferred to CABG because it is less invasive, although it is not appropriate for every situation. PCI is usually preferred when only one or two arteries are affected and the blocked area is not very long. However, new technology and increasing experience are allowing doctors to use PCI for more and more people. CABG is highly effective for people who have angina and coronary artery disease. It can improve exercise tolerance, relieve symptoms, and decrease the number or dose of drugs needed. CABG is most likely to benefit people who have severe angina that is not relieved by drug therapy, a normally functioning heart, no previous heart attacks, and no other conditions that would make surgery hazardous (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). For such people, CABG that is not done on an emergency basis carries a risk of death of 1% or less and a risk of heart damage (such as a heart attack) during surgery of less than 5%. About 85% of people have complete or dramatic relief of symptoms after surgery.

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Once upon a time a young Chippewa Indian from Washington Island was hunting with his dog on the hill overlooking Horseshoe Bay in the present Town of Egg Harbor. As he was cautiously stepping forward amid the tall trees and occasional open glades he spied two bear cubs comfortably dozing on the sunny side of a big windfall. Being, like all Indians, fond of pets, he silenced and restrained his eager dog and crept forward intending to capture the cubs alive. When near them he laid down his gun and suddenly pouncing upon them he seized them both. Immediately there was much squirming and yelping but he managed to get a good hold in the fur of the neck and after a brief struggle arose with one cub in each hand. No sooner was he on his feet, however, before he heard a ferocious growl behind him. Turning instantly he saw a huge bear, the mother of the captive cubs, advancing upright on her hind feet. His gun was on the ground some distance away, so dropping the cubs he pulled his tomahawk and his knife to defend himself. He had only time, however, to raise his arm to throw the tomahawk when the savage beast was upon him and giving his arm a tremendous blow which broke it like a pipe stem she sent his tomahawk flying through the air several rods away. Then she seized him in a terrible embrace and he felt his ribs cracking. Still clutching his knife in his other hand he was able to give his huge adversary several ugly slashes in the abdomen. This, however, did not bother her much and he would soon have been crushed to pulp if it had not been for his valiant dog. So fierce were the attacks of his faithful ally that the bear felt constrained to turn her attention to the dog. This gave the Indian his opportunity. He jumped for his tomahawk and resolutely advancing he drove it with a sure stroke to the hilt into the skull of the bear which fell dead. By this time the little bears had disappeared in the forest and he had to give up their capture. His companions who were not far away set his arm and with their help the big bear was skinned. For this exploit he received the name of Big Bear and later became a famous chief. Egg Harbor seems to have been a great place for bears. Old settlers tell of them invading their storehouses to steal their bacon and drink their milk Once in broad daylight it even happened that a child was carried away by a bear. This happened at the home of Fred Kracht in section 32. It was on a morning in May, 1876. The father had gone to Baileys Harbor. The mother, eager for a piece of gossip, had left her little two year old boy undressed in the yard while she strolled down to a neighbor woman some distance away for a chat. Soon the dog which was chained was heard savagely barking and the child screaming in terror. The mother and the neighbors hurried to the house but the child was nowhere to be found. A general alarm was sounded and scores of men turned out to search the woods and the fields thoroughly. Nothing was ever found of the child, however, only some big fresh bear tracks leading into the swamp. There is some doubt as to the origin of Egg Harbor's unusual name. In April, 1862, Hon. Henry S. Baird of Green Bay contributed the following article to the Door County Advocate for the purpose of throwing light on the origin of this name. Mr. Baird writes as follows: "In looking over the list of towns in Door County, I observe that one of them is named `Egg Harbor.' This name calls to mind an incident which occurred many years since - before Wisconsin had a habitation, or name - and from which event, `Egg Harbor,' undoubtedly received its appellation. At all events, the relation to the circumstance alluded to, may be of interest to the inhabitants of that part of the state, as a reminiscence of the 'early times' in Wisconsin, and exhibits the contrast between the facilities and mode of travel in the `fast days' of the world's progress and the slow and primitive locomotion of the days of yore. At the period I allude to, `Green Bay Settlement' was the oldest of two places - then - the only white settlements in the limits of Wisconsin. The only highways, then existing, were the lakes and rivers; and upon those the journeys, or rather voyages of the travelers, were made. The communication between Green Bay and Mackinac, Detroit, and the lower lakes, was principally by sail vessels for at that time there was but one (possibly two) steamers on the lakes, and their visits to Green Bay were `few and far between'; perhaps once or twice a year. The travel on the rivers was by Mackinac boats or bateaux, and bark canoes and very frequently these bateaux and canoes made voyages to and from Green Bay from Mackinac and other places, even Montreal. This was done by coasting along the eastern shore of Green Bay, to its mouth, making in the language of the voyageur - `Traverse' of the bay, and thence coasting along the north shore of Lake Michigan, and through the 'straits' to the Island of Mackinac. In making the voyage, the traveler was obliged to lay in a sufficient quantity of the 'creature comforts,' to serve him to the end of his journey; for there were then neither `hotels or taverns' - and no inhabitants save the original owners and occupants of the country. "In the summer of the year 1825 Mr. Rolette, then a very prominent and extensive Indian trader, arrived at Green Bay, from the Mississippi, with three or four large Mackinac boats, on his annual voyage to Mackinac, with the returns from his year's trade. There being at that time no vessel at Green Bay, Mr. Rolette kindly offered a passage on his own boat to Mt and Mrs. Baird, then `young folks' who resided at the bay and were anxious of visiting Mackinac. On a fine morning in June, the fleet left the Fox River and proceeded along the east shore of Green Bay, being well supplied with good tents, large and copious 'mess baskets,' well stored with provisions of all kinds, especially a large quantity of eggs. On the second day at noon the order was given by the 'Commodore' (Mr. Rolette) to go ashore for dinner. The boats were then abreast of 'Egg Harbor,' until then, without a name. On board the 'Commodore's' boat, there were besides himself, Mr. and Mrs. Baird and nine Canadian boatmen, or voyageurs, as they were styled. On another of the boats were two young men, clerks, in the employ of Mr. Rolette - one of whom was a Mr. Kinzie - now of Chicago and a like number of boatmen. It was the etiquette on those voyages, where there were several boats in company, the principal person or owner of the 'outfit' take the lead in the line; sometimes, however, a good natured strife would arise between the several crews, when etiquette was lost sight of in the endeavor to outstrip each other and arrive first at the land; and this was especially more likely to occur when eating or encamping was near at hand. Mr. Rolette was an eccentric and excitable Frenchman, and had many eccentricities which were often imitated and ridiculed, behind his back, by the young men in his employ, and by none more frequently than Mr. Kinzie. At the entrance to the harbor the boat in charge of Mr. Kinzie came along side the Commodore, with the evident intention of taking the lead. Mr. Rolette ordered it back; but instead of obeying, the crew of the boat - urged on by Mr. Kinzie - redoubled their exertions to pass the 'Commodore,' and as a kind of bravado the clerks held up an old broom; the Commodore and his companions could not stand this; the 'mess baskets' were opened and a brisk discharge, not of balls, but shell, was made upon the offenders. The attack was soon returned in kind. It then became necessary to guard and protect the only lady on board from injury, which was accomplished by extending herself on the flat surface of the packs of fur, which composed the cargo, and covering her over with a large tarpaulin or oil cloth. The battle kept up for some time, but at length the Commodore triumphed, and the refractory boat was obliged to fall back. Whether this was the result of superior skill of the marksmen on board the Commodore's boat, or the failure of ammunition on the other, is not now remembered. "After landing the battle was renewed. The boats and men presented rather an 'eggs' appearance, and the inconvenience was rather increased by the fact that some of the missiles used by the belligerents were not of a very savory or agreeable odor. The fun ended in Mr. Kinzie having to wash his outer garments and while so employed, some mischievous party threw his hat and coat into the lake. All enjoyed the sport, and none more so than the merry and jovial Canadian boatmen; and the actors in the frolic long remembered the sham battle at 'Egg Harbor,' and it is believed that to this circumstance may be attributed the origin of the name of one of the towns of Door County." According to Jacob E. Thorp, one of the earliest settlers in the Town of Egg Harbor, the name has a different origin. He writes as follows: "Mr. (Increase) Claflin named most of the places and islands from Sturgeon Bay to the Door. Horseshoe Bay he called by that name, because he found his horses there, when they were on their way back to Little Sturgeon after he had moved to Fish Creek, and one of the horses had lost a shoe at that place. The place has gone by that name ever since. Egg Harbor he so named because of the harbor there, and on going in he found a nest full of duck's eggs. Hat Island he said was the shape of a hat. Strawberry Islands he named on account of the amount of strawberries that grew there. Eagle Island he named because he found an eagle's nest there. Sister Islands because they were so near alike."1 Mr. Thorp was Mr. Claflin son in law and lived with him for five years and therefore had excellent opportunities for hearing Mr. Claflin's recollections of the beginning of things in Door County. Jacob E. Thorp was the second settler in the Town of Egg Harbor, building a house on the beach half way between the two present piers. His son, Roy, was the first child born in Egg Harbor. He had come to Fish Creek in 1850 to look after his brother, Asa Thorp's, interests, and to work as a cooper for Increase Claflin. When Asa Thorp in 1855 settled in Fish Creek, Jacob and his brother, Levi Thorp, the same year settled in Egg Harbor where they bought about sixteen hundred acres of land including and surrounding the present village. A pier was soon built by them. After a few years Levi Thorp bought out his brother's interests and did a big business shipping cordwood Levi Thorp, who for many years was the principal business man north of Sturgeon Bay, was a very capable and experienced man. He was among the early gold miners of California, where he was successful in washing out $6,000 worth of gold. On his way to California he went around Cape Horn, stopped at the Island of Juan Fernandez of Robinson Crusoe fame and returned across the Isthmus of Panama. The imposing house on the hill in the Village of Fish Creek was his home. By 1879 he had 160 acres under cultivation and was at that time the biggest farmer in the county. For a few years the population of Egg Harbor consisted chiefly of Indians and Belgians that the Thorp brothers employed in cutting cordwood. They could talk no English but they could cut wood. The cordwood was all cut with axes in those days - no saws were used no matter how big the maple was - and wagon loads of big chips left by the choppers could be picked up anywhere in the woods all ready for the cook stove. The men received 50 cents per cord for chopping. The wood was frequently sold for only $2 per cord. Among the earliest settlers of Egg Harbor were Wm. G. Manney, Wm. Turner, Russell Baker, Sr., and M. E. Lyman. The last three settled on the point west of the village. Baker and Turner came from Washington Island where they had settled as fishermen in 1852. Baker had previously lived. on Beaver Island, the domain of the famous Mormon king, John Strang, whom he had helped to depose. Milton E. Lyman was the first settler in the town, locating there in 1853, being then thirty two years old. Mr. Lyman was a man of education and intelligence and what prompted him to seek a home so far from any neighbors is not known. Moreover, the land that he selected was very poor being even today considered of little value. Mr. Lyman was a popular and companionable man, esteemed and dreaded for his wit and sarcasm. He was the first county Judge of Door County, holding office from 1862 to 1866. He was also at the same time clerk of court and county superintendent of schools. After this he was for many years justice of the peace in Egg Harbor and as such was great at drumming up business. He was assisted by a little following of constables and pettifoggers who were ready to offer their services the moment a row broke out. Down to his little house on the flats the procession of pettifoggers, plaintiffs, defendants, witnesses, constables and others would wend their way and here scores of heated trials have been held. The result was interminable feuds and hard feelings. During his career as justice Mr. Lyman united no less than seventy three couples in marriage. At each of the accompanying rousing wedding celebrations he was usually a noted guest, respected for his pungent wit. The wood business proving profitable, William Le Roy and N. W. Kirtland in 1865 built another big pier at Egg Harbor. It was not completed at once and great fear was entertained that the ice would crush it in the spring. However, the ice left it clear in the spring and Le Roy & Kirtland heaved a great sigh of relief. A few days later, however, the ice returned, jammed into the harbor with great force and smashed the pier. Not daunted by this the new firm got out material and built another big pier the following year. This one was completed and 450 cords of wood were piled on it. When spring came the ice demolished this one, also. In the meantime Egg Harbor had received an important addition to its population in the southern part of the town. These were the two brothers, Thomas and William Carmody. They came from Limerick, Ireland, and lived for a time in Pennsylvania. In 1857 they came to Door County. At that time entire townships lay vacant, waiting for their first settlers. Most of the best land near Sturgeon Bay was still open for preemption. Thomas and William Carmody, however, chose to go as far back into the timber as it was possible to get at that time and settled ten miles north of Sturgeon Bay. Here, far beyond any roads, trails or neighbors, they settled on some rather low lands just north of the present Carlsville which are even now considered of little value. Their purpose was not farming, however, but to get out cedar. Whether this was found profitable is not known. But here they lived year after year without schools, churches, markets or neighbors. It was in the heart of the wilderness. No daily or even weekly mail came to tell them of the world's progress. Beefsteak was not often on the bill of fare but bear meat took its place and the boys found wolf hunting better sport than pool playing. Both Thomas and William Carmody had a number of husky boys and girls and the Carmody family is now numerous in Door County. Thomas had five sons and two daughters. These were Jack, Thomas, Michael, Dennis, Patrick, Mary and Olive. William had five sons and four daughters. These were John, James, Dennis, William, Henry, Mary, Bridget, Ellen, and Johanna. After twelve years of life in their cedar slashings Thomas and William Carmody moved north to what is now called Carmody Prairie - then a big forest. Here they found other Irishmen and quite a settlement of Irish was formed back in the woods of Egg Harbor. These other Irish were Martin Maloney, Michael Hayes and Andrew Hanrahan.2 When the Town of Egg Harbor was organized in 1861 Mike Hayes was candidate for side supervisor. Jokingly William Carmody asked him why he wanted to run for office seeing he had no education. "Oh, gwan wid yonse," was the reply. "If I have no eddication, can't I get a prostitute?" He meant a substitute. One of the first settlers in the northern part of the town was Dr. David Graham. He orignally settled south of Fish Creek in 1858 and moved into the town of Egg Harbor in 1867. He was chairman of the town for many years and was a very popular and highly respected man He died rather suddenly in 1882. Speaking of his death the Advocate writes: "It is no disparagement of the living to say that the departure of no other man could have occasioned such profound and general sorrow throughout the county as has been caused by the death of David Graham. In the northern towns there are few households in which the event is not regarded as a personal calamity; so thoroughly had the good doctor endeared himself to the people who knew him best. For nearly a quarter of a century he had been the guide, philosopher and friend of his acquaintances, always generous, helpful, benevolent and kind. Although not a regular graduate of a medical school, his natural inclinations led him to give so much time to the study of the healing art that he was able to successfully minister to the sick. He was let to do this, not from mercenary motives, but because his sympathies prompted him at all times to allay suffering or distress of any nature whenever possible." His funeral was a remarkable manifestation of the high esteem in which he was held, Not less than 400 mourners were present from Gibraltar, Sevastopol, Baileys Harbor and Sturgeon Bay, while nearly every family in Egg Harbor was represented at the funeral. Another very popular and efficient town officer of Egg Harbor was Frank Wellever, the present genial clerk of the court, For almost a quarter of a century, until he finally took up his residence in Sturgeon Bay, Mr, Welleyer was in charge of the affairs of the town, successfully piloting it through every crisis and deftly managing to harmonize its various warring elements. If Mr. Wellever had remained in the town there is no doubt he would by this time have achieved the honor of holding the record of longest service as chairman in the county, Prominent among the famous men of Egg Harbor is Dr. H. F. Eames who came to the town about 1875, Doctor Eames has a large practice but being a man of insatiable appetite for work he has added to his duties the responsibility of operating the largest farm in the town, He is a very extensive fruit grower and also owns a pier and a drug store, All this, however, is insufficient to fill the doctor's energetic cravings and he is always ready to take part in matters of public policy or political controversy, In conversation his tongue flows with epigrams and bristles with sarcasm, His mind is an unusual mixture of extreme kindliness, pungent wit and irrepressible optimism. West of the Carmody prairie a couple of miles lies Horseshoe Bay, once a thriving little village, Andrew Anderson, still living there, built the first pier about 1870, He bought and shipped cordwood and kept a store. In a few years he sold out to Albee & Taylor and they pushed the business energetically. They had a mill and vessels daily came and went from Horseshoe Bay, A cooper shop, a blacksmith shop, a general store, a school and a dozen dwelling houses were soon erected there. All roads led to Horseshoe Bay and business was booming. Later Fetzer & Young bought the property and employed many men, In 1890 an ice company made up of Sturgeon Bay people started cutting ice there, employing about sixty men. The ice harvest farther south was poor and the Horseshoe Bay company were confident that the price would go high up and all would make much money, They therefore held the ice, that is, that which did not trickle away. Little by little the ice melted. When the ice speculators were ready to sell the ice had turned to water and their dreams of gold had turned to dross. That was the last exploit in the Village of Horseshoe Bay, The mill was closed. the schoolhouse was moved away, the buildings fell, into decay and the grass and brush grew up in the roads, Soon almost every one forgot that there had ever been such a place as Horseshoe Bay where the schooners in olden times dropped anchor, Once more, however, Horseshoe Bay has come forward, The lands around the beautiful bay have become the property of the Horseshoe Bay Country Club, made up largely of Green Bay people, They have here erected a commodious and elegant club building, the finest of any in the county intended for the entertainment of transient guests, Many large and beautiful cottages have also been built, streets are being opened up and lawns are being made. In a few years Horseshoe Bay will be one of the most beautiful places in the county. Egg Harbor is one of the most enterprising towns in the county, taking a leading part in the construction of good roads. In fact in this field it has probably outdistanced every other town in the county, It was the first town to complete the macadamizing of its entire stretch of main county thoroughfare traversing the town - a distance of more than ten miles, The last link in this highway was the road down the big Egg Harbor hill - a rare monument of excellent road construction, The town has now begun to macadamize its branch roads, The people of the town have also distinguished themselves in such a co-operative enterprise as church building, In the Catholic Church at Egg Harbor we have a church edifice whose beauty, solidity and pleasing lines are seldom equaled in rural houses of worship. The congregation that built this church is not a large one, numbering only about sixty families. This superabundance of energy lately so commendably manifested in the construction of fine churches, schools, modern homes and good roads in olden times frequently found an outlet in a manner not so complimentary, Egg Harbor for many years had the reputation of being a boisterous town full of clamor and carousings. Fun was frequent and so was fighting, Perhaps other towns at times were quite as bad, but at least they were not so frequently heard from as Egg Harbor. Something was "doing" there every little while, The following account culled from the columns of the Advocate, gives an interesting picture of how the old folks used to amuse themselves. "A farmer living a few miles from the Village of Egg Harbor invited his neighbors to come and spend a sociable evening at his home. It is not at all likely that his hospitable offer would have been refused even though no other attraction than a dance had been promised, for amusements are always welcome in that locality so that the giver of a party is not obliged to send out a press gang in search of guests, as was the case of the gentleman whose marriage feast is recorded in the New Testament. But having backed up his invitation with the assurance that there would be plenty of beer for women, children and other temperance people, and lashings of whisky for those who preferred to get drunk with neatness and dispatch, it is hardly necessary to say that he had a crowded house with 'standing room only' for those who arrived after 7 o'clock. "It will be readily understood that under the inspiriting influence of abundant grog the evening had not far advanced before there was such a tremendous sound of revelry that had there been any police in the vicinity they would have 'pulled' the house and brought the entertainment to an abrupt conclusion, But there being no legal impediments to the festivities, they were conducted upon such a free and easy scale as would have astounded those who lived in a more civilized community. Long before midnight the fun became boisterous and decency received the grand bounce, It was while affairs were in this interesting state that one of the men, who was possibly a little morel tipsy than the rest, laid the foundation for a first class row. The whisky he had drunk excited his affectionate instincts to such a degree that regardless of his surroundings he made advances of a decidedly indelicate character to one of the women, who immediately proclaimed the fact by a squeal that drowned all other noise in the house. Whether her displeasure arose from offended virtue, or whether she was enraged because her amorous friend had not chosen a more appropriate locality for his demonstration, is an unguessable conundrum. At any rate, the fair creature raised such a tremendous bobbery as to draw upon herself and her admirer the attention of the whole party. Among these was the woman's son, who had no sooner learned the cause of the trouble than he struck out from the shoulder with such vigor and precision that the offending man took a tumble under the table, where he lay for a few minutes trying to discover how many of his teeth had been loosened. "It might be supposed that a man who had committed such a gross offense against the moralities would have no sympathizers, and that the verdict of the crowd would be that he should be kicked as long as kicking was good for him. This would doubtless have been the opinion of the guests if they had been sober, but being drunk they took a different view of the matter. It should also be remembered that up to this time there had been no fight, and that all hands had taken just enough whisky aboard to make them itch for a scrimmage. The consequence was that within two minutes every man in the room was endeavoring to put a head on his neighbor. No one appeared to know or care what he was fighting about, the chief aim of each belligerent being to put in his knuckles where they would do the most good, It did not take the ladies long to realize that the men were conducting a riot with so much skill and energy that the assistance of the fair sex was entirely unnecessary. In order, therefore, to give the combatants abundant room, and also to get themselves out of harm's way, the women bundled themselves and the children off to the rooms upstairs. The terrific uproar below caused several of them to go into hysterics, and when their condition became known in the lower regions some of the men went up to their relief. The additional burden thus put on the chamber floors was more than they could support and the joists gave way with a crash, precipitating men, women and children and furniture upon the heads of the pugnacious gentlemen on the ground floor. For about five minutes that floor presented an appearance to which no description can do justice. Many of the ladies were standing on their heads, their limbs sticking out of the heap in every direction like the spokes of a busted cart wheel, while their striped stockings waved in the air like signals of distress at the masthead of a water logged scow. The children screamed, the women shrieked, and the men swore as in their efforts to disentangle the squirming mass of humanity they found that a woman was being pulled out of the heap in different directions, When at last order was restored everybody was surprised to find that nobody was either killed or seriously hurt, The fighting party had escaped the falling floor, and the people from above were none the worse for their tumble, The accident had at least one good result. It brought the row to an end, and now all hands were as ready to bind up their neighbor's 'wounds as they had lately been to inflict them, As soon as the women recovered from their fright they began to count noses to learn whether any one had been lost. The inventory showed that one of the children was missing, and for a short time the mother was distracted. The young kid was finally discovered in a flour barrel into which it had fallen when the floor gave way, and was restored to its mother's arms along with several pounds of 'double extra' breadstuffs that had powdered the infant from head to foot, "Having almost torn the house to pieces, pounded each other for about an hour, and nearly succeeded in killing the women and children, it was mutually agreed that there had been enough fun for one night, The guests therefore collected their wraps, took one more drink all around in token that they bore no ill will towards one another, and departed assuring their host that they had spent a most delightful evening and that his party had been the most successful affair of the season." 1 From I. E. Thorp's letter quoted in Martin's History of Door County, page 95. 2 Hanrahan lived just across the line in Sevastopol where he settled in 1860.

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Fun Facts and Data On Historical, Alternative Mounts – Part 2 From Paul Cardwell Roleplaying Tips Newsletter #254 - “On The Other Hand, Don’t Get A Horse” - Readers’ Tips Of The Week: Please note: Terminology, chronology, and movements are taken from Mythworld Bestiary, and used by permission. This is the second half of an article focused on providing real data and information on alternative types of mounts to help you plan and run your game sessions more knowledgeably and confidently. Deserts: Hot, Cold, And Thin (Camels) Most people know that there are one-hump and two-hump camels, but keep forgetting that there are four species of no-hump camels, one of which is of considerable use to our imaginary adventurers (and real-world backpackers too).Like bovines, the humped camels can be considered together, although there is no recorded interbreeding.Camels have been domesticated for millennia. The male is a bull, female a cow, and juvenile a calf. A castrated male is a gelding. The proper collective is herd, but if loaded with pack stock they are a caravan. Their sound is a bawl. Both can carry a load up to 40% of their weight. The bactrian is almost exclusively a pack animal, although it is occasionally ridden bareback between the humps. Both humped species have: - Gestation one year - Precocial, walk in one hour - Run in two hours - Keep-up in one day - Solid food in one day - Wean three to four months - Survival four years - Maturation in five years - Polygynous, birth two years, with 5% chance of twins - Death at fifty years. Camelus dromedarius (Dromedary) Overwhelmingly domesticated, there are few verifiable wild herds and only isolated pockets of feral animals – mostly in regions like Australia where they were introduced and not native. Their original habitat was North Africa and the Middle East. They drink whenever possible in the summer, but rarely and sparsely in the winter. Water is stored in their stomach and tissue, not in the hump, which is fat. They can vary their body temperature 4-5 degrees Celsius without harm and lose very little water to respiration. They are primarily mounts and pack stock with plowing (North Africa) and pulling wheeled vehicles (mainly India) the exception. As such, it can drag 30% of its weight and pull 125%. Color is almost uniform, giving “camel” the name of a light brown color. The rare variant may be as dark as a milk chocolate. They have conspicuous callouses of dark brown on their knees and wrists. Speed is: 100m 8m/s, 1 km 6m/s, 100 km 4m/s; swim 100m 1.5m/s, and surprising for a desert animal, they enjoy the water. Jumping is 1.5m for high jump and 4m for long jump. Weapons are primarily the kick that they can do in any direction, the front foot paw being essentially a downward kick as they do not rear up on the hind legs. In addition, they have a habit of spitting their cud as a defensive move, which, in game terms should cause at least a temporary lack of attack from restricted vision and general disgust. Particularly, but not exclusively, bulls will bite. Camelus bactrianus (Bactrian) There are no wild bactrians. They are most economically significant in Mongolia and along the classic Silk Road where they were the primary means of transportation until the mid-20th century. They have long, shaggy, guard hair over their wool undercoat, giving excellent insulation against the Gobi and steppes winters. This is combed out when seasonally shedding, rather than sheared, for spinning and weaving into fabric (although sheep’s wool is preferred) or felting into the covering of their ger or yurt portable houses. It is normally medium brown to almost black, with some redness to the lighter colors. This is frequently bleached out for clothing and housing. Speed is 100m 6m/s, l km 3m/s, l00 km 3m/s, and they rarely swim at all from lack of opportunity. The US camel experiment in the 1850s found they were slower in the water than the dromedary and usually had to be hoisted ashore while the dromedaries would exuberantly dive in and swim ashore. They do not jump; anything they can’t step over or around is an obstacle. Bactrians also have the same three weapons as the dromedary, but are far less likely to use them, and the foreleg kick can essentially be excluded. Lama glama (Llama) Despite the binomial, the domesticated no-hump camel is a llama and properly pronounced in the Spanish, yama with a broad a. They are valued as pack stock, despite their small load, and also for their wool, guarding livestock against predators, and to a much lesser extent, meat (more often, hunted wild individuals than the valuable domestic ones). Males are bulls, females are cows, young are crias (or rarely, lambs). The collective is a herd and the sound is a bleat. While they can be trained to pull a sulky or dog cart, and under extraordinary training, to carry a small child, they are almost exclusively pack animals. However, they will only carry about half their rulebook encumbrance, lying down and refusing to move if the load exceeds 25-60 kg. They also limit their distance to 15-30 km per day if they are carrying a load. - Gestation is 10.5 months - Precocial, walk at one hour - Run at four hours - Solid food in one month - Wean at two to three months - Keep-up at one hour - Survival at six months - Maturation at thirteen months - Serial polygynous, birth at two years, only one cria at a time - Death twenty years Colors are black, brown, white, or mixtures of black or brown with white. Speed is 100m 11m/s, l km 6m/s, 100 km 2m/s; swim 100m 1.25m/s; high jump one meter, long jump three meters. Weapons are the multidirectional kick. Llamas spit, but only when fighting each other. However, their generally unfamiliar shape and headlong hissing charge intimidates most predators, including a feral dog pack, and makes them a rather unusual guard animal. Particularly bulls will bite, so their canine teeth are usually removed, although they can do some damage with the remaining incisors and molars. Others (Elephants, Reindeer, Goats, Dogs) These have absolutely no relationship to each other, except that like the previously discussed, are used by people to help transport things. Elephas maximus (Asian Elephant) With Hanibal’s Loxodonta africana subspecies extinct and virtually no success at taming the extant variety, the Asian elephant is the only one we have to work with. However, the extinct one may well have had similar stats. The terms are male bull, female cow, juvenile calf; while herd is the most common collective, the proper is parade. The sound, for once, is not onomatopoetic, but simply trumpet. The square-cube law taking effect, they can carry only about 15% of their weight. However, they can drag 50% and tow 100% in a wheeled vehicle. However, their highly manipulative trunk can wrestle loads into line for dragging and can be trained to operate a slide, and they seem to enjoy the operation. - Gestation is twenty months - Precocial, walk in one hour - Run in ten days - Solid food in two months - Wean in two years - Keep-up in one month - Survival in five years Maturation is in eleven years for bulls, eight for cows; they are serial monogamous and matriarchal; birth is three years apart, and virtually always a single young; death is in sixty years. Color is almost invariably a medium gray, with lighter shades considered so unusual that they were not worked, thus the term “white elephant.” Speed is 100m 10m/s, 1 km 5m/s, 100 km 2.5m/s; swim 100m 1m/s; they are incapable of jumping, but can step over (or demolish) significant obstacles. The primary weapon is a smash with the trunk; a gore with the upper lateral incisors is used if they’re long enough (mainly bulls and African genus of either sex). They may also pick up the target with their trunk and throw it aside. Trample seems to be more accidental than intentional, but they rarely make any attempt to go around. Rangifer tarandus (Reindeer) The reindeer is used as a mount, pack, and draft animal by the Saami and a few Siberian tribes. It is also used for meat, milk, and leather. Terminology is easy: male is bull, female cow, juvenile calf; collective is herd, but also band; sound is a grunt, and the meat is venison. Saami are generally slightly smaller than average humans and constitute about the maximum load for a reindeer, using a horse saddle, while packs are generally in cloth or leather panniers rather than wooden ones on a pack saddle. The primary use in transportation is in towing the pulkke, a sled shaped like a dugout canoe carrying about 150 kg of people or cargo, or towing a person on skiis. - Gestation is 240 days - Precocial, walk four-six hours - Run one day - Solid food one month - Wean two months - Maturation 1.5 years female, two to three years male, serial polygynous, matriarchal - Birth one year, single calf - Menopause 12 years - Death 15 years Color is a medium brown with light brown undersides in the summer, to a tan with white under in the winter. Movement is less than 100m 22m/s, 100m 10m/s, 1 km 8m/s, 100 km 5m/s. Towing pulkke: 100m 9m/s, l km 8m/s; swim: 100m 2.5m/s, l km 1.5m/s; high jump 1.5m, long jump 2.5m. Weapons are gore with antlers (the only deer in which the female has antlers – caribou is same species) and kick. Capra hircus (Goat) Because of its small size, one rarely thinks of the goat as a draft animal, yet they have been used as such in many cultures. They are also valuable for milk, meat, a sheep flock leader, and with the angora breed, fiber. The male is a buck, not billy, if castrated a weather; female is a doe, although nanny can get by; the juvenile is a kid, but can be divided into the male jumbuck and female doeling. The proper collective is trip (wild ones are a tribe); the sound is a bleat; the meat is chevon unless unweaned, which is cabrito; the hair is mohair if from an angora. The pack load is a rather small 20% of weight, but they can pull a wheeled vehicle up to double their weight. - Gestation is 150 days - Precocial; walk at one hour - Run at three days - Solid food in three days - Weaned at two months - Keep-up two days - Survival three months - Maturation one year, serial polygynous, birth one year, 10% twins - Death fifteen years. Colors are black, brown, and white, or a combination of the darker with white. Speed is 100m 2.5m/s, l km 1.25m/s, 100 km 1m/s; swim 100m 1m/s; high jump 1m, long jump 2m. Main weapon is a head butt, but they can paw, but their hooves only crush, unlike the slashing toes of the wild mountainous species. Against snakes, they may spronk (jumping up and landing on all four feet close together simultaneously) as a trample attack. Canis familiaris (Dog) This is the only carnivore in the list. As such, it lacks the tendency to flee trouble, but unless trained, tends to overestimate its capability in battle. Dogs come in an exceptional range of sizes, but the ones to be considered here are those from wolf size to the maximum (Great Pyrenees, etc.). They are valued as hunting companions, pets, guards, herders, alarms, and even a source of fiber or food. The male is a dog, female bitch, juvenile pup; the proper collective is kennel (packs are wild or at least feral dogs); the sound is a bark (bay for hounds). Not bred for carrying, a load is only 20% of their weight. However, draft breeds can pull 100% on a sled on snow (a team 125% of their total weight) or travois, and 200% of their weight in a wheeled vehicle (usually a two-wheeled cart with an especially large dog). - Gestation is two months - Altricial for twelve days - Walk in three days (but not well because they still can’t see or hear) - Run in two months (very well – it is more of a “leaps and bounds” before that) - Solid food in one month - Wean at 1.5-2 months - Keep-up at one month - Survival from six months - Maturation at four months - Birth twice a year, 5 to a litter, 20% each for four or six, 10% each three or seven, 1% each one, two, eight, or nine - Death by sixteen years Color varies from white to black by way of yellow, brown, dark red, dark blue, and frequently a wide assortment of combinations of two or more. Likewise, hair varies from none through very short to shaggy. Speed is 100m 18m/s, l km 15m/s, 100 km 4m/s; swim 100m 1m/s; high jump 1.5m and long jump 6m. Weapon is exclusively the bite, which being a carnivore, is usually enough. Knockdown is accidental unless trained, being an attempt to go for the throat or face in a biting attack, or just being too friendly for everyone’s good. Readers’ Tips Of The Week Mission-Oriented Game Preparation From Ria Kennedy When I come up with a scenario, it is mission oriented and takes the universe into major consideration. I focus on story goals that require the PCs to resolve. These goals are usually wrapped up in one sitting. I don’t like to run or play games where a nebulous goal or event is overhanging everything; I like a conclusion one way or the other. I try to do an epic where the PCs’ choices and actions construct the story, rather than take a story and try to force the PCs into it. I may track where the events are compared to background events (i.e. in Star Wars, B5 or LOTR) but involve the PCs in their own story where they are the main characters. I include descriptions to set the atmosphere, but I try to let the PCs’ choices determine the tension. That way, the PC determines the response to the problem and how personal it is to them. For example, I may describe the problem and then go “What do you do?” I do not give hints, and this has nothing to do with a roll — literally – the PC must make a choice and live with the consequences. Does the scout get away and get the castle prepared for a siege before the PCs invade, or do the PCs stop the man on horseback from escaping, so they can walk into the castle and attack? I try to keep the pacing fast and adventurous rather than laborious and plodding. Discussions are focused on decision- making. I keep rolling to a minimum where a skill is needed and generally give some information as long as the roll is not a fumble. For example, on a low human perception roll, I say “You don’t trust her,” but I don’t say why. Combat is fast and furious. Combat rolls are done on a 1 to 10 level strike table rather than calculating hit points for each wound/foe. (If you hit, do one level of damage up to level 10, give levels to villains/monsters based on hit points.) When writing it, I try to keep my scenario’s story/plot open-ended where the PCs determine the outcome — do they vanquish the foe and solve the mystery or does the foe win or escape? If something bad does happen (i.e. someone is sacrificed), after the game I make sure to let my players know if the situation was outside of their control (a story event, there was nothing you could do) or something that they failed to stop through poor choices/actions/rolls. This lets them see how what they did effects everything. For example, during a BladeRunner session (we made our own game) the subject passed the Voight-Kampf test. The PCs could not hold him or retire him, the “Major” got away. Later, the PCs uncovered evidence that the Major was a replicant. Even though the PCs failed, the players still talk fondly about the one that got away — 10 years later! The players need to know conclusively how they succeeded or failed so that their achievements have significance, and the game is ‘real’. Winning needs to be determined in the gaming arena. I do side with the PCs, as they are the heroes, and there is no story without them. I may let them get roughed up, but I don’t let them die or become maimed unless they do something very foolish. To me, role-playing should be cinematic. And finally, sometimes even the best players may need a nudge in the right direction. You’re the GM, make sure everyone has fun. Coming up with the adventure: do this as it comes to you. For example, if you get goal ideas first, jot them down and then fill in the rest. Try not to over-detail things because role-playing is free-form, and as they say, “No plan survives contact with the enemy,” or in this case, no plan survives contact with the PCs! I do usually write a detailed description of the opening scene, so that I can set the mood and throw the PCs into the action, but after that, my notes are scant, focusing on necessary facts or major scenes, rather than fussy details (which always mess me up or don’t get used). - Main Planning — Beginning - Quick Start – Attention Getter/Trigger (Hook — Event or Information) - Information Gathering - Quick Start – Attention Getter/Trigger - Main Planning — Middle - Challenges/Mission Objectives (Pick A Focus: there should be 2-3 session goals, including 1 main goal) - Action: Conflict/Encounters - Clues: These should help determine the secret, weakness, mystery, or agenda — you must know what is known or unknown, and what can be discovered. - Main Planning — End - Obstacles/Complications/Dilemma. For example, did the bridge break, does he have a hostage, left or right - Closure: Results — What happened - Things that should be considered for descriptions and planning: - Terrain (Perhaps it is uneven, or a sheer cliff face, maybe it is slow going); - When along the backstory (i.e., when is it happening compared to major movie or book events — whether or not that ever comes into play in the scenario) - Major Scenes/Setting. Choose location Carefully (Rooms, buildings, areas — visualize this and jot down up to 7 descriptors so everyone else can also “see”) - NPCs: Major NPCs, Foes, Bystanders, Third Parties - Choice(s) (These may be clear before you play, but if your mission goals and conflicts are right, then these will show up during gameplay where the PC has to make a decision in the heat of the moment — do be prepared to ‘stage’ the scene. For example, someone drops the heroine over the cliff edge and escapes: do you go after the villain or the heroine?) If your campaign setting does not have a map, make one! Campaigns with a world map (boundaries of the game universe, such as continental, planetary, or galaxy-wide) are easier, since everyone knows what is in what direction. The world map gives PC confidence and lays out possible encounters for the GM. Make sure major places and territories are documented, or the map is useless. 5 to 7 main cities that can be revisited over and over are all that are needed for a great campaign; everything else can be set in relation. Resist the urge to keep adding main places; this is really confusing and destroys the integrity of a good map, as well as changes the balance of power in the game world. Just because there are a trillion planets in the Aliens universe, it does not mean they should all show up in your game world! Pick a few main planets and set something important there, like a corporate headquarters or contested territory. Then watch as the players’ eyes widen and they shout, “I’m not going there!” because they know what to expect. Using Googlisms for Inspiration From Brandon AdkinsHey I found this great resource for creating character backgrounds, and storylines: Simply type in a person, place, or thing, and it will rattle off a list of what Google “thinks” about it. The list is usually a combination of short ‘facts’ and longer descriptions, which can be used by the creative GM. For characters, simply type in the first, last or both names (not as effective). For example: Gorath Thundersmith. Googlism’s results (short list from tons of results): - gorath is one of the lords of chaos - gorath is now busy with learning his new station and trying to find time to spend with the love of his life - gorath is shown as a powerful man in conflict with his sense of duty to his nation - thunder is required to stir the chretien government - thunder is the main fighting force of the coalition - smith is at a new home - smith is pursued by government agents in ‘enemy of the state’ - smith is in a time of change Putting this together, Gorath could be an ex-warlord who headed the elite fighting force known as the “Lords of Chaos”. He is now trying to make a new life for himself, but is ordered to fight again or pay the consequences and be called a traitor. Alternately, you could work from any other info about the character, such as occupation, race, hobbies etc. For a setting you could type in key descriptive words: The Dwarven Forge-Home, the Greenstone Mountains. - dwarven is forbidden - dwarven is made to last & with the utmost care - forge is surrounded by beautiful lakes - forge is a highly recognized tourist town with many activities - home is where the revolution is - greenstone is a fast paced story of law enforcement and revenge until unexpectedly love intervenes - greenstone is the main focus of the town’s bustling art and craft galleries - greenstone is organized into four separate but - greenstone is a fast paced story of law enforcement - mountain is bird watcher’s paradise - mountain is sacred place and a home - mountain is possibly more seismically active than once believed - mountain is bewitched’ Putting this together, we might have: “Once a sacred and forbidden place, the Forge-Home is now a bustling city open to traders, tourists, and explorers of all races. The government is held by four joint rulers who each govern an aspect of the city/mountain. In the deepest parts of the city recent seismic activity has revealed unknown sections of the city. Cult activity has recently increased as a result of the quakes, who believe this to be a warning to outsiders who besmirch the sacred grounds of the city. The city is changing faster than its rulers can handle, and at this rate it’s possible an all-out revolution may take place.” As you can see, the possibilities are limited only to your imagination in coming up with words to put in, and your creativity in using what comes out. I hope someone finds this useful in their games! Re: Problematic Campaign Anecdote I have also found myself in a campaign I was running where I had allowed the players to “uber-strength” their characters and could no longer present challenges that were balanced for all the players. It is with no surprise that I say the players will know the talents and capabilities of their character classes, associated skills, and items better than the GM because that is all they have to focus on. As a GM, the overall campaign/adventure draws our attention away from the specific details of each PC. And, it is only when an unbalancing situation comes up, like if the player says, “I kill the main villain instantly using X item that I bought last level,” that the GM looks up in surprise. My solution is the following: Control the gaming source material. As Matthew said, it is important that all game elements (feats/spells/prestige classes) be balanced. As a GM, look over what the player wants and really think about game balance before allowing it. Control the wealth of the characters. In my case, I am running D&D 3.5 and fully use the character wealth tables from the DMG. For example, the table shows that when a character becomes a sixth level character, they should have 13,000gp in wealth. I take that number and subtract the fifth level value (9,000gp) leaving me with 4,000gp to be earned during adventuring as fifth level characters. Multiply that by the number of PCs and that is my amount of wealth I will give to the party for that level. Control the experience awarded. I do something slightly different than the rules outline for XP. I ask the players how often they want to make a level. Meaning, once every 3 sessions or maybe 5 or 10? Then I take the number of XP that it takes the average level character to advance and divide it by the number of sessions. Finally, I award this portion each game night, no matter what is done – be it combat or tavern talk. Example: 5,000xp for next level, 5 nights gaming = 1,000xp per night for each player. I found that this made power my gamers able to relax and not fret when the party spent an extended amount of time in a town and was not out killing monsters. Tying the three together. By having control over XP and wealth, the GM can really maintain party-monster balance. The players also feel involved because they can choose the advancement rate and the GM gains a framework to build from. Looking over “outside” gaming material is a very hard decision because the players often desperately want to be an “everything slayer prestige class,” but it would unbalance the campaign if it were introduced. Just talk with the players and hopefully a compromise can be found.In my campaign, I make lists of money and treasures for the party based on the limits from the table and then award it to the players over the course of that level’s gaming sessions. I try to spread it out evenly over each session, but that frequently does not work out, so I just roll any unrewarded treasure into the next session. That way the players can get their wealth by looting monsters, earning rewards from NPCs, or just being lucky and finding a hidden cache of treasure. Using this system has really helped balance the power in my game. I have enjoyed it so much that I now use the same concept when I run my Star Wars RPG campaign.

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The notion that individuals have rights springs from the vulnerability of the human person in the face of stronger forces. Declaration of Independence and our Constitution are based on the idea that the purpose of government is to protect the elite, nor to facilitate greed or self-interest nor to promote the agenda of the religious group. Its purpose is to ensure certain inalienable human rights of all people including the descendants of our people … our young citizens. Most of us assume that parents have the right to give them exclusive authority over their children, especially infants. But you must define the rights is only when things go wrong in families and child-serving organizations. Unfortunately, the emotionally charged issue of parental rights is quite often today. Parents forcing state intervention when they neglect and abuse or dispute custody of their children. Minors feed. Too many child serving agencies are overburdened and do not function effectively. Even define as a parent can be complicated. With deputy birth and fertilization, identifying the mother and father can be complicated. By eliminating the vague term “natural parent” from its rules to establish a legal parent-child relationship, Uniform lineage law encourages courts to focus on the precise relationship female or male has a child. Relationship of each mother and father: 1) genetic birth (only the mother, 2)), 3) functional, 4) a step or 5) adoptive? One child may have as many as nine different individuals recognized as a parent by adding 6) Foster, 7) Step 8) deputy and 9) sperm or egg donor. Because of their obligations towards their children, parents have the right or authority to protect and fulfill the human rights of their children. Unfortunately, contemporary talk about human rights emphasizes usually entitled to the rights and overlooks the responsibility that comes with these rights. In the past, children have been treated as the personal property of their parents. Under Roman law Patria prot estas theory fathers life and death power over their children. To this day, the popular presumption is that children belong to their parents. However, where the enlightenment of the eighteenth century, parenting in Western culture has been regarded as a contract between the parents and the community with the philosophers and the development of legal codes. Parents are awarded rights in exchange for fulfilling their obligations. John Locke in the seventeenth century and William Blackstone in the eighteenth century thought of parental rights and powers come from their duty to care for their offspring. They recognized that no society can survive without her children grow up to be responsible, productive citizens. Children also have the right to raise without unfair interference of the state. Taken together, these rights are called right Integrity family. Both Locke and Blackstone held that if the choice is forced upon society, it is important to protect children’s rights and to protect the rights of adults. Every man and every woman has a natural and constitutional right to procreate. This principle could be fairly applied when the onset of menarche was between sixteen and eighteen. Now that menarche appears on average in twelve years, we must ask whether every girl and boy has a natural and constitutional right to procreate. In light of this question, the need for careful thinking about parental rights and responsibilities is intensified. The Child-Parent Relationship James Garbarino, professor of psychology at Loyola University Chicago, notes that parental rights are influenced by personal and public views of a child parents relationships. Children: • private parents, • families with no direct relationship to the state, or • citizens with a primary relationship with the state? Children and private parental rights have become the most protected and cherished by all constitutional rights. They are based on natural right to beget children, and the likelihood that love leads parents to act in the interests of their children. Protection of the Fourth Amendment, the sanctity of the home and the due process provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment are interpreted to give parents the legal and physical custody of their children. The popular assumption that children are the property of their parents is understandable. In 1995 Congress, parental rights and obligations of the law was introduced. It would have created a constitutional specify absolute parental rights. It was not to gather support for the justice system respects the rights of parents. It also would have made protecting children from neglect and abuse more difficult. Despite strongly held beliefs to the contrary, the legal system no longer considers children as property. There is even a genetic basis for the legal status of the parents are not their children. Genes that we give them, not our own. Own our genes were mixed when they were sent to us by our parents. Our genes are beyond our control. We really do not. They reach back to previous generations and may be carried out in future generations. We are only temporary custodians own our genes and our children. Mary Lyndon Shanley, a professor of political science at Vassar College, but the individual’s right to reproduce and if parents can not be the main basis Family law. The primary focus will be on children’s needs and interests. The parent-child relationship is one of stewardship. Parental authority includes responsibility beyond their own wishes of the parent. What’s more, our legal system is based on the principle that no person has the right to take another person. Executives incompetent adults are drugs, not owners, of these individuals. Similarly, upbringing Right parents consist of 1) the right of supervision (control) to take decisions on behalf of the child and 2) the right to physical custody of the child. These rights are based on the interests and needs of children rather than ownership of the child. We certainly are not our children. Children are generally considered a family with no direct relationship to the state. The concept of parental rights emerged from the traditions and constitutional precedent that quality genetic and adoptive parents with special rights. parental rights are legal sources based on moral and civil rights of children to be nurtured and protected. They are based on the assumption that parents can best decide how to raise a child without undue interference by the state. Without or unintended loss of parental duties, the state can not permanently remove children from the custody of the parents to seek a better home for them unless it has been legal termination of parental rights. Children and citizens Two trends have improved with the child as a citizen. The first is the growing emphasis on the right of children to grow up without neglect or abuse. Another is the increased restrictions on parental control seen in child neglect and abuse laws child labor laws, statutory law, education, adolescent health care policy and parental responsibility law. When parents do not meet their obligations, the child welfare services intervene and government agencies are expected legal and physical custody. It is first and foremost a child’s relationship with the State as the custodian. Like other guardians, parents have a legal prerogative to make stewardship decisions. Society suspends overall power. The challenge is to encourage parents to act in the interests of their children than in their own selfish interests. Toward this end, lawmakers rely on persuasion and education to help parents to fulfill their obligations. Because they do not respond to persuasion and education, some parents need legal intervention before and after birth. The Parent-Society contract James Dwyer, a professor of law at William and Mary University, confirms that parental rights have no direct constitutional basis. The emergence of children’s rights reflects this situation; our society has steadily experiments limited control parents have over their children’s lives. Dwyer endorses the Enlightenment view that those who think and raise enter the implicit contract with society to raise their children as responsible citizens. Damage caused by abuse extends beyond the individuals involved and gives our community a compelling interest in the welfare of our children. Mark Vopat, a professor of philosophy at Youngstown State University, also has the obligations of a parent coming from the implicit contract with the state outside of the child. This parental community agreement provides a strong moral imperative for the public efforts to ensure the safety of all children and quality of life. Since the deal involves mutual obligations, parents and the community are accountable to each other. The role of government is reflected in the discussion of • Child ease. Is that right? A privilege? A tool for social control? The trend is to view it as an entitlement. • Adolescent pregnancy. Which has legal and physical custody of the newborn child is a minor? Strictly speaking, no, but relatives and policy support minor parents default. • Financial support. Is financially responsible for the child only private or public responsibility? Both. Federal and state laws mandate upbringing compensation addition to financial child support from parents and sometimes grandparents. Parental social contract, government plays an important role in supporting parents in raising children and prevent abuse. Exposure participate in family relationships is not provided by the state. People have a duty to bear children. There are still responsible for providing schools and safe neighborhoods to support childrearing state and local governments. They can provide health insurance, deductions and welfare benefits as well. Parents really do not specifically defined rights. They have powers that flow from the rights of their children. Unfortunately, parental permissions and rights do not fit well in the present. For example, workplaces little accommodation for childrearing responsibilities of parents, and where children are held indefinitely in a supposedly temporary foster care, their right to competent parents met. The general trend to recognize that children have the right to be cared for persons with sustained commitment, and ability, parenthood. Public policy must also recognize that the parent-community agreement, the community must ensure that parents have access to the necessary resources upbringing. The parental rights debate would be resolved by moving it away from children as the property Reproductive career. Parenthood is a community of parents, on the basis of contracts career with powers derived from the responsibility to care for the child and to fight for the interests of the child. Being a loving mother or father of a child does not necessarily mean one is qualified for legal and physical custodial rights. Parental love is inadequate for healthy child development. Mild or developmentally disabled person can be a loving mother or father without parental rights. Individuals continue even mother or father of a child after parental rights have been terminated and other parents have anticipated motherhood and fatherhood role with adoption or kinship care. The laws of each state give a woman or a girl pregnant and bears a child automatic recognition as a legal parent. The birth follows the physical connection formed during pregnancy. These laws reflect the appropriate strong bias in favor of the birth mothers, especially those who care for and form attachment bonds with their children. This is complicated by the substituents are not the genetic mothers and pregnant women who have a physical relationship with a newborn. States rarely challenge genetic / birth certificate motherhood unless there are compelling circumstances, such as a child in need of Protective Services petition filed before the birth. Even in such cases, a newborn baby can be placed in foster care in the custody of the state in order to improve the genetic / birth mother. This plan generally is not realized. A similar situation is with children whose mothers are incarcerated with the hope of maintaining control mothers of their children. A 2009 study Volunteers of America revealed that after the release of their mothers from prison 81% of their children was their caregivers and not live with her mother. Women and girls who give birth can refuse care of voluntary withdrawal of the rights of their parents through the Termination of parental rights continue to allow for adoption. Paradoxically, an implicit recognition that children do not have the judgment needed parenthood reflected in the fact that children require a guardian ad Lite to terminate parental rights and adult institutions or payee to receive temporary assistance to families with dependent children benefits. Involuntary Termination of parental rights may be initiated after reasonable efforts to help parents meet the return conditions have failed. The parental rights of mothers also can be completed automatically childbirth under conditions as previous involuntary layoffs or murder of siblings. In some states, third parties such as foster parents can ask for cancellation of genetic parental rights. rights of fathers Unlike maternity, significant constitutional advice has been provided for the state determine paternity. States must ensure that people have the opportunity to seek to establish the child’s paternity. A genetic connection and relationship with the child (or efforts to establish one) are necessary for the Constitutional Assembly protection claim paternity case. Keeping parental rights, males must register with the putative father registries in different periods. Companies are required to notify alleged fathers approved plans mothers. Questions were raised about the feasibility of making fathers aware of the need to register. In a situation where genetic fathers will not admit paternity, government try to establish paternity through genetic testing, other biological evidence or recognition by the mother or father in order to seek child support. A father genetic tie can be overridden by the interests of the child are better served by a man who is married and a mother who has established a relationship with the child. In the 1989 US Supreme Court case of Michael H. v. Gerald D., genetic father of the child produced during the adulterous relationship was denied paternity in favor of a father who was actually raising the child. The common-law doctrine of parental immunity has argued that in the absence of willful and wanton misconduct, children can not sue their parents for neglect. To respond to the scale of child neglect and abuse, most state courts have begun to define parental responsibility. As long ago as l963, is Illinois Appeals Court heard Zepeda v. Zepeda where the child sued his father for having them to be born out of wedlock. While the suit was unsuccessful, it raised the issue of the legal right of the child to want, love and nurtured … in fact, be qualified parented. Children have successfully sued their parents for neglect and brought actions against third parties isolate the parent from the family. In l992 in Orlando, Florida, eleven-year-old Gregory Kingsley legally “divorced” his mother so he could be accepted by their foster parents. The parens patriae Doctrine The most important fact justifies the approach is that children choose families they are born. The parens patriae doctrine justifies state as part of the parents and the community agreement. Parens patriae is Latin for “Father of the Nation.” The theory provides the means and the power of the state to protect people who are legally unable to act on their own behalf. It gives courts supreme power to terminate parental rights and based on three criteria: • youth are periods of dependency and require monitoring. • The family is very important but the state should play a role in a child’s education and intervene when the family fails to provide adequate nurturance, moral training or supervision. • When parents disagree or not to exercise their authority, the appropriate authority to determine a child’s or teenager’s interests public official. parens patriae The theory allows the state to force parents and children to act in ways that are beneficial to the community. It has never been out of the state of the device bringing actions. Instead, the state is responsible for protecting the interests of children under the guidance of two principles: • Welfare society depends on children being educated and not exploited. • developmental needs of the child for nurturance and protection defined by child neglect and abuse laws. A 1985 decision of the Supreme Court of Canada the welfare of the child in disputes between genetic parents and third parties. In King v. Low Court noted that the requirements genetic parents would receive serious consideration, they must give way to the best interests of children when the children have developed a close psychological relationship with the other person. This view is taking hold in American courts as well. our legal system distinguishes between what parents can do themselves and what they can do for their children. For example, parents can refuse Essential medical treatment themselves, but usually is not allowed to do the same with their children. They are not allowed to physically harm their children, or they can allow children to physically harm themselves. Parents who fail to provide a minimum level of care, which leave their children or their grant checks can guilty of negligence. Parents physical, emotional or sexual abuse of children can be found guilty of abuse. Parents who have been convicted of serious crimes who abuse drugs or alcohol or who can not stand back condition after their children have been removed can be found unfit parents. When they can not convince or education to become competent parents within a certain time, parental rights can be terminated to make adoption. Despite parens patriae doctrine, the responsibility of the state if it does not protect minors has not been clearly defined. In l989, the US Supreme Court ruled in DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services that the state is not required by the Fourteenth Amendment to protect the life, liberty or property of citizens against invasion by private. Joshua DeShaney suffered brain damage from repeated blows with his father four years. Therefore Joshua was expected to be institutionalized for life. The US Supreme Court rejected arguments that the state had a duty to protect Joshua because it placed him once in foster care, and later because social workers suspected he was being abused by his father, but took no action. It thought that only “when the state takes a person in his custody and have him involuntarily,” the Fourteenth Amendment due process provisions require officials to take responsibility for the safety and well-being of the individual. At the same time, the Court did not rule out the possibility that the state acquired a duty to protect Joshua tort. An appellate court in California upheld the dismissal of a local court in suit with seventeen -Old the alleged loss of mismanagement accepted his newborn At age 17, Dennis Smith filed a complaint against Alameda County social services department that the agency liable for damages because it failed to find a foster family home when his mother gave him to the ministry for the purpose of adoption shortly after his birth. The Department put Dennis in a series of foster homes, but no one noticed him. Dennis argued that the Department negligently or intentionally failed to take reasonable measures to establish its adoption. He was deprived of proper and effective parental care and guidance and a safe family environment. Dennis alleged that this caused him mental and emotional harm. The dismissal complaint Dennis’ was upheld in appellate court on a number of reasons, including the difficulty in directly linking damage to his failure to arrange for his adoption. The Court suggested that responsibility could result in a more compelling relationship early life experiences and later outcomes. Cook County, Illinois, a claim out of court with eighteen year old boy on the neglect of county social workers. In this case, the relationship between professional practices and damage Billy Nichols apparently was actually In December 1981, the lawyers for the state of Illinois and Cook County paid $ 150,000 in out-of-court settlement of a suit of former dependent child Billy Nichols, who had been entrusted with the child welfare system and later as an adult sued the county social services agency for the neglect of the social workers who thought Billy subject and unfit to live in society. On September L9, l960, Billy and seven-month-old sister were abandoned by their mother and found eating garbage behind the slide-series project in Chicago. Age Billy (five) was unknown, and his speech was unintelligible. He was sent to an institution for the retarded in Michigan for four years. After subsequent turbulent foster home placement, he was placed in a juvenile prison security Cook County in nearly three years, although the head repeatedly petitioned the court to remove him. In l969, a legal aid attorney, Pat Murphy, filed a class-action suit to release dependent and neglected children from prison on behalf of Billy. 14, was Billy moved to Elgin State Hospital, where he ran away ten times and was committed to Illinois Security Hospital in Chester aged 18 years, three years later Attorney Murphy seized enroll Nichols in a psychiatric program for two years, until he was convicted of car theft. Cases continue to try to remedy the negative effects of the fetus. Class action suits have been used to drive improvements in child welfare services. In 1993, a class action suit was filed by the American Civil Liberties Union and the Children’s Rights Project, Inc., against Milwaukee County and position Wisconsin for failing to adequately protect children. In response, duties and powers of child welfare services were transferred from the county to the state Bureau of Milwaukee Child Welfare. The right to be competent Parent To say that the parent has the right to be competent could stretch the concept of rights too far. However, the logic for this right in our society is compelling and worth considering. First of all, as defined by the child of a parent unit is irreducible. Half of the unit’s parent, and half of the child. The interests of children and the interests of parents are inseparable, and both derive from objective child responsible citizenship. When parents face a dangerous environment, poverty, unemployment, illness or mental incapacities, their children inevitably face the same problem with risk of incompetent parents. If the interests of the children are fulfilled, the interests of parents must also be taken into account. If children have a moral right to competently parented, the parents have a moral right to be competent if they are not under legal or physical custody of others. Another reason is that the integrity of society itself depends upon competent parents. Incompetent parents threaten the stability of society and is a tremendous public expense. For this purpose will be a competent parent deserves the right position. Third, people have a genetic predisposition to a parent qualified to ensure the survival of our species. The goal reproduction is parenting, not just procreation. conceiving and launching birth care reality PARENTS own developmental stages of childhood, adolescence and adulthood. In a basic sense, competent parenting fulfills the role of a woman or a man in reproduction. In order to preserve humanity and our society, adults have the right to meet reproductive parents and their possibilities for the state to help them become competent parents when possible. Balancing the rights of parents and children The essence of youth in the early twentieth century was the synergy. The competent parents respected this dependency by judiciously exercise power. In the second half of the twentieth century, parental authority refused. Therefore, bringing a child has become a negotiation between parent and child with states and other agencies to monitor the process. In the past, children were considered to have the ability to now rarely do they have of their labor needed to help the family survive. In our efforts to give our children enjoyable childhoods, we tend to downplay the development of their need to take responsibility and obligations. Much confusion of adolescence caused by stressful confrontation between the rights of teenagers and their obligations to their parents. This shows responsibility for minors’ to accept parental authority and to work with their parents. In some ways, the modern teenager quest for independence represents a return to the time of the youth do not reach out fourteen. The difference is that in centuries past, people were economically productive age of fourteen and was not capable of reproduction but now they have increased the number of years, often in excess of adulthood, before they become financially rewarding. Shift in power from adults to children and adolescents have emotional and economic consequences. Parents can now look to their offspring for emotional support and give them excessive material goods that stress family finances. This change includes the ability of children and adolescents to bring proceedings against parents for alleged abuse without justification. All this has fallen parental authority. This trend toward overindulgence is further abetted by the use of young consumers. Although our tradition of independence has largely kept the government out of the family, the law is moving to define the limits of parental power. The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 the “Status fraction” of incorrigibility and run away from juvenile delinquency. They are now thought to be related to inadequate or inappropriate parental authority rather than say stems solely from adolescents. The focus has shifted to medical intervention. When family matters are brought into the justice system, the interests of children, parents and the state need to be carefully defined and the balance to determine the appropriate rule of law. evaluated the parental rights of competent parents If all parents and child serving organizations serve development interests of children, the issue of the rights of parents rarely be raised. parental rights are no longer based on the assumption that children are property. Legal and physical custody rights enable parents to perform their duties in the parent community agreement provides a strong moral imperative for the public to ensure children’s safety and quality of life. Parents’ rights actually powers necessary to fulfill the role of parents. A change from the rights of parents to the best interests of children has gradually come into our courts. Parents who fail to meet certain criteria may have parental rights stopped to allow the adoption of a child. Most states have set aside parental immunity doctrine so that children can sue parents in certain circumstances.

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Metamaterial structures are artificial materials that show unconventional electromagnetic properties such as photonic band-gap, extraordinary optical transmission and left-handed propagation. Up to now, relations of photonic crystals and negative refraction have been shown as well as of photonic crystals and sub-wavelength hole arrays. Here we report a left-handed metamaterial engineered by a combination of sub-wavelength hole array plates periodically stacked to form a photonic crystal structure. It is shown the possibility of fine-tuning the metamaterial in order to permit extraordinary optical transmission and left-handed behaviour. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of engineering left-handed metamaterials by just drilling holes in metallic plates and brings together single structure photonic crystals, extraordinary optical transmission and left-handed behaviour. ©2006 Optical Society of America Three discoveries have altered the state of the art of electromagnetic radiation research over the last years. First, the concept and realisation of photonic band-gap (PBG) structures have opened up new original approaches for the control of light flow and confinement with great technological consequences [1–4]. Photonic Crystals (Ph. C.) are artificial structures which fundamentally inhibit propagation of electromagnetic waves for certain directions and wavelengths [1,3], so-called photonic band-gap (PBG). Artificially introduced defects permit light control and localization [2,4], and for this reason they have been proposed as the photonic counterpart of electronic semiconductors . Second, the demonstration of extraordinary optical transmission (EOT) through subwavelength hole arrays and other structures has provided the basis for using subwavelength apertures for a variety of potential applications [5–10]. EOT through subwavelength hole arrays has been explained on the basis of surface plasmons [7–9]. Surface plasmons provide the possibility of localization and the guiding of light in subwavelength metallic structures [7–9], which can be tailored for the creation of plasmonic circuits with the potential ability to merge photonics and electronics . Third, the concept of negative refraction index (NRI) has refreshed the classical electrodynamics field by introducing highly unconventional properties-so-called left-handed metamaterials (LHM)-that can lead to a new class of devices [11–17]. Foremost among these properties is the opposite Snell’s refraction law at the interface between a standard and a NRI medium. For NRI to happen, both the permittivity and permeability must be negative simultaneously . Pendry claimed that those NRI materials could act as perfect lenses . Pendry’s group had previously shown the feasibility to fabricate an artificial material with negative permittivity using a lattice of thin metal wires , and they had also reported how to obtain a negative magnetic response from a lattice of “split rings resonators” . Smith at al. built a structure with simultaneous negative ε and µ showing negative refraction for the first time . Since then left-handed metamaterials have been achieved for frequencies in the microwave range [16,17] from split-ring resonators components and their complementary . Only very recently a media with negative permeability at optical frequencies has been reported , thus paving the way for NRI materials at visible frequencies . Up to now, relations of photonic crystals and negative refraction have been shown [21,22] as well as of photonic crystals and sub-wavelength hole arrays [23,24] and, moreover, evanescent growth and tunnelling effects have been predicted in paired complementary metamaterials [25,26]. Finally, it has also been suggested that negative refraction and extraordinary transmission through hole arrays are probably different manifestations of the same physical behaviour of surface modes . In this work we show how a left-handed metamaterial can be achieved by the periodic stacking of sub-wavelength hole array plates to form a photonic band-gap structure. Following our previous work in sub-wavelength hole arrays [28–30], a prototype was built and measured in the millimetre wave regime. It is experimentally shown that our structure (Fig. 1) shows both extraordinary transmission and a band-gap, as well as a left-handed behaviour in the frequency band where extraordinary transmission happens (Fig. 2). Further insight is gained by performing theoretical simulations with which the left-handed propagation can be visualised as presented in Figs. 3 and 5 and more explicitly in the provided supplementary video files (Fig. 4). 2. Photonic crystal of subwavelength hole arrays The metamaterial proposed here consists of a one-dimensional photonic crystal structure made by stacking sub-wavelength hole arrays sandwiched in air as in Fig. 1. It comes up as a natural evolution of Extraordinary Optical Transmission (EOT) structures. This phenomenon appears when λ≈d, being d the period of the holes, and when the modes inside the hole are evanescent, i.e., when d > λc>a, being λc the cut-off wavelength of the waveguide that forms the hole and a the hole diameter. Each sub-wavelength hole array of our device consists of a perforated aluminium plate with: hole diameter a=2.5 mm, transversal lattice constants dx=dy=d=5 mm, cut-off wavelength λc=4.3 mm (λc=0.85·d), metal thickness w=0.5 mm and array dimension of 54×54 holes, very high above the minimum number of holes required for EOT in finite structures [29,30]. With these parameters, EOT appears around 57 GHz (λ=5.26 mm) in spite of the fact that the individual holes start to propagate at 70 GHz (λc=4.3 mm). The longitudinal lattice dz between each hole array can be conveniently adjusted in order to select the band gap position of the photonic crystal structure, which is located around a wavelength two times the inter-plate air cavity length. For our experiment, it was selected dz=2.25 mm, i.e. cavity length dz-w=1.75 mm, which corresponds to a band-gap centred at 86 GHz (λ=3.41 mm). Therefore, the band gap has been placed far away over the frequency band where EOT appears, but close enough to visualize both phenomena within our experimental frequency range (see next section). 3. Transmission measurements Employing an AB MillimetreTM quasioptical vector network analyzer the amplitude and phase of the transmission coefficient have been measured in the frequency range of 40 up to 110 GHz (2.68 mm up to 7.34 mm) for the structure with the aforementioned parameters. The normalized amplitude in logarithmic scale, Fig. 2(a), shows a selective enhanced transmission band for a different number of plates, which could be used in various applications . Furthermore, in the band where the transmission reaches its maximum, the phase (Fig. 2(b)) surprisingly increases with the number of structure periods. Note that the phase for 2 plates (black line) is lower than for 3 plates (red line) and this two lower than for 4 plates (blue line) in the EOT frequency range, whereas out of this range the phase behaves normally, i.e. it decreases as the number of plates increases, see also Fig. 2(c). This result reveals that the phase velocity and power flow are in opposite directions in the EOT frequency range and, therefore, left-handed propagation effects appear inside the structure . Practically all the incident power is transmitted to the receiver (see Fig. 2(a)) at the EOT frequency due to a quasi perfect matching between the antennas, the free space and the photonic crystal. This can be made equivalent to a negative index of refraction that is exactly n=-1 at some frequency of the first band. A more detailed study of the negative index of refraction, the corresponding permittivity and permeability, as well as the effect of the number of plates and the longitudinal lattice period is under way and will be published elsewhere. For the case of plane waves at normal incidence, a negative space model can be used for the structure . Oblique incidence simulation and experiments are under development to prove the feasibility to build new refractive devices like flat and parabolic lenses and lefthanded prisms [10,12,17] To gain insight, the full-wave electromagnetic solver CST Microwave StudioTM was employed. Each plate was modelled as an infinite hole array, due to symmetry considerations and computational effort. This code allows us to compute the dispersion diagram and the electric field evolution inside the metamaterial. The dispersion diagrams for several structures of stacked hole arrays are displayed in Fig. 3. Figure 3(a) shows the dispersion diagram corresponding to the structure with the experimental parameters, i.e., subwavelength holes and dz=2.25 mm, whereas Fig. 3(b) shows the dispersion diagram for a structure with a longer longitudinal period, dz=2.75 mm. The EOT for the subwavelength hole array photonic crystal structure corresponds to the first band, which shows a negative slope, i.e., phase velocity opposite to the group velocity, see inset in Fig. 3(a). However, when the longitudinal period is increased, Fig. 3(b), the lefthanded behaviour turns into right-handed propagation: now this first band exhibits a positive slope. In Fig. 3(c), the first band is displayed for structures with shorter longitudinal periods than the operating wavelengths. All the bands have a negative slope showing that the proposed structure effectively works as a left-handed metamaterial. The origin of this behavior will be discussed in the next section. In addition, the dispersion diagram for a photonic crystal made of stacked arrays with propagating holes has been also calculated for dz=2.25 mm (Fig. 3(d)). The parameters of the structure with propagating holes are: a=4.0 mm, cut-off at 40 GHz (λc=7.5 mm, being λc=1.5·d), with the same lattice constants and metal thickness. For the case when the hole arrays are in propagation the first band becomes right-handed (RHM) and the left-handed effect disappears. Note that in both cases, i.e., sub-wavelength and propagating holes, we are dealing with the first band (shown in the insets of Fig. 3). The band gaps are placed at 86 GHz (λ=3.41 mm) in both cases due to the same inter-plate cavity. It can be observed that the band-gap in the sub-wavelength case is broader than in the propagating one. Moreover, a previous bandgap is present around 60 GHz (λ=5 mm) due to the transversal periodicity related to Wood anomalies [29,30]. Conversely, this band-gap is narrower in the subwavelength case. A graphical picture of the electric field evolution inside the metamaterial when a plane wave impinges normally to the plates is shown in the supplementary video files. These video files are separately attached for a real-time visualisation of the electric field evolution along different metamaterial structures. Each movie corresponds to the highlighted points (a, b, c and d) in Fig. 3. For the sub-wavelength structure with dz=2.25 mm, movie S1 displays the evolution of Ey (vertical component of the electric field) along z direction at a particular frequency inside the first band, say the frequency of maximum transmission with a single plate, 57.3GHz (point a in Fig. 3(a), λ=5.23 mm). It can be seen that the phase fronts inside the structure are reversed with respect to the incident and emergent plane wave phase fronts, proving the existence of a backward wave there. In other words, anti-parallel phase and group velocities inside the stacked hole array result in a left-handed metamaterial. For this structure it is also given the electric field evolution at the band gap, specifically at 86 GHz (point b in Fig. 3(a), λ=3.41 mm), see movie S2. Note the stationary wave pattern at the face where the plane wave is impinging on. For the sub-wavelength structure with a longer longitudinal period, dz=2.75 mm, working in its first band, at 54.6 GHz (point c in Fig. 3(b), λ=5.49 mm), it is readily seen (movie S3) that phase and group velocities travel parallel inside the structure, giving evidence of standard, right-handed behaviour. For propagating holes working in its first band, at 53.5 GHz (point d in Fig. 3(c), λ=5.61 mm), it is readily seen (movie S4) that phase and group velocities travel parallel inside the structure, giving again evidence of standard, right-handed behaviour. Finally, the electric field evolution at the band-gap of sub-wavelength structure with a longer longitudinal period, dz=2.75 mm, and of the propagating hole structure are not given since they show a similar behaviour as that of movie S2. The physical mechanism underlying the EOT is a resonant coupling process through the surface electromagnetic modes formed on each metal-dielectric interface of the periodic structure . An evanescent mode is excited inside the holes, which collaborate together to couple the power to the output face. Therefore, by drilling holes in a perfectly conducting material surface waves can be engineered and EOT achieved. Furthermore, as it is shown in this work, by periodically stacking subwavelength hole arrays not only EOT is achieved but a left-handed inner propagation can be created as well. Since the times of radar development, it is well known that a sub-wavelength hole in a conducting plate can be considered as a self-inductive element, being the self-inductance larger as the hole diameter decreases and, conversely, a capacitive response is obtained when the hole diameter increases . Therefore a subwavelength hole array in a conducting plate can be considered as an array of self-inductance elements. The hole array plate stacking brings about a mutual capacitance, Cplates, between the plates in such a way that an structure of shunt Lhole and series Cplates elements respectively is created. Additionally, the free space between the plates behaves as a transmission line with a distributed series inductance Lline and a distributed shunt capacitance Cline that permits wave propagation . For a fixed periodicity within the plate plane, as the hole diameter decreases the fractional area of metal is enlarged and the capacitance Cplates between the plates increases. At the same time, Cplates is augmented as the plates are stacked closer. A theoretical model of the phenomenon valid for normal incidence can be developed. This model is based on the introduction of an artificial waveguide with two ideal magnetic conductor vertical planes and two ideal electric conductor horizontal planes in such a way that the diffraction problem is reduced to that waveguide containing the transversal unit cell inside. The physical behavior of the structure can be described by the modes of the artificial waveguide and their interaction in the longitudinal periodic structure. Due to the complex electromagnetic field distribution governing this problem, we will follow a simplified approach in order to identify the kind of propagating waves present in these structures. A thorough analysis of the electromagnetic fields’ structure within the afore-mentioned model will be published elsewhere . Here, we have considered the evolution of the z-component of the electric field (i.e. perpendicular to the plates) along the y-z cutting plane at the frequency where EOT and LHM occur. Fig. 5(a) and Fig. 5(b) show the field for a single plate of subwavelength and propagating hole arrays respectively. It is clear that the electric field for subwavelength holes is much more intense than for propagating ones at the edge of each hole. Moreover, the field out of the subwavelength hole array plate extends over a longer distance perpendicular to the plate. Figs. 5(c) to 5(f) show the electric field for different stacked structures: subwavelength hole array plates stacked with periodicities dz=2.25 mm in the EOT-LHM band (Fig. 5(c)) and dz=2.75 mm in the EOT-RHM band (Fig. 5(e)) and inside the bandgap (Fig. 5(f)), as well as propagating hole array plates stacked with periodicity dz=2.25 mm (Fig. 5(d)). From this figure it is clear that the electric field along z behaves similarly for all the cases of subwavelength or propagating stacked hole arrays (Figs. 5(d), 5(e), and 5(f)) where usual RHM wave propagation has been observed (note that a RHM EOT is also present in Fig. 5(e)). In these cases, the fields are not able to change the total series inductance and the total shunt capacitance and, therefore, the waves are propagating in the usual RHM way. This is also in agreement with the dispersion diagrams of Fig. 3. However, for the case of EOT LHM, the field is very different compared with the remaining cases, see Fig. 5(c). It suggests that the inter-plate series Cplates and the subwavelength hole shunt inductance Lholes become dominant. Therefore, a dual transmission line , consisting of dominant shunt inductances and series capacitances, is formed. The key property of this simplified and idealized dual transmission line model is that it supports waves where energy and phase fronts are travelling in opposite ways, which implies that LHM propagation is present. It can be consequently stated that a left-handed metamaterial can be obtained by EOT through a photonic crystal structure of metallic plates with subwavelength hole arrays whenever the longitudinal periodicity of the structure is short enough to allow for an intense coupling between the subwavelength hole array plates. Conversely, a right-handed propagation is obtained for spaced subwavelength hole arrays and for arrays of propagating holes. Our results provide direct evidence to the previous statement that the extraordinary transmission, negative refraction, and photonic band-gap are connected phenomena. EOT through subwavelength hole arrays was originally achieved in the visible range [5,6], and afterwards demonstrated in the millimetre and microwave regimes provided a minimal number of interacting holes is present [29,30]. Conversely, left-handed metamaterials have been already achieved for frequencies in the microwave range [16,17], being now the challenge to build left-handed metamaterials that work at visible frequencies. The scaling up of left-handed structures based on split ring resonators to the optical regime is far from trivial. Split-ring resonators with critical features controlled on the level of 10 nm should be built, which is technologically difficult to achieve. Furthermore, inherent losses appearing in the optical regime could limit the response of these elements. It would be interesting to demonstrate the possibility of engineering left-handed metamaterials at the THz and the visible ranges by means of stacked subwavelength hole arrays drilled in metallic plates or by using plasmonic materials with sufficiently negative real part of the permittivity. Here, the role of EOT phenomenon in sub-wavelength hole arrays is essential in order to have an important useful power level at the output of the device and to provide the necessary shunt inductance to cause left-handed propagation when the plates are close enough. In this work we have shown how a left-handed metamaterial can be achieved by the periodic stacking of sub-wavelength hole array plates to form a photonic band-gap structure. Our results provide direct evidence that extraordinary transmission, negative refraction and photonic-band gap are connected phenomena. The reported results have been achieved for the millimetre range, but similar results are expected to happen at optical frequencies since extraordinary transmission has been shown at optical frequencies and the kind of structure presented here will present low losses in higher frequency regime. The control of the EOT-LHM could lead to a new class of practical devices both in the microwave and in the optical range. Further experiments and theoretical analysis are needed to grasp the full implications of these findings. This work has been supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia through the TEC2005-06923-C03-01 and TEC2005-06923-C03-02 projects. References and links 3. J. D. Joannopoulos, P. R. Villeneuve, and S. Fan, “Photonic crystals: putting a new twist on light,” Nature 386, 143–149 (1997). [CrossRef] 5. T. W. Ebbesen, H. J. Lezec, H. Ghaemi, T. Thio, and P. A. Wolf, “Extraordinary optical transmission through sub-wavelength hole arrays,” Nature 391, 667–669 (1998). [CrossRef] 11. V. G. Veselago, “The electrodynamics of substances with simultaneously negative values of ε and µ,” Sov. Phys. Usp 10, 509–514 (1968). [CrossRef] 14. J. B. Pendry, A. J. Holden, D. J. Robbins, and W. J. Stewart, “Magnetism from conductors and enhanced nonlinear phenomena,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. 47, 2075–2084 (1999). [CrossRef] 16. D. R. Smith, J. B. Pendry, and M. C. K. Wiltshire, “Metamaterials and negative refractive index,” Science 305, 788–792 (2005). [CrossRef] 18. F. Falcone, et al., “Babinet principle applied to metasurface and metamaterial design,” Phys. Rev. Lett.93, 197401-1-4 (2004). [CrossRef] 21. M. Notomi, “Negative refraction in photonic crystals,” Opt. Quantum Electron. 34, 133–143 (2002). [CrossRef] 25. A. Alu and N. Engheta, “Pairing an epsilon-negative slab with a mu-negative, slab: resonance, tunneling and transparency,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 51, 2558–2271 (2003). [CrossRef] 26. A. Alu and N. Engheta, “Evanescent growth and tunneling through stacks of frequency-selective surfaces,” IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett., 0177–2005 (2005). 27. G. Gomez-Santos, “Universal features of the time evolution of evanescent modes in a left-handed perfect lens,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 077401-1-4 (2003). [CrossRef] 29. M. Beruete, et al., “Enhanced millimetre wave transmission through quasioptical subwavelength perforated plates,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 53, 1897–1902 (2005). [CrossRef] 30. M. Beruete, M. Sorolla, I. Campillo, and J.S. Dolado, “Increase of the transmission in cut-off metallic hole arrays,” IEEE Microwave Wirel. Compon. Lett. 15, 116–118 (2005). [CrossRef] 31. J. Schwinger, J., and D. E. Saxon, Discontinuities in Waveguides, Notes on Lectures by Julian Schwinger (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1968). 32. S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, and T. Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics (John Wiley & Sons, Third Edition, 1994). 33. M. Beruete, I. Campillo, and M. Sorolla, “Molding left-or right-handed metamaterials by stacked cut-off metallic hole arrays,” submitted to IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.

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In a modeling study addressing measles vaccination approaches in four developing countries, Justin Lessler and colleagues investigate the relative merits of disease outbreak or serologically triggered vaccination campaigns. In a modeling study addressing measles vaccination approaches in four developing countries, Justin Lessler and colleagues investigate the relative merits of disease outbreak or serologically triggered vaccination campaigns. Measles remains a leading cause of death among young children in low-income countries, despite considerable progress over the last decade . The major measles control activities in addition to routine vaccination are supplemental immunization activities (SIAs), i.e., periodic national or regional campaigns aimed at providing vaccine to everyone in a defined age range . Ultimately, the core solution to measles control lies in routine vaccination with at least two doses of measles-containing vaccine (MCV) but, in much of the world, SIAs are relied upon to achieve adequate coverage. However, even countries thought to have highly successful control sometimes experience large outbreaks because of unnoticed buildups of susceptible individuals, as recently occurred in countries such as Zambia, Malawi, and Burkina Faso . The 2009 WHO guidelines for outbreak response in mortality reduction settings and the WHO Global Measles and Rubella Strategic Plan for 2012–2014 extended the classic “static” control strategies (routine immunization and SIAs occurring at intervals determined by the level of routine coverage) to include the possibility of reactive responses [2,4]. Outbreak response vaccination (ORV) was recommended for outbreaks occurring in measles mortality reduction areas , based on evidence that epidemics build sufficiently slowly that large numbers of cases can be averted given a sufficiently prompt reaction [5–8]. ORV has also been recommended in elimination settings, where a single case should lead to appropriate outbreak investigation and response, including vaccination of susceptible people in as wide an area as possible . Identifying the most effective strategies for outbreak response immunization activities has been posed as one of the key issues in a recent review of research priorities for measles eradication . However, although there has been a range of quantitative analyses on the impact of varying characteristics of static immunization strategies (e.g., the interval between SIAs) , investigations of the outcomes of reactive vaccination coverage are rare. Ferrari and colleagues showed that ORV might be key to reducing the case burden in the context of irregular, violent measles dynamics in Niger . This inferred impact of reactive vaccination echoes theoretical analyses showing that average outbreak size grows exponentially with the delay from the start of an outbreak to the implementation of an intervention [13,14]. Beyond these few analyses, little is known. We propose that such reactive vaccination campaigns be considered as part of a larger class of triggered campaigns (TCs). One could imagine a large number of reactive and prophylactic triggers for such campaigns—for instance, triggers based on case detection, measures of population immunity, or the recent performance of routine vaccination programs (many of these triggers were invoked for the 1994 campaign in England and Wales) [15,16]. Here we use stochastic age-structured epidemic models to compare two TC strategies with the SIA/routine vaccination combination that is currently in use. We consider TC strategies in four hypothetical countries, representative of the demographics and WHO-United Nations Children's Fund’s (UNICEF) (WHO/UNICEF Estimates of National Immunization Coverage [WUENIC)) estimated MCV1 vaccination coverage in areas that are having varying success in measles control but have not achieved elimination. We emphasize that these scenarios are selected to capture and exemplify the essence of realistic regimes of demographics and measles control and are not intended to accurately represent any particular country, population, or measles control program. The hypothetical countries are (A) a moderate-birth-rate, moderate-coverage country (similar to Yemen, 73% MCV1 coverage, 38 births per 1,000), (B) a high-birth-rate, moderate-coverage country (similar to Niger, 71% MCV1 coverage, 48 births per 1,000), (C) a lower-birth-rate, moderately high-coverage country (similar to Nepal, 86% MCV1 coverage, 24 births per 1,000), and (D) a high-birth-rate, moderately high-coverage country (similar to Zambia, 91% MCV1 coverage, 46 births per 1,000). Vaccination rates were roughly based on the WHO-UNICEF adjusted estimates for 2014, except for Zambia, where the approximate 2009 rate was used to illustrate a higher-coverage setting. The assumed birth rate, routine vaccine coverage, and population pyramid for each exemplar country are shown in S1 Table. The population modeled was equivalent to the size of the capital cities of the exemplar countries, to capture the size of the population where the random mixing assumptions of the epidemic models used most nearly hold and to avoid the need to account for geographic population structure in our results. In each country, we assumed that routine coverage was constant at the hypothetical country baseline or varied around that baseline as a random walk (see below). In all simulations, regularly planned SIAs with 80% coverage of the target population of children between 9 and 59 mo of age were modeled to occur every 5 y. Five years was selected as the maximum interval between SIAs that would give each birth cohort (with the exception of those born in the 9 mo prior to the SIA) two vaccination opportunities from the combination of routine vaccination and regularly scheduled SIAs. As with the hypothetical countries, these scenarios are meant to capture a not-implausible baseline intervention scenario that allows for comparison of TC strategies while minimizing the number of free (i.e., changeable) variables in the model (WHO recommendations are for SIAs every 2–4 y depending on routine vaccine program performance). We compared this default control program with TCs triggered by the occurrence of N or more cases in a bi-week (when <N occurred in the previous bi-week) or the measurement of less than 85% measles seroprevalence in a sampled sentinel population. Based on informal discussions with colleagues at organizations working in measles control (e.g., WHO and Médecins Sans Frontières), case-based triggers of N = 10 and N = 25 were considered. Two sentinel populations were considered for seroprevalence studies: children from 24–36 mo of age and those from 2–5 y of age. Each August (the low measles transmission season in our simulations), serological measurements were performed in a representative random sample of 200 individuals from each sentinel population. Once a TC is triggered, there is a delay of 3 mo from the date of the survey to allow for reporting and logistical delays (longer and shorter delays are considered in a sensitivity analysis), and then a campaign is conducted that is assumed to reach 20% of the hypothetical country’s unimmunized population who are 6–59 mo of age (i.e., though a much higher percentage of the overall target population may receive MCV in the TC, only 20% of those who have not been previously successfully vaccinated will do so). The low effective coverage was selected to reflect the fact that such “just in time” campaigns are likely to be less effective at reaching previously unvaccinated populations than typical SIAs, as well as the difficulty in reaching chronically unvaccinated populations (alternate coverages were examined in sensitivity analyses) . In subanalyses, we also consider the effect of targeting a wide age range (6 mo olds to 15 y olds), motivated by the wide age range of measles cases seen in some outbreaks after a long period of successful control . The measles vaccine is assumed to function as an “all or nothing” vaccine (i.e., it induces full or no immunity), with vaccine effectiveness increasing with age during the first year of life as specified in Lessler et al. . In our models, those without immunity after receiving a dose of vaccine have the same opportunity to be vaccinated and protected in other rounds as if they had not previously received a dose of vaccine. Routine vaccination is considered to reach the assumed level at 24 mo of age, with the age distribution of coverage following the same pattern as was measured for Zambia in previous work . In further simulations, to capture realistic deviations from presumed routine coverage, we implemented an autocorrelated random walk, designed to reflect a chosen variance, τ2, over 10 y. At every time-step, we generated a random deviate from a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance set to τ2 / [24 x 10]. If the probability density of this candidate value based on a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance τ2 was greater than a random deviate from a uniform distribution, the candidate was adopted; if not, the previous value was retained. The true value of routine coverage at each time-step was obtained by increasing or reducing current vaccination rates by this value. To capture realistic deviations from presumed SIA coverage, we generated random deviates from a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance identical to that used for routine vaccination; this was added to the presumed level of SIA coverage. In addition to the default scenario described above, we considered alternate coverage levels for TCs (10% and 40% of susceptibles covered), differing delays between a TC being triggered and implemented (1 mo and 6 mo) and an alternate level for the case-based trigger (ten cases). Simulations and Comparison We performed stochastic simulations (200 for constant-routine vaccination-rate scenarios, 1,500 for varying-routine vaccination-rate scenarios) of each intervention scenario for each country using a seasonally forced, age-structured time-series susceptible infected recovered (TSIR) model, details of which can be found in Metcalf et al. (2012) . Each simulation was run for 20 y after the introduction of a single measles case in a fully susceptible population with only routine vaccination and SIAs used for control. After these 20 y of “burn in,” additional intervention strategies were introduced, and the simulation was run for an additional 15 y. Intervention scenarios were compared based upon the total number of cases, the number of cases averted, and the frequency at which TCs were triggered. Additional methodological details are provided in S1 Text. For each country, we simulated time-series of measles incidence and critical vaccination events for both the baseline scenario (no TCs, routine vaccination based on the country setting, and SIAs every 5 y) and the baseline scenario plus TCs (case-based or serologic) (Fig 1). The projected cumulative measles incidence in each scenario shows clear benefits from TCs compared to static vaccination strategies (Fig 2). In Yemen- and Niger-like settings, where routine coverage is relatively low, serologically triggered campaigns prevent more cases than both case-based triggers and no-TC scenarios (Figs 2 and 3). In Nepal- and Zambia-like countries, where routine coverage is relatively high, TCs are generally better than the baseline case (no triggers), but the benefits are less stark and are dwarfed by expected variation from stochastic variability. In these situations, the expected benefits of all but the most sensitive serologically triggered campaigns compared to case base methods are less clear. Fig 3 shows the effects on cumulative case burden after 15 y of an array of different strategies with different degrees of coverage and delays before TC implementation. Relative to the baseline scenario (no triggers, vertical red line) the effect of TCs is considerably more marked in contexts where baseline coverage is lower (e.g., Yemen-like countries), especially where a reasonable degree of coverage can be attained in the TCs. However, an effect can be seen in all scenarios. In some contexts, monitoring only 2 y olds (24–36 mo of age) for higher levels of susceptibility (15%) achieves similar outcomes to monitoring children aged 2–5 y with a more sensitive cutoff (10%) and may be logistically easier. The greater impact of TCs in low-coverage situations is largely the result of more frequent TCs. In the Yemen-like situation, a sensitive serologic trigger (i.e., 10% susceptibility in children) leads to TCs being conducted in 10 out of the first 15 y from policy implementation, essentially becoming a routine event (Table 1, S1, S2 and S3 Tables). While case-triggered approaches lead to a smaller reduction in cumulative incidence, they occur far less frequently and tend to result in more cases prevented per campaign in lower-coverage (Yemen-like) situations. In higher-coverage situations, serologically triggered TCs occur far less often, and using a sensitive susceptibility trigger of 10% appears to be able to greatly reduce the size of epidemics. In these settings, case-based, or higher (15%) susceptibility, triggers have less impact. The expected (i.e., average) effect of a reactive intervention on case burden is clearly of interest; however, it may not be the most important public health outcome. Instead, we may be more concerned with preventing less common, but disastrous, large epidemics. While simulations suggest a strong benefit of TCs in reducing the median simulated cumulative incidence only in high-incidence (i.e., Yemen- and Niger-like) settings, TCs limit the size of the largest epidemics seen in all settings. In simulations with stochasticity in underlying vaccination rates, the most effective serology-based TCs reduced the size of the largest epidemics seen (i.e., the 97.5th percentile of size) by 64% or more in all scenarios (Fig 4, S4 Fig). Hence, TCs may be effective in preventing the worst epidemics in all settings. In low-incidence settings, case-based approaches can be nearly as effective for preventing extremely large outbreaks as serological approaches (Fig 4), although serological approaches are more effective overall. Subanalyses in which TCs target 6 mo olds to 15 y olds show qualitatively similar results to the main analysis (S2, S3, and S4 Figs, and S4 Table). Improvements are significant, for case-trigger-based TCs in high-incidence settings, in some instances preventing over 150% as many cases, but tend to be less pronounced for serologically triggered TCs and in low-incidence settings, where in most instances differences are not significant. This analysis explored the impact of TCs across a range of demographic and measles vaccine coverage contexts. We found that TCs consistently reduced the cumulative case burden. Furthermore, in all settings, TCs were effective in preventing rare yet large and potentially most damaging measles epidemics. We found that this positive impact is observed even for campaigns reaching 20% or less of the unimmunized population, and the largest impact is observed for serologically triggered surveys. Overall, however, the magnitude of the impact of TCs is highly dependent on the demographic and vaccine coverage context considered. Some TC strategies may be triggered so often that they become highly inefficient (i.e., few cases are prevented per campaign). Consequently, our results suggest that although TCs could powerfully strengthen measles control programs in some settings, they are not appropriate to all settings. Where routine coverage is relatively high and measles well controlled, as is the case in the Nepal- and Zambia-like scenarios, case-based triggers are not very effective in terms of cases averted per campaign (S1 Table). This is because when outbreaks occur, they will tend to be of short duration, given the rarity of susceptibles, so that campaigns triggered by the start of any outbreak will only avert a small number of cases. Serology-based triggers (essentially triggered prophylactic vaccination) can help prevent outbreaks before they begin and thus prevent more cases per campaign. This underlines the major potential benefits of susceptibility monitoring as an effective form of risk management by serology, when logistically feasible . However, in low-incidence settings, both serology- and case-based approaches will rarely be triggered (in many simulations for Zambia- and Nepal-like settings, no TC was triggered), but having a TC program in place effectively avoids the worst outcomes in terms of large measles epidemics and can provide a safeguard against the effects of overestimation of vaccination coverage in routine programs or SIAs (Fig 4). If measles is less well controlled, as in our Yemen- and Niger-like scenarios, serology-based triggers would lead to a TC almost every year (Fig 1, Table 1, and S1 Table). This suggests that rather than the additional investment in a serological survey every year, simply supplementing routine vaccination by a yearly campaign might be more effective, if the required investment in campaigns is considered acceptable. By contrast, case-triggered campaigns occur much less frequently and are effective (though less so) in averting cases, as outbreaks tend to be of long duration. Case-based TCs should consequently be the supplementary strategy of choice if resource constraints mean that scheduled campaigns are not implemented often enough and that routine coverage is not increased. Just as serology-based campaigns will be inefficient in contexts where measles is poorly controlled, more broadly, any TC strategy will not be suitable for countries with particularly low measles vaccination coverage and large yearly epidemics. In these settings, any TC trigger will likely be activated every year, and the approach will cease to be one of TCs and will become one of regular yearly supplemental vaccination activities covering a broad age range. While such activities would undoubtedly aid in measles control, they would merely be a poorly planned version of a strategy of yearly SIAs. Serosurveys covering wider age ranges than considered here may capture some important gaps in immunity in older age groups and better reflect relevant population susceptibility, but may yield limited benefits over an ongoing program of regular serosurveys of a narrower age group in which each cohort would have been surveyed at an earlier age. Targeting a small, young age group will also increase power if the size of the serosurvey is limited, as an equal-sized survey spread across larger age groups will have more noise and be less likely to detect cohorts of high susceptibility. This higher sensitivity is one reason for the superior performance of triggers focused on 24–36 mo olds in our simulations. However, if only young individuals are tested, trends in serosurvey results year-to-year should be carefully tracked. TCs remain a sparsely deployed public health strategy. Case-triggered campaigns are the most common, particularly in situations in which elimination has been achieved (e.g., the United States) . For nonelimination situations, in low- and middle-income countries, a recent review found that out of 461 outbreaks reported in the literature, only 38 referred to case-triggered campaigns . We could not identify any clear serologically triggered campaigns (although serology contributed to the 1994 campaign in the United Kingdom [15,16] and led to continued use of polio vaccine in US army recruits [DS Burke, personal communication] ). Our results indicate that this might be a fruitful area for further development of public health strategy. Having a TC strategy in place might be particularly useful in countries with high (>90%) purported vaccination coverage, serving as a safeguard against accumulations of immunity if routine SIAs are no longer considered to be needed. The costs of a TC program can be divided into three categories: (1) the cost of ongoing monitoring, (2) the costs of conducting each campaign, and (3) the cost of having resources available to implement an emergency campaign. If surveillance programs are already robust, case-based TC programs would incur minimal excess costs, if any; however, in countries where surveillance is poor, small, highly targeted serosurveys may actually be cheaper than system-wide improvements in case detection (although the latter is needed in any case if countries are to move towards elimination). The bulk of additional costs will come from campaigns themselves and include direct costs such as vaccine doses, personnel, and equipment, as well as indirect costs incurred from diverting resources from other health activities. These costs are proportional to the number of campaigns performed; hence, they will be greatest when serosurvey-based triggers are used in high-incidence settings. The costs of having resources at the ready are potentially significant, but costs could be minimized by having a shared stockpile that countries could draw from in an emergency (e.g., the International Coordinating Group oral cholera vaccine stockpile). Strategic modeling studies such as this require a balance of realism with abstraction and generalization. Hence, there are many limitations in our study that affect the quantitative interpretation of this analysis in relation to any particular country or setting. Countries were assumed to have demographic, but not spatial, structure, and such spatial heterogeneities can have a considerable effect on dynamics and campaign performance if certain areas are systematically missed. We used a highly simplified model of measles vaccination policy, and current practice of basing the frequency and age-range of SIAs on routine vaccination program performance and measles incidence may achieve some of the reductions in incidence achieved by TCs. Likewise, while the control strategies here are illustrative of those that might be considered, they ignore some complexities (e.g., the proportion of cases detected by surveillance) and are not optimized for each setting. Before implementing a TC-based strategy, countries may want to perform additional analyses based on their measles control goals and adjustfor the performance of their surveillance system. Even in simulation studies, it is not practical to create a perfect counterfactual for every instance of an epidemic and control strategy; hence, we can only compare strategies using aggregate statistics. Further, there is currently very little data on the costs of implementation of the various components of a triggered vaccination strategy, and further research is needed to evaluate the investment case for TCs. Despite these limitations, our study provides insights into the potential effectiveness of triggered control strategies and the context in which such strategies might or might not be effective. While our focus here was on measles in countries with stable vaccination programs, TC campaigns may be relevant for other vaccines within the Expanded Program on Immunization. One key advantage of expanding the program might be that serological surveys could be combined, maximizing returns on that investment, which our analysis also shows can be effective even for relatively modest-sized surveys (e.g., 200 people in cities of 1–2 million). Likewise, TCs may also play an important role in the pathway to elimination when routine vaccine coverage is increasing, serving as a potential safeguard as SIAs are being phased out, and the optimal use of TCs in such situations is an important area for future research. However, an important caveat is that all TC strategies may be vulnerable to underlying heterogeneities in case numbers or susceptibility profiles (for example, spatial heterogeneities within cities or across countries), which may result in either too frequent or too rare triggering. The potential for greater use of serological monitoring of population susceptibility to vaccine-preventable infections and its use both for triggering supplementary control activities and for monitoring progress towards elimination targets needs further investigation. 4. World Health Organization. Response to measles outbreaks in measles mortality reduction settings, Report No.: WHO/IVB/09.03. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009. 5. Grais RF, De Radiguès X, Dubray C, Fermon F, Guerin PJ. Exploring the time to intervene with a reactive mass vaccination campaign in measles epidemics. Epidemiol Infect. 2006;134: 845–9. doi: 10.1017/S0950268805005716 16438743 6. Grais RF, Conlan AJK, Ferrari MJ, Djibo A, Le Menach A, Bjørnstad ON, et al. Time is of the essence: exploring a measles outbreak response vaccination in Niamey, Niger. J R Soc Interface. 2008;5: 67–74. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2007.1038 17504737 7. Cairns KL, Perry RT, Ryman TK, Nandy RK, Grais RF. Should outbreak response immunization be recommended for measles outbreaks in middle- and low-income countries? An update. J Infect Dis. 2011;204 Suppl: S35–46. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir072 8. Luquero FJ, Pham-Orsetti H, Cummings DA, Ngaunji PE, Nimpa M, Fermon F, et al. A long-lasting measles epidemic in Maroua, Cameroon 2008–2009: mass vaccination as response to the epidemic. J Infect Dis. 2011;204 Suppl: S243–51. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir093 9. Pan American Health Organization. Measles elimination: field guide. Washington D.C.: PAHO; 2005. 10. Goodson JL, Chu SY, Rota PA, Moss WJ, Featherstone DA, Vijayaraghavan M, et al. Research priorities for global measles and rubella control and eradication. Vaccine. 2012;30: 4709–16. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.04.058 22549089 11. Bauch CT, Szusz E, Garrison LP. Scheduling of measles vaccination in low-income countries: projections of a dynamic model. Vaccine. 2009;27: 4090–8. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.04.079 19410622 12. Ferrari MJ, Grais RF, Bharti N, Conlan AJK, Bjørnstad ON, Wolfson LJ, et al. The dynamics of measles in sub-Saharan Africa. Nature. 2008;451: 679–84. doi: 10.1038/nature06509 18256664 13. Drake JM. Limits to forecasting precision for outbreaks of directly transmitted diseases. PLoS Med. 2006;3: e3. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030003 16435887 14. Klepac P, Bjørnstad ON, Metcalf CJE, Grenfell BT. Optimizing reactive responses to outbreaks of immunizing infections: balancing case management and vaccination. PLoS ONE. 2012;7: e41428. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041428 22899996 15. Miller E. The new measles campaign. BMJ. 1994;309: 1102–3. 7987096 16. Ramsay M, Gay N, Miller E, Rush M, White J, Morgan-Capner P, et al. The epidemiology of measles in England and Wales: rationale for the 1994 national vaccination campaign. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1994;4: R141–6. 7529089 17. Lessler J, Metcalf CJE, Grais RF, Luquero FJ, Cummings DA, Grenfell BT. Measuring the Performance of Vaccination Programs Using Cross-Sectional Surveys: A Likelihood Framework and Retrospective Analysis. PLoS Med. 2011;8: e1001110. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001110 22039353 18. Minetti A, Kagoli M, Katsulukuta A, Huerga H, Featherstone A, Chiotcha H, et al. Lessons and Challenges for Measles Control from Unexpected Large Outbreak, Malawi. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19: 202–9. doi: 10.3201/eid1902.120301 23343504 19. Lessler J, Moss WJ, Lowther SA, Cummings DAT. Maintaining high rates of measles immunization in Africa. Epidemiol Infect. 2010; 1–11. doi: 10.1017/S0950268810002232 20. Metcalf CJE, Lessler J, Klepac P, Cutts F, Grenfell BT. Impact of birth rate, seasonality and transmission rate on minimum levels of coverage needed for rubella vaccination. Epidemiol Infect. 2012; 1–12. doi: 10.1017/S0950268812000131 21. Ferrari MJ, Grenfell BT, Strebel PM. Think globally, act locally: the role of local demographics and vaccination coverage in the dynamic response of measles infection to control. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2013;368: 20120141. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0141 23798689 22. Guris D, Harpaz R, Redd SB, Smith NJ, Papania MJ. Measles surveillance in the United States: an overview. J Infect Dis. 2004;189 Suppl: S177–84. doi: 10.1086/374606 23. Burke DS, Gaydos JC, Hodder RA, Bancroft WH. Seroimmunity to polioviruses in U.S. Army recruits. J Infect Dis. 1979;139: 225–7. 220335

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Modelling and Configuration Many different factors and criteria should be considered in order to design an acceptable RAPS. To power the service vehicle's auxiliary devices from braking recovered energy, a regenerative braking system should be integrated into the vehicle powertrain. The connection of the RAPS to the vehicle powertrain, total system configuration, safety, weight, and size of components are the most important factors. As the first step, integration of the RAPS to the vehicle powertrain should be investigated in detail. It is vital that connection of the RAPS does not cause any major modification to the existing vehicle; otherwise, the initial cost of the total system and the safety concerns will reduce industry interest. The other important point is that the designed RAPS must be modular and easy-to-install in order to reduce installation time and costs. Additionally, this research is intended for use in any service vehicle with auxiliary devices, so RAPS components and especially their models should be generic, modular, and flexible for the creation of scalable powertrains and RAPS components models. Given these considerations, in this study, the RAPS components are designed with the different configurations of different powertrains in mind. By utilizing this method, RAPS components can be designed separately and added to an existing vehicle. In the first part of this chapter, the design configuration of the RAPS is discussed, and the two most possible categories for integration configurations are described. The modelling concepts of different RAPS components are explained in the last part. System Configuration and Potential Energy Recovery As illustrated in Figure 3.1, a RAPS consists of different electrical and mechanical parts. Input mechanical energy will be extracted from the vehicle's powertrain through the "RAPS Connection Point". There are different options for this connection point, and they will be explained in later sections. This extracted mechanical energy is in the form of torque and angular velocity. Based on the specifications and limitations of the generator, it is possible to change the range of the input angular velocity to the acceptable range of the generator. Figure 3.1 Regenerative auxiliary power system (RAPS) configuration The "Generator" will convert the mechanical energy into the electrical energy and produce electrical energy, in the form of current and voltage, to charge the "Electrical Energy Storages". The output energy of the generator will be sent to the "Electrical Energy Storages" through the "Power Electronics" module. The "Power Electronics" module controls the input energy flow to the "Electrical Energy Storages". The "Power Electronics" module function is to monitor the electrical energy flow and maintain the current and voltage in a form and range that is suitable for charging the "Electrical Energy Storages". As previously mentioned, the option for plug-in charging is considered for the proposed RAPS. The "Plug-in Charging" part will send the plug electrical energy to the "Electrical Energy Storages" through the "Power Electronics" module. The "Power Electronics" module has the ability to convert the plug-in AC electricity to the acceptable DC power by the "Electrical Energy Storage". The "Electrical Energy Storages" stores the electrical energy and provides power to the vehicle's auxilary devices. The "Power Management Controller" will monitor the power demand, battery state of charge (SOC), vehicle status, and brake pedal signal, and based on these conditions, it will control the system's power flow. It should be noted that the one-way arrows in Figure 3.1 show the power flow in the RAPS, but the two-way arrow between the whole RAPS and the "Power Management Controller" is the flow of data and state conditions information. System Integration to Powertrain There are different parts in a vehicle powertrain that can be used to extract mechanical power for the generator. Possible configurations can be catagories in two main groups based on the amount of the demanded power; however, as explained in detail in the following sections, the limitation of the powertrain and connecting components are also very important in this classification. Two main groups of possible configurations are defined as: Low Power Demand System (Serpentine Belt) Configuration For service vehicles with power demands, it can be considered that the generator, which is mostly an alternator in this configuration, is connected to the engine's serpentine belt. The serpentine belt is a continuous belt used to power different devices, which are extracting their power directly from the engine. In this system, the serpentine belt connects the engine crankshaft to multiple devices including the alternator, water pump, air pump, air conditioning compressor, power steering pump, etc. In service vehicles, there is usually a space allocated to the attachment of another device, usually a compressor, to be powered by the serpentine belt. In the design of RAPS with low power demands, this space, as shown in Figure 3.2, can be used to install the extra generator. In addition, for service vehicles without this extra space, there is the option to utilize a higher output alternator instead of the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) alternator. Figure 3.2 Available space to install generator in the low power demand targeted vehicle "Ford Transit Connect Cargo XL-2010" Figure 3.3 shows schematically the low power configuration and attachment of the generator to the engine. In this figure, the small arrows show the mechanical or electrical power flow and the big arrows emphasize the direction of the energy flow. The drawback of the low power demand configuration is that the maximum captured kinetic energy during braking is limited by the size of the generator-alternator. Thus, the regenerative energy is limited by the available space for the generator and the characteristics of the serpentine belt, especially its maximum tension capacity. This configuration is the main solution for vehicles, such as front wheel vehicles, with little space for adding the generator to the powertrain. Figure 3.3 Low power demand systems (the serpentine belt) configuration High Power Demand System (Power Take Off) Configurations In service vehicles with high power demands, the generator can be driven by a power take off (PTO) module. In a vehicle, the engine produces power and transfers it to the wheels through the bell housing, transmission, drive shaft, differential and final axles. This condition can be better illustrated in a rear drive vehicle schematic as shown in Figure 3.4. In theory, it is possible to extract the mechanical power for the generator from 6 locations. However, PTO should allow RAPS to run directly from the engine when the vehicle is stopped. This option is possible if a PTO can be installed at a point between the engine and the transmission. Figure 3.4 Possible power extraction (PTO Installation) points in the high power demand system configuration In order to extract power at each of these points, a different PTO is needed. Generally, the required PTOs can be categorized into three main types; - "Split Shaft PTO" : As shown in Figure 3.5, there are different designs and sizes for this kind of PTO. In Split Shaft PTOs, the input shaft runs two output shafts where one is a through shaft and the other is for power take off. Considering Figure 3.4, this type of PTO can be used in the following point: Point 1: Shaft connecting engine to the bell housing Point 2: Connecting the shaft of the bell housing of the transmission Point 5: Driveline shaft (drive shaft) Point 6: Any of the axles Figure 3.5 "Split Shaft PTO" It should be considered that in order to install the Split Shaft PTO, one of the power transferring shafts of the existing vehicle requires modification; also, for any of the considered points there should be enough space to install the PTO. Hence, from all the possible installation points for Split Shaft PTO, point 5 is the most acceptable one. This location, however, does not allow the generator run directly from the engine when the vehicle is stationary. Some Split Shaft PTO could be an option; however, it requires driver action which may make this solution generally undesirable. - "Side Countershaft PTO": These types of PTOs are most common, and normally, they are just referred to as PTO- without any prefix. As shown in Figure 3.6, these PTOs will be installed to the output of the transmission. In most service vehicles or heavy-duty vehicles there is a place to install these PTOs. Considering Figure 3.4, this type of PTO can be used in: Point 4: Transmission output to the drive shaft However, installing a PTO for generator power extraction at Point 4 has the same setback as Point 5 and may not be desirable. Figure 3.6 "Side Countershaft PTO" - "Transmission Aperture PTO": In most heavy-duty vehicles, especially service vehicles, the option for mechanical powering of extra devices has been allocated. In these cases, as shown in Figure 3.7, the vehicle transmission has a special place for installing a "Transmission Aperture PTO" to power up other devices. Considering Figure 3.4, this type of PTO can be used in: Point 3: Transmission Aperture Figure 3.7 "Transmission Aperture PTO" There are different scenarios that should be considered for all configurations: I) Braking: It is expected that RAPS employs the waste energy during braking and maximizes the use of regenerative braking energy. The system will be considered to be in the regenerative braking phase if all the following conditions are met: 1. The vehicle is braking (braking signal is sent to the controller) 2. The vehicle speed is higher than a threshold (higher than 16 km/h based on suggestion) 3. The EES is not full (battery SOC level is lower than 100%) For a low power demand system (serpentine belt) configuration during braking, in an automatic transmission, the torque converter still gets braking powers from the drive wheels to pass on the serpentine belt. However, in manual transmissions (or automatic transmissions at very low vehicle speeds) during braking, the clutch will disconnect the engine-belt from the transmission (or the torque converter does not pass the remaining braking energy.); thus, regenerative braking energy is just part of the kinematic energy in the crankshaft and moving inertia of the engine. For the high power demand system (PTO) configuration, segments of the drive wheel braking powers, kinetic energy in the crankshaft, and moving inertia of engine during braking can be converted into the regenerative braking power. For this configuration, in manual transmissions during braking, the clutch will disconnect the engine from the transmission and other parts of the driveline. Therefore, if point 1 is considered as the RAPS connection point to vehicle drivetrain, regenerative braking energy will be just part of the kinetic energy in the crankshaft and moving inertia of the engine. Conversely, if any of points 3,4,5 and 6 is considered as the connection point, regenerative braking energy will be limited to part of the braking power from the drive wheels. It should be noted that in most vehicles targeted for high power demand configuration, the bell housing (clutch/torque-converter) is a part of transmission package since connection point 2 will have the same conditions as connection point 3 in most cases. For the high power demand system (PTO) configuration in automatic transmissions, the bell housing will not disconnect any part of the vehicle powertrain during braking; thus, regenerative braking energy can be obtained from the drive wheel braking powers, kinetic energy in the crankshaft, and moving inertia of engine altogether. Additionally during very low vehicle speeds, the second condition of the regenerative braking phase is not satisfied; therefore, there will be no regenerative braking when that bell housing disconnects the engine from the other parts of vehicle powertrain. II) Vehicle Movement: If regenerative braking energy is not sufficient to charge the batteries, the power management controller charges the batteries directly from the engine during peak engine performance. In this scenario, since the moving power is transferred from the engine all the way to the drive wheels, RAPS can extract the power in all of the aforementioned possible configurations. III) Vehicle Stops: The RAPS target is to prevent the vehicle from idling; hence, while the vehicle is stopped, the engine ought not be active. During long stops, the auxiliary devices power consumption decreases the battery SOC to a critical level. In this condition, the system should allow a generator to be run directly from the engine when the vehicle is stopped. A serpentine belt configuration will work without any limitations in this scenario. For the PTO configurations, the power extraction point should be anywhere between the engine and the vehicle transmission, or the option of a PTO with a disconnecting clutch and driver action should be considered. Given all of these scenarios, the "Transmission Aperture PTO" is the ideal and the most cost effective solution for the realization of the RAPS in high power demand service vehicles. As the system model will be used for the optimization process, the components models should be generic, modular and flexible. The components models need to be scalable so that the optimization method can determine their optimal sizes. There are two modelling approaches that can be used: a) Forward-looking: As shown in Figure 3.8, modelling and simulation starts from the driver's points of view. The driver's demanded power is sent to the powertrain components, and the resulting power that is available from the powertrain is fed to the final drive and wheels. This type of modelling is more realistic compared to the backward looking models. Figure 3.8 General forward-looking vehicle model b) Backward Looking: In this approach, the required power is determined based on the known drive cycle data. Illustrated in Figure 3.9, this power demand is then calculated and transferred through the powertrain components to the engine or another main power source. Through this process and using the components' efficiencies, the power needed in each component is calculated. In this approach, the detailed dynamics of the components and the vehicle system is not considered; however, this will crate less complicated models compared to the forward-looking models, which require solving differential equations. Figure 3-9: General backward looking vehicle model Based on the fact that in this study, only the overall power consumption of the vehicle is of interest, the effects of vehicle dynamics due to the suspension can be safely ignored even though the model is not as realistic as the forward-looking model. The backward-looking approach modeling is chosen for this work to fulfill the purpose of optimization. Simultaneously, the developed vehicle model formulation is suitable for the power consumption objectives. The total system model consists of powertrain components (engine, bell housing, transmission, differential) and RAPS components (batteries, power electronic, generator, auxiliary load). The goal of this research is to design and optimize a suitable regenerative braking system, which can be added to a service vehicle’s powertrain. As previously mentioned, the modifications to the vehicle powertrain should be kept to a minimum to make the changes affordable for the industrial purposes. Thus, there should not be any change to the configuration of the mechanical components of the vehicle. The powertrain components are modeled using the scalable backward-looking approach proposed by the Guzzella and Rizzoni . In this approach, the actual consumed power of a component is calculated by multiplying the required component torque and component current velocity given the component’s efficiencies. General Vehicle Model In order to fulfill the need for a simple model for the backward-looking modeling approach, a simple vehicle body model is considered. This model only utilizes the drive torque, rolling resistance, and the resistive aerodynamic forces. The vehicle body model receives the demanded longitudinal velocity of vehicle (𝑉𝐷𝑒𝑠) and demanded longitudinal acceleration of vehicle (𝐴𝐷𝑒𝑠) as the input data. Based on these, the model calculates the torque (𝑇𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙) and angular velocity (𝜔𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙) at the wheels (or axles) as follows: Wwheel = (Vdes)/(Reff) Twheel = (Ftotal)x(Reff) 𝐹𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝐹𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 + 𝐹𝑅𝑅 Fdrag = (1/2)(Cd)(𝜌)(Vdes)^2(A) where 𝐹𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 , 𝐹𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 , 𝐹𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 , and 𝐹𝑅𝑅 represents total vehicle longitudinal force, drive force, total aerodynamics drag force, and total tire rolling resistance force, respectively. 𝐶𝐷 is the drag coefficient, 𝜌 is the air density, 𝐴 is the frontal area of vehicle, 𝐶𝑅𝑅 is the rolling resistance of the tire, 𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration, 𝛼 is the road grade angle in radian, 𝑅𝐸𝑓𝑓 is the effective tire radius, and 𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is total vehicle mass, which is considered to be: 𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑀𝑉𝑒ℎ + 𝑀𝐸𝐸𝑆 + 𝑀𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜 where 𝑀𝑉𝑒ℎ is the vehicle mass before installing the EES packs or loading the cargo, 𝑀𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜 is the cargo weight of the vehicle and 𝑀𝐸𝐸𝑆 is the mass of the electrical energy storage (EES) and other electrical parts. The total drive power demand (𝑃𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒), the power needed to move the vehicle, is equal to: 𝑃𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝜔𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑇𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 in which 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 is the lost power in the powertrain system. Final Drive (Differential) The demand torque and angular velocity at the wheels (or axles) are the inputs for the final drive. After applying the final drive ratio (𝑁𝐹), the demand torque (𝑇𝐷𝐿) and angular velocity (𝜔𝐷𝐿) at the driveline are calculated as: 𝜔𝐷𝐿 = 𝑁𝐹 𝜔 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 Tdl = (Twheel)/(Nnr*nf) where 𝜂𝐹 is the final drive efficiency. The PTO consists of a set of gears that transfer the extracted mechanical power from the powertrain to the generator in the high power demand configuration. In order to keep the model as simple as possible, the PTO is modeled by a gear ratio (𝑁𝑃𝑇𝑂) and an efficiency factor (𝜂𝑃𝑇𝑂). The modeling formula for the PTO defines its output torque (𝑇𝑃𝑇𝑂−𝑂𝑢𝑡), which is equal to the generator torque in the high power demand configuration, and its output angular velocities (𝜔𝑃𝑇𝑂−𝑂𝑢𝑡) as: |Tpto-out = (Tpto-in)/(Npto)npto*Cact-pto| 𝜔𝑃𝑇𝑂−𝑂𝑢𝑡 = 𝑁𝑃𝑇𝑂 𝜔𝑃𝑇𝑂−𝐼𝑛 in which 𝐶𝐴𝑐𝑡−𝑃𝑇𝑂 is the PTO activation control signal provided by the power management controller. In a high power demand configuration, the PTO is responsible for extracting the energy from the powertrain for the generator. This power extraction occurs in two general cases: i) Battery pack SOC decreases to a critical level where the power management controller decides to charge the battery pack (during the vehicle’s movement or stop); and ii) regenerative braking. In either of the two general cases, the PTO’s activation control signal will be one (active); otherwise this value will be zero (not active). The power management controller, in general, controls the flow of power by monitoring the auxiliary power demand, battery state of the charge, vehicle status, brake pedal signal, and amount of power produced by the generator. Power management is considered as a higher level control algorithm that monitors the power flow between the vehicle powertrain, generator, and ESS as shown in Figure 3-10. The controller makes sure that the generator produces the maximum amount of power during regenerative braking to maximize the RAPS efficiency. In addition, the controller charges the batteries directly from the engine, during the peak engine performance, when the state of the charge is lower than a critical value.

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Seasonal allergies can hit you without warning. If you’ve ever dealt with hay fever in the past, then you already know what you’re up against, but have you ever dealt with allergic conjunctivitis? This form of pink eye can go on for weeks without proper treatment and can cause a variety of symptoms. So, can allergies cause eye discharge? Yes. For some people, allergies and eye discharge can go hand in hand, whether it’s caused by seasonal allergies, or an allergic reaction to something in the environment. Seasonal conjunctivitis is a common type of ocular allergy. It’s caused by an allergic reaction to pollen, which releases spores in the spring and summer months. The most prominent symptom is eye redness, but discharge is also common. If you normally experience allergies during the spring and summer, aside from eye discharge you may also deal with a runny nose, sore throat, and eye pain and headache, or dry eyes from time to time. Fortunately, with the right medication and a few home remedies, you can easily manage your seasonal allergies. However, those who have allergic pink eye that’s due to an environmental allergen may have a tough time identifying the culprit, which can make it almost impossible to manage symptoms. An In-Depth Look at Allergies An eye allergy can hit you when you least expect it. It occurs when an irritant makes contact with the conjunctiva, a very thin membrane that covers the inside of the eyelid and the eye itself. Just like with any type of allergy, an eye allergy will start when your immune system considers a certain substance an allergen. So, what happens next? The immune system will produce immunoglobulin antibodies, which will travel to cells throughout the body and release chemicals that will cause an allergic reaction. With an eye allergy, this results in eyes that ache, feel tender, itch, water, and produce discharge. Swelling is also usually present. Seasonal allergies, which involves an allergic reaction to pollen, seem to be the most common, however, many people also experience an allergic reaction to mould spores as well. People that have a history of seasonal rhinitis may also notice that their symptoms tend to worsen the moment they step outdoors, especially on windy days. But it’s not just allergens outdoors that can cause painful red, irritated eyes. Allergens can also be found indoors in the form of pet dander and dust mites. The many symptoms associated with an eye allergy can be very distressing since they can be hard to mask. It can also be very embarrassing in the workplace if you’re trying to hide eye discharge and swelling. But unlike the bacterial, or viral pink eye, this form of pink eye is not contagious. Yet it shares many of the same symptoms as that of the highly contagious form of pink eye, which is one of the many reasons it can be so stressful to go about your normal day to day routine. Perennial Allergic Conjunctivitis This type of pink eye can occur year-round. As I mentioned, it’s due to an allergic reaction to something present in the environment, including: - Pet dander - Air freshener - Essential oils - Cleaning products And other allergens. The symptoms are much milder than seasonal pink eye but tend to also include eye swelling, irritation, discharge, and itchiness. If you are experiencing more than one of the symptoms listed above, especially discharge or swelling, then you should make an appointment with your primary care physician or optometrist for an assessment. In the past, there wasn’t much to be done to treat seasonal allergies. Instead of medicated eye drops and oral medication, people had to rely on hot compresses to find relief. These days, there are several treatment options available, such as: Treatment options are often based on how severe or mild your symptoms are. Histamines are the most common symptom associated with seasonal allergies, which is why antihistamine use can be very effective in minimizing or eliminating the symptoms altogether. You may still deal with certain allergy symptoms runny as watery eyes and a runny nose, however, in comparison, these symptoms will be very mild. To learn how to better manage your symptoms be sure to read my guide on how to relieve watery eyes. An Accurate Diagnosis For an accurate diagnosis, most physicians will recommend skin testing if they are unable to pinpoint the cause of conjunctivitis. Seasonal and bacterial pink eye are easy enough to diagnose, but allergic conjunctivitis can be tricky, especially since most people tend to develop an allergic response to pet dander or dust, over time. In order to rule out certain conditions, your eye health specialist may perform some of the following tests: Using a special type of microscope called a slit lamp, the physician will examine the front of your eyes, searching for eyelid swelling, conjunctival swelling, and dilated blood vessels. These are all indications that the underlying cause of your eye irritation is due to an allergic response. In severe cases, the physician may need to check for eosinophils. This is done by scraping the conjunctiva. Eosinophils is a white blood cell that’s associated with allergies. The allergy specialist may also perform other types of tests that can help to identify the root cause of the allergic reaction. This will usually involve a finger prick test. Other blood work may be needed to test for certain types of allergic antibodies. Minimizing your exposure to these allergens can significantly improve symptoms, however, eliminating exposure can clear up any symptoms completely, but this isn’t always possible. Different Types of Eye Drops Over the counter and prescription drops can be used to treat this type of allergy. Drops that are available by prescription only can provide long or short term relief of symptoms. If you’ve been dealing with your allergies for more than a period of two weeks with no relief from over the counter medications, then it’s time to make an appointment with an allergist. A child can also be treated with prescription or over the counter medications. Products such as artificial tears are generally safe for children of all ages, just as long as they’re preservative-free. Some types of drops, such as the antihistamine drops can only be used in children over the ages of two or three. To learn more, click here to read my article on what causes eye discharge in babies. Artificial tears: These drops work by washing allergens out of the eyes while helping to keep them moist and protected. This is especially important after the eyes have become red, dry, and irritated. These drops can also be kept in your fridge for a boost in relief. My guide to red eyes can explain further, regarding other ways you can instantly reduce redness and irritation. Decongestants: This is another popular treatment option since it’s fast-acting and can provide immediate relief. These drops will minimize discharge and redness as they quickly and efficiently reduce the size of the blood vessels in the eyes. You can also find decongestant drops that contain antihistamines for twice the allergy-fighting power. These drops should not be used for longer than seventy-two hours since ongoing use can cause what is referred to as the rebound effect. When this occurs, you’ll notice an increase in symptoms that can last for several days after you’ve ceased using the drops. This also occurs with decongestant nasal drops. Antihistamines in oral form: Always be careful when using antihistamines since they can worsen symptoms in some people. They can also cause certain side effects such as drowsiness or dizziness. Antihistamine drops: In drop form, antihistamines tend to be more effective, since they don’t have to first go through the digestive tract, then the liver, before they’re released into the bloodstream. Instead, you’ll apply them directly to the affected area, for immediate relief from itching and irritation. NSAID drops: These drops can help with swelling and itching. However, they can cause a slight burning sensation that some people will find unpleasant. If you’re dealing with a serious eye allergy, your doctor may opt for more aggressive treatment in the form of mast cell stabilizers or steroids. Mast cell stabilizers: These drops have the ability to cause changes to occur in cells in the body that contain histamines. However, this type of treatment may take several days or weeks before you experience the full effects. If you suffer from seasonal allergies, your doctor may prescribe the drug several weeks before allergy season is expected to hit. This means the medication will be in full effect just in time for spring. Corticosteroid drops: These drops can be prescribed to provide faster relief. However, they aren’t the go-to treatment for eye allergies since prolonged use can cause cataracts and glaucoma. How to Determine if You’re Really Dealing with Allergies While both bacterial pink eye and allergic conjunctivitis are two very different things, they do have some of the same symptoms, which is what can make your condition difficult to diagnose. The symptoms for both allergies and bacterial pink eye can look the same. Both will cause eye discharge, tearing eyes, and redness. The difference between the two all boils down to the root cause of the conjunctiva inflammation. Allergic conjunctivitis is caused by a variety of irritants including exposure to chemicals, pet dander, or pollen. Your doctor should be able to determine which type of pink eye you have by learning more about your medical history and examining your eyes. With allergic conjunctivitis, the eyes will feel tender and itchy. The person affected may also have that classic gritty feeling in the eye, with some swelling present. A runny nose and sneezing are also common. However, this can also be caused by viral conjunctivitis which presents much in the same way that allergic conjunctivitis does, however, it can resolve on its own in just a few days. To learn more, you can read my guide on can a cold cause eye discharge. Bumps on the eyelids can also indicate seasonal allergies, however, the bumps can also be mistaken for styes. Styes are unsightly bumps that are painful, and inflamed. You may only have one bump, or you can have dozens covering your eyelids. While these growths don’t look very pleasant, they’re not exactly life-threatening. Fortunately, in most cases, these bumps will go away on their own, without medical treatment. That is, as long as a secondary infection doesn’t occur. An experienced physician will be able to determine papillae from styes. Papillaes are bumps that often indicate allergies and are found under the eyelids. These bumps can also be very uncomfortable and can be responsible for that gritty feeling in the eyes that some people experience during allergy season. Blepharitis is an eye condition that can easily be misdiagnosed as allergies because it shares many of the same signs and symptoms. However, this condition primarily affects the eyelids. Discharge is usually present and can cause the eyes to become crusted shut during the night. Crust can often be found stuck to the eyelashes as well. This condition is caused by inflammation found at the very base of the eyelashes. Unfortunately, chronic blepharitis is the most common form and it can flare up without warning. Treatment often consists of washing the eyes two to three times daily for several days and using artificial tears and hot compresses until symptoms subside. If you’re dealing with the chronic form of blepharitis, click here to read my guide on how to get rid of blepharitis for good. Discharge-Can Allergies Cause Yellow Discharge? The answer is yes. Discharge due to allergies is usually yellow or white in color. It can range from mild to severe, causing you to frequently wipe your eyes to prevent blurred vision. Using hot compresses can help to cut down on discharge production and can even help to reduce any swelling that’s present. But what is eye discharge exactly? It’s a combination of skin cells, oil, and mucus that accumulates in and around the eyes during sleep. Discharge is usually crusty, sticky, and wet. Eye discharge, which is also called rheum, removes waste and harmful debris from the eyes as we sleep. Did you know that the eyes actually produce mucus around the clock? However, a continuous film of tears will cleanse the eyes whenever you blink, working to flush out the mucus before it is able to harden. When we sleep, the discharge is able to collect and dry, since the tears cannot wash away the rheum since we don’t blink when we sleep. This is where the term sleep in your eyes comes from. Most types of discharge produced by the eyes consist of meibum, which is an oily substance that comes from the meibomian glands, and a watery, thin mucus that’s made by the conjunctiva. When Discharge is Not Normal While it’s normal to wake up with some crust in the eyes and lashes, an excessive amount can indicate allergies or an infection, especially if the discharge is yellow or green in color. Pain, light sensitivity, and blurry vision can also be indicative of allergies or an infection. So, while eyes that are slightly crusted in the morning shouldn’t set off any alarms, if you notice a change in the color of the discharge, or your eyes are crusted shut, then you will need to make an appointment with your physician to determine if you’re dealing with allergies or an infection. You can use a warm compress over your eyes to help relieve some itchiness and discomfort, while also removing built-up discharge. If you wake in the morning with your eyelids crusted together, use a hot wet washcloth to gently soften up and remove the dried on discharge, doing so carefully can prevent further irritation. Eye Allergies Pain You don’t hear about it as often as the discharge, but pain can also be a symptom of allergies. With the eyes, pain can take the form of a dull ache, throbbing, or pressure, in or around the eyes. The eyes can also become very tender from rubbing or wiping since the skin around the eyes is already tender and somewhat inflamed. Typically, an over the counter pain medication, such as acetaminophen, should be enough to manage this type of pain. Additionally, learning how to soothe irritated skin around the eyes and eyelids can also help to minimize pain and discomfort. Aloe vera gel, coconut oil, or even Vaseline, can help to protect the sensitive skin around the eyes from further irritation and damage. In some cases, when the pain is severe and accompanied by swelling, tearing, discharge, and redness, there is something more serious going on than an infection or allergies. In this case, medical treatment should be sought immediately. Eyes that constantly itch can be pretty maddening. Rubbing or scratching at your eyes can worsen symptoms, increase their overall itchiness, and can even damage the eyes. Fortunately, if itching is the main symptom you’re dealing with then there are a few home remedies you can try that have a reputation for being effective in mild to moderate cases. If your symptoms are severe enough to affect your vision or impact your day to day life then make sure you make an appointment with your doctor. Over the counter eye drops can help to reduce itchy eyes, especially if they contain antihistamines. However, for milder cases, plain artificial tears can also help. A cold compress three to four times a day can help soothe the eyes and relieve itching. To do, use a clean wet washcloth and place it over your eyes for ten to twenty minutes. This treatment can be repeated as often as needed. Itchy eyes will not last very long and often resolve on their own. However, you should see your doctor if: - You have a gritty feeling in your eyes - Swelling is present - Your vision is affected - Itching is accompanied by pain Scratching and rubbing your eyes will not only worsen symptoms, but it can also damage the delicate skin around and under the eyes. This is especially true in men and women over the age of forty who use anti-aging products that can actually make this skin even more sensitive. Read my guide on how to get rid of wrinkles under your eyes when you smile. This guide will discuss how to safely treat aging skin and improve its firmness and texture, without causing eye irritation. How to Stop Watery Eyes from Allergies Do you know how to relieve watery eyes? Since allergies are pretty common these days, there are many over the counter drops to choose from that are specifically designed to reduce tearing caused by allergies. If your symptoms are mild, you can get by with some over the counter drops for some fast relief. These drops work really well and can be reapplied every two hours. They’re also a more affordable solution to prescription eye drops. However, if you’re dealing with severe symptoms, swelling, irritation on and around the eyes due to constant tearing and discharge, then it may be time to make an appointment with your physician. Your doctor will prescribe stronger medication that can help you get the tearing under control, reduce the itchiness and swelling, and allow you to get on with your day. If the treatments listed above are not effective in treating your conjuncitivitis then your doctor may prescribe immunotherapy. This will require you to see an allergy specialist who will inject you with allergens in order to help you build up an immunity, gradually. This can work to significantly reduce the severity of your allergic reactions. This condition can cause severe changes in vision due to inflammation that occurs to both the cornea and the conjunctiva. This type of pink eye typically affects men more commonly than women. It’s also commonly found in people who have atopic dermatitis during their adolescence. This condition causes eye discharge, redness, and itchiness. The discharge is so significant that it can cause the eyelids to crust and scale. In some cases, the affected person may also become very sensitive to light and will develop very thick eyelids. Without treatment, permanent scarring can occur on the corneas because of the frequent scratching and rubbing that most people give into since this form of conjunctivitis is even more itchy and uncomfortable than bacterial or viral pink eye. So what causes this type of pink eye, exactly? An allergic reaction to wheat, soy, milk, peanuts, and eggs can be to blame, as can certain airborne allergens such as pet dander and dust mites. Treatment can consist of strong antihistamines to control the itching, as well as mast cell stabilizers and steroids. In severe cases, the affected person may contract a staph infection, which will worsen the symptoms. In this case, antibiotics would also be prescribed. In ten percent of cases, when left untreated, this type of pink eye resulted in cataract formation. In very rare cases, permanent blindness occurred. Managing Your Allergies You’ve read about the different types of pink eye, how eye allergies can affect you from day to day, and some of the common treatment options available. You now know there is a difference between indoor allergies and seasonal allergies, although both types share many of the same symptoms. So, now what? The first step toward getting a handle on your allergies is obviously avoiding any type of allergen that can trigger the symptoms. In some cases, eliminating the offending allergen can be enough to get rid of symptoms, but for some people, pinpointing exactly what is causing this onset of symptoms can be almost impossible. If you’re aware of what’s causing an allergic reaction, then you’re one step closer to getting the relief you deserve. Fortunately, there are some things you can do to make your home allergen-free. There are also some great tips and tricks you can follow that can help to reduce your seasonal allergy symptoms whether you’re dealing with hay fever or indoor allergens. - If you’re dealing with seasonal allergies, try to stay inside as much as you can, especially when the pollen count is at a higher level than usual. This type of peak typically occurs around midmorning and at dusk. Of course, you’ll also want to avoid going outside on windy days. - Never place a box fan in the window since this can draw in pollen and mold spores. - When outside, always protect your eyes by wearing sunglasses. This can help to reduce the chances of pollen getting in your eyes. - Avoid scratching and rubbing your eyes, which will only worsen the symptoms and irritation. - If possible, only use air conditioning in your house or when you’re in the car. Avoid opening any windows. - If you’re allergic to dust mites, purchase sheets, blankets, and pillowcases that are mite-proof. Your bedding should be washed in hot water once or twice weekly. - If you’re allergic to mold spores then it’s crucial that you lower the humidity level in the home. You can purchase a dehumidifier and make sure you clean your kitchen and bathroom at least once a week. If you’re dealing with visible mold in the home then use a mixture of bleach and water to kill it. Just be sure that while doing so you wear a face mask and gloves. - If you’re allergic to pet dander, then try to keep it outdoors as much as possible. If your animal is a strictly indoor pet then at the very least, do not allow it to sleep in bed with you or lay on the furniture. Always wash your hands after touching the pet and wash your clothes twice a week. - Closing the air ducts to your bedroom can also help to cut down on the amount of pet dander that finds its way into your personal space. - Instead of carpet in the home, if you’re dealing with a pet dander allergy, opt for tile, vinyl, or hardwood flooring. - If the allergist has identified dust mites as the culprit, you can use a dehumidifier to lower the humidity levels in the home since mites tend to thrive in humid environments. - Use a HEPA filter - Bathe your pets one to two times a week depending on the season. Shedding season your pet should be bathed more often. - If mold in the home is causing an allergic response insure that there is no standing water or water leaks, especially in your basement. Since the majority of allergens that can worsen symptoms are airborne, it can be difficult to avoid them. Speak with your physician to determine what treatment will work the best for you and what other steps you can take to prevent another episode. Eye allergies that are accompanied by discharge, swelling, itching, redness, and general irritation, can make your life miserable and can significantly impact your productivity at home and at work. While in some instances, it can be almost impossible to avoid triggers, by following some of the tips here, you can make life more manageable. Seeking treatment is always recommended, especially if you’re dealing with an unknown allergen in the home. Seasonal allergies are much easier to manage in the sense that many over the counter and prescription medications can help to reduce or even eliminate certain symptoms, whereas environmental allergens can be more difficult to pinpoint and manage. By meeting with your doctor for an assessment you can learn what you can do reduce symptoms associated with allergies, and what types of treatment can help to prevent flareups, in order to get back to your normal day to day life.

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Two approaches have been used to assess the impact of municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash on lentic ecosystems, especially lake coastlines. One of the aims of this study was to complete the methodology for the assessment of waste ecocompatibility by assessing a scenario in which bottom ashes are reused as road embankment. A laboratory lysimeter was chosen to simulate the road embankment and produce the bottom ash leachate. The first approach was based on three bioassays. Results led to the following ranking of these bioassays based on organisms sensitivity, in descending order: algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata > duckweed Lemna minor > cladoceran Daphnia magna. At the same time, leachates were assessed with a 2 litre freshwater/sediment microcosm. All species were impaired. Toxicity effects increased with leachate concentration, from 1.56% to 8.0%. Comparison between bioassays and microcosm assays revealed that the representativeness is higher in the multispecies systems. Finally, bottom ashes have been assessed in a simplified risk assessment procedure. Predicted environmental concentration is close to the concentration that caused first effects in microcosms. Recommendations are made for the reuse of bottom ashes as road embankment. Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) produces large amounts of bottom ash. In France, these secondary wastes represent 25 to 30% of the municipal solid waste, that is, more than 2.7 Mt y−1 (ADEME, 2002). This bottom ash is composed of heterogeneous wastes (slag, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, ceramics, glass, combusted and non-combusted organics) and consists of porous lightweight aggregates which contain high concentrations of metals and salts, particularly chlorides and sulphates (Wiles, 1996; Chandler et al., 1997). In France, this combustion residue is used more and more in construction, particularly for roads, rather than being disposed of in landfills. This approach has been promoted by a law passed in 1992 concerning waste elimination. Indeed, since the year 2002, only final wastes can be placed in landfills. However, the MSWI bottom ash reuse depends on a French regulation that is based on only a few physico-chemical characteristics of wastes (MATE, 1994): soluble fraction, release of few elements (As, Pb, CrVI, Hg, Cd, O42−) and total organic carbon content. The impact of the waste deposit on the recipient environment is not taken into account (Perrodin et al., 2002). To achieve this goal, ADEME (French Agency for Environmental Management and Energy Conservation) launched a research program called ‘Waste Ecocompatibility’ in 1995. Ecocompatibility has been defined as a situation where the pollutant flux from waste disposed of, or used, is compatible with the environmental acceptance of the receiving environments. This program has led to a methodology for the measurement of the impact of waste storage or reuse scenarios (ADEME, 2002). One of the aims of our study was to complete this methodology by investigating a new scenario: the impact of bottom ash reused as road embankment for lentic ecosystems. In this scenario, the road is built in a mountainous region. Wastes receive rain and run-off water leading to the production of leachates at the bottom of the embankment. Below the road-side, leachates run off on a grassland before reaching a lake coastline. In most studies, the characterization of MSWI bottom ash and the assessment of its impact on the environment was made by using extraction procedures (batch, column or lysimeter). These approaches assess the possible release of pollutants by the solid waste and their possible transfers to aquatic and soil environments (Chandler et al., 1997; Meima and Comàns, 1999). In the last decade, single-species bioassays have been used to account for the biological impact of those materials (Ferrari et al., 1999; Lapa et al., 2002). Tests usually used are standard acute bioassays carried out with the bacterium Vibrio fisheri, the alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and the water flea Daphnia magna. We propose a new approach using a 2-l indoor microcosm assay. This freshwater microcosm protocol was proposed by Clément and Cadier (1998), validated by studying a copper-spiked artificial sediment and applied to the assessment of dredged materials (Clément et al., 2004). The microcosm consists of a glass beaker containing synthetic freshwater, a natural lacustrine sediment and pelagic and benthic organisms which could interact with each other and potentially influence, by their activities, the fate of pollutants and consequently effects on other organisms. Materials and methods MSWI bottom ash sampling and leachate production Bottom ashes were collected in May 2001 on a weathering platform of a municipal solid waste incinerator situated in a mountainous region in France. The incinerator was a high capacity unit which can burn about 56 000 tons of domestic wastes per year. A laboratory lysimeter (1 m2, polyethylene) was used to produce bottom ash leachates. Two hundred kg of waste were deposited on a gravel bed and compacted in similar conditions to field road building conditions. Wastes were covered with sand to limit carbonation and to ensure a homogenous infiltration of demineralised water supplied day (5 l d−1). Rain water was not chosen because of its variability in composition and acidity. Leachates were collected at the bottom of the lysimeter and stored at 4°C. Assays were conducted on fractions which corresponded to different liquid/solid ratios: 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5, respectively. They were coded P1, P2 and P3. Physico-chemical characterization of bottom ashes leachates Leachate ion contents (Ca2+, Cl−, K+, Mg2+, NO3−, NH4+, PO43−) were determined using ionic chromatography (DIONEX, model DX-100, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) following standard procedures (AFNOR, 1999a). Metal contents (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (HITACHI, model Z-8 200, Tokyo, Japan) following AFNOR methodology (AFNOR, 1998a). Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) contents were analysed using an organic carbon analyser (PPM, model LABTOC®, Sevenoaks, UK) following standard methodology (AFNOR, 1997). Four bioassays were conducted on P1, P2 and P3 leachates: bacteria bioluminescence inhibition test with V. fisheri (AFNOR, 1999b), algal growth inhibition test with P. subcapitata (AFNOR, 1998b), duckweed growth inhibition test with Lemna minor (AFNOR, 1996) and D. magna (neonates) immobilization test (ISO, 1989). Leachate pH was adjusted to 8.0 ± 0.5. Leachates were also tested with and without filtration (Whatman glass fiber, 1.2 μm, Clifton, CO, USA). The microcosm consisted of glass cylindrical beaker (23 × 13 cm) containing a synthetic water (2 l) and a natural sediment (150 g). The synthetic freshwater was a modified OECD medium (OECD, 1993; Clément and Cadier, 1998) with moderate nutrient contents (50 μg P l−1, 654 μ g N l−1) and vitamin additions (75 μ g thiamine l−1, 1 μ g B12 l−1 and 0.75 μ g biotin l−1). The control sediment is a carbonated sediment, taken from Aiguebelette lake (Savoie, France). On day (−7), natural sediment was sieved at 2 mm and 150 g were distributed in the glass beakers. One litre of modified OECD medium was gently added so as to limit sediment resuspension. In order to allow for particles to settle, the overlying water was aerated only after 24 h by gentle air bubbling (Pasteur pipettes) to keep the dissolved oxygen content close to the saturation level. The systems were left in these conditions for 7 d, during which a balance between water and sediment was reached. The temperature was kept at 20± 2°C. On day (0) of the experiment, MSWI bottom ash leachates were diluted in modified OECD medium. One litre was added to the microcosms in order to obtain 3 final leachate concentrations: 1.56, 4.0 and 8.0%. Those concentrations were chosen based on single-species bioassays results. Nine replicates per treatment were carried out. The following organisms were introduced into the overlying water: 10 000 algal cells ml−1 of P. subcapitata, 3 colonies of two-frond L. minor, 10 neonates of D. magna (aged less than 24 h), 10 young Hyalella azteca (aged of 2 weeks on average) and 25 larvae of Chironomus riparius (aged 2 d after hatching). Algae and duckweeds were cultivated following AFNOR recommendations (AFNOR, 1996, 1998b). Daphnids, amphipods and chironomids were bred in as described by Clément et al. (2004). The microcosms were illuminated 16 h d−1 using 2000 lux daylight fluorescent tubes. Glass beakers were moved daily at random. Benthic organism food consisted of TetraMin; 10 mg d−1 was added to each system. Temperature, conductivity, pH and dissolved oxygen were measured twice a week in the overlying water during the 30 d assay period. Table 1 summarizes measurement frequencies and methodologies used to monitor biological parameters. On days 10, 21 and 30, 3 microcosms of each treatment were terminated in order to collect pelagic and benthic organisms and to carry out measurements on the abiotic components: water content, loss on ignition, sediment pH, sediment and pore water metal contents, overlying water and pore water ion contents and overlying water and pore water DOC content. Overlying water and pore water samples were filtered at 1.2 μ m (Whatman, glass fiber). Ion content, metal concentrations (Cd Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) and DOC contents were analysed before and after filtration. Data were analysed with Statview F-4.5. Significant differences between means were determined using Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests (p < 0.05). Results and discussion MSWI bottom ash leachate characterization Leachate pHs were high, more than 10.0 units (Table 2) due to the presence of calcium hydroxides, Ca(OH)2, formed during the bottom ash extinction the incineration furnace (Meima et al., 2002). The pH decreased during leachate production because of the dissolution of calcium hydroxide and carbonatation processes (Meima et al., 2002). Most of the DOC was extracted from the solid wastes at the beginning of the leaching procedure. The DOC content was high in P1 and decreased from P1 to P3 (Table 2). No organic pollutants were found in P1. Dissolved organic carbon was probably composed of humic and carboxylic acids and glycerol (Dugenest et al., 1999). This kind of organic material is biodegraded during bottom ash weathering (Dugenest et al., 1999) which could partly explain the DOC decrease observed during leachate production. Leachate conductivities were high in relation to ion contents (Table 2) and decreased during leachate production. Most of the chlorides, sulphates, sodium and potassium salts were eluted during P1 production. Ions probably came from complete dissolution of alkaline ions (e.g., NaCl, CaCl2, KCl), gypsum (CaSO4, 2 H2O) and ettringite (3CaO, Al2O3, 3CaSO4, 32 H2O; Meima and Comans, 1999). Metal content decreased from P1 to P3 (Table 2) except for Zn and Ni contents which were higher in P3. Chromium and Pb contents were low in all the leachates due to their low mobilities in MSWI bottom ash at pH near 10.0 (Meima and Comans, 1999). Cadmium was not detected. The high Cu concentrations measured are usual in that kind of liquid matrix (Chandler et al., 1997; Meima et al., 2002). Copper was probably eluted associated with DOC because of its high affinity for those elements (Meima and Comans, 1999). Results of single-species bioassays Leachate toxicity decreased during the leaching procedure (Table 3) in relation to ion and metal content decrease. The algae P. subcapitata was the most sensitive species followed by V. fisheri and L. minor. Other studies have found similar results with respect to the higher sensitivity of algae to MSWI bottom ash leachates (Ferrari et al., 1999; Lapa et al., 2002). In those studies, 72 h-EC50s ranged from 0.9 to 2.2% of leachates. Metals were probably responsible for this higher sensitivity (Ferrari et al., 1999). Daphnids did not show signs of toxicity in terms of mobility and mortality to P1, P2 or P3, filtered or not (Table 3). This result is probably due to pH adjustment which modifies metal solubility and speciation (Chandler et al., 1997) and filtration, which induces pollutant removal. Lapa et al. (2002) reported a 48h EC50 of 7.4% of MSWI bottom ash leachate, without pH adjustment or filtration. Physico-chemical conditions in microcosms assays During the first hours of experimentation, overlying water pH values were higher in the contaminated microcosms. For example, initial pHs were 8.1 in controls, 9.0 at 8.0% in P1 and P2, and 8.5 in P3.This increase was linked to the concentration and the leachate tested. Within 72 to 96 h, pH values were similar to values in control systems owing to the buffer capacity of the systems. Therefore, leachate pH was not adjusted. After 20 d, overlying water pH progressively increased due to the photosynthetic activity of primary producers (algae and duckweeds). Initial electrical conductivity of the overlying water was proportional to leachate concentration. For example, in P1 systems, conductivity values were: 290 μ S cm−1 in the control, 330 at 1.56% leachate, 400 at 4.0% leachate and 500 at 8.0% leachate. This increase was related to ionic content in leachates (chlorides, sulphates, sodium and potassium). Consequently, for each concentration, conductivity decreased from P1 to P3. During assays, conductivity progressively decreased partly due to ion assimilation by primary producers and partly due to ion precipitation and complexation. In pore waters, ion contents were similarly characterized. In the overlying waters of controls, metals mean contents were: 4.4 μ g l−1 Cu, 0.2 μ g l−1 Cr, 0.9 μ g l−1 Ni and 3.8 μ g l−1 Pb. In the contaminated microcosms (P1, P2, P3), Cr, Ni and Pb contents were not different from the controls (Mann-Whitney, p > 0.05) whereas Cu contents were higher, even at the lowest concentration of 1.56% (Figure 1). Copper content decrease during assays was probably due to Cu binding on dissolved and particulate organic materials in water and sediment. Dissolved organic carbon contents of overlying and pore waters were slightly higher in the contaminated microcosms than in the control systems. Concentrations were proportional to leachates concentrations. In the overlying water, the maximum was about 9.2 mg C l−1 at 8.0% of P1, after 10 d of experimentation, versus 5.3 mg C l−1 in the controls. In pore water, the maximum was about 102.5 mg C l−1 at 4.0% of P1, after 10 d of experimentation, versus 75.2 mg C l−1 in the controls. Dissolved organic content decrease during assays was probably related to the diffusion of organic materials from pore water to overlying water. In addition, DOC might have been degraded by micro-organisms in microcosms. Impact on primary producers and zooplankton From the beginning of the assays, MSWI bottom ash leachates had acute effects on D. magna survival (Mann-Whitney, p < 0.05). Their survival (Figure 2) was less than 10% in the following treatments: P1-4.0%, P1-8.0% and P2-8.0%. Those effects were proportional to leachates concentrations and decreased from P1 to P3. For most treatments (Pl, 1.56, 4.0 and 8.0%; P2, 4.0, 8.0%; and P3, 8.0%) after 10 d, Cu contents were higher (Figure 1) than the Cu 48 h EC50 for this species, which ranges between 25 and 32 Cu l−1 (Girling et al., 2000; Radix et al., 2000). Since Cu contents on day (0) were at least as high as on d 10, this metal was probably responsible for the effects observed on daphnid neonates. New organisms were introduced into the systems on d 3. Their survival was near 80% up to 20 d and then decreased progressively. At the highest concentration (8%), new organisms were introduced after 10 d of exposure in P1. The decline of food (algae) was probably responsible for daphnid mortality at the end of assays (Clément and Cadier, 1998). Bottom ash leachates also had chronic effects on daphnids. The first broods were delayed at 8% in comparison to controls, 14 d against 10 d, on average (Mann-Whitney, p < 0.05). Number of neonates was significantly decreased at 4.0 and 8.0% of P2 and 8.0% of P3 (Mann-Whitney, p < 0.05; Figure 3). The 21d-NOEC is about 10 to 15 μ g Cu l−1 (Radix et al., 2000) which is below the overlying water concentrations of Cu in the following treatments, at the end of the assays: 25.9 μ g Cu l−1 for P2-4.0%; 47.1 μ g Cu l−1 for P2-8.0% and 19.4 μ g Cu l−1 for P3-8.0% (Figure 1). As a consequence, Cu was probably responsible for those chronic effects. Other metals were not expected to be toxic for daphnids at the concentrations measured in the water. Our results seem to be in contradiction with Ferrari et al. (1999) who demonstrated no effect of MSWI bottom ash leachates on daphnid reproduction in single-species tests. Daphnid exposure was probably higher in microcosms which could explain the observed effects. In microcosms, daphnids were exposed to pollutants through the overlying water but also by consuming algae on which pollutants where adsorbed and grazing on the sediment surface (Taylor et al., 1998). Algae growth was impaired by leachates at the higher concentrations, 4.0 and 8.0%, of P1, P2 and P3. Figure 4 presents the example for the evolution of chlorophyll a contents in the overlying water during the P2 assay. The pollutants seem to have algistatic effects (Ward et al., 2002): algae densities were low in that treatment after 10 d of experimentation but rose after that period. Effects were probably due to Cu which could have direct effects on algae at the concentrations measured in systems (72-h EC50 for this species is about 47 μ g Cu l−1; Radix et al., 2000), and might also complex nitrates and phosphates which become unavailable for algal growth (Rai and Mallick, 1993). The comparison of the evolution of algal growth and daphnid survival in controls underlies the trophic relationship between algae and daphnids. This relationship has been demonstrated by numerous studies (Taub, 1989; Rai and Mallick, 1993). Algae represent the unique source of food in microcosms for daphnids, the primary consumer in the 2-l microcosms. When daphnid survival and reproduction were low, algae were not controlled and risks of algal bloom increased. This is what was observed at 4.0 and 8.0% of P2 (Figure 4) and 8.0% of P3. When daphnid survival was high, they controlled algae population and then risks of algal bloom were negligible. This is what we observed in control systems (Figure 4) and at the concentration of 1.56% of P1, P2 (Figure 4) and P3. Duckweeds were characterized by linear growth during the three assays in both control and contaminated microcosms. The maximum growth was about 120 fronds in controls. Growth was significantly different (Mann-Whitney, p < 0.05) from the control at the following treatments: P1, 4.0%; P2, 4.0%; P1, 8.0%; P2, 8.0%; and P3, 8.0%. Ion salts weren't responsible for those effects. Toxic concentrations of ions in bottom ash leachates were indeed much higher than those measured in overlying water of microcosms: 7d-EC50 of 500.0 mg NaCl l−1 (Buckley et al., 1996), 4d-IC50 of 930.0 mg Cl− l−1 (Wang, 1986) and 4d-IC50 of 1.0 g SO42− l−1 (Wang, 1986). However, Cu which exhibits herbicidal properties (Taub, 1989; Girling et al., 2000), was present in close to toxic concentrations for L. minor in microcosms: 14d-NOEC of 60 μ g Cu l−1 (Jenner et al., 1993), 20d-LOEC of 83 μ g Cu l−1 (Girling et al., 2000). In addition, some of the effects could be induced by the simultaneous presence of other potentially toxic metals. Impact on benthic organisms The amphipod survival in control systems was higher than 80% at the end of the three assays. At the highest concentration (8%), the leachate had lethal effects on H. azteca (Mann-Whitney, p < 0.05): 56.7% mean survival in P2 and 53.3% mean survival in P3. No survival and growth decrease were seen in the other treatments. Lead, Ni and Cr contents in leachates were lower than known toxic concentrations for H. azteca. Mortality was, again, probably due to Cu content which was higher than accepted toxic values in overlying and pore water: 10d-LC50 of 43 μ g Cu l−1 (Kubitz et al., 1996), 28d-ERL of 5.3 μ g Cu l−1 and 28d-ERM of 19.8 μ g Cu l−1 (Ingersoll et al., 1996). As for duckweeds, effects may be partly due to the simultaneous presence of several pollutants. The concentration of 8.0% leachates also caused significant mortality (Mann-Whitney, p < 0.05) to C. riparius larvae. Mortality was about 100% in P1,72% in P2, and 54% in P3. As well, at 4.0% of P2 leachate, survival was reduced by 23%. Survival and growth were not impaired in other treatments. Every surviving organism emerged. Copper toxicity levels were exceeded in pore water of microcosms in which effects were observed: 14d-ERL of 5.3 μ g Cu l−1 and 14d-ERM of 20.6 μ g Cu l−1 (Ingersoll et al., 1996). In pore waters, Ni, Pb and Cr contents were slightly lower than their toxic concentrations. These metals may have increased Cu effects by additivity or synergy. Both approaches used in this study underlined the toxic potential of bottom ash leaches for lentic ecosystems. Biological effects were in agreement with the physico-chemical characteristics of leachates. The toxicity was proportional to leachate concentrations and decreased from P1 to P3 in relation to salt, metal and DOC content decreases. Leachate toxicity was mainly due to Cu which was present at higher concentrations than those causing toxic effects for most of the species tested. Species sensitivities differed between bioassays and microcosm assays. Table 4 summarizes biological effects measured in microcosms. The alga P. subcapitata was more sensitive in bioassays. Daphnia magna was the most sensitive species in microcosms, followed by the algae P. subcapitata. Benthic organisms were less impaired. The results of both approaches are difficult to compare for algae sensitivity. Times of measurement are very different and the trophic relationship between daphnids and algae reduced the capability of microcosm to detect leachate impacts on algae at the lower concentration (1.56%). The differences of responses between bioassays and microcosms should not have been expected after the analysis of bioassay results. These differences could be partly explained by assay conditions. Leachates have been modified to respect standards (pH was adjusted and leachates were filtered) during bioassays but not during microcosm assays. D. magna and L. minor were, hence, less exposed to pollutants in bioassays. Furthermore, numerous routes of exposure are not represented in bioassays and this could explain differences in sensitivity. For example, in microcosms daphnids are exposed via pollutants in the overlying water, via pollutants sorbed on suspended organic matter, via ingestion of contaminated algae and via contacts with the sediment during grazing of settled-algae. To assess risks of bottom ash reused as road embankment we considered an exceptional rain fall of 100 mm and used microcosm assay results. A ‘no effect concentration’ was not found in our study, but this concentration is probably close to 1.56% of leachates because, at this concentration, only daphnids were impaired at the beginning of the P1 assay. Probable no effect concentration (PNEC) is thus around 0.156% by applying a safety factor of 10, as usual for complex bioassays (Chapman et al., 1998). Our scenario assumes that the road embankment is built of 3600 tons of MSWI bottom ash (width: 2 m, length: 1 km, height: 1 m, MSWI bottom ash density, 1.8 t m−3). The rain fall leads to the production of 1700 m3 leachate, received by the coastal area of a lake of surface 0.1 km2 and depth 4 m, on average (400 000 m3). The predicted environmental concentration (PEC) is consequently 0.43% for this rain fall. The ratio PEC/PNEC is then about 3.0. Thus, risks for lentic ecosystems are not negligible (ratio > 1.0). Consequently, even if the scenario is maximized by comparison with real reuse conditions, recommendations could be made for this kind of situation. The MSWI bottom ashes could be weathered for several weeks before being used in road construction in order to stabilize most of the pollutants. The road embankment could be protected by a plant cover. Leachates that come from the road embankment could be collected in a basin. They could be partly treated before being discharged into aquatic ecosystem at a flow rate which could keep pollutant concentrations at non hazardous values. These results indicate that the 2-l indoor microcosm assay has many advantages compared to bioassays in this kind of study. Leachates could be tested without any treatment as compared to single-species bioassays where standardisation dictates adjustment of the pH in many situations. The 2-l microcosm assay allows the simultaneous exposure of different species of different trophic levels. Organisms interact with each other and with the abiotic compartments and can, consequently, influence other species' responses. This was the case for daphnids and algae. The complexity of this assay also permits to assess pollutant distribution between abiotic and biotic compartments (sediment, pore water, overlying water and biota). Consequently, results obtained with the microcosm assays presented a higher degree of ecological relevance compared with those obtained with the single-species bioassays. This work was supported by ADEME (French Agency for Environmental Management and Energy Conservation) and by the French Ministry of Public Works. The authors thank Marc Danjean, Martine Ghidini-Fatus and Thérèse Bastide for their technical and logistical assistance.

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The price of a product can be determined by its scarcity, or by the costs, which must be made for its production. The optimal distribution or allocation of the scarce products is the fundamental concern of the neoclassical paradigm. This question can be solved with the method of linear programming. On the other hand, the relation between the product prices and the production costs is described by the neoricardian model of Sraffa. The construction of input-output tables is a hallmark of this approach. The present column is based on and inspired by the book Vorlesungen zur Theorie der Produktion by the famous economist Luigi L. Pasinetti1. The neoricardian paradigm derives the prices from the production costs, augmented by a markup for the profit. The Italian economist P. Sraffa has formulated the modern version of this paradigm, by the introduction of a mathematical model for the relation between the prices and the production technique. His model has been explained so often in the Gazet, that here your columnist forgoes this task. If desired the reader can consult the previous column about the choice of the production technique. In the Gazet most of the columns about the model of Sraffa pertain to the set of production prices. However, the intertwined tables, which are also called input-output tables, are the starting point of the model. In their most simple form the tables represent the quantities of the products, and not their prices. The primary table describes the material distribution of the means of production over the various branches (which is expressed by the word intertwined). Together with the wages and the profit these means of production form the total product Q. Obviously the society is not very interested in Q, but mainly in the nett product QN, which is available for consumption. That is to say, the size of the nett product must equal the consumptive demand on the market. For a given total product Q the size and the composition of the nett product are determined completely by the applied production technique. The production technique is characterized by two types of coefficients, which together express the demand for production factors. The production coefficients, indicated by the symbol aij, represent the quantity of the means of production i, which is used during the creation of a unit of end product j. The labour coefficients, indicated by the symbol aj, represent the amount of labour l, which is employed during the creation of a unit of end product j. In matrix notation the production coefficients are simply a matrix A, and the labour coefficients are a vector a. This method of notation is very versatile, when the production is neutral with respect to changes in the scale of production. For then the values of the coefficients are constant. Now one has for the nett product (1) QN = (I − A) · Q In the formula 1 I refers to the unity matrix. When the effective demand on the market equals QN, then its satisfaction requires that the total product has the size: (2) Q = (I − A)-1 · QN In the set 2 the upper index -1 refers to the inverse of the matrix within the brackets. Changes in the demand can be satisfied without changes in the technique, but in this case the vector Q must be adapted. This is a striking difference with the neoclassical paradigm, where a change in consumption leads to a shift in the allocation of production factors, and thus to a change of technique. The amount of the employed labour L in the production is determined by a separate formula, which can be added to the set of equations 1 or 2: (3) L = a · Q This is a mathematical inner product, where thus the vector a is horizontal (row vector). The set 1 shows that the nett product can be enlarged by an increased production. The formula 3 shows that in that case more labour must be expended. The size of L is fairly flexible, thanks to unemployment, and measures such as the adjustment of the labour time and the age for retirement. But finally the size of the population will still impose physical limitations on L, and thus on the increase of Q. The consumptive demand can not be larger than the production capacity. In the long run the rising needs must be satisfied by a transition to another technique with a higer labour productivity. In the neoclassical paradigm both the consumers and the producers aspire the optimal satisfaction of their needs. The consumers maximize the utility of their income. The producers maximize the profit of their production. In order to relate to the neoclassical paradigm a process of optimization is also introduced in the set 2. The set can be solved with the method of linear programming (LP). Linear programming is an optimization procedure, which for a (historically) available quantity of products searches for their most efficient application. The interested but ignorant reader can find a detailed explanation in the a href="ua120826.html">column about multiperiod optimization. Succinctly formulated, the present LP problem looks like this: (4a) maximaliseer Z = p · (I − A) · Q onder de voorwaarden (4b) (I − A) · Q ≥ QN (4c) a · Q ≤ L (4d) Q ≥ 0 In the set 4, Z is the target function of the society. The target function expresses the needs and priorities of the society, and therefore is the core and the reason for existence of the optimization problem. She is the result of the social debate. Even the choice for maximization is questionable. An alternative is the minimization of Z, for instance when Z represents the production costs. The vector p in Z represents the weighing of the various products. It seems evident to select the product prices as weighing factors. However, on reflection a careful argumentation is needed here. For instance Pasinetti on p.198 of his book prefers to use a target function, which deviates from the formula 4a, namely Z = p·Q. Apparently he wants to maximize the value of the total product, and not (like in the formula 4a) the surplus product (I−A) · Q. Unfortunately, Pasinetti does not explain his choice. Your columnist does not follow Pasinetti, because the surplus product appears to be more relevant than the total quantity of available utility goods. For the surplus product is the essential factor for the standard of living. In the mathematical sense the formula 4a chooses different weighing factors than Pasinetti, namely p · (I−A) instead of p 2. In the planned economies of the former Leninist states the application of the LP at the macro level has attracted considerable attention. This approach has been described in the column, just mentioned, about the multiperiod optimization. The East-German economist Eva Müller points out, in her book Volkswirtschaftlicher Reproduktionsprozeß und dynamische Modelle, that the weighing factors in Z are actually time-dependent3. In a realistic LP problem that dependency must be included, which obviously complicates its solution. This complication is characteristic for the application of the LP problem at the macro level. The consumers determine their effective demand by weighing the market prices of the products against their marginal utility. When now the supply Qi of a utility good i grows with time, for instance in an attempt to realize the optimal situation, then this act will also change the marginal utility. Afterwards, the clearing of the market will only be possible by means of a reduction of the price. Pasinetti, and in his footsteps this column, ignores the change of the marginal utility and of the demand on the market. Perhaps this theme, and the vision of the experts on planning, will be discussed further in a future column. For instance, Eva Müller states in her book, that the optimization is not very sensitive to the form of the target function4. The inequality 4b implies that the surplus product must be at least as large as the desired nett product. Here the nett product is the consumptive demand, which must definitely be satisfied. This part of the consumptive expenditure is not influenced by the optimization procedure5. The surplus product is limited by the stock of labour L (inequality 4c). But within this natural limitation the means of production are available without limits, because they can simply be produced. Pasinetti notes that Q − QN is the quantity of products, which at a given moment is available for the following production cycle6. The inequality 4b guarantees, that the use A · Q of the means of production is not larger than the available stocks. Then those stocks will be distributed among all producers in such a way, that the target function Z reaches her highest value. This interpretation of the LP problem resembles again the neoclassical point of view. The standard method for solving an LP problem such as the set 4a-d is the so-called simplex method. It has been described already in the previous columns about LP, so that here its explanation is omitted. If desired, the interested reader can study the books by himself7. The symplex method has the huge advantage, that in the course of the calculations a lot of information is obtained about the stability of the resulting optimum. The disadvantage of the method is the considerable amount of calculations, that is necessary8. In two dimensions the solution can also be found with a graphical method, which moreover gives extra visual insights. The possibility of a graphical approach makes it attractive to use a system with two dimensions for the examples and illustrations of the neoricardian model. Besides, these are fairly simple. Also the present column chooses such a simplification. Again the now familiar society with an agricultural and industrial branch is analyzed. The producers in the agriculture produce corn, with the bale as its unit. The producers in the industry produce metal, with the ton of weight as its unit. The total quantities of these two products are represented by the symbols Qg and Qm. In matrix notation they are represented by the vertical vector Q = [Qg, Qm]. For the sake of convenience, here the set 1-3 is again expressed in detail for the two-dimensional case: (5a) QgN = (1 − agg) × Qg − agm × Qm (5b) QmN = -amg × Qg + (1 − amm) × Qm (5c) L = ag × Qg + am × Qm Now for the coefficients the values are substituted, which in the previous column, just mentioned, about the choice of the technique are indicated by technique α, and which have already been used in the first column about the model of Sraffa. They are summarized once more in the table 1. The symbol τ refers to the production method within a branch. The loyal reader will remember, that the technique α is originally determined for a society with L=30 workers, a nett product QN = [3, 0.9] and a total product Q = [12, 3.1]. If desired, the reader can check that these values indeed satisfy the set 5a-c. In the general situation the market demand will be QN. The producers will adapt their Qg and Qg to this demand. Then the employment is also fixed. So the analysis concerns the LP problem for an economy with a technique α, characterized by the matrix A and the vector a of the table 1. Suppose that the society chooses the boundaries in the LP problem in such a way, that the desired nett product equals QN = [3, 0.9], and the maximal amount of available labour equals L=30. In this way the inequalities 4b-d have been defined completely, and the search for solutions can begin. It has already been remarked that the problem can be solved by means of the graphical method. The graphical presentation uses the (Qg, Qm) coordinate space, where the inequalities 4b-d can be displayed as straight lines. The result is shown in the figure 1, using the assumptions, just mentioned (technique of table 1, etcetera). In the figure 1 the solid black lines represent the boundaries of the inequalities 4b-d. The thick yellow strips are drawn simply to indicate the side of the boundary where solutions (Qg, Qm) for the pertinent inequality are allowed. The line with the mark 5b(g) represents the inequality for the distribution of corn over the branches and over the nett product. In the same way the line with the mark 5b(m) represents the inequality for the distribution of metal. Both boundaries show that for the production of the desired nett product minimal quantities of corn and metal are necessary. The point of intersection of these two boundaries shows, that solutions are only possible past the point (Qg, Qm) = (12, 3.1). The line with the mark 5c is the boundary due to the factor labour. This boundary shows that the quantity of available labour limits the size of the total product. The figure shows at one glance that in only a single point in the plane the three inequalities 4b-d are satisfied. This point is the common point of intersection, which has the values (Qg, Qm) = (12, 3.1). In this point, which solves the problem, the surplus product is exactly equal to the desired nett product. The combined inequalities turn out to be simply equalities. Of course this result is not surprising, for this total product was once the starting point for the calculation of the technical coefficients. But still it is instructive to see the transformation of those equalities into the graph of the LP problem. The question remains: what role is played by the target function in this LP problem? Since the problem is formulated in terms of the neoricardian price system, the target function must be redefined anyhow into Z' = Z/pg. Next choose the weighing factor, for instance pm/pg = 6.529. This is the price ratio, which corresponds to an efficiency of r=0.024. If desired the reader can check this in the figure 8 of the column, already mentioned, about the choice of the production technique. In this way the target function takes on the form Z' = 0.4745 × Qg + 1.026 × Qm. In the point (12, 3.1) the target function has the value 8.875/pg. It is evident (by definition) that this value equals the value of the desired nett product. Apparently the target function in this problem is irrelevant. Since the inequalities have been reduced to equalities, there is no scarcity for any production factor. The available labour and the desired nett product are a perfect match for the current technique α. There is no need for an optimization. Further in this column cases will be consirdered, where scarcity does occur, and thus optimization is required with regard to the production scale and perhaps with regard to the technique. Then it is convenient to conceive of the production function as a multitude of lines, who each represent a certain value Z'=c 9. In this manner the plane (Qg, Qm) can be covered with an infinite number of line functions, more or less like a map is covered with isotopes, which indicate the height. As an illustration the dotted line in the figure 1 represents the function line of all points, where the target function has the value c = 8.875. In mathematical terms this is Qm = 0.9747 × c − 0.4625 × Qg. Needless to say, since there is no scarcity, the prices in this system can only be influenced by the conflict of distribution between the factors labour and capital. In other words, the markup for profit on top of the production costs determines the price ratios between the products. In the neoclassical paradigm the subjective utility of a product fixes its price. According as the product is more scarce, the possession will be increasingly useful. The price is proportional to the marginal utility. That is to sayy, the price ratios are dictated by the ratios of the marginal utilities. In principle these prices are completely independent of the production costs10. Such a situation can be created in the example, which has just been discussed, by the assumption that in future the producers must employ a quantity of labour L=32. That implies a growth of 6.67%. Suppose that the minimal consumptive demand on the market does not change and still equals QN = (3, 0.9). Then the LP problem of the set 4a-d becomes much more interesting. The figure 2 shows where in the new situation the boundaries are located. One sees how in the figure 2 the boundary corresponding to the inequality 4c in the (Qg, Qm) plane is shifted to the right. Thanks to the additional workers more can be produced than previously. The new surplus product exceeds the desired nett product. The red triangle in the figure 2 includes all total products Q, that are compatible with the desired nett product. Since the market demand QN no longer dictates the structure of the production in a unique manner, the question arises which surplus product is most desirable with regard to its size and structure. It is known from mathematics, that the optimum will be located in an extreme of the possible area11. These are the angular points, namely (12.64, 3,389) and (13.10, 3.152), and obviously also (12, 3.1). Now the meaning of the target function becomes apparent. For she signals the preferences of the society. The needs will be satisfied best by the total product Q, that yields the largest Z value in one of the angular points. This problem can be solved in a graphical manner by shifting the function line as far as possible towards the right, without leaving the red triangle. Pasinetti in his book points to the factor substitution, which according to the neoclassical paradigm must occur in such situations. The argument goes like this. Suppose that the weighing factors in Z is more or less neutral, for instance pm/pg = 1.5. The bale of corn and the ton of metal get approximately equal values. It turns out, that then the point (13.10, 3.152) yields the maximal rightward shift of the function line. That line is drawn in the figure 2, with the mark ζ, as blue dots12. The growth rates of 9.17% and 1.68% show, that the agriculture has grown more than the industry. But in the neoclassical approach the physical quantities are not really relevant. The growth of the means of production must be related to the aggregated production capital, which is represented by the value of p·A·Q. After some computations one finds that in the optimal point the aggregated production capital has grown with 4.88%. That growth rate is smaller than the growth rate of L. In other words, thanks to the excessive quantity of labour the production technique has become more labour intensive, just as is predicted by the neoclassical paradigm! At this point Pasinetti ends his arguments. That is unfortunate, because the present situation is really interesting. According to the neoricardian price theory the situation is actually quite complicated. For, the smallest price ratio for the technique α is 6.251, corresponding to an efficiency of r=0 (see again the column about the choice of the technique). For this price ratio the production line Z coincides exactly with the boundary 4c for the factor labour13. For all higher price ratios the function line will be flatter. In the figure 2 the function line is drawn for the case pm/pg = 6.529 (at r=0.024), as black dots, both for the starting point (12, 3.1) and for the new optimum. It turns out that for this type of price ratios the new optimum is located in the point (12.64, 3,389)! Here the exact value of the price ratio is not essential. All growth efforts are directed towards the industry, while the nett product of the agriculture QgN remains unchanged. The situation is the reverse of the previous one. Now the optimum can not be explained in a simple manner. After some computations one finds that in the new optimum the aggregated production capital p·A·Q has increased by 8.22%. Despite of the excess of labour, the technique α has apparently become more capital intensive. That is a substitution, which conflicts with the intuitive expectations. Just now it became clear, that the high value of metal (pm/pg >> 1) is the direct cause. It can be added, that the growth occurs mainly in the industry, and she can employ the largest quantity of labour per unit of product. In this maximum the target function Z obtains the value 9.47×pg. In the new optimum the surplus product is limited by the quantity of labour L=32. The other limiting factor is the minimal nett product QgN, which must at least be produced, because its creation requires capacity, which consequently is unavailable for the industry. Both L and QgN can be called resources. The production of metal benefits from a large quantity of L and from restrictions on QgN. It is possible to calculate the rent prices π (also called shadow prices) of the resources (the nett product of corn QgN and metal QmN, and labour L), by means of the so-called dual LP problem. The shadow prices represent the marginal profit, which can be obtained from the addition of an extra unit of the pertinent resource14. Together they form a vector [πg, πm, πL]. The dual problem looks like this: (6a) minimize Z = πg×QgN + πm×QmN + πL×L subject to the conditions (6b) B · π ≥ p · (I − A) The matrix B is the transposed matrix of the coefficients in the original LP problem 4b-c. In other words, B = [I−A†, a†], where † is the symbol for the transposition. That is to say, when the vertical vector [πg, πm] is represented by the symbol φ, then one has B · π = (I−A†) · φ + a†×πL. In order to avoid any misunderstanding the figure 3 displays the matrix B as a whole. The interpretation of the target function 6a is that the costs of the chosen solution are minimal. The opportunity costs of other, not chosen, solutions are all higher. In principle an LP problem in three dimensions, such as the set 6a-b, can no longer be solved with the graphical approach. Actually the solution must now be calculated by means of the simplex method. But fortunately there is a way out. In the preceding text it has been explained that the nett product of tons of metal does not restrict the solution. In consequence, is does not make sense to decrease QmN. Therefore the corresponding shadow price πm will equal zero. This observation reduces the set 6a-b to merely the two dimensions (πg, πL). The figure 4 shows where the boundaries in the dual problem are located. They intersect in the point pg × (-0.04461, 0.3). The allowed area consists of the "funnel" above the point. The "target value" line of the target function (Z=c) through this point is drawn as a dotted line. This minimum is found, when the lowest function line is identified, which just lies within the boundaries. Here the value c is pg × 9.47. This equals exactly the value, that is found for the target function of the primary LP problem. The agreement of the two Z values is a well-known hallmark of the primal and its dual15. It is striking that the shadow price πg is negative. This means that the addition of a unit of QgN raises the costs. Conversely the abandonment of a unit of QgN results in a profit. Incidentally, your columnist has computed and checked the obtained solution (including πm=0) by means of the simplex method16. It has just been announced that the prices of the available resources in the studied situation are no longer related to the production costs. The shadow price of a unit of QgN is independent of the "piece value", which is pg per bale. And the calculated wage level πL/pg = 0.3 deviates from the neoricardian wage level, which is πL/pg = 0.3 and can never be larger than 0.287 (the reader can verify this in the previous columns about the theory of Sraffa). All calculated shadow- (or rent-) prices are determined completely by the scarcity of the available resources. This is a fundamental difference with the situation in the previous paragraph. The message in the text of Pasinetti can be summarized as follows: the neoricardian paradigm is not concerned with the problem of scarcity. When L increases with 6.67%, then according to the formula 5c the quantities Qg and Qm can be accordingly adapted without restrictions. If desired the structure of the nett product QN can be kept constant, by an increase of 6.67% for both Qg and Qm17. On the other hand the neoclassical paradigm presupposes always a process of optimization. In this column the added value of the surplus product is maximized. Pasinetti stresses, that the optimization will commonly lead to a factor substitution, where the scarce production factors will be supplanted. Here Pasinetti refers to a switching of the technique. The present columns gives an illustration of the substitution process for pm=1.5, albeit only in the form of a price effect, and not as a concrete substitution. Pasinetti states that the neoricardian mechanism is the normal manner for the (re-)establishment of the equilibrium of the economic system. As soon as scarcity occurs, the production capacity will be simply extended. In the short run the production factors can naturally be substituted, but that is not an equilibrium process. And prices can not be an indicator of scarcity. For as soon as labour is expended on a product, it must get a positive price, even when it is available in abundance. Moreover, the column points to several nuances in the problem, which are not addressed by Pasinetti. This is unknown territory, so that mistakes can not be excluded. The column supplements the arguments of Pasinetti with the observation, that the price system can interfere with the neoclassical mechanism of substitution. There is the price effect that for pm/pg = 6.529 the production turns out to become more capital intensive, even though the factor labour is present in abundance. Also it is shown that with regard to the physical characteristics of the production, a shift towards more labour-intensive activities does occur (notably the industry). It is well known, among others thanks to the phenomenon of reswitching, that prices and substitution do not influence each other in a monotonous way. Another supplement with regard to the book of Pasinetti is the discussion concerning the stability of the weighing factor(s) in the target function 4a. A part of the surplus product is allocated to the desired nett product, in order to guarantee minimal consumer requirements. No statement is made about the distribution of the remainder of the surplus product, after the optimization of its value. Suppose that the extra metal is available for raising the wage. The increased supply of metal will probably incite the wage-earners to reduce their marginal utility of metal. Metal can not be digested. Then the original price pm is no longer sustainable, at least if markets must be cleared. But a changing pm will undermine the whole optimization procedure. In an alternative scenario the extra metal can be paid as a profit to the entrepreneurs. In that case the maximization of the added value is simply an optimization of the profit. Tons of metal are a convenient savings (as long as they do not rust). Perhaps thus the marginal utility of metal is fairly stable for the entrepreneurs, as log as the price pm is maintained in spite of the optimization. This reminds somewhat of the Leninist rule of thumb, that the total utility is approximately proportional to the quantities. It would be interesting to study also the situation, where the various branches can choose between different methods of production. What would happen with the level of activity of each producer, when for instance the employment is raised somewhat? Evidently the real effects are more exciting than merely the price effects. It is clear that this more complex problem can only be studied by means of the simplex method. This exercise will be postponed to a future column.

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Rajasthan : Hadoti Plateau Ethnobotanical studies in Rajasthan were conducted by Singh and Pandey (1980), Joshi (1982, 1995), Katewa and Arora (1997), Singh and Pandey (1998) and Sharma and Dadhich (2002). 1. Acacia nilotica (L). Willd. (Mimosaceae) Babool or Barodi kikar. A moderate – sized tree, pinnae 4-9 pairs, stipular thorns long, heads yellow, pods stalked. Flowering and Fruiting : October – February. Medicinal Use : Comparatively younger and softer twigs of the tree are used for massage of gums and cleansing of teeth. Paste of stem bark is applied locally for abdominal pain. 2. Azadirachta indica (A.Juss.) (Meliaceae). Neem or Neemda. A large evergreen tree. Leaves compound, leaflets, sub-opposite. Flowers white in panicles, drupes oval oblong, yellow when ripe. Loc. Khasa radi, Jhalawar Flowering and Fruiting : March-August Medicinal Use : The tree has got widespread medicinal value in the locality; fresh leaves are chewed, as blood purifier. Paste of leaves is utilised for the treatment of skin diseases. 3. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Fabaceae) Ver. Khankera Palas. A medium sized deciduous tree, leaflets three rhomboid, flowers orange red showy, pods flat. Medicinal Use : The seeds are crushed into powder. This powder is mixed with lemon juice and applied thrice a day on ringworm for seven days and is said to be efficacious. 4. Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) Ver. Ankda. A large erect lactiferous shrub. Leaves ovate obovate, flowers purple white, follicles recurved. Flowering and Fruiting : Most part of the year. Medicinal Use : Two drops of latex from fresh leaves of the plant are applied on the nails of both the toes. This practice is repeated for three days, twice a day. Absolutely effective in treatment of conjunctivitis (eye flu). 5. Ocimum canum L. (Lamiaceae) Ver. Bantulsi An erect branching herb, leaves ovate-lanceolate. Flowers pinkish white, nutlets black pitted. Loc. – Lotiajhir Flowering and Fruiting : August-February Medicinal Use : This plant is very useful for the tribals of the area, mostly used for the treatment of diversified ailments but specifically the hot poultice of leaves and inflorescence is applied on the right side of the abdomen to cure appendix pain. The poultice is applied twice for three days. Ethnobotanical uses of some of the plants of family Fabaceae According to Sushruta, no plant in this world is useless. A large number of crude drugs used in Ayurvedic system employ plants of family Fabaceae. The family Fabaceae popularly known as legumes, is the third largest order of seed-plants containing about 600 genera with 12,000 speices. They are usually arranged in three well defined sub families and they are Papilionaceae, Caesalpiniaceae and Mimosaceae. The members of sub family Papilionaceae are herbs, shrubs or trees found in all climates but mostly between and near the tropics and are more abundant in the old than in the New World. The family includes the greatest number of Legumes, comparising 400 genera with about 7000 species. It is an extremely important family and its members yield nutritious food, fiber, shelter, valuable medicines and also virulent poisons (Datta and Mukherji, 1952). The members exhibit most varied properties, some are amylaceous, other oleaginous, many yield resins, balsams and dyes, a few are astringent, acrid and bitter, narcotic and poisonous, emetic and purging, tonic and restorative . The seeds are often anti periodic and the root anthelmentic. Some of the important genera are Abrus sp., Alhagi sp., Arachis sp., Butea sp., Cajanus sp., Cicer sp., Derris sp., Glycine sp., Glycyrrhiza sp., Medicago sp., Pisum sp., Phaselous sp., Psoralea sp., Sesbania sp., Tephrosia sp., Vicia sp. and Vigna sp.. Plants of Sub-family Papilionaceae S. No. COMMON NAME IN HINDI COMMON NAME IN ENGLISH BOTANICAL NAME PART USED 1. Chirmiti Crab’s eyes , Indian Liquorice , Rosary pea , Rati seed Abrus precatorius Linn. Roots , leaves and seeds 2. Javansa , Jawasa , Junwasa , Juwasa , Yavasa. Arabian Manna Plant , Camel Thorn Persian Manna Plant Alhagi camelorum Linn. Twig root and leaves 16. Dhak , Palas , Tesu , Chichra NA Butea monosperma O.Kuntze. Root , bark , gum , leaf , flower , seeds , lye and juice . 17. Arhar , Thur & Arhar dal Pigeon pea , cango pea , Dal . Cajanus indicus Spreng. Seeds , leaves and flowers 18. Barasem , Gojiaseme , Sem Broad Bean , Sword Bean Canavalia ensiformis DC. Leaves 19 Chan , Chunma Chick pea , Horse gram , Black gram , Brown gram. Cicer arintinum Linn. Seeds 20. Aparajita , Aprajit , Kalijer, Kowa , Shobanjan , Vishnukranti Blue pea , Mussel shell , creeper Clitoria ternatea Linn. Root , leaves , seeds , stem and flower . 28. Ghunghunian Devil Bean , Wedge –leaved Crotalaria C. retusa Linn. Roots and leaves 32. Basam, Bansham, Jhunjhunia Warted crotalaria C. versucosa Leaves and root 36. Shisham , Shisu, Sistal , Paharisissu Blackwood of south India , Bombay blackwood. D. latifolia Roxb. Whole plant 38. Shisham , Sisam , Sissai , Sissu , Sisu SouthIndian Redwood , Sissoo D. sissio Roxb. Bark , leaves , oil and wood 39. NA NA D. spinosa Roxb. Root 40. NA NA D. tamarindifolia Roxb. Root 41. Bankhara , Bhatia NA D. volubilis Roxb. Leaves and root 42. Karanja NA Derris indica Benth. Root , bark , leaf , flower and seeds 43. Gonj Hog , Creeper Derris scandens Benth Bark 44. Kirtana NA D. uliginosa Benth Root-bark 45. Salpan , Salpani , Salun , Salwan , Shalpani Tick Trefoil Desmodium gangeticum DC. Root 46. NA NA D. heterophyllum DC. Whole plant 47. NA NA D.lasiocarpum DC. Root 48. NA NA D. polycarpum DC. Whole plant 49. Jat salpar NA D. pulchellum Benth. Flower and bark 50. NA NA D. retroflexum DC. Root 51. NA NA D. scalpe DC. Whole plant 52. Chankat , chamea , Sambar , Chamyat , Gurshagal NA D. tiliafolium G. Don Root 53. Kudaliya NA D. triflorum DC. Leaf 54. Gahat , Kulat , Kultha , Kulthi , Kulti , Kurti Horse Grain , Horse gram , Kooltee , Madras gram Dolichos biflorus Linn. Pulse 55. NA NA D. falcatus Klein. Root and seeds Bhatavasu , Lobia , Bhetarasu , Makhanism Egyptian Bean , Indian Bean , Kidney Bean D. lablab Linn. Seed and leaves 57. Mandara , Paltamandara , Pangara , Pangra , Panjira Red bean tree , Indian coral tree , Bastard teak Erythrina indica Lam. Bark and leaves 58. NA NA E. ovalifolia Roxb. Fresh bark , leaves and seeds 59. NA NA E. stricta Roxb. Powered bark and flower 60. Dauldhak , Madar , Madara , Nasut , Pangara , Rowanna , Rungra Corky Coral tree E. suberosa Roxb. Bark 61. Salpan NA Fleminga chappar Ham. Root 62. Barasalpan , Bhalia , Kusunt, Supta NA F. congesta Roxb. Root 63. Barasalpan , Liptabasant NA F. nana Roxb. Root 64. NA Hop bean F. strobilifera R.Br Root and leaves 65. NA NA F. tuberosa Dalz. Tuber and root 66. Jethimadh , Joshtimadhu Liquorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. Root , leaves and drug 67. Bhat , Bhatwan, Ramkurthi China bean , Japan bean , Soy bean , White bean Glycine Soja Sieb. & Zucc. Root 68. Surmainil Surat indigo , Wild indigo Indigofera argentea Linn. Root , leaves and seeds 69. NA NA I. aspalathoides Vahl. Leaves , root , flower and tender shoots 70. NA NA I . gerardiana R. Grah. Root and leaves 71 NA NA I . glabra Linn. Leaves 72. NA NA I . glandulosa Willd. Seeds 73. NA NA I . hirsute Linn. Leaves and fruit 74. Tokri NA I . linifolia Retz. Whole plant 75. NA NA I . oblongifolia Forsk. Root and stem 76. Hakna , Nil , Sakena NA I . pulchella Roxb. Root Gouli , Lil , Nil, Nir. Common Indigo , Indigo I . tinctoria Linn. Root and leaves 78. Janglimethi NA I . trifoliata Linn Seeds 79. NA NA I. trito Linn. Fil. Seeds 80. Masur , masuridal Lentil Lens esculenta Moench . Seed 81. Banmethi , Metha , Marvo , Gorhadal , Sinji Small Melilot Melilot indica All Whole plant 82. Aspurk King’s Clover Melilot trefoil M. officinalis Lam . Plant 83. Goncha NA Mucuna capitata Sweet Whole plant 86. Cowage , Cowhage , Cowitch Gaunch , Goncha , Kaunch , Kawanch , Kivach , Kivachh , Kivanchh , Konch , Kuyach . M . prurita Hook. Root , fruit , pod , seeds , leaves and branches 87. NA NA Ormocarpum sennoides. Root 88. Asainda , Kalaphulas , Pamar , Sandan , Timsa , Tinnas Chariot Tree , Sandan Ougeina dalbergioides Benth . Bark 89. NA NA Pachyrhizus angulatus Rich. Root 90. Urad , Moth Kidney Bean Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq . Pulse 91. NA NA P. adenanthus Meyer. Root 92. Butter Bean , Curry Bean , Lima kidney Bean Hursumhulle pullie Phaseolus lunatus Linn. Pulse 93. Harrimung , Mung Mung , Green Gram P . mungo Pulse 94. Dord , Mung , Urid , Urud , Thikiri Black Gram , Green Gram , Mung Pulse P. radiatus Linn. Pulse , root and seeds 95. Mugani , Mugawana , Rakhal Kalai , Trianguli 3- Lobed kidney bean , Wild kidney bean P. trilobus Ait . Leaves Bakla , Loba French Bean , Kidney Bean P.vulagris Linn. Flour and bean 97. Baramattar , Battanichola , Golmattar . Garden pea , Blue pea. Pisum sativum Linn . Seed and peas 98 . Kanja , Karanj , Karanjaka , Kirmal Indian Beech Pongamia glabra Vent . Root , oil , leaves , seeds and bark 99. NA NA Pseudarthria viscida W. and A. Whole plant 100. Babachi , Babchi NA Psoralea corylifolia Linn Seeds and fruit 101. NA Andaman Redwood Pterocarpus indicus Wild Fruit , wood and leaves 102. Banda , Bija , Bijasal , Paisar Bijasal , Indian kino tree . P. marsupium Roxb . Gum , bark and leaves 103. Lalchandan Ragatchandan Red Sandal Wood , Red Sanders , Ruby wood . P. santalinus Linn . fil . Wood and legume 104. Badar,Bankumra, Dedarikand , Pona , Sarrar , Siali , Surur NA Pueraria tuberosa DC. Root 105. Chiri-matio kalta NA Rhynchosia minima DC. Leaves 106. Brihatchakramed Dhumchee hemp Sesbania aculeate Poir. Seeds 107. Dhandiain Jaint , Jaint , Jait , Janjhan , Jayanti , Rasin , Jhijan Egyptian Sesban Sesbania aegyptiaca Poir. Seeds , Leaves and Root 108. Agasti , Agust , Agusta , Bak , Basna , Hatiya NA S. grandiflora Pers . Root, bark, leaves and flowers 109. NA NA Sophora tomentosa Linn. Seeds , leaves and roots 110. Bando , Maula , Chihut lar NA Spatholobus roxburghii Benth . Bark Jetimad NA Taverniera cuneifolia Arn . Leaves 112. Bishoni NA Tephrosia petrosa Blatter and Hallberg . Leaves 113. Sarphoka , Sarphonka , Sarphuka Wild indigo T. purpurea Pers. Root and whole plant 114. NA NA Tephrosia villosa Pers . Leaves 115. Mashnoi NA Teramnus labialis Spreng . Fruit 116. Khulbi , Lassan , Methi , Muthi , Sag methi Fenugreek , Greek Hayes . Trigonella Foenum –graecum Linn. Seeds and leaves 117. NA NA T.occulta Del . Seeds 118. Chini NA T. polycerata Linn . Seeds 119. Daula , Davada , Pithauni , Pitvan , Pithavana . NA Uraria lagopoides DC. Whole plant 120. Dabra , Pitvan , Prishniparni , Prishtparni NA Uraria picta Desv . Fruit , root , leaves and whole plant 121. Anhuri , Bakla Broad Bean , field bean , Garden bean Vicia faba Linn. Shoot and beans 122. Akra , Ankra Common Vetch , Tare , Vetch Vicia sativa Linn. Seed 123. Bora , Chowli , Lobia , Ransi , Rausa , Rawas , Rianish , Sonta Asparagus Bean , Blackeye Pea , Chinese Bean , Chowlee , Cow pea,Cuba bean , Rice bean , Small fruited bean . Vigna catiang Walp. Pulse and seeds 124. NA NA Zornia diphylla Pers. Root and whole plant Butea monosperma O Kuntze.‘Palas’ (Paplionaceae ) :- The Oraon and Korwa tribes of Madhya Pradesh make the root decoction and used it in urinary troubles . The bark decoction is used in loose motions. Andh , Bhil , Gond, Halba , Kokna , Korku and Malhar tribes of Khandala region in Maharashtra use its flowers for urinary complaints . Fresh or dried flowers are crushed and mixed with water . One cup of extract is given for proper urination. Santals of Santal pargana in Bihar use its roots for tuberculosis. It is also known as depurative , aphrodisiac , astringent , anthelmintic , rubifacient , antidote to snake bite and it is also used for diarrhoea , piles , tumours , dysentery and herpes . 31. Flemingia chappar Ham. ‘Salpan’ (Papilionaceae):- In Bihar the people of santhal tribes use 1 to 2 drops of juice extracted from pressed seeds put in the eyes as a remedy in eye troubles and to remove cataract . In Madhya Pradesh this plant is also known as ‘Galphule’, in Gamharia (Raigarh) of Madhya Pradesh, the leaf juice mixed with seven drops of mustard oil and a little amount of jaggery is used in eye pain by the tribal people . Flemingia congesta Roxb. ‘Mahadeokama’ ( Papilionaceae ) :- In Gamharia (Raigarh) of Madhya Pradesh , the root decoction 50 ml. is administered orally three times daily in spermatorrhoea by the tribal people. 33. Indigofera cassiodies Rotle ex DC ‘Jhilla’ ( Papilionaceae ) The Kusmi tribal people of Madhya Pradesh use the root of the plant powdered with bark of Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. ) and half teaspoonful powder prescribed to women for preventing conception ( Jain and Singh , 1997 ) . 34. Indigofera linnaei Ali. ‘Runkhadi’ (Papilionaceae) Inhabitants of Gujrat and South East Rajasthan take about 10 gm. fresh juice of whole plant , mixed with curd and give once a day (or if needed twice) to cure diarrhea . Rice with such curd should be taken as a diet during treatment and no sugar or salt should be used in the diet (Audichya, et al., 1983). 2. Alysicarpus vaginalis Linn. DC. ‘Davai’ ( Papilionaceae ) It is known for cough . Santhals of Santhal Pargana in Bihar use its root as an antifertility agent ( Goel et al. , 1984 ) . 3. Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth. ‘Banherwa’ (Papilionaceae) :- In Raigarh (Aeppu) of Madhya Pradesh the tribal people use the plant decoction (100 ml.) as a tonic after delivery . The fresh leaf paste is applied on swellings of leg. The pod are also eaten for this purpose. In Bihar tribal people make plant or root into a paste and mix with coconut oil to apply on head for fifteen days to check falling hairs to cure baldness (Tarafdar and Chaudhari, 1997 ). 4. Atylosia volubilis Blanco. ‘Gamble’ ( Papilionaceae ) :- Inhabitants of Orissa use its root for mumps . The root is made into a paste and applied locally ( Saxena et al. , 1981 ) . 5. Clitoria ternatea Linn. ‘Aparajit’ (Papilionaceae) :- Inhabitants of Dhasan valley in Bundelkhand region of Utter Pradesh apply the powdered root externally for the treatment of gotire . In India it is also useed as cathartic , diuretic and antidote against snake bite . It is also useful against leprosy ( Saxena and Vyas , 1983 ) . 6. Crotolaria alata Ham. ‘Gunghra’ ( Papilionaceae ) :- In Gamharia (Raigarh) of Madhya Pradesh the Oraon tribal people use to rub the paste of the whole plant on the body for curing joints and muscular pains . The root decoction 50 ml. is used 5 times daily in scorpion stings and in snake bite ( Maheshwari, Painuli, Diwivedi, 1997 ). 7. Crotolaria albida Heyne. ‘Banmethi’ ( Papilionaceae ) :- The tribes of Ambikapur in Madhya Pradesh use give about 2 gm.powdered root twice a day to a victim of snake bite (Jain and Singh, 1997). 8. Crotolaria bialata Heyne.‘ Murgijori’ (Papilionaceae) :- The Kurmi Mahato tribes of Bihar use root paste three times for nine days in discharge of blood with urine (Tarafdar and Choudhari, 1997). 9. Crotolaria pallida Dry. Syn. C.Striata DC. ‘Thankur’ Papilionaceae) :- Mikirs of Assam take about 20 ml. extract of leaves in early morning to kill intestinal worms ( Jain and Borthakur, 1980 ). 10. Crotolaria semialata Linn. ‘Gulabi’(Papilionaceae) :- The Kurmi tribes of Madhya Pradesh use about half tea spoon powdered root for malarial fever (Jain and Singh, 1997). 11. Crotolaria sericea Retz ‘Ghurhiti’ (Papilionaceae):- The tribes of Ambikapur , use the roots of this plant and Byttneria herbaceae Roxb.They are powdered and 2 gm. of this powder is used for curing gonorrhoea (Jain and Singh, 1997). 12. Crotolaria spectabilis Retz ‘Sonokai’(Papilionaceae) :-In Bihar Oraon and Khond tribes used plant paste in rheumatism twice daily for fifteen days . The patient should take it with an empty stomach one hour before his meal . Another method of tribal use is the fresh plant swept over the body of a patient three times daily for fifteen days (Tarafdar and Chaudhari, 1997). 13. Crotolaria prostrata Rottl. ‘Bilaiban’ (Papilionaceae):-Oraon and Korwa tribes of Madhya Pradesh made the twigs into pieces and used in nabhi treatment . 14. Desmodium gyroides (Lamk.) DC. ( Papilionaceae ) :- Inhabitants of Hazaribagh district of Bihar use its whole plant to promote conceptions . The plant is made into paste with 4 leaves of Ocimum sanctum ( scared Tulsi ) , put in a banana and given to a lady for conception ( Tarafdar , 1983 ) . 15. Desmodium motorium DC. ‘Jugni’ (Papilionaceae):- . In Gamharia (Raigarh) of Madhya Pradesh the leaves are used for hypnotizing tribal women in the treatment of diseases by the tribal people. 28. Desmodium pulchellum Benth. ‘Jat salpar’ (Papilionaceae):- In Bihar , Bihar tribal people made root into a paste and mixed with sugar candy . This is prescribed to a patient suffering from burning sensation in the abdomen or chest once in the morning on an empty stomach and another dose in the evening. (Tarafdar and Chaudhri, 1997). 29. Desmodium triflorum DC. ‘Ban’ (Papilionaceae):- In Basantpur (Surguja) of Madhya Pradesh , the plant decoction 30ml. is used three times daily in wormicide by the tribal people . The members of sub family Caesalpiniaceae are trees, shrubs or rarely herbs numerous in the Tropics. They scarcely extend beyond the tropical belt in the old world and they are rather few in North America. The sub family includes 56 genera with about 650 species. The members exhibit mostly tonic, astringent and mucilaginous properties, some have a pectoral and laxative or cathartic action; others are anthelmintic antiseptic , antipyretic, styptic. Some of the important genera are Bauhinia sp., Cassia sp., Cynometra sp. 16. Bauhinia purpurea Linn. ‘Khairwal’ (Caesalpiniaceae):- In Raigarh ( Sisrangha) the tribal people used the stem bark decoction (50 ml.) three times daily in body pain and fever . The young leaves and buds are cooked as food. Santhals , Bhumij , Birhors and Kherias of West Bengal apply paste of its bark on sores of small-pox ( Jain and De, 1966 ) . Nagas of Nagaland use its bark for curring cancerous growth in stomach ( locally known as ‘Chapo’ ) . Paste of bark is given in internally. Among the inhabitants of Dharmpuri Forest Division in Tamil Nadu , the leaf – paste of this plant mixed with milk (latex) of Jatropha curcas is administered to cure jaundice ( Apparanantham and Chelladurai , 1986 ) . It is also known as anthelmintic , diuretic , astringent , carminative and for diarrhoea . 17. Bauhinia vahlii Wight and Arn.‘Sehar’( Caesalpiniaceae ) In Sisrangha (Raigarh) of Madhya Pradesh the Korwa tribal people make the root paste and mixed with jaggery and ghee and used it in bone fracture . Seeds are roasted and eaten . Leaves are used for making plates by korwa tribe. 18. Bauhinia variegata Linn. ‘Guiral’ ( Caesalpiniaceae ) :- It is known as astringent , carminative , alterative , anthelmintic antidote to snake poison and laxative and used for dysentery , diarrhoea, skin disease , ulcer , piles and leprosy. Inhabitants of Garhwal Himalayas use its bark for malaria ( Negi et al. , 1985 ) . 19. Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Linn.) Swartz. ‘Puraiphul’ (Caesalpiniaceae) It is used as an abortifacient , febrifuge , purgative , emmenagogue , tonic , stimulant and for asthama , bronchitis and malerial fever. Seeds and some common salts are made into a paste and applied on ring worm ( Chaudhary et al., 1975 ). Kondh , Bhumij and Saora tribes of Orissa use the decocation of its fresh seeds for pain in gums due to inflammation. It is also used as tonic , purgative , stimulant , abortifacient, emmenagogue , febrifuge and also used for bronchitis , asthama and malerial fever. 20. Cassia auriculata Linn. ‘Anwal , Avaram’ ( Caesalpiniaceae ) Tribals of Eastern Rajasthan use the extract of its seeds for asthama ( Singh and Pandey , 1980 ) Inhabitants of Maharashtra use its root extract for rheumatism pain . The root are mixed with Maytenus emarginatus roots . ( Sharma and Mehrotra , 1984 ).. In India it is used as astringent and anthelmintic , used for urinary complaints , skin affection , diabetes , and ophthalmia . 21. Cassia occidentalis Linn.‘Dhendheni’ ( Caesalpiniaceae ) In Kundi (Surgiya) of Madhya Pradesh the tribal people use the twigs as tooth brush . 22. Cassia sophera Linn. ‘Raw Asan’ (Caesalpiniaceae ) :- Bhoxa of U.P. use its leaves for piles . In India it is used as diuretic, purgative and antidote to snake bite and used for ring worm and bronchitis. The leaf paste with Neem oil is applied locally, it relieves itching and pain ( Singh , 1988 ) . 23. Cassia tora Linn. ‘Panavar’( Caesalpiniaceae ) In Bihar the Oraon and Khond tribes, make root into a paste and along with the powder prepared from the horns of a cow, give orally once daily in high fever and to a patient who are unable to speak and hear (Tarafdar and Chaudhari, 1997). In Raigarh (Aeppu) of Madhya Pradesh the tribal people make the seed powder and mixed with tea and is used 2-3 times daily in cough , headache and fever. In Madhya Pradesh the tribals of Ambikapur district take stem and seeds in equal quantities are boiled in water and filtered by tribals and about 100 ml filtrate taken orally twice a day for 5 to 10 days as an anti-asthamatic drug (Jain and Singh 1997). The young leaves are cooked as vegetable (Maheshwari , Painuli, Diwivedi, 1997). In India it is used as laxative, antidote to snake bite and purgative. It is used for skin affection, itches and ring worm. The members of sub family Mimosaceae are trees or shrubs, very rarely herbs. They are found in the tropical zone and are especially numerous in Africa and Australia. They are rare in the sub-tropical region of the northern hemisphere. The member exhibit tonic and astringent, emetic, antiperiodic and anthelmintic properties. Many yield demulcent gums. The sub family of Mimosaceae includes 23 genera with about 550 species. Some of the important genera are Acacia sp., Albizzia sp., Entada sp., Leucaena sp., Neptunia sp., Prosopis sp., Parkia sp., Mimosa sp., Pithecolobium sp. 30. Entada pursaetha DC. ssp. sinohimalyenesis Grierson and Long. Syn. E.scandens Auct. ‘Pangra’ ( Mimosaceae ) :- Inhabitants of Sikkim apply the paste of its kernel locally to cure mumps (Hajra and Chakraborthy, 1981). Gond, Halba and Maria tribes of Abujmarh area in Madhya Pradesh use the paste of the seeds for curing paralysis. The paste is rubbed on the affected part 3-4 times a day (Roy and Chaturvedi, 1987). 31. Acacia chundra ( Rottl. ) Willd. Syn. Acacia sundra DC. ‘Kair’ ( Minosaceae ) :- Bhils , Nayakas and other tribal communities of Gujrat , use its wood for leucoderma. Paste of wood is applied locally . 32. Albizzia lebbek Benth.‘ khairi’ ( Mimosaceae ) :- Fresh decoction is used three times daily in stomach troubles and dysentery in Bihar by many tribes. 36. Neptunia triquetra Bent. ‘Lajalu’ ( Mimosaceae ) :- Kols, Gonds, Lodhs and Gujars of Banda district in Uttar Pradesh give extract of its root for for dysentery (Saxena and Vyas, 1981). The present investigation shall concentrate on collecting data from the different areas out of Rajasthan specially rural and tribal areas where of herbal drugs is most common and other ethnobotanical practices are under going. The study will be carried under following heads :-

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